THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
'JOHNSON'S
UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA
YOL. V
JOHNSON'S
UNIVEESAL CYCLOPEDIA
A NEW EDITION
PREPARED BY A CORPS OF THIRTY-SIX EDITORS, ASSISTED BY
EMINENT EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN SPECIALISTS
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS, LL.D.
PRESIDENT OF THE I'NIVERSITT OF WISCONSIN
EDITOR^m-CHIEP
ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, PLANS. AND ENGRAVINGS
COMPLETE IN EIGHT VOLUMES
VOL. V
NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
A. J. JOHNSON COMPANY
1898
CoPYKionT, 1876,
By a. J. JOHNSON.
COPTRIGHT, 1877,
Bv ALVIN .1. JOHNSON.
CopyuuiiiT, 1886, 1889,
Br A. .1. JOHNSON AND COMPANY.
CoPYRioiiT, 1804, 1896, 1897,
Bv A. J. JOHNSON COMPANY.
ORGANIZATION OF THE STAFF.
EDITOR- IX- CHIEF.
CHARLES KEN'DALL ADAMS, LL. U.,
PREBIIIKNT or THE IINIVKKSITV OF WISCONSIN,
Hifttory, Politics, and Kducation.
ASSOCIATE EVITOKS.
Liberty H. Bailky, JI. S.,
Professor of Hortioullure, Cornell University.
Agrlcaltnre, Horticulture, Forestry, etc.
Willis J. Beeciikk, 1). I)..
Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature,
Autnirii TheoloRieal Seminary.
Presbyterian C'hurcli History, Doctrine, etc
IIenrv a. Bekus. a. M..
Professor of English Literature, Yale University.
English Literature, etc.
Charles K. Bessey, Ph. 1).,
Professor of Botany, State University of Nebraska.
Botany, Vegetable Physiology, etc.
Dudley Blck.
Composer anrl Organist, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Music, Theory of Harmony, Musical Terms, etc.
Francis M. Hi rdick, A. M., LL. B.,
I>wiKht Professor of Law, Columbia College, New
York.
Mnnicipal, Civil, and Constitutional Law.
George P. Kisni:R. D. D.. LL. D..
Professor of Chureh llistorj-, Yale UniviTsity.
Congregational Church History, Doctrine, etc.
Grove K. Gilbert, A. M..
Ceolofcist, U. S. Geological Survey.
Physical Geography, Geologry, and Palaeontology.
Basil L. Gilderslekve, LI;. T).,
Professor of (ireek. .lohns Hopkins University.
Greek and Komau Literature.
Arthur T. Hadley, A. M.,
Professor of Political Economy, Y'ale University.
Political Economy, Finance, and Transportation.
Mark W. HARRixiiTd.v. A. .M., LL. I).. F. L. S.,
F.x-Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau.
Geography, Meteorology, Climatology, etc.
William 'I'. Harris. LL. D.,
U. S. Commissioner of Education, and
.T. Mark Baldwin, Ph. D.,
Professor of E.vperimental Psychology, Princeton
University, Princeton, N. .1.
Pliilosopiiy, I'sychology, Kthics, etc.
JoiiN F. Hurst, H. I)., LL, I)„ Bishop (^r, E.),
(.'hancelli.r .American I'niversify, Washington.
Methodist Church History, Doctrine, etc.
Samuel Macauley .Jackson, J). D., LL. D.,
Professor of Cliin'ch History, New York University,
and as,soeiate editor of the Seharf-ller/.og Encyclo-
])MMiia. New York.
General Church History and Biblical Literature.
Henry E. Jacob.s. 1). 1).. Lli. I>..
Profes,sor of Systematic Theology, Evangelical Lu-
theran Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa.
Lutheran Church History, Doctrine, etc
David S. .Jordan. LL. I).,
President l.eland Stanford .Timior University.
Zoology. Comparative Anatomy, and .-Viiiiiial I*hysi-
ology.
JoH.v J. Keane, D. D., I>L. D.. Bishop (R. C),
Ex-Iiector of the Catholic University of America.
Roman Catholic Church History, Df>ctrine, etc.
Charles Ivirihiiofu. M. E..
Editor tif the Iron Age. New York.
Mining Engineering, Mineralogy, and Metallurgy.
Stephen B. Ijuce,
Rear-.\dmiral, U. S. Navy.
Naval Affairs, Naval Construction, Navigation, etc.
Arthur R. Marsh, A. JI..
Profes.sor of Comparative Literature, Harvard Univ.
Foreign Literature, etc
James Mercub,
Professor of Mil. Engineering, West Point Mil. Acad.
Military Engineering, Science and Munitions of War,
etc.
Mansfield JIerriman. C. I'^., Pli. D..
Professor of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University.
Civil Engineering, etc.
Simon Xewcomb, LJj. D.. 51. X. A. S.,
Editor of the U. S. Nautical Almanac.
Astronomy and Mathematics*
Edward L. XicnoLs, Pli, D..
Professor of Physics. Cornell University.
Physics, Electricity and its Applications*
W1LLIA.M Pepper, M. D., LJj. I).,
E.v Provost of the University of Pennsylvania.
Meflicine, Surgery, and Collateral Sciences.
William S. Perry, D. J). Oxoii., LL. D., Bishop (I'. E.),
Davenport. la.
Episcopal Church History, Doctrine, etc.
John W. Powell, LL. I).,
Director of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology.
American Archaeology and Ethnology*
Ira Kemse.n, M. D.. ]>h. I).. LL. 1)..
Profes,sor of Chemistry. .lohns Hopkins University.
Chemistry and its Applications, etc.
AiNSWORTII R. Si'OFFORD. ]>L. J)..
Librarian of Congress.
U* S* Geography, Statistics, etc.
Russell Sturois, a. M.. I'li. P., F. A. I. A.,
E.x-Presidcnt Architectural l.eaguc of New York.
Archaeology and Art.
Robert H. Thurston. Doc. Eiig., LL. D.,
Director of Sibley College, Cornell University.
Mechanical Science.
Benjamin Ide Wheeler. Ph.D.,
Professor of Greek and Com. Philology, Cornell Unl».
Comparative I'hilology, Linguistics, etc.
William H. Whitsitt. I>. D..
Profes.siir of Chnrch History, Baptist Theological
Seminarj*. l/»uisville. Ky.
Baptist Church History, Doctrine, etc.
Theodore S. Woolsey, A. M..
Professor of International Ijiw, Yale University.
Public Law, Intercourse of Nations.
.IM.V.l G/.VG EDITOR.
ROBERT LILLEY, M. R. A.S..
ONK OF THE EUITORS OX THE CESTIKV DICTIONABV.
ASSIST AST TO THE EDITOR-IX-CIIIEF.
CHARLES n. THURBER. A.M.,
ASSOCIATE l-KOKESaOlt or rEOAUOllV, CUICAOO UNIVEKSITV, AM) DE.VS OK JlollUAX r.lKK A<AnKUV.
536'?07
JOIIXSOX'S ITNIVEPvSAL OYCLOP.EDTA.
VOL. V.
CONTRIBUTORS AXD RE^^SERS.
Adams, Cdables Kexdalu LI-. D..
President of the University of Wisoonsin. Madison. Wis.;
author of DeiiiDcraey and Munitrclii/ in Franre. ;
itanmil of ItiMorirnl Lileralure; C'lirinloplier Co-
lumbus, his Life and Work; gIk.
Adams, f'vRus C,
Kditorial staff of New York Sun : President of Depart-
ment of Geography, Brooklyn Institute, Brooklyn,
N. Y.
Allex, Frederic Sturges, .-\. B., LL. B.,
Mcmt>er of the New York Bar, New York.
Anderson, lion. Rasmus B.,
Formerly Professor of .Scandinavian Languages and
Literature, rnivci-sity of Wisconsin ; ex-U. S. min-
ister to Denmark: autlior of Nome Jlyt/iotogi/; Tlie
Yoitnyer Kdda \ etc. ; Madisfm, Wis.
A.VDREW.S, Elisiia 15., D. D.. LL. D.,
President of Brown University, Providence, R. L
A.voELi^ James B., LL. D.,
President of Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Mich.
ANTnoxv, Susan B., Rochester, N. Y.
Arm.-^troxo, Samuel T., M.D., Ph. D.,
One of the collalwrators of Fonler's Encyclop(vdic Med-
ical Dictionary, and editor of an AmiTiran .\|i[M-ndix
to Quain's Dictionary of Medicine.
AsiiiiuR-sT. .loiix, Jr.. A. .M., M. D.,
John Rhea Barton Professor of Surgery and Professor
of Clinical Surgery in the University of Pennsylvania
Department of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa.
Babcock, Stepiik.s M.. Ph. I).,
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, and chief chemist
to the Kxperiment Station, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis.
BaII.EV, lilBEKTV II., M.S.,
Professor of General and Experimetltal Horticulture,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Baker, Georoe P., Jr., .\. B.,
Instructor in English, Harvard University. Cambridge,
Mass.
Bai.dwi.v, J. Mark, Ph. I)..
.Stuart Profe.ss<ir of ExpcrimiMilal IS.MiiMium, Prince-
ton University, Princeton, N. J.
Bark, John H., M..S.. M. M.E..
As'^istant Professor of Mi'<'hanical Engineering, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. V.
Bedell, Frederic, Ph. I)..
Assistant Professor of Physics, Cornell University, Ith-
aca, N. Y.
Beecher, Willis J.. D. D.,
Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature, .\ubuni
Theological Seminary, Auburn, N. Y.
Beers, Hexrv A., A. M.,
Professor of English Literature, Yale University, New
Haven, Conn.
Belknap. Charles,
Lieutenant-commander, U. S. navy ; Torpedo Station,
Newport, R. I.
Bendelari, George, A. M.,
I>ate Assistant Professor of Modern Languages. Yale
University ; Instructor in History, Harvard Univer-
sity, Cambridge, Mass.
Bennett, Charles E., A. B.,
Professor of Latin, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Bessev, Charles E., Ph. D.,
Professor of Botany, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Neb.; author of many lioiimiiiil text-books and
monographs.
Bezzen-beroer, Adalbert, Ph. I)..
Professor of Comjjarative Philology, University of K5-
nigsberg, Prussia.
BioELOW, Frank II., A. M.,
Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau, Wash-
ington, D. C.
BiLLixos. John .S., M.D., LL. D.,
Director of New York Public Library (.\stor, Lenox,
and Tilden foundation); formerly Pepper Professor
of Hygiene. University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia,
Pa. : and Superintendent of Army Medical Museum,
Washington, D. C.
Bliss, Rev. Kuwix Muxsell,
Editorial staff of The Independent, New York : author
of A Cyclopadia of Missions,
BoSBVSIIELL, O. C,
Late Superintendent U. S. Mint, Philadelphia. I'u.
Bkiugs. Rev. Ciiaki.es .\.. I). D-.
Edward Robinson Profi-ssor of Biblical Theology, Union
Theological .Seminary, New York.
liiiiXTo.x. Daniel G., .M. D.,
Professor of American .Xrchicology ami Linguistics,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Pa.
Browne. W'illiam Hand, M. I)..
Profes-sor of English Literature, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, Baltimore, Md.
Brukk, Cajit. Lawrence L., U. S. army.
Ordnance De|iartiuent, Washington, I). C.
(vl)
COXTIlIliUTORS AND RKVISERS
vu
Buck, Dudley.
Composer and organist, Brooklyn, N. Y.
BuEK, G. H.,
Of G. H. Buek & Co., litlio<;raiilicr.s. New York.
BuKDicK, Francis M., A. M., hU. B., LL. D..
Dwight Professor of Law, School of Law, Columbia
College, Xew York.
Burgess, John W., Ph. D., LL. D.,
Professor of History. Political Science, and Constitu-
tional Law, Columbia College, Xew York.
Burr, Charles \V., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.
BuRE, George L.. A. B.,
Professor of Ancient and Media'val History, Cornell
University, Ithaca, X. Y.
Calvert, R.,
Secretary of the Board of Trade, Lacrosse, Wis.
Canfield, Artuur G.. A. M.,
Professor of French Language and Literature, Univer-
sity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.
Carhart, Henry S., A. >L,
Professor of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann .\r-
bor, Jlich.
Cattell, James McKeex, M. A., Ph. D.,
Professor of Experimental Psychology, Columbia Col-
lege, Xew York.
Chadwick, Rev. JoHX \V., D. D.,
Pastor of the Second Unitarian Church, Brooklyn, X. Y.
Chandler! Charles F., Ph. D., LL. D., etc..
Professor of Chemistry and Dean of the Faculty of the
School of Jlines, Columbia College, Xew York.
Clark, Charles F.,
President of the Bradstreet Company, Xew York.
Clark, Louis \V.,
Designer. 3lississippi mills. Wesson, Miss.; formerly in-
structor in designing in the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Boston, Mass.
Coffin, William A.,
Artist; secretary Society of American Artists, Xew
York.
Colby, Frank M., A. M.,
Professor of Economics, Xew York University; and ex-
lecturer in History, Columbia College, X'ew York.
COLLITZ, Hermaxx, Ph. D..
Professor of Cora|ianitive Pliilology. Bryn Mawr Col-
lege, Bryn Mawr, Pa.
Coolidce, Archibald Cary, Ph.D.,
Professor of Russian Literature, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
Corthell, Elmer Lawrence, C. E., Chicago and Xew York.
Coulter, Joux M., Ph.D.,
President of Lake Forest University, I^ake Foi'esl. HI. ;
formerly President of the University of Lidiana,
Bloomington. Lid.
Councilman, W. T., M. D.,
Shattuck Professor of Pathological Anatomy. >redical
School of Harvard University, Cambridge, JIass.
Curry, Hon. Jabez L. M., D. D., LL. D.,
Ex-minister to Spain ; general manager of the Peabody
and the Slater Education Funds, Washington, D. C.
Curtis, Edwaku. M. D.,
Emeritus Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeu-
tics, College of Physicians and Surgeons (Medical De-
partment, Columbia College), X'ew York.
Curtis, Rev. Edward Lewis, Ph. D.. D. D..
Holmes Professor of the Hebrew Language and Ijitera-
ture, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
CusHixG, Frank Hamiltox,
Ethnologist in the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington,
Dall, William H., A.M.,
Professor of Pala'ontology, Wagner Free Institute of
Science. Philadclpliia, J'a. ; Pala«)iitologist, U. S. Ge-
ological Survey, Washington, D. C.
Davidson, Thomas. A. M„
Specialist in Literature and Jledia'val Philosophy, New
York ; author of Rossmmi's PhilusophicaL System ;
Handbuuk to Dante ; Aristotle and Ancient Educa-
tional Ideals ; etc.
Davis, William M., M. E.,
Professor of Physical Geography, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
Dewey, .Iohx, Ph. D.,
Professor of Philasophy, University of Chicago, Chi-
cago, 111.
Dixox, James Main, A. M., F. R. S. E.,
Professor of English Literature, Washington Univer-
sity, St. Louis, Mo.; late Professor of English Litera-
ture, Imperial University. Japan.
Dodge, Daxiel Kiluam, A. M., Ph. D.,
Professor of English Language and Literature, Univer-
sity of Illinois, Champaign, 111.
Dorset, Rev. J. Owen,
Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C.
Douglass, Hon. Frederick,
Ex-U. S. minister to Haiti.
Drummoxd, Hon. Joslah H., LL. D., Portland, Me.
Dulles, Charles W., M. D.,
Surgeon, Philadelphia, Pa. ; author of What to do in
Accidents or l-'oisoniny; Accidents and Emergen-
cies; etc.
Dux.viNG, William A., Ph. D..
Adjunct Professor of History, Columbia College, Xew
York. •
DuRFEE, William Franklin,
Civil and mechanical engineer. West X>w Brighton,
Staten Island, X. Y.
DuRRETT, Col. Reuben T.,
Secretary of the Kentucky Historical Society, and
President of the Filson Club, Louisville, Ky.
Dwight, James, A. B., M. D., Boston, Mass.
Elliot, Orrin L., Ph. D.,
Registrar and president's secretary, Leland Stanford
Junior University, Palo Alto, Cal.
Emer.sox, Oliver Farrar, A. M., Ph. D.,
Assistant Professor of Rhetoric and English Philology,
Cornell University, Ithaca. X'. Y.
EspiNASSE, Francis,
Author of Literary Recollections and Sketches, Lanca-
shire Worthies, etc., London, England.
Farlow, William G., A.M., M. D.,
Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
Fisher, Rev. George P., D. D., LL. D.,
Titus Street Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Yale
University, Xew Haven, Conn. ; author of Outlines
of Unirersal Ilistori/ : History of the Christian
Church; Colonial History of the United States; etc.
Fletcher, William I.. M. A.,
Librarian, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
FoLWELL, William Watts, A. 51., LL. D.,
Ex-President of. and Professor of Economics and Poli-
tics in, the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minn.
C'ONTRinirous and kkn iskks
FoKCllHEIMER, FREtlERIcK, M. P.,
l'ro{ess<ir of the Oiseases of Children, Medical College
of Ohio, Ciiieinimti, O.
Fos, Georce Henry, M. D.,
Clinical I'rofcssor of the Diseases of the Skin, College
of Physicians and Surgeons (Medical l)e|iartnient, Co-
lumbia College), Xew York.
GALLAfillER. Kev. C. W., D, I).,
President of Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.
GaRBK, KiCHARIl, Ph. D.,
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Uni-
versity of Kiinigslierg, Prussia.
Garrison, Kev. .Tames IIar.vev,
Editor of The Christian Kvangelisl, St. Louis, Mo. ;
author of Jleaveiiward H'oy, etc.
Gatscoet, Alhert S.,
Ethnologist, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D, C.
Gilbert, Grove K., JI. X. A. S.,
Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
Gildersleeve, Basil L., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C. L.,
Professor of Greek, Johns Hopkins University, Balti-
more, Md. ; founder and editor of The American
Journal of Philology ; and author of Essays and
Studies, etc.
Gill, Theodore, M.D., Ph.D., etc..
Professor of Zoology, Columbian Univei-sitv, Wasliing-
ton, D. C.
GiLLETT, Rev. Charles K.,
Librarian, Union Theological Seminary, Xew York.
Godet, Frederic Louis, D. D.,
Minister of the Reformed Church of Switzerland, Xciif-
chatcl, .Switzerland.
GOEBEL, .lULIUS, Ph. D.,
Professor of Germanic Literature and Philology, Leland
Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, Cal.
GooDNOW. Fra.nk J., A. M., LL. B.,
Professor of Administrative Law, Columbia College,
Xcw Y'ork.
GoTTHEii.. Richard J. H., Ph.D. Leipzig,
Professor of Rabbinical I;iterature and the Seniilic
Languages, Columbia College, Xew Y'ork.
Griffin, Georcie Bi'Tler, Esq., Los Angeles, CaL
Groo, Bvron,
Register of the V. S. Land OfTice for the District of
Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Grosvenor, Rev. Edwin A., A. M.,
Professor of European Ilisfory, Amherst College, Am-
herst, Mass.; fornn'rly Professor of History, Robert
College, ('(Jiistanllnople, Turkey.
Groth, p.. A.m.,
Author <if a Dnno-Xorwiijimi (jniiiimar fur l-^nglish-
speaking Students, Xew York.
GuDEMA.v, Alfred, Ph. D.,
Profes.sor of Chussieul Philology, University of Pennsyl-
vania, Philadelphia, Pa.
GuMMERK, Francis H., Ph.D.,
Professor of English and German, Haverford College,
Pennsylvania.
Hadlev, Artiii'r T., A. M.,
Professor of Political P^conomy and Dean of Courses of
Graduate Instruction, Yale University, X(tw Haven,
Conn.; author of linitroad Trunsporiution, its His-
tory and its Laws, etc.
Hamlin, Ali red D. F., A.M.,
Adjunct ProfrsM.r of Arc'hilecture. Columliia College,
Xew York ; author of .1 Tixl-liiwk uf the /fislury of
Architecture, etc.
Hare, Hobart A., M. D.,
Professor of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, ami Hy-
giene, Jcllcrson Medical College, Philadelphia, Pa.
Harper, John M„ M, A., Ph. D., F. E.LS.,
Inspector of Superior Schools, Province of Quebec,
Canada.
Harrisgto.v, Mark W., A, M., F. L. S.. LL. D.,
President of Washington Stale I'nivcrsity. Seattle,
Wash., and e.\-chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau.
Harris, A. W., Ph. D.,
President of the Maine State College, Orono, Me.
Harris, William T., LL. D.,
U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washiiiglon, D. C.
Harvev, Rev. M., S. T. D., Newfoundland.
IIendrickson. Georoe L., A. B.,
Professor of Latin, Universitv of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis.
Herrick, Francis Hobart, Ph. I).,
Professor of Biology, Adelbert College of Western Re-
serve University, Cleveland, O.
Hervey, Daniel E.,
Organist, Xewark, X. J.
Hitchcock, Edward, Jr., A. B.. M. D.,
Professor of Hygiene and Physical Culture, and di-
rector of the Gvmna.sium, Cornell University, Ithaca.
X. Y.
Hodge, Frederick Webb,
Ethnologist and librarian in the Bureau of Ethnology,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
Holden, Edward S., LL. D.,
Es-Presidcnt of the University of California, and di-
rector of the Lick Observatory, San Jose, Cal.
Holmes, W. H.,
Professor of Archa?ologic Geology, University of Chi-
cago, and honorary curator, National Museum, Wash-
ington, D. C.
Hooker. Henrietta Edgkcomb. Ph.D.,
Professor of Botany, Mt. Ilolyoke College, South Hadley,
Mass.
Horn, Edward Traill, D.D.,
Pastor, St. John's Lutheran church, Charleston, S, 0.
Houghton, Mrs. Louise Seymour,
Editorial staff Xew York Evangelist, Xew Y'ork.
HoYT, Rev. Charles K., M. A.,
Formerly Professor of English Literature, Wells Col-
lege, Aurora, X. Y'. ; now of Brookfield, Mo.
Hudson, Richard, A. M.,
Professor of History, University of Michigan, Ann Ar-
bor, Mich.
Hull, Charles H., Ph. 1).,
Assistant Professor of Political Economy, Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca, X. Y'.
Humphreys, Milton W., Ph. D., LL. D.,
Professor of Greek, University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Va.
Hurst, John F., D. D., LL. D.,
Bishop in the Methodist Episcopal Church, and chan-
cellor of the American University, Washington,
D. C.
HuTTON, William Run, C. K.,
Engineer of the Hudson River Tunnel, Xew Y'ork.
Hyde, William De Witt, D. D.,
President of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me.
Jackson, A. V. Williams, A. M., L. 11. D., Ph. D.,
Professor of the Inilo-lriMiinn Languages, CnhiiTibia
College, New Y'ork.
CONTRIBUTORS AND REVISERS
IX
Jackson, Duualo Caleb, C. E.,
Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Wis-
consin, Miidison, Wis.
Jackson, Samuel Macauley, D. D.. LL. I)..
Professor of Church History, Xew York University ;
and associate editor of tlie Hchaff-lltrzug Encyclo-
ptedia. New Yorlc.
Jacobi, Abraham, Jl. D.,
Clinical Professor of the Diseases of Children, College
of Physicians and Surgeons (Medical Department, Co-
lumbia College), New York.
Jacobs, Henry E., D. D., LL. D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Evangelical Lutheran
Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa.
Jenks, jEREMnn W., A. M., Ph. D.,
Professor of Political Economy and Civil and Social
Institutions, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Jesse, R. H.. LL.D.,
President of University of Missouri.
Jonxsox, John B., C. E., *
Professor of Civil Engineering, Washington University,
St. Louis, Jlo.
JonxsTON, Hon. Johx,
Banker. ^Milwaukee, Wis.
JoiixsTox. William Prestox, LL. D.,
President of Tulane University, New Orleans, La.
Jordan, David Starr, LL. D.,
President of the Leland Stanford Junior Universilv,
Palo Alto, Cal.
Keaxe, Johx J., D. D.. LL. D.,
Bishop in the Roman Catholic Church, and ex-rector
of the Catholic Universilv of America, Washington.
D. C.
Keener, William A., LL. B.,
Kent Professor of Law and dean of the School of Law,
Columbia College. New York.
Ken vox, F. C,
Assistant in Biology, Tufts College, Massachusetts.
Kimball. Sumxer J.,
General superintendent, U. S. Life-saving Service, Wash-
ington, I). C.
Kingsley, John Sterling, S. D.,
Professor of Biology, Tufts CoUege, Massachusetts.
KiRCHUoFF, Charles, M. E.,
Editor of The Iron Age, New Y'ork.
KiRCHWEV, George W., A. B.,
Professor of Law, School of Law, Columbia College,
New York.
KiTTREDGE, (lEORGE LvMAN, A. B..
Assistant Professor of English, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
Kral, Josef Jiri, LL. B.,
Editor of The Bohemian Voice\ member of the Chicago
Bar; Chicago, 111.
KUNZ, GEOR(iE P.',
Gem expert with Tiffany & Co., anil of the U. S. Geolog-
ical Survey; mineralogist in charge of the eleventh
U. .S. census : New York; author of Gems and Pre-
cious Stones of Xorlh America, etc.
Laxman, Charles R., Ph. D.,
Professor of Sanskrit, Harvard University, Cambridge,
JIass.
Lee. Gen. S. D.. LL. D.,
President of State Agricultural College, Jlississippi.
Lelaxd, Charles G.,
Author of 77ie Jfans lireitman Ballads and The Gyp-
sies, London, England. *
LiLLEY, Robert. M. R. A.S.,
One of the editoi-s of the Century Dictionary, New York.
Lucas, Frederic A.,
Curator of the Department of Comparative Anatomy,
U. S. National Museum, Washington. D. C.
Luce, Rear-Admiral Stephen B., U. S. navy.
Macdoxald, Neil,
Canadian writer ; Jersey City, X. J.
McGiFFERT, Rev. Arthur C, Ph. D.. LL. D.,
Washburn Professor of Church History, Union Theo-
logical Seminary, New Y'ork.
McMicHAEL, Rev. J. B., D. D.,
President of Monmouth College, Monmouth, 111.
Mahax, Capt. Frederick A., U. S. army.
Corps of Engineers, Montgomery, Ala.
Marsh, Arthur R., A. M.,
Assistant Professor of Comparative Literature, Harvard
Univereity, Cambridge, Mass.
Maesh. Othniel C, Ph. D., LL. D., M. N. A. S.,
Professor of Paleontology and curator of the Geological
Collection, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
Mercur, Lieut.-Col. James, U. S. army,
Professor of Civil and Military Engineering, V. S. Mili-
tary Academy, West Point, N. Y.
Merrill, George P.,
Curator, National Museum, Washington, U. C.
Merrimax. Mansfield. C. E., Ph. D.,
Professor of Civil Engineering. Tichigh University,
South Betlilehem, Pa.; author of Continuous Bridges;
A Treatise on Jiydraidics; Introduction to Geodetic
Surveying ; etc.
JIooNEY, James,
Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D. C.
Newcomb, Simon, LL. D., M. N. A. S.,
Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Johns Hop-
kins University, Baltimore, JId.. and superintendent
of TJie United States Nautical Almanac, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Newton. Hubert A., LL.D., M. N.A.S.,
Professor of Mathematics, Yale University. New Haven,
Conn.
Nichols, Edward L., B. S., Ph. D.,
Professor of Physics. Cornell University. Ithaca, N. Y. ;
editor of the Physical lievieu; and author of Labora-
tory Manual of Physics and Applied Mechanics, etc.
Ogden, Herbert G.,
Assistant, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wtisbinglon.
Olmsted, Frederick Law, A. M.,
Landscape architect, Brookline, Mass.
Ormond, Alexander Thomas. Ph. D.,
Stuart Professor of Mental Science and Logic, Prince-
ton University. Princeton, N. J.
Osborn, Rev. Albert, B. D.,
Registrar, American University, Washington, D. C.
OsLEV, J. Macdonald, B. a., LL. B.,
Manager of city agency Sun Life Assurance Company
of Canada. Montreal. P. Ij.. Canada.
Packard, Alpheus S.. Jr.. M. D.. M. N. A. S.,
Professor of Zoology and Geology, Brown University,
Providence, K. I.
Park, Roswell. A. M.. M. D.,
Professor of the Principles and Practice of Surgery and
Clinical .Surgerv, Jleilical Department, Universilv of
Buffalo, Buffalo, N. Y.
Pearson. Leonard, B. S., V. M. D.,
Professor of the Theorv and Practice of Veterinary Medi-
cine, University of t'ennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
rOXTIJlBl'TOUS AND UKVISKIIS
Peckiiam, Stephen F.. A. M.,
Foriiierlv I'rof»-?»(>r o( I'liemistry in l\w riincr-ity of
Miniu'Wila; imlluT of llic iiiuiiuj.'niiih on putrolfuiii,
ti'iitli r. S. L■l■ll^u^; Ann Ailmr, >lii-li.
PtPFER, William, M. D., LL. D.,
Ex-1'rovost iif. anil l'ri>fi'>sor uf tlio Theory and Prac-
liri- of Muilicine in, tlie L'liivorsily of Peiinsylvauia,
PliilaiK'I|iliia, Pa.
Pebcival, Ki'v. IIknkv Roiiekt, M. A., S. T. D.,
Keutorof lliot'hiirc-h of llicKvangelisls, Philadelphia, Pa,
Perry. William Stevens, D. D. Uxon., LL.D.. D.C. L.,
Bishop in the Protestant Episcopal Church, Daven-
port, la.
PlEBSOL, Georc.e a., yi. 1>..
Professor of Aniiloiny, L'niversity of Pennsylvania De-
jiartnu'nt of .Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa.
PixKis, Kreheruk S.,
Vice-president of the Linen Association of New York,
New York.
Powell, Maj. .lonx W., V. S. army, Ph. D., LL. 1».,
Director of the Bureau of Ethnology. Wjishinjjton, D. C.
and ex-director of llie V. S. Geological Survey.
Kaven, Axtos a..
Second vice-president, Atlantic .Mutual Insurance Com-
[)any. New York.
Rek'iiert, Euwaru T.. M. D.,
Professor of Physiology, University of Pennsylvania
Deparlinejil of'.Medicitic, Philadelphia, Pa.
Remse.v. Ira. M. D., Ph. D., LL.D.,
Professor of Chen)istry and director of the chemical
laboratory. Medical I)e|)artrnent. Johns Hopkins
University, Haltiniore. Md.; author of T/ieonlical
ChemiKtr'y; Jnlroditclion to the Siudy vf Chemis-
tri/\ etc.
Roberts. Isaai- P.. M.Agr.,
Director of the College of Agriculture, Professor of Ag-
riculture, and director of the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Cornell University, Ithaca, X. Y.
Roberts, Ralph A., M. A.,
Senior ^lalheniatical .Moderator of Dublin University;
author of .1 Tretilise un the Integral Calculim, etc. ;
New York.
RooERs, W1LLIA.M A., Ph. D., LL. D.,
Professor of Pliysics and Astronomy, Colby University,
Waterville, .Mc.
Ri'ssELL, Capt, Andrew II., U. S. army.
Ordnance Department, Washington, D. C.
Russell, Israel ('., .M..S., C. E.,
Professor of Geology, University of Michigan, Ann Ar-
bor, Mich.
Russell, Hon. William E., LL.D.,
Ex-Goveriior of Massachusetts, Boston. Mass.
St. .loilN, .MoLVNEf.N.
Editor-in-chief, Manitaba Free Pre««, Winnipeg, Mani-
toba, Canada.
Salomon, Walter .1.,
With !{. (i. Suloinon, tanner, Newark, N. .1.
Sanford, lloRATlU S.,
Ex-nmyor of Long Island City, N. Y.
•SciiAKK, Kev. Philip, S.T.D.. LL.D.,
Late Washburn Professor of Church History, Union
Theological Seminary, New York.
SCHWEINITZ. Uev. UonEllT l)E,
Secretary of Moravian Missions, and general treasurer
of the Moravian Church in America, Bethlehem, Pa.
Seip, Rev. Theodore li., D. D.,
President of Muhlenberg College, Allcntown, Pa.
Sellers, Coleman, E. D.,
President ami chief engineer of the Niagara Falls Power
Company, Philadelphia, Pa.
SUAW, Al.HERT, Ph. D.,
Editor, lieview of lieviews, New York.
SUAW, William Bristol, A. M.,
Ex-assistant librarian. New York Slate Library, Al-
bany, N. Y.
Sheldon, Edward S., A. B.,
Professor of Romance Philology, Harvard University,
Cainbriilge, Mass.
Smith, Gekrit, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Smith, Herbert H., A. M.,
Naturalist, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg. Pa.; formerly
of the Geological Survey of Brazil.
Smith, Munroe, A. M., J. U. D.,
Professor of Roman Law and Comparative Jurispru-
dence, Columbia College, New York.
SoxDERN, Frederic E., M. I).,
Fellow of the New York Academy of Medicine, New
York.
Spahr, Charles B., Ph. D.,
Editorial staff. The Outlook, New York.
Spofpord, Ainswortb R., LL. D.,
Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.
Standish, J. V. N., Ph. D.,
President of Lombard University, Galesburg, 111.
Sterrktt, J. H. S.. Ph. D.,
Newton Professor of the Greek Language and Litera-
ture, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass.
Steven-s, W. Le Conte, Ph. D.,
Professor of Physics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, X. Y.
Stillman, Willlam J.,
Artist and critic; correspondent of the Loiulon Times;
Home, Italy; author of On the Track of L'li/sses;
The Acropolis of Athens; etc.
Stuegis, Russell, A. M., Ph. D., F. A. I. A.,
Ex-President of the Arcliitectuial League of New York,
New York ; author of Eitrupean Architecture, an His-
torical tStudi/. etc.
Switzler, William F.,
Editor and publisher of the Missouri Democrat, Boon-
ville. Mo.
Thurber, Charles H., A. M..
Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Chicago University,
and dean of Jlorgan Park Academy, Jlorgan Park,
Thurnevsen, Rudommi. Pli. !)..
Professor of Comparative Philology, Universily of Frei-
burg, Baden, (ii-niiany ; autiior of Kelloromanisches;
Jlittitirish Wrahhren; etc.
Thurston, Robert II., Dr. Eng., LL. D.,
Director of Sibley College and Professor of Mechanical
Engineering. Cornell University, llhaca, N. Y. ; au-
thor of Jlistori/ of the Steam-engine ; etc.
TiLLETT, Rev. Wilbur F.,
Professor of Systematic Theology in Vanderbilt Uni-
vereity, Nashville, Tenn.
Toy, Crawford U.. LL. D.,
Hancock Professor of Hebrew and other (Iriental Lan-
guasxes. and Dexter Leelnrer on Biblical Literature,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Truax, Charles,
President Chns. Trunx, Greene & Co., makers of nrti-
lleial limbs, Chicago, III.
CONTRIBUTORS AND REVISERS
XI
Valentine, Milton. D. D., LL. D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology in the Seminary of
the General Synod of the Lutheran Church, Gettys-
burg, Pa.
Vallentine, B. B.,
Dramatic critic. New York.
Van Amrinqe, J. Howard, Ph. D.. L. II. D.,
Professor of Mathematics and dean of the School of
Arts, Columl)ia College, New York.
Vexable, Charles S.. LL. D.,
Professor of Mathematics, University of Virginia, Char-
lottesville, Va.
Wahfielu, Ethelbert D., LL. D.,
President of Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.
Warrkn, Mintox, a. B., Ph. I).,
Professor of Latin, Johns Hopkins University, Balti-
more, Md.
Wendell, Barrett, A. B.,
Assistant Professor of English, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.
Wheeler, Benjamin Ide, Ph. D.,
Professor of Greek and Comparative Philology, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y.
White. Horace,
Editor-in-chief, Evening Post, New York.
Whiti-ord, Rev. W. C, D. D,
President of Milton College, Milton, Wis.
Whitney, James A., A. M., LL. D.,
Counselor at Law. New York: formerly editor of Tlte
American Artisan, and first President of the New
York Society of Practical Engineering.
Whitney, William D., Ph. D., LL. D., M. N. A. S.,
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparalive Philology, Yale
University, New Haven, Conn.
WiiiTsiTT, William H.. D. D.,
Professor of Church History, Baptist Theological Semi-
nary, Louisville, Ky.
Williams, George H., Ph. D.,
Professor of Inorganic Geology, Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity, Baltimore, Md.
Wilson, Gen. James Grant, D. C. L.,
Author and editor; President of the New York Gene-
alogical and Biographical Society, New York.
Wing, Henry H., M. S.,
Assistant Professor of Animal Industry and Dairy Hus-
bandry,. Cornell University, and deputy director and
secretary of the Agricultural Experiment Station,
Ithaca, N. Y.
WissEB, Lieut. John P., U. S. army.
Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Jlincralogy, and Ge-
ology, V. S. Military Academy, West Point, N. Y.
Woodward, Calyix Milton, A. B., Ph. D.,
Professor of Mathematics and Applied Mechanics, dean
of School of Engineering, and director of Jlanual-
ti'aining School, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.
Woolsey, Theodore S., LL. B., A. M.,
Professor of International Law, Yale University, New
Haven, Conn.
WORSTELL, Miss M. V.,
Editorial department, St. Nicholas magazine, New York.
Wright, C. B., A. M.,
Librarian, Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt.
WuRTZ, Henry, A. xM., Ph. D., New York.
* Till! articles which appear in this and succeeding volumes over the name of Dr. Schaff were completed and in the
hands of the jiublishers some months before his death. The proofs were read by his associate, Dr. .S. M. Jackson.
MAPS IN VOL. V.
POLITICAL.
LOUISIANA .
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MEXICO
MICHIGAN .
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI .
MONTANA .
PAGE
367
481
584
599
723
736
787
807
814
864
PHYSICAL.
WORLD, SHOWING LINES OF EQUAL MAGNETIC DECLINATIONS
469
CITIES.
LONDON, ENGLAND
MONTREAL, CANADA
340
873
PErrT>].\IJ PTTOXETIC SYMBOLS
USED IN THE WRITES'Ci OR TRANSLITERATION OF THE DIFFERENT LANGUAGES.
a, V
i:
a':
ai :
bh:
b:
ch
dh
dh
d:
8-
h);
etc. : long vowels ; in the Scandinavian languages the
accent (a, c', etc.) is used to denote length.
a nasalized a: so used in the transliteration of the Ira-
nian languages.
labialized guttural a in Swedish.
open a of Eng. hai. used chiefly in O. Eng.
used in Gothic to denote e (open), in distinction from
di, the true diphthong.
used in Gothic to denote o (open), in distinction from
du, the true diphthong.
in Sanskrit a voiced labial aspirate (cf. ch).
voiced bilabial (or labio-dcntal t) spirant, used in dis-
cussions of Teutonic dialects.
voiceless palatal sibilant, simOar to Eng. sh, used espe-
cially in transliteration of Sanskrit.
frequently used, e. g. in Slavonic languages, to denote
the sound of Eng. ch in cheek.
voiceless palatal explosive, commonly used in translit-
eration of Sanskrit and the Iranian languages.
as used in the transliteration of Sanskrit, a voiceless
palatal aspirate, an aspirate being an explosive with
excess of breath; as used in German gramraar, the
symbol for a voiceless palatal or guttural spirant.
voiced dental aspirate (cf. ck) in Sanskrit.
voiced cerebral explosive, so used in transliteration of
Sanskrit.
voiced cerebral aspirate (cf. ch) in Sanskrit.
voiced dental (interdental) spirant, equivalent to Eng.
th in then ; so used in the Teutonic and Iranian lan-
guages and in phonetic writing.
a short open e, used in Teutonic grammar, particularly
in writing 0. H. G.
the short indefinite or "obscure" vowel of Eng. gar-
dener; used in tlie reconstruction of Iiido-Eur. forms,
and in transliterating the Iranian languages.
in Sanskrit a voiced guttural aspirate (cf. ch).
voiced velar Oiack-gultural) explosive, used most fre-
quently in Indo-Eur. reconstructions.
voiced guttural (or palatal) spirant, equivalent to Mod.
Greek 7, and used in transliteration of Iranian lan-
guages and 0. Eng.
a voiceless breathing, the Sanskrit nuarga.
a labialized A, similar to wh in Eng. what; used in
transliteration of Gothic and the Iranian languages.
voiceless guttural (or palatal) spirant, eciuivalent to Ger-
man ch, and used in transliteration of the Iranian
languages.
the semi-vowel y, or consonant form of i'; used in pho-
netic writing and reconstructions of Indo-Eur. forms.
in the transliteration of Sanskrit and the Iranian lan-
guages a voiced palatal explosive; in the Teutonic
languages a semi-vowel (= y), for which in Indo-Eur.
reconstructions i is generally used.
in Sanski'it a voiced palatal aspirate (cf. c/i).
in Sanskrit a voiceless guttural aspirate (cf. ch).
the guttural (" thick " or " deep ") of the Slavonic and
some of the Scandinavian languages.
vowel /; used in transliterating Sanskrit, in reconstruct-
ing Indo-Eur. forms, and in otlier jilionetic writing.
nasal vowel ; used in reconstruction of Indo-Eur. forms
and in phonetic writing.
in Sanskrit the cerebral nasal.
in Sanskrit the guttural nasal (see following).
the guttural nasal, equivalent to Eng. n in longer; used
in transliteration of Iranian languages.
palatal nasal, simDar to gn in Fr. regner; used in trans-
literating Sanskrit and in phonetic writing.
palatalized o ; used in German and in phonetic writing.
short open 0 in Scandinavian.
short palatalized 0 {o) in Scandinavian.
in Sanskrit, voiceless labial aspirate (cf. ch).
voiceless velar (back-guttural) explosive ; used in recon-
structions of Indo-Eur. forms and in other phonetic
writing.
vowel r; used in transliterating Sanskrit, in reconstruc-
tions of Indo-Eur. forms, and in other phonetic writ-
ing.
voiceless cerebral sibilant, equivalent to Eng. sh ; used
in transliterating the Iranian languages and in pho-
netic writing.
voiceless cerebral spirant ; used in transliterating San-
skrit.
in Sanskrit a voiceless dental aspirate (cf. ch).
in Sanskrit a voiceless cerebral aspirate (cf. cJi).
in Sanskrit a voiceless cerebral explosive.
a form of dental spirant used in transliterating the
Iranian languages (represented in Justis transliter-
ation by t).
voiceless dental (interdental) s|)irant. equivalent to Eng.
th in thin; used in Teutonic dialects and in phonetic
w^riting.
consonant form of u ; used in phonetic writing.
voiced cerebral sibilant, equivalent to « in Eng. pleas-
ure, and toy in Fr.jardm; used in Iranian. Slavonic,
and in phonetic writing.
a symbol frequently used in the writing of 0. II. G. to
indicate a voiced dental sibilant (Kng. 2), in distinc-
tion from z as sign of the affricata (ts).
EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS
USED IN THE ETYMOLOGIES.
> , yielding by descent, i. e. under the operation of phonetic law.
<, descended from.
^, borrowed witlmut ehjingo from.
: , cognate witli.
+ , a sign joining the constituent elements of a compound.
* , a sign appended to a word the existence of which is inferred.
ablat.
ablative
aceus.
accusative
adjec.
adjective
ailv.
adverb
cf.
compare
conjunc.
conjunction
deriv. of
derivative of
dimin.
diminutive
fem.
feminine
genit.
genitive
imper.
imperative
impf.
imperfect
indir.
indicative
infin.
infinitive
masc.
masculine
nomin.
nominative
partic.
participle
pcrf.
perfect
plur.
plural
prep.
preposition
pres.
present
pron.
pronoun
sc.
scilicet, supply
sing.
singular
subst.
substantive
vocat.
vocative
Anglo-Pr.
Anglo-French
Arab.
Arabic
Avest.
Avestan
Dan.
Danish
Eng.
English
Fr.
French
Germ.
Gernuiii
Goth.
Gothic
Gr.
Greek
Heb.
Hebrew
Icel.
Icelandic
Ital.
Italian
Lat.
Latin
Lith.
Lithuanian
Mediiev. Lat.
Media'val Latin
Jlod. Lat.
Modern Latin
M. Eng.
Middle English
M. H. Germ.
Middle High German
0. Bulg.
Old Bulgarian (= Church Slavonic^
0. Eng.
Old English (= Anglo-Saxon)
0. Fr.
Old French
0. Fris.
Old Frisian
0. H. Germ.
Old High German
0. N.
Old Noi-se
0. Sax.
Old Saxon
Pers.
Pereian
Portug.
Portuguese
Prov.
Provencal
Sanskr.
Sanskrit
Sc.
Scotch
Span.
Spanish
Swed.
Swedish
Teuton.
Teutonic
KEY TO THE rRONUNCIATION.
oa as a in father, and in the second syllnblo of
armada.
ria same,*but less prolonged, as in the initial syllable
of armada, Arditi, etc.
a as final <i in armada, peninxula, etc.
i as o in fal. and i in French Jin.
ay or a . . as ay in nay, or as a in fate.
a"y or «. . same, but less prolonged.
3 as a in welfare.
aw as a in fall, all.
ee as in meet, or as i in machine.
ee same, but less prolonged, as final i in Arditi.
e ..... . as in men, pet.
e obscure e, as in Bigetoic, and final e in Heine.
6 as in her, and e« in French -eur.
i as in if, sin,
i as in five, swine.
I same, but less prolonged.
o Its in mole, sober.
5 same, but less prolonged, as in sobriety.
o IIS in on, not, pot.
oo as in fool, or as u in rule.
fib as in book, or as m in put, pull.
01 as in noise, and oy in boy, or as eu in German
Beust.
ow as in now, and as au in German haus.
6 as in GSthe, and as eu in French neuf, ChinlreuiL
ft as in but, hub.
a ob.scure o, as final o in Compton.
U as in German slid, and as m in French Buzan-
fats, vu.
y or /. . . . see I or y.
yu as M in mule.
y"u same, but less prolonged, as in singular.
eh as in German ich.
g as in get, give (never as in gist, congest).
hw as tvh in which.
All as ch in German iiacht, y in German tag, ch in
Scotch loch, andy in Spanish Badajos, etc.
n nasal «, as in French fin, Bourbon, and nasal m,
as in French nom, Portuguese Sam.
ii or ii-y.. Spanish H, as in canon, pifion, French and
Italian gn, etc., as in Boulogne.
I or y. . . . French /, liquid or mouill(5, as (-i)ll- in French
Baudrillart, and {-i)l in Chintreuil.
th as in thin.
til as in though, them, mother.
V as w in German zwei, and b in Sjianish Cordoba.
sh as in shine.
z\\ as s in pleasure, and/ in French your.
All other letters are used with their ordinary English
values.
NOTE.
The values of most of the signs used in the above Key are plainly shown by the examples given. But those of
5, 11, ch, kh, n, and v, which have no equivalents in English, can not be sufficiently iiulicatid without a brief explanation,
which is here given.
o. The sound represented by this symbol is approximately that of -u- in hurt or -c- in her, but is materially different
from either. It is properly pronounced with the tongue in the position it litis when a is uttered anil with the lijjs in
the position assumed in uttering 6.
0. This vowel is produced with the lips rounded as in uttering oo and witli the tongue in the position required in utter-
ing ee, into which sound it is most naturally corrupted.
ch and kh. These are both rough breathings or spirants made wth considerable force, ch being made between the flat
of the tongue and the hard palate, and k\\ between the tongue and the soft palate, ch approaches in sound to Eng-
lish sh, but is less sibilant and is made further back in the mouth ; A:h is a guttural and has a hawking sound.
/ or y. Thcie are both used to re|)iescnt the sound of French 1 mouilli;, in (-i)ll- and (-i)l, which resembles English -y-
in lawyer. Final /. that is, (-i)l, may be approximated by starling to pronounce lawyer and stojiping abrii|itly with
the -y-.
fi or n-y. The consonants represented by ft (Spanish ft, French and Italian gn, etc.) are practically equivalent to English
-ni- or -ny- in bunion, biinyon, onion, etc., and, except when final, are represented by n-y. Final il, as French -gn(e),
may be produced by omitting the sound of -on in the pronunciation of onion.
V. This may be pronounced by attempting to utter English v with the use of the lips alone.
See Preface (vol. i., p. xxiv.) and the article Pronunciation of Foreion Names.
JOHNSON'S
UNIVERSAL CYCLOPEDIA.
iii^!<ton : city (chartered as Wiltwyck 1661,
settled 1665, incorporated by patent 1667,
as a village 1805, and as a city 1872) ; cap-
ital of Ulster CO., N. Y. (for location of
county, see map of New York, ref. 7-.J);
on the Hudson river, Rondout creek, and
the Del. and Hudson Canal ; and on the
Ulster and Del., the Wallkill Valley, and
the W. Shore railways; 55 railes S. of Albany, 90 miles N.
of New York city. The city was formed by the consolida-
tion of the villages of Kingston, Rondout, and Wilbur ; has
regular communication with Rhineclifif, on the opposite side
of the Hudson, by steam-ferry, and with Albany, New York,
and intermediate places by steamboat ; and ships large (pum-
tities of coal, cement, blue flagging-stone, brick, ice,. lime,
lumber, grain, flour, and manufactures, by canal, river, and
rail. It has a wharfage front of 4 miles, and 50 steamboats
are owned there. The census returns of 1890 showed that
123 manufacturing establishments (representing 44 indus-
tries) reported. These had a combined capital of $2,;i74,507 ;
employed 1,648 persons ; paid .|728,118 for wages and |1,242,-
395 for materials ; and had products valued at 12,848,322.
There are 34 churches, 4 libraries of all kinds with nearly
10,000 volumes, 2 academies, several private seminaries, 4
national Imnks with combined capital of $1,050,000, 3 sav-
ings-banks, several hotels, and 3 daily, 3 weekly, and 2 other
periodicals. Kingston received its first eliarter from Gov.
Stuyve-sant, was the place of meeting of the adjourned ses-
sion of the first State convention in 1777; the scene of proc-
lamation of the tirst State constitution ; the meeting-jilace
of the Legislature in Sept., 1777; and was burned by the
British Oct. 7 following. Pop. (1880) 18,344 ; (1890) 21,261 ;
(1892) State census, 21,495. Editor of " Freeman."
Kingston : borough ; Luzerne co.. Pa. (for location of
county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 3-H); on the Susque-
hanna river, and the Del., Lack, and W. and the Lehigh Val.
railways; opposite Wilkesbarre, with which it is connect(^d
by two bridges and electric street-railway. It is in the an-
thracite coal region, and the township was the scene of the
celebrated massacre of Wyoming, which is commemorated by
an imposing monument. Kingston is the seat of Wyonnng
Seminary (Methodist Episcopal, founded in 1844), which in
1890 luid 24 instructors, 550 students, grounds, buildings,
and apparatus valued at over f 200,0(X), and product ive funds
aggregating ^25,000. Pop. (1880) 1.418; (1890) 2.381.
Editor of " Morninu Times."
Kingrstoii-on-Tliaiiies : town in the county of Surrey,
England ; on the right bank of the Thames; 12 miles S. W.
of London (see map of England, ref. 12-J). It has an ex-
tensive trade in corn and malt, and many good educational
institutions. Coins and other remains from the time of the
Romans are often discovered here. The fine location of the
town and its nearness to London combine to make it a fa-
vorite place of resilience. Pop. (1891) 37,059.
Klng.ston-ui»on-Hull (generally known as Hull) : a par-
liamentary and municipal borough (and a county) of the
East Ridiiig of Yorkshire, England ; on the west bank of the
river Hull, at the point where it joins the Humber(here2
miles wide); 30 miles from the mouth of the llumber, 42
227
miles E. S. E. of York, and 173 miles N. of London ; lat. 53'
44 N., Ion. 0° 10' W. of Greenwich (see map of England, ref.
6-J). It is also the third port of the kingdom. Its original
name, Wyke-on-Hull, was changed by Edward I. into Kings-
ton-upon-Hull, when he became the owner of the town.
Area and General Features. — The town has an area of
8,336 acres, and forms part of a level plain which is protected
by embankments from inundations. It may be divided into
the Old Town and the New. The Old Town, now bounded
N., E., and W. by docks, and on the S. by the Humber, forms
an irregularly triangular peninsula. The streets are gener-
ally narrow and confined, but it is the busiest part of Hull
and contains the best shops. The streets in the New Town
are often spacious and regularly formed. The cliief feature
of Hull is its docks. The (Queen's Dock, opened in 1878, is
1,703 feet long and covers nearly 10 acres. The Humber
Dock, opened in 1809, joined to the (Jnccn's by the Prince's
Dock, opened in 1829, covers more than 7 acres, and is
chiefly used by trading vessels from Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
and other Dutch ports. The Railway Dock, opening W.
from the Humber Dock, is mainly freijuented by ships from
Norway and Sweden. A cut from the Hull river on the E.
leads to the Victoria Dock, opened in 1850, occupying 30
acres and connecting with the llumlier as well as the Hull.
It admits vessels of very large tonnage, and is used chiefly
by timber-laden vessels from the Baltic. The Albert Dock,
opened in 1869, covers 24 acres, and the largest steamers en-
ter it with ease. To the W. of the Albert Dock are the
Sir William Wright Dock, opened in 1880, and St. Andrews,
the fish dock, opened in 1883, and formed at a cost of £414,-
707. Of still later date is the Alexandra Dock, belonging to
and worked by a local railway comiiany, with 46^ acres of
water-space and 3^ miles of quays. At the southern ex-
tremity of the Old Town is a fine promenade pier. Hull re-
ceived in 1861 from its mayor its first iiublic park, of 27
acres, which is called after him Pearson's Park. To this
were added in 1885 the West Park, of 33 acres, adjoining the
Botanic Gardens, and in 1887 the Ea-st Park, of 43 acres.
Public Buildings. — One of the finest public buildings in
Hull is the Town Hall. The style is Italian. It contains
statues of Edward I., of Sir Michael de la Pole, Earl of Suf-
folk and first mayor of Hull (1376), and of Andrew Marvell,
the patriot and poet, who was born here and was member
of Parliament for Hull under the Restoration. The new Ex-
change and the Corn Exchange are also in Italian style.
The Market Ilall, opened in 1887 for the sale of meat, pro-
visions, etc.. is in the Tudor Renaissiince style. The Thea-
ter Royal, rebuilt in 1866, is in the Italian style, and the
tjueen's theater, 1846, is a spacious brick building.
Fuldic In.ttitutions. — Among the numerous charitalile in-
stitutions of Hull is that connected with the Trinity Hos-
pital, one of three in England for the benefit of mariners or
their widows (the others being in London and Newcastle).
The edifice, re-crcctcd in 1753 l)y the guild of the Trinity
House on the site of one built in 1369, is in the Tuscan style.
It has upward of thirty inmates, and more than a thousand
pensioners. The revenue is derived partly from property
bequeathed for the purpose, and partly from a levy of a
shilling per month from the wages of seamen belonging to
the ijort. Besides a Sailors' Home there are two homes for
(1)
KINGSTON-U POX-U U LL
KINMUXDY
sailors' orphans. Ihe Hull Royal Infiriiinry lias 2,000 in-
pntioiits Hiiil 1.000 out-patients.' At the Charterhouse, out-
sule the aiieient walls, foumleil (with a Carthusian immas-
terv) liy Miehael ile la I'ule, Karl of Suffolk, iu iat<4, and re-
built in ITSO, 100 uiivd people of both sexes receive a weekly
stipenil of si'ven shilliufrs. with coals. The firaniinar Schuol,
founded in \i>Mi. by John Aleock, Hishop of Kly, rebuilt in
15«<;l,and both rebuilt and removed to another site in IWItV-ltl,
isaviiilabU- for '200 boys, and luis several exhibitions attached
to it. Andrew Marvell was educated here, ami his faliier
was one of its masters. The Koyal Literary Institution,
opened in 1H.VJ, is classical in its arcliitecture, and umler its
roof are tlie Hull Subscription Library, with upward of 'AK-
000 volunie.s, and the museum of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Library. There is also a mechanics' institution.
The WillM'rforce monument, completed in 1H85, is a Doric
pillar of sandstone, 72 feet liif;h, surmounted by a statue of
William Wilberforce, the famous philantliropist and oppo-
nent of the slave-trade, who was born at Hull in IToU, and
entered the House of Commons as its representative.
Churches. — The venerable Church of the Holy Trinity in
the (,)|d Town is said to be the largest parish church in
En>,'land. It was begun about 1412, enlarged under Henry
VIII., and restored in 18.'50-73, under the superintendence of
Sir Gilbert Scott, at a cost of £42,420, This noble church,
which at the Keformation became a cathedral of a suffragan
bishop of Hull, is 273 feet long and 147^ feet in height, St,
Marys, 1*14, was a creation of the Knights Hospitallers,
Only the chancel of the old church now remains. The
church was restored in 1863-6.'). Among the non-Anglican
and modern churches is the Danish Lutlieran church of St.
Nicholas, erected for the benefit of the Danish residents in
Hull antl Ihe many Danish seamen who enter its port. It
dates from 1S71, and was the first church of the kind con-
secrated in England.
Oovernment, Administration, efc.^The government of
the town is vested in a corporation whose first charter was
granted by Kdward I. in 127!(. It now consists of a mayor,
fourteen aldermen, and forty-two comtnon councilmcn, a
recorder, and a sheriff. It has a commission of the peiue, a
sepanite court of quarter sessicms, and a local civil court.
Being a county in itself, Hull has a county council and a
school board. It sends three members to Parliament.
General Industry. — Though chiefly noted for its com-
merce and shipping, Hull is the seat of a number of manu-
facturing an<l other industries. Ship-building is largely
carrieil on. Other staple industries are seed-crushing and
oil-refining from linseed and rape-seed, the manufacture of
sailcloth and rope, washing-blue, black-lead, oil-paint, col-
ors, varnish, cement, glass, starch, and paper. There are
also several engineering, chemical, and tar works, iron-foun-
dries and breweries. Upward of 450 first-class deep-sea
fishery boats belong to the port, and aliout 3,000 persons re-
siding within the port are engaged in fishing.
Commerce. — The commerce of Hull as a port is second
only to that of L<mdoii and Liverpool. It exports the cot-
ton manufactures of Lancashire, the woolen and worsted
manufactures of Yorkshire, and the lace and net of Notting-
ham, to Prance, Belgium, Germany, and the Scandinavian
countries. It is also an emporium in which much foreign
and colonial produce is received. In 1H!)2 exports were
valued at fl9,H4!),!i03 : £14,47H,016 represented produce and
manufiiitures of the riiited Kingdom, and £.5,371,887 those
of British colonial possessions and of foreign countries. It
imports large quantities of breadstuffs from Russia, Ger-
many, and America, and timber from Norway and Sweden,
with cattle, sheep, and lambs from the Ccmti'neiit. In 18112
the value of the colonial and foreign produce imijorted into
Hull was £24,701,.'>11.
Irrespective of the coasting trade, 3,.302 vessels, of 3,141,-
811 tons, entered in 1802, and 2,.'iyi vessels, of 1 ,().')9,869 tons,
cleared. In IHiiO Die number of vessels engaged in the coast-
ing trade entering Hull was 2,4.57, of ■533,297 tons.
Population, etc.— At the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury the population numbered 29,850. In 1891 it was
200,044, showing an increase of 34,354 over the population
of the census of 1881. The rate of mortality for 1893 was
196 per thousanfl.
History. — Before its purchase by Edward I. Wyke-on-HuU
was a thriving mart, and sixty years afterward' it was able
to furnish Edward III. with sixteen ships and 460 men, when
the complement of London was only twenty-five ships and
6.52 men. Hull owed much of its early prosi)erity to its
merchant princes, the de la Poles, afterward Earls of Suf-
folk, who were the friends of successive Kings of England.
In Elizabeth's reign it furnished £600 and 800 men for the
defense of the kingdom agiiiiist the .Spanish Armada. In
the civil war of the seventeenth centurv Hull adhered to the
parliamentary powers, and twice withstowl successfully
sieges by tlie royalists. In the eighteenth century Hull was
a good ex|)orting and importing port, ami until compara-
tively recent time was the liead(|uartersof the wliale-fisliery.
Apart from its commerce the modern history of Hull pre-
.seiits no feature of interest. See J. .1. Sheahan's llisloru of
Hull (3 vols., 1886) and vol. iii. of 'J'honias Baines's } ork-
sh ire. Past and Present (Wil). Francis Espinasse.
Kiiigstunn : St. Vincent. West Indies. See St. Vi.ncest.
Kiiigstdtvii: town; on the southern shore of the Bay of
Dublin. Ireland (see maji of Ireland, ref. 9-J). It has a mag-
nificent harbor, and is the station of the steam-packets to
Holyhead and Liverpool. It is one of the most frequented
watering-places of Ireland. Pop. (1891) 17,340.
King-ti'h-chin : a large and important town of Kiangsi,
China; noted since the middle of the sixth century for its
pottery and porcelain, and one of the five chin or great com-
mercial eniporia of the empire. In the period King-teh
(1004-07) of the Sung dynasty a factory was established here
for the manufacture of porcelain for imperial use. Until
that time the place had been known as Chaiig-nan-chin, " the
mart on the S. of the river Chang." It lies to the E. of the
Poyang Lake, about 25 li, or Chinese miles, from the district
city of Fow-liang. The town, which is long and straggling,
is situatc<l in a great plain surrounded by mountains. It is
said to possess 3,000 furnaces and 1,000.000 inhabitants. The
kaolin and peh-tiintse used in the porcelain-factories are
brought from K'i-mun, a district of Hwuy-chow, in the
neighboring province of Ngan-hwuy, and se|)arated from the
district of Fow-liang by a chain of hills. on the south side of
which the clay is found. See Julicn's JIi.itoire et Fabrica-
tion de la Porcelaine Chinoise (Paris, 1867) ; and A Glance at
the Interior of China, by Jledhurst (London, 1850). R. L.
King-Villture : a large American vulture {Sarcorha/n-
phu.'< papa), so called either from its handsome appearance
or from its kingly habit of driving the smaller, more com-
mon species from its chosen food. It is somewhat over 3
feet in length; the tail, rump, and larger feathers of the
wings are black, the rest of the plumage cream color. The
head and neck are almost bare, wrinkled, mottled, and gor-
geous with red, blue, and yellow. The king-vulture ranges
from Southern Brazil to Northern Mexico. F. A. L.
Kilignood: the wood of a Brazilian leguminous tree, a
species of I'ripliilemaa. The wood is very beautiful, and is
used in oriiameiital joinery, but comes only in small pieces.
Kinknjoii ; a small carnivorous mammal of tropical
South America (Cercoleptes caudirolruhis); related to the
raccoon, but |jlaced in a sejiarate family, ( 'ercoteptida". It is
a little smaller than a cat, is clothed with soft gray fur, and
is nocturnal and arboreal in its habits. It is fond of sweets,
and is reailily tamed. F. A. L.
Kiilkel, .ToiiANN Gottfrii:!) : poet ; b. at Obercassel. near
Bonn, Aug. 11, 1815 ; studied theology at Bonn and Berlin,
and scttleil at the Univei"sity of Bonn as a lecturer (privat
docent) on Church History. In 1837 he traveled in Italy
and made extensive studies in art. In 1843 he married
.lohaniia Mockel. the divorced wife of a Cologne bookseller,
and a woman of extraordinary talents. Through her in-
fluence he turned away from theology and became pro-
fessor of the History of Art. In 184S he became actively
engaged in the revolutionary movement in Germany, and
was sentenced to twenty year.s' imprisonment at Spaiidau.
He was freed, however, by Carl Sctiurz, one of his former
students, and escaped to England. In 1851 he went to
America, but returned to England, where he became Pro-
fessor of German Language and Literature at Hyde Park
College and later on at Bedford College. In 1866 he was
called to the Technical Institute of Zurich as Professor of
Art History. Here he died Nov. 13, 1882. As a poet Kinkel
made himself known by his (lediclile (1843), and especially
by his Otto der Schiilz (!.S4(>). an epic poem of uiiusua] merits.
He also published a tragedy. A'lmrarf (IH57). In the field
of history of art his Geschichte der bildettden Kilnste bei
den chriatlichen Volkern (1845) deserves high praise.
JULUS GoEIlEL.
KInmiindy : city ; Marion co.. 111. (for local ion of county,
nap of Illinois, ref. 9-K) ; on the III. Cent. Kailroail ; 24
of Centralia, 229 miles S. of Chicago. It is in
see 1
m
e map of I
iles N. E.
KIN, NEXT OF
KIRBY
an agricultural ami coal-mining region, and has large stoek-
raising and fruit-growing interests, besides brick-niaking
plants and various numufactories. Pop. (18H0) 1,()!I6 ; (ISUO)
1,045 ; (18913) estimated, 1,30U. EnrroR of " Exi'REss."
Kin, Next of: in law, denotes those bh)ud relatives who
are entitled to the personal estate of a deceased person un-
der the statute of distributions. This class is to be distin-
guished from heirs at law who succeed to an intestate's realty,
although the two classes may be identical' in a given case.
The rules for computing the degrees of relationship among
the next of kin are given in Co.vsanguin'itv {y. i:). Under
Administration' will be found a statement of tlie order in
which the next of kin are entitled to administer upon tlie
personal estate of the intestate. Who are the next of kin
and what are their rights to the personal property of an in-
testate are determined by the law of his domicile at the
time of his death, and not by the law of the place where the
property is located. The various statutes of distributions
in England and the U. 8. are founded on the 118th novel of
Justinian. (See 22 and '^3 Car. II., c. 10, and 1 Jac. II., c.
17.) As a rule, they ])rovide for per capita distribution
among kinsmen of equal degree, and tliey give the whole
pronerty to those who are nearest in degree. For example,
if tne intestate left, as his nearest kindred, an aunt and a
niece, the former would take the whole, to the exclusion of
the latter. Exceptions are generally made in the case of
descendants, and of brothers' or sisters' children. In these
cases the children of one of these deceased kinsmen take by
repi'esentation the share that their ancestor would take if
living — that is, they take his share per stirpe.^. but that share
is divided between them per capita. The general policy of
these statutes is to make primary provision for the widow,
descendants, father, and mother of the deceased, and when
none of these survive to give the property equally to his
nearest kinsmen whether of the whole or half blood. 2
Kent's Commentaries, Lect. 37. Francis M. Curdick.
Kino, kee'no : an astringent drug, the hardened juice of
Pierocarpus marsnpium, a lofty tree, natural order Faba-
cew, growing in the East Indies, and also of other trees in
the West Indies, South America, Africa, and Australia.
East India kino is the only variety in general use. It is in
small, shining, brittle fragments, of a deep reddish-black
color, and bitterish, highly astringent taste. It forms a
deep-red solution in water and alcohol. Kino owes its
astringeney to tannic acid (tannin), and is used in medicine
to check serious diarrha'a.
Kinross', or Kinross-shire: county of Scotland; be-
tween the counties of Perth and Fife (see map of Scotland,
ref. 11-H). Area, 78 sq. miles. The surface is undulating,
covered with low hills which inclose Loch Leven. The soil
is a mixture of gravel and clay, but fertile, and affords good
pasturage on the moorlands. ' Pop. (1891) 6,'289. Principal
town, Kinross.
Kinsale' : town ; in the county of Cork, Munster, Ire-
land ; on the Bandon river, 2 miles from its fall into the
Atlantic (see map of Ireland, ref. 14-E). It has an excel-
lent harbor, valuable fislieries, and is much resorted to as a
bathing-place, but its trade has mostly been transferred to
Cork. Pop. 5,386.
Kinsay, or Qiiinsiiy : the name by which Hangchow-foo
in China was known to Marco Polo.
Kinston: town; capital of Lenoir co., N, C. (for location
of county, see map of North Carolina, ref. 4-1); on the
Neuse river, and the Atlantic and N. C. Railroad ; 35 miles
W. of Newbern, 80 miles S. E. of Raleigh. It is in an agri-
cultural region, and has lumber-mills, turpentine-distilleries,
carriage and plow factories, and a wceklv and a luonthly
periodical. Pop. (1880) 1,216; (18'JO) 1,726.
Kintyre : See Cantire.
Kioto, Miaco, or ^iailiio : the third city of Japan in
population, and for over 1.000 years the residence of the
emperors ; situated about 25 miles inland from Osaka, and
close to the south end of Lake Hiwa (see map of Japan,
ref. 6-C). The main portion of the city occupies a per-
fectly flat site on the south banks of the Kamogawa, and is
laid out with mathematical regularity; the nortli portion,
consisting largely of temples, lies on the slope of a range of
hills. The historic palace of the mikados is at the west end,
simple structures of wood in an inclosure of about 26 acres.
At the east end are the great temples of the llongwanji
sect, with a college in the modern style. Here is tlie center
of Japanese Buddhism. There are numerous interesting
buildings in the suburbs and vicinity. On the sumndt of
the range of hills separating the city from Lake Hiwa, and
at an altitude of over 2,000 feet, are situated the magnifi-
cent temples of lliyeisan, founded about 800 A. u., and the
parent institution of numerous abbeys established elsewhere
over the kingdom. At one time 3,000 monks were in the
seminaries of Hiyeisan. Kioto is the center for the pro-
duction of fine art wares, silk crapes, velvet, brocades and
embroideries, cloisonne, enamel, |iottery, bronze. It is a
city of art and pleasure, a center of refinement. Formerly
covering an area, it is said, of over 100 s(). miles, it has gradu-
ally diminished, and ha.s now a population of only 245,675.
It is the seat of one of the five higher middle scliools, and the
headquarters of the mission work in Jajian of the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Under their
auspices has been founded the Doshisha, a college of high
standing. Close to Kioto is L^ji, where is grown tlie finest tea
in the em)iire. A canal has been excavated coiniecting Lake
Biwa with the city. Through connection by rail with Tokio
was established in 1889 ; the railway to Kobe had been in ex-
istence for fifteen years previously. J. M. Dixo.v.
Kiovvan Indians: a tribe now living in the southwestern
portion of Oklahoma, in alliance with the Comanches, but
constituting a distinct linguistic stock. Definite tradition
]ilaces their original home in the north, whence they were
driven by the Sioux and other enemies, and it is quite prob-
able that they are cognate with some of the tribes about the
head- waters of the Slissouri. They were the most, savage
and predatory of all the prairie.,tribes, and are .still but little
changed by civilization. They formerly carried their raids
far south into Mexico, but since about 1875 have been con-
fined to their present reservation (1894). They have been- re-
duced by war and disease, and number less than 1,200.
James Moonet.
Kip, "William Ingraham, D. D., LL. D. : bishop and
author; b. in New York, Oct. 3, 1811, of an old family of
Dutch descent (originally Kype). He graduated at Yale in
1831 ; took deacon's orders in the Protestant Episcopal
Church in 1835 ; was rector of St. Peter's, Albany, 1838-53,
and in the latter year was consecrated Bishop of California.
He is the author of many works, among which are The
Lenten Fast (1843, many editions) ; T/ie Double Witness
of the Church (1844, many editions); Christmas Jiolidays
in Rome (1845 ; reprinted in London 1846) ; Early Jesuit
Jlissions in IS'orth America (1846); Early Conflicts of
Christianity (1850); The Catacombs of Hume (1854). He
has contributed much to periodical literature. D. in San
Francisco, Apr. 7, 1893. Revised by W. S. Perrv.
Kipling, Rl'Dyard : Anglo-Indian story-writer; son of
John Lockwood Kipling, C. I. E., head of the Mayo School
of Art at Lahore ; b. in Bombay, India, in 1865. He was
educated in England, but went back to his native country
in 1880 ; was special correspondent for newspapers pub-
lished in Lahore and Allahabad, and also produced with
marvelous rapidity volume after volume of tales and poems
dealing with the life of the British in India, which obtained
an immediate and wides|>read pojiularity. Some of these
volumes are Departmental Ditties (1888); I'lain Tales from
the Hills (1888) ; Soldiers Three (1889) ; The Phantom
Rickshaw (1889) ; The Lit/ht that Failed (1890) ; The Story
of the Oadsbys (1890); and The Naulahka (1892); the last
named written in collaboration with Wolcott Balestier, his
brother-in-law. H. A. Beers.
Kiptoliak': a Tartar-Mongol people forming a klianate
called thi'tioldcn Horde, founded by Batu Khan in the tliir-
teenth century, and which extended from the Jaxartes in
Turkestan to ihe limits of Russia proper, and comprised all
the region N. of the Caucasus traversed by the rivers Dnie-
per, l)on, Volga, and Ural. After the career of Tamerlane
in the fifteenth century Kazan, Astrakhan, and Crimea be-
came independent, but were at length annexed to Russia.
See GoLiJEN Horde.
Kirby, William: entomologist: b. at Witnesham, Suf-
folk, Eiigland, Sept. 19, 1759; graduated at Caius College,
Cambridge, i" 1~81 : took orders in the English Church and
obtained the living of Barham, which he helil through life.
He was widelv known by his work on Entomnloyy, publishe<l
in 1815 in conjunction with Spence, and by his Bridgewater
treatise on Habits and Instincts of Animals with Reference
to Satural Theoloyy (1830). D. at Barhaih, July 4, 1850.
Kirlty, William: author; b. in Kingston-upon-Hull,
England, Oct. 13, 1817: removed to Canada in 1832, and
KIRCHBACH
KIRKBRIDE
has bteii coUootor of cusloiiis at Niufjara, Ontario, for many
years. He edited and publL-ilied The yUiyara Mail 1841-
hl. Aiuoiic liis works are l'. £., <i Tale of I'pprr Canada,
a poem (Niafjara, l»6!t): Cliien d'Or (Montreal, 1877);
Btaumanoxr and Jostph in J^yypt, draina:<, and various
poenis. Neil Maidoxalu.
Kirehbavll, ke'errh buaAh, lliiio KwAl.n. Count von:
general; b. in I'russiu, May 2a. 18tH». In 18t!6. in I lie war
a:;ainst Austria, he led with ilistimtion the Tenth Division
as lieiitenunl-Lreneral. In 1870, in the war uirainst Franee,
he led the Fifth Arniy-corps. At its head he opened the
war by the attatk on Weissenburg. and two davs afterward
he took a mtet important part in the battle of \Vorth, Auj;.
6. Four days after he was made a general of infantry. In
the battle of Sedan he performed the decisive nwuuvuver by
whieh the French arniv was surroumled. During the siege
of Paris he held Versailles and its vieinity. D. t)et. 6, 1887.
Kerised by C. II. TuuRBEK.
KirohllofT, kc'erk hof, Ciiarlks William Henry : raining
engineer and nu'lallurgist ; b. in San Francisco, t'al.. Mar.
28, 18'i4 ; was educated at iho Royal School of Mines, Claus-
thal, tiermany, 1874; was chemist and assistant suiierin-
lendent of lead refining and desilverizing works in Phila-
delphia 1874-77 ; was associate editor of The MetnUurgical
Revieie in 1877; associate editor of Thf Iron Age 1877-82:
managing editor of The Engineering ami Mining Journal
1882-86; associate editor of The Iron Age 1886-90; editor-
in-<>hief of The Iron Age 1890- ; has been special sui)erin-
t«'ndent I'. S. Geological Survey for collection of lead, copper,
and sulphur statistics since 1882, and was special agent
U. S. census for the statistics of lead, copper, and zinc min-
ing and snu-lling 1889-90.
Kirt'hhoir, kieirh lif/tT, (ii STAV Kobert : physicist; b. at
Kiinigsberg, Mar. 12. i824 ; stu<lied nialhemalics aiui natu-
ral science at the university of his native city ; lectured on
physics at Berlin in 1848 and at lireslau in 1850, and was
appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy at Ileiilclbcrg in
18.'>4. His researches concerning heat, elasticity, magnet-
ism, and electricity, published in Poggendorff's Annalen
and in Crelle's Journal fur Mathematik, attracted great at-
tention; but his epoch-making works were the invention
of the spectroscope, made in connection with Hunsen, and
the establishment of the laws of radiation of light and heat,
which form the basis of the present science of spectrum
analysis. See his ChemiKche Analyse durch Spietralheo-
bachlung, togeXher with Hunsen (Vienna, 1861) ; Dan Sim-
nenitpe.clrum und die Spectra der chemixchen Elemente (Ber-
lin, 1861) ; Vorlesungen uher anali/h'sche MechanUi (Leip-
zig, 1874); also the Life by Boltzn'iann (Leipzig, 1888). 1).
Oct. 17, 1887.
Revised bv S. Newco.mb.
KirrlihofT, .Iomann Wiluelm Adolf: Hellenist and epig-
raphist ; b. in Berlin, Germany, .Jan. 6, 1826 ; pupil of
A. Boeckh and professor ordinarius at the University of
Berlin. His most famous works are Vmbrische Sprach-
denkm'iler, in conjunction with Th. .Vufrecht (2 vols., 18.")1);
Dan Stadlrecht von lianlia (Berlin, 18."):i); and Sludiin
zur Geachichte det grierhischen Alphabets (4th ed. 1887/.
He edited a standard text recension of Aeschylus (1880)
and of Euripides (^ vols., 1868); also of Plot in us (2 vols.,
18.56), Ilesiod's Mah7ilieder an Perses (1HH9). To the Cor-
pus Inscriptionum Ura-carurn he contributed volume iv., to
the Corpus Insrriptionuin Attirarum, of which he is the
editor-in-chief, volume i., containing the pre-Kuclidean in-
scriptions. In his work entitled Die llomerisrhe Ddi/ssie
Kirchhod inaugurates a new cpoih in the history of the
Homeric question. He holds that the Odyssev is the result
of numerous episodical accretions accinnulatcd about an or-
iginal nucleus dealing only with the Niicrroj, or return of the
hero. (See Homer.) Besides these works, he is the author
of many valuable contributions to the history and pidilic
economy of .AIIkuis, to Herodotus, Viher die Enlslehungszeit
di-s Ilrrodtitinrhen (I'eschichlswerkes (M ed. 1878), etc.
AlEREL) GL'UEMAN.
Kin-'ovsliii, Ivan Vasilevicii : Russian author; b. 1806;
d. 18.V); began his literary career as a partisan of West-
ern ideiLS in the magazine The Eurojwan, which was sup-
pressi^d on account of one of his articles entitled The Aine-
leenlh Century. Ills romantic dispf>silion, however, and
the influence of his brother, Peter Kireevskil (1808-,')6), a
distinguished student of ethnography and folk-lore, convert-
ed him to the parly of the Slavoi>liils. His most important
works arc his treatises on The Character of European Cul-
ture and its Relation to the Culture of Pitssia (1852), and
on The Possibility uf New Philosophical Principles (1856).
In them he declared that European civilization, which had
reached its limit, ha<l brought to its disciples only unrest
and dissatisfactioiL The principle of regeneration must
come from the still uiLspoileil orthodox .Slav world, in which
alone reason was not severed from faith, and which alone
was capable of grasping the highest truths as well as of
restoring morals. His complete works were published (Mos-
cow, 1861). A. C. C'ooLiuuE.
Kirghiz: a Tartar-Mongol nomadic people of Central
Asia, numbering about 15,000,000, and occupying a vast re-
gion which extends from the Caspian .Sea to the Altai
Mountains, and from the Sea of Aral to the Tobol and
Irtish, and is traversed by several mountain ranges between
which lie large barren plains dotted with salt lakes. The
Kirghiz are divideil into two main branches, the Kirghiz-
Kazaks (see Cossai Ks) occupying a region called the Kir-
ghiz steppes, and the Kara- Kirghiz, or Black Kirghiz, who
occupy the region surrounding Lake Issik-Kul, and called
Burnt bv the Chinese aiul Mongolians. The Kirghiz-Kazaks
are divided into the Little, Great, and Miildlc Hordes, polit-
ically distinct from one another. They are of Kastern or
Turco-Tataric origin, akin to the Uzbecks in race and lan-
guage. Thev are below middle size, but strong and hardy;
have the liigli chei'k-lKmcs and small, deep-si-t, oblicpie eyes
of the Mongolians, but their fa<-es, though generallv ugly,
are not wholly flat. Their language is a very pure 'furkish
dialect; their religion, a mixture of Islamism an<l idolatry.
Though they are not savages, their state of civilization is
low. They know little of agriculture, and still less of man-
ufactures. The breeding of sheep, horses, and camels is
their business, besides occasional robbery. In the beginning
of the nineteenth century they fully deserved their title of
the " slave-hunters of the steppes." They attacked the cara-
vans, took the goods, and sold the persons as slaves at the
markets of Khiva and Bokhara ; but the line of fort-s which
the Russian Government has laid through the country hasef-
fectually checked this business. The women, who often are
quite pretty, do the work. The men s|)end most of their
time on horseback, hunting and s|iorting, or in sensuous en-
joyments. Mutton, horseflesh, and sour mare's milk, from
which an intoxicating beverage is distilled, are the principal
articles of food; bread is nearly unknown. They are gov-
erned by their own chieftains, but since 1860 they have lieen
brought under Russian autliority, and great pains have been
taken to civilize them. There are no towns among theni,
and the only remains of cities aiul temi>les which have been
found are vestiges of an earlier civilized race.
The Bunits, or true Kirghiz, are found in the neighbor-
hood of Issik-Kul, the valleys of the Tien-slian as well as
the Altai Mountains, and the Pamir to the south of Khokand.
They are divided into two great divisions, the On or right,
and the .So/ or left. 'J'hey number about 200,000 within the
Russian dominions, and there are thought to be about 150,-
000 in Chinese Turkestan and Khokand. In nuuiners, cus-
toms, and religion they resemble the Kirghiz of the steppes.
See Eugene Schuyler's Turkistan (2 vols., London and New
York, 1876). Revised by R. Lilley.
Kirin, ki'e-recn' : the central i>rovincc of JIamhuria,
Kirk, John Foster: historian; b. at Fredericton, New
Brunswick, Mar. 22, 1824. He was educated in Nova Scotia;
in 1842 he renuived to Boston, Mass., where for eleven years
he was secretary to the historian Prescott, of whose works
he edited a revised edition. He wrote a History of Charles
the Hold (3 vols., 186:3-68). and in 1870 became editor of
Ijippinrott's Magazine; resigiu'd in 1885, an<l became lec-
turer on Kuropean History in the University of Peinisyl-
vania. He edited in 1891 a supplement to Allihone's Dic-
tionary of Authors. — His wife, Kllkn Warner Olney (b.
1842), is the author of -1 Le.t.\on in Lore (1881) ; The Utory
of Margaret Kent (1886); and other popidar romances.
Revised by H. A. Beer.s,
Kirkhriile, Thomas Story, JI. I)., LL, D. : alienist; b.
lU'ar Morrisville, Bucks co., Pa., .luly ;il, 1H09; graduated
M. D. from the Univiisity of Pennsylvania in 18:i2; was
resident physician in the Friends ,\syiuni for the Insane at
Frankford, Pa., in 18;j2; jihysician in charge of wards for
the insane, Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadeljihia, 18li;t-y4;
in general practice in Philadelphia 18:!,')-40; was superin-
tendent an(i physician-in-chii'f of Pi'imsylvania llosjiital for
the Insane froni 1841 to the date of his'death. He was the
first suj)erintendent in the U. S. to separate the sexes by
KIRKCALDY
KIRKWOOD
placinK them in distinct institutions. His first publication,
m 1IS47, Remarks un the Construction and Arrangements
of lliispituls fur the Insane, was reimlilislicMl in W'A in an
enlargeil form, and again in ISSO, with nuiniTous additions.
In his forty-two years of superintendcncy of the Pennsyl-
vania Hospital for the Insane, Dr. Kirkbri<ie took up, in liis
annual reports, nearly every subject connected with the care
and treatment of the insane and the provision to be made
for them, and discussed all topics connected with the con-
struction, heating, and ventilation of hospitals. These re-
ports are of great value to students of mental disease. He
was also a member of numerous conunissions on the erection
and management of insane hospitals and an active partici-
pant in the medical and philanthropic institutions of Phila-
delphia. The degree of LL. D. was conferred on him in
1874. I). Dec. 17, 1883. Revised by S. T. Akmstronu.
Kirkcal'dy. kir-kaw'di : town of Fifeshire, Scotland ; on
the Firth of Forth, where it stretches along the northern
shore for more than :i miles (see map of Scotland, ref. ll-I).
Its local name is " Lang town." It has large bleaching-
fields, flax-spinning mills, and manufactures of linen and
canvas, and its harbor, though completelv dry at low water,
admits large vessels at full tide. Pop. (1891) 17.324.
Kirkendbrig'ht. kir-koo bree : county of Scotland ; in
the district of Galloway, bordering on the Irish Sea and
the Firth of Solway. Area, 911 sq. miles. Only one-third of
the surface is arable ; the rest is granite hills covered with
moss, the highest of which are Blacklarg, 2,890 feet, and
Cairnsmoor, 2,329 feet. Generally speaking, neither the
climate nor the soil is adapted for the cultivation of grain,
while both are well suited for grass and green crops. Cattle
of the celelirated Galloway breed are reared here. Pop.
of county (1891) 39,979. Principal town, Kirkcudbright
(see map of Scotland, ref. 1.7-G).
Kirkdale: parish of Yorkshire, England; in the Vale
of Pic'kering ; remarkable for a cave 245 feet long, discov-
ered in 1821 in cutting through the Oolitic limestone rock.
A great abundance of fossil bones of extinct species of ani-
mals was found there, and was first described by Dr. Buck-
land in his lieliguiie Diluvianw. The most remarkable re-
mains were those of hy;enas, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses,
hippopotamuses, cave-bears, and horses, of species not now
represented in England. See Dawkins, Cavehunting (1874).
Kirke, or Kertk, Sir David : adventurer ; b. at Dieppe,
Prance, in 1596, of English parentage ; was engaged in
business as a wine-merchant in Bordeaux and Cognac, but
went to England in consequence of the persecutions of the
Huguenots, and with his father and brothers became con-
nected with Sir William Alexander's American projects.
David commanded in 1627 an expedition of three vessels
under letters of marque, with which he blockaded Quebec,
and in an engagement near Gaspe (July 18, 1628) cai)tured
a French squadron commanded by de Roquemont sent for
the relief of Quebec. In 1629 Kirke and his brothers again
sailed from England against Canada, compelled Champlain
to surrender Quebec in July, and also reduced the colony
of Ca[)e Breton. Both these conquests, however, were re-
stored to France in 1632. Kirke was knighted in 1633, and
with others obtained a grant of Newfoundland, which he
colonized, being governor of that island for twenty years,
until dispossessed by Cromwell, when he went to England
and recovered his property through Cromwell's son-in-law,
Claypole. He returned to Newfoundland, and died at
Ferryland in 1656. His Life was published by a descen<l-
ant in 1S71 (London). Revised by C. II. Tiiirber.
Kirkcs, William Senhouse, M. D. : physician; b. in
England about 1820; was physician and lecturer at St. Bar-
tholomew's Hospital in London; publishe<l in 1848. with
Dr. James Paget, a Handbook of Physiology, which became
a standard work upon that subject both in England anil the
U. S. ; and with Dr. William Baly, an appendix to Mijller's
Physiology, entitled Recent Advances in the Physiology of
Motion. Papers on \he Detachment of Fibrinous Deposits
from the Interior of the Heart constitute a remarkable con-
tribution to pathological science. D. in Dec, 1864.
Kirk-Kilis'seli : town ; in the province of Koom-Elee,
European Turkey ; on the Erkenc, a tributary of the Marit-
za ; 35 miles E. of Adrianople. and at the southern terminus
of the Fakhi defile over the Strandja Mountains. Through
this defile passes the .shortest road from Shiimla to Con-
stantinople (see map of Turkey, ref. 4-D). It contains fine
mosques, public baths, and extensive bazaars, but is gener-
ally ill built. It is famous for its confectionery, and carries
on an active trade in butter and cheese. Pop. 16,000.
Kirkland, Ja.mes Hampton. A. M., Ph. 1). : educator ; b. in
Siiartanburg, S. C, Sept. 9, 1859; received hi.s collegiate
training at Wofford College, taking the degree of A. B. in
1877 and A. M. in 1878 ; was tutor in Latin and Greek
1878-81 ; assistant professor (1881-82), and Professor of
Greek and German (1882-83) in his alma mater. He spent
1883-86 in Europe, taking the degree of Ph. D. at Leipzig in
1885; was elected Professor of Latin in Vanderbilt Univer-
sity in 1886, and chancellor of the same in June, 1893. He
published Study of the Anglo-Saxon Poem called by Grein
"Die Hollenfahrt Christi" (1885), and an edition of the
satires and epistles of Horace (1893). Albert Okhorx.
Kirkmaii. JIarshall JIonroe : railway manager and
author; b. in Illinois, July 10, 1842; was educated at pub-
lic schools and under private tuition ; and was successively
telegraph operator, train-dispatcher, auditor and local treas-
urer, comptroller and vice-jiresident of the Chicago North-
western Railway ; author of nuinerous works on railways,
including Railway Disbursements (1876); Railwai/ Train
and Station Service (1877); Railway Kxjienditures : their
E.rtent. Object, and Econonii/ {\H>^U}; The Baggage, Parcel,
and Mail Traffic of Railroads (1881) ; The Track Accounts
of Railroads, and How they should be Kept (1882); The
Maintenance of Railways (1886); The Handling of Rail-
way Supplies (\SS1); and Railway Rates and (Joi'ernment
Control (1892).
Kirkpatriek, Sir George Airey, LL. D. : Canadian
statesman ; b. in Kingston, Ontario, Sept. 13, 1841 ; graduated
at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1861. aii<l was admitted to th^
bar in 1865.' He is president of the Dominion Rifle Asso-
ciation ; commanded the Wimbledon rifle team in 1876 ;
and was a commissioner at the Colonial and Indian Exhibi-
tion, London, 1886. He was a member of the Dominion
Parliament 1870-91 ; was speaker of that body 1883-86 ; and
in 1891 was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario. He
was knighted in 1892. Neil JIacdonald.
KirksviHe : city ; capital of Adair co.. Mo. (for location
of county, see map of Missouri, ref. 2-G) ; on the Quincy,
Omaha, and Kans. City and tlie Wabash railways; 65
miles W. of Quincy, 200 miles N. W. of St. lyouis. It is in
an agricultural region, has an abundant supply of wood
and coal, and contains eleven churches, the State Normal
School of the first district, a mercantile college ; and hub and
spoke, furniture, woolen, cheese, and plow factories. Pop.
(1880) 2,314; (1890) 3.510; (1893) by extension of corporate
limits, estimated, 5,0(X). Editor of " Democrat."
Kirk'wall ; a royal, parliamentary, and police bnrgh of
Scotland ; capital of the Orkney island.s, situated N. E. of the
most northern point of Scotland, and formerly an independ-
ent kingdom. There is a fine cathedral of St. Magnus dat-
ing from about 1138, and close by the ruins called the
King's, the Earl's, and the Bishop's palaces. Kirkwall has
steamer communication with Leith, Aberdeen, and Wick,
on the mainland, with Lerwick, the chief town of the Shet-
land isles, and by steamer or packet with Shapinshay, Stron-
say, Westray, and the other islands of the grou]i. it has an
annual fair of considerable celebrity, a museum, liliraries and
grammar school, and cultivated society. Kirkwall, which
is situated on Pomona, the chief islanil of the group, unites
with Wick, Cromarty. Dingwall, Dornoch, and Tain (all on
the mainland) in sending one member to Parliament. Pop.
of royal burgli (1891), 2,.557 ; of parliamentary burgh, 3,895.
Kirkwdod : village; St. Louis co.. Mo. (for location of
county, see map of Missouri, ref. 4-.1); on the Mo. Pac.
Railway; 13 miles S. of St. Louis. It is in an agricultural
region and has a weeklv newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1.280;
(1890) 1.777; (1893) estimated, 2.200.
Kirkwood. TUxiel, A.M.. LL. D. ; astronomer; b. in
Harford cip., Md.. .Sept. 27. 1814; was a mathematical in-
structor in York co.. Pa., 1838-4:3 ; jirincipal of Lancaster
(Pa.) high school 1843-48; of Pottsville Academy 1848-51;
Professor of Mathematics 1851-.54 in Delaware College ; its
president 1854-56; became in 1856 Professor of Mathe-
matics in Indiana University ; author of Meteoric Astrono-
mi/ (1867) and Comets and Meteors (1873), ami of many as-
tronomical papers, the most important being one on The
Kebular Hypothesis, and the Approximate Commenaurabil-
ity of the Planetary I'eriods. in the Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society {vol. xxix.). The theory of IjH-
pliK'e is there applied to explain the existence of the gaps in
KIRMAX
KITTATIXXY
the zone of the minor pinnfts l)etwcen >[ars and Jupiter,
and to assifjn a physical caiisi' for tlie hiatus in the rinjj of
Saturn. D.in Kiverside, C'al.. .hine 11. 1895. S. Newcomh.
Kiriuan : town and province of Persia. Sec Kekman.
Kirinunshuli : town of Persia. See Kermansuau.
Kirschwasser. ki'ersh ('a"ii-s*'r [Germ., liter.. cherry-water;
^■ir.if/K", cherry + iriiAicr, water], often calleil Kir.sc'li: an
alcoholic liqiiritr pri'pared in Kurope from cherries. The
ri[)e fruit is first stoned ami then fermented. Afterwani
the broken pits are thrown into the mush, and the whole is
distilled. A fraudulent imitation is made of ordinary spir-
its flavored witli cherry-laurel water. It is a dangerous
coTn|Hiund.
Kish [the Persian form eorrespondinf!; to the Arabic
Kaiit\ : an island in the Persian Gulf which accjuired {;reat
im|>ortance during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as
the chief station of the Imlinn trade.
Kislieiiev', or Kishinrf: capital of the jirovince of Bes-
sarabia, on the Uuik, an allluent of the Dniester; 16'.? miles
N. W. of t)des.<a by rail (see map of Russia, ref. lO-U). It
is picturesquely situated on tliree hills,- between which the
river winds around, crossed by several bridges. It is con-
nected bv rail with (.)des.sa and Jassy. It is the seat of the
civil anil ec<'lesiastical authorities of Bessarabia, and has
about twenty churches, a synagogue, .several magnificent
Turkish fiatlis, a gymnasium, a seminary, good schools, and
several theaters. It has large markets, es]iecially for cattle
and corn. The inhal)itant.s are nmch engaged in the culti-
vation of fruit and tobacco. Plums are exported in im-
mense quantities. It is also the center of a very consider-
able trade in tallow, wool, wheat, hides, etc., carried hence
to Odessa and Jassy. Kishenev existed as a small place in
the ninth century, was nearly destroyed in the seventeenth
by the Tartars, and was transferred in 1M12 from MoUlavia
to Russia. Pop. about 120,100.
Kigh'on [from Ileb. Kishion, liter., hardness]: a small
river of Central Palestine, which rises near Jit. Tabor, anil
flows N. W. into the Mediterranean, draining the plain of
Ksdraelon and the mountains of Carmel and .Samaria. It
is famous in biblical history a.s affording the scenes of the
defeat of Sisera by Deborah and Barak (Judg. iv. 7, l;i), and
of the slaughter of the priests of Baal by Klijah (1 Kgs.
xviii. 40). Some [xirtion (jf the Kishon was anciently called
the •• waters of Megiddo''; it is now known as the A'ahr-tl-
JJuknttd, i. e. the river of slaughter.
Kiss, AirofsT : sculptor; b. at Pless, in rt>por Silesia, Ger-
many, Oct. 11, 1802 ; began his education in tlic roval iron-
foundries at (Jleiwitz ; pursued his studies at the academy
of Berlin, under Rauch, and was first known by bas-reliefs
for churches' and other public buildings, and by groups of
nymphs, tritons, and similar decorations for a fountain at
Charlottenhof, desigiUMl by Schinkel. The plaster model of
his famous group, Tlie Aimnun and the I'mif/io; was ex-
hibiteil in 18.'i!», and created such enthusiasm that a public
subscription was openeil, even on Sundays and in churches,
to pay the cost of casting it in bronze! In 1S4.5 this was
placed on the steps leading to the Museum of Berlin : a re-
plica of this was in the New York International Kxhibition
of 185a. The same artist subscMpiciitlv produced a bronze
C(|uestrian statue of Frederick the (ireat for the city of Bres-
lau; two statues, one equestrian and colossal in size for the
cily of Konigsberg. of Frederick William 111.; ,S7. Mirhail
and the Dragon, a gift to Frederick William IV., a copy <.f
which in zinc is at Carlsruhe; an equisnian statue of ,S7.
(leimjp. of colossal size, which was in the Paris Exposition in
18.")."). and is now in the courl of the palace at Berlin. D. in
Berlin. .Mar. 24, 18((r). Revised by Russell Stirois.
Kissiinincp; cily; capital of Osceola co., Fla, (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Floriila, ref. 6-K); on Lake
Tohoiiekaliga and the Fla. Midland and the Savannah. Fla.
and W. railways; 18 mil.s S. of Orlando. It is engaged in
orange ami early vegetable growing, sugar refining, and riee
milling, and has three weeklv periodicals. Pop. (1880) not
in census; (I81I0) 1,08(5; (1895) 1,172.
Kissini^oii, kising-cn: town of Bavaria; <m the Sanle ;
60 miles !■;. by X. from Frankfort-on-Main (see map of (o'r-
maii I'jnpire, ref. ."V-D). it has tliree mini. ml springs, from
which more than 500.000 liotlles of water are annually ex-
ported. In summer the place is much frequenti'il, as the
water is used both for ilrinking and for bathing. It is
strongly impregnated with iron ami salt, and is recommended
for a great variety of diseases — chronic catarrh, rheumatism,
scrofula, atTections of the bowels, etc. The average number
of visitors is 13,000 every sea,son. Pop. (18U0) 4,245.
Kistlia: a district of Madras, British India; on the
Krishna or Kistna river, between tlie Xizum's Dominions, or
liaidarabad, and the Bay of Bengal ; area, 8.471 sq. miles.
Almost entirely a low plain between the mountains and the
ocean, a part of it has been swept several times l)v unusually
high tides, notably in 1762, 184;3, and 1864, witli great lo.ss
of life. The country is fertile, well watered, well cultivated,
and devoted to rice in the lower lanils, and cotton near the
mountains. Pop. 1.600.000. The capital is Giinlur, and the
chief ports Ma.sulipatam and Xizampatam. It formerly be-
longed to France, but was abandoned in 1765. It was ac-
quired by the British in 1823. M, W, H.
Kistna River. India; See Krishna.
Kitehcii-mitldi'iis : See Shell-heaps.
Kite [M. Eng. <0. Eng. cyta. kite]: a name ap-
plied to birds of prey of the sub-family Jfilvince, hav-
ing rather weak feet, long, pointiil wings, and, in many
species, a deeply forked tail. Kites are birds of easy,
graceful flight, and are usually found in warm lati-
tudes. The common kite of Europe, Jlilrus regalis, is of a
general reddish-brown color. The kite was once very nu-
merous ill Kiiglaiul, but is now all but exterminated. 'J"he
swallow-tailed kite, Ehitioidex furlicalus, of the southern
jiarts of the U. S. is glos.sy black on wings, tail, and back,
white elsewhere, including the rump. F. A. Licas.
Kite [from kiti; a bird ; cf. Germ, drache. dragon, kite]: a
toy which has been employed for ages and in many countries
by boys as a plaything, which has also had its scientific uses.
Thus Franklin and others have obtained the electric spark
from the clouds by this dangerous means. In engineering
the kite has been employed to carry lines across deep chasms,
thus supplying a means of carrying heavier cables, and by
their use, in turn, parts of the sustaining frame of the struc-
ture during its erection ; similarly it has been used to con-
vey life-lines across a line of surf and breakers, removing
the passengers of stranded ships. On Oct. 8, 1896, in tests
made at the Blue Hills Observatory, Massachusetts, a height
of 9,385 feet was attained, ami the meteorologie conditions
at that altitude were accurately recorded by an attached
meteorograph. The kite is a light frame of wood covered
with strong paper, and held by a string so attached to it
that it shall be acted upon by the wind much like a ship's
sail when sailing close to the wind. A tail is u.sually added ;
this gives the kite steadiness in sudden flaws of wind. The
Chinese and Japanese construct kites in the form of owls,
bats, dragons, etc. These have no tail, but fly well,
Kit-fox: a small fox (Vulpes velo.T) found in W^estern
North America, especially in the drier parts; also known
as the swift fox, although not especially fleet. It is less
than 3 feet in length. The color is yellowish-gray, some-
what reddish in summer. F. A. L,
Kit-Kat (or Kil-Cat) Cliib : a society consisting of about
forty geiilleineii of ability and rank, interested in jiromot-
ing the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover. It
was instituted in 1703, and took its name from Christopher
Katt or Catt,a pastry-cook, who lived near the tavern wliere
they met in King Street, Westminster, and supplied the
members with pies. The association lasted about twenty
years. .Sir (ioilfrey Kneller jiainted the jiortraits of the
meiiibers, including himself, each three-quarters length,
whence the teini •■ kit-kat porlrail.s." The memoirs of the
club, illustrated liy engravings frimi Kneller's pictures, were
published in 1821, See Cu'lis.
Kittaniiing: borough; capital of Armstrong co.. Pa.
(for location of county, .see ma]) of Pennsylvania, ref. 4-B) ;
on the Allegheny river, and the Allegheny Valley Railway;
44 miles X. of Pittsburg. It is in a coal and iron mining
region; has a rolling-mill, blast-furnace, china |iottery, and
other manufactories; and contains 9 churches, public
school, academy, school of lelegnijihy and lypewriling. and
7 weeklv newspa]iers. There is an abundaiice of natural
gas. Pop. (18S0) 2.024: (ISIIO) ;!,II9.") : (1H!I3) estimated,
4,.")00. ImiIToK ok ■■ .\HMSTKONH RF.lM'nLICAN."
Kittatin'ny, or Hliie Mountain; a chain which takes its
rise near Shawangunk, I'lster co., N, Y., jiasses S. W.
through a corner of Xew Jersey, crosses the Delaware at the
Water (iap, trends W. S. W. through I'eiinsylvania. crosses
the Susquehanna a few miles above llarrisburg, and the I'o-
KITTIWAKE
KLAPKA
tomac near Berkeley Springs, and continues with pradnally
lessening altitude through Virginia, North Carolina, and
Tennessee into Alabama, thus having a total length of more
than 800 miles. In average elevation and hulk the Hlue
Mountain range exceeds the Blue Ridge, which hasaci[uired
greater prominence on maps on account of its greater defi-
niteness, springing as it does from a narrow base, and the
greater height i>f some of its peaks. The average elevation
of the Blue Mountain is from 8U0 to 2,500 feet.
Kittiwakp: a small gull {Bissa tridactyla) found abun-
dantly on both sides of the North Atlantic and Pacific, the
Pacilic birds being accorded the rank of a sub-species, owing
to the fact that the hind toe is rudimentary or absent. This
species assembles in great numbers at some of its breeding-
places, one favorite locality, near North Cape, on the coast
of Norway, containing millions. P. A. L.
Kit'to, .John: Bible student; b. at Plymouth, England,
Dec. 4, 1S04; when thirteen years old totally lost his hear-
ing in conse(iuence of a fall from a ladiler while assisting
his father, who was a stone-mason ; was sent to the work-
house in 1819, and learned the shoemaker's trade, but de-
voted all his time to books. Friends enabled him to gratify
his passion for reading, and assisted him to publish in Plym-
outh in 1825 Essays and Letters, which attracted much at-
tention. He learned the printer's art ill the Islington ;\lis-
sionary College ; resided at Malta 1827-29, and at Bagdad
1829-:B2; traveled extensively in the East 1829-33; pub-
lished the Pictorial Bible (1838) : Pictorial History of Pal-
estine (1839^0); another History of Palestine (Edinburgh,
1843) ; The Lost Senses (autobiographical, London, 1845) ;
edited and largely wrote the Cyclopiedia of Biblical Litera-
ture (1845); founded and edited The Journal of Sacred
Ijiterature (1848-53). Of his many other works, the most
popular was Daily Bible Illustrations (8 vols., 1849-53).
Kitto received the degree of D. I), from Giessen in 1844,
but he was a layman of the Church of England. D. at
Cannst.idt, Oermany, Nov. 25, 1854. See Life by .1. E. Ry-
land (Edinburgh, 1856). Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Kitiinahan Indians (also known as Cootenai, Kootenay,
Flatbow, etc.) : a small body of Indians forming a distinct
linguistic stock, formerly inhabiting the mountainous tract
between the two upper forks of the Columbiia river, Koo-
tenay Lake and river, British Columbia^ and the adjoining
parts of the U. S. It is believed that they early inhabited
the territory E. of the mountains, but were driven across
them by the Blackfoot tribes, from whose incursions they
suffered severely. In their customs they do not differ
widely from the other interior tribes of that region, but
they are said to resemble more the Indians E. of the Rocky
Mountains than those of Lower Oregon. They are modest
and scrupulously honest, particularly the Upper Cootenai
of British Columbia. They are expert hunters and fisher-
men. The Lower Cootenai raise large numbers of horses for
use in hunting and traveling, and endeavor to till their lands
by aid of irrigation. The potter's art is unknown to the
Kitunahan, and they do less wood-carving than the coast
tribes. They live in large lodges with frameworks of con-
verging poles, covered with canvas in lieu of buffalo hides
which were formerly used. They have preserved interest-
ing maturity ceremonials. j\Iarriage is said to l>e liy i)ur-
chase, no ceremony being deemed essential, and the first
child is said to be sacrificed to the sun to insure health and
happiness to the whole family. The dead are drcsse<l in
their best clothing and are buried outstretched, with head
probalily to the E. ; the deceased's horse is killed and his
properly is hung on a tree over his grave. The Up])er
Cootenai are nominal Christians, but the Lower Cooteiuii
adhere, to a great extent, to their ancient religions and other
customs. They have an elaborate system of shamanism.
They pray and sacrifice to the sun pieces of flesh cut from
the arms and breast to prevent disaster, and before begin-
ning a council or conducting a war expedition. Of this
family there are now 425 at Flathead agency in the .State of
Montana, and 539 at Kootenay agency, British Columbia ;
total, 964.
Authorities. — Horatio Hale, in United States Exploring
Expedition (vol. vi., Philadelphia, 1846) ; P. .1. de Smet,
Oregon Missions (New York. 1847) ; Indian Sketches (New
York, 1865); Tolmie and Dawson, Comparatire Vocabu-
laries (Montreal, 1884) . Franz Boas, First General Report
on the Indians of British Columbia ; Brit. Assn. Adv. Sci.,
Newcastle-u()on-Tyne meeting (London, 1889). See also
Indians of North Amkrua. F. \V Hodge.
Kia-kiangr, kyO'kyaang' [literally, nine rivers] : a depart-
mental city of China; in the province of Kiangsi ; opened
in 1861 to foreign trade and residence. It stands on the
right bank of the Vang-tse, 445 geographical miles from
Shanghai, 137 below Hankow, and 12 aliove Hu-k'ow, the
point at which the waters of the Kan-Kiang join the Yang-
tse after their passage through Poyang Lake ; hit. 29° 42' N.,
Ion. 116 8 E. Its walls have a circuit of about 5 or 6 miles.
Pop. (1890) 53,000. The foreign settlement lies to the \V. of
the city, along the bank of the Yang-tsc, and is bounded on
the W. by a small river called the l''un. In 1892 the gross
foreign trade of the port amounted to 1 1.849,627 taels (about
$12,442,108 U. S. gold), of which 4,765,288 taels represented
foreign imports, and 6,216.557 taels exiiortsof local origin.
The chief imports are cotton and woolen goods, metals, and
opium ; and the chief exports chinaware, grass-cloth, hemp,
paper, rice, tobacco, and tea. R. L.
K'iung-chow; the capital and chief city of the Chinese
island of Hainan (q. v.). See also lloiiiow.'
Kinshiii, or Kyuslui [literally, nine provinces]: the most
southerly of the four great islands of Japan, separated from
the largest island bv the Straits of Shimonoseki. It ex-
tends from 3r to 34" N. lat. and from 129i^ to 132*° E. Ion.;
covers an area of 13.772 sq. miles, and is remarkable for
the broken nature of its western coast-line. The highest
mountain is 5,400 feet. In Kiushu were the powerful dai-
miates of Satsuma, Hizen, Chikugo, and Higo. On its
northwest shores are the productive coal mines of Taka-
shima and Karatsu. A trunk railway now (1894) starting
from Moji, opposite Shimonoseki, runs to Kumamoto. and
will be continued to Kagoshima ; and a branch line to Naga-
saki has been projected. There are five sjiecial ports of ex-
port, opened in 1889, Moji, Hakata, Karatsu, Misumi, Kuch-
inotsn, from which were shipped in 1892 over 350,000 tons
of coal. J. M. Dixon.
Kiwi, or Kiwi-kiwi, kee'wi-keewi ; the native name for
the Apteryx (y. v.).
Klzil-Irniak, keeze"el-eer-mak' [Turkish, Red river; the
anc. JIalys] : a river rising in the Kouze Dagh of the Olgas-
sus chain, and, after a circuitous course of over .500 miles,
emptying into the Black Sea 85 miles E. of Sinope. Its
largest affluent is the Kara Sou (Black river) or Kastamouni
Sou, the Jlelas of Strabo. E. A. G.
Klagenfurth, klaagfn-foort (Slav. Celorec) : the capital
of Carinthia, Austria; on the Glan ; 262 miles by rail S. \V.
of Vienna (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 7-D). It has
large manufactures of white lead, an important transit trade,
and good educational institutions, among which are a theo-
logical seminary for priests, and industrial, technical, and
mining schools. Pop. (1890) 19.756.
Klaczko, kla'ach ko, Julian: Polish writer; b. Nov. 6,
1828, of Helirew parents. He was a precocious child. In
1849 he went to Paris, where he published a series of his-
torico-political essays intended to show the possibility of a
restoration of Poland. He wrote in Polish, French, and
German. In 1869 he received a jiosition in the Austrian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but resigned in 1870, went to
Italy, and in 1875 returned to Paris. His principal works
arc Dte deutschen Hegemonen (Berlin, 1849); () szkole pol-
skief {The Polish School, Paris, 1854); Les Preliminairesde
Sadowa (1868-69): L'unionde la Pologne et de la Lithu-
anie (2d ed. 1869); L'agitation unilaire en Allemagne
(1862). J. J. Kral.
Klnpka, klaapkiiii. GvdROv; general; b. at Tcmesvar,
Hungarv, Apr. 7. 1820; was educated in the artillery school
at Vienna, became an officer in the emperor's life guards,
and in 1S47 obtaineil a connnand in a border regiment.
When Hungary revolted in 1848, Klapka immediately es-
poused the cause of his country, and was made chief of staff
of Gen. Kis. and in 1849 commander of an army-corps. He
led his troops with ability and energy in the battles of Ka-
polna, Komorn, etc.. and was made Jlinister of War by Kos-
suth. 'After the defeats experienced by the Hungarians.
Klajika shut himself up in the fortress of Komorn, where he
heroically repulsed during several weeks the desperate at-
tacks led" by the famous Austrian general, Haynau. He sur-
rendered oidy after obtaining for his army and himself the
honors of war. He sjient many years in exile in Germany,
England, France, and Turkey, and entering the Gerinan serv-
ice unsuccessfully attempted to raise Hungary against Aus-
tria in 1859 and' 1866. Klapka was naturalized as a Swiss
citizen, and elected a member of the federal council in 1856.
KLAPROTH
KLEIST
ilaprotll. lltiNRicH Ji'Liis, von: Orientalist; son of
rtin lleinriih Kluiiioth. the chemist : li. in Berlin, I'rus-
In ixer.on the n-orRnnization of the Austro-Hvinparian em-
pire, he returned to his native eountry, anil was eniployeil in
the annv. In ISTii he was in the inilitary service of Turkey,
anil in i'^T4 visiteil Kf;ypt. He died in Uudapest, May 17,
1892. He wrote .Memoirs of thf U'lir «f' Indryemhncf in
JIunyiiry {l><50); The .\aliunal War in Uumjary nml Tran-
si/lmnm (1S.")1); The War in the East (1855): lieaiUecliuns
(German trans. 1887). Kevisi-d by f. 11. Tiiikbkr.
Klnproth. klaaprot. M.irtin Hkixrich: chemist and
minenilo(;ist : b. at Wernitrerode, Germany. Dec. 1, 1743;
wiLS employed for st'ven years in an a|iothecary shon at
t^iiedlinbui-g, and afterward at Hanover and Herlin, where
he made a methodical study of chemistry, and imblished
numerous analyses of t;reat "value, which obtained for him
professorships "of I'hemistrv at the Herlin .School of Artil-
lery (1787) anil I'niversitv ("l78'J). He was made a member
of the French Institute, of the council of public health, and
of many scientific boiiies. Among his discoveries were the
metals zirconium, titanium, and uranium, the suli)halc of
strontium, and the molybdate of lead. He ilid much to ad-
vance the classilicatioii of minerals by clu'inical analysis;
was an early defender and popularizer of the discoveries of
Lavoisier. His numerous writiiiKs were chiefly published as
papers in the Denk.schriflen of the Berlin Academy, the an-
alyses alone constituting five volumes of a collected scries
piiblished from 171)5 to 1810. He also edited a Chemical
Dictionary (5 vols., 1807-10) and a Chemical Manual. 1).
at Berlin. .Ian. 1, 181'
K
Martin lleinrich Klapi
sia, Oct. 11. 178;i : applied himself when fourteen years of aK(
to the study of Chinese; estalilislicd in 1802 the .4.sin-
tinchex JIdi/azin. at Weimar; and in 1804 Wius appointed by
the Goveriiment of Russia inter|)reter toan embassy already
on lis way to China, but the refusal of the Chinese Govern-
ment to receive a Russian envoy prevented his iienetrating
into China proper. Returning to Europe by a difTiJ-ent
route, he acf|uired a knowledge of the geography of Central
Asia, and of the languagesof the inhabitants. In 1807-08 he
explored the Caucasus, after which he was appointi'd pro-
fessor at the University of Wilna. He yvas made a member
of the Russian Aeiulemy, had a pension and other honors
equivalent to a grant of nobility, but difficulties tlirown in
the way of the publication of his researches led to a ruj)-
tiire, and when he left Russia in 1812 his titles and honors
were revoked. He then puldished at Halle his Trawls in
Caticasns and Georgia (1812-14) ; at Weimar his (iKii/rap/i-
ieo-hinlorical Description of Eastern (.'<iiicasus (1814); and
at Berlin his Description of the Russian Provinces be-
tween the Caspian and the /Hack i>n« (1814). In 1815
Klaiiroth settled in Paris, obtaining through the influence
of Ilumboldt a nominal professorship at Berlin with a
handsome salary. He spent the remainder of his life in the
French capital, engaged in the production of a series of
works upon Asia, especially Central Asia and China. Among
these Were Asia J'oli/</lotla (1823-2U), with a linguistic al-
la.s, ami Talihaux hisloriijues dv I'Asie {lH'i4). In 1885 1ns
Erfindunq des Kompasses was edited by Wittstein. The
geographical labors of Klaproth in Central Asia were char-
acterized by Sir Henry Rawlinson in 1872 as fraudulent on
a colossal scale. D. in Paris, .Vug. 20, 18^5.
KIniispnburs'. klow'scn-boorch (Hun. Kolosvar): the
capital of Transylvania, formerly a sej)arate principality of
the Austrian empire, now united to Hungary; situated 225
miles S. K. of Budapest (sec' map of .\ustria-lliingary, ref.
7-K). i'np. (18!»l)) :i4.85!). It has a university (1872), a Uni-
tarian college, a fortified castle, inanufaclories of porcelain,
and a fair trade. The inhabitants are chiefly Magyars.
Klfber, klubilr', .Ii:a.v Baitiste : general; the son of a
stotie-ma-s<in ; b. at .Strassbnrg in 1753. Kleber's military
and warlike character caused him to give up his first call-
ing as an architect, and to enli.st in the military service of
Austria. He was soon tired of that mercenary wcuk, an<l
returtiid to France, where he was inspector of buildings at
Belfort, when in 171I2 he volunteered to serve as a private
in the republican armies of France, where he rapidly rose to
the highest rank. After the capitulation of Mayence, where
ho had shown great bravery and military skill during the
siege. Kir-ber was si'nt to fight against the royalists of Ven-
dee, then to the armies of Sanilire-et-Miuse and nf the Rhine,
with which he crossed the Rhine and won the two battles of
Altenkirchen and Friedberg in 17115. As he was a .strong
republican, the Directory did not want to employ him ; but
Xaj>oleon gave him a command in the expedition to Egypt,
una left him there us generul-in-chief. After the depurturo
of Napoleon. Klelier vampiished the Turks at Heliopolis; in
1800 he again subdued Kgy[it, which had revolted, and was
murdered at Cairo. June 14, 18tH). by a fanatical -Moslem.
In Strassbnrg there is a scpiarc called Place Klcjber. adcjrned
with a statue of the general. See the biographies by Er-
nouf (1867), Pajol(1877), and Teichert (1890).
Revised l)y C. H. Thi'RBEr.
Klebs. Edwin K.. M.D. : pathologist; b. in Konigsberg,
Prussia, Feb. G. 1834; entered the University of Kiinigs-
berg in 1852. and siibsecniently studied in Wlirzburg, Jena,
ami Berlin; graduated M. D. in 1857; in 18.5!) was a.ssistant
in the Kc'lnigsberg Physiological Laboratory ; in 18(il as-
sisted Vinhow : ill 18(>(i became Professor of Pathological
Anatomy in Berne, in 1871 taking the same chair in the
University of WUrzburg; in 1873 going to the University of
Prague, and in 1882 accepting the sume chair in Zurich.
He was editor of the Correspondem-Blalt fur schtoeizer
Aerzte (Berne, 1871). and co-editor of the Archie fUr ejrperi-
mentelle I'athologie und Pharmakoloyie (Leipzig, 1873-85).
His contributions to the knowledge of pathology have been
numerous and valuable'. In 187!) he jiublished. in asssociation
with Tommasi-Crudeli. the announcement of the discovery
of a bacillus of malaria. But subsequent investigation
demonstrated that the organism discovered by Laverau was
the cause of malarial fevers, and that Klebs's bacillus had
no relation to the disease. Among his |)ublications are
Ilandbuch dec patlioloyischen Anatoniie (2 vols., Berlin,
18(!8-80) ; Jieitrdye zur pathologischen Anatomie der Schus-
su'unden (Lei|izig, 1872); Sliidien uher die Verbreitung des
Kretinismns in (Jesferreich, etc. (Prague. 1877).
S. T. Armstro.vu.
Klein, Bri'no Oscar: organist and compo.ser ; b. at Os-
nabriick. Hanover, Germany, .lime 6. 185(5; studied first
under his father, then at Munich under Rheinberger, WucU-
ner, and Baermann ; published his first compositions when
seventeen years old ; removed to the U. S. ill 1878. and to New
York ill 1881 ; succeeded .loliii White as organist of St.
Francis Xavier's churih, and was a]ipointed teacher of the
piano in the Manhattaiiville Academy of the Sacred Heart
and Professor of Harmonvand Counterpoint in the National
Cimservatory of Music, llis cumpositions include a mass, a
sonata, several orcliestral [lieces and overtures, a sonata for
piano and violin, a string quartette, a piano concerto, and
many songs and church pieces. I). E. IIervev.
Klein. .TiLifs Leohoi.d: dramatist; b. at Miskolecz,
Hungary, 1810; studied philology and natural sciences at
Vienna; traveled in Italy and went in 18;!l> tc. Berlin, where
he studied incdiciiie. He did not. however, practice his
profession, but wrote a number of dramas which were suc-
cessfully played at many (ierman theaters. As Klein was
an enthusiastic admirer of Shakspeare his plays betray in
every resiiect the inllucnce of his great model. He pub-
lished Maria von Medici (1841): Luiiies (1842): Zinobia
(1847); l>ie Herzogin (1848); Kavalier und Arljeiter(lHbO);
Maria (\mO): ,S7ra/or(/ (18G2); Ut-Z/a i>p (18(>2) ; Ileliodora
(1867); Jiirliclieu, etc. Klein's principal wdrk wius, how-
ever, his (leschichte des Dramas (1865-7()) in thirteen vol-
umes, a book which in regard to learning, thoroughness, and
depth of conception has probably no equal in any language.
It contains the history of the Greek und Roman drama, tlie
history of the Latin dramas after Christ ii|i to the tenth
century, the history of the Italian drama (4 vols.), the his-
tory of the Spanish drama (5 vols.), and the first volume of a
history of the Eiigli>li drama. Klein died Aug. 2. 1876,
leaving his great work unfinished. JuLits Goehkl.
Kleist, EwALD Christian, von : poet ; b. at /cbliii, Pom-
erania, Germany, Mar. 7, 1715; studied law, philosophy,
and mathematiis at Kdnigsberg, and became an olficer in
the Danish army in 1736. He afterward entered the army
of Frederick the Great, and while statiiuied at Potsdam
made the acquaintance of (ilcini and Nicolai, wlm urged
him on in his poetic alteinjits. While in Saxcpiiy during the
Seven Years' war he met Lessing, with whom he formed an
intimate friendsliip. He was wounded in the battle of
Kunersdorf, and dii-d Aug. 24.1750. Kleist's best work is
Der Fruhling (174!)), a descriptive poem in hexameters
which shows the inlluence of Thomson s Seasons, and which
was greatly admired at the time, since it expressed in a
pleasing way the awakening uf the love for nature. See
the critical edition of Klei.sfs works by A. Saner (Berlin,
1882); also Schnorr's ./Ire/iiti (xi., 457). Julius Goebel.
KLEIST
KLOPSTOCK
Kleist, Heinrich. von: poet; b. at Frankfort-on-thc-
Oder. Geniiaiiy, Oct. 18, 1777; was educated by a clergyinaii
in Berlin, and in 1793 entered the military service, wliich lie
left, however, after a few years in order to study philosophy
and niatliematics. He held several minor positions in the
Prussian civil service, but he lost them after the battle of
Jena. Being mistalcen for one of Scliill's officers, he was
made a prisoner by tlie French, and kept in France until
the following year. Then he went to Dresden, where he
became Tieck's friend, and where he published the period-
ical Pliiihua. In IHO'J he went to Prague with the intention
of publishing his pamphlets against Xapoleon. This plan,
too, was frustrated and he returned to Berlin deeply de-
pressed by the political misery of Germany, and mentally
disturbed by his personal disappointments. He shot him-
self Xov. 21, IMll. at Wansee, near Potsdam. Despite the
fact that Goethe turned with disgust from Kleist 's produc-
tions, he was a poet of extraordinary talent, who has continu-
ally been growing in the estimation of his nation. As a
dramatist he was certainly the most powerful playwright
after Lessing and Schiller. His dranuis — Die Familie
Scliro(rt'n.'<lfin (180S): Penthesilea (1808): Der zerbrochene
Krug (\>i\\): Der Prinz von Homhiirg (1821): Die Iler-
maunsclt/ac/it (1821) — are standard pieces of the German
stage. His novels and stories, too, rank among the best
written in the German language. Among these the novel
Micliael KdUifidS excels especially by the power of its style
and the vividness of its descriptions. See A. Wilbrandt,
Heinrich mn Klei-it (1862) ; Th. ZoUing. Heinrich von Kleiat
in der »S'c/t»'f(> (1882) ; Lloyd and Newton, Prussia's Pep-
resentative Man (1875) ; Otto Brahm, Heinrich von Kleist
(1885). Julius Goebel.
Klenze, klent'se, Leo, von : architect; b. at Hildesheim,
Germany, Feb. 29, 1784: studied at Brunswick, Berlin, and
Paris ; traveled through Italy ; was architect of Jerome Bona-
parte when King of Westphalia; and settled in 1815 at Mu-
nich, where he became architect to the court. He built the
Wai,ham,a (q. V.) on the Danube near Ratisbon ; the Pinako-
thek, Glyptothek, Odeon, Museum, royal palace, post-oflfice,
etc., and a great number of private palaces and houses in Mu-
nich. Also in St. Petersburg, whither he was invited in 18;!9,
he built a great number of buildings, all of which are dis-
tinguished by something magnificent and stately. He had
unusual power as a designer, and could carry on many im-
portant works at once. In a time when architecture was
merely tentative, and all styles were being rather played
with than any one seriously followed, he did all that could
be done to produce noble architectural designs, though these
designs were S(mietimes marred by inferior materials, such
as external stucco imitating stone. Of his writings, Apho-
ristische Bemerkungen (1838) is an interesting book. D. Jan.
27, 1864. Revised by Russell Sturois.
Kleonienes: See Cleomexes.
Kleon : See Cleox.
Kleptomania [from Gr. K\eTrr€tv, to steal +;uo/fa. mad-
ness]: a propensity to steal or pilfer, which is actually or
supposably irresistible. Legal responsil)ilily for the "acts
committed under the bidding of this impulse is governed by
the same rules as those which apply m the case of all other
forms of insanity, and irresistible impulse alone is generally
not a legal defense. See Ixsaxity before the Law.
Kliasma, klee-aaz'ma: a river of Russia; rises in the
government of Moscow, flows through those of Vladimir
and Nizhni-Novgorod, and joins the Oka after a course of
327 miles. It is navigable for 1.50 miles, and as it runs
through the most densely peopled and industrially devel-
oped districts of the country, is of great commercial conse-
quence.
Klicpera. klitspe-ra, Vaclav Klimext: dramatist; b. at
Chlumec, Bohemia, Nov. 23, 1792; studied philosophy and
medicine at the University of Prague, and in 1819 became
regular professor at the gymnasium of Kralovc Hradee.
There he remained until 1851, when he was appointed presi-
dent of the academic gymnasium at Prague. There he
died Sept. 15, 1859. Klicpera was a prolific writer. Besides
a numl)er of novels he wrote over fifty dramas, conu'dies,
and tragedies, of unequal value. The best of his comedies
are Divot vorny Ktobouk (The Wonderful Hat), Rohovin
ftverrolifi (The Four-cornered R), and Lhdr ajeho rod (Tlic
Liar and His Family). His best work is the historical
tragedy i^ubeslav, which may be considered a classic.
J. J. KrAl.
Kliefoth, klee'fot, TnEODOu Friedrkb Detlev, D. D. :
Lutheran theologian ; b. at Kiirchow, Mecklenburg, Jan. 18,
1810; studied theology in Berlin and Rostock; since 1850
has been Oberconsistorial-liatli of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
He is the highest living authority on Lutheran liturgies.
Author of Liturgisclie Abhandlungen (8 vols., Schwerin,
1858-69) ; commentaries on Zachariah (1801) ; Ezekiel (1864-
65); Daniel (1868); Revelation (1874); A History of Dog-
mas, and the fullest modern treatise on Hschatology (1885).
H. E. Jacobs.
Klikitat Indians: See Shahaptlan Indians.
Kling'er, Friedrich Maximiliax, von : b. at Frankfort
in 1753, and educated at the University of Gicssen ; wrote
dramas for the Sevier band of strolling' actors; entered the
Austrian army in 1778 ; went to St. Petersburg in 1780 ; rose
there to the highest positions in the military administration ;
became lieutenant-general in 1811, and died Feb. 25, 1831.
While in Frankfort, after his return from Giessen, Klinger
belonged to the circle of young writers who gal hered around
Goethe, and his drama, Sturm und Drang (1776), gave, in
fact, the name to the new literary era inaugurated by Herder
and Goethe. All of Klinger's dramas and novels written
during this period have but the value of interesting docu-
ments of this great time. His later writings are much more
mature, especially his Betrachtungen und (fedanken uber
verschiedene Gegenstdnde der Welt und der Literatur, con-
taining treasures of experience and thought. See Max
Rieger, Klinger in der Sturm- und Drang-jieriode (ISSO);
Schmidt. Lenz und Klinger (1878); Erdmann, I'eber Klin-
gers dram. Dichtunyen (1877). Julius Goebel.
Kllush'nilior, Ivan Petrovich: author; b. in 1810 on
his father's estate in the government of Kharkov, Russia.
He was brought up in Moscow, where in 1835 he was ap-
pointed teacher in a school, a post he only held two years,
and then retired, to follow no occupation except literature.
He had written a number of poems, but in 1838 first iouiui
courage to send four of them to the Jloskovski'i Xablludatel
(Moscow Observer), signed -9-, a signature he adhered to
afterward. The success of his first efforts encouraged liim
to make further contributions, which soon became popular.
In 1839 lie began to send his verses to the St. Petersburg
papers, and in the next year or two a number of them ap-
peared in the .S'oiremeH7^(■A■ (Contemporary), after which they
ceased entirely. His last prose work was a commonplace
story wi-itten in 1849. Kliushnikov's poems belong to the
romantic school, and are not characterized by any great
merit, though they have more than his novel Sfarrvo {Mir-
age). A. C Coolidoe.
Klopp, Oxxo : historian ; b. in Leer, East Friesland, Oct.
9, 1822; was from 1845 to 1858 teacher in the gymnasium at
Osnabrilck; went to Hanover; in 1861 liecame the friend
and confidant of King George, with whom he went into ex-
ile ; became a Roman Catholic in 1874 : later went to reside
at Penzing near Vienna. His chief works are Geschichte
Ostfrieslands (3 vols.. 1854-58); Konig Fried rich II. von
Preussen und die deutsche yation (2d ed. 1867) ; Tilly im
oO jahrigen Krieg (1861); Der 30 jahrige Krieg bis zum
Tod Gu'stav Adolfs (1891) ; Der Fall de.'i J/aiises Stuart (14
vols., 1875-87); Konig Georg V. (1878). All have a strong
anti-Prussian tendencv. He has also edited Leibnitz'sworks
(11 vols., 1864-84). ■ C. H. Thurber.
Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb : b. at (juedlinburg. July
2, 1724: was educated at Schul|iforte, and studied theology
at Jena and Leipzig. He then became a teacher in a pri-
vate family, but soon devoted himself entirely to poetry, liv-
ing on a pension which the King of Denmark had granted
hini for the purpose of finishing his great epic ])oem. Mes-
siah. While still in .Schulpforle. as a youth of eighteen
years, he had planned this epic poem, the first cantos of
which he first wrote in prose and then turned into hexam-
eters. The publication of these three songs (1748) in tlio
Bremer Beitrage. a periodical founded by some of his fellow
stinlents in opposition to (lottschedt, made Klopstock at
once the most famous poet in Germany. Though the poem
can not be called an epos in the artistic sense of the word, it
was filled, especially in the first parts, witli sublime thoughts
and gcnuini' poetic sentiment, expressed in a language such
as had not been heard in German poetry since the times of
Luther. The effect of the Messiah upon literary taste and
mental life of Germany in general can not be overestimated.
A still greater influence upon his nation Klopstock exerted
bv the Odes, his most perfect poetic productions. In these
10
KNAPP
KNIAZXIN
t
he proflairas truth to bo tlio hi{;hest merit of poetry, and in
lace of the tuttereii eourt-poi'l and imitator of the aneients
e introduces tlio new iioet ideal. The poet must, airord-
ing to Klopstoek, be filled with an orijtinal genius, and as
such must be the moral leader of mankind. Thus Klop-
sUx'k himself summons in liis Oilrs the dormant national
feeling to new life, awakens a deeper feeling for the beauties
of nature, and purities and elevates the moral eoneeptionsof
his peojile in more than one sphere. Naturally Klojistock's
inlluenee on the development of (iernian poetry was very
great; even in the poetic thought and in the language of
Uoethe and Schiller we. can still trace this influence. On
account of his religious tendencies Klopstock was for a long
time neglected during the nineteenth century. Later inves-
tigation again gave him, however, the place in German histor-
ical literature which he justly deserves. See Klaiuer Schmidt,
Klopstock und seine Freumle (1810) ; Lappenlierg, Jiriefe roii
undan h'lopslock {IS6T); Strauss, A7ei«e Schriften, Xeue
Folge (1866); O. Lyon, Veber Klopstoek's Verhultniss zu
Goethe (1879): Franz Muncker. F. (J. Klopstock, (feschic/ite
seines Lebens und W'irkens (1888). Ji'Lius GoF.nEL.
Knapp, Albert: b. at Tiibingen, Wilrtemberg, .Tuly 2.5.
171I8; studied theology; held dilTorent positions in the I'rot-
estant Church.andwiis appointed pastor in 1836 at Stuttgiut.
where he died June 18, 1864. Knupp's poetry is chiefly relig-
ious, and a number of his deep-felt songs have found their way
into (terman I'hurch hymnals. His principal publications in
this line are Chrislliclie Lieder{'2 vols., 18'-2i)); C/irislenlieder
(1841); and Christliche Lieder (1864). His Eimngelischer
Liederschatz (2 vols., 1837) is one of the best historical col-
lections of German church hymns, edited with care and ex-
cellent taste. ' JfLius GoEBEL.
Knapp. Jacob Herman. M. D.: ophthalraologist; b. at Dan-
born, Prussia. Mar. 17. 1832 ; was educated at the Universities
of Munich, Wiirzburg, Herlin, Paris, and Lomion ; became
Profes.sor of Ophthalmology in the Tniversity of Heidelberg,
1866; settled in New York in 1868. and established the New
York Ophthalmic and Aural Institute; was Professor of
Ophthalmology, Medical Department of the University of
the City of New York, 1882-88; since then has been Pro-
fessor of Ophthalmology in the College of Physicians and
Surgeons. He founded and still edits Arc/tiri's nf Oplitlud-
mology and Otology, published both in Knglish and Ger-
man, and is the author of Interocular Tumors (1868) and
numerous professiomd papers. C. H. Tiiurber.
Knaiis. k"nows, LfDWHi : genre-painter; b. at Wiesbaden,
Germany, Oct. 10, 1829: was a student in Diisseldorf Acad-
emy 1846-52; studied in Paris 18.")2-60: was |)rofessor at
the Berlin Academy 1874-84; received medals at the Paris
Salons 18.53, 18.57, and 18.5!); first-cla-ss medal, I'aris Ex|)o-
sition, 18.55; medal of honor, Paris Exposition. 1.867; was
made an officer of the Legion of Honor 1867; Knight of the
Prussian Order of Merit. He is one of the most skillful and
highly appreciated painters of genre in (Jermany, and his
pictures are much so\ight after both in Europe and the U, S.
TTie Promenade (1855) is in the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris;
Cliildrens Pfslival{Wm) is in the National Gallery', Herlin:
Holy Family and None but lite Cats are in the \Volfe Col-
lection, Metropolitan Museum, New York; and inimernns
works by him are in private collections in the U. S., includ-
ing three' pictures in the collection of Mrs. \V. II. Vanderbilt,
New York, and Mud Pies (1873) in that of \V. T. Walters,
Baltimore. William A. Coffin.
Kneass. nees. Strickland: civil engineer; b. in Philadel-
phia, I'a,, July 2!l, 1821 : graduated at Ken.sselaer Polvlechnic
Institute, Troy, N. Y.. in 18:i!». He was chief engineer and
surveyor of Philadelphia from 1855 to 1872, and designed
and had iliarge of the construction of many important
works, notable among which is Hit' cnst-iriin arch bridge
over the .Schuylkill at Chesinut Street. 1). Jan. 14, 1884.
Knop-jerk. or I'atoUa Ucflpx : the jerk or twitch of the
foot upward whin the bent knee is sudilenly tapped upon
the knee-cap. The amount and .strength of the knee-jerk is
a very important point in the diagnosis of various Ixxlily
conditions. There is some doubt ai)out its being a true re-
flex, since it occurs so soon after the knee-cap is struck that
there is hardly lime for the mrvous impression to travel to
the spinal cord and back to the muscles. All the standard
works on jihysiology give details and theories of the knee-
jerk. J. M. B.
Knccland, Samuel, M. D. : naturalisl ; b. in Boston. Miuss.,
Aug. 1, 1821; graduated at Harvard in 1841), and at the
Jla-ssachusetts Medical .School in 1843 ; studied in Paris, and
practiced medicine in Boston 184.5-.50. He served as an
army surgeon in the civil war. In 1806 he became secretary
of the Mtissachusetts Institute of Technology, ami Professor
of Zoology and Physiology there. Prof. Kneeland contrib-
uted much to scientific and other literature, and edited
(1866-6!)) the Annual of ScientiHc Discovery. He pub-
lished a translation of Andry's Diseases of the Heart (Bos-
ton, 1847); Science and Mechanism (New York, 1854): An
American in Iceland (1876); and other works. D. in Ham-
burg, about 1886.
Knoller. Sir Godfrey: portrait-painter; b. in Lubeck,
Germany, in 1648. He studied, together with his l)rother,
John Zachariah, first with Hemluandt, and later with Fer-
dinand Bill. He also traveled in Italy to study the works of
Titian and the Caracci. He soon gave up historic painting
for portraits. On his return to Germany he painted in
Munich and in Nuremberg. A portrait of a banker and his
family, iiainted at Hamburg, made his reputation at once.
In 1674 lie went to London, where it was rejiorted that Peter
Lely was making immense sums by his portraits. Knellcr's
great facility and grace immediately attracted attention. He
was presented to the king, who commissioned him to jiaint his
portrait at the same time as Lely. Kneller ]iresented his
already finished while Lely's was only sketched in, for which
he was greatly praised. His immense success and the in-
justice Lely met with on his account was the cause of Lely's
death. Kneller succeeded him as court painter, and had so
many commissions that he used only to jiaiiit the head and
hands of his sitters, leaving the accessories to his brother
and a band of jiupils. Charles II. sent him to Paris to paint
L(mis XIV., and (luring this time the king died, but Kneller
was reappointed to the office of court painter by James II.,
and later by King William, who sent him to Holland to
execute a picture of the plenipotentiaries assembled at Kys-
wick to conclude peace between France and England, t^ucen
Anne .sat to him for her picture, and ajipointed him gentle-
man of the bedchamber. He also painted Peter the (Jreat
and the Archduke Charles of Austria, for which lie received
the title of hereditary Knight of the Empire, (ieorge I.
conferred a baronetcy on him. These honors, and his insa-
tiable love of money, made him careless of his art. His
avarice prompted him to make use of very inferior artists to
finish his woi-ks. At the time of his death he hail .500 jior-
traits in hand. His fame greatly exceeds his merit. His
coloring, though )irilli;int. is very conventional, and all his
heads are too maniu-rcd to have the individuality indispen-
sable to good iiortrait-iiaiiiling. D. at Twickenham, on the
Thames, 1723. — John /.aciiariah, his younger brother, also
[iracticed his art in Kiigland. W. J. Stillman.
Kniazhniii. knce-aa^li'ii("eii. Iakov Borisovich : dramatic
autlmr: li. in Pskov, Hus.sia, Oct. 3, 1743. His life, mostly
passed in St. Petersburg and Moscow, was uneventful. He
was for a short time in the army, and for many years in
dilTerent branches of the civil service. He was a prolific
writer, a member of the Russian -Vcademy, gave lessons in
Hussian literature, married the daughter of the |)oet Suina-
rokov, and died Jan. 14, 1701. Beside a translation of Vol-
taire's llenriade and a few miscellaneous work.s. Kniazh-
nin wrote several plays. His tragedies, like those of his
stepfather, are cold, colorless imitations of foreign, mostly
French, models. His first, Didon (1760). is taken from Le-
franc-Poinpignan and Metastasio; his Vladimir i Jaropolk
(1770) is a copy of liacine's Andromat/iie, and his Vladisaii
(1786) of Voltaire's Mfriipe. He shows, however, a little
more originality in two patriotic jihiys. yiVw/iir (1784) and
Vadim yori/orodskil (1780), but the latter he ke]it quiet, as
Catherine II.. frightened by the beginning of the French
Kevolution, objected to the expression of any such senti-
ments as were contained in some of its speeches. When
it did appear, two years after the death of the author, it
brought its publishers into very serious trouble. The come-
dies of Knhizhnin. tlunigh hackneyed in their subjects, are
rather bright and spirited. 'I'he best of them are Khnistuji
(The Boaster), ('/nultiklii (The (.^ueer One), and his opera,
.Xeschastie ot Karely {\\\ Luck from a Carriage). There
have been four editions of his complete works, in 1847-48
(2 vols., St. Petersburg). A. C. CooLlDOE.
Kniaznin, Fkanciszkk Dvonizv: author; b. at Vitebsk,
Uussia, (X't. 4, 17.50; was educated there, in the school of
the Jesuits, and beeame a priest. After the ilissolut ion of
the order of the Jesuits in 1773 he became secretary to I'rince
Adam C'zartoryski, but fell about 1706 into a mental derange-
KNIGHT
11
ment from which he never recovered. D. Aug. 26. 1S07, at
Konskawohi, one of tlie e.states of the prince. He transliiteil
Horace, Anacreon, Catiillus, Ossiiin, and others, and among
his own poetical production.s there are many idyls and minor
poems of a delicate beauty, both in sentiment and form. He
was also the author of several dramas, among which are The
Triple Marriaye, The Oi/psies, and IVie Spartan Mother.
Knight [M. Eng. < 0. Eng. cniht : 0. H. Germ, cneht >
M. II. (jerni. kneht, boy, attendant, knight > Mod. Germ.
knecht. servant]: a man-at-arms, serving on horseback and
pledged to perform certain honorable services, such as those
performed liy the eijuites of Rome. The word correspond-
ing to knight is in most languages derived from the word
for horse, as, for instance, the French chevalier, the Danish
Ridder. etc. (See Ei^uestrun' Order.) Knighthood, as a.s-
sociated with chivalry, is of Northern origin. A certain
value of land, called in England a "knight's fee," and in
Normandy " tief de haubert," was allotted to a tenant, who
in return bound himself to follow his lord to battle. Thus
in its earlier days knighthood was but a part of the feudal
system, and could boast little of that nobleness which after-
ward distinguished it. Its real history begins with the cru-
■sades. During these wars it assumed a voluntary character.
The younger sons of noble families enlisted under the stand-
ards of wealthy lords, in whose service they might hope to
gain such honor, and even riches, as would raise them to an
equality with their elder brothers. Every knight was per-
mitted to carry a pennon or pointed flag upon his lance, hut
as a reward for gallantry or military prowess he was honored
with the privilege of bearing the banner or square flag, and
in this case was known as a Ijanneret, while knights who had
not won this distinction were termed bachelors. The ban-
nerets or knights banneret held a higher rank in the feudal
army and commanded larger divisions than the bachelors.
During the crusades knighthood became blended and almost
identified with religion. Every knight pledged himself to
aid in recovering tlie Holy Land. Fighting against infidels
was itself a religious service ; warriors who died while wear-
ing the cross w'ere assured by priest and pope of a speedy
entrance into paradise; chivalry was held to be little lower
than the Church itself, and the two were united in the per-
sons of those monk-soldiers who, while under vows of pov-
erty, chastity, and obedience, were also foremost and fiercest
in battle. Their deeds, however great, were supposed to in-
crease not their own renown, but that of the order to which
they belonged, and it may be that such devotion to a com-
mon interest had some influence over secular warriors, and
aroused that esprit de corps which made knighthood a uni-
versal brotherhood. Another peculiar trait of knighthood
was courtesy toward women of its own rank. Women gave
the prize in tournaments, and the knight wore his mistress's
favor in real as in mimic battle. Freeman judges chivalry
with discriminating harshness when he says that " while it
is bound to endless fantastic courtesies toward men, and
still more toward women of a certain rank, it may treat all
below that rank witli any degree of scorn and cruelty."
Burke, on the other hand, in a well-known passage speaks
of it as "that sensibility of principle, that chastity of honor
which felt a stain like a wound, wliic-h inspired courage while
it mitigated ferocity, which ennol>led whatever it touched,
and under which vice itself lost half its evil by losing all its
grossness."
Various manuals were written, especially when chivalry
was on the decline, to teach knightly duty, but our most
vivid knowledge of knights and their manners is derived
from ancient romances and from chroniclers like Froissart
and Joinville, whose na'ively told stories show us not only
the virtues of chivalry, but also its vices. During the Mid-
dle Ages many orders of religious knighthood were founded
for the purpo.se of helping Christians against the infidels.
The orders became very rich and luxurious, the original mo-
tives of their formation were lost sight of. and their power
aroused the jealousy of kings and nobles. Tlie chief of those
orders were the Hospitallers, or brothers of St. John of
Jerusalem, who derived their name from a hospital founded
in Jerusalem in the eleventh century for the relief of sick
and wounded pilgrims. To their monastic vows they added
the vows of knighthood, and were active in the crusades.
After leaving the Holy I^and they occupied first the island
of Rhodes, and then Malta, whence they were expelled by
Napoleon Bonaparte in 17!KS. The Templars, founded 1118
for the protection of pilgrims, grew extremely rich, and after
quitting Palestine had establishments in several European
countries. Having been accused of heresy and other crimes,
tliey were in 1812 suppressed by Poj)e Clement V., at the
instigation of Philip the Fair, King of France, who caused
many of them to be imiirisoned, banished, or put to death.
'J'he Teutonic order, instituted during the siege of Acre, at
the close of the twelfth century, acquired great power, and
in the thirteenth century coiKpiered Prussia, Livonia, and
Courland from their heathen chiefs. (For further informa-
tion, see the titles St. Jon.v of Jerusalem, Kxiuhts Temi'Lar,
and TEfToxic Knights.) The Spanish order of St. James
of Compostella was founded for the defense of pilgrims to
the shrine of that saint, and the knights were continually
engaged in warfare with the Moors. Many other orders
were founded which never reached any historical importance.
Si'e Mills, History of Chivalry; Nicolas, British Orders of
Knighthood; Selden, Titles of Honor; Sainte-Palaye. Jle-
moires. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Knight, Charles: publisher and author; b. at Windsor,
England, Mar. 19, 1791. He succeeded to the business of
his father as bookseller and publisher. After editing a num-
ber of periodicals, such as TTie Guardian (1820-22) and
Knight's Quarterly Magazine (1823-24), he associated him-
self with the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
As its agent and publisher he may be said to be the founder
of the system of cheap cyclopirdias, popular libraries, etc.,
which has done so much to sjiread valuable information
among the middle and lower classes. Among his enter-
prises of this kind mav be mentioned the Library of Enter-
taining Knowledge (1h'29) ; The Penny Magazine (1832) ; The
Penny Cyclopedia (1833); and Tlie English Cyclopedia
(1854). He was an industrious compiler of books like Half
Hours with the Best Authors. The Lattd ive Live In. etc.;
wrote, among other things, a vjUuable Pictorial History of
England ; and edited a Pictorial Shakspeare. In 1860 he
was appointed publisher of 7he London Gazette by the Gov-
ernment. D. at Addlestone, May 9, 1873. H. A. Beers.
Knight, Richard Payne : numismatist and arch^ologist ;
b. at Wormsley Grange, Herefordshire, England, 1750; came
in 1771 into possession of a handsome fortune, which he lib-
eralh' employed in the formation of a unique collection of
ancient coins, bronzes, and objects illustrating the pagan re-
ligions of antiquity. He wrote a curious work entitled An
Account of the Remains of the Worship of Priapus lately
e.[isting at Isernia in the Kingdom of yaples.to which is
added a Discourse on the Worship of Priapus. and its Con-
nection with the Mystic TJieotogy of the Ancients, which he
privately printed in 1786. and for which he was severely
criticised on the score of delicacy, though at the present day
the same branch of inquiry has assumed great importance.
Knight's treatise was reprinted in elegant style in New York
in 1874. He was for many years a member of Parliament
and trustee of the British Museum, to which he bequeathed
his collection of antiques. He published several volumes of
poems, which were little esteemed, and a successful work on
the Principles of Taste (1805). He was the first editor of
Homer to restore the digamma, rediscovered by Bentlcy,
to the text, but an inadequate knowledge of the linguistic
laws involved led him to an unscientific treatment of the
subject and to the abuse of an idea which has since his day
been universally accepted as c<irrect in principle. D. in
London, Apr. 24, 1824. Revised by A. Gudeman.
Knight. Thomas Andrew, F.R.S.: horticulturist; brother
of Richard Payne Knight; b. at Wormsley Grange, Here-
fordshire. England, Oct. 10, 1758; graduated at Baliol Col-
lege, Oxford, and devoted his attention to vegetable and
animal physiology and horticulture, of which sciences in
their modern form he may almost bi' considi're<l the founder
in England. lie contributed forty-six papers to the Trans-
actions of tlie Royal Society, in some of which he came near
anticipating the characteristic doctrines now known as Dar-
winian. His studies on the projiagation of fruit-trees, made
public aViout 1795, attracted deserved attention. In 1797 he
published a Treatise on the Culture of the Apple and the
Pear, ancl in 1809 Potnona Herefordiensis, or ]\'atural His-
tory of the Old Cider and Perry Fruits of the County of
Hereford. He succeeded Sir Joseph Banks as president of
the Horticultural Society, and died in London. Jlay 11. 1838.
After his death his Physiological and Horticultural Papers
were jmblished (1841), with a sketch of his life.
Knight, William ANors, LL. D. : Professor of Philoso-
phy in the University of St. Andrews, Scotland: b. at
Miirdington, Scotland, Feb. 22. 1836; was educated in the
schools and University of Edinburgh ; in 1876 took the
12
KNIGIITIIOOD
KNOKRING
chair which he still occupies at St. Andrews. lias been ex-
luniner in the University of St. Andrews (1870-73); exam-
iner to the I'nivorsity of" London (1887-!t2); and to the Vic-
toria I'niversitv since 18!Kt. His principal publications are
Pbems from tl'if Dawn of English Litemlure to the Year
1699 (lyftJ); Collot/uia Peripalelica (1S70; 5th ed. 1879);
Studies in Philosouhi/ and Literature (IH'it): Philosophical
Classics for Knglish Readers (lO vols., edited. 1880-i)0) ; JIuine
(in the previous series. 188(!) ; Memorials of Colenton (1887) ;
Essays in Philosophy, (lid and yeie (WM); M'ordsworth's
Prose (18!):!); Aspects of Theism (18S»4); The Christian
Ethic (18114); St. Andrews I'niversity Peclorial Addresses
(edited. 181(4) ; I'nirersily Extension Mantials {\8voh.,ci\iWd.
1891-94); The Philosophy of the Beautiful (2 vols, in the
above series: The History, 1891, Tlie Theory. 1893).
J. .Mark Baldwi.v.
Knis;hthood: See Ksionr.
Knisrht-service: Sec Tenure.
Kuiiriits of Labor: members of an association formed in
Philadelphia in 18tii>, and bavin;; for its chief object the
promotion of the interests of the laboring classess. See
Tbades-ixio.vs.
Knights of Pvthias: a fraternal association founded
Feb. 19, 1864, at Wa.shinpton, D. C, by Justus H. Rathbone.
Intended solely to dissemiuute the principles of friendship,
charity, and benevolence, nothing of a sectarian or political
character is permitted within it. Toleration in religion,
obedience to law, and loyalty to government are its car-
dinal principles. The early growth of the order was not
rapid; on Dec. 31, ISW, there was but one lodge; member-
ship, 52. At the close of 1882 there were 1,876 lodges and
126.274 members. In Jan.. 1893. the membership hiiil in-
creased to 413.944. There are three degrees, called ranks —
page, esquire, knight. All business is transacted in the rank
of knight. The object of the endowment rank is to furnish
a reliable and economical life-insurance. See Frateb.nal
I.ssuRANCE SocitrriES.
Knights Hospitallers: See St. John of Jerusale.m,
Knights ok.
Knights Tem'plar, or Poor Soldiers of the Temple of
Solomon: n military and religious order fouiiiled in 1118
or 1119 by nine French gentlemen at Jerusalem for the de-
fense of the Holy Sepulchre and of pilgrims. Their quar-
ters were in the palace of the Latin kings, known also as
Solomon's temple, whence they derived their name. Their
rule, prepared in the Council of Troyes, and confirmed by
the pope in 1128, bound them by vows of poverty, chastity,
and severe religious exercises. Their life was to be one of
incessant conflict with the enemies of Christianity, from
whom they were never to ask quarter, and to whom they
were never to pay ransom. They were at first all noble lay-
men, but in 1172 secular priests were admitted as chaplains.
In 1146 the red-cross banner became their distinction. For
a centurv and a half their history was almost completely
identified with the Crusades (q. v.), in which their piety anil
deeds of valor won them fame throughout Kurope. On the
loss of the Holy Land (1291) they occupied Cyprus. Their
wealth and luxury rapidly increased, and were the occasion
of their final overthrow. This was accomplished l)y the
conjoined efforts of Philip IV. of Prance aiul Pope Clement
V. They were accuseil of abomitiable and unheard-of
crimes, and of various heretical and blasphemous practices,
and their dissolution was proclaimed in 1312 by the Council
of Vienne. Their grand master, de Molay, was burned alive
in 1314. and considerable nundiers suffered the same fate
both before and after that date. In most countries their
property wius in part seizeil by the sovereign, and in part
turned over to the Hospitallers and other orders. In Portu-
gal the ordi-r never was suppressed, but in 1317 took the name
of the Order of Clirist, which name it still bears ; but the vows
of poverty anil dia-^tily have been long since relinquished,
so that it is now a slrictlv military oriler. It has a brancli
in Italy depemlent upon the apostolic sim-. See Woodhouse,
The Military Utliyious Orders of the Middle Ages (1879).
Knightstonn : town; Henry co.. Ind. (for location of
county, see map of Indiana, rcf. 6-F); on tlie Hlue river,
and the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L. and the I'itts., ('in.,
Chi. and .St. L. railways; 34 miles E. of Indianapolis, It is
in an agricultural region; has excellent wat<r-power, and
an abundance of natural gas; anil contains fi churches, new
water-works, electric-light plant, several mainifactories, and
3 weekly newspapers. The Stale Soldiers' and Sailors'
Orphans' ITome is \^ miles S. of the town. Pop. (1880)
1.670; (1890) 1,867; (1893) with suburb of RaysviUe. esti-
mated, 2,.")00. Editor of " Banner."
Knightsville: town (founded in 1865); Clay co., Ind.
(for location of county, see map of Indiana, ref. 7-t') ; on
the Vaiulalia Line ; 16 miles K. of Terre Haute, 56 miles SV.
of IndianajHilis. It is the center of the block-coal region of
Indiana, and a large shipping-point for freight. Pop. (1880)
958; (ISDO) 1,148.
Knip'penlolling, Berkhard: religious fanatic; b. in
Milnster. Gernniiiy. near the end of the fifteenth century;
ailo]it<Ml in Sweden the doctrines of the Analiaptists, and,
returning to his native province, was a.ssociated with Mat-
thias, Johann Hoccold or Hockelsim (called John of Leyden),
and other fanatics in the celebrated socialistic crusade
proclaimed in Jliinster in 1534. Knipperdolling was elected
burgomaster, and subsequently stadtlioldcr, John of Leyden
being proclaimed king. Equality of property and commu-
nity of wives were among the cardinal doctrines of this
mad associatiim, which startled Luther, and was by him de-
nounced in the strongest terms. On the suppression of the
movement, Knipperdolling was taken prisoner and put to
death, after frightful tortures, Jan. 23. 1536.
Revised liy \V. FI. Whitsitt.
Knitting [deriv. of Ahi7<M. Eng. knitten <0. Eng.
cnytlan. knit, liter., form into a knot, deriv. of cnotta. knot.
See Knot] : a manner of weaving or twisting a single thread
into a kind of cloth by means of steel, ivory, or wooden im-
plements called knitting-needles, which are made of vari-
ous sizes, according to the fineness of thread used and the
tightness of stitch required. Knitting is a far more modem
invention than its kindred art, netting. Many antiquaries
affirm that knitting was invented in Scotland, and thence in-
troduced into France ; others say that it is of Spanish origin,
and was first known in England in the reign of Henry VlTl. ;
but in a rare collection of the acts of Edward VI. is one
specifying, among other woolen articles. " knitte hose, knitte
neticoles. knitte gloves, knitte slieves." In 1.527 the French
Knitters formed themselves into a corporation, styled Cora-
miiiuiute des Maitres Bounetiers an Tricot, choosing St.
Fiaciv for their patron.
Knolles. nolz, or Knollys, Richard : historian ; b. at Cold
Ashliy, Xorthamptonshire. England, aliout 1543: gra<luated
in 1.565 at Lincoln College, Oxfonl, of which he was chosen
fellow; was appointi'il head master of the Free (irannnar
School at SaiKlwich. Kent, where he spent a useful life, and
(lied in June, 1610. His maiiuscrii>t translation into English
of Camden's liritatniia is preserved in the Ashmolean .Mu-
seum at Oxford ; but the only work for which Knolles is
now remembered is the Generull Ilistorie of the Turkea. etc.
(folio, 1603), which was reprinted in 1610. 1631, and 1638.
The best edition is the 6th, in 3 vols. (1()87-1700), with a con-
tinuation by Sir Paul Kycaut. This book was commended
by Dr. Johnson in The tiamlder (No. 122) as "displaying all
the excellence that narration can admit."
Knollys, Hanserd: clergyman; b. at Chalkwell. Lin-
colnshire, England, in 1.598; was educated at ('aiiilu-idge
LTniversity, anil became an Anglican jiriest, but was ejected
for Nonconformity, and com[ielleil in Hi;!8 to flee to New
England. In Boston he was early involved in a controversy
with the authorities, and was afterward named by Cotton
:Mather "Jlr. Absurd Knowless." Knollvs was ("1638-41)
the first minster of Dover, N. H. Thence lie went to Long
Island, and in 1641 returned to London, where he was for a
long time a successful Baptist pastor. D. Sept. 19, 1691.
He was a man of bold, generous, and liberal spirit, an ac-
complished scholar, and an alile jireacher and teacher of
youth. He wrote .1 Flaming Fire in Zion (1646); a small
Hebrew grammar (1648): and an autobiography, finished by
Kiniii (1692). The Hanserd Knollys Society of London,
formed in 1845, reprints early Baptist writings.
Knopjiern: See Leather.
Knorring, knoring, Erik Oskar, von: traveler and
writer; b. in Sweden in 1822; has written J/i>i»(""/™h 1S49
Ors danska feltlag nf en svensk fririllig (Keminiscences of
the Danish Campaign of 1849. by a .Swedish Volunteer,
1861); Tva Manwlir i Egi/jjlrn (Two Jlontlis in Kg.vpt,
1H73): (lenom Lappland. Skane orh Sreland (1874). Be-
sides, he has published a considerable number of novels,
sketches, etc.. in magazines and periodicals. Since the be-
ginning of 1884 he has edited and published the periodii'al
Liisning i hemmet (Home Reading). P. Gkotii.
KNOT
KNOWNOTHINGS
13
Knot [M. Eng. l<notte < O. Eng. enotta ficel. knutr : 0.
H. Germ, chnoto > Mod. Germ, knoten} : a twisting or en-
twining of one or more iiieces of cord, or of the strands of a
rope, or the looping of such cord around some other sub-
Eeef knot.
Figure-of-eight
knot.
Bowline knot.
stance in such a way as not easily to come apart or to be
disentangled. Knots are of especial importance on ship-
board, and much skill is required in the adjustment of some
of them. The number in use among seamen is very great ;
among the more common are reef knot, figure-of-eight knot,
bowline knot, running bowline, Matthew Walker knot, man-
rope knot, and rope-yarn knot. In reference to the speed of a
ship a knot is one of the divisions of a log-line, and receives
Running bowline
knot.
Matthew Walker
knot.
Man-rope knot.
its name from the knots used in marking the line. Each
of these divisions bears the same relation to a nautical mile
that half a minute does to an hour when the half-minute
sand-glass is used. Each knot or division represents a nau-
tical mile. Hence when a vessel is said to make 10 knots it
signifies that the speed is 10 nautical miles, or \\\ statute
Rope-yarn knot.
miles per hour, one nautical mile being equal to M5 statute
miles. In point of fact the length of a nautical mile varies
with the latitude. The U. S. Rydrographic Office, how-
ever, and the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey have adopted
6.080-27 feet as its constant length. That adopted by the
British Admiralty is 6,080 feet. See Log-li.ve.
Knot, Grayback, or Robin-snipe: the Trinqa canuia, a
sandpiper of the Atlantic coast of the U. S. and of Europe. It
is some 10 inches long, and is a good game-bird. The young
birds in season are delicious f<tf the table. The place of
breeding of this bird is unknown.
Knowledge : This term includes the possessions of the
mind derived through its several activities of sense-percep-
tion, reflection, understanding, and speculation, in so far as
the same relate to truth. It should be distinguished from
mere feeling and from opinion or impression. Knowledge
implies the exercise of discrimination and comjiarison in re-
fard to ideas, noting tlieir agreement and disagreement,
'oeling is limited to the subjective, and relates only to modi-
fications of the feeling suliject, there being only a rudimen-
tary antithesis of subject and object in it. When the Ego
perceives itself as feeling, it becomes conscious, and cogni-
tion takes the place of simple feeling. Inference accompa-
nies all grades of knowing, although it is merely implicit in
the lowest stages. Hence all knowledge contains the results
of inference, and is based upon it to some extent. Accord-
ing to Aristotle and Hegel the realm of truth which knowl-
edge has for its object includes three departments : I. Nature ;
II. Spirit or Human Mind ; III. Pure Ideas or General Prin-
ciples, common to nature and mind. Knowledge implies
conviction reached by the percept ion of suflScient grounds.
Certitude must be distinguished from truth, as a mere pliase
of it. It appertains to the immediate or external, and hence
to the phenomenal or transitory. Such knowledge as is de-
rived from certitude or immediate knowing lacks, therefore,
the unity of .system, and is partial, needing modification in
each particular through other particulars and through the
whole. Inasmuch as there is unity in existence, natural and
spiritual, an isolated knowledge o'f particulars is not a true
or adecpiate knowledge. Since existences are interdepend-
ent, each one being conditioned by all others, a true knowl-
edge can exist only in a systematic form — that of science.
In science each thing or province of things is treated in its
relations to the others and to the whole. Thus, bv reason
of the relativity of particular exi.stences, a true knowledge
of them must deal with relations, and in this sense knowl-
edge may be called relative, not on account of its inade-
quacy, but rather on account of its truth. The '• relativity
of knowledge " is a doctrine that has been quite well known
since the time of the Sophists of Greece. It has taken a
subjective direction in modern times. It has been held (a)
that knowledge is relative, because we can not cognize ex-
istence in itself absolutely, but only in its modes : (6) that it
is relative, because we can know oidy what stands in rela-
tion to our faculties; (c) because the subjective constitution
of our faculties adds elements and modifications to the mat-
ter derived from sensation. These positions have been gen-
eralized in the doctrine of the relativity of knowledge based
on the tenet that we know only phenomena, and not " things
in themselves." Knowledge has been further classified ac-
cording to its origin in the psychological activities : (1) the
intuitive — sense-perception, or consciousness; (2) the dis-
cursive— inference and generalization ; (3) the speculative —
synthetical and analytical processes combined in one. Thus
arise various distinctions, such as a priori, a posteriori, ab-
stract, mediated, intuitive, representative, empirical, apo-
dictic, etc. See Mind, Logic, Induction, Philosophy, and
Psychology. W. T. Hahbis.
Knowles, James Sheridax : dramatist; b. at Cork, Ire-
land, May 21. 1784. In 17i»2 tlie family removed to Lon-
don. In 1806 he made his first ai>pearan('e as an actor at
Dublin, and afterward taught elocution at Belfast and Glas-
gow, without attaining eminence in either profession. He
had written four or five dramas wliicli have not been pre-
served, and had published a small volume of fugitive poe-
try, when in 1815 he met with his first success by the pro-
duction of Caius Gracchus at Belfast. In W2Q Virginius
was produced at Drury Lane, witli Macready in the leading
part, and Knowles was thenceforward recognized as one of
tlie chief dramatic authors of the United Kingdom. He pro-
duced fourteen other dramas. In 184:i his Dramatic Works
were collected into three volumes (revised ed., 2 vols., 1856),
and in 1845 he abandoned the stage from conscientious
scruples, devoting himself to literature, and in 1849 was
granted a pen.sion of ,t'20O. In 1852 he joined the Baptist de-
nomination, anil became a prea<;her distinguished for relig-
ious fervor. His last years were passed in retirement, on
account of ill-health, at Tor<iuay, Devonshire, where he
died Nov. 30. 1862. His drama.s, besides those already men-
tioned, are William 7V// (182.")) ; The Beggar's Daughter of
Betlnxal Green (1828) ; Alfred the Great (ISIJl) ; The' Ilunch-
hack (1832); Tlie Wife,' a Tale of Muntua (1833); Jlie
Daughter (1836); The Love-chase (1837); Woman's Wit
(1838); The Maid of Mariendorpt (18;J8); Love (1839);
John of Procida (1840); Old Maids (1841); The Hose of
Aragon {1S42); and The 5efre/ary (1843).
Revised by H. A. Beers.
Knoirnotllinsrs: the name applied to a secret political
society in the U. S. first organizecl in 1853. which appear<'d
in the elections of 1854 as a well-disciplined party, and the
14
KNOX
KXOXVILLE
next vear swept sovoral of the Northern States, inchiding
New Vork. at the same time poUiiifj a hirjje vot<> in the
South. The cardinal idea of the soi-iety was opposition to
foreign citizenship. In tlie presidential campaign of 1850 the
KnowMolhings am)eared as the ".Vmericaa party," jire-
senting .Millard Kdlmi>re as its candidate, hut the growth
of the slavery issue extinguished the question of foreign
citizenship, ami the party speedily died out.
Knox, Cn.»Ri.KS Ei-oenk. 1). D. : president of the Presby-
terian tierman Theological School at Bloomtield, N. J. ; b.
at Knoxboro, N. Y., Dec. 27, 1833; graduated at Hamilton
College 18o() ; studied at Auburn and Union Theological Sem-
inaries: graduated from the latter 185!); was tutor in Ham-
ilton College (18,5!l-t50); was pastor elect of the Dutch
Reformed church <if I'tica. N. Y., lS60-t>2: pastor of the
Presbyterian church at Hloonifield, N. J., 18(J4-73; and has
since 1873 fdled the chair of Ilonnletics and Pastoral The-
ologT in the institution of which he is president. He has
published A Year with St. Paul (New York, 1863; trans.
into Arabic at Bevrout, Svria) ; a series of graduated Sunday-
school text-books (New "York, 1864-70); Luve to the End
(Philadelphia, 1866); and David the King (New York,
1874). C. K. HoYT.
Knox, Henry: soldier; b. in Boston, Mass., July 25,
1750: enlisted in the colonial army and fought in the Revo-
lutionary war : was present at the battle of Bunki-r Hill,
acting as aide to Maj.-Gen. Artenius Ward ; was afterward
placed in command of the artillery in New York, took a
brilliant part in the battles of Trenton and Princeton, and
was thereupon elected by Congress brigadier-general of ar-
tillery, and sent to New England to raise a battalion of that
arm. In the battles of Brandywinc, Gerniaiitown, and Mon-
mouth the artillery under Knox bore a leading part. He
was at the battle of Yorktown, after which he was made
major-general. In 1785 he succeeded Gen. Lincoln as Secre-
tary of War and of the Navy, retaining that post for six years.
In 1795 ho removed to St. (jeorge's in Maine, where he ac-
quired an enormous landed estate, and finally settled at
Thomaston, Me., where he died Oct. 25, 1806. See his Life
and Correspondence by Francis S. Drake (Boston, 1874).
Knox, .lonx : reformer ; b. at Gifford, East Lothian,
Scotland, in 1.505 ; wsis educated at Haddington and at the
University of .St. Andrews, where he learned from .John
Major that councils are above popes, and that nations give
authority to kings, and can depose kings, or jiut them to
death. "Before 1.530, in advance of the canonical age, he
was ordained priest. By 1535 he hiui made marked jirogress
in the study of Holy Scripture, and of those questions that
were then convulsing Europe. In 1542 he avowed his Prot-
estant convictions, withdrew from his position as teacher at
St. Andrews, and sought shelter at Longnidry, with Hugh
Dougla-s, from the wrath of Cardinal Beaton. His friend
Wishart was burned for heresy 1545. Beaton was assassin-
ated in 1546. Knox was taken [irisoner by the French in
1547, and condemned to the galleys on the charge of having
been concerned in the death of the cardinal. He was liber-
ated in Feb., 1549, and went to England. Though not or-
dained as a Protestant minister, Cranmer .sent him to preach
at Berwick, near the Scottish frontier. He hatlled with
popery; defended the Reformation before Tonslall ; came
into favor with King Edward ; was appointed a royal chap-
lain in 1551 ; was consulted about the Book of "Common
Prayer; declined a bishopric. Edwanl's death in .July of
that year, followed by the accession of Mary, made England
a dangerous place for Knox. He landed at Dieppe, .Ian. 20,
15.54, was everywhere corilially received bv the Reformed di-
vines, went to Switzerland iii February, "found a congenial
friend in Calvin, an<l t(jok temporary charge of the church
of English exiles at Frankfort-on-l he-Main. In 1.5.54 he pub-
lished his Faithful Admonition unto the Professors of God's
Truth in England. In 1.5.5.5-.56 he recrossed the channel,
but returned to the Continent with his wife, and served for
two years as pastor t,f the English church at Geneva. The
clergy of .Scotland adjudged him to the flames, and burned
him ni elligy. While in (iencva he encouraged the Eng-
lish exiles to translate the Bible into English, and published
a number of minor works, including his First Blast . . .
against the Monxtrotts liegimint of Women. The women
whom he had in view were" .Mary of 'England, Mary of Guise,
and the Princess .Mary (afterward queen) of Scotland; but
p;iizalM'th of England took undirage, and when, early in
1559, Knox wa-s recalled to Scotland, she refused to permit
bim to pass through her dominions.
Knox landed at Leith Jlay 2, 1559. He was at once pro-
claimed a rebel and an outlaw, but was soon aided by his
friends of the Protestant party. They carried all before
them, often with an iconoclastic violence for which prol)a-
bly Knox was not responsible. He made public adilre.-ises
throughout Scotland. The emblems of itoman Catholic
worehip were removed from the churches, and the nioiuis-
teries were overthrown. Knox was formally ordained at
Edinburgh in 1560. In that year the Confession of Faith
was adopted by Parliament, the Reformation established;
and the first general assembly of the Kirk held. The fol-
lowing year the young (^ueen Mary of Scotland returned
from France. During the six years that followed, up to
the time of her impri.sonment at Lochleven Castle, the rela-
tions between Knox and his sovereign are probably without
a parallel in history. The strength of Knox depended upon
his personal character and influence, and not uiion onUial
or political position. He was loyal, but it was the loyalty
of the leading spirit of the Protestant movement to a queeii
whose true position was revealed when she joined the league
for extirpating Protestants; the loyalty of a man who be-
lieved in and practiced the sterner virtues to a queen who
was disregardful of these. His loyalty largely manifested
itself in what he regarded as faithful rebuke and restrain-
ing influence. The dramatic reports of historians as to the
interviews between them are doubtless to be taken with
much allowance. Knox led a stormy life, amid threats,
[misecutions. losses, ruptures with friends, sorrows, but re-
mained fearless and unharmed. The times were not less
stormy for him or for Scotland during the live years that
followed the coronation of Mary's successor. _He was
stricken with apoplexy in Oct., 1570, but continued to work,
preach, and ]iublish till a few days before his death at Edin-
burgh, Nov. 24, 1572. See JPCrie, Life of Knox (7th ed.,
1855), and The Works of John Knox, edited by David Laing
(6 vols., 184(5-64). See Scotland and Scotland, Church
OF. Revised by W. J. Bkechkr.
Knox, John Jay, LL. D. : financier; b. in Knoxboro,
Oneida co., N. Y., Mar. 19, 1828; graduated at Hamilton
College in 1849 ; was a private banker or an officer of a
bank until 1862, when he received an appointment from
Secretary Chase, and subsequently had charge of mint coinage
correspondence of the Treasury Department ; in 1867 he was
appointed deputy comptroller of the currency : and in 1870
his two reports on the mint service, together with a codifica-
tion of the mint and coinage laws of the U. S., with many im-
portant amendments, were published by order of Congress.
The bill which he ])roposed was subseciuently passed with a
few modifications, aiul is known as the Coinage Act of 1873.
In 1872 he was appointed comptroller of the currency and
held office till 1884, when lie resigned and became president
of the National Bank of the Republic in New ^ ork city.
His reports published by Congress contain historical sketches
of the two banks of the U. S. and of the State and national
systems of banking, and statistical information of banking
and currency in the U. S., from the earliest date. He pub-
lished United States Notes !,^e\\ York, 1884; rev. cd. 1887);
and left in MS. a history of banking in the U. S. 1). in New-
York city, Feb. 9, 1892.
Knox CoHoge: a non-sectarian co-educational institution
of learning situated at Galesburg. III. It was founded in
1836. was ifully organized in 1841. its first cliuis graduating
in 1846. From that date until 1894 its gradiiates have num-
bered 867. In 1893 it had 0l>3 students and a faculty of 29
members. The library in the same year contained 5,.5(X)
volumes. The endowment amounts to ^3t)0,000. and the
buildings are valued at $1,50.000. John H. Finley, Ph.D.,
bec'ame president of the college in 1894.
Knoxvillo: city; Knox co.. 111. (for location of county,
see map of Illinois', ref. 4-C) ; on the Chi., Burl., and t^. Rail-
road ; .50 miles W. of Peoria. .50 miles E. of Burlington, la.
It is the seat of the Protestant Episcopal diocesan schii(d of
Illinois for girls; has eight paving-brick factories, woolen-
mill. Hour-mills, and several ciirriage and wagon factorii^s;
ami is largely interested in coal-mining. Pop. (1880) 1,600;
(1890) 1,728. ' Editor of " Knox County Rki-uhlican."
Knoxville: city; capital of Marion co., la. (for location
of county, sec map of Iowa, ref. 6-H); on the Chi., Burl,
and Quincy, and the Chi., Rock Is. and Pac. railways; 35
miles S. E. of Des Moines. It is in an agricullunil and coal-
mining region ; has choice stone and timlier in its vicinity ;
is the seat of the Iowa Home for Adult Blind ; and contains
steam-mills, an iron-foundry, a washer-factory, an electric-
KNOXVILLE
KOEXIG
15
light, plant, water-works, popular 1-iiiile race-track, and '.i
weekly newspapers. Fop. (18S0) 2,577; (1890) 2,683; (1895)
2,803." Editor, of " Express."
Knoxvllle : city; capital of Knox cc, Tenn. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Tennessee, ref. 6-1) ; on the Ten-
nessee river, which is navigalile for steamboats to this point,
and on the E. Tenn., Va. and Ga., the Knox, and Augusta,
the Knox., Cumlierland Gap and Louisv., and the JIarietta
and N. Ga. railways ; 165 miles E. of Nashville. It is one
of the most important inland cities of the South, is in a rich
coal, iron, and marble region, and is a large wholesale trade
center. It contains the University of Tennessee, Knox-
ville College, Tennessee Deaf and Dumb School, East Ten-
nessee Asvlum for the Insane, U. S. Government building
(cost $500,000), court-house (completed in 1886 at a cost of
$200,000), the Lawson McGhee Memorial Library (9.000 vol-
umes), 35 churches, 5 national banks with combined capital
of $775,000, 7 State banks with capital of $321.61.5, and 3
daily, 8 weekly, and 3 monthly periodicals. The census re-
turns of 1890 showed that 205 manufacturing establishments
(representing 49 industries) reported. These had a com-
bined capital of $3,045,661 : employed 3,113 persons ; paid
$1,662,.501 for wages and $2,454,254 "for materials ; and had
products valued at $5,020,116. The manufactories include
cotton, woolen, marble. Hour, lumber, and rolling-mills,
foundries, car and car-wheel factories, tanneries, anil furni-
ture, soap, stove, and wagon factories. Pop. (1880) 9,693 ;
(1890) 22,535; North Knoxville 2,297; South Knoxvllle
1,724; West Knoxville 2,114 ; other suburbs 8,000.
Editor of "Journal."
Knut. or Kniid : See Cantte.
Kiiutsford. Hen'ry Thlrstan Holland, Baron, P. C,
G. V. M. G. : statesman ; b. in London, England, Aug. 3,
1825 ; was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge ; graduated from the latter in 1847; was called to
the bar 1849 ; served as member of Parliament 1874-88 ;
became vice-president of the committee of council on edu-
cation 1885-86 ; was appointed Secretary of State for the
Colonies 1887-92 ; rose to the peerage in "1888. C. H. T.
Koa'la (native Australian name) : a curious arboreal mar-
supial {Phascularctos cinereus) of Australia ; locally known
as the native bear or sloth. It is about 2 feet in length,
tailless, stoutly built, and clothed with thick, ashy-gray
woolly hair. In the fore feet the first and second digits are
opposable to the remaining three, in the hind feet the great
toe is opposable. Th» animal is nocturnal in habit, and
brings forth a single cub, which is carried for some time in
the pouch and afterward on the mother's back. The koala
is related to the phalangers,but is placed in a separate family,
the Phascolurctidie. F. A. Lucas.
Kobe : See Hioao.
Kobell, Franz, von : b. at Munith, July 19. 1803 ; studied
sciences at the University of Landshut. and became Professor
of Mineralogy at the University of Munich in 1826, where
he died Nov'. 11, 18.82. Being an impassioned hunter, he
came in close contact with the rural life of the Bavarian
Alps, of which he gives charming pictures in his writings.
Most of his poetry, like his Gfdiclde. in oberbayrischer Mun-
dart (1839), Schii'adahupfln und Sjirucheln {Vi46). Der UaiisV
vo' Finsterwald, Der schwarzi Veitl. \S Kranzner-Refiei
(1852), Schnadahujijhi und Oeschichtln (1872), is written in
the dialect of that district, and must be counted among the
best of German dialect-poetry. Julius Goebel.
Kobo-Daishi. kdliM-di-shee : priest, sculptor, and scholar;
the inventor of the lliroyana, one of the two Jajianese syl-
labaries, in 809 A. D. He founded a religious school which
mingled the doctrines of Shinto with the Buddhism intro-
duced from the West, the gods of Shinto being to him
nothing more than transmigrations of the Buddhist divin-
ities. This was really the absorption of the ancient religion
in the new. His personal name was Kukai, Kobo-Daishi
being a posthumous title. J. ^I. U.
Ko'bold, Gerra. pron. ko Iwlt [= Germ. < M. H. Germ.
kobolf. fairv, goblin, either for * Mi' wait ; kohe. room, cabin
-I- 'iralf. de'riv. of walten. rule ( : Eng. U'itdd), or. by analogy
of worils ending in -olt, from Lat. cobalua, goblin, from (ir.
K6$a\os. impudent rogue] : in German legends, a kind of elf
which in some places wsis believed to be attached to some
particular house or place. In general, the kobolds were
beneficent, but some were malicious. They particularly
haunted the mines ; they were little, decrepit old men and
women, dressed generally in miners' clothes. They heaped
up precious stones and valuable metals ; and, though they
dreaded to be seen by men, they were fond of doing man-
kind favors in secret.
Koch, Johannes : See Coccejus.
Koch, koA-k, Robert, M. D. : bacteriologist ; b. at Claus-
thal, Hanover, Germany, Dec. 1 1, 1843 ; graduated at the Uni-
versity of Gottingen in 1866, and became an assistant in the
General Hospital at Hamburg. Subsequently he practiced
medicine in Langenluigeu. Kackwitz, and WoUstein. and
during his residence at the last-named place (1872-80) be-
gan his researches in bacteriology. In 1876 he published
his investigations on the ;Etiology of anthrax, and in 1878
his important study of the a-tiology of traumatic infective
diseases. The appearance of the.se works marked an epoch
in medicine, and placed bacteriology on a scientific basis.
In 1880 Dr. Koch went to Berlin, where he continued his
investigations of anthrax as well as those he had been mak-
ing with reference to the cause of tuberculosis. In 1882 he
announced his discovery of the tubercle bacillus. The
difficulties encountered in reaching his conclusions were
numerous. It was necessary to invent new microscopical
appliances and new methods of staining specimens in order
to make those micro-organisms visible, thus making an im-
portant advance in microscopy.
In 1883 Dr. Koch published"a method of preventive inocu-
lation against anthrax, and in that year was sent by the Ger-
man Government to Egypt and India to investigate cholera.
His studies resulted in the discovery of the cholera spiril-
lum or comma Ijacillus, the presence of which is generally
regarded as an infallible te.st of the character of the dis-
ease in a suspected case of Asiatic cholera. On his return
to Germany in 1884 Dr. Koch was decorated by the emperor,
and was presented by legislative act with the' sum of 100,-
000 marks. He went to France in 1885 as a cholera coin-
missioner, and in that same year was appointed professor in
the medical faculty of the University of Berlin, director of
the Prussian board of health, and director of the Hygienic
Institute of Berlin. In 1888 he published a paper on the
prophylaxis of infectious diseases in the army : this was
widely discussed in European military circles, and suggested
important reforms. At the meeting of the international
medical congress in 1890 Dr. Koch announced the discovery
of a substance which, both in the test-tube and in the liv-
ing body, stopped the growth of the tubercle bacillus. (See
Tuberculin.) The announcement created a great stir, but
subsequent experience did not support this claim as far as
the treatment of man by this substance is concerned.
The titles of Dr. Koch's published work* are as follows :
Fur Aetiologie des Jli/zbrojides (1876) ; Vntertiuchungen
uber die Ae/iolugie der ^yllndi)lfekfio)l.1krankheilen (Leip-
zig. 1878, trans, into English) ; Ceberdie Mihhrandimpfung
(Berlin and Cassel. 1882) : Beilraij zur Aeliulngie der Tiiber-
kulose (Berlin, 1882) ; Ucber die Cholerabakterien^ (Berlin,
1884) ; Was ivissen mid kunnen unsere Aerzte ?; Ueber JVa-
turheilunq nnd medicinifiche Kunst (Leipzig, 1885) ; Weitere
Mittheilungen uber ein Ileilmiitel gegen Tiibercitlose (Ber-
lin, 1890). S. T. Armstrong.
Kock. Charles Paul, de : novelist ; b. at Passy, France,
.May 21. 1794 ; was the son of a banker of Dutch extraction
guillotined in 1794. He began life, without careful educa-
tion, as a banker's clerk, but soon turned to writing. His
first productions (1814-16) were in the field of melodrama
and farce. His first novel. Georgette (1820), published at
his own expense, found few buyers, but with his second,
Giistave (1821), his popularity began. It rapidly became
very great throughout i;uro|ie, and for twenty yeai-s few
novelists had a wider re|iutation than he. The novels of
the latter part of his life are considered inferior. Among
those of his best vears are Jacques (1822) : Monsieur Dupont
(1824); Le Barbier de Paris (1826); Manirs parisiennes
(1837) ; Moustaches (1838) ; L'Homme aux truis culottes
(1840) ; Le Monsieur (1842). The region of life he observed
was the vulgar one of the common peof)le of Paris, and the
prosaic, sensual, gav, and trivial life of shop-girls and clerks
is set forth with much liveliness, wit, good humor, and a
complacency in realistic detail that does not recoil at in-
decency. His style is inferior. D. in Paris, Aug. 29, 1871.
—His son, Henri de Kock (b. 1821 ; d. Apr. 18, 1892), was
also a novelist and a playwright. A. G. Casfield.
Kodink Island, Alaska : See Kadiak.
Koenig. Franz. M. D. : surgeon; b. in Rotenburg, Hesse,
Feb. 10, 1832 ; studied in Marburg and in Berhn ; gradu-
16
KOEPPEN
KOKOMO
atctl M. D. in ISS."). Up first practiced medicine in Hanaii ;
in 1869 IxH-aiue Professor of Surpery at KostiK-k ; in 1875
Uvanie din-ctor of tlie surgical clinic in G.ittincen. He
was co-editor of tlio Cenlralblatt fi'ir Cliiniryif (Leipzig,
ly((0_>S5). He was one of the (lioneer^ in mmiern surgery in
(lermanv. His principal writings are Lehrlmch iler speriel-
Un Chi'rurgit (Berlin. 1875): Lehrburh iter nllgemeineti
Chiruryie ("lierlin. 18Kj) — there have l»'en several editions
of liotli of these works: and Die Tuiercuhae der Knoclien
und Oelenke (Berlin, 18X4). S. T. Ak.mstro.n«.
Koeppon. \Vi,ai>imir Pcter. Ph. T). : meteorologist ; li. at
St. Potersliurg. Hussia. .Sept. 25. 1846; was educated at St.
Petersburg, Simferopol (I'riniea), Heidelhcrg. an<l Leipzig.
In 187-i-7a he was assistant in the Central Physical Observa-
tory at St. Petersburg. Since 1875 he hiLs been meteorolo-
gist at the Ueuts<lie Seewarte at Hamburg. He was also
for many years an editor of the Deutsche Metetiniloghrhe
Zeitsrhr'iff. lie has written a very large number of papers
of high onler on meteorological topics, most of which have
appeared in the Meteorologixehe Zeitxchrift (since 1868), the
Repertorium fur Meteorulugie (1869-74), the ,l;i;i<i/f»i der
Jlydrographie und maritimen Meteorologie, ami the Archiv
der Seewarte. I)r. Koeppen luus also interesteil himself in
the meteoroKigv of the free air, and has made many ascents
with captive balloons. Makk \V. IIakuixoto.n.
KoestUn: See KOstlin.
Koetsvpld. koots velt, Corxklts Eliza, van : novelist ; b.
in KotterdaiM. Holland. May 24. 1807: studied theology at
Leydcn from 1825 to 1830; became pastor at Westmaas in
IKiO. whence he went to Berkel (1885) and Sclioonhoven
(18a8). In 1849 he was called to The Hague, where he be-
came court preacher. His interest in his profession is shown
by a long scries of theological articles and treatises, but he
is chiefly famous for his sketches of village life, in which he
stands by the side of his countryman Bkkts {g. r.) and the
(ierman Auerbach. St'veral volumes of these appeared be-
tween 1840 and 1887. but far the most famous are Schetseri
uil de I'antoriJ te Miisllfiiid (1843; 8th ed. Schoonhoven,
1SM4: English trans, by Thomas Keightlev, The Manse of
JIastland, etc., LoikIoii, 1860). " A. K. Marsh.
Kohat' : town ; in a district of the same name. Peshawar
division, the Puiijaub, British India; 40 miles S. of Pesh-
awar; lat. 33' 36 X., Ion. 71' 28' E. (see map of N. India, ref.
3-C). In its vicinity are rich springs of naphtha and exten-
sive beds of sulphur. It forms an important station between
India and Persia. The situation is very iiictiirescpie and the
climate agreeable, but the waters are bad. Poj). 12,000.
Koh-1-lioor [= Pers. A-oA-i-H«r, liter., mountain of light] :
a famous diamond which for many centuries was in the
pos.ses,sion of the monarchs of Inilia, and now is owned by
t^ueen Victoria. .Successive cuttings reduced its weight
from 900 carats to 792, then to 279, next to 186-6, and at la-st
in 18.52 to l()2-75. Its form is rose-cut, and it is valued at
aliout ij;600.000.
Kohl, kol, .lonASN Georo, Ph. D. : historian : b. at Bremen.
Germany. Apr. 28. 1808: sluilied law at the L'niversities of
Giiltingeii, Heidelberg, and Munich ; resided for live years
(18;J2-;)7) as a private tutor in I'ourland, Russia, and after
visiting a great part of that empire settled in Dresden in
Win, where he i)reparcd three works <m Russia, all published
in 1841. Their success led him to make a similarly careful
s<>ries of journeys in the Austrian empire, and afterward in
(ireat Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands, und the Slavonic
iX)rtion of Turkey, of all which countries he furnished excel-
lent accounts in his impular books of travel. His wriliiigs
on Denmark and .Sciileswig-llolstein (6 vols., iHKi— 17) were
published opportunely just before the political (juestions
reguriling the Danish iluchies sprang into importance (1848),
aixl they therefore obtained a wide juiblicity. Prom 1854
to 1858 l)r. Kohl traveled or resided in North America, and
as a consequence prepared several valuable works — Travels
in Canada (1855); Travels in the Nurlhuvslern Parts of
the United .Stales; and Kilrhi-dami, or Tales from Lake
Superior (1857). He also communicated to the Smithsonian
Institution two essays on early map> ami charts of Ameri<a.
and prepared a catalogue of them as a sui)plement to Ilak-
luyt's great work. In 1861 he published a //I's/o/i/ «/, (/nc/
(,'ommenlan/ on. Two Maps of the AVw World made in
Spain at l)te Commencement of the Jieign of the h'tiiperor
Charles P., and almost at the same lime u llislorij oj the
Discover!/ of America. After his return from North Amer-
ica ho resided at Bremen, and died there Oct. 28, 1878.
Ktth'ler. I'l-Rirn : Greek epigraphist ; b. in 1838; was for
many years the secretary of the (ierman Archaeological In-
stitute' in Athens; since 1888 has been Professor of (ireek
Histor>- in the University of lierlin. He is the greatest living
authority on Attic inscriptions, has published vol. ii. of the
Corpus Inscr. Attiearuin, I'rkutiden und I'nlersuchungen
zur Uesehichte des delisch-attischen liundes, and numerous
epigraphical contributions to Greek history of permanent
value. AlfiikI) Gidkman.
Kohl-rabi. kol raa-bi [= Germ., from Ital. cavolo rape,
but .seemingly adapted to the regular Germ, words kuhl and
rube. Ital. cavolo. cabbage : Kr. chou < Lat. caulis, whence
Germ, kohl, cabbage. Ital. rape, plur. of rapa, beet, tuniip
< Lat. rapa, in meaning ecpiiv. to (ierm. rube, beet, turnip] :
supposed to be a variety of the Dras.iira oleracea. the spe-
cies which includes the cabbage. The thickened edible por-
tion is the leafy stem, above ground, instead of the root be-
neath, as in the turnip. It is cultivated in the U. S., but is
raised much more extensively in Europe, and is |>rized for
cattle and for table use. Its cultivation is the same as for
the cabbage. Kevised by L. II. Bailey.
Kohlrausch, kolrowsh, Friedrrh : physicist : b. at Kin-
telii. (iermany, in 1840. He is the son of Rudolph Kohl-
rausch, professor of i)hysics. and was educated under his
father's supervision at ihe Polytcchnicum at Cas.sel and at
the l'niversities of JIarburg and Krlangen. While still a
boy he a.ssisted his father in his researches. After Ihe <leath
of the older Ki>hlrausch Friedrich became a student of
Wilhclm Weber at Uottingen, and received the degree of
Ph. D. at that institution in 1863. After graduation Kohl-
rausch was successively a.ssistant at the a.stronomical ob-
servatory in Giittingen, in the laboratory of the Physical
Society at Frankfort, and in the University of Gottingen.
He was Professor of Physics at the Zurich Polyteehnicum
1870-71, at Darmstadt 1871-75, and at the University of
Wiirzburg until 1888. In that year he succeeded Kundt as
director of the Physical I^aboratory at Stra.ssburg, and still
holds that position. In addition to many important papers
on experimental physics, especially in the fieUls of electricity
and magnetism. Prof. Kohlrausch is the author of one of the
besl-kmnvn manuals of phy.sical laboratory practice. This
work, entitled Leitfaden der praklischen i'hysik. appeared
in 1879, passing through many editions, and has been trans-
lated into English, French, Russian, and Hungarian.
E. L. Nichols.
Kolilraiiscll. Wii.hei.m FRiiniRiin : electrician; brother
of Friedrich Kohlrausch; b. at Marburg in 1855; was edu-
cated at Darmstadt, GiUtingen, and Wiirzburg, receiving
the degree of doctor of philosophy at the last-named uni-
versity. From 1878 to 1883 he was a.ssistant in the labo-
ratory in Stnissburg. and in 1883 was aiipointed Professor
of Theoretical Physics in the University of Strassburg;
since 1884 Professor of Electricity at the Royal Engineering
School at Hanover. He is the author of numerous papers
upon experimental physics and electro-technics.
E. L. Nichols.
Koh-Sabap. Chanlibur. or Cbanliburi : a port of Siain,
the second in iiiiporlance in the coiiiilry ; on the south bank
of a small river, near its mouth, in the Gulf of Siain, 150
miles S. K. of Bangkok ; lat. 12 45' N.. Ion. Wi 18' E. It
has an arsenal, and is noted for its ship-building industry
and fisheries. It has a large export trade in |)eprier, carda-
moms, rosewood, dyewoods, ship-timber, hides, horns, and
ivory. In Ihe vicinity there are mines of precious stones.
Pop' 30.000, with a large proportion of Chinese. M. W. H.
Koil: a city of the Northwest Provinces, British India.
See AliOARII.
Kokan, or Kokand : a city of Ferghana, Asiatic Russia.
.Si-e KnoKAXll.
kokcn. .loiiANNEs: See Coc'ceji's.
kokonio: city ; capital of Howard co., Ind. (for location
of county, see ma|i of Indianii. ref. 4-E) ; on the Wildcat
river, and the Lk. E. aii<l W., Ihe Pitts.. Cin., Chi. and SI.
L., and Ihe Tol., SI. L. ami Kan. City railways; 54 miles N.
of Indianapolis. 11 is in an agriculiunil, luinliering, stock-
raising, and natural-gas region ; has a higli-.school liuiUling
(cost lj;4O.O(0), 3 ward-school buildings (cost $30,000), and
2 ilaily, 2 weekly, and 2 monthly ]ieriodicals ; an<l manu-
factures flour, woolen goods, machinery, fiirnilure, plate-
gliuss, bits, stoves and ranges, hubs and spokes, and doors,
sashes, and blinds. Pop. (1880) 4.042: (1890) 8,261 ; (1891)
estimated, 10,000. EuiToR ok "GAZETTE-TRim'NK."
KOKOXOR
KOLTSOV
n
Kokonor, or Kuku-nor : an elevated mountainous rpgion
of jMoii},'olia which lies E. of Chinese Turkestan, N. E. of
Tibet, in which it is sometimes includefl, and S. of the Chi-
nese province of Kansuh. which separates it from the rest
of Mongolia. Its northern boundary is the Xan-shan, an
eastern extension of Altin-tagh, and its southern the Bayan-
khara range. Area, 120,000 .sq. miles. The popidation
numbers al)out 170,000, mostly Tangutans, a combative
" pe(i]ile of Tibetan stock and speech, with large black eyes,
oval face, moderately high cheek-bones, full black beard,
and straight or acjuiline nose." There are also a few Mon-
gols. The bulk of the pojiulation is found E. of the lake
(Koko-nor) from which the province takes its name, prob-
ably not more than 20,000 being found W. of it. This lake,
which lies toward the northeast corner of the |)rovinee and
stands 10,600 feet above the level of the sea. has a circum-
ference of from 200 to 240 miles, and an area of over 2,000
sq. miles. It is called Tso-gurabura by the Tibetans, and
Tsing-hai or " Azure Sea " by the Chinese. Near its east-
ern end is an island with a circuit of 6 miles, which is
said to have been dropped from the skies by a gigantic bird,
upfin the spot from which the waters at one time issued in
such quantity that they threatened to submerge the world.
Water-marks on the cliffs at some distance from its present
shores show that the lake was formerly much more exten-
sive than it is now. R. L.
Ko'kra, or Cocus-wood : popular name of the Lppido-
stachys roxburtjhii or Aporosa dioica. a rather small tree of
the Ea-st Imiies, family Etiphorbiacea. The timber is very
hard and of a rich, handsome brown color. It is imported,
and used in making flutes and for ornamental joinery.
Ko'la : peninsula ; a vast extent of land in Northern
Russia between the White Sea and Arctic Ocean. The
Kola river and a series of lakes almost separate it from the
mainland. It is rocky and full of rivers and lakes, 1,145 of
the latter being known. It is covered by a pine forest, and
inhaliited by a few hundred Lapps who live by fishing
and by rearing reindeer. On the south coast there are a few
Russian villages. The salmon were formerly extremely
abundant, but have been nearly exterminated. M. W. II.
Kola Nut: See Cola Nut.
Kolapiir' [native name, liter., city of the Kols ; cf. Sanskr.
pura, city] : an independent state under British protection,
in the Presidency of Bombay, partly in the Western Ghats,
partlv on the table-land of Deccan, bordering on the Kist-
na. Area, 2,816 sq. miles. Pop. 800,000. Capital, Kolapur.
Kolar' : a district and town of Mysore, Southern India ;
on the eastern edge of the Mysore tal)le-land adjoining
the Ea-stern Ghats. Area, 1,891 sq. miles. Pop. 47r),000.
The district is hilly and dry, but fertile when irrigated.
The principal products are rice, sugar, cotton-cloth, ojiium,
and ghi. Iron ore is smelted in considerable ciuantities,
and gold has been discovered in the mountains in the north-
west of the district. The town is 40 miles E. N. E. of
Bangalore, and 10 miles from the railway from Madras to
Bangalore (see map of S. India, ref. 6-E). The silkworm is
reared in considerable quantities near the town. Pop. 10,000.
M. W, Il.tRRixr.TON.
Kolar, ko laar, .JosEP .Jiri : dramatist ; b. Feb. 9, 1812, at
Prague, Bohemia. He studied philosophy in pjague, and
became tutor to a young Hungarian nobleman, with whom
he traveled in Germany and the Danubian states. lie then
returned to Prague, where his success on the stage (1837)
and the influence of Tyl made him an actor. In 1842 he
was definitively engaged and soon became the star tragedian
of the Bohemian theater, and Later the Bohemian National
theater, .Shakspearean heroes being his best rrVc.'i. Be-
sides a number of model translations from Shakspeare,
Goethe, .Schiller, etc., he wrote the following original
dramas : Tragedies, Monika (1846) ; ^izkova xmrt (/izka's
Death, 18.50); Magelona (18.51); Prazsky zid (A Prague
Jew, 1873); Sminrti{l9S2); Primator {1S83): Krdlovna Par-
bora (Queen Barbara. 1884); Umrlii hlava (The Death's
Head, 1885): Misfr Jeronipn (1886); comedies, Vy.ilonzilci
{The Veterans); Mravenci (The Ants, 1870); Tri faraoni
(The Three Pharaohs); and Dejfe 7ni famarit (1871 )._ Six
volumes of his novels were published at Prague 18.54-61.
He lives at Prague in retirement. J. J. Kral.
KoUdr, kollaar, Jan: poet and herald of Panslavism ; b.
at Mosovce, in Northern Hungary, July 29, 179:5 ; studied at
the Protestant Jjyceum of Press'hurg 1812-15. and entered
the Universitv ofJena in 1816, where he studied theology.
228
Upon his return to Hungary he became pastor of the Slo-
veno-German church at Pest. In 1849 he was appointed
Professor of .Slavonic Antiquities and Mythology at the Uni-
versity of Vienna, where he died Jan. 29, 18.52. KoUar's
chief work is the Sldvy dcera (.Slava's Daughter), first pub-
lished in 1824 at Ofen as an enlarged edition of his Pdsni
(Poems. Prague, 1821). It is a lyrico-epic poem, composed
(in its present form) of 643 sonnets, divided into five parts:
i. Sdla; ii. Labe. Ren, Vltava; iii. Dunaj; iv. Lethe; v.
Acheron. Considering the enormous influence of the poem,
Louis Leger justly calls Sldvy dcera "one of the most re-
markable poems of the nineteenth century." In prose Kol-
lar championed Panslavism in his work on the literary reci-
procity of the Slavs, entitled Ueber die literarische Wechsel-
seitiykeit zu'ischen den versrhiedenen Stdmmen und Mund-
arten der Slaven (Pest, 1837). Important is his collection
of Slovak folk-songs, Ndrodnie zpiei'unky Slovdkii v Uhrdch
(Ofen, 1834-35). His historical and archa-ological works —
Rozprava o jmenech, etc. (Ofen, 18:50), Vijklad (Pest, 1832),
Sldva bohynf, etc. (Pest, 1843), and Sturoitalia slavjanska
(Vienna, 1853) — contain much valuable material. See Bow-
ring, C'heskia7i Anthology (London, 1832); Leger. Pusses et
Slaves (Paris, 1890). J. J. Kral.
Kol'liker, Riuolf Albert, von, M.I)., Ph.D.: patholo-
gist and naturalist ; b. in Zurich, Switzerland, July 6, 1817;
commenced his professional studies in the University of
Zurich, subsequently studying in Bonn and Berlin, where J.
Miiller and Ilenle were his teachers ; received the degree of
Ph. D. from Zurich in 1841, and M. D. from Heidelberg in
1842. From 1843 to 1845 he was Henle's prosector in
Zurich ; the succeeding two years he was extraordinary and
in 1847 ordinary Professor of Anatomy in the University of
WUrzburg. He devoted special attention to histology, and
was among the first to bring this branch of medical science
into prominence as the foundation of pathology and clinical
medicine. In pursuing these studies embryology and com-
parative anatomy engaged his attention, and he did much
original work in both of these subjects. Among his works
are Handbuch der Getvebelehre des Menschen (Leipzig, 1853),
that passed through a number of editions, and was trans-
lated into French and English ; Icones histioloijicre (Leipzig,
1864) ; and numerous short papers on natural history and
medicine. S. T. Armstrong.
Kolmar : See Colmar.
Koln : the German name for the city of Cologne (q. v.).
Koloiiie'a : town ; in the province of Galicia, Austria ;
on the Pruth, at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains
(see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 5-L). It is famous for
its pottery, and has some trade in agricultural produce.
Pop. (189()) 30,235.
Kolom'lia : town of European Russia, in the govern-
ment of Moscow, on the Moskva, near its confiuence with
the Oka (see map of Russia, ref. 7-E). It has large silk
manufactures and a considerable trade. Pop. about 30,000.
Koloshes : See Koluscuax Ixdiaxs.
Koltsov', AlekseI Vasilevich : called the Bums of Rus-
sia ; the son of a cattle-dealer of Voronezh ; b. Oct. 22 (Nov.
3), 1809. His circumstances were in every way unfavorable to
intellectual development, and at sixteen the boy first saw a
book of poetry. He at once began to try his hand at imita-
tions. A bookseller to whom, as the best critic he could
think of, he showed his efforts, presented him with a work on
versification and gave him permission to read anything in the
shop. In 1831 he made a visit to Moscow ; and in 18i56, hav-
ing published a volume of eighteen poems the year before, he
went there a second time, and also to St. Petersburg, where
he was taken up by the literary celebrities of the capital and
was the lion of the day. Two years later he again visited
both cities, but the contrast rendered almost unbearable his
life in a provincial town, and in a profession growing in-
tensely disagreeable. The last years of his life were full of
suffering. He died of consumption. Mar. 19 (31). 1842. Koll-
sov's poems are few in number. His best known deal with
peasant life. They are short and rough, often being written
to the tune of some old country song. Ilis works (124 pieces),
with an introductory memoir by BclinskiT, were iiublished
in .Moscow in 1846, and all subsequent editions have been
reprints of this one. See the articles cm Kol/sov bv W. R. S.
Rallston in The Fortnightly Pevietr (Sept. 15, 1866) ; on Tlie
Peasant Poets of Russia, by W. R. Morrill in The Westmin-
ster Review (Julv, 1880); also a good (iorman translation by
F. Fiedler (1885,'in the L'niversalbibliothek, No. 1971) ; and a
18
KULfSCll.V.N INDIANS
KONIGGKATZ
notice by tie Poulot in Drevnaia i iVorni'a Rossia (Old and
New Uussil^ vol. x., p. 206). A. C. C'oolidoe.
Koliiscli'uii Indians [AWu.'if/i fin is from kolosh or kaliiga,
an .^lout word iiuaiiiii^ "disli." in allusion to the disli-
shaj>mi lip-orniiineiits worn by the women): a linfjiiistic stock
of Indians who call themselves ThUnkit or Tlinkit, occujiy-
ing a narrow strip alonj; the coast of Northwest America,
■with the adjacent islanils, from about the moutli of Portland
Canal, in lal. .16" (except the eastern and southern parts of
Prince of Wales island, which arc inhabited by the Kai-
gani), to about the mouth of Atna or t'opper river, in lat.
60". The habitat, therefore, is almost exclusively within
Alaskan territory. The tribes forming the Koluschan stock
are the Auk, I'hilkat, Ilanega, Iloodsunu, llunah, Kek, Sit-
ka, Stuhkin, Tagish (formerly supposed to belong to the
Athapascans), Taku, Tongas, and Vakutat.
The Koluschan Indians are of medium stature, with erect
bearing; their complexions are dark and the cheek-bones
prominent. The lips an! full and thick, their hair is stiff
and very black, the eyes are black and unusually expressive,
and the hands and feet are small.
With the exception of the Tagish, the Koluschan tribes
are strictly a maritime people. Fisli forms their chief
article of liiaintenance. but tliey also hunt deer and moun-
tain-goats. Their dwellings are large, being constructed of
huge planks and logs, which they handle without mechanical
appliances. They are expert workers in copper, wood, bone,
and stone, and their totem posts, rising in height from TiO to
100 feet in front of nearly every dwelling, are celebrated for
their fantastically carveil representations of the animal that
has given name to the clan. The totemic system is more
fully developed than among any other tribe, at least of the
northwest coast, and the ties of the totem or clanship are
considered much stronger than those of blood relationship.
The gentile system prevails with great elaborateness of de-
tail in the Koluschan family. Tlie [)rincipal |)hratral divi-
sions are the Hjivcn and the Wolf, and in these are included
thirteen clans <ir gentes. Without reference to their phra-
tral or gentile organization, all the native Koluschan are
divicWd into two classes — the hereditary chiefs, whose au-
thority depends upon their wealth (which consists prin-
cipally of slaves), and the common people.
Marriage is permitted only between members of different
clans. Polygamy is universal, and descent is in the ma-
ternal line. Formerly slaves were sac-rificed on the death
of a chief, in order that he might be furnished with servants
in the otlu-r world. Insults, injuries, and even murder may
be atoned for by presents — usually blaidiets, now their com-
mon currency — and a refusal to marry a widow of an uncle
or elder brother is .settled in a similar manner. Wars are
frcriuently avoiiled by an indemnity arrangement.
Tlie clothing of sliins formerly worn by these tribes has
generally been replaced by clothing introduced by the
whites. Men and women decorate tlicir faces with native
pigments mixed with seal oil. The women wear a disk of
wood or bone in an incision made in the lower lip, and tlie
men wear a silver ring or a feather inserted in tlie septum
of the nose pierced for that purpose. The lobes and rim of
the ears are also pierced and ornamented. Like most of the
northwestern tribes the Koluschan occupy fixed dwelling-
places only in winter, for they spend the warm season in
gathering the winter food-supply. They burn their dead,
except the bodies of shamans or sorcerers, wliich are de-
posited in boxes elevated on posts, while the bodies of slaves
are thrown into the sea.
Yeshl or Yehl ami Khenookh are the principal person-
ages in Koluschan mythology, both of which partake of the
form of man, Tlu^ former occupies the pliu'e of creator
of all beings and things, and his power is unlimited; Khe-
nookh is a mysterious person without beginning or end,
wealthy, and more powerful than Yeshl. The Koluschan
believe in the inortalily and migration of souls, which are
transformed into other human beings, chiefly relatives of
the female line. As among all the northwestern tribes,
shamanism is practiced.
The population of the various tribes of this stock is as
follows: Auk, 640; (,'hilcat, 'JHH; Ilanega (including Kou-
yon and Klanak), .IHT: Iloodsunu, 66(i ; Ilunah, !t08; Kek,
56H; Sitka. 721; .Stahkin, lilT ; Tagi.sh, 75 ; Taku, 269; Ton-
gas, 27:i; Yakutat, TU)\ total, 6,.512.
AuTiioHiTiKs. — Dall, Alaska and i'Ik Resources (Tjondon,
1870); ihid., in Proceedings of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science (1B85, vol. xxxiv., Salem,
1886); Aurel Krausc. Die Tlinkit- Indianer (Jena. 1885):
Petroff, Resources of Alaika (Washington, 1884); Tolmio
and Dawson, Comparative Vocalnilaries of British (Colum-
bia (Montreal, 1884); Boas, Report on the Tribes of British
Columbia, in Re/wrts of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science (Newca.stle-upon-Tyne meeting, 1889);
Niblack, The Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and
Northern British Columbia, in Report of United States
Xational Museum for ISSS (Washington, 1890). Also see
IxuiANs OF North A.merica. F. W. IIodqe.
Koni, or Knni : town; in the province of Irak-Ajami,
Persia. It was destroyed by the .Vfghans in 1722, but is at
iiresent flourishing (see map of Persia and Arabia, ref. 3-G).
riie district in which it stands is very fertili', and its posi-
tion on the road between Teheran and Kasbin gives it con-
siderable commercial importance. Of still greater influence
is its religious significance ; in sanctity it ranks second only
to Meshhed. It contains the shrine <if .Masuina Falima, in-
closing not only her remains, but also those of 444 other
saints. The shrine is annually visited bv thousands of de-
vout pilgrims, and the city is, like Kerbela, a favorite place
of interment for the faithful. Indeed, the first impre.s.sion
which tlie city makes is that of being a huge cemetery. Pop.
estimated at 27,000.
Konioru : See Comorn.
Kong: an island in the Mekong river, Siam. See Khonq.
Kong Mountains: a range huig represented on the maps
as stretching for 200 miles parallel with the north coast of
the (iulf of (iiiinea in Northern (iuinea. West Africa. They
were accepted as existing on the reports of Mungo Park,
Caillie, and liowditch, wlio had not seen them, but had
heard of them from the natives. The French explorer Bin-
ger (1H87) was unable to find them, and they have been ex-
punged from the Viest maps. Where they were supjiosed to
be is an extemled plateau sunnonntcd by hills ami ridges,
some of them of considerable elevation. They were sup-
posed to form the water-parting between the coast rivers
and those of the upper Niger system, but the water-parting
is found to bo much fartlier N., giving to the coast rivers
much more importance than was formerly assigned to them
as drainage agencies. Binger was the first white man to
visit the town of Kong, an agglomeration of adobe buildings,
with about 2.5,000 population, doing a considerable business
in ivory, cotton, salt, and native iron goods. C C. Adams.
Kongo: See African Laxouaoes.
Koni, Fkdor ALEKSEEVicn: writer; b. in Moscow, Uu.ssia,
Mar. 9, 1809. Although he studied medicine he felt no in-
clination to practice it. and tried various occupations till
1848, after which he gave himself entirely up to literature,
lie had early composed short ]ioems, and in 18;W produced
his first vaudeville, Zhenikh po Ihiverennnsti (The Bride-
groom by Substitute), which met with such success that it
determined his vocation. Of his thirty-four vaudevilles (4
vols., .St. Petersburg. 1870-71), fifteen are original, the rest
adaptations or translation.s. He also wrote a Life of Fred-
ericK the Great (2d ed. 1863), a translation of tiie Ilistoire
du Consulat et de I'Kmpire by Thiers, besides miscellaneous
work. Koni's lyrics are not without merit. Perhajis the
best is a little poem called The Gondolier, 1). Jan. 2.5, 1879.
A. C. COOLIDGE.
Konieh : Sec Iconifm.
Kiinig, konirh, IlEiNRirii .Toseph: b. JIar. 19, 1790, at
Fulda ; heUi dillerent small ofiices in the former electorate of
Hesse; confiicted, on account of his liberal and progressive
view.s, with the notorious Ilasseiipflug; retired in 1847; lived
in Wiesbaden since 18(10. where he died in 18(19. He is one of
the best of the early representatives of the histori<'al novel
in Germany. Among the great number of novels which he
wrote there may be mentioned here Die hohe Brant (183!!):
Die h'lubbisliii' in Mainz (1847); Kiini;/ ./eromes h'ameval
(18.5.5); and M'illiam Shakespeare (1850)'. the bust novel being
one of the best attempts in repri'senting iioetically the great
English poet. Julius (iof.hel.
Kitniggriitz, kiVni-grets : a fortified town of Bohemia;
on the Kibe (see map of .VusLria-Hungary. ref. :i-K). The
Auslriaiis under Gen. Benedek were completely defeated
here by the Prussians under Gen. Moltke. .Inly li. 18(i(>. The
action is sometimes known as the battle of Sadowa, from a
village of that name in the vicinity. The campaign of
Kiiniggriitz is one of the most remarkable military move-
ments in the records of modern warefare. Six weeks suf-
ficed for the Prussian army to cut off the Hanoverians from
kOxigsijkhg
KOPPEN
19
the Austrians, to send the Saxon forces in full retreat, and,
after delivering the cTiishing blow at Krmiggriitz, to pene-
trate nearly to the enemy's capital. The war was termi-
nated by the Treaty of Prague. Pop. (1890) 7,S16.
Koiiigsberg', ko'nichs-bilrrh [Germ., king's mountain]:
capital of the province of Kiinigsberg, Prussia, an<l a for-
tress of first rank; situated 20 miles from the Baltic, on
the Pregel, whose two arms, the old and the new Pregel,
unite within the city (see map of German Empire, ref.
1-J). It is the seat of a university (189:1 696 students), of
the provincial government, of the stafi of the First Army-
corps, and has a numerous garrison. It consists of three
former towns. .\Ilsladt, hcibenicht, and Kneiphof, which in
1724 were united into one city. It is not a handsome place ;
the streets are narrow, and there are few conspicuous build-
ings. Altstailt is the oldest part, and contains the palace
and the town-house. The palace, with a tower 87 meters
high, forms an oblong square, and stands nearly in tlie cen-
ter of the city. It is rich in historical recollections. It was
founded in 1255 by King Ottokar of Bohemia; became the
residence of the grand master of the German order in 1466,
and in 1525.the residence of the Dukes of Prussia. The east-
ern wing was built in 1532 by Duke Albrecht, the southern
in 1551. In the chapel, occupying the western wing, the
Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick III., crowned himself,
Jan. 18, 1701, as the first King of Prussia, under the name
of Frederick I. In the same place William I., afterward
German emperor, was crowned as King of Prussia Oct. 18,
1861. Over the church is the large Moskowitersaal, which
is used for great festivals. In front of the eastern gate
stands a statue of Frederick I., erected in 1801, of life-size.
Other notable buildings are the cathedral, 92 meters long,
situated on an island formed by the Pregel, a Gothic struc-
ture begun in 1335, and containing several interesting monu-
ments ; the old university building. Collegium Albertinura.
founded in 1544; the new university building, on the parade-
ground to the X. of the palace, finished in 1862, with a
hall frescoed by Rosenfelder, Graf, and Piotrowsky. On the
parade-ground stands also the theater, and in the center of
the place rises an equestrian statue of Frederick William III.
by Kiss. The museum, the royal library (1893, 220.000 vol-
umes), the observatory, the monuments of the philosopher
Kant and the minister Schon, are also interesting. Excellent
scientific and benevolent institutions are the botanical gar-
den, the zoological museum, the seminary, three gymnasiums,
a mercantile school, an academy of art, asylums for the deaf
and dumb, for the blind, lunatics, and orphans, and several
hospitals. The manufacturing industry is considerable.
Iron-foundries, machine-shops, breweries, and dye-works are
in operation. Iron goods, chemicals, soap, paper-hangings,
leather, and tobacco are manufactured. The trade of Kon-
igsberg is much hindered both by the circumstance that the
Pregel is frozen from November to March, and by the con-
stant shifting and silting up of the channels leading to the
harbor at Pillau. Nevertheless, from the middle of the seven-
teenth century the commercial importance of the place be-
gan to increase, and the completion of the Prussian railway
system has made Konigsberg one of the princii>al outlets for
Prussian products. Pillau is annuallv entered by between
1,600 and 1,700 vessels, of about 278,000 tons, and great
quantities of grain, seeds, flax, and hemp are exported, partly
by boat and partly by rail ; tea. iron, salt, and fish are im-
ported. Pop. (189'0) i61.666. Konigsberg was built by the
Teutonic order of Knights in 1255 as a fortress against the
pagan Samlft>nder. and rose to importance through its corn-
trade. Its fortifications were reconstructed in 1626. and
again in 1843. About 1523 it became the capital of the
duchy of Prussia. In 1758 it was occupied for a short time
by the Russians, in 1807 by the French. The philosopher
Kant taught here from 1755 to his death, Feb. 12, 1804.
Revised by C. H. Thurber.
Kiinigstein, konich-stin : a small town of the kingdom of
Saxony; on the left bank of the Elbe; 17 miles S. E. of
Dresden (see map of German Empire, ref 4-G). Pop. (1890)
3,988. Behind it rises a huge rock, 878 feet above t he river
and 1.111 feet above the sea, and entirely inaccessible except
through a narrow passage to the N. W. On the top of this
rock is built the famous fortress of Kiinigstein with bomb-
proof ca.semates, and a well 1,172 feetdeep, to which the crown
jewels and the treasury of the kingdom are brought in times
of war. The fortress is now also used as a state prison.
Konkan, or Concan: the narrow strip of territory in
Bombay Presidency, British India, between the Western
Ghats and the Arabian .Sea: the aintreforl of the Deccan.
It extends nortliward from the Portuguese settlement of
(ioa. It is about 300 miles long, with an average breatlth of
40 miles. It is a distinct natural district, especially char-
acterized by a very heavy rainfall during the southwest
monsoons. The coast is broken by many small bays and
harbors, and was for a long lime celebrated for the nests of
pirates it protected. The hemp raised here is said to be the
best in all India.
Koiirad von Wiirzbiirg': i)robably born at Wiirzburg;
lived in Strassburg an<l Basel, where he died Aug. 31, 1287.
He is one of tlie representatives of the declining court
poetry, a good Christian, but a mediocre poet, who inherited
from his great predecessors a great facility of expression, but
not their power of thought. His principal works are Alexius,
Die (jiildene Schmiede, Der 'Welt ,'io/nt. Vie trojanische
Krieg (60,000 verses), Der Sclnranenritter, Pertonopier utid
Meline. See W. Grimm, Introduction to the Goldene
Sclimiede: K. I. Petelenz, Konrad v. \Y. Leben und Jiedeu-
tung (Cracow, 1881). Julius Goebel.
Konstantinovicll Romanov, Koxstantin : See Ro-
manov, KO.NSTANTIN KOSSTANTI.NOVICH.
Koo'doo [from native name kudxi] : a large African ante-
lope (Strepsiceros kudu) having erect, spirally twisted horns,
which sometimes attain a length of over 3 feet. The color
is grayish brown, slightly reddish in the females and young,
and marked on the sides with eight or ten vertical white
stripes. The koodoo ranges from Abyssinia to Cape Colony,
but in the southern portions it has been practically exter-
minated by hunters. F. A. Lucas.
Koorile Islands : See Kuriles.
Koornherf , Diedrik : See Cornhert.
Kootenai, Kootonay : See Kitunahan Indians.
Kootenay' [from the name of an Indian tribe] : a river
of British Columbia and left-hand affluent of the Columbia
river, next to Clarke river the largest of its branches. It rises
in the heart of the Rocky Mountains, only a few miles from
the Columbia but flows S., while the latter there flows N.
It passes S. through a narrow valley to Montana, turns W.
into Idaho, then N. into the long and slender Kootenay
Lake. It leaves this lake on its western side, and after a
short course joins the Columbia in lat. 49 15' N. The total
length is about 300 miles. The remarkable curvature of this
river is repeated in Clarke river, Snake river, and other
streams of this region. The district of the Kootenay is mild
in climate, picturesque, fairly fertile, rich in mines, and a
promising field for settlement.
Kopeck : See C'opec.
Kopernigk : See Copernicus. ,
Ko'pisch. August: b. at Breslau, May 26, 1799; studied
art at Dresden, Prague, and Vienna, but was hindered from
painting by an accident to his hand. He devoted himself
chiefly to literature, and went to Italy, where he studied
popular poetry, and where he became the discoverer of the
Blue Grotto, or the Grotto of the Nymphs. In 1836 he pub-
lished a volume of poems which established his reputation
as a writer of exquisitely humorous and naive popular poetry.
He also published a translation of Dante's Divine Comedy
(1837) and of popular Italian poetry (1838). D. in Berlin,
Feb. 6, 1853. ' Julius Goebel.
Kop'parberg, or Stora-Koppnrberg : the name of a
eolitical division of Sweden; situated on both sides of the
lal river, and comprising those regions which formerly
were so celebrated in the history of the country under the
name of Dalarne (Lat. Dahcarlia). It is a wild but beauti-
ful mountain region, covered with forests of fir and birch,
and rich in ccij)per and porphyry, but ill suileil for agri-
cuhure. The inhabitants form one of the tincst types of
the Scandinavian race. Pop. (1891) 197,449. Capital,
Falun.
Kiip'pen, Peter, von: ethnographer and archipologist ;
b. at Ivharkow, Russia, Feb. 19, 1793 ; studied at the uni-
versity of his native city, and devoted himself throughout
life to researches concerning the ethnology, arclueology, and
liistory of Russia. His principal works are Mnterialien zur
Culturgeschiehte Jiusxlands (1825); Geachiclile des Wein-
baiiex und Weinhandeh in Hussland (1832) ; Tnurica
(1840) ; Ethnographische Karte des etiropdisclien Jiit^land
(1851); and an exhaustive memoir on the census of 1850.
The Russian Government presented him with an estate in
the Crimea, Karabagh, where he died June 4, 1864.
20
KOPTOS
KORAN
KoptUS [(ir. Koirrcij, Kowrls. Ko<trr6s: Kfjvp. Kebt, Kob/i,
moaiTii. Kiifl]: It town i>f I'ppcr Kf^ypl (2(5 X. liil.), on the
K. of the Nile where the river ii|>|iroaches most nearly to the
lied Sea. At present it is of no importance, lint in antiq-
uity it was a place of Ihrivini; trade, due to its position at
the west end of the caravan ronte over which the jiroducts
of Pl'NT (q. v.). Araliia, and the Kast Kcnerally were hnmght
to Kj;y|it. The ipiarries and f;old mines (" gold of K'optos ")
of Wiidi llammamat added to its importance. Inscriptions
fjoins l>ack to the sixth and twelfth dynasties (when it was
fortilied against the Hedoiiin)show itsantiuuity. The place
is also supposed to have had a considerable Phoenician popu-
lation, to which its name may refer. As a place of trade it
lost prestige bv the change of the end of the caravan route,
first to Kus (to the S.), and later to Keneh (to the X.). The
local goil was Min, whom the Greeks identified with Pan.
Charles R, Gillett.
Korais. or Koraf. Ad.\maxtios: classical scholar and pa-
triot; b. in Smyrna. Asia Minor, Apr. 27, 1748; studied the
ancient and modern languages al an early age; entered com-
mercial life in Amsterdam at the urgent wish of his father;
went in 1782 to Montpellier to devote himself to the sciences
of medicine and natural history, and in 1788 settled in Paris,
where he remained till his death, Apr. G, 18;33. Korais is the
foremost and earliest of the regenerators of mudern (ireek
literature, and by his patriotic writings contriliuted largely
to the political reawakening of Greece which led to the suc-
cessful war of independence. (.See Greek Literature,
MoDER.N.) or his works bearing upon classical anti(juity
may be mentioned his valuable edition of the Ethiopian
Historiex of llelioilorus, and I'specially his commentaries to
some of the writings of Hippocrates. He also edited Xeno-
phon's Memorabilia, Plato's Oorgias, and pjpictefus. Of
importance are his Ataeia. on mi'langes siir la lillerature
grfcque modenie (.5 vols., Paris, 1826-;i5), aiming to elevate
the popular vernacular of his countrymen to a literary lan-
guage. His writings and letters appeared in 5 vols. (Athens,
1881-87). See his Aulohioyrapliy, written in Greek ancl
translate<l into Ijatin (1834); also L. de Sinner, on the Life
and Works of Koraia (WiT); Bywater, Journal of Hellenic
Studies (i., pp. 305 fT.) Ai.freu Gudeman.
Koran (or with the definite article, Al Koran): the sacred
book of Islam (see Moitammeda.nism) and the earliest surviv-
ing monument of Arabic prose. The word means reading
or recitation, and contains Mohammed's utterances made,
as he said, by command of Allah (Kcjran, Sura xcvi., and
passim). These extend over the whole space of his pro-
phetic life (a. u. (ilO-632), and give a picture of his re-
ligious hi.story. The book coiL-sists of 114 discourses, called
suras, of varying length and matter; they are arranged, not
chronologically or according to subject-matter, but in order
of length, beginning with the longest, except that a short
prayer (the Jlohammedan pnler-noster) stands first. This
arrangement appears to be original. Mohammed, probably
through lack of the literary habit (he must have been aware
of the im|)(jrlance of his words as constituting a religious
code), died without having settled the authoritative form of
his di.scourses. They were preserved in scattered copies
written (on stones, leather, palm-leaf ribs, etc.), or proliably
in .SI • cases only in the memory of his followers. After
his death the necessity of giving them permanent form be-
came apparent, and this duty was assigned by the Caliph
Abubekr to Zaid, son of 'I'habit, one of the prophet's amanu-
enses (a. D. 633). Zaid's fii-st eililion (which has jicrished)
was extensively copied by the Moslems of that lime, appar-
ently with scribal variations; differences between various
copies gave rise to disputes, and it became neces.sarv to de-
termine an aulhorilative. text. This was elTected 'by com-
mand oft he t^aiiph Of hniau, under the superiMtenilence of t he
same /ai<l (A. I). (i.'iO), who produced the text now universal-
ly accepted. His milhorl of procedure is not rejiorted ; but
he doubtless carefully compared the various written copies,
aurl based his deiisions as to the readings on his own mem-
ory and that of the surviving companions of the prophet.
There is no rejison to doubl his conscientiousness or his
sagacity; the proliability is thai the Koran is a fair Iran-
.script of Mohammed's utierances, often word for wiml, some-
times, no doubt, with the slight variations incidental to oral
and scribal transmis.sion. The book is in this respect uni(|ue
among .sjicred book.s, standing in marked contrast with the
Ilible anil the Avesta, which were for a long time exposed
to the variations of copyists. Ot this second recension a
copy is said to have been sent to each of the three great
cities, Basra, Cufa, and Oaniascus, and a copy woulil natu-
rallv be deiposited in Medina. These original copies have all
perished, the last survivor (held by the Moslems, at any rate,
to be genuine) having been destroyed in the burning of
the great mosque of l)amascus (1894). The written and
printed reproductions of the text since the lime of Othman
liave Iieen carefully made. and as he ordered the destruction
of all copies but that of Zaid, there is little material for
text-criti<-isin. Xeverlhelcss some variations survived ; the
text of Ibn Jlas'ud did not contain Siiras i., cxiii., cxiv.,
and that of Obay did contain two additional short sura.s, and
a number of unimportant variants exist. Soon after the pub-
lication of the authoritative text a serious difliculty made
itself felt : the jironunciation of the words was in some cases
uncertain, both in the vtiwcls and in the coiisoniinl.s. There
were at first no vowel-signs (except partial designation of
long vowels), ilnd in the Araliic alpliabet a number of the
characters are identical in form. This difficulty was reme-
died (probably by the scholars of Basra and Cufa) by the
gradual formation of a received pronunciation, which was
then fixed by diacritical marks (to distinguish between con-
sonants having the same form) and vowel-^igns. The
reading of the Koran became a ]irofession, and the sense of
the words ajipcars to have been fixed with substantial ac-
curacy. Out of this study arose the Moslem sciences of
grammar, rhetoric, and theology.
It is obviously desirable to fix the chronological order of
the discourses of the Koran: it is only by following this
order that we can comprehend the thought of the book, and
perceive the develo|)ment of Mohammed's iiiea.s. The task
is a difficult one by reason of the paucity of data; Zaid, un-
fortunately, was not governed by historical-critical prin-
ciples. The best work in this direction has been done by
Til. Noldeke {Oeschiclile des QoraHs) ; by comparison of the
various discourses with the factsof Mohanimeu's career, and
by observation of the tone of the utterances he has proposed
an order which is now generally accepted (it is given in con-
venient form in (iilman's Saracens). The earlier suras (de-
livered at Mecca 610-622) are characterized by brevity, by a
dithyrambic tone, and by an almost exclusive devotion to
religious doctrines; and these are again subdivided by Nol-
deke into three group.s, which are recognized by the grow-
ing organization of the prophet's ideas and by the gradual
change of his attitude toward the Meccans. The tone of the
second division of suras (delivered at JMedina after the
Flight, 622) is prosaic, argumentative, legislative, corre-
sponding to Mohiimmed's new position as recognized head
of a religious-civil community. Some of the suras, especially
among the later, appear to be made up ot several discourses,
which have been put togetlier with more or less skill. There
are many repetitions of phrases, sentences, and paragraphs;
this is due in part, no doubt, to the fact that the prophet did
repeat himself from time to time (as was natural), in [lart
also, probably, to repetition of utterances Viy the collectoi-s.
If is further natural thai in so long a series of discourses
Mohammed should not entirely e.sca]ie contradicting himself.
.Such contradictions are not numerous ; they arose from the
changing circnmstaiices of the yimng Mosiem community.
They are harmonized in the Mohammedan theological
schools liy the doctrine of abrogation; certain things, it is
said, were at first commaiided by God. and afterward, for
good reasons, by him revoked. An instructive instance is
the fixing of the Kibla, the ]ioiiit to which the face is to be
turned in jirayer. This was at first left umlctermined ;
whithersoever men turn to pray, says Mohammed (ii., 109),
there is the face of God. He afterward chose .lerusalem as
the point, perhaps to gain the good will of the .li'ws, perhaps
because he really felt t hat t he 1 1 oly ( 'if v of t he Old Testament
was the religions center of the worlil. hater, however, he
became conviiiceil of the necessity of nil indepeiidrnt ritual
organization for his followers, and he appointed Jlecca, the
religious center of North Arabia, as Kibla. This change oc-
casioned doubts and protests, to which he rejilics (ii., 13611.)
by saying that the former prescription was meant as a test
of oliedience. and that now, as every sect had its Kibla,
Arabia should have Mecca. The regulations in S. xlvii. re-
specting the treatment of unlpclicvers, somewhat modified
by S. ix., arc held by the llaiiifilc school to have been abro-
gated, and so the rule of kinship at the end of S. viii. At
.S. liii., 19, it is said a verse has been omitted in which Mo-
hammed spoke favorably of the three goddesses. He boldly
faces the question of alirogafion in xvi., 103, and ii., 100.
The subject-matter of the Koran embraces announce-
ments of doctrine (unity of God, the day of judgment, di-
KORAN
21
vine mission of Mohammed), pictures of the delights of
paradise and tlie tortures of hell, ineuleation of duties re-
ligious (prayer, pilgrimage to Mecca), moral (honesty, jus-
tice, tem[)erance, chastity, forgiveness, kindness to orphans
and widows, almsgiving), ritual (ablutions, fasting), narra-
tives of ancient times, taken from tlu^ Old and New Testa-
ments and from Jewish, Christian, and Arabian tradition,
regulations respecting civil affairs (marriage and divorce,
inheritance, division of the spoils of war), polemic against
Jews and Christians. Little of this can be called new. The
doctrines of monotheism and a final Judgment were already,
through Judaism and Christianity, established in Araljia
when he came forward as preacher. Prayer is common to
all religions, and the pilgrimage to Mecca was an old
heathen Arabian custom, in connection with which some of
the old heathen ceremonies were retained by him. The
moral duties he presc^riljcs were such as were generally rec-
ognized by the belter minds of his time ; his civil laws
were modifications of existing usages; but no great re-
former is original in the sense of producing ideas and estab-
lishing customs absolutely new. Mohammed showed his
genius by the insight and power with which he selected and
emphasized certain fundamental religious ideas, and mold-
ed them into a system possible for his people and his times.
He came out of and had to deal with a congeries of half-
civilized tribes; he converted tliem info a conquering na-
tion. The desert Arabs were then, and have ever since
been, naturally an irreligious people; he made them en-
thusiastic for religion. His social regulations are marked
by humanity and wisdom. He ameliorated the condition
of women and slaves (S. xxiv., S'S ; ii. ; iii. ; ix.), and de-
nounced the existing custom of female infanticide (S. Ixxxi.).
Polygamy and slavery are treated in the Koran as in the Old
Testament — they are recognized and controlled, but not abol-
ished ; but the Jews grew out of tliese customs, as the Mos-
lems, under good social conditions, are now doing. The
ethics of the Koran is surprisingly high when we remember
the character of the society out of which it sprang.
Allah is the speaker throughout the Koran, except in S. i.
(which is a prayer), and perhaps in a few other places (xxvii.,
98. 94, Mohammed ; xix., 65, the angels), in which, however,
it is doubtful whether what is said is not intended as an ut-
terance of God. There is no difficulty in supposing that
Mohammed believed himself to be speaking in the name of
God. This is the conviction of the Semitic prophet every-
where— he identifies his own convictions and purposes with
the divine will. There is, indeed, a great difference between
the ecstatic outbursts of the earlier suras and the reflective
tone of tlie later ; the former breathe inspiration, the latter
come out of ordinary thought. In his last years, when his
mission was assuming larger civil-political proportions, Mo-
hammed may well have convinced himself that the revo-
lution he was conducting was the work of God, and re-
quired and deserved divine guidance— that is, that his
thought was a divine product. If a change had to be made
in ritual or in civil law, naturally it would be God who
made it ; if a revelal^on came in the nick of time to settle a
doubtful question, it would be God who was watching and
intervened at the proper moment. There was nothing in
this that contradicted the Semitic idea of divine revelation,
and Mohammed lived in an unscientific age. The inter-
mediary between God and the prophet is the angel Gabriel
(ii., 91), as in Daniel and Luke, called in the Koran the
spirit or the holy spirit (xvi., 104). The Koran was "sent
down" from heaven (xcvii.), in parts (xxv., 34), in a leis-
urely, deliberative manner ; the Mohammedan orthodox
theologians hold that it existed as a whole from all eternity,
and was revealed as occiusion required, while the Jlotaze-
lites or Rationalists contend that it was created, like all
other finite things. There is no good n^ason to doubt that
Mohammed is entitled to the credit of its composition. His
claim to its authorship was contested in his lifetime — it was
said that he was taught it by a man, a foreigner (xvi., 105).
To this he thinks it sufficient to reply that it is written in
Arabic, and therefore could not have been dictated by a
foreigner. The person here referred to as his assistant is
unknown, nor is it now possible to determine whether he
had suggestions from friends and acquaintances, Arabic,
Persian, Jewish, ami Christian. It is obvious that the
stories he narrates from Old Testament and New Testament
came to him, not from the reailing of the Bilile text, but
dVally and often in garbled form, and with late legendary
embellishments ; and it is probable that he sometimes mis-
understood and confounded them. Many of the points in
which his narrative differs from that of the Bible (as in the
stories of Abraham in S. xxi.. etc., Adam and Jloses in S. ii.,
and of Joseph in S. xii.) are no doubt derived from the Jew-
ish tradition ; the elaborate and picturescjuc descriptions of
the fate of Ad an<l Thamud (S. vii., etc.) ai>pear to be prod-
ucts (perhaps reconstructed by him) of the Arabian tradition
of his time — these tribes, placed by him in a ri^niote an-
tiquity, .seem to have vanished, in a natural manner, only a
few centuries before his birth ; the story of Alexander the
Great, called "He of the two horns," and (jog and Magog
(S. xviii., H2-98), was probably derived, through Christians,
from some Alexander ronuince of that time. Mohamnu-d
thus drew his material from various quarters, weaving it all
into his doctrinal system; the wonder is less that his stories
are crude than that he made them so effective for his pur-
poses. There was then considerable intercourse between
Mecca and the outer world ; Mohammed, in common with
his fellow citizens, gathered much Ijy hearsay, and was ncjt
in position to sift it. It is certain that he learned his relig-
ious doctrines from men, and it is probable that his civil de-
cisions were made after consultation with his most trusted
friends; but it remains true that he and he alone is the
author of the Koran ; it was he who from the materials ac-
cessible, selected with astonishing insight just what was re-
quired to make a working system. He may have had mono-
theistic predecessors, but none produced a sacred book.
The Koran is regarded by the Moslems as a model of
prose composition. There is a story that the great poet
Labid was converted to Islam by reading the famous de-
scription in S. ii., 16 ff. Mohammed challenged his oppo-
nents in Medina to produce a sura equal to his(ii., 21). This
is sometimes described as a brutum fulmen, since naturally
no one else was then in position to create a new religion or
to announce revelations from heaven, and the prophet
might safely rely on the inability of his contemporaries to
come forward as his rivals ; but there seems to have been
solidity in his challenge. He was conscious of superiority
both in the matter of his thought and in the style of his ut-
terances. So far as we know, the Koran was the first Ara-
bic prose production. Recited with impressive solemnity,
in the glow of a great revolution, these discourses would
naturally seem to believers, and sometimes to unbelievers,
to have more than human beauty and power. They moved
in a sphere above the thoughts of the ordinary Aral) of that
time. It is true that they contain many passages of remark-
able dignity, force, and eloquence. There is exaltation in
the earlier suras, and persistence and continuity in the later.
On the other hand, the style is sometimes slovenly and the
logic is often at fault. The form is rhymed prose — a natu-
ral successor to the earlier metrical form of Arabic litera-
ture. It was perhaps adopted by Mohammed as being the
more appropriate vehicle for his solemn announcements, or
perhaps because he was unable to write poetry. According
to the tradition he was not a poet, and it is certain that he
disclaimed the name, and denounced the heathen poets as
seducers to evil (S. xxvi., end), on account of the irreligious
character of their poetry. He calls himself an unlearned or
illiterate nuin (vii., 1.56), and says that he could neither read
nor write (xxix., 47) : but writing was not a common accom-
plishment among the Arabs of his time, and these state-
ments by no means imjily that he was not acquainted with
all current ideas. The Koran gives proof of his intelligence
and sagacity, and, with all its mannerisms and other faults,
must be regarded as a book of power. It must be judged in
part by its results — it created Arabic prose literature and
Moslem science. It can not be compared with the Old Testa-
ment for variety and lieauty and depth ; but then it is tlie
work of one man, living in a comparatively isolated and
ignorant community. The opening sura is justly admired
for the simplicity and comprehensiveness of its petitions.
It must be remembered that he had little or no opportunity
to revise the work as a whole. To this fact, perhaps, may
be ascribed the presence of certain obscurities and puzzles
in the text. The initial letters which stand at the beginning
of some suras (twenty-nine in all) have up to this time re-
ceived no satisfactory explanation. Six suras arc headed
with .KhM. one with ALMS, five with ALR,one with ALMR,
one with TS, two with TSM, etc. The Mohammedan com-
mentators imagine mysterious meaning in these letters.
Some European critics suppose them to be scribal notes (as
amar Ii Muhainmn<l, M. said to me), others think them mys-
tical but meaningless marks by the prophet's own hand.
Noldeke has remarke<l that in most of the suras in (question
the first verse contains the word book, whence he conjectures
<)0
KORAT
KOREA
in the letters mystioul references to the heavenly text of the
Koran. The (juestion is one rather of curiosity than of ex-
egeticiil interest.
Aids for the study of the Koran : Weil, Einhitung in den
Koran (2d ed. 1878) ; Geigcr, Wax hnl ^follnmmed atis dem
Judfiithum aufgenummen/ \ Xoldeke, Uexchiclite dta Quniiin
(1860). and his pa|>er on the Koran in his Sketches from
JCaslern Jlintury (1893) ; Live.i of Mohainiued by Muir,
Spri-nger, K. B. Smith, Syed Ameer Ali ; Kuenen, Ilibbert
Lectures; (iarcin tie Tassy. L' Islam isme d'apres le Coran
(1874); .Syed Amed, Essa'ns (1870). English translations:
Sale, publisheil 1734 and often since, new eilition by Wherry,
1S«1-H6, excessively amplified, but valuable for its notes;
Kodwell, 1861 and 1878, gives the suras in chronological or-
der : Palmer (in Sacred Books of the East), 1880, translation
scholarly, intro<iucti(m unsatisfactory; ijane, Selections from
the Koran (with commentary), 187i>. French translation:
Kazimirski (new ed., 1884), and analysis of the Koran, by La
Beaume (1878). Oerman translations: Wahl(1838), Ullmann
(8th (kI. 1881). Tlie Latin translation of Maracci was repub-
lished at Leipzig in 1731. Thefii-st translation of the Koran
into a European language was maile by I*et<?r of C'lugny in
the twelfth century, and published, with revision, by Bibli-
aiider, 1543. European printed eilitions of the Arabic text:
Hinckclmaim (Hamburg, 1694); Maracci (Padua, 1698);
Flilgel (Leipzig, 1834, and often since; the best). Litho-
gra()hs are issued in India. Manuscripts are numerous, but
rarely useful for text-criticism. There are lexicons of the
Koran by Willniet (1784); Penrice (1873); and Dieterici
(1881). The most famous Arabic commentators are Tabari
(A. D. 838-923), unpublished MS. in Cairo; Zamaklishari(1075-
1 144), ed. W. Nassau Lees (Calcutta, 1859) ; Baidawi (thir-
teenth centurv) ; ed. by Fleischer (1846-48) ; Indices, by Fell
(1878). ■ C. H. Toy.
Korat' : a town of the Siamese Laos ; seat of a viceroy ;
150 miles N. E. of Bangkok, on the Takrong, one of the
upper branches of the Semun, an affluent of the Mekong.
It IS a small town (7,000 inhabitants), but is of political im-
Sartance, and the proposed terminus of a railway from
angkok through Ayuthia. It was formerly the capital of
an independent kingdom, but was ccmquered in 1570 by the
Cambodians and later passed into Siamese hands. The
country around is rich in copper, which is worked. The
sugar-cane is extensively cultivated. M. W. 11.
Koray : See Korais.
Kordofan : a province in the Eastern Sudan, Africa;
formerly ruled by Egypt, now a part of the Mahdist do-
main ; situated between lat. 11" and 15° N., and between Ion.
28° and 33' E. ; bounded on the E. by Sennaar, from which
it is separated bv the White Nile, and on the W. bv Darfur.
Area, 13,000 s(^. miles. I'oj). .500,000. The inhabi'tants are
a mixture of Negroes ami Arabs professing Mohammedan-
ism. Kordofan is a savanna, dry in the hot season, but
with luxuriant verdure during the rainy season. The breed-
ing of horses, cattle, and camels is the chief occupation.
Capital, El Obeid. Revised by C. C. Adams.
Korea, or Corea, ko-rec ah : a country of Eastern Asia,
occuiiying a portion of the mahiland, and the peninsula
whicli jutsout therefrom in a southeasterly direction toward
Japan. It is entirely included within the parallels of 34°
and 43° N. lat., and the meridians of 134 30' and 130' 30' E.
Ion. ; area (including islands) about 92,000 s(j. miles, of which
one-third is continental and two-thirds peninsular and insu-
lar. On the E. it is washed by the Sea of Japan, on tlie S.
and W. b^ the Yellow Sea. On the N. it is separated from
.Manchuria by the Am-nok-kang (in Chinese, Ya-lu-kiamj)
and a neutral strip of 5,000 scj. miles, in which no one is
allowed to settle, while in the extreme N. E. the river Tu-
man (in Chinese, Mikiani/) in its lowest covirse sei)arates it
from Russian Manchuria, See Makitimk Province.
Name. — The native name and official designation of the
country since 1392 is Cho-son (In Japanese, Cho-sen. and in
Chinese, Chao-sien) or ".Morning Freshness." Korea is
siMiply a corruption oT Kori, the local pronunciation of
Kao-li, the Chinese nanu: of that one of its petty kingdoms
which became dominant in the eleventh century.
Physical Features. — The country is everywhere mountain-
ous. .Sharp peaks, rugged hills, and narrow valleys meet the
view on all sides. The orographic system consists of a main
axis of elevation, which, starting from the Tai-paik-san, or
"Great While Mountain," of Manchuria, skirts the eastern
seaboard, and is intersected by several ridges which run
N. E. and S. W. parallel with the highlands of Manchuria
and Mongolia, and are apjiarently continuations of the
parallel ridges of the "Sinian" or Chinese system. (.See
Chi.na.) .Several peaks have been measured from the sea.
Among the highest are llien-FQng (8,300 feet), near the
north shore of Broughton Bay ; Tsiong-yang (6,.500), near lat.
37° N., and Ilan-ra-san (6,7tM)), on the island of tjuelpacrt.
From the nuiin axis the surface falls off abruptly on the E.,
while to the W. the slope is more gradual.
The eastern coast is comparatively destitute of inlets, but
the Southern and western coasts are deeply indented and are
fringed with nunu>rous islands ; the largest are t^uelpaert (40
miles by 17) on the south and Kang-liwa on the west coast.
With the exception of the Tuman, which rises on the
north siiie of Paik-tu-san (or "White Head r^Iountain") in
Manchuria and flows N. E. and E., and the Nak-tong, which
flows from N. to S., all the rivers of Korea flow W. or S. W.
The most northerly is the Am-nok, which rises on the south
side of Paik-tu-san (lat. 41" .59' N'.). It is navigable by sea-
going junks for 30 miles, and by boats for 145 miles more,
or as far as Wi-won. The Tai-dong (in Chinese, Ta-tung) is
navigable by boats to Phyong-yang (in Chinese, Ping-yanq),
75 miles; the Han-kang for 80 miles, as far as .Seul, " t)ie
ca|)itar' ; the Keum-sjv for 30 miles; and the Nak-tong,
which falls into the Straits of Korea at Tong-nai, near the
port of Fusan (in lat. 35° 54 X. and Ion. 138 41' E.) is navi-
gable for 140 miles by boats drawing 4i feet.
The tides on the east coast are inconsiderable (rising only
2 feet at Gensan), but on the west and south they are strong
and dangenms, rising to a great height (35 feet in some
places), receding with surprising rajiidily, and leaving great
mud-banks on which foreign vessels have often been left
high and dry, and at the mercy of the natives. The climate
resembles that of corresponding latitudes in China, the
thermometer falling in some places as low as —7° or —8°,
and rising in summer to 90° or 95° F. The Ilan river (in
lat. 37° N.) is frozen over for about five months every winter.
The mineral wealth of Korea is great. Gold and silver
are found, the former l)eing an imjxirtant artii'le of export.
There are iron mines, and coal is abundant and is worked in
the neighborhood of Phyong-yang. There are copper mines
in several places, and Korean copper and brass wares are
much prized in China and Japan.
The fauna includes bears, tigers, leopards, deer, badgers,
foxes, martens, ottere, beavers, etc., but no wolves, though
wolves abound in Manchuria. Tlie domestic animals include
the pig, the dog, and the ox, which is of immense size and
is the usual beast of burden, while the horse is no liigger
than a small Shetland ])ony. The hills near the Manchurian
frontier are covered wilh dense forests, and large quantities
of timber are annually floated down the Am-nok. Among
agricultural products may be mentioned rice, wheat, pulse,
maize, millet, cotton, hemp, and sesame. Ginseng is also
cultivated, but is inferior to that of Manchuria.
Divisions. — Korea is divided into eight rfo or provinces,
three of which are on the east coast, and five on the west.
They are here given in Korean (with variations arising from
different systems of transliteration in vogue among foreign-
ers), in Chinese, and in Japanese :
Ham kyUng (kiung or kyeng)
Kang-wfin (wen or ouen)
Kviing-sang (or Kyeng-sj-angl
Tsieu-ra (or Tsieula. Tsiel-la. or Cliulla).
Cliiing-eliyeiig (or Cliungeliong)
Kyiingkei (or Kiung gi, or Kyeng ki) —
Ilwang-hai
Phyijng- (or Phyeng) an
Cblsae.
JkpUMS.
Kan-hing
Kan-kio.
Kiang-yuen...
Ki)-gen.
K'iug-tiiang...
Kel'Shu.
Cliuen-lo
Zen-ra.
Ch'ungtsing.,
Chin-sel.
King-ki
Kei-ki.
Hwanghai
KiVkai.
Ping-an
Hei-an.
The capital is Han-yang or King-gi. commonly called Seul
(or .Seoul), which simply means "capital;" po|). 2.50.000 to
400,000. Other imporlant towns are Phyong-yang (pop. over
20.000), 36 miles from the sea, Kai-song (or seng), Ai-chu (in
the N.), and Dui-kio (in the S.).
7'he people are probably of JIongol-Tarlar origin. They
are taller and more robust than the Japanese, and may be
compared with the Chinese of North China. The men wear
the to|)kiiot. and the flowing white garments which the
Chinese wore before the Manchu conquest in 1643. They
are a kindly, hospitable jieople, notwithstanding (heir long-
continued aversion to intercourse with foreign nations. In
manners and customs, as in religion, social life, language,
literature, government, etc., Chinese influences and Chinese
example prevail. The women, however, do not bind their
feet, but they are kept as much in .seclusion as in China.
KOREA
KORTIN'G
23
Buddhism was earlr introduced from China and spread
thenee to Japan. It is still found in the country, but it has
little intlueuce on the people, who practice the Confucian
morality and ancestral worship and many other supersti-
tions. Xo Kuddhist temples are found in the capital, and
monks are prohibited from entering the cities.
6overnme7it. — Until Jan. 8, 18U5, Korea was tributary to
China, and its kings received investiture from the emperor.
Every year in the'third month an envoy carried to Peking
(via Mukden) the tribute imposed in 1637 by the JIanchus:
100 ounces of gold, 1,000 ounces of silver, certain quantities
of silk, linen, cotton, and other fabrics, besides furs, roots,
etc., and other |)riiducts of the country. He returned in the
tenth month, carrying with him the almanac for the follow-
ing year, and many presents from the emperor. Korea was
autonomous, however, and the king absolute master of his
subjects. His government is carried on by a grand council
of three ministers and six boards, each with its own presi-
dent and its own staff of officials and suboi-dinates, all, as
in China, appointed after competitive examination. At the
head of each province is a Kamsa (governor) and a Tai-jang
(general), both of the highest rank.
Industries and Trade. — The chief industries are paper-
making, mat-weaving, and manufactures of silk, brass and
copper ware, and split-bamboo blinds and hats for native
use. These last are made chiefly on the island of yuelpaert,
and are remarkable for the threadlike fineness of their
splits. Trade with the Chinese is mostly carried on at the
" Korean Gate," near Fung-hwang-ching, on the Manchu-
rian side of the neutral strip, anii at the treaty-ports of
Chemulpo, Fusan, and Gensan. The customs report for 1891
showed net imports to the value of |6,318,126 (.^1,230,104
native and $5,088,022 foreign) and exports of $3,931,093.
History. — The earliest mention of Korea occurs in con-
nection with the founding in 1122 B.C. of a colony of .5,000
Chinese led by Ki-tse, a Chinese prince, who could not ac-
cept the rule of Wu-wang, the founder of the Chow dynasty.
It is doubtful, however, if he ever reached the region now
known as Korea, and little is known of the country before
the third century a. v., when Jingo-kood (q. v.) made war on
it and exacted tribute from three of its petty principalities.
One of these, Korai, afterward became dominant (in the
eleventh century), but was itself overturned in 1392, when
one Li-tan founded the dynasty which now rules and gives
the country its name — Cho-son. Its nearest neighbors. China
and Japan, have been its worst enemies, while both have
claimed to be its friends. In 1591 the famous Japanese
general, Taikosama, picked a Cjuarrel with it, and in 1593
sent an army of 163,000 men, who quickly made themselves
masters of three-fourths of it. Later, however, when Chi-
nese help came, they were forced to evacuate Seul and retire
southward, and when the Taiko died, in 1593, they were fain
to withdraw, contenting themselves with exacting tribute,
and retaining the port of Fusan. Since the Manchu con-
quest in 1637 Korea has been at peace with her neighbors.
European contact with Korea has been slight. In 1866 a
French fleet, under Admiral Roze, unadvisedly made its
way to Seul to obtain redress for the murder of some Roman
Catholic missionaries and captured Kang-hwa, but retired
without accomplishing anything. Again in 1870 a U. S.
expedition visited the capital to seek redress for the massa-
cre of the crew of a trading schooner, the General Sher-
man, which had been left aground by the receding tide in
1867, but the expedition failed, and Korea remained a her-
mit nation. In 1876, however, Japan succeeded in negotia-
ting a treaty of trade. This was followed by treaties with
China and the U. S. in 1882, with Great Britain and Ger-
many in 18S3. with Russia in 1884, and with France in 1886.
The ports opened by these treaties were Fusan, Gensan, and
Chemulpo (or In-chon).
The more conservative element disapproved of these con-
cessions, and gave expression to their disap])roval in insur-
rections, the most serious of which occurred m 1884 and
1894. On the latter occasion Japan secme<l to think her in-
terests were menaced, and landed a force of 1(1,000 men for
their protection. China, as the suzerain of Korea, resented
this, sent troops to aid the Korean Government, and re-
quested the Japanese to withdraw. This they refused to do
until certain " reforms " were guaranteed, and China finding
herself unable to agree to this, hostilities were begun by
Japan, and war with China was declared. Reaten at every
point in Korea, Manchuria, and .Shantung, the Chinese sued
for peace, and by the treaty of Shimonoseki (Apr. 17, 1895)
acknowledged Korea's independence.
Popnlntinn. — This has been variouslv estimated at from
7,000,000 to 16,500,000. A safe estimate' makes it 14,000,(X)0.
HiBLiouRAPHV. — Uallet, Ilistoire de V Eglise de Curie
(Paris, 1874); Oppert, A Forliidden Land (London, 1880);
Ross, Jli.'itory of ('orea (1880); Griffis, ('urea, the Hermit
Nation (New York, 1882); Corea, M'ithout and Wil/iin
(1885); Lowell, C/iosijn (London and New Ycjrk, 1886);
Carles, Life in, Corea (1888); and Gilraore, Korea from its
Capital (Philadelphia, 1893). R. L'illey.
Knroaii Language: one of the agglutinative class, close-
ly resembling in structure its neighbors, the Japanese and
Manchu, though no actual relationship has Iteeii proved.
The noun is without proper declension, distincti<ms of
number and case being omitted altogether or expresse<l by
post-positive particles. The verb also is without inflection
for person and number, but has various tense and mode
forms. In the sentence the rule of position is that the
qualifying word precedes the word qualified. Thus the
noun is preceded by the adjective or other attributive, the
adjective and verb by the adverb, the verb by its object and
the independent clause by the dependent. The Korean,
like the Japanese, abounds in ceremonious forms of expres-
sion, and the difference in the rank of the speaker, and the
person addressed or spoken of, is marked not only in the use
of a different set of pronouns, l)ut also by various honorific
terminations in the verb. The phonetic structure is less
simi>le than that of the Japanese, combinations of conso-
nants and final consonants being more freely allowed, and
as a consequence monosyllables, which are rare in Japanese,
are common in Korean.
The native alphabet, the invention of which is assigned
to the fourth century A. D., is composed of eleven vow-
els and fourteen consonants. The sonant mutes are ab-
sent, and there is but one sign for I and r, which at
the end of a word has the sound of I, between two vowels
the sound of r, and at the beginning of a word even the
sound of 71. (The Japanese, on the other hand, has no /, and
the Chinese no r.) It is written like the Chinese in vertical
columns, read downward, proceeding from right to left.
Chinese is, however, in such general use in Korea as the lit-
erary language that the Enmun, or native character, is em-
ployed for little except works of fiction read chiefly by
women and children. All official documents, historical
and philosophical works are written in Chinese. The native
literature is despised and neglected, and as a consequence
is of small extent and little value. In the speech also of
the educated classes Chinese words form a large part of the
vocabulary. The traditional Korean pronunciation of Chi-
nese, introduced centuries ago, differs materially from that
of any of the present dialects of China and may be of serv-
ice in tracing the history of Chine.se sounds.
Authorities. — Dictionnaire Cureen-franfais and Gram-
maire Coreenne. by the French missionaries (Yokohama,
1880-81); UnderhilVs Jul rod act ion to the Korean Spoken
Language and Concise Dictionary of the Korean Language
(Yokohama, 1890). Addison Yan Name.
Korolenko, Yladimir Galaktioxovich : author; b. in
Zhitomir, government of Yolhynia, Russia, July 15, 18.53. He
was e<iucated in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but while still
a student got into political trouble, was exiled to Cronstadt,
then to Perm ; and in 1879 was banished to Eastern Siberia.
In 1885 he was allowed to return, and settled in Nizhni-
Novgorod. Many of his jjroductions have been translated
into other languages. In English there is a volume of his
sketches called The Vagrant, etc. (New Y'ork, 1888); his
S/ppoi ^fusikant (The Blind Musician) and In Two Moods
(New York, 1890-91). See al.so The Cosmopolitan (\oL vi.,
p. 147) for his Son Mnkara (Makar's Dream). Besides this
he hiis written Sokolintts, In Bad Society, The Forest Mur-
murs, etc. Korolenko is deservedly one of the most popu-
lar Russian writers of his time. Several of his works have
been pulilished under the title Ocherki i Razskazy (Sketches
and '1 ales, .Mo.scow, 1887). A. C. Coolidqe.
Kor'ting', Gl-stav: philologist; b. at Dresden, June 25,
1845. Became in 1876 Professor of Romance and English
Philologvat Miiuster; in 1893 at Kiel. He has i>ublished
cxtensivelv in both fields : Ueher die Quellen des Roman de
Ron (1867); Dictys und Dares (1874); GeschicMe der Lit-
eratur Italiens im Zeitnller der Renaissance (3 vols.. 1878^
82); Encyclopddie und Methodologie der romanischen Phi-
loloqie (3 vols.. 1884-80); Orundriss der Geschichte der eng-
lisc)ien Literatur (1887); Neuphilologische Essays (1887);
Encyclopddie der englischen Philologie (1887); Laleinisch-
24
kOrting
kOstlix
romaiiisehes Wurterbiich (1891); Formeiilehre der framOsi-
schen Spraefie (vol. i., !(<!»;(). In 18 ill lie founded with
Kosihwitz the Zeilsehrifl fur iieitframOsische Sprache und
Lileraliir. mid in 1880, with the siime, the periodiciil Friin-
zosinrhe Stiidieii. A. It. Marsh.
Kortili^. IIkinriim Kari. Otto: philologist: brother of
Gustiiv Kortins: ^- "' I-eipzi;;, Mar. 1."), 18511; d. there July
19, 1890. He was doeent and then Professor of Honiance
Philolo;;)- at Leijizij;. He published L' Imitation de Jexiis-
Christ und die Louanges de la Hainte- Vierije (1882; 2il ed.
1883); Geschichte der franzOxisrhen Unmans im XVI J.
Jalirhundert (2 vols., 188.J-87; 2d ed. 1891). After 1885 he
was the dircetor of the Zeitschrift fur neuframosinche
Sprache und Literalur. A. U. M.
Ko9 : island of Grecian Archipelago. See Cos.
Kosch'nitz. KriiARi): Komanee philologist; b. at Breslau,
Oct. T. 18.')1. In 1877 his universitv career began with his
appointment as privat docent at Stra-ssburg. He is now
(1894) professor at Greifswald. He has published, among
other works, Sechs Searbeitungen von Karls d. dr. lieise
nach Jerusalem und Konslantinopel (1879); Les plus ati-
ciens monumentsde la langue franfai.te (1879; 4th ed. 1886);
Kummentar zit den iiltesten frnnsOsinchen Sprachdenkmd-
/ern (18S6) ; Orammatik der neufranzusisc/ien Schriftspiache
(/h""-/.'*"" Jahrh.): i. Lautlelire (1889). In 1879 (with G.
Korting) he founded the Zeitschrift fur nenfranzosische
Sprache und Literatur. and in 1880 (with the same) Fran-
zOsische Sludien. A. K. Marsh.
Koscius'ko: town: capital of Attala co.. Miss, (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Mississippi, ref. ()-G); on the Illi-
nois Cent. Kailroad ; 1.50 miles S. by K. of ^lemphis, Tenn.
It is in an agricultural and milling region, and raises and
ships considerable cotton. There are 7 churclies, high
school, 2 public schools, and 3 weekly newspapeis. Pop.
(1.S80) 1.126; (1890) 1.394; (1893) by extension of corporate
limits, estimated, 1,800. Editor of "Star."
Koscius'ko, Tuaddeis (in Polish Tadeusz Kosciuszlo,
kosh-tsoosh ko) : general and patriot; b. in Lithuania, Po-
land, Feb. 12, 1746, of an ancient princely race. Educated
in Warsaw, Paris, and other European capitals, ho was
made an officer in a regiment; but having sued in vain for
the hand of a daughter of the vice-grand-genenil of Lithu-
ania, and the King of Poland himself being unable to for-
ward his suit with the iinwilling father of the young lady
(to whom Kosciusko had been a tutor), he saileil in 1777
from Dantzic for the U. S. He served gallantly throtigh
the war of the Kevolution, was made a member of the Cin-
cinnati, a brigadier-general by brevet, and received the
thanks of Congres.s. Ueturning to his mitive land in 1786,
he fought with valor against the Kussians in the war of
1792. In spite of the brilliant victory at Dubienka, and
the generally successful conduct of the war, the miser-
able king, Stanislaus, concluded a humiliating pea<'e, and in
1793 the second partition of Poland followed. A general
rising took place, and Kosciusko was made dictator. He
defeated the Kussian army before Cracow, and drove it be-
yond the Prussian frontier. Warsaw massacred and ex-
pelled the Russian garrison, and for a moment the liberty
of Poland .seemed assured. A Prussian army now entered
the country from the one side, while two Russian armies,
under Suwarow and Person, advanced from the other,
and, notwithstanding the prodigies of valor performed
by the unhappy Poles, with Kosciusko at their head, they
were totally overpowered at Macieowice, where their com-
mandi'r fell covc'red with wounds. The statement very
often .made that Kost-iusko exclaimed " Finis Polonia' I" as
he fell he always indignantly denied. Imprisoned at St.
Petersburg, he was set free in 1796 by the Emperor Paul,
from whom he refused the offer of a sword. He revisited
the U. S., where he received a pension and a grant of land :
but in the following year he returned to France, displeased
by the passage of the Alien law. He put no confidence in
the promises of Xapolecm I. The address to the Polish peo-
ple, which Napoleon issued in his name in order to make
them rise against Russia, he opeidy disavowed. In 1816 he
fi.ved his residence at Soleurj, Switzerland, and in the fol-
lowing year set free the serfs on his paternal estate. D. at
Soleure, Oct. 17, 1817. See .J. L. Chodzko, Ilislorg of Kos-
ciusko, Military, Political, and Private; also Michelet,
Pologne et liussie. Revised by C. K. Adasis.
Kosciusko. Mount: the highest jieak of the Australian
Al])s; 7,176 feet high; situated on the boundary between
the provinces of Xew South Wales and Victoria, about equi-
distant between Sydney and Melliourne. The chain of moun-
tains to which it belongs affords the most picturesque scen-
ery on the Australian continent.
Koslof : See Eupatoria.
Kossuth, kosh'oot. Loins (or Lajos) : patriot ; b. at Monok,
Hungary, April 27, 1802, of a family originally Slavic,
and not Magyar, of noble rank and of the Lutheran faith.
Louis was carefully educated, and in 1826 became a suc-
cessful advocate in Monok ; renu)ved in 1831 to Pest ; en-
tered the upper house of the diet in 1832 as substitute
for an absent member, and by his ceaseless activity as a
writer and jourmilist did miuh to disseminate liberal prin-
ciples; was imprisoned at Huda 1837-40 as a political of-
fender; was editor of the Pest Journal 1841-44; entered
the lower house of the diet in 1847. and became the leader
of the liberals, advocating among other reforms the en-
franchisement of. the peasantry and the freedom of the
press. He headed the deputation of 1848 demanding a new
ministry, in which he became minister of finance; but not
satisfied with these concessions, he demanded in 1849 the
complete inde|)endence of Hungary. With the triumph of
the radical element in the Hungarian Government and the
resignation of Halthyanyi, Kossuth became the virtual dic-
tatfir. After the declaration of inde|)endenee (Apr. 14,
1849), he acted jis ]irovisiomd governor of Hungary, and
directed the military o))erati<ms of 1849 till the hopelessness
of the cause induced him to resign his dictatorial powers
into the hands of his rival Giirgei. He escaped to Turkey,
where he was protected, notwithstanding tlie demaiuls of
Austria and Russia 'for his extradition. In 1851 he was al-
lowed to go on board the U. S. steamer Mississippi, which
had been sent out for him by the U. S. Government ; visited
EnglaiKl ; made the to\ir of the U. S. 1851-52, and delivered
manv elor|uent though fruitless appeals for the influence of
the V. S. in behalf of the principle of non-intervention, l)e-
lieving that if Ru.ssia had not assisted Austria in 1849, Hun-
gary would have become free ; after 1852 resided in London
and from 1863 in Turin, engaged in pilitical projects, in
public speaking, in writing for lil>eral jounuils, and in sci-
entific observations. He denied all participation in the in-
surrection in Milan in Feb., 1853. During the wars of Aus-
tria against France (1859) ami Prussia (1866) he was actively
engaged in preparing for insurrections in Hungary, but the
speedy termination of both wars frustrated his hopes. In
Xov., 1879, he lost his rights as a Hungarian citizen. D. in
Turin, Mar. 20, 1894. He received a pulilic funeral at Buda-
pest, is to have a national monument there, and his country-
men propose to erect a statue of him in the city of Xew York.
Kossuth, greatest of Hungarians, in his best days was one
of the most impassioned and elTective of public speakers,
and possessed a mar\elous capacity for the acquisition of
languages. See the work Ij. Kossuth (Leipzig, 1851-52, 2
vols., in German); the Select Speeches of Aossuth, by M. F.
W. Xewmann (London, 1853) ; Kossuth's Letters (Pest, 1862) ;
and Kossuth's Letters to Bern, 1849 (Pe.st, 1872). His Mem-
oirs of My L'xile were published in 1880, and his Memoirs,
which he c(uupleted before his death, are to be issued in
several vohiuies. Kcvi.sed by ,)ami;s Grant Wilson.
Kostendil', or (Jliiustendil': town of Bulgaria; on the
Struma (anc. Stnjmon) : 32 miles S. W. from Sophia. It
has warm sul[>hurous springs. Pop. (1880) 10.689.
Koster, Lairkns Janszoon : See Coster.
Kos'ter, or Coster, Sami'kl: Dutch poet. The details of
his life are little known; born about 1.580. and died about
1650. He was a physician at .\msterdam, and belonged to
the circle of eminent men who lived and wrote there —
Hooft, Huyghens, Vondel, etc. He founded in 1617 the
Duytsche Akademie, which rcjilaced the older chambers of
rhetoric. He is chiefly known for his tragedies : Itys (1615) ;
Isabella (1618); Iphigenia (1617); Poli/xena (1630). His
native and peculiar powers appear, however, (|uite as well
in his comic pieces: Kluchlen Tecuu-is dv boer en mi njufer
van Grevflinckhui/sen (1612); Tijsken van dir Schilden
(1615); De Spel van de rijckc man (1615), A. R. Marsh.
Kost'lin, or Koestlin, .lri,iis Theodor, 1). D. : theolo-
gian ; b. in Stuttgart, (termauy. May 17, 1826; studied in Til-
bingen and Berlin; became iirofessor at Giittingen (1855),
at Hreslau (1860), and at Halle (1870). Among his works
are two lives of Martin Luther, the more popular of which
ap(ieared in 1883 in two English translations, while the other
is an exhaustive and elaborate scientific treatment of the sub-
KOSTROMA
KOUSSO
25
ject (2 vols., Elberfekl, 1875) ; also Lulhers Theologie (3 vols.,
Stuttgart, 186:3). He is one of the editors of the Theolo-
gische SliiJien und Kritiken. H. E. Jacobs.
Kostro'ma: government of Europeim Russia; situated
nearly in the center of the country, and truvenseil l>y the
Volga. Tlie surface is low and flat, dotted with lakes, and
covered with dense forests. The climate is severe, yet good
crops of grain are produced. Tar. pitch, and potash ar(>
manufactured, and much tiudjer is exported. Area, 32,702
sq. miles. Pop. (1886) 1,361,915.
Kostroma : town of European Russia; the capital of the
government of Kostroma ; on the Kostroma, near its influ.'C
into the ^'olga (see map of Russia, ref. 6-E). It has 40
churches, 2 monasteries, a seminary, a gymnasium, and sev-
eral other educational institutions, large manufactures of
leather and linen, and an important trade in corn and tim-
ber. Pop. 31,196.
Kostoinar'ov, XikolaI Ivanovich : historian, novelist,
and poet ; b. in 1817 in Ostrogosz, government of Voronezh,
Russia; d. Apr. 19, 1885. In 1847 he was appointed in-
structor at the University of Kharkov, where he had been
a student, but was dismissed after a year becau.si! his ef-
forts to promote the development of Little Russian as a
separate tongue were displeasing to the government. A
secret society he had Joined with the same object was dis-
covered ; he was arrested, and was ordered to live in Sara-
tov, which he did until the death of the Emperor Nicholas.
In 1859 he was appointed professor at the L niversity of St.
Petersburg, but resigned in 1861 after some disturbances,
henceforward refusing repeated invitations to take another
place. His earliest works were poems in Little Russian,
but, as he was forbidden in 1847 to write in this language,
he turned to history, at first devoting himself to that of the
Ukraine. His works are written in a brilliant poetical style
that has made them very popular, and has given them a place
in literature. Among the most important are The Cossack
W(ir wi/h Poland up to Bugdan Khmelnitski'i (1856); Bog-
dnn Khinebiitskii (1857); The Hetman Wyhowski'i (1861);
History of the Republics of Novgorod, Pskoi; and Ylatka
(1863); The Commerce of Moscow in the Sixteenth and Sev-
enteenth Centuries (1858); History of tJie Polish Republic
(1870) ; The Ruin (1879) ; Mazeppa (1882) ; The Followers of
3Iazeppa (1884) ; and his unfinished History of Russia in
the Biographies of her Great Men, of which fifty were writ-
ten, reac'hing down to the early part of the eighteenth cen-
tury (German translation begun at Leipzig, 1885). Many of
Kostoraarov's views have been opposed by Polish and by
other Russian historians, but his influence has been great.
His tragedy Cremetius Cordius has little merit, and his
Kudejar (1875) and other novels are chiefly important for
their historical background. A. C. Coolidge.
Ko'tah : one of the independent Rajput states, under
British protection, in Hindustan. Its capital, Kotah, is
situated on the Chambal, in lat. 25' 9' N. and Ion. 75" 5' E. ;
it is fortified, and is a town of some importance, having
good bazaars, many temples, and substantial houses. Area,
3,797 sq. miles. Pop. 520,000.
Kotlieii, kci'ten (also spelled Cothen) : town ; in the duchy
of Anhalt, Germany ; 19 miles N. of Halle (see map of Ger-
man Empire, ref. 4-F). It has a handsome ducal palace
■with several fine collections, has good educational institu-
tions, and important sugar industries. Down to 1853 the
town was the capital of the principality of Anhalt-Kcitheu.
Poji. (1890) 18,215.
Kottbus: See Cottbus.
Kotzi'hiio, August Friedrich Ferdinan'D, von : b. at
Weimar. Jlay 3. 1761 ; studied law at .Jena and Duisburg,
and went in 1781 to St. Petersburg, where he was appointed
to various important positions in the Russian civil service.
Returning to Germany, he lived at Weimar and Vienna,
and devoted most of his time to the writing of his many
plays and farces. In 1806 he went back to Russia and pub-
lished his violent attacks against Xapoleon. He remained
in Russian services, though he lived alternately in St. Peters-
burg and in Gernumy. In 1817 he was sent to the latter
country with a salary of 15,000 roubles to report directly to
the Russian emperor on the liberal movement in Germany.
The indii^nntiou among the German people was very great,
and in 1S19 (.Mar. 23) a student, Karl Sand, stabbed him at
Manidieim. Though Kotzebue, who doubtlessly possessed
great dramatic talent, wrote about 200 pieces and was very
popular for many years, his plays are now justly forgotten.
He flattered the lowest of human instincts, and believed to
be able in this way to satisfy his craving for fame and his
morbid vanity. Goethe's opinion of the man has j)roved
itself correct, and the attempt of Charles Kabany, a French
writer, to make of Kotzebue a (ierman Moliere must be
considered an utter failure. See W. von Kotzebue, August
von Kotzebue (Dresden, 1881) ; Charles Rabanv, Kotzebue
(Paris and Nancy, 1893). Julius Goebel.
Koiilan : See Dziggetai.
Kotoslii'kliin^r Kosliikliin.GRiGORiI: Russian writer;
lived about the niTddle of the seventeenth century. He was
an official in the department of ambassadors (i. e. foreign
affairs) of the Tsar Alexis, but in l(i61 fell into disfavor be-
cause his conscience did not allow him to do something or-
dered by his superiors. He fled to Poland, Prussia, and
then Sweden, where he remained, and where he became a
Lutheran. In 1666-67 he wrote for the Swedish chancellor
a work describing the empire of Muscovy, but soon after
was executed for a murder committed from jealousy. His
treatise was discovered in the library of the University of
Upsala in 1838, and published in 1859 by the imperial ar-
chaeological commission under the title 0 RossiX v Tsarst-
vovanie Aleksiia Mikha'dorich (About Russia in the Reign
of Alexis Mikhailovieh ; last ed. 1884). Kotoshikhin's ac-
count is most curious and interesting, and it is clear, trust-
worthy, and to the point. The picture it gives us is far
from flattering. See art. by Grot in Publ. of the Imperial
Academy of Sciences (vol. xxix., 1867). A. C. Cooliuge.
Koumiss, Knmys. or Kumiz [from Russ. kutnys. from
Tartar A-K;«i>, fermented mare"s milk]: a fermented bever-
age made from mare's milk in the steppes of Russia by the
Kirgheez, Tartars, Bashkeers, CalmucKs, etc. The alcohol
is derived from the milk-sugar, which is present in mare's
milk in larger quantity than in the milk of other animals.
The fresh milk is diluted with one-third to one-sixth water,
and placed in a sack of goatskin or the skin from the en-
tire hind quarter of a horse, the wider end serving for the
base, and the leg portion for the neck. There is generally
added some yeast, the sediment from a previous brewing,
called kor, to induce fermentation. Frequent stirring or
shaking is essential to success. In from twelve to twenty-
four hours the fermentation is complete, the product being
known as Young koumiss or saumal. Fresh milk is added
daily, and as the product is concentrated by the evaporation
of water from the surface of the hide the old koumiss is
much stronger than the new. Koumiss is an acid liquid of
a not unpleasant pungent taste and an ethereal bouquet. It
effervesces when poured into a glass. It is very intoxicating
to persons not accustomed to its use, ami produces drowsi-
ness. Besides alcohol and carbonic acid it contains the
other constituents of the milk, except the sugar, and is con-
sequently very nourishing. It is easily assimilated, even by
invalids, and the hardy vigor of the Tartars is attributed to
its general use among them. Koumiss yields by distillation
a strong liquor called by the Calmucks arraca, rack, or racky.
From the residue in the still they uuike a kind of hasty-pud-
ding. Beverages somewhat similar to koumiss have long
been made in the Orkney and Shetland islands, in Arabia
(called leban), and in Turkey (called yaoust).
Koumiss has attracted much attention ai'nong European
physicians, and its manufacture has been introduced at
Moscow, St. Petersburg, Vienna, and London. It may bo
inaile from the milk of any animal. The following analysis
was made by Wanklyn of the contents of a bottle of kou-
miss, twelve days old, made from cow's milk in London.
Water 10.662 grains.
Alcohol 192 ••
Caseine and albumen 128
Sugar (lactose) 582 "
Lactic acid 130 "
Fat 36 "
Ash 90 ••
Carbonic acid 180 "
Total 12.000 grains.
It is claimed that koumiss is most valuable for the treat-
ment of extreme del)ility and all the phases of impending
marasmus. It is said to have specific action in diabetes.
Revised by H. A. Hare.
Koiisso. or Cns'so [Abyssinian] : a drug consisting of the
flowers and unripe fruit of Brayera anlhelmintica, a small
rosaceous tree of East Central Africa. It is an efficacious
and safe but costly remedy for tapeworm.
26
KOVALEVSKIT
KRANACH
KoTttleT'sklK, EooR PETROvirn : traveler; 1>. in the gov-
ernmi'iit of Kharkov, Kussia, ill 1811. After travels in Si^
beria, he spent four months in Moiitenef;ro (1841) ; in 1847
he went into Upper Egypt to investigate for Mehemet Ali
the Kolii in the regions of Fasogl ; two ycai-s later he acooin-
panietl a religious mission to China, anil opened a new route
through Mongolia for caravan trade; in 1851 he eonoluded
a favorable eonimereial treaty with the Chinese empire; and
in 18.50 was put at the head" of the department of Asiatic
affairs in St. Petersburg. As assistant to the president of
the Russian Geographical Society he origindted scientific ex-
ploring expeditions to Khorassiin, Kashgar, etc. D. Oct. 2,
1868. KovalevskiT was the author of several books on his
own journeys, as well as a Life of Count liludov and a His-
tory of the Crimean \S'(ir (German trans. Leipzig, 18(i9). His
complete works were published in St. Petei-sburg (18G8).
A. C. CoOLIIXiK.
Kov'no: government of Western Russia; bounded by
Prus-sia and Poland, and watered bv the Niemen and its
tributaries. Area, 15.6il3 sq. miles. Pop. (1886) 1.551,6:5.").
The surface is low and flat, and more than two-thirds are
covered with lakes and dense forests. Rye, wheat, flax, and
hemp are extensively cultivated.
Korno: town of Western Russia; the capital of the gov-
ernment of Kovno; at the confluence of the Vilia and the
Nienien : 94 miles by rail E. N. ¥j. of Konigsberg (see map
of Russia, ref. 7-H). It has many good institutions for mili-
tary, theological, and scientific education, and considerable
traile. Pop. (1886) 50,873.
Koxinga, ko-shing'ah, or koksinggrj; a noted Chinese
pirate of the seventeenth century who, with thousands of
men at command, terrorized the China seas, plundered the
coast towns, opposed the Manchu invasion of the southern
provinces, drove the Dutch from the island of Formosa, and
established himself there as king. He was the son of Ching
chih-lung, a native of Fuh-kien, wlio while in the Dutch serv-
ice in Japan had married the daughter of a Japanese merchant,
and who had himself amassed great wealth as a freebooter,
but who about 16:J6 abandoned piracy, became admiral of
the Chinese imperial fleet, and attained high rank and posi-
tion at court. When later Ching chih-lung submitted to
the Manchu conquerors of Northern China, and had been
thrown in prison by them, Koxinga took command of his
father's freebooling followers, and proceeded to levy war on
the Manehus, carrying fire and sword everywhere, and suc-
cessfully defied every imperial fleet sent against him. In
one sea-fight in 1659 he took 4,000 prisoners, whom, however,
he set free after cutting off their ears and noses. In 1661 he
turned his arms against the Dutch, who then occupied For-
mosa, and besieged their forts so ctosely that in the follow-
ing year they surrendered and sailed for Java. Koxinga
now proclaimed himself king, and from Formosa as a base
of operations so harrie<l the Manchu rulers of China, who
were utterly unable to cope with him, that in 1662 a decree
was issued coraman<ling all the people on pain of death to
remove themselves ancl their effects 3 leagues into the in-
terior, to abandon all islands, and to cease all commerce.
This was done. In the following year Koxinga was killed
in a sea-fight with the Dutch before he li&<l an opportunity
to carry out a scheme he had formed of adding the Philip-
pines to his possessions.
The name Koxinga is a corruption throiigh the Portuguese
of Chinese Kwoli-Shing, "National Surname," a title be-
stowed on him by the last emperor of the Ming dynasty
(1368-1643), who rennirked that he was "worthy to bear the
imperial surname." R. Lillkv.
Kozlov', Ivan IvANoncH : poet; b. in Russia, Apr. 11,
1779. He early entered the service of the Government, was
rapidly promoted, and until his thirty-third year seemed
likely to have a prosperous and commonplace career. Sud-
denly he was .stricken with jiaralysis in his legs, and shortly
after became blind. Previous to this he had not attempted
to write poetry, but from the time of his misfortune until
his ileatli (Jan. 30, 1840) it was his chief occupation and
comfort. He was a smooth and harrncjiiious writer of the
romantic school, but lacking in depth ami vigor. His best-
known poem, C/irrnels (The M(jnk), wa,s exiremely i>opiilar,
yet soon forgotten. Most of his shorter pieces, not unnatu-
rally, breathe a spirit of gentle melancholy and resignation.
He wa-s also active as a translator from Hums, Wordsworth,
Moore, and especially Hyron ; but though his versifii'ation
is remarkable, the force of the original is too often absent.
It wua not until after losing his eyesight that he mastered
German and English, the latter so completely that he ren-
dered into English verse Pushkin's Fouiittiin of Jiakhchi-
serai. There nave been four editions of Kozlov's works,
the last in 1855 (St. Petersburg). A. C. Coolidge.
Kraov'sklK, Andre! Ai-kksandrovich : journalist; b. in
Moscow. Russia, Feb. 6. 1810. After getting his degree of
doctor of laws at the I'niversity of Moscow he contributed
several articles on different subjects to the Jiiurnal of the
Ministry of Public Instruction and other publications. From
1839 to 1849 he was editor of the Oteche.itvenni/la Zapiski
(National Annals), in which many of the chief writers of the
day published their works ; in 1857 he founded the literary
supplement to the Jiusskil Invalid (liussiiin Invalid), a mili-
tary paiier,and in 1863 .started the (?w/o.s (Voice), which grew
to have the largest circulation of any newspaper in Russia.
D. Aug. 20, 1889. Kraevskii was a moderate liberal, and
more than once succeeded in maintaining a certain inde-
pendence when it was far from easy. A. C. Coolidge.
Krafft-El>ing. kraaft abing, RicnABD, von, M. D.: neu-
rologist ; b. in Mannheim, Germany, Aug. 14, 1840 ; was
educated at the University of Heidelberg; was Professor of
Psychiatry in the Univei'sity of Stra.ssl)urg 1872-73, and in
the University of Graz 187:i-89 ; has been Professor of Psy-
chiatry and Nervous Diseases in the Universitv of Vienna
since 1889; is the author of OrundzTige dcr Kriminalpsy-
chologie (2d ed. 1882); Lehrtnich der genclilliclten Psi/cho-
pathologie (2d ed. 1881) ; Lehrbucli der Psycbiatrie (4th ed.
1890) ; Ueber gesunde uiid kranke Aerven (3d ed. 1886) ;
Psi/cliopathia sexualis (7th ed. 1892); 2^'eue Porsehungen
auf dem Gebiete der Pxychopathia sexualis (2d ed. 1891);
and over 200 professional essays. C. H. Thurber.
Krajnik, krin y<"ck. Mirosi.av; poet; b. at Humpolec,
Bohemia, in 1S.50; studied and practiced law at Prague,
where he now lives. In 1870 he published a collection of
his poems, Bdntie, at Prague, translated Hcranger's poems
from the French, and also wrote a tragedy, Jan Rohdi Z
Dube (1881). and epic sketches of Ukraina. J.J. K.
Krajova; a town of Roumania; at one time the princi-
pal place in Little Wallachia ; on the river Schyl ; 160 miles
by rail W. of Bucharest (see map of Turkey, ref. 2-C). It
has twenty-seven Greek churches, a Protestant and a Roman
Catholic church, several synagogues, a theater, several insti-
tutions of learning, and a beautiful park. There are pro-
ductive salt mines in the vicinity. Pop. 40,000.
Krakato'a : a volcano on an island of the same name ; in
the Strait of .Sunda, between Java and .Sumatra. The ear-
liest recorded iTuption was in 1680. The volcano then be-
came dormant, and stood as an irregular peak 2,623 feet
high until 1883, when there occurred one of the most stu-
pendous eru]itions ever known. The eruption began in
May. and continued until Aug. 27, when a large part of the
island was blown away, and fragments of iiumice and dust
thrown to a height by estimate of 20 miles. Gaining the
region <if the upjier air-currents the dust was carried around
the entire earlli. and produced remarkable twilight glows
for many months. The sound of the exi)losion was heard
at a distance of 2.247 miles. The waves jiroduced in the
air traveled four and a half times around the world. Sea
waves 50 feet high swept the neighboring shores, and smaller
waves were observed on distant coasts over half the globe.
One hundred and sixty-three villages were destroyed, and
36.380 human l)eings perished. Consult lieport of the Kra-
katoa Commitlfe of the Poyal Society, edited by G. J.
Symoiis (London, 1888). Israel C. Russell.
Kra'koii 1= Dan. : Norw. kralce^: a fabulous sea-mon-
ster descrilied for the first time under this name by Pontop-
pidaii in his Sorges JVa/urli(je llistorie, which was \tvSy.
lished in 1753. Pontoppidan liases his statement on the re-
ports of fishermen. The fishermen row out a few miles, and
touch bottom at 20 to 30 fathoms, where the sea is known
to be 80 l(j 100 fathoms deep. The krakeii is there, and this
is an iiidicaticin that tlie place is favorable for cod-fishing.
If the kraken begins to rise, the fishermen must make haste
to row away or tiiey will perish in the waves. The kraken
may thus be seen rising to the surface like an island with
fins and other projections, rising as high as a ship's ma.st.
After a few moments it sinks to the liollom again. The
tales of the kraken are doubtless exaggerated accounts of
cephalopods and other large denizens of the deep seen by
fishermen. Rasmus B. Anderson.
Krakow : See Cracow.
Kranach : Sec Cranacii.
KRANTZ
KRAUTH
21-
Krantz. Albert : historian ; b. in Hamburg, Germany,
about 1450; was eduoatod in tliat city and at Rostock, anil
became rector of the University of Rostock in 1483. He
represented the Hanscatic towns on several important dip-
lomatic missions, which he fulfilled with success, and in
1500 was chosen by the King of Denmark and the Duke of
Holstein as arbitrator in their difference over the province
of Ditniarschen. As dean of the churches of Hamburg he
showed great zeal for removing the ainises in the Church,
but opposed the views set forth in the writings of Wyclifle
and Huss, and prophesied ill of Luther's movement. "D. in
Hamburg, Dec. 7. 1517. His chief works are Vandalia, or
History of the True Origin of the Vandals, etc. (1519) ;
Saxonia (1520); Chronicle of the Kingdoms of Sweden,
Denmark, and Xorway (1545) ; and Metropolis, or History
of the Church in Saxony (1.548).
Krantz, Jeax Baptiste Sebastien ; civil engineer ; b. at
Arches, Vosges, France, Jan. 17, 1817; entered the Poly-
technic School in 1836 and the 6cole de Fonts et Chaussees
in 1838 ; became ordinary engineer in 1843 and engineer-in-
chief in 1864. In 1867 he constructed the Palais d'Industrie
of the Universal Exposition. In 1868 he invented a very in-
genious movable dam for the Seine, which, however, was not
generally adopted. In 1870 he rendered special services dur-
ing the siege of Paris, and was elected senator in 1871. In
1876, appointed commissioner-general of the exposition of
1878, he devoted eighteen months to the construction of the
buildings of the Champ-de-Mars and the Trocadcro, and to
the organization of the sections. He was also commissioner-
general of the French Government to the Columbian Expo-
sition of 1893. lie retired in 1877 with the title of honorary
inspector-general of Fonts et Chaussees and grand officer of
the Legion of Honor. He has published Studies on the Use
of the Army on Public Works: The Creation of an Army of
Public ^Yol ks ; Reservoir Walls ; Remarks on Principal and
Local Line, of Railway ; and On Cheap Railways, Stand-
ard and Narrow Gauge. W. R. HiTTo.v.
Krapotkia, Prince : See Kropotkix.
Krasic'ki, Ionacy : ecclesiastic and author ; b. at Du-
biecko, Galicia, 1734 ; studied theology in Rome ; was made
Bishop of Ermeland in 1767, Archbishop of Gnesen in 1795,
and died at Berlin, Jlar. 14, 1801. As Ermeland was an-
nexed to Prussia in 1772 Krasicki became a Prussian sub-
ject, and his talents and elegant attainments soon made him
a favorite of Frederick II. His writings, collected in War-
saw in ten volumes in 1803, are mostly satirical, and pro-
cured for him the name of the Polish Voltaire. His Jlono-
inachia (War of Monks), a satirical epic, and his fables have
been translated both into German and French.
Krasinsbi, kra'a-sin ski, Zygmunt Napoleox, Count :
Polish poet; b. in Paris, Feb. 19, 1812; a son of Count
Wyncenty Krasiriski, an adjutant to Napoleon, later a
Russian general. When he became of age he left his na-
tive country, lived in different European capitals, and died
in Paris, Feb. 24, 1839. As a poet he stands next to Mickie-
wicz and Slowacki, and his works have considerably in-
fluenced the modern Polish poets. His best works are Iri-
dion, a drama depicting the struggle of Christian ideals
with those of ancient Rome ; Xieboska komedya (Undivine
Comedy, 1837-48), a fantastic drama; Przedswit (The Dawn)
and Psalmy przysslo.ici (Psalms of the Future), lyrical poems
praising heroism and martyrdom, combining patriotism with
piety. Revised by J. J. Kral.
Krfisnohorskfi, kraasno-hor'-skaa, Eliska (pseudonym
for Jindfiska Pechora) : poet ; b. Xov. 18, 1847, at Prague,
Bohemia, where she still lives. She was educated at a pri-
vate institution (Prague had no high schools for women
then). Hers was a family of artists, and she knew notes of
music before she knew the alphabet. To literature and po-
etry she was introduced by Mme. Karolina Svetla {q. v.).
In 1874 she, became editor of the Zeriske Listy (The Woman's
Journal). Her principal works are collections of lyrical
Eoems, noted for tenderness and appreciation of nature's
eauties : Z mdje iiti (From the May of Life, 1870); Ze
Sumavy (From the Bohemian Forest, 1873) ; Ylny v proudu
(Waves in the Stream) ; Lelorosty (Young Twigs)), etc.
J. J. Kral.
Srasnovodsk : a Russian fortress, on a bay of the same
name, on the southeastern shore of the Caspian Sea: in lat.
40^ N. ; an important starting-jjoint for scientific and mili-
tary expeditions to Central Asia (see map of Russia, ref.
12-1). Feter the Great understood the importance of the
point, and used it in an undertaking against Khiva, but
afterward it fell into decay, until it was once more occupied
and fortified in Nov.. 18(59. A Russian naval station was
established here in 1875.
Krasnojarsk' : town of Siberia; capital of the govern-
ment of \eniseisk, on the Yenisei, which at this point is
frozen for 160 days in the year (see map of Asia, ref. 3-K).
It is a neat town, with considerable trade in fur and
leather. There are important gold mines in the vicinity.
It was founded in 1622 by Cossacks, but was not made the
capital of the government until 1822. Fop. 17,000.
Kraszewski, kra~a-shevski, Jozef Ignacy (Boleslawita) :
poet, novelist, and historian ; b. at Warsaw, Poland, July 26,
1812 ; educated at Biala, Lublin, and Swislocz ; entered the
University of Wilno in 1829, studied literature and history,
and began writing epic poems and historical novels. In
1835 he retired to his estate in WolhvTiia ; 1841-52 edited
The Athenceum ; 1859 went to Warsaw as editor of the Gaze-
la polska (formerly Codzienna) ; resigned in 1862, and, ow-
ing to political troubles, went to Dresden in 1863 as an exile.
There he lell a victim to Bismarck's hatred of the Polish,
was tried for high treason (1884), and sentenced to three
and a half years' imprisonment at JIagdeburg, but was re-
leased in 1886, at the intervention of Humbert, King of
Italy, upon giving bail in 20,000 marks ; went to Italy, and
later to Switzerland, where he died at Geneva. Mar. 19', 1887.
He was the most prolific writer of modern Poland, having
written over 400 volumes of epic poems, novels, romances,
histories, critical essays, traveling sketches, etc. His prin-
cipal works are Anafielas. a large epic based on Lithuanian
history, in three parts : 1. Witolorauda (Wilna, 1840) ; 2.
Jlindows; and 3. Witoldowe boje (Witold's Wars, 1843);
romances and novels : Poeta i szwiat (The Poet and tlie
World, 1839) ; liana (Wilno, 1841) ; Kordecki (1852); Chata
za wsia (The Hut beyond the Village, 1855) ; Dziecie starego
miasta (Children of the Old City) ; Morituri (Going to Die,
1871) ; Resurrecluri (1871) ; Szatan i kobieta (The Devil
and the Woman, 1841), a fantastic drama ; historical works :
Litwa, starozytne dzieje, etc. (Lithuanian Antiquities, War-
saw, 1850) ; Historija Litwy do XI 11. wieku, a history of
Wilno (1840—42) ; and Polska w czasie trzech rozbior&w
(Poland at the Time of the Three Partitions, Posen, 1875).
J. J. Kral.
Krans, Eberhard Ludwig Avgtist, JI. D., Ph. D. : physi-
cian and lexicographer ; b. at Helmstiidt, Brunswick, Dec.
12, 1777; studied in his native town and in the Caroline
College in Brunswick ; from 1802-06 pursued his medical
studies in the universities of Helmstiidt and Gottingen, re-
ceiving M. D. from the latter in 1808 and Ph. D. from the
former in 1809. From 1808 he was privat docent in Got-
tingen University, teaching internal medicine and phar-
macology, and during the campaign of 1815 he taught
anatomy and surgery as a substitute for Langenbeck. He
devoted his extensive medical and philological knowledge
to lexicography, and published in 1821 his Kritisch-etymo-
logisches ynedicinisches Le.rikon, that jjassed through three
editions by 1844, to each of which he made numerous addi-
tions. This lexicon has served as a rich mine of informa-
tion for all subsequent lexicographers. Among his other
writings are Wi,ssenschaftliche Uebersicht der gesammten
Heilmittellehre (Gottingen, 1831); Da^ kunstgemasse Heil-
mittelverordnen (Gottingen. 1834) ; Allgemeine Xosologie
und Therapie (Gottingen, 1838). D. Oct. 5, 1845.
S. T. Armstrong.
Kranse, krow'zf, Karl Christian Friedrich : philoso-
pher ; b. at Eisenberg, in the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, Ger-
many, May 6, 1781 ; studied at Jena ; lectured on philosophy
at Berlin, Gottingen, and Munich, but lived privately at
Dresden most of the time, ani^ died at Munich, Sept.' 27,
1832. His views of the human race, as forming part of a
higher and more spiritual realm, led him to peculiar ideas
concerning the destiny of mankind, the development of
human life, and the organization of human society, and
these ideas brought him in connection with the Freemasons.
His writings in this line. Die drei altesten Kuristurkunden
der Preimaurerbri.derschaft (1810); Hohere Yergeistigung
derecht uberlieferten Grundsymhole der jFreimaurerei {1810);
and L'rbild der Menschheit (1811), attracted much attention.
Krantli, krawth, Charles Philip, D. D. : f heolopan ; b.
in Montgomery eo., Pa., Jlay 7, 1797 ; received a thorough
education at home, and early showed a talent for philology.
At the age of eighteen he began the study of medicine, but a
28
KKAUTH
KKIZIIAXICH
chansc in his rpligious views led him to cntiT the ministry of
ihe Lutheran t'hureh. lie wjislieeiisoil in lt<l!». untl was pas-
tor ill Martinsl)ur{,', Va.: in I'liiladelphia in lt*27 ; wasoresi-
dent of IVnnsylvttuia I'olle^'e iy;i4-50 ; Professor of Biblical
and Oriental Literature in the 'riieolojiical Seminary of the
(ieneral Synoil at Gettysliuri; 1833-G7, where he died May
30, 18(57. llis theologieal |)ositioii was that of nneonipro-
misinff aillien-nce to the doctrines of evangelical Protestant-
ism, of j^reat raoileralionon points in dispute, and of cautious
adjudication between theclaimsof cunscrvatismand progress.
A verv complete sketch of his life and labors was given in
T/te Evangelical Review. .Ian.. l!^68, by Prof. M. L. Stoever.
See also McClintock and Slronj,'"s Ci/dopitdia, vol. v., I(j0.
Krautli.C'n.\RLEsPoRTKRFiELD.S.T. D.,LL. D.: Lutheran
theolou'ian ; son of Charles I'hilip Krauth ; b. at Martinsburg,
Va., Mar. 17, 1823 ; graduated at Pennsylvania College, Get-
tysburg, 1*^9: entered the ministry in"l841, and filled pas-
torates in Baltimore, Md., Martinsburg and Winchester, Va.,
and Pittsburg and Philadelphia, Pa. He was editor of The
Lutheran from 1861 to 18(57. In 1864 he became Norton
Professor of Systematic Theology and Kcclesiastical Polity
in the Theological Seminary of the Kvangdical Lutheran
Church in Philadelphia, which he filled until his death in
that city Jan. 2, 1883, in connection with the chair of Intel-
lectual iind Moral Philosophy (from 1868), and the vice-pro-
vostship of the University of Pennsylvania (from 1874). He
was a member of the American committee of the revisers of
the Authorized Version of the Bible, laboring with the Old
Testament Company. Besides numerous review articles, he
published a translation of Thohick on .lohn tl8.'j!)), edited
and enlarged Fleming's Vocabulary of the Philosophical
Sciences (1st dl. 1860; 2d 1878), and annotated and edited
an edition of Berkeley's Fir«t Principles of Human Knowl-
edge (1874). The work by which he will always be best
known is The Conservative Reformation and its Theology
(1871, 8vo, pp. 838). During his life his eminent scholar-
ship and extraordinary gifts as a writer and debater gave
him the generally conceded position of being the most prom-
inent representative of his Church in the U. S. lie was the
leader, and for many years the president, of the (ieneral
Council. Revised by II. E. Jacobs.
Krebs : See Cusan'us, Nicholaus.
Krefeld : a city of Germany. See Crefeld.
Krcmer. Alfred, von: Semitic scholar; b. in Vienna,
Austria. .May 13, 1828; took his literary course and studied
law in the university of that city, as well as the Modern
Greek, .Vrabic, Hebrew, and Persian languages. After visit-
ing Syria and Egypt on a stipend from the Academy of Sci-
ences, he was made Professor of Modern Arabic in the Poly-
technic School of Vienna, and soon after interpreter to the
Austrian consulate in Egypt. In 1858 he was appointed
vice-consul and in 1859 consul at Cairo; in 1862 consul at
Galatz; in 1870 consul at Beyrout. In 1870 he was at-
tached to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the consular
department, and was chosen member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1876. The same year he went to Egypt as a
commissioner on the Egyptian state debt; returned to the
Foreign Office in Vienna in 1880, and soon after was ap-
pointed Jlinistcr of Conmierce, in which position he re-
maineil till Feb., 1881. He has published lieitrdge zur
(ieographie des nordlichen Syriens (1852); Aegypten. For-
gchunyin iitier Land unil Volk (1863) ; Ueber die sudarabisclie
SiKie (1866); Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams
(1868); and other works. His most important work is Kiil-
turgeschichle des Orients unler den Kmifen (1875-77). He
has edited the Arabic text of A Description of Africa of
the Twelfth Century; Wakidi's Oeschiehte der Peldzuge
Mohammeds (185.5); and the ILmyarische Kasideh (1865),
and has given a German translation of the Diwan of Abu-
Nuwas (1855). His Beitrdge zur arabischen Lexicngraphie
appeared in 1883-84. C. II." Toy.
Kremlin : in Kussia, a citadel or walled inclosnre, espe-
cially in Moscow a district occupying a high triangular
plateau surrounded by crenelated walls, and comprising an
extraordinary aggregation of public buildings, palaces, and
churches of fatitastic form and varieil color. The distant a.s-
ppct of the group, with its curious siiircs and bulbous cupolas,
IS impressive and wholly unique. The majority of the eaifices
are by Italian architects, and date from ihe close of the fif-
teenth century, though two of the gale-lowers arc by an Eng-
lishman, Galloway, while the "grand palace" was built lus late
as 1831. In spite of their foreign authorship, these buildings
are strikingly Russian in their indescribable combination of
Byzantine, Italian, an<l local elements, and in the brilliant
coloring of the domes and roofs. An interesting feature
of the group is the Chuiih of Vasili Blageiiiioi, with its
huge eastern spire ami nine bulbous cupolas of <lilTcrent
colors. Five gate-lowers, with the "great tower" and bel-
fry of Ivan Veliki, add to the variety of the silhouette.
The other buildings include the cathedrals of the -Assump-
tion, Annunciation, and Archangel Gabriel ; seven churches,
a monastery, and convent ; the old Tercm palace with its
"gold hall" and tlirone-rooin ; the modern grand palace,
several smaller palaces, barracks, an arsenal, and other iin-
Eortant structures. The broken Tsar Kolokol. a 2U0-ton
ell cast for the Empress Anna in 1733, and an ancient
monster cannon arc among the curiosities of this remarka-
ble place. The whole extent of the walls is about a mile
and a (|uarler; the space within is triangidar, and contains
nearly 100 acres. A. D. F. IIaulin.
Krem'nitz : town; in the county of Bars. Hungary; 83
miles X. from Budapest ; in a gold and silver mining region
(see map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 5-H). It has a mint and
paper and vitriol works. Pop. 9,100.
Krestovskli, V. : See KiivosTciiixsKAfA.
Kfestovskii. VsevolodVladimirovicii : author; b. in the
governiuenl of Kiev, Russia, Fel). 11, 1H40. In 1868 he en-
tered the Fourteenth Uhlan Regiment, without having fin-
ished his studies at the University of St. Petersburg, where
he had devoted himself to history and ))hilology. He soon
tried successfully other branches of literature. In 1874 he
wrote a history of his regiment, which gave such satisfac-
tion that he was transferred to the imperial guard, and ho
accompanied the general staff as an olhcial historian in the
warof 1877 with Turkey. His work on the subject was pub-
lished in 1879, under the title iJradtsati Mesatsev v delst-
vulus tchel Armi'i (Twenty Months in the Active Army).
Krestovskii is best known as a novelist. Although he does
not rank with the great masters of Russian fiction, he is a
powerful writer of the realistic school. His Peterburgskil
Trustchoby (The Slums of St. Peter.sburg. 1867) made a sen-
sation. His yepervy'i i ne posledni't(So\ the First, Not the
Last, 1839), Sphyn.r (1860), Krovaryl Puf (1867), and his
Egyptian Darhnem^ and Tamaru Bendavid (both dealing
with the life of the Russian Jews), as well as others of his
novels and tales, have been widely read, and some of them
translated into French and German. His best short poem
is Solimskala Iletera (The Hetaira' of Jerusalem). A com-
plete edition of his works was published in 1873.
A. C. COOLIDOE.
Kreiizer, kroits'er: a small coin which originated in the
Tyrol in the thirteenth century, so called from the cross
foriuerly consjiicuous upon it. The coin became common
in various German countries, and until 1876 was current ill
Southern Germany as equal to the sixtieth part of a gulden.
Down to 1892, when the new coinage system was introduced
into Austria, the krcutzer was current as the hundredth part
of a gulden.
Krisliaber, Maukice, M. D. : laryngologist ; b. in Fe-
kelehcgy, Hungary, Apr. 3, 1836; stuilied first in Vienna
and Prague, subsequently in Paris, where he graduated
M. D. in 1864, his thesis being Dii dh-eloppement de I'en-
cephale: i]tude d'embryoqi-nie. He was one of the |>ioneers in
laryngological science, lie was one of the foumlers and co-
editor of Annates de maladies de I'oreille et du larynx. He
was the author of many papers on laryngology and of sev-
eral monographs, one of the mo.st important of which is De
la neuropathie eeribro-cardiaque (Paris, 1873). D. A|ir. 10,
1883. S. T. Armstroxu.
Krishna f.Sanskr.. black] : a celebrated demi-god of Hindu
mythology, the eighth avatar or incarnation of Vishnu, and
the licro of the JIaiiahiiakata (q. v.).
Krish'nn. or Kistna : one of the largest rivers of Hin-
dustan. It rises in the Western Ghats, about 40 miles from
the Malabar coast, flows S. E. across the whole breadth of
the Peninsula of Deccan for 8(K) miles, and enters the Bay
of Bengal near Masulipatam. Precious stones are found in
some portions of its course.
Kristinnin: a city of Norway. See Christiania.
Kristinnsnnd : See Ciiristiansaxd.
Kristianstad : Sec Christianstad.
Krizlianicli,kreezha'necch,GEOROE: writer; b. in Agram,
Croatia, in 1617. Destined for the Church, in order to fit
KROEGER
KRUG
29
himself espeoially for the work of converting orthodox Shivs
to Roman Catholieisni, lie went to Rome (1640) where he
spent the greater |)art of eighteen years. In time his mis-
sionary zeal became merged in a general ardor of Pan-
slavism, of which he was one of the earliest apostles. He
visited Moscow in 1658. Soon after his arrival, however,
he was banished (.Jan. 6, 1661) to Tobolsk, undoubtedly on
account of his sliarp criticisms of many things he saw, criti-
cisms doubly disagreeable coming from a Roman Catholic
priest. Despite freijuent entreaties he was not allowed to
return from Siberia until 1676, after which we know nothing
more about him. Few of Krizhanich's writings have been
published. They were mostly written during his exile, and
in a jargon meant to be a common language for all Slav
peoples, with the natural result that it is intelligible to none.
His most important work was his Politics (3 vols., Moscow,
first printed 1860), a treatise on government intended to
awaken the spirit of solidarity among the different branches
of the Slav race, and particularly to instruct the Russians.
Though narrow and intolerant in its views and conceited
in its tone, it shows that its author was much in advance of
the society he was trying to enlighten. See Louis Leger,
Nouvelles Etudes Staves (Paris, 1880). A. C. Coolidge.
Kroe'ger, Ernest R. : musician ; b. in St. Louis, Mo.,
Aug. 10, 1863 ; began musical study at the age of five years,
continuing until fifteen years old; then pursued a business
career till he was twenty-three, when he decided to enter
the musical profession, lie has done excellent work in
leading and drilling choral societies. He also ranks high as
a pianist. He lias composed much instrumental music for
piano and for orchestral instruments, singly and in combina-
tion, also some vocal works. He resides in St. Louis, where
he is occupied as a teacher, organist, and director of a
choral society. D. E. Heevey.
Kronberg, Johann Julu's : historical and figure painter :
b. in Sweden, Dec. 11, 18i'i0. He received the great gold
medal in Stockholm in 1870, and in 1873 was sent abroad
to study at the expense of tlie Swedish Government. Among
his most celebrated works are Cteopatra's Death and David
and Saul. R. B. A.
Kronstadt [Germ., crown city ; also spelled Cronstndf] :
town of the Austrian empire, in Transylvania ; 261 miles by
rail S. E. of Budapest (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref.
8-M). It is an old city, consisting of an inner town sur-
rounded by walls, its three suburbs respectively inhabited
by Germans, Szeklers, and Wallachs. It is thriving and
verv neatly built, with many beautiful gardens and prom-
enades. Pop. (1890) 32,549.
Kronstadt : a fortified town of Russia. See Croxstadt.
Kroos : See Liberia.
Kropot'kin, Petr Alekseevich, prince : geographer, and
anarchist ; b. in Moscow, Russia, in 1843, of one of the
noblest families of Russia, though in moderate circum-
stances. He was brought up at the College of Pages, where
he distinguished himself ; then served for a time in the
army, resigning after the Polish insurrection of 1861. He
next took up the study of geography, and went to Siberia
and Cliina on scientific expeditions, al)out which he wrote
reports'. The Commune of Paris in 1871 excited his in-
terest in political and social questions. After a trip to
France ami Belgium he returned to his country an ardent
revolutionist. As his rank wouhl excite suspicion among
the lower classes, he worked under the name of Borodin,
drawing up the programmes for his party and giving lec-
tures to workingmen. He was soon arrested with 192
others and kept more than two years awaiting trial, until
in 1876 he was so ill that ho was removed to a liospital,
from wliich his friends contrived his escape to Switzerland.
Here, under the name of Levaschoff, in 1879 he started
an anarchist paper. La Ri'volle. In spite of the repeated
complaints of Russia he was not disturbed until 1881,
when he had become so violent, preaching insurrection
of the lower classes and destruction of society, that the
Swiss Government expelled him from the land. He now
took refuge in France, where, in 1888, for his incendiary
propaganda, he was condemned to five years' imprisonment,
but was set free in 1886. Since then he has lived more
quietly. Tlie most important of Kropotkin"s works are
Aux Jeunes Gens (1881): Paroles d'un Revolte (188.5. ed. by
:6. Rectus ; Eng. transl. 1886, under the title ^IPor) ; /» Rus-
sian and French Prisons (1887); and A la recherche, du
pain (1892). He has also written most of the account of
Russia in the great Geographic Vniverselle of filisee Reclus
(himself an anarchist), as well as contributions to Nature,
the Knci/clojia'dia Britannica, etc. A. C. Cooliuge.
Krotcl, GoTTLon Frederick, D. D., LL. D. : Lutheran
clergyman ; b. at Ilsfeld, Wiirtemberg, Feb. 4, 1826 ; grad-
uated at the L'niversity of Pennsylvania 1846 ; entered the
ministry in 1848, and served pastorates in Philadelphia,
Lebanon, Lancaster, Philadelphia again, and New "i ork.
Since 1868 he has been pastor of the Church of the Holy
Trinity, New York. During his pastorate in Philadelphia,
from 1864 to 1868, he was also professor in tlie Theological
Seminary in that city. He has edited the Lutherische
Uerold of New York and The Lutheran of Philadelphia.
He has been president for a long series of years of the
Lutheran Ministerium of Pennsylvania and the Lutheran
Jlinisterium of New York. He was one of the founders of
the General Council, and its president in 1869-70 and 1888-
93. Besides translating Leduerhose"s Life of Melanchthon
(1854) and L'hlhorn's Luther and the Swiss (1876), he is
author of a work on the Beatitudes (1855), and joint author
of an explanation of Luther's Catechism (1863).
H. E. Jacobs.
Kro'yer, Petir Severin ; painter ; h. in Stavanger, Nor-
way, July 23, 1851. In 1871 he produced a magnificent por-
trait of the Danish jiainter. 0. D. Ottesen. He has traveled
extensively in Europe and in England, and has received
gold medals in Denmark, Paris, and London. Among his
best-known pictures are A Sunday in Granada, Italian
Field-laborers, Artists Breakfasting i}i a Skagen Inn, Mii-
sic in tlie Studio, and a number of views from the Danish
coast, in which the rough life of the fishermen is vividly
painted. R. B. Anderson.
Krozet Islands : See Crozet' Islands.
Krii'dener, Juliane, von ; political agitator ; b. at Riga,
Russia, Nov. 21, 1764 ; a daughter of Baron von Wietinghoff,
one of the wealthiest Livonian noblemen, and a grand-
daughter of the famous Russian field-marshal Munich. In
1783 she married Baron von Kriidener, whom she accom-
jianied to Venice and Copenhagen, and to whom she bore
two children, but she separated from her husband in conse-
quence of a scandal caused by her conduct while in Paris in
1789-91. The fame of Madame de Stael tempted Madame
Kriidener into literature. Valerie, on lettres de Gustave de
Linar a Ernest de G , was published at Paris in 1803,
and produced a sensation. Her connections with Jung-
Stilling and the Moravian Brethren had now the ascendency
over her mind, and she apjieared in the world as a Sister of
Charity, a preacher, a prophetess. In 1815 she held relig-
ious reunions in her hotel in Paris, and people of the high-
est rank crowded her salons ; the iMiipcror Alexander of
Russia was among her visitors. lie invited her to the
grand review of the Russian troops in the plain of Cha-
lons, and the sight inspired her as the beginning of the
'■ reign of Christ on earth." From Basel, where she at-
tempted to continue her religious assemblies, she was ex-
pelled ; also from Baden, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Saxony,
and Prussia. Notwithstanding this action on the part of
different governments, slie is believed to have hail much
influence in bringing about the so-called Hoi.v Al.LlAXrE
((/. v.). In 1818 she was escorted by the Prussian police to
the Russian frontier, and on entering her native country she
was forbidden to preach and to appear in St. Petersburg
and Moscow. She found, nevertheless, an opportunity of
visiting St. Petersburg, and attempted to renew her friend-
ship with the emperor; but her enthusiasm for the Greek
revolution, and her indiscretion in working for her ideas,
ofTended the Russian Government. She was banished from
St. Petersburg, and went in 1834 to the Crimea in onler to
foun<l a colony in accordance with her own ideas of human
society. On this expedition she dieil at Karassubasar, Dec.
35. 1824. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Kriig, krooAh, Wilhelm Travgott : philosopher; b. at
Radis, in Prussian Saxony, Germany. June 22,1770; stud-
ied at Wittenberg, Jena, and Gottingen ; was appointed
Professor in Philosophy at Frankfort -on-t he-Oder in 1801 ;
at Konigsberg in 1804, as the successor of Kant : at Leipzig
in 1809 : retired on a pension in 1834. and died there Jan. 13,
1843. He took part with great eagerness and with a cer-
tain adroitness in all literary and political movements in his
time. He was president of the Tugenbund, formed after
the Peace of Tilsit for the regeneration of Germany. He
joined a Saxon regiment in the campaign of 1813. In poli-
30
krCger
KUBLAl KHAN
tics he stood foremost among the liberal agitators ; in theol-
ogy he wrote Briefe. uber die Perfeclibilildt der geofen-
ba'rten Religion (Jena anil Leipzig, 1795) ; in philosophy he
pretenJed to have found the true reconciliation between
idealism and realism, which he presented in a quite popular
form, Fiindnmenlalphilosuphie (Zllllichau and Fri-istadt,
180;{). and afterward in a more soientitic form in his Allye-
meines Ilandwurterbuch der philosophischen Winsenschaf-
ten (5 vols., Leipzig, 1827-29).
Krii'ger, Kari, Wh.iiklm: Greek scholar; b. in Gros.s-
Xossin, near BUtow, a town of Pomeranla, in 1796 : studied
in Halle ; was professor at the .loachinistlialer Gymnasium in
Bcrhn from 1827-38, when he resigned to devote himself to
his favorite studies. D. in Weinheini. May 2, 1874. His atti-
tude toward the results of conipariitive philology was one of
implacable hostility. His editions of tlie Aiifihasis of .Xeno-
phon. and of Arriiin. Herodotus, and Thueydides, are still
valuable, but his Ureek Urnmimir (oth ed. 1873), though lucid
and accurate, no longer satislies modern scientific standards.
Kriiffer. Stephaxi's Jofiasxes Pavh-s : president of the
South African Republic; b. in Capo Colony in 1825; took
part as boy and youth in the long wanderings of the Boers,
to Natal, the Orange River territory, and the Transviml ; won
great popularity and distinction, first as a military leader in
campaigns against the luitives, and agivinst the British in
1^S(»-81. and then as a shrewd and able diplomat in negotia-
tions with Great Britain both before and after the war with
that countrv; was elected president of the republic three
times (1883,1888, 1893), his last term expiring in 1898; with
little education, he has large knowledge of men, aiul great
influence upon his people, who call him "Oom Paul'' (Our
Paul). I'. C. A.
Knil, kriil, Jan Hermanszoon : Dutch poet; b. in 1602;
date of death unknown. Little is known of his life except
what can be gathered from his works. He belonged to
North Holland, is said to have been a smith, and must have
lived much in Amsterdam. He did not, however, consort
with the great Amsterdam literary men who were his con-
temporaries— Koster, Vondel, llooft. Huyghens — but rather
held himself jealously apart from them. He took for his
model Jacob Cats (q. v.), and strove to rehabilitate the bour-
feois ideals of the famous .\msterdam chamber of rhetoric,
nown as de Eglentier. This was a forlorn hope, and con-
sequently the last years of KruTs life seem to have been
much embittered. His true worth as a poet consists in the
loveliness of his style, when he permits himself to forget
that he is a moralist or prophet. Of his collections of verse
the chief are the following: Vermakkel^cke uuren (1628);
Eerlijcke tijdtknrting (1634); I)e pampiere WerfUl (1644);
Mintiespipylnl ter dmghden (1662). A. R. Marsh.
Kriimmacher, kro'o maaAh-cr, Frieprich Adolf: theolo-
gian; b. at Tecklenburg, in Westphalia, Germany, July 13,
1768; died a.s minister of the Reformed congregation at
Bremen, Apr. 14, 1843. His Parables (Bremen, 1805) became
a very popular book, ran through many editions, and was
translated into English (London, 1824, and later, often re-
printed). He wrote several other works, poetical and relig-
ious, none of which attained great popularity. — His son,
FRiEDRirn Wii.HELM, Was born at Mors, in Rhenish Prussia,
Jan.2JS, 1796; died as chaplain of the court at Potsdam, Dec.
10,1868; was a rather harsh opponent of the rationalistic
school of theology, but he was a very eloquent preacher. Of
his writings have been translated jSliJah the Tishbite (Ijon-
don, 1836) ; .E/i«Art (1839-42, 2 parts) ; Solomon and the Shti-
lamite (1838) ; A Glimpse into the Kingdom of Orace (1837) ;
The Suffering Saviour (1856; 8th ed. 1875); T/ie Risen Re-
deemer (1863i; David, King of Israel (1867); and his^«/o-
biography (1869). Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Kriin^-kao. or Ayiitliin : a citv of Siam ; 40 miles N. of
Bangkok, on the left bank of the Menam ; lat. 14° 20' N.,
Ion. 100° 33' E. It is the great entrepot of the lra<le with
the Laos. The most of the houses are floating, because con-
sidered more healthful. Under the older name of Ayuthia
this place was the ca|)ital of .Siam, and one of the' finest
cities in Indo-China. It was sacked by the Burmans in 1767,
and hius never recovered its former position. Pop. estimated
at ,50,000. M. W. IL
Krupp, Alfred: inventor; b. at Essen, Rhenish Prussia,
Germany, A[>r. 26, 1812; .son of F"riedrich Krupp, proprietor
of a small foundry at Essen. Friedrich Krui>p discovered
the art of making cast steel, which had been kept secret in
England, but died almost in poverty in 1826, and was suc-
ceeded in the business by his widow and her two sons. In
1848 Alfred Krupp became sole proprietor, and before many
years was enabled through his inventions to enlarge the
works until they became the most extensive in the world.
In 1851 he exhibited at the International Exhibition in
London a 6-lb. steel gun: in 1M52 he began the manu-
facture of cast -St eel axles, and in 1H.5H weldless railway tires.
In 1861 a breech-loading rifle invented by him was intro-
duced into the Prussian army. In 1862 a block of cast steel
weighing 20 tons was produced at Essen, in 1867 one of 50
tons, and in 1873 one of 52 tons weight. The adoption of steel
as a material for gun construction brought ordiTs from many
governments, and incite<l Krupp to further efforts. In 1880
a steel gun of 100 tons weight was cast, in 1889-90 one of
135 tons for the Russian Government, and in 1892 one of
124 tons, which was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition
at Chicago in 1893. KnipP died July 14, 1887. His son
Alfred succeeded him. The works at Essen cover about
1,000 acres, and employ 20,000 men. See Biidekcr, Alfred
Krupp (Essen, 1888).
Krii'senstorn, Adam Joiiann, von: naval explorer; b.
at Ilaggud. Esthonia, Russia, Nov. 19, 1770; was educated
at the naval academy of Kronstadt; served 179.3-99 in the
British navy, and undertoi)k, from Aug. 7, 1803, to Aug. 19,
1806, a scientific and commercial expedition at the expense
of the Russian Government to the northern coasts of the
Pacific. The expedition was a great success, and has been
described by von Krusenstern in his Reise um die Welt
(3 vols., 1810-12; translated into English bv Iloppner in
1813). From 1824-27 he published Atlas de I'ocean Pa-
cifique (2 vols.), and Recueil de memoires hydrographiques,
pour servir d'analyse et d'explication a /'atlas de I'ocean
Pacifique. In 1829 he was made a vice-admiral, in 1841 an
admiral. D. on his estate in Esthonia, Aug. 12, 1846.
Krylov'. Ivax Axdreevich : writer of fables and the most
popular of all authors in his own country; b. in Moscow,
Russia. Feb. 14 (26), 1768. The son of a poor army-officer,
he passed his boyhood in Orenburg and Tver, until, his
father having died, his mother moved with him to .St. Pe-
tersburg in the hope of getting him employment. For the
next twenty-three years his career was generally unsuccess-
ful. I'art of the time he was a government clerk, part of it
he was secretary in different places to Prince S. Golitsyn,
or tutor of the prince's children. He wrote two worthless
tragedies. Cleopatra and Philomela, a burlesque drama,
Trumf (Trumi)s), beside a few lighter pieces, and published
one after another three clever but short-lived journals. To-
ward the end of 1805, t)eing in Moscow, he produced his
first three fables (translations from La Fontaine). So great
was their success that henceforth he wrote nothing else,
while each new one was hailed with delight by the public.
In 1812 he was given the position of assistant at the Imperial
Library in St. Petersburg, a sinecure exactly suited to his
indolent nature, and this he occupied for nearly thirty
years. He retired in 1841 and died Nov. 9 (21). 1844. Of
his 198 fables, 56 are translations or imitations, the remain-
der entirely original in substance as well as form. They are
characterized by considerable wit and by trenchant, though
good humored, satire of all classes aiul of existing abuses, yet
they betray a ccmservative dislike to new ideas and fashions.
Though lacking the delicacy and grace of La Fontaine's
ma.sterpieces, their style is most attractive — it is so natural
and easy, so simple that any peasant can understand them.
They have been translated into many languages. A few
have been attempted in English verse, and about half have
been well \m\ into prose by \V. R. .S. Uallston, Krilof and
his Fables (London, 186!)). 'See also C. E. Turner. Studies
in Russian Literature (London, 1882) ; J. Fleury, Krylov et
ses Fables (1869): besides Russian works V)y Kenevich, Grot,
Wiegel, Pypin, and others. There have been two editions of
Krvlov's complete works (St. Petersburg, 1847 ami 1859), and
many editions of his fables alone (25th, St. Petersburg, 1891,
with biographical notice by P. A. Pletnev). A. C. CooLlDOE.
Kiibnn': a river of .Southern Russia, which rises in the
Caucasus Mountains, flows through the government of Kuban,
and empties partly into the Black Sea, jiartlv into the Sea
of Azof.
Kilblai (koob 11) Khan: a grandson of Genghis Khan;
the completer of the conquest of China begun by Genghis
himself, and the founder of the Yuen or Mimgol dymisty
which ruled in China from 1280 to 1368. He was born in
Tartary in 1216, and early took part in the campaigns of
his grandfather. In 1259 he succeeded Mangku Khan as
KUCH BEHAR
KU-KLUX KLAN
31
ruler of the Mongol empire ; five years later he fixed his
capital at Kambaluc, the present Peking, uml proceeded at
once to extend his sway over the whole of t'hina. In this
he succeeded in 1279. He sent several naval expeditions
against Japan, the last in 1281. but failed in them all; S.
and \V., however, he extended his domain as far as the
Straits of Malacca and the Kuxine. The celebrated Vene-
tian traveler, Marco Polo, traveled extensively through the
Great Khan's dominions, and gives a vivid description of
the imperial court. (See Cathay, and 77ie Book of Ser
Marco Pain, edited by Yule, 2d ed. London, 1875.) Kublai
died in 1204.
Kuril Beliar', or Cooch Beliar: a feudatory state in
Bengal, British India ; lying between lats. 25° 57' and 26" 32'
N., and Ions. 88 ' 48' and' 89 ' 55' E., and entirely surrounded
by British territory. Area, 1,307 sq. miles. Pop. 650.00(1.
It is a uniform and fertile plain, formed from the alluvium
which descends from the Hinuilayas, and thoroughly watered
by affluents of the Brahmaputra. The fundamental popu-
lation is a Dravidian race called Kutch. The principal
products are rice, jute, and tobacco. Tlie climate is wet
and unhealthful ; malarial fevers and cholera are common.
The capital, and only place of importance, is the town of
Kuch Behar. 250 miles N. N. E. of Calcutta, on the Torsha,
a branch of the Brahmaputra, lat. 26 20' X., Ion. 89° 28' E.
Pop. 10,000. Mark W. Harrixgto.n.
Kiicheiimeister, (tottlob Friedrich Heinrich, M. D. :
b. in Buchheim. Saxony, Jan. 32, 1821 ; began hia professional
studies in 1840 in Leipzig and Prague, receiving his M.D.
from Leipzig University in 1846; settled in the latter year
in Zittau. He became interested in the nature and develop-
ment of entozoa, and his investigations did much to eluci-
date the metamorphoses of intestinal worms. He was edi-
tor of the Zeitschrift ties nordthutscheti Chirurgen Vereins
fur Medicm, Chirurgie und OeburfshCdfe from 1863 to 1865,
and of the Allgemeine Zeitschrift fiir Epidemiologic, 1874-
75. His important work On the Animal and Vegetable
Parasites of the Human Body, first published in Leipzig in
1855, passed through several editions, and was translated
into Engli.sh. He was the author of a number of works on
medical subjects. S. T. Armstroxg.
Kuda^ii : See Dravidian Languages.
Kudumba : See Cadamba.
Kueiieil, kii'nen, Abraham: theologian; b. at Haarlem,
Holland, Sept. 16, 1828 ; studied at Leyden and in 1853 was
made Professor of Theology there, and published in 1861-65,
in Dutch, at Leyden, in 3 vols., Ilislorico-critical Investiga-
tion into the Origin and Collection of the Old Testament
Books (2d ed., revised and enlarged, 1885-93 ; Eng. trans, of
vol. i., 1886); in 1869-70, The Religion of Israel to the Fall
of the Jewish Stale (Eng. trans. London, 1874-75, 3 vols.) ;
in 1875, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel (Eng. trans.
1877) ; National Religions and Universal Religions (London,
1882) ; besides a number of minor essays and papers. He
was the great leader of the so-called critical school in bib-
lical matters. D. in Leyden, Dec. 10, 1891.
Kiienliiii', Kwfin-liin, Kulkiin, or Kiirknn : a moun-
tain range of Central Asia, which commences near the point
of lat. 35 N. and Ion. 75° E., from which the llinialiiyas, the
Hindu-Kush, and the Bolor-Tagh radiate in three different
directions, and stretches eastward, forming the northern
boundary of Tibet proper. The eastern parts of this moun-
tain range extend into China proper, under the names of
Tsing-ling and Fd-nin-shan ; the western part, generally
known by the names of Karakorum and Murtagh, rises to a
height of 23,000 feet, and is covered with tremendous glaciers.
Kllfa: town, or rather the ruins of a town, of Asiatic
Turkey, in Mesopotamia, on an affluent of the Euphrates;
88 miles S. of Bagdad (see map of Turkey, ref. 7-J). It was
founded by Omar, who made it his residence, and who was
murdered here. It soon became the seat of Araliic learning,
and the ancient Arabic characters called Cuiic received their
name from this place. When, at the end of the eighth cen-
tury, the residency was removed to Bagdad, Kufa declined,
and sank into ruins.
Kiiflc Writing; See Cufic Writing.
Kiigler. kooAh Icr, Franz Theodor ; writer on art ; b. at
Stettin. (Tcrmany, Jan. 19, 1808; studied history, philology,
and art in Berlin, Heidelberg, and Italy, and was appointed
Professor in the Fine Arts at the University of Berlin in
1833. His Handbuch der Oeschichte der Malerti von Kon-
stantin der Orosne bis auf die neuere Zeit (2 vols., Berlin,
1837) and his Jlundhuch der Kunstgeschichte (3 vols., Stutt-
gart, 1841-42) are excellent productions — dear, comprehen-
sive, and instructive; both have been translated into Eng-
lish. His Kleinen Schriften und Studien zur Kunstge-
schichtej^'i vols., Stuttgart, 1853-54) contains many valuable
essays on the history and philosophy of the fine arts. Very
little interest, on the contrary, have his dramas and poems,
and his History of Frederick the Great, though the latter is
much read in (iermany. He died at Herlin, Mar. 18, 18.58,
leaving three completed volumes of a large work on the Oe-
schichte der Baukunst. This was continued by LCbke (g. v.).
Kiilin, koon, Franz Felix Adalbert: philologist; b. at
Konigsljerg-in-der-Neumark, Brandenburg, Prussia, Nov. 19,
1812 ; studied philology at the University of Berlin 1833-37;
l)ecame teacher at the Kolnische Gymnasium in Berlin in
1841; in 1856 professor; died as rector emeritus. May 5,
1881. As editor of Zeitschrift fSr vergleichende Sprachfor-
schung and Beitrage zur verghichenden Sprachforschung
he has contributed much to the growth of comparative
philology, and by his Die Herahkunft des Feuers und des
GiJttertranks (Berlin, 1859), Veber Etitwickelungsstufen der
Mythenbildun(/ (1874), as well as other researches in the
same line, he inaugurated the new science of comparative
mythology. His theory may be briefly summed up by .say-
ing that he sought for the origin of myths in linguistic
phenomena, polyonymy and homonymy constituting the
jjrincipal formative factors. Revised" by A. Gudeman.
Kiiiine, kii ne, Willy. M. D., Ph. D. : physiologist; b. in
Hamburg, Mar. 28, 1837 ; studied in Giittingen, Jena. Ber-
lin, Paris, and Vienna under Woehler, R. \\ agner, Weber,
Ilenle, Lehmann, Virchow. Claude Bernard, Ludwig,
Bruecke. and Du Bois-Kevmond ; graduated Ph. D. in 18,56
and M. D. in 1862 ; from 1861 to 1868 was chemical assist-
ant in the Pathological Institute of Berlin ; from 1868 to
1871 was Professor of Physiology in the University of Am-
sterdam ; in 1871 became Professor of Physiology and di-
rector of the physiological institute in the University of
Heidelberg. His original work in physiology has been "par-
ticularly in investigating the muscles, nerves, and in physio-
logical chemistry. Among his more important works are
Bfilruge zur Lehre com Icterus (Berlin, 1858); Jlyologische
Vntersuclulngen (Leipzig, 1860); I'eber die peripherischen
Endorgane der motorisclien Nerveti (Leijjzig, 1862) ; Unter-
suchungen iiber das Protoplasma und die Contract ilitdl
(Leipzig, 1864) ; and Lehrbuch der physiologischen Cketnie
(Leipzig, 1866-68). S. T. Armstrong.
Kiiliner, kii'ne r, Raphael : grammarian ; b. in Gotha,
Germany, Mar. 22, 1802 ; was teacher at the Lyceum, in
Hanover, 1824-63; died in the latter city, Apr." 16, 1878.
He was editor of a learned edition of Cicero's Tusculan Dis-
putations (5th ed. 1874), but is chiefly known as the author
of the Ausfuhrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache (2
vols., 3d ed. by Pr. Bhiss, 1893) and the Ausfahrliche Gram-
matik der lateinischen Sprache (a posthumous work 'pub-
lished by his son in 2 vols., 1879). His school grammars, once
popular, are superseded. Alfred Gudeman.
Kiili'nol, or Kiiehnnel, Christian Gottlieb : biblical
commentator: b. at Leipzig. Germany, Jan. 2, 1768 ; studied
tlieology in the university of his native city, where he began ■
to lecture on Biblical Exegesis and Hermeneutics at the age
of twenty, and became Professor of Philosophy in 1790 and
preacher in 1796. In 1801 he accepted a profes,sorship at
Giessen, and remained there until his dcatn, Oct. 15, 1841.
His earliest original work was on Messianic Prophecies (l'i92),
in German, after which he published (in 1794) Xotes on the
New Testament, from the Apocryphal Books of the Old Tes-
tament, in Latin, aiul in 1799 The Psalms in Meter, in Ger-
man. The great work of his life was his Latin Co/nmentary
on the Historical Books of the New Testament (Leipzig, 4
vols., 1807-18 ; 4th ed. 1837). which had great poinilarity,
and was reprinted in London (1837, 3 vols.), with the addition
of the Greek text. Kiihnol is credited with many of the
best qualities of a biblical interpreter, and held a middle
ground between orthodoxy and neology.
Kiiilonltor^: a town in Holland. See Culenboro.
Kuka, koo kiiii; town ; in the Central Sudan, Africa, the
capital of Bornu, a few miles from the southwest shore of
Lake Tchad (see map of Africa, ref. 4-D). Pop. 20,000.
Ku-KIux' Klaii. or Kn-KInx [named, it is said, in imita-
tion of the click heard in cocking the rifle; klan is the
word clan in a new orthography] : a former secret associa-
32
KUKOLNIK
KL-1,M
tion, in the U. S., in several of the Southern States, formed
for the purpose of preveutin^ Xejiroes, by intimidation, from
voting or holilinsoHice. The society first came into general
notice in 1867, ami many murders ami other crimes were com-
mitted by its members, who dressed in fantastic disguises.
The victims were chiefly frccdmcn, persons of Northern
origin, and Southerners accused of favoring the reconstruc-
tion acts of Congress. The great body of the Southern peo-
ple never approved of this method of settling the (jucstions
involved, and greatly deplored the crimes of the Ku-Klux.
In Apr., 1871, Congress made the.se offendci-s punishable in
the Federal courts, and authorized the President to suspend
the habeag corpus act when necessary to |)re.serve order.
These meu.sures, and the employment of I'. S. troops in the
troubled districts, soon brought the disturbances to an end.
Revised by C. K. Ada.ms.
Klikol'nik. Xestor VASiLEvirn : author ; b. in St. Peters-
burg, Kussiii, Sept. 8, 1809. After leaving school he taught
for a short time, and then obtained a position in the Minis-
try of Finance. He had already written perhajis his best
play, Torquato Tasso. which he revised and published in
186il. So great was its success that he followed it up next
year with the drama liiika li.'^evijshniKjn Otn-lictstro .ipaala
(The Hand of the .\linighty has .Saved our Country), of
which two editions came out in one year, and which went
through a long .series of performances on the stage. Ku-
kolnik's works now followed each other in rapid succession.
Novels, plays, operas, lyrics followed from his pen in the
greatest abundance, and though they are now totally gone
by and seem the merest rhett>ric, thev were widely read at'
the time. I). Dec. 8. 1808. Besides" the two nienlioiied,
Giulio Mosti, Prince Kliolinski'i. and Hosulana are about
the best known of his plays. Among the most popular of
his novels were Evelina de Valderul (1840) ; AJf and Adonna
(1842); The Tiro Ivans, the Two Stepanoviches, the Two
Kostylkovs (1845). Kukolnik was also active for many years
as an eilitor of newspapers and magazines. He published a
complete edition of his works about 1848 (10 vols.).
A. C. COOLIDOE.
Kiikii1.|evi('-Sakcinski. ki}i)'k()bl-yevitch-saak tsin-ski,
IvA.s : writer ; b. al Vanizdiii. Croatia, May 2i), 1816 ; studied
at Zagreb (Agram) ; entered the arniy in 1S;W, went to Italy
as first lieutenant in 1840, resigned in 1842, and has since
been active both in literature and politics, defending Cro-
atia's national rights ami liberties against Magyar encroach-
ments. 11 is 7?o^/(■(;i7arf^■e/«(^'arious Works, Zagreb, 1842-47,
4 vols.) contain poems, folk-songs, dramas, and novels. Fa-
mous are his political songs Slavjanke (1848). Ho estab-
lished an historical society, Druzslvr) za jugoslavensku pn-
vestnicH i starine, in whose organ, the Arkiv (1850-75), he
published a number of historical monographs. Separately
ne published S/ovnik umjetnikah jugoxlavenskich (A Dic-
tionary of South Slavonic Artists, 1858-60, 5 vols.) ; Bih-
liografia hrvat«kn, (1860-63); Jura regni Croatiif, Dal-
matiae et Stavoniae (Laws of the Kingdoms of Croatia, etc.,
1861-62, 3 vols.), and a valual)le collection of Croatian docu-
ments; Moniimenta Slavorum meridionaliiiin (1863-75).
His greatest historic^al monograph is Borlia Ilrvatah s Mon-
^o/i' (War of the Croatians with the Mongolians, 1863). In
1886 he published Olasovili Hrvati pruslih vjekova (Fa-
mous ('roatians of the Past). He is president of the South
Slavonic .\cademy of Zagreb. .1. ,7. Kral.
Kiilniinpan Indians [from knlanapn or kutannpo, stone
house, the name of cine of the tribes. Also called Porno and
Mendocino Indians]: a linguistic stock of Indians which oc-
cupied the portion of Northwestern California now com-
prised in Mendocino and Sononui Counties, anil includerl not
less than fifty small tribes. Physically, these Indians resem-
bled the Copehan tribes of Sacramento vallev. Jlcnially.
they were lower than the Klanuith, but wcre"friendlv and
notably peaceable, e.\cept the Kai, Kastel. and Kato P'omos,
whose hostile spirit, |)arti(idarly toward the early whiles, rc-
sidted ill their <liMiinution. The surviving inenibers of this
family have a certain conception of a Siiprc Heiiig. but
this conception is doubtless a modern one. The covote is
regarded as the progenitor as well as the constant benefactor
of iminkinil. and their coyote ancestors are believed to have
been molderl from the soil— hence the name Poino, probably
from the word pum or paiini. signifying earth.
The Kuliina[)an tribes, like their northern neighbors.
were inorcliimtc gamblers, and devoted much attention to
dancing and various amusements, among which were a cu-
rious pantomime performance, and a game resembling la-
cro.sse, upon which they frequently hazarded all their pos-
sessions. The Kastel Pomo resembled the Wailaki and the
Yukian Indians, dwelling N. of them, more than they
did their brethren to the S., having, like the Kato Pomo,
adopted from them iiortions of their dialects and the cus-
tom of taltcjoing. riiey also, like the other Kulanapan
trilies, formerly cremated their dead, but this custom was
later rcplacM'd to a large extent by burial, the corpse being
interred with the head pointing southward. Most of the
tribes have the custom of " feeding the spirit of the dead "
with pinole for a year following the death. Infanticide is
common, sex being unreganled, and apparently the de-
formed are never spared. These Indians formerly lived
in lodges consisting of a wattled framework covered with
thatch: the dwellings of the Uiissian river tribes were some-
times large enough to shelter .several related families. They
sub.sisted chiefly on native products, including nuts, roots,
small animals, tish, and berries. Agriculture was jiractieed
to a very limited extent. Some of the tribes on the Klamath
had iii(>dicine women and prophetesses, but aiuccng the Ku-
lanapan tribes the practice of " medicine " was confined to
men. who ill their treatment relied mainly upon superstitious
ceremonials based upon occult power. The governmental
organization of most of the Kulanaiian tribes is |iatriarclial,
and the chiefsliip hereditary. The Pomo tribes have two
hereditary chiel'.s — a peace-chief and a war-chief, the latter
becoming peace-chief when advanced in age. The chief of
the Koniiii-ho is supported by a free-will tax on the people.
Among their ceremonials is a dance cjf plenty, performed
septeiinially. Old men who are too infirm to serve longer
as hunters or warriors are relegated to the life of menials,
being compelled to assist the scjuaws in their various labors,
and the extremely aged and decrepit among the Kaianamaia
(Gallinomero) have been known to be |iut to death by their
own sons. The Kulanapaiis were once a numerous l)eople.
but have steadily diminished since the advent of the whites
into their territory. See I.niuans oi- North America.
ArTHORiTiEs. — I'ov/en^.Tri/icsaf Calif oniia.Contrilin I ions
to iV. A. Ethnology, iii. (Washington, 1877) : ibid., in Overland
Monthly, vol. ix. (San Francisco. 1872); Schoolcraft, Indian
Tribes, iii., lOi), et seq. (1853); Bancroft. Ilisturi/ of Califor-
nia, vols, i.-vii. (San Francisco, 1884-90). F. \V. Hodue.
Kiilju. kooja'a : a Central Asian province of the Chinese
empin>, having an area of 23,000 sij. miles and a population
of 80,000; settled chiefly along the middle courses of the
river Ili (</. v.). The soil is fertile, and the mineral resources
inc-liide gold, silver, copper, leacl. and cecal. In 1865 the
Jlcdiammedan jiopulaliccn rebelled against the Chinese, and
the population was reduced from 2,000,000 to 139,000. From
1871 to 1881 the province was under the care of Hiissia,
which, when peace was restored, retained 4,375 sq. miles in
the northwest as a refuge for the rebels. The city of Kulja
(called (lid Kulja). on the banks of the Ili. is a walled town
with extensive suburbs; pop. 12,000 (see ma[) of China, ref.
2-B). New Kulja. 25 mili^s to the W. of this, founded by
the Chinese in 1764. was the Chinese capital. At the time
of the rebellion its population was 75.000. It is now a mere
fort, surrouiuled by a heap of ruins. See Schuyler's Tiirki,<i-
tan (3 vols., London and New York, 1876) and Lans<ieirs
Chinese (.'etitral Asia (2 vols., Loiulon, 1893).
Kiillhcrg', Karl Anders, af: atithor; b. in Sweden in
1813. lie studied law at Upsala, and was for some years a
deputy as.soeiate justice of the Swedish Sii]iremc Court, but
soon decided to devote himself eiiliivly to literature. Kull-
berg is the author of several epic poems, one of which, J^eo-
y»(/(/ (1830), was awarded the minor jcrizc of the Swedish
Academy. His prose-writings are chielly characterized by
an easy and agreeable, sometimes elegant, style. Notable
among them are Carl On si a f llVoHryc/ (1833); Gu.ilaf den
.idle och hans hof (tiuslavus 111. and his Court. 1838-39),
his best produ<'tion, giving a splendid picture of Swed-
ish court life during the (iustavian era: Syskimharnen
(The Cousins. 1846). He also wrote the drama Svenskarne
i Xeaprl (18;!6). Besides, he wrote during several years for
periodicals, and also edited the periodical /ViyVi (1^<36^4).
1). in 1857. P. (inoTH.
Kiilin, koolm (Bohem. Chliimn): village of Bohemia, 8
miles N. K. of Teplitz (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref.
2-1)). It is noted for the battle which took place licrc Aug.
29-30, 1813, in which a French cor|is under Vnndamiiie was
surrounded by the allied armies of Kiissia. Prussia, and Aus-
tria, and foiiipelled to surri'iidcr after a desperate resist-
ance, with 80 pieces and 10.000 men, having lost 5,000 men.
KULTURKAMPP
KURDISH
33
Kulturkainpf, kool-tdbr'kmimpf : the German name for
the struggle between Protestantism and Romanism which
was carried on in Prussia and hitcr in the German empire.
The object on the part of tlic Government was to control
the educational and ecclesiastical appointments. At first the
Protestant party succeeded under Falk. The Landtag passed
the famous May laws in 1873-74-75 (see Faliv Laws), and in
1874 made marriage a civil rite. The Jesuits were expelled
in 1873; several Roman Catholic sees and many parishes
were vacant ; many Roman Catholic schools were closed.
The pope refused to receive the German ambassador and
affairs were at a deadlock, but in 1878, on the election of
Pope Leo XIIL, there was an attempt at compromise. In
the following year Falk resigned ; in 1881 and 1883 the
laws were modified, and in 1887 important concessions were
made to the Roman Catholic Church.
Kum : a town of Persia. See Ko5i.
Kiimamoto : a city in the extreme south of Japan : situ-
ated in a landlocked bay on the west coast of the island of
Kiushiu (see map of Ja|ian, ref. 8-A). It was formerly the
castle-town of the family of Hosokawa, daimios of Higo ; it
is now an impoi'taiit military and educational center. Across
the bay lies Shimabara, where the Christians made their last
stand ill 1637, and were finally crushed by the aid of Dutch
cannon from Deshima in Nagasaki. In the immediate
neighborhood of Kumamoto is the huge crater of Aso-yama
(4,100 feet), the last eruption of which took place in 1873.
The castle, one of the finest in the empire, was successfully
defended in 1877 by Gen. Tani against Saigo and the Sat-
suma insurgents. In 1889 Kumamoto suffered from a severe
earthquake. Pop. 44,384. J. M. Dixox.
Kiimaiiii, koo-mown' : a political division of the North-
west Provinces, British India; situated between 29° and 31'
N. lat. and between 78" and 81" E. Ion. Area. 12.438 st].
miles. It is mostly covered by the Himalaya Mountains,
with the exception of a belt of lowland from 2 to 15 miles
broad e.Ktending along the foot of the mountain range.
Two crops are gathered here yearly ; rice, sugar, and in-
digo form the one — wheat and European fruits and vegeta-
bles the other. The tea-plant has been introduced with suc-
cess. Pop. (1891) 1,184,310. The capital is Almora, 5,337
feet above the sea. Revised by M. W. IIarrixgtox.
Kiinir|iiat [Cantonese for standard Chin, kin kiuh,]iter-
ally, golden orange]: the Citrus Japonicn, a species of
orange which is perfectly hardy in Japan and China, and is
now grown in the southern parts of the I'. S. The shrub
is very small ; the fruit is of excellent quality, and is about
an inch in diameter. ' L. H. B.
Kiindliz, koon-dooz' : a small province of Northern Af-
ghanistan : between the Amu Darya and the Hindu Kush,
with Badakshan on the E. and the Balkh country on the W. ;
formerly an independent khanate of Tartary, but now own-
ing allegiance to the Amir of Cabul. The greater part of
the province is mountainous, but there are some fertile val-
leys where excellent grain is raised. The capital, Kunduz,
has a population of 2,000.
Kuiiiak : See Chixookax Indians.
Kuiitll, koont, Karl Sigis.mund: botanist; b. at Leipzig,
Germany. June 18, 1788; studied natural science at Berlin;
lived 1813-19 in Paris, engaged in editing Humboldt's and
Bonpland's botanical collection ; was appointed Professor
of Botany at Berlin in 1820. D. Mar. 22, 1850. His prin-
cipal works are Sijnopsin Plantarum (4 t-ols., 1822-25) and
Enumeratio plantarum omnium hucusipte coi/iiitarum (5
vols., Stuttgart, 1833-50). Revised by Charlies K. Bessey.
Eniiz, koonz, Georoe Frederick: mineralogist; b. in
New York city, Sept. 29, 18.56; was educated in the public
schools. Cooper Union, and the laboratory of Henry Wurtz;
became gem expert for Tiffany i: Co., the jeweler.s, of New
York; was U. S. census special agent in charge of jjrc-
eious stones in 1883 and 1890; in charge mineral exhibit
U. S. Government, Paris, 188U; honorary special agent
South African Exposition, 1892; honorary special agent
for mines and mining at the World's Columliian Exhibi-
tion, Chicago, 1893; specialist on precious stones in the
preparation of T/ie Centunj Dictionary; member of numer-
ous scientific societies; is author of Gems and Precious
Stones of North America (1890), and numerous articles on
precious stones in magazines. C. II. Thurber.
Kiinze, koont'se. Joiix Christopher, D. D. : Lutheran
scholar; b. in Artern, Saxonv, Aug. 4, 1744; studied at
229
Leipzig; entered the Lutheran ministry ; removed to Phila-
dclplda in 1770 as associate pastor of the German churches
in tliat city. For several years he was a professor in the
University of Pennsylvania. In 1784 he accepted a pastoral
call to the city of New York, where he resided for twenty-
three years, until his death, .July 24, 1807. He added to his
pastoral duties those of the professorship of Oriental Litera-
ture in Columbia College (1784-87, 1792-99). He published
several works, among which were a History of the Christian
Reliyion and of tlie Luttieran Church, a Catec/iism and
Lituryy, and a Lutheran Hymn and Prayer Book.
Kiipetzky, koo-pets kee, or Klipcczky, John; b. at Bo-
sing, Prcssburg, Hungary, 1607. His first artistic training
was under Claus, of Lucerne, who, meeting him as a beggar
boy at a castle where Claus was i)ainting. recognized his
gift for drawing and engaged him as a help. After three
years he reached Rome, having endured every kind of priva-
tion on the way. Here, while struggling hard with sickness
and poverty, he became known to Prince Stanislaus Sobieski,
whose patronage helped him to imrsue his studies of Ital-
ian masters till his work created so much enthusiasm that
he was invited to several of the German courts. His commis-
sions soon became so numerous that he engaged D. Noyer,
of Leipzig, to help him. He painted for Joseph I., Peter the
Great, Maria Teresa, to whom Francis I. wished to appoint
him court painter, but being a Lutheran, Kupetzky refused
this honor. Being of a timorous disposition he believed a
false report that he was in danger of being prosecuted in
Vienna on account of his religion, and fled to Nuremberg,
where he remained, notwithstanding the invitations of the
King of England and the (jueen of Denmark. Grief for
the death of his favorite son brought about his death. D.
at Nuremberg in 1740. W. J. Stillman.
Kurb'skil, Andre! MikhaIlovich, Prince: Russian au-
thor; b. in 1528. He served valiantly in the armies of Ivan
IV. (The Terrible), but tell into disfavor and fled for his
life to Lithuania. Here he distinguished himself by his
zeal in the defense of the Orthodox Church and Russian
schools against the Polish Jesuits. At the same time he
carried on with his former master a remarkable controversy,
in which the letters on both sides show considerable ability.
D. in 1588. Kurbski'i also wrote a history of Ivan the Ter-
rible, which is perhaps the earliest example of real historical
writing in the Russian language. A. C. Coolidge.
Kurdish, koordish, or Koordisli Language: the desig-
nation of the speech of the Kurds or people of Kurdistan.
This tongue forms a branch of the Iranian group of lan-
guages. (See Iranian Laxgcages.) It is akin to Jlodern
Persian, though linguistically independent of it, and is a
descendant of some old Iranian dialect. The Kurdish lan-
guage proper belongs to the territory above designated as
Kurdistan ; the nomadic character of the peojile, however,
has sjjread the speech over a larger tract of country ; and in
Khorassan, moreover, there is a Kurdish-speaking colony,
although their presence is not due to migration, but to their
being placed in this district during the sixteenth century by
Shah Abbiis the Great. To the migratory nature of the
Kurds, however, and to their mountainous homes is- largely
to be attributed the existence of the numerous dialects of
the language. The most important of these are the Kur-
manji, Luri, Kalhuri, Guran, and Zazii. Regarding the
presence of foreign elements in the speech, it may be said
that Kurdish has borrowed many words from Jloilern Per-
sian ; for instance, dil. " heart," a Persian loan-word, stands
beside the pure Kurdish zar. Some words arc taken from
Arabic and Turkish, but those from Armenjan are compara-
tively rare. The Arabic-Persian script is used in writing
Kurdish so far as the language is reduced to written form.
Kurdish shows the conimim Iranian phonetic features.
(See Iranian Languages.) As regards inflection there is a
comparative lack of endings. as in Modern Persian; the ob-
jective case nuiy be formed by adding ra, or by a or e af-
fixed. The [ilui-al ending is geiu'raljy an, as in Persian.
The adjective is imleclinable ; bnl the comjiarative adds
tar to the stem of the positive. The superlative is made by
circumlocution, or by placing the al)ove-mentioned tar as an
independent word before the positive: thus s/)i''i'. " white,"
spiitar, "whiter," tar spei, "most white." The numerals
in general resemble the Persian. The pronouns also may
be paralleled with the Jlodern Persian, though they present
certain indiviilual jjcculiarities. The verb-system is even
more abridged than the Modern Persian.
Although the Kurds are a rough, rude people, they have
34
KURDISTAN
KURO SIWO
numerous folk-sonf^. talcs, and stories, and an intercsfing
colliH-tion of these is beinj; made by Europenn scholars.
HiBi.ioiiRAriiY. — (.'. J. Kiili, Xiirraliiv of a Jiesidence in
Kuoiilisldn (2 vols., London, 1830) ; Kawlinson, in Juurnal of
the Royal Uenifraphiral Society, x., 15, se^. ; Spiegel, Era-
nisehe Alferlliiiniifliuiide,i.,3i)f>--li4. Consult, especially for
the language. Rhea, Brief Grammar of the Kurdish Lan-
guaye, in Journal of American Oriental Society, x.. 118-r)5 ;
Justi, Kurdixche Orammatik (St. I'etei-sburg, 1880) ; .lulia-
.Tusti, Dictionnaire Kurde-Franfais (St. I'eter-sburg, 1879);
Pryin and Socin, Kurdische Sammlunyen, herausgeyeben
und abersetzt (St. Petersburg, 1887, «e(y.).
A. v. Williams Jackson.
Kiinlistnn : an extensive region of Western Asia, lying
between hit. 'M and ii8^ X. and between Ion. 42' and 47 E.
It forms no independent political unit, but is divided be-
tween Turkey and Pei-siu, though its relations to botli of
these two powers are somewhat loose. Its area is estimated
at HK1,0(J0 S(i. miles: the number of its inliabitants at 3.000,-
000, of whom foui-fifths are Kurds. The country is moun-
tainou.s, some of the {>eaks rising to the height of 13.000 feet,
intersected by beautiful valleys along tlie rivers, whicli in
great number flow clown to the Euphrates and Tigri.s. The
Kurds, who are Jlohammedans, live mostly as nomads.
They are a proud and fierce race, engaged in the rearing of
ealtie, sheeji, goats, and horses, of which great nuuibcrs are
annuallv exported both to Turkey and to I'ersia. where they
are higldy esteemed — the goats for their silky liair, the
horses for their strength and fieriness. Generally the looks,
characters, and habits of llie Kurds correspond perfectly
to the description Xenophon gives of them.
Kiirenberir. Dkr von: an Austrian knight who probably
lived in the twelf I h century, and to wliom sonu> of the oldest
German minnesongs are ascribed. Since there are recoi'ded
in the twelfth century at len-st nine Kurenbergs, it is uncer-
tain to whom these songs, which must be counted among the
most tender and poetic of the early minnesong, belong.
Sin<e they are all written in the stanza which is generally
called the Mbelungenstrojihe, the attempt was made by
Franz Pfeiffer to, claim KUrenberg as the author of the
jVibehingenlii'd. This theory met, however, with little suc-
cess, and is now entirely abandoned. Sec Des Jfinne.sanys
Fruhling, p\>. 7-11; W. Scherer, Deutsche, Stmlien; Paul,
Beitruge (li., 406-418) ; S. Riezler, .^uHt Kiirenheryer.^S'S.
Jllius Cjoeuel.
Kiir^: a province of Southern India. See Curo.
Kiiria Miiria. koon'e-a moori"e-a, or Kliorya Morya : a
group of three islands and four islets on tin; coast of .Arabia,
in about lat. 17 33 X., Ion. .56 E. ; ceded to tlie British by
the Sultan of Muscat for the purpose of landing the Red
Sea cable, and politically attached to Aden. Total area. 21
sq. miles. They are leased for guano collection. M. W. II.
Kuriles: a chain of islands stretching in a N. E. direc-
tion, between Yezo and Kamchatka, mostly uninhabitaljle.
Most of the islands became Russian projjcrty during the
eighteenth century, and received their Russian name (Kurilc,
literally, the smokers) because of the numerous active vol-
canoes ; the Japanese name is C'hishima, or thousand islands.
In 187.'j the Japanese Government, which had always claimed
certain of the southern islands, secured the whole by treaty,
in exchange for the southern extremity of Saghalin. Tlie
principal islands are Itorup, Kumashiri, and I'aramushiri.
A few families of aboriginal cave-dwellers still linger in the
northern inlands, and have left numerous traces in the south-
ern islands; they call themselves Kurilsky Ainus. The
population generally is migratory, remaining' in the islands
during the tishing season ; the fur-bearing aninuds are few
in number. J. M. Dixon.
Kii'risclio-Hafl'. koo rish-e-haaf [Germ., liter., Kurish
Inlet ; cf. Germ, hafen : Eng. haven] : a lagoon on the
northern coast of Prussia, extending from Labiau to Menu'l ;
separated from the IJallic by a narrow belt of lancl called
Kurisehe-N'ehrung. and communicating with it through a
channel hardly 1,000 feet in width, called Memel Deeps. Us
water is fresh and in most places shallow.
Kurlaiul : a Haltic province of Russia. See CoURLAND.
Kiir'ochkin, VasiliI .Sikpaxovk ii : journalist ; b. Jidv 28,
18:fl, in SI. Petersburg. He is said to'havc learned to ieail
without a teacher when he was but .seven years old, and to have
begun to write original pieces at ten. Ilis early life was a
hard strugirle against poverty and many unfavorable circinn-
stances. Though some of his poems got into the jiapers, they
attracted no attention, till, in 1855, his translations from
Heranger achieved such success that in a few years they
went thniugh five editions. This good fortune, as well as
that of sonu' original humorous pieces, induced him in 185!)
to start a satirical paper with caricatures, Jskra (The
Spark), the first Russian journal of its kind, of which, from
18(i4 till it ceased v\ 1873, he was sole editor. lie was also
the author of a number of translations, chielly frr>m French
poets. Vol. i. of his works was published at St. Petersburg
in 1876. D. in St. Petersburg in 1874. A. C. Coolidoe.
Kliro Siwo. koo ro-shee'wo : a great ocean current which
owes its name to two Japanese words meaning black stream,
in allusion to the dark-bhie color of its water, which con-
trasts strongly with the ordinary greenish tint of the sea-
water between it and the coast. The Kuro Siwo is a branch
of the Pacific north eiiuatorial current which impinges on
the eastern shores of Fcu-mosa and adjacent islands. While
the largeV part of the ecpuitorial current passes into the
China Sea, a portion of it is deflected northward, along the
eastern coast of Formosa, and accelerated by the south-
west numsoon, until reaching the parallel of 2(3° X. it bears
off to the northward and eastwanl, washing the whole south-
eastern coast of Japan, and increasing in strength as it ad-
vances. Thence between the parallels of 30' and 42' X. it
takes a more easterly course, crossing the Xorth Pacific on
a line not extending X. of 50 X. lat.. and gradually losing
its velocity and becoming merged in the warm easterly drift
of the Xorth Pacific (see Gilk Strkam), though by its tem-
])erature the Kuro Siwo has been traced as far E. as tlie
meridian of 1.55' W. Greenwich.
Chaniclerislirs. — Oil Japan its maximum temperature is
86° F., abotit 12' higher than the normal temperature of the
sea-water for that latitude. The northwest edge is .strongly
marked by a sudden thermal change in the water of 10^ to
20' F. On the southeast edge the limit, as in the case of
the Gulf Stream, is less clearly defined. Its rate of How
varies, the maximum velocity being from 72 to 80 miles u
day in different jiarts, gradually diminishing to 20 miles a
day. The easterly drift of the X'orth Pacific, forming part
of the general oceanic circidalion irrespective of currents,
is pojiularly confused with the Kuro Siwo, which it sujiple-
ments, ami carries the warm water to the coast of North-
west America, where in lat. 50' X'. it divides, one portion
running S. parallel with the coast, and the other X., and
curving westward with the shore, is finally dissipated in the
vicinity of the Eastern Aleutian islands.
Fhirtiiatiuns. — From the end of Se]iteml>er to March
the norllieast anti-monsoon blows with great strength in
the region where the Kuro Siwo originates, and being di-
rectly o()posite to the <lirection of the current, the latter is
for the time almost obliterated. In Jlay the current be-
gins to be felt off Jajian. and increases to an August maxi-
mum, diminishing until October, and being little noticed
during the winter. During the period of its flow the cross-
section of the Kuro Siwo is coiisideralily less than that of
the Gulf Stream, the whole mass of water at or al)ove 50°
F. is hardly more than lialf as much as that carried bv the
(iiilf .Stream. At 445 fathoms the temperature of the Kuro
Siwo is 50' F., while in an analogous part of the (iulf
Stream the water at the same dejith is 60 F. The Pacific
stream has to cross 90" of longitude, the Gulf Stream
only 52°; the former is checke<l by the anli-monsoon
for about one-third of the year, while the Gulf .Stream is
practically constant. Taking only tein|ierature and dura-
lion into consideration, the ratio between I hem would be
about as 1 to 0'558, not far from the inverse ratio of the dis-
tance traversed. It is therefore obvious that though the
Kuro Siwo and the Gulf Stream originate each in nearly
the same relative part of their respective oceans, and are
due to similar causes, the parallel lietween them is other-
wise farimm complete.
Branches. — The Kuro Siwo sends a Iciancli northward
into the Yellow Sea, and another through the Straits of
Korea into the Japan .Sea. It ha.s long been supposed that
a third branch passed northward into Hering Sea near the
Kaiiichalkan coast, but this idea is absolutely inaccurate,
mod<Tn researches by Omitsevjeh, Dall, lielkniip, and others
having conclusively sliowii that no such warm bijineli of the
Kuro .Siwo exists in the region it was supposed to occupy:
while the northerly current in Bering Strait has been found
to be due to strictly local causes, chiefly tidal.
BlliLiooRAi'iiv. — U. S. (.'oast Survev, Annual Report for
1S.S0 (pp. 297-335); Pacific Coast J'il'ut, Meteoruloyy (1870);
KURRACIIKE
KWANGTUNG
3&
Onatsevich, Coll. Obs. (1874-77); Dall, Am. Jaiini. Set.
(xxi., pp. 104-111, IHHl); Pctcniiann, Geoar. Mitth. (pi).
363-448, 1881); Wild, T/ialasm (1877), W, H, Dall,
Kurracliee : same as Karachi (q. v.).
Kiirsliee : .same as Karsui (ly, c).
Kursk, koorsk : governiiu'iit of Eiiropeaii Kiissia; be-
tween the Dun and the Dnieper. Area, 17!i;i7 sq miles
with (1886) 2,;!.")4.804 inhabitants. The suriaee is mostly-
low but undulating, and the soil very fertile. Large crop's
of wheat are raised, besides hemp, tobaeeo, and fruit.
Kiir.sk : the capital of the government of Kursk, Eu-
ro]ieau Russia: ou the Seim (see ui.-ip of Russia, ref. 8-D).
It is a flourishing tcjwn, with an extensive trade in tallow,
rope, and fruit, and many good educational institutions.
In the neighborhood of Kursk an annual fair is held after
Easter, which is one of the greatest fairs of the country.
Pop, (1886)4!J,6.57,
Kurtz, Johax.n IIeixrich, D. D. : Lutheran theologian ; b,
at Jlontjoie, Rhenish Prussia, Dec, 13, 1809 ; studied theol-
ogy at llalle and Berlin ; became professor at Dorpat in
1850 ; retired to Marburg as professor emeritus in 1870, and
there died Apr. 36, 1890. His best-known work is his Lf/ir-
hiich di'i- Kirchengeschichte fur Sltidirende (Milan, 1849;
12th eil. Leipzig, 1893; Eng. trans., Church History. ^\o\i>.,
London anil New York, 1889-90). .S. JI. .J.
Kurtzelari Ishinds: See Bchlvapes.
Kiisau (also called by Lewis and Clarke Cook-koo-oose)
Indiaus: a distinct stock of North American Indians, com-
prising several tribes, dwelling in what is now the State of
Oregon. The Kusan Indians inhabited at lea.st four vil-
lages, but it is impossible to tell whether each village was
occupied by a distinct tribe. The Mulluk dwelt in one of
the four Kusan villages, which was located at the mouth of
Coquille river, on the north side, on the site of the present
town of Randolph. The Na^umi, or Niisumi. were a people
dwelling in a village on the south side of Coquille river,
about where is now situated the town of Bandon. The
Athapascan Indians told Dorsey that they could not under-
stand the language of the Nagumi, which strengthens the
supposition that the latter were not of the Athapascan
stock. For this and other reasons, Dorsev assigns the Na-
9umi tothe Kusan family. The Mel ukitz Village was on the
north side of Coos Bay. The Anasitch or Hau-nay-setch
village was on the south side of Coos Bay. Judging from
analogy (Mulluk : Slelukitz and Na.wmi': Anasitch). these
names have a local reference, the proliable meaning of the
former pair being northern village, and that of the second
pair southern village. Nothing is known of their history
and general characteristics. Most of the survivors of this
family are gathered upon the Siletz reservation, Oregon,
but their number can not be stated, as the agency returns
are not given by tribes.
See Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific Coast (i., 307,
1874) ; Dole, in Indian Affairs Report (230; 1860) ; Dorsey's
MS. Alsea, Mulluk, Naltunne tiinne, and Tutu tunne vocab-
ularies (Bureau of Ethnology, 1884) ; Dorsey, in Journal of
American Folk-lore (iii., 231, 1890); Lewis and Clarke Ex-
pedition (ii., 118. 1814): Powell, in Seventh Annual Report
of the Bureau of Ethnology (p. 89, 1891). See also Indians
OF North America. J, Owen Dorsey.
Kusatsu, kob-saats' : a village in Japan, famed for its
hot sulphur-springs ; situated over 100 miles N, of Tokio,
and close to the active volcano Asama-yama, at an elevation
above sea-level of 3,.')00 feet (see map' of Japan, ref. 5-E).
From April to October the baths are thronged with patients
from all parts of the empire, suffering from painful and dis-
gusting diseases, who are put through a severe treatment
according to a rigid system. It is one of the sights to see
the patients entering the baths, the temperature of which
ranges from 38' to 70 C. The water contains sulphur, alum,
sulphate of copper, arsenic, and borax. J. M. Dixox.
Kuskokwini' : a river of Alaska; the second in size in
the territory : running S. of the Yukon, and |}rolial>ly paral-
lel to it, but its course is very imperfectly known. It emp-
ties into the Bay of Kuskokwim, Bering Sea.
KiisteuLmd : See Istria.
Kustriu : See C'uestrin.
Kutahia : a department (sanjak), district (casa), and town
of Asia Minor, in the vilayet of Huilavendighiar. The town
(ane. Cotyaium) on tiie Pursak, formerly famous for its
mosques and baths and for its activity, is a dilapidated
village of .l.tXIO inhabitants, mainly employed in the manu-
facture of a iicculiar and bcautifuri)ottery.' E. A. U.
Kutals' : government of Asiatic Russia, in Caucasia ;
bordered W. by the Black Sea, S. by Asiatic Turkey, and E.
by the government of Tiflis. Area, 14,084 sq. miles. Pop.
923,.')64. The surface is nunnitainous. The cajiital, Kutais,
is situated on the Kion (tlie ancient Thasis), and has 20,237
inhabitants. It .staiuls on the site of the ancient Cutati-
sinm or Cyliea, the capital of Colchis, is fortified, and car-
ries on some trade in corn, wine, and cattle.
Kutch : See Goldbeating.
Kutenay : See Kitunahan Indians.
Kutil'solf, Mikhail, or JliciiAEL: field-marshal; b. 1745;
entered the Russian army at the age of sixteen; became
nuijor-general in 1784; was the leader under Suvaroff in
the memorable assault and capture of Isnniil ; became
lieutenant-general in 1791; was ambassa<lor to Constanti-
nople in 1793, and filled other diplomatic posts up to the
Russian war against Napoleon, when liis services were
put in requisition. In 1805 he entered Germany at the
head of .50,000 men, defeated Mortier atjiDiirrenstein, and
disapproved of the plan followed by the allies at the battle
of Austerlitz. His greatest title to'glory is in the fimil re-
sults which he obtained in the Russian campaign. In Aug.,
1813, he was appointed generul-in-chief, and though he lost
the battle of Borodino, and could not prevent the capture
of Moscow, his energy caused the Russians to recover con-
fidence, and he received the baton of a field-marshal. After
the evacuation of Moscow, Kutusoff hotly inirsued the
French, inflicted on them great losses in the battles of JIalo
Jaroslavatz, Krasnoi;, and Smolensk, for the latter of which
he was created Prince of Smolensk. While pursuing the
French in Prussian Silesia he died of a nuilignant fever at
Bunzlau, Apr, 38, 1813.
Kiit'zing, Friedrich Travgott: botani.st ; b. at Ritte-
burg, in Thuringia, Dec, 8, 1807; studied at Halle; trav-
eled in Southern pjurope, especially exploring the flora of
the coasts of the Adriatic, and was appointed in 1835 Pro-
fessor of Natural Science at Nordhausen, His principal
works are Die Umwandlung niederer Algenformen in lio-
here (1839); Phycologia generalis (1843); Phyculoyia ger-
manica (1845); Species Algarum (1849). His researches
have principally concerned the Algip, and led him to the
same fundamental ideas as those of Darwin.
Klltztowii ; borough ; Berks co., Pa. (for location of
county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-1); on the Phila.
and Reading Railroad ; 17 miles N. E. of Reading. It is in
an iron and limestone region; is the scat of the Keystone
State Normal School ; and has an iron-fimndry, carriage
and shoe factories, and two weeklv newspapers. Pop. (1880)
1,198; (1890) 1,595. ' Editor of "Patriot."
Kuyp; See Cuyp,
K«aiigcliow-foo : the capital of the province of Kwang-
tung, China, usually known to foreigners as Canton (q. v.),
and the seat of the viceroy of the two Kwang, It is also
the chief city of the department of the same name,
Kwan^sl, kwaang'see' (literally. Broad or Great West) :
an inland province of China, lying W. of Kwangtung ; S. of
Kwei-chow and Hunan, and E. of Yunnan ; area, 78,250
sq. miles; population, 5.151,337, Capital, Kwei-lin-foo, city
of the cassia groves. The chief rivers are the Si-kiang (q. v.),
which has its head-watei-s in Yunnan, and its tributaries,
the Yu, the Lung, and the Kwci.
Kwaugtiiug', kwaang toong' : the most southerly province
of China, containing, with its islands, an area of 79,456 sq.
miles and a )K)i>ulation of 39.706,349. It is bounded on the
W. by Kwangsi, N. l>y Hunan, Kiangsi, and Fnh-kien, and
.S. and E. by the sea. It is traversed by the parallel ranges
of tlie mountain system called the Nan-Shan, or Southern
Mountains, which tend S. W. and N. E., and merge on the
bordei-s of Fuh-kien into the "coast range "' of Pumpelly.
(See China.) The chief rivns arc the Si-kiang. or West river ;
the North river, which, at San\slmi, unites its waters with
some of the waters of the West river to form the Cllf-KIANO
{q. v.); the East river, which joins the Chu-kiang .'^ome dis-
tance below Cantim ; and the Han, which rises in Fuli-kien
and enters the sea at Swatow. Tlie coast-line is much
broken, and islands arc numerous. The lar{;est is Hainax
(?.!'.). The most important (though now a British posses-
sion) is Hongkong. The continental part of the province
cuds in a peninsula called Lei-chow, which forms a depart-
36
KWAN-YIN
KYRIE
mcnt by itself. The capital of the province is Kwoiig-chow-
foo. better known as Canton {q. v.).
Kwanjrtuug is rieh in natural resources, and the soil is
very fertile. Three large coal-lields exist, luul iron is found
in over twenty districts. Iron and steel are extensively
manufactured at Kalshan, which is sometimes called the
" Birmingham of China." The chief commercial products
are silk and silk fabrics, tea. cassia lignca, cassia buds and
twigs, matting, fire-crackers, palm-leaf fans, preserves, ga-
langal. China root (the root of the .S'miVnj- (//airn), and many
minor articles. Sugar is grown extensively. Two kinds of
tobacco are produced, and much is imported to Iw manufac-
tured. The manufacture of brass buttons for home use is
an important native in<lustry, and glass banglesare exported
largely to India and the .Malay Archipelago. Much oil is
produced, including ground-nut oil, tea oil. prepared from
the seeils of the Camellia oleifera, sesame oil, and wood oil,
' mjule of the seeds of the Dryandra or lV'u-rHn(/-tree.
Paper is manufactured in several places near Canton and
Fatshan. Kwangtung was one of the earliest parts of China
to be brought into commercial relations with iMUope. The
chief ports of Kv^ngtung are Canton, Macao (in the hands
of the Portuguese), Paklmi. Kowloon, and Swalow. K. L.
Kwan-yin. Ktvaiinon. Kwaii-shi-yiii. or .\valokitesh-
Tara : a Buddhist deity, the god of pity, whose cult belongs
to that development of the Buddhist system which is known
as the Mahayana (7. r.). or "Great Vehicle," and goes back
probably to the first Christian century. It seems to have
originated in India, and soon spread into the northern re-
gions— Sikkim, Ne[)al, Tibet. China, .Japan, etc. — where it hiis
since become very popular, in some instances displ.acing that
of Buddha himself. The Buddliist pilgrim Fa-hien. who trav-
eled extensively in India in 4t)0 and succeeding years, found
it popular there, and Hiif.n-tsano (g. v.), about two cen-
turies later, found it widely established, especially in Ma-
gadha, the Buddhist Holy Land. It seems to have been in-
troduced into China near the end of the third century, when
the Sadd/ianna-jiundiirifLa snirn, which devotes a whole
section to Ivwan-yin, was translated into Chinese.
The name Avalokiteshvara means " down-looking lord "
(Sanskr. avalokita, looking down + 'ishvara, lord); the lord
who looks with pity on all men. and hears with compassion
the cry of the distressed. The Chinese name Kwati-yiii
(pronounced Kwannon in .lapan) means " sound-regarding,"
that is. '■ prayer-hearing." and is a mistranslatiim of the
Sanskrit name. si^ara (— Chinese yiti), sound, being misread
for iahvara, lord. Kwan-shi-yin, the one who "looks
down" on the "sounds of the world" and listens to the
voices of men, is the name used by Pa-hien, while liiucn-
tsang introduced a more correct rendering, Kwan-t-ie-lsai,
whi<-h is practically synonymous with Avalokiteslivara.
01 her names are Maltd-Karuna. " the great jiil ier " ; Padma-
pdni, "the lotus-bearer," used especially in Tibet; Lokesk-
vara, " the lord of the world " ; Lokapdla, " the protector of
the world " ; and many others.
Kwan-yin plays an important part in the doctrine of the
Tsing-tu, or " Pure Lancl " sect. He is the i)rotector and
patron saint of Tibet, where the Grand Lama is regarded
as his incarnation.
Down to the twelfth century Kwan-yin was universally
regarded and represented as a male deity, but, in China and
Japan at least, he is popularly invested with female attri-
butes, and is known as the " goddess of mercy." Her (or
■his) worship is universal, but the island of Pu-to, in the
Chusan archipelago (see Chlsan). has been specially sacred
to her (or him) since 915, and immense numbers of monks
from all parts of China and Tibet visit the place annuallv.
Inniges with female attributes have the chief place, but
others are also found. She is known as the eight-faced and
thousand-handed (the former indicating her omniscience and
the latter her power to save), the faces being arranged in
the form of a pyramid in three tiers. In the I)ai-Kwannon
temple in Tokici, .Japan, her imsige, which occupies the cen-
tral place, is 10 feet high, and is surrounded by 1.01I9 small
images representing her thousand incarnations (she lias the
power of assuming any form, in order to be able to save
cveryboily everywhere), with three sets of the thirty-three
Kwannons of Western .Japan.
See Burnouf's Le Lotus de la bonne Loi (18.52) ; Eitcl's
Handbook for the Student of Chinese liuddhium (Hong-
kong, 1870); Edkins's Chinese Buddhism (London, 1«80);
Buddhism in its Connection with Brdhmanism and Hindu-
ism (London and New York, 1880); The Saddharma-Pun-
danka, trans, by Kern, iu "Sacred Bonksof Ihe East" (Ox-
ft>rd. 1884) ; and the Journal of the liuyal Asiatic Society
(London. Jan., 1894). IJ. Lillev.
Kweichow. kwa-chow : an inland province of China;
bounded on the \V. by Yunnan, X. by Sze-clmen, E. by
Hunan, and S. by Kwaiigsi ; area. 64..').^4 sii. miles; popula-
tion, 1,669,181. Capital, Kwei-yang-foo. The chief rivers
are the \Vu, which joins the Yangt^e at Fu-chow in Sze-
chuen. and the Y'lien. which flows E. into the Tung-
ting Lake. Many independent aboriginal tribes are still
found in the province. See Miao-tse. K. Li.
Kworati'iii Indians: See Ql'oeatean India.ns.
Kyanitc: See Cyan ite.
Kyauk-Phyii : a district and village of Arakan. Burma,
The district includes the islands of Kamri and Chedouba
with a part of the neighboring coast, and back to the moun-
tains. Area. 4.309 s(i. miles. Pup. 150.000. The village is
on the northern end of Ramri. Pop. 3.000. Near it, at the
northern point of the island, is a row of six mud volcanoes.
Kyniric (kim rik) Literature : .See Welsh Litkratlre.
Kyniry : the name given by the Welsh to their nation.
It is frequently extended to the entire branch of the Celtic
race to which the Welsh belong. To this branch also be-
long the people of Bretagne in France and the ancient races
of Cornwall. Cumberland, and Strathclyde. Attemi)ts have
been made to prove that the Cimmerii and the Cimbri were
of this race, but the evidence fails to establish this. There
is reason to believe that a great part of the ancient British
race was Kymric, and many Kyniric roots appear to have
been found in Gaulish and Beigic names. See Celts and
Wales.
Kyoto : See Kioto.
Kyri'aoiis. Antoxitanus (Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli. of An-
cona) : Italian humanist and epigraphist ; ti. about 1391 ; d.
beiore 1457. He was the son of a merchant, and when
nine years old visited Venice. At the age of twelve he was
taken by his grandfather to Najiles, and served as a com-
mercial apprentice until he became of age, when he went to
.sea on his own account, repeatedly visiting Sicily, Greece,
the islands of the Archipelago, and the coast of Asia Jlinor.
The sight of ancient ruins and remains had early excited in
him a passionate enthusiasm forGreek and Latin antiquities,
and having by indomitable perseverance acquired a toler-
ably fair knowledge of Greek and Latin, he a,ssidii<nisly
collected on his extensive travels fragments of sculpture,
coins, bought MSS.. and particularly devoted himself to the
copying of inscriptions. The valuable epigraphic material
thus accumulated wsis brought safely to Ancona, but was
soon dispersed, so that only fragiiients of the original have
.survived in copies subsequently iiiaile. His epigraphic dis-
coveries have frequently been called in question, but mod-
ern research has sli<>wn that his transcrijjtions were boiia-
fide copies and accurately executed. He was imbued with
the true humanistic spirit, and, self-taught though he was,
recognized the superior value of inscrijitions as documen-
tary evidence when compared with MS. testimony. See
Moinmsen, (,'orpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (vol. iii., pp.
xxii., 129 (T.); Voigt, WiiderbrUbung des class Alterthums
(i.. "271-288); J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (ii., pp.
155 IT). Alkkicu Gldemax.
Kyrle, kir'i-e'fe [= Or. Kupie, vocat. of Kvpios, Lord]: the
first word in the Greek of Kyrie elelson (Gr. /ci/pif ^Ae'jjo-oK,
Lord, have mercy), a petition often occurring in the litur-
gies, ma.sses, and other oflices of the Roman Catholic and
Greek Churches, and used to designate the opening move-
ment of musical mas.ses, requiems, and various services
which begin with the wonls Kyrie einsun, Christe ehlson.
For this rejison the term is applied in the Anglican Church
to the responses between the conimamliiients in Ihe Com-
munion oflice, "Lord have mercy upon us." This Lesser or
Jlinor Litany, as SI, Benedict terms it. is found both in the
day offices of the Church and in the service for the ceUOira-
lion of the Holy Communion, and in some of the occasional
services. It was first introduced into the West from the
East by St, Sylvester, A. 11. 321. In the Ambrosian rite it is
thrice sung after the Gloria in Ercelsis.
Revised by W. S. Perry.
: the twelfth letter of the Knjclish alplialiet.
Form. — The present foriii is th:il of llie
Roman alphabet L. It was received from
the Chalculian Greek aljihaliet as p. This
earliest Ureek form of tlie letter appears
to have been preserved only witliin a
limited circle of communities in Eastern
Central Greece — viz., Ikeotia. Attica. Kast-
ern Locris, and C'halchis in Euboea. Elsewhere, even in the
other parts of Eubira and in Western Locris, there ap|iears
the inverted form A or A. which later, with the prevalence of
the Ionic ali)haljet, became the standard Greek form. The
letter was received from the Phoenicians in the form (,.
Name. — The Enjjlish name el is the same as the Latin.
The Greek name lambda is an adaptation of the Semitic
name lamed, ox-goad.
Sound. — The sound most commonly denoted by / is a
voiced dental (.-dveolar) liquid, characterized by a contact of
the tongue-tip with the gums at the position for t. d, n, and
a free passage of breath off both sides of the tongue. The
normal / is doubtless bilateral, but many individuals pro-
nounce it, by reason of some peculiai'ity in the conforma-
tion or condition of the teeth, as unilateral. After voiceless
initial consonants I is commonly voiceless, as in plead,
rloiid, slate. The English I differs from the German and
French, in that the back of the tongue is sligiitly more
raised, giving a half-guttural quality to the sound and tend-
ing to guttural modification of a preceding vowel ; cf. call,
hall, talk, and sixteenth century spellings like oivld (old)
haicld (hold). It may be used as a vowel — e. g. in Utile
(proii. nil). Before m,f(v), A-, it has been lost (chiefly since
the seventeenth century), though retained in spelling; thus
in halm, calm, psalm, palm, salmon, lialf, calf, salre, chalk,
walk, talk, folk, yolk, also by reason probably of witlidrawal
of accent in the proclitics iconld, should. In coulil the / is
merely graphic, after the analogy of would, should ; cf. the
older spelling coude (sixteenth century). In colonel the first
/ has the value of r. The old spelling coronet (seventeenth
century), from Fr. coronnel, was displaced under the influ-
ence of Ital. colonnelln, derivative of colonnu, column.
Source. — The sound has come into English from the
greatest variety of sources, but it has come in general with-
out change, being a peculiarly permanent element. Tims
it represents (1) a Teutonic and Indo-European / in many
native words ; as in light "Germ, lic.hl, cf. Gr. K^vkSs. Lat.
lux; lief: Germ, lief, cf. Lat. lubet ; blade : Germ, hlatl, cf.
Lat. folium, Gr. (piKXav; cold : Germ, kalt, cf. Lat. gelu ;
wolf : Germ. wolf. cf. Gr. \iKos : wheel < O. Eng. hweol, cf.
Gr. kvkXos. (2) Teutonic hi < Indo-Europ. kl : as in loud <
O. Eng. hlud : Germ, taut, cf. Gr. k\vt6s. Lat. in-clutus. (;i)
// < Teutonic // < ludo-Europ. la ; as in /(/// : Germ, volt :
Qo\.\i. fulls, cf. Lith. p'dnas, hht. plenus. (4) II < Teutonic
li; as in sill < O. Eng. si/ll : Germ, schwelle. cf. Goth, i/a-
suljan, to found. (5) Latin I in tile < O. Eng. f'igle, from
Lat. tegula ; mile < O. Eng. nut, from Lat. m'llia. (6) Lat.
I via Fr., as in lien from Pr. lioi < Lat. liga'men : place
from Fr. place < Lat. pla tea iav ptate'a = Gr. TrKareia. (7)
In loan-words of various sources, as Greek in athletes
aBKriT'fis : .the I of the Arabic article al in alchemy, alcohol,
alcove, etc.
Value as Symbol. — As a Roman numeral L = 50 ; in
chemistry L = lithium ; I or £ = libra, pound sterling ; in
astronomy / = longitude; in mathematics 7 = logarithm;
as a proof-reader's mark /. c. = lower case. Otlier alibrevia-
tions are lb. = pound ; / = liter ; L. C. = Lord Chamberlain ;
L. C. J. = Lord Chief .lustice; L. D. S. =: Licentiate of Den-
tal Surgery ; L. II. D. = Litterarum [lumanarum Doctor,
Doctor of Humanities; LL. B. = Legum Baccataureus,
Bachelor of Laws ; LL. I). = Legum Doctor. Doctor of
Laws ; L. I. = Long Island ; L. S. = locus sigilli ; place of
the seal ; L. .S. D. = librip, solidi, denarii, pounds, .shillings,
an<I pence. Be.nj. Idk Whkei.kr.
L'llii'liind, or TiOllaiid : an island of Denmark, in the
Baltic; se|)arated from Falster by the stretch of water called
Guldliorgsund. Area, 444 sq. miles. It is low and flat, Init
fertile and well cultivated. Large crops of wheat are
raised ; fine forests of oak and beech abound. Pop. 70,000.
The principal towns are Maribo and Naskov.
Laale. laa Ic, Pkder : Danish grammarian ; probably lived
in the fifteenth century. Xothing is known of his life, and
even his name is a matter of doubt. I lis one work is a
collection of Latin verses with Danish proverbs as equiva-
lents, first piiblished as a Latin reader by (iotfried von Glie-
men (1506), later by C. Pedersen (Parish 1.515), and finally
Ijy K. Nyei-up (Copenhagen, 1S28). It is of great value as
being the first collection of proverbs in Danish, and for the
liglit it throws on the language of that jieriod. JIany of
the sayings have their origin in the eddas, others in the earli-
est Danish law codes. D. K. Dodge.
La Antigua: See Darien, and Guatemala la Axtigua.
Labadie', Jean', de: b. at Bourg-en-Guienne. near Bor-
deaux. Feb. 13. ItilO, and educated at Bordeaux liv the Jes-
uits, in whose order he became a distinguished jirofessor. In
1639 he left the Jesuits, and began preaching Augustinian
teaching respecting grace, free will, and predestination, and
some peculiar doctrines of his own respecting prayer and the
direct influence of the Holy Spirit, having considerable suc-
cess at Paris, at Amiens, at Bazas, and at Toulouse. In
1643 he entered into personal relations with the Jansenists.
He obtained many followers through his eloquence and
learning, claimed to have received the spirit of John the
Baptist, and predicted the end of the world in 1666. Find-
ing no rest in the Roman Catholic Church, and being sub-
ject to persecutions, he publicly embraced the Reformed
creed in 1650 at Montauban, where he preached for several
years a return to apostolical religion on pietistic ])rinciples.
In 1657 he became pastor at Orange, and in 165!) at Geneva,
where he gained many proselytes, but created such disturb-
ances that he soon withdrew, and for several years traveled
through Germany and Holland. In 1666 lie became pastor
of a Walloon church at Middelburg, Holland, where several
persons of importance embraced his doctrines. His most
celebrated disciples were two ladies. Anna Maria von Schiir-
maim and Antoinette Bourignon. tlie former distinguished
for her learning in the drifntal languages, the latter as
author of many devotional publications. In 1669 he re-
moved to Amsterdam, and formed a Ixidy of followers known
as Labadists. Expelled from Holland in 1670 as a danger-
ous sectarian, he went to Erfurt, where the Prinoe.ss Pala-
tine Elizabeth protected him and became his di.sciple. He
afterward went to Bremen, and fiiudly to Altona. Ilolstein.
where he died Fel>. 13, 1674. His disciples settled in the
duchy of Cleves, where they existed feu- nearly a century.
Early in the eighteenth century some Laliadisl missionaries
settled on the banks of the Hudson in New York, but do
not .seem to have founded any churches. Labadie's doc-
trines were a combination of mysticism with Calvinism ; he
held to illumination by the Holy Gliost as the means of sal-
vation superseding the Bible, rejected infant baptism and
the oliservance of the .Sabbath, and tanglit communism in
property. The Roman Catholics circulated many charges
of immorality against his teachings, but without reason, his
practices having been ascetic in the extreme. He left nu-
merous writings, now extremely rare. See II. van Berkum,
De Labadie en de Labadisten (Sneek, 1851).
Lnbarcn. hiii-ljaar kali, or La Barcn : a town of Mexico,
state of Jalisco; on the river Lerma, near the eastern ex-
tremity of the Lake of Chapala; 62 miles E. S. E. of Guada-
lajara (see map of Mexico, ref. 7-F) ; population (1889)
about 1(1,(100. It was the scene of conflicts between the rev-
olutionists and royalists, Nov., 1810. H. E. S.
Labariini (Late Latin labarum, origin iloublful): orig-
inally the imperial Roman standard, consisting of a staff,
from which was susjiended by cords a cross-bar, to which
was attached a purple flag bearing the portrait of the em-
peror or commander. The Emperor Constantine the Great,
after his conversicm, modilied the insignia so as to make the
labarum a Christian standani, replacing the portrait of the
emperor by a cross and the Greek letters X P (= Ch r) em-
(37)
38
LA BAT
LAIJIAMZATIUN
broiilori'il in ^olil in the form of ii inniio^nim or ii symbol
of I'lirist, thus ^(= Clirisma). Another form is lifjinvd,
in which theylv luonoiirum is attiirhed to the stafT ai>ove
the llnir. and upon thi' hilterarc embroiilrre<l the (ireek lettei-s
A ami n. The name liibaruiu afterwanl was sometimes aj>-
]ilieil to these clevices and symbols. Tliis form of standard
with varyin;; Christian syniluils is now used in eeclesiastical
processions, etc.. especially in the Koman Catholic Church,
UDdcr its original name of laburum ; and one of similar
form with ditTerent devices, mottoes, etc., is a favorite stand-
ard for civil societies. Hy many persons the ti^rm banner
is in<-orrcctly restricted in its meaning to a standard of
this form. See Flag, Banner, Standard, etc.
James Mercur.
Liibat. la"a-baa', .Iean Uaptiste : Dominican missionary
and author; b. in Paris. France, ItiGli. He taught philoso-
phy and mathematics at Xancv, and subsequently went to
the West Indies, where he had charge of a parish in Mar-
tinique 16;t4-'.l(). and traveled extensively. Keturning to
Kurope in 170."). he lipent several years in Italy on business
of his order, and the rest of his life was pa.ssed in Paris. In
1724 he published his yniiveau vui/a///' aiix ilea de I'Ame-
riqiie, which was enlarged in two subseiiuent editions, and
wius translated into Dutch and Gennan. It had a wide and
deserved popularity; its descriptions of colonial life, of the
Caribs and buccaneei-s. and of the plants, aninuils and other
natural objects which he saw, are reunirkably interesting
and generally very accurate. He writes not only as a priest,
but as a hunter and fisherman, and a lover of nature; and
the book is hardly less interesting to-day than it was when
first published. Labat also wrote, or rather edited, I'oyaf/e
</« Clifralier dex MarchniK en Guinfe. iles foisini'f: et a
('(lyetini'. D. in I'liris, .Ian. 0. 1738. Hkkbert II. Smith.
Labbariiqiio'snisi II feet iiig Liquor: Seellvi'oi ui.orites.
Lnb'daniini. or Lad'aiiiiin [= Lat. la'danum. ledanum =
fir. \iiS(wov. nsinous gum from a certain shrub] : name
given to the resin of small evergreen shrubs of the order
(HKtaeem. Cixfiis creticns. laurifoliuH, aiul ladiiniferuuK,
growing chiefly in the Levant. It is combed from the beards
of goals and the fleece of sheep that browse upon the hills
where these shrubs grow, and is also collected by drawing a
rake over the plants. Leathern thongs are attaclu'd to the
rake, and to these thongs the resin adheres. It is used as an
incense and for fumigating; also somi>tiuies in |ilaslers. It
was at one time valued as a stimulant an<l expectorant.
La B<'(lollif'rc. laa-V)a do li-iir'. ^mile GiuAri-T. de: pub-
licist and historian ; b. at .Amiens, France. May 24, 1H12. He
studied at the Kcole dcs Chartes, and made his di'hiif in lit-
erature with his Vie politique du itiarquix de La Fayette
(1833). This gave him a recognized position in French let-
ters, and he began to publish inimerous articles in the best
liberal journals. Later he became a regular contributor to
Le Sii'cle. and in 1869 he was one of the founders of /yc Xa-
tionnl. lie was a prolific writer, and we can mention only
the titles of his more important works: lieaiili'x des ricfnire's
el des couqueten dex Fran{ai«C2d ed.. 2 vols., 1847) ; Ifinfoire
des mwurs et de la vie privi'e des Frani;ais {3 vols.. 1847);
IfiKltiire de la guerre du Mexique (3 parts. 1861-68) ; Ilin-
tnire de Parix (1864) : Ifislnire complete de la querre de I'AI-
lemni/ne et d'ltulie (I860) : Ilistnire de la guerre de 1S70-71
(1872). All these works are strongly libera'l in tendeiU'V, but
productions rather of a pulilicist and advocate than of a sci-
eiitiftc historian. Perhaps the best known of all la Bedol-
liert^s books is the am\ising skit llixtoire de la mere Michel
et de mn chat {\m\).w\i'\Q\\ has been many times republished
not only in France, but in other countries in Europe ancl in
the U, S. I), in I'aris, Apr. 23, 1883. A. U. ^Iarsu.
Label [from O. Fr. label, laheau. flap, shred, cf. Fr. lam-
beau, probably < Lat. lahellum, dimin. of labium, lip]: a
quaxi trade-mark. Like the latter, it implies proprietarv
rights which are defensible fioth at connuon law and bv
statute, but dllTci's from it by including proiier names, de-
scriptive terms, etc., and e.vcluciing merelv arbitrary symbols.
Since the act of Congress approved .lunc 18, 1874. liibels have
had a distinct status among proprietary marks. As offi-
cially .stated, the scope of this act in I liis regard is as fol-
lr)ws : ".Sec. 3. That in the construction of this act the
words 'engraving,' •cut,' an. 1 ' print ■ shall be applied <.nly
lo pictorial illustrations or works connecteil with thi' fine
arts, and no prints or labels designed to be used for any
other articles of manufacture shall be entered under the
copyright law. but may be registered in the patent olTice.
.\n<l the commissioner of [latenls is hereby charged with the
supervision and control of the entry or registry of such
prints or lalaU. in conformity with the regulations provided
by law as to copyright of prints, except tliat llnre shall be
paid for recording the title of a print or label, not a trade-
mark, six dollars, which shall cover the expense of furnish-
ing a copy of the record, under seal of the commissioner of
patent.-!, to the party entering the .•bailie.
■■ I5y the word • print,' as used in the said act, is meant
any device, picture, word or words, figure or figures (not a
trade-mark), impre.'^ied or stamped directly upon the arti-
cles of manufacture, to denote the name of the manufac-
turer or ])lace of maimfacture, style of goods, or other nuit-
ter. By the word "label,' as therein used, is meant a slip
or piece of pai>er, or other material, to be attached in any
manner to manufactured articles, or to bottles, boxes, and
packages containing them, and bearing an inscription (not
a trade-mark), as, for example, the name of the manufac-
turer or the place of manufacture, the quality of goods,
directions for use, etc. Hy the words 'articles of manufac-
ture'— to which such print or label is applicable by sjiid act
— is meant all vendiDic commodities jiroduced by hand,
machinery, or art. But no such |)iint or label can be regis-
tered unless it jiroperly belongs to an article of commerce,
and be as above ilefined : n<ir can the same be registered as
such print or label when it amounts in law to a technical
trade-mark."
It will be seen that the act in question excludes trade-
marks per se. together with matter relating to the fine arts
and helles-lettrex. In addiliem to these, it also excludes
designs or articles the form and c.mfiguration of which are
intended for the decoration or artistic improvement (as dis-
tinguished from the mechanical or functional) of manufac-
tured articles. The registry of laliels in the patent office
under this act makes infringements thereof cognizable in
the Federal courts. In some of the States local laws pro-
vide for the punishment of infringers upon a label, and in
such instances the courts of the State are the ju'oper tribu-
nals. Even where no such laws exist, an action under the
common law may be maintained, the <-lioici' of courts rest-
ing with the lawful owner of the label. Pictures, engrav-
ings, etc., relating to the fine arts, and printed matter con-
sidered apart from a commercial product or article to which
it is attached, are subjects for copyright, ami no matter
emliraced within cither of these divisions can be protected
either under the act of Congress or by State or common
law. A "design" being in the nature of things arbitrary,
and distinct in configuration from any other, may be used
as a trade-mark, proviilcd that its use for this purpose is by
its originator, jiatentee. or cjwner as a design ; but as for
trade purjioses it may llius be bnjught within the scope of
a trade-mark; it can hanlly be propirly registered as a label
by the patent office, although some rulings of the latter im-
jiiy the contrary. James A. Whitney.
Laber. IIadamar, von : a German (loet who probably was
born in Bavaria, and lived in the first half of the fourteenth
century. His chief work is Die Jagil. an allegoric jioein in
which the chivalrous wooing is represented in the form of
a chase, the heart being the hound, love the game, etc.
Though of little poetic value, the poem was greatly ad-
mired at the lime and frci|iieiitly imitated by later writers.
See //. fon L(il/er.i Jagd. edited by I. A. Schmeller (Stutt-
gart, 18.50) : //. von lAiberg Jagd, c<lited by Karl .Stegskal
(Vienna. 1880). JuLifS Goebel.
Labe'riiis. Decimi's : a Koman knight; b. in 10.5 B.C.;
d. in 43 : famous as a writer of minu's which he raised to the
rank of literature. Macrobius {Saturnntiorum, ii., 7) tells
the story of his humiliation, how Ca'.sar compelled him to
appear upon llu' stage in a contest with his younger rival
Publilius Syrus. by whom he was defeated. Some forty-
four titles of his mimes are pre.servcd. and the fragments are
given on jip. 279-302 of 0. liibbeck, Fragmenta Cumicdrum
(Lei|izig. 1873). Jl. Warken.
Labiali/atioii : a term used in phonetics to denote a
mollification in the arliculation of a sound by the contrac-
tion or closure of the lips. In the ca.«e of vowels it is also
called rounding. Thus the O. Eng. a has snfTered rounding
in piussing into Mod. Eng.; cf. O. Eng. KtSn > Mod. Eng.
■itiiue. (). lOng. drilv> Mod. Eng. drove. The Indo-|-Uiropean
velar (liack) gutturals cj. U- ''*''■• suffer labialization in the
western branches of the family under certain cimditions;
thus I.-E. f(i'»«.s, alive > (ir. $lo!. Lai. virus. (). Ir. biu. cf.
F.ng. quiclc: I.-K. 4"-. who > dr. iriiflei'. whence Lat. quod.
LABIALS
LABOR
39
Kiijr. what. The connoctiiif; link between the velars ami the
liiliials is eviileiitly tlie Ijac-k iiusition of the toiifjiie elianie-
leristic of them both. Bexj. Ide Wiieelek.
Labials [from liat. hiliiiim. lip]: speooh-sounds wliose
<'hariietenstio artieiihitioii is at the li|)s. The eommonest
hibial consonants aiv tlie voiceless explosive |>, the voiced ex-
[ilosivc i, the nasal in, the voiced spirant (or continuant) U' in
wood. work, and the voiceless spirant ir in (iccnti/, (juite. As
pronounced l)y many also the wh of ir/iaf, when is merely the
voiceless form of w. Tlie sounds denoted by /and c dilTer from
those just mentioned in that their articulation is between
the lower lip and the upper teeth and not between both lips.
They are therefore called labio-dentals, as distinguished from
the iji-labials. See Phonetics. Bexj. Ide Wheelek.
Labia'tie : See Mint Family.
Labiclie, l.iii beesh'. Ei'iib;NE Marix : playwright: b. in
Paris, May 5, 1815 ; was educated in College Bourbon and
studied law. but decided to devote himself to literature, and
made his (U'hnt with the collection of sketches Le Clef di's
Champs (l.S:j8). lie attempted various branches of literature,
b\it was best known as a ]ilaywright, having produced, gen-
<?rally in conjunction with another, over 100 comedies, farces,
vaudevilles, etc. The best known of his plays are La cuvelle
il'eau (his first piece, 1837) ; Le chapeau de paille d'ltnlie
(18.")!) ; Le Voi/ai/e de M. Pen-iehun (1860) ; Les Pefits
Oinenux (1862) : Mni (1864) ; L' Homme qui manque le Cache
<1865); Le Cachemire (18T0) ; Thiit-on le dire? (18?:!); La
jirix Martin (with Augier, 1876) : La clef (with Dnrn,
1877). A collection of his dramatic works appeared in
187'J with the title Theatre de Labiche (10 vols.). He was
elected to the French Acadeiuv in Nov., 1879. D. in Paris,
Jan. -ii. 1888. " Revised by A. K. JIarsii.
Labieiius, Titi-s : Roman soldier ; tribune in 68 B. c,
when Cicero was consul; accompanied Cipsar as his lieuten-
ant to Gaul, and distinguished himself in 54 B. c. by his two
victories over the Treviri. and in .5'3 in the campaign against
Vercingetorix. Entering public life under the auspices of
(';psar. and serving him for many years, he nevertheless sided
with Pompey when the civil war broke out, being mean and
vruel to those of Ca'sar's soldiers who fell into his hands at
the battle of Dyrrhachium, After the defeat of Pharsalia
he fled to Africa, and thence to Spain after the defeat at
Thapsus. In Spain he fought against C'a>sar at Munda, and
by his mistakes the battle was lost. D. 45 B.C.
Revised by G. L. IIendrickso.n'.
Labie'nus. Les Propos <Ie : the title of a bitter satirical
invective against the secomi French empire, and personally
against Napoleon III., which ai>peared in Paris in 1865, im-
mediately after the publication of the first volume of Napo-
leon's life of Julius Ca'sar. Labienus is represented to be a
soured, disgusted, and obstinate republican living under
.\ugnstus, against whose usurpation and tyranny he per-
jietually chafed. He is re|iresented to have written a his-
tory of his country, of which he rea<l passages in secret to his
friends. His grandfather issaid to have served under Julius
up to the crossing of the Rubicon, and his father to have
joined the Parthians rather than supjjort the triumvirate.
This was supposed to point to Victor Hugo, whose father was
a general under the first republic ; but as the general also
.served the empire the coincidence is not complete. The
Due d'Aumale wrote a life of the great Conde which was
printed privately for his friends, but was seized and confis-
cated, riiis was a point of similarity with Laliienus. who.
however, by hypothesis, could not have been of royal ex-
traction. The autlior probably did not mean to point defi-
nitely to any individual. The appearance of a volume of
memoirs by Augustus is the occasion of a special outburst
of the spleen of Labienus, with which the satire concludes.
The author was JI. A. Rocheard, an ex-professor in a ]u'o-
vincial college. His name was on the title-page, and he was
condemned to four or five years" imprisonment, but escaped
by taking refuge in Brussels. Revised by A. G. Canfield.
Labium: See E.n'tomology.
Lablache. la'ablaash', lii-ic.i : opera-singer ; b. at Naples,
Dec. 17, 1794; made his debut as a basso in 1812 in his na-
tive city; achieved his first great success in Vienna in 1824,
and sang from 1880 to 1857 alternately in Paris ami Ijon-
don, making occasional tri])s to St. Petersburg and Naples.
D. at Naples, Jan. 28, 1858. His principal performances
were Figaro, Leporello, Didcamara, Don Pasijuale, etc., but
he also took the part c}f Henry VIII. in Anna liiilena, and
Oiorgio in I Puritani, making a most powerfcl impression.
La Boftie. laa-bo « lee', ftriENXE, de : author; b. at Sar-
lat. France, Nov. 1, 1.580; d. near Bordeaux, Aug. 18, 1.508.
He was a precocious student of classical letters, and before
he was sixteen had translated a fragment of the Economics
of Aristotle, the Kroiiomics of Xeiiophon (under the title
jVexnai/erie). and th<> Jt'ri/les de mariat/e and Convolution of
Plutarch. He was not much older when he wrote his most
famous work, Contre-Un, or a J)iscour.i xur la servitude vo-
lonlaire, a vigorous attack against tyranny, which, however,
was not made public until 1575. He ac(piired a seat in the
Parliament of Bordeaux in 1558. In 1557 began his warm
friendship with Montaigne, who celeljrated his talents and
character {Essais. i., 25, 27, 28 ; ii., 17). A good edition of
his works, with biographical notice, lia.s been given by Paul
Bonnefon, (Euvres completes d'Etienne de la Boetie (Paris,
1892). A. G. Can-field.
La'bor [via O. Fr. from Lat. labor, labor, toil, work] : in
the broadest sense of the term, work done by a human being
or an animal. Human labor is at once the leading agency
in the production of wealth and the most important ele-
ini'iit in the well-being of acoinmunily. Kconomie progress
consists largely in the increased efficiency of the laborers in
the production of those goods which the community needs.
Up to a very low poin.t the wants of a community may per-
haps be supplied by nature. What labor there is may take
the form of search for food, or of hunting and fishing. In
this stage a given amount of land can support only a very
small number of people, ami the eiforts and privations in-
volved are large in proportion to the result attained. Such
a state represents the lowest stage of industrial etficiency.
An important step forward is made in the progress to the
pastoral stage, where animals, in.stead of being hunted, are
domesticated, so that more regular sup]jlies of food are ob-
tained. In this stage land can support a larger number of
people than in that which jireceded. A further advance is
made in the change from the pastoral to the agricultural
stage, the results of the work becoming larger in proportion
to the land occupied and labor exjiended. With the regular
supply of food due to the agricultural operations, there is
the possibility for large accumulation of capital and for its
use in manufacturing, by developments which at every stage
increase the industrial efficiency of each member of the
community.
With the substitution of pastoral and agricultural meth-
ods for hunting, the introduction of capital and of systematic
labor begins. This labor is at first secured in almost all
nations by the system of slavery: and on that account, in
the beginning, the introduction of slavery marks an indus-
trial advance. Captives are no longer killed, but preserved
for useful purposes, and the labor of such captives makes
further progress possible. (See Slavery and Sociology.) As
time goes on. slavery gives place to higher forms of labor
organization; first to serfdom, then to the wage system,
and in the future possibly to .something better than the
wage system. With each step in progress the stimulus of
hope is substituted for that of fear. Slave labor is in many
ways less ad\antageous than free labor. It requires large
exertion for superintendence, because the laborer is anxious
to do as little as he can. It is, as a rule, unintelligent,
wasteful, and short sighted. Slave labor is, under certain
conditions, much better than no labor at all. but it is far
worse than almost any kind of free labor. As between dif-
ferent classes of free laliorers the variations in efficiency are
also enormous, parflv on account of dilTereiices in the indi-
vidual strength of the laborers, partly on account of the
power of organization. The elliciciicy of the individual
laborers depends jiartly upon food, partly upon general sani-
tary coiulitions. partlv upon inlelligeiu'e, aiwl partly uiion
the" ambition of the laborers as a class. In the countries
where the laborers are deficient in these respects, though
wages liy the day may appear to be low, the efficiency is,
ius a rule^ even lower, and the niece prices for work done
may often be extremely high. The country whose laborers
are' well fed usually gets an amount of work done which
renders the api)arent waste of food a matter of true econ-
oniv in the h^ng run. just as a steam-engine which burns
twice as much coal as another may sometimes do four times
as much work. " In comparing the cost of constnicting rail-
wavs in liulia and Great Britain, it was found tliat though
the Indian lal)orer received but 10 cents a day and the Brit-
ish laborer 75 cents, the sub-contracts in the two countries
were let at the same price per cubic yard." See Wages.
Of the means of -organizing labor to secure increased efTi-
40
LABORATORY
cicMcy. the fii>t is what is known as division of hiUor, l>y
wliich eiu'h iniliviiliial workman altcmls to one line of imu-
esses anil one only. In tlie nulesl communities there is
ahnost no division of hdxir, the fanner and )iis family pro-
ducing most of what is necessary for their wants, and re-
sorting only occasionally to (he services of the lilacksinith,
the mason.' the carpenter, or a few other tradespeoiile.
With the development of commerce occupations Ijcoome
specialized, and with cacli new invention the specialization
is carried further, so that a laborer confines himself not
merelv to a single trade but to a single part of that trade.
Where such ilivision of labor is carried far it increases pro-
duction in a number of ways. It shortens apprenticesiiip,
each man no longer learning a whole tra<le, but only certain
parts of it. It develops dexterity, repetition of the sjime
task enabling the operations to become automatic : whereas
if a man had to pass from one operation to another, the
waste of elTort in such change would be far more serious
than the mere loss of lime. It is also thought to facilitate
invention, though this is doubtful, and to allow better util-
ization of the labor power of the community by not restrict-
ing trades to those who have the strength necessary for mas-
tering their heavier parts.
While the division of labor enables different people to
work eflicieiitly side by side, the system of mastership in
industry gives efficient direction to the whole. In the
Middle Ages trades were managed on a democratic prin-
ciple by associations of workmen, just as town meetings
were managed by an association of all the citizens side by
side. As industries became more and more complicated,
the work of government had to be delegated to special
hands, and it did in fact fall more and more into the hands
of those who advanced the capital and took the risks. As a
result of this change the division of labor at first was car-
ried much further than would otherwise have been the case;
coninetition was introduced as an active force in business
(see Political Economy) ; and the work of different parts
of the industrial organization was kept within due propor-
tions. On the other hand, the development of the system
of division of labor and of mastership in industry has been
attended with some evils. The danger of misdirected pro-
duction has become greater than ever before. When people
worked for orders or produceil for the home market, there
was no possibility of doing too much. The demand was clear
and visible. When a few factories produce for the whole
country or for the world, the danger of a disproportion be-
tween supply and demand becomes enormous. If a mistake
has been m.ide, large numbers of laborers are thrown out of
employment, and a general industrial depression m.iy fol-
low. (See CoMMKRCiAL ('risks.) The socialists make this a
severe ground of attack against the present system, aiid
hope for the substitution of some other in its idaee, but the
majority of experiments of this kind have proved worse
than useless. (See C'o-oPf;RATioN and Socialism.) For ac-
tual rates paid to laborers in different countries, see Wares.
For certain broailer deductions, see Political Ecoxosiy,
See also Factoriks and Factory .Systkm, Tradks-uxioxs,
and Strikks and Lockoi;ts. Compare .J. E. Tliorold Rogers's
Six CunlurieHof Work and Wages; W.S. .levons's Tlie State
in Relnlion to Labor, Arthur T. Uadlev.
Lab'oratory [from Mcdiiev. Lat. laborato'rium, labora-
tory, liter., workshop, deriv. of Lat. lahora're, work, labor] :
a room or building devoted (1) to exiicrimental research, or
(2) to instruction in the experimenlal details of any branch
of science, of technics, or of engineering. There were labo-
ratories for alchemy and a-strology throughout the Mi<ldle
Ages, and some of these were important establishments in
their day, being maintaineil by princes or sometimes at pub-
lic expense. Kopp, in his history of chemistry (Oescttichte
ilir C/innie, vol. li.. p. 1>S), refers to a magnificent laboratory
|ilanned by Libaviiis, professor at .lena l.")88-yi, and after-
ward director of gymnasiurii at Kollienburg and Coburg
(about 1.5!).')). This was intended for the pursuit of chemis-
try as distinct from alchemy. It was to be a magnificent
establishment with gardens, cloisters, bath.s, and wine-cel-
lars, in addition lo llie e(piipment for the processes familiar
to the chei'nist of that day.
The following century saw the beginnings of the modern
laboratory system. A few rich amateurs, such as IJoyle in
Oxford, possesseil private laboratories for investigation; the
University of Altorf opened the first academic laboratory
for instruction (Kibl}), and Charles .\I. fouinled the Stock'-
holm public laboratory for milalliirgy (ICtJJJ). During this
period, however, nearly all researches were performed in
rooms intended for the ordinary purposes of domestic or
commercial life. Thus Newton nia<le his discovery of dis-
persion of light at his hulgings in Cambridge, admilling a
ray of sunlight to the darkened room through a hole bore<l
in the window-shutter. For more than 100 yeai-s much the
.same conditions existed. The laboratory of the master
chemist of his day, Herzelius, for example, was the kitchen,
where cooking and chemistry went on together.
The nineteentli century has seen very rapid <levelopinent
in the building of laboratories. This moilerii movement, of
which the laboratory svstem of the present day is the out-
come, which substiluteil for the private lalioratories previ-
ously existing those open to the student body and equipi>cd
both for instruction anil research, was starled by Banm von
Lieliig, who induced the authorities to build a chemical labo-
ratory for the University of Giessen, ami was tireless in his
efforts to obtain llie introduction of laboratory instruction
throughout (ierniany. Since this epoch the methods of
teaching science have gradually been revolutionized, and
the laboratory has become a most important I>art of the
university. Division and subdivision of the fields of re-
search have taken i>lace, and each new branch has been
fiiniislied with its special laboratory.
The first uiiivei'sity laboratories often consisted of a sin-
gle room, frequently a mere anteroom to the lecture-hall.
Now laboratories devoted to tlie broader fields of science
usually occupy an entire building or group of buildings. To
indicate the extent to which the establishment of special
laboratories has gone, the following list of those under the
control of the Universitv of Herlin in 1H!I3 is given. See
Minerca, Ja/irbudi der Oelehrten Welt (lS!J2-!»3, p, 80).
LABORATORIKS CONNECTED WITH TIIK UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN
(1!S!»2).
First Anatomical Laboratory.
Second " '■
Pathological "
Physiological "
Pharmacological "
Ilvgienic "
Dental
First Chemical "
Second Chemical Laboratory,
Technicological "
Physical "
PaliPontological "
Petrographic "
Zoological "
Botanical "
Observatory.
Many of these are, indeed, institutes employing many in-
structors and comprising within their walls a group of dis-
tinct and separately equipped special laboratories. The list
does not include engineering subjects which are pursued in
(iermany in polytechnic schools. The other German uni-
versities make relatively as remarkable a showing as the
above, while at Paris the Sorbonne presents a still more
amazing aggregation of special laboratories, viz. :
LABORATORIES IN THE KCOLE PRATIQUE DES IIAUTES £tUDES EN
SoRnoXNE (PARIS).
Two (ihysical laboratories.
Three labcu'atories for general chemistry.
Two laboratories for inineralogical cheiiiislry.
The laboratory for organic chemistry.
Two mineralogical lalioratories.
Three botanical laboratories.
The laboratory of medicine.
The laboratory of biological physics.
Three laboratories of physiology.
The laboratory of jialhological physiology.
The lalioratory of zoological histology.
The laboratory of histology.
The laboratory of zoology.
The laboratory of aiiatimiieal zoology.
The laboratory of anthropology.
The laboratory of the natural history of inorganic bodies.
The laboratory of ophlhalmology.
The laboratory of teratology.
Tlie laboratory of organography and vegetable physiology.
The laboratory of physiological jisychology.
The laboratory of geology.
In addition there are nine afTiliated laboratories situated
in various parts of France. It should be noted, however,
that the Sorlionne gathers under one admiuisl ration three
ilisliiict faculties — the l''aculle des Sciences, of the Univer-
sity of Paris, that of llie College de France, and that of the
Ecole Noriuale Supericure. In England the laboratory sys-
tems of the great universities are still backward. Both at
Cambridge and Oxford, for example, it is found possible to
LABOR DAY
LABRADOR
41
accommoiliite cxperimpntal research and lalinratory instruc-
tion fcir llie entire university, conlprisinj; (at Uie former seat)
zoology, botany, anatomy, mineralogy, chemistry, and phys-
ics, under a single roof. In the various colleges and univer-
sities organized during the latter halt of the nineteenth cen-
tury in various parts of Great Hritain more ample provision,
relatively, has been provided for laboratory instruction.
In the U. S., where German influence has been strong,
consideralile has been done, although the outlays for lal)ora-
tory equipment nowhere approach those made for such pur-
poses on the continent of Europe. There is nothing to
compare with the laboratories of Zurich, where 2,0()(),000
francs have been expended for a chemical lalioratory, and
more than 3,000,000 francs for a lalioratory of jihysics and
elcctrotechnics. while sums commensurate with these have
been spent for individual laboratories in Strassburg, Char-
lottenburg, Liege, and elsewhere.
In technical education the specialization of laboratory
practice is not as yet so completely developed as in pure
science, but the tendency shows itself here also, and modern
schools of engineering are beginning to offer laboratory in-
struction in a large nundier of applied sciences. One such
school in tlio U. S.. the College of Civil Engineering of
Cornell University, for example, had in 1893 the following
special laboratories — viz., an hydraidic laboratory, a labora-
tory for I he stuily of cements, a bridge laboratory, a gravi-
meti'ic laboratory, a geodetic laboratory, a magnetic labora-
tory, a bacteriologieal' laboratory, and a photographic labo-
ratory. In the other branches of engineering in the same
institution the opportunities for laboratory practice are. of
course, correspondingly developed. See En'oinekrino, Ex-
perimental. E. L. Nichols.
Labor Day: in the U. S., a legal holiday for workingmen
first celebrated (by a tew States) in WifY. It falls (with a
few exceptions) on the first Monday in September. Meet-
ings for the discussion of labor ipiestions are held and usu-
ally there are parades. It is set apart by law (ISO?) in
about three fourths of the Stales. In Europe generally May
1 is celebrated as a labor festival, and in London, Paris,
and other cities demonstralioiis in favor of reforms are
made by trades-unions, and sinular organizations. In some
countries disturbances caused by Socialists on this day have
led the governments to forbid celebration.
Lahorde, hm'biSrd', Alexandre Louis .Ioseph, Count de:
statesman and savant ; b. in Paris, Sept. 15, 1774 ; served in
the Atistrian army in the first cam|iaign against the French
republic; returned to France after the peace of Campo
Pormia; filled several important offices under Napoleon; in
1832 was elected a deputy, and ofiposed the invasion of Spain ;
took part with great energy in the revolution of 1830 : was
made a l)rigadicr-general and aide-de-camp to Louis Philippe.
D. in Paris, Oct. 24, 1842. His Voi/dqe piltorexqiie et /lis-
iorique en Expngne (4 vols, fob, 1807-18; 2d ed. 1823, with
900 engravings) is a work remarkable for its learning and
accuracy, and unique in its elegance. It was followed by
Itinemire (Uscriptif de I'Espaiini- (.5 vols., 1809-27). He
also wrote Les moimmenfs de la France classes cltrunulogique-
ment (2 vols., 1815-36, with 259 plates).
Laboiicliere, Henry : editor and politician ; b. in London
in 1831; was educated at Eton; in the diplomatic service
in 1854-64 ; entered Parliament, 1865. as Liberal member
for Windsor, and has usually been in Parliament, since 1880
as member for Northampton. He is an extreme Radical.
Duwng the siege of Paris he wrote a series of letters to The
Dailji yews which attracted much attention, and were
published in a volume, Diari/ of, a Besieged Resident in
Paris (1871). He is proprietor and editor of the London
Truth, and is part owner of The Daily yews.
C. H. TnURBER.
Laboiilaye', I-^douard Rene Lefebvre: publicist; b. in
Paris, France, .Ian. 18, 1811; studied law while following
a mechanical trade, and astonisheil the literary wcndil in
1830 by publishing a learned History of Landed Property
in Europe from the Time of Constantine to the Present, on
the title-page of which the author announced himself to be
a type-founder. The book was crowned by the Academy of
Inscriptions. In 1842, afler being admitted to practice be-
fore the royal tribunal at Paris, ho [)ub!ished an Essay on
the Life and Doctrines of Sat'igny. in which he showed the
importance of the principles of the historical school, and in
the following year Researches on the Civil and Political
Condition of Women from the Times of the Romans to the
Present. In 1845 he wrote an Essay on the Roman Crimi-
nal Legislation respecting the Responsihililies of Magis-
trates, which also won the crown of the Academy of Inscri|)-
tions, and procured for its author an election as one of the
members of that body. In 1849 he became Professor of
Comparative Legislation at the College de France, and dis-
tinguished himself by the clearness with which he expounded
the principles of legal science. He also began from this
time to take a prominent part in politics as an ardent re-
publican, and during the eighteen years' existence of the
Second Empire there was in France no more able, active,
and vigilant worker in the committees and public meetings
of the liberal opposition than Lalxjulaye, Vjut he failed in
all his elForts to secure an election to the Corps Legislatit
under the empire. His attention was attracted to the insti-
tutions of the U. S. as atrording some useful models for in-
troduction in France, and he ilevoted much time for several
years to their careful study. He published a valuable Po-
litical History of the United States from the First Attempts
at Colonization to the Adoption of the Federal Constitution,
of which vol. i. appeared in 1855, and vol. iii. and last in
1866. In 1862 he rendered a vast service to the U. S. by an
exposition of the causes of the American civil war in the
work entitled The United States and France. In 1863 he
published perhaps the most popular of his works, Paris in
America, an amusing study of American characteristics.
Ill 1865 he wrote the Programme of the Liberal Party, and
edited in 1866-67 the Jlemoirs and Correspondence of
Franklin. He ceased his opposition to the empire in the
face of the war with Germany, and for this was hissed by
the students in the College de France and forced for a time
to suspend his lectures. He was elected to the National
Assembly in .July, 1871, was made chairman of the commit-'
tee on the higher education, and in 1874 secretary of the
committee of thirty on the (republican) constitution, in
which capacity he maintained (1875) a prolonged battle with
the monarchists of every type. In 1875 he was made a life
senator, and in 1873, 1876, and 1879 was administrator of
the College de France, In 1877 he resumed his lectures on
comparative legislation. D. May 25, 1883,
"Revised by F. M. Colbt.
Laboiii'donnais, lali'boor'dona', Bertrand Francois
Make, de : soldier; b. at St.-JIalo, France, Feb. 11,1699;
entered the navy early, and became a captain in 1723. Hav-
ing served for some time in the Portuguese navy he returned
to France in 1733. and was made governor in 1734 of Isle
of France (Mauritius) and Bourbon, colonies which pros-
pered much under his rule through the introduction of cotton,
sugar, and indigo culture, and the building of fortifications,
canals, aqueducts, hospitals, and ship-yards. His administra-
tion has become celebrated through Saint-Pierre's romance
Paul et Virginie. During the war between England and
France he was very successful in his undertakings against
the English in the East Indies. In 1746 he bombarded and
took Madras, and levied a war contribution of 9,000,000
francs; but the French governor-general, Dupleix, became
jealous, and discharged him. He was accused by Dupleix
of sacrificing the interests of the company, and on his re-
turn to Paris was kept in the Bastile for three years. In
1751 a commission declared him innocent of all the charges
brought against him by Dupleix. D. Sept. 9, 1753. His
widow received a pension. He left a volume of Jlemoires
(1850), and his grandson of the same name wrote a Life in
1827. In 1859 a statue was erected to him in the Isle of
Bourbon, now Reunion.
Labrador: the peninsular area which lies between the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, Hudson's Bay and Straits, and the
North Atl.-intic. Its greatest length i's 1.100 miles, its great-
est breadth 600 miles, and its area about 420,000 sq. miles.
It extends from 49' to 63^ N. lat., and lies between the 5.5th
and 79th meridians. It is bounded on the E. by the Atlan-
tic, on the N. and W. by Hudson's Bay and Straits, and on
the S. W. by the Bersiamits. Mistassini, and Rupert's rivers.
The eastern or Atlantic coast is under the jurisdiction of
Newfoundland; the remainder is annexed to the Dominion
of Canada. A line due N. and S. from Blanc Sablon to
Cape Chudleigh constitutes the boundary between the two
jurisdictions.
Physical Geography. — Although the coasts of Jjabrador
have been visited by fishermen since the time of Cortereal,
little is known about the interior. The eastern or Atlantic
coast presents throughout its whole extent a lofty precipi-
tous front to the ocean, with an elevated plateau behind
formed, of rugged hills and low mountain chains. The
42
LABUAUOK
LA BRUYftRE
liiilliost luiid lios nl(m<; the soacoast, its clcvntion iiicreasiiif;
as it extoiuls nortliwuiil. The Monly Moimtaiiis rise to a
lioi^lit of \.-iSi fi'ft. Mt. Jliscrv, bclNWeii Cape Harrison
and llopeilale, is 2.170 feet hi^li. Some TO miles S. of Cape
Chuilleigh the hiijhest summit is G.OOO feet above the sea-
level ; but the elevation then diminishes to the cape, where
it is 1,500 feet. The seenery of this northern portion is said
to rival that of the coast of Norway an<l of tireenland. the
mountains being about as hij;h as in those regions. Not
nuicli is known of the geologv of the peninsula. It is as-
certained, however, that the Laurent ian formation consti-
tutes the great framework of the country, and that Lower
Silurian beds, imncipally Potsdam, rest on the Laurentian
at various points along the coast. There are large deposits
of iron ore : copper has been found in several places, and
gold in small (piaiitities. Labradorite, a beautiful feldspar,
is found in great masses, several mountain ranges being
largely composed of it. The lakes of Labrador are almost
innumerable, the rivers forming but an imperfect system of
drainage. It is remarkable, however, that many of the lakes
"are so shallow that for miles there is hardly water enough
to float a half-loaded canoe." The lakes lying on the table-
laiul are deep, those in the lowlands shallow for the most
part. While the whole interior ai)Mears to be covered with
iiowlders. the relics of an ice age. the river valleys and the
lake basins are clothed with a lu.xuriant forest growth, the
trees including the larch, spruce, birch, poplar, willow, and
mountain ash.
The most important of the numerous fiords on the Atlan-
tic coast is Hamilton Iidet, or Es(iuin)aux Bay, which is ISO
miles wide at its mouth and extends 1.50 miles from the
sea. The chief river of Labrador, the Ashwan.ipi. (irand,
or Uamilton. empties into this itdet. In 18!n an explor-
ing party from theU. S. ascended this stream for WO miles,
and rediscovered Grand Falls, one of the most remarkable
waterfalls in the world. Although the volume of water
<loes not compare with that of Niagara, the height of the
fall is 316 feet, or more than twice as great. The caiion
below the falls is worn through the gneissic granite, is 2.5
miles in length, and in places its walls are 400 feet high.
The Hamilton also receives the Nasquapee, or Northwest
river, and the Kenaniou. Other rivers are the Moisic, Jlin-
gan, and St. Augustine, falling into the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, and Rupert's river and Kast Main into Hudson's Bay.
Climate. — All hough Labrador is detached from Arctic
lands and much of it lies between the same parallels of lati-
tude as Britain, the climate is rigorous in the extreme. The
snow lies from September till .lune. In winter the whole
<'oast is blockaded bv ice-fields drifting from the various
outlets of the Arctic 6cean, while in summer the glittering
icebergs, stranded or floating, ini])art a stern lieauty to the
storm-beaten shores. In winter 30' below zero is common,
but, owing to the dryness of the air and the absence of high
winds, such a temperature is not so uncoiuforlal)ly felt as" is
a much higher one in other regions. The winter has con-
tinued dry frosty weather, anil is bracing and healthful.
Traveling is perfonnecl by sledges dr^wn by dogs, sometimes
at the rate of 100 miles aday. The summer climate of the
interior is said to be delightful. The interior is rich in fur-
bearing animals, such as tlu! black bear. wolf, wolverine, lynx,
or mountain-cat, reil, white, blue, and silver foxes, otter,
beaver, marten, musquash, mink. The common wild fowl
are gt^ese, black ducks, shell-birds, divers, loons, plover, and,
near the coast, curlew. Mosquitoes and black flies abound.
Wherever the forest has been burned berry-bearing plants,
such as the whorl le and cranberry, are abundant and of ex-
cellent quality.
Fisheries.— U it were not for its sea-wealth, Labrador-
would be seldom visited by civili/.ed man. Its fisheries.
however, are of immense and stea<lily increasing value, and
al'ing the .\llantic coast are now almost entirciv carried on
by Newfoundland fishermen. Their usual praclioe is to
l>roeeed to Labrador about the end of .Line and remain
till the first or second week of October. Many of them are
a<companieil by their wives and children, who' aid in hand-
ling the fish. They live on shore in ru<le temporary huts.
The valuer of Labrador to Newfoundland may be estimated
from the fact thai over a fourth of the entire flsli export of
t lie island is caught on the Labrador coast. The value of
<lirect exports in 18i)0, considered an unprofitable year, w.-is
f74!»,746. In favorable veais the aggregate value of (Isli
taken bv Canadian and L. .S. vessels and bv the Ks(|iiimaux
is fully'^4.000.000. About a fourth of the whole catch is
sent to Xewfijundlaiid fcjr shipment, while the flshermeii
from Canada and the U. S. carry away about one-ninth of
the entire quantity.
Inltobitants. — I'he permanent inhabitants are the Ks<]ui-
inaiix, the Indians of the interior, and the white residents
on the shores. The Ksquimaux have their jiropcr home on
Northern Labrador, from Cape Wela'ck to Cape Chiidleigh,
are seatlereil along 500 miles of coa.st, and number about
1,.")00. The Moravian missionaries have been among them '
for more than a century, and nearly all of them are under
Christian training. The mission stations are Hopedale,
Nain, Okkak, Hebron, Zoar, and Kama. The Indian tribes
of the interior are the Jlontagnais and Nascjuapees, who
speak dialects of the Cree language. The latter are .still
heat hens, but the Montagnaisareall nominally Roman Catho-
lics, having been converted by Jesuit missionaries. They are
slowly disa))pearing. They sustain themselves by hunting,
and visit the coast at certain seasons to exchange the products
of the chase for clothing and other necessaries. The white in-
habitants of the .\tlantic coast are in widely scattered settle-
ments S. of Cape Harrison. They live by fishing for salmon
and cod in summer and by trapping fnr-bearing animals in
winter. According to the census of 1S84 thev numbered
2.845. Of these 1.074 belonged to the Church ^f England,
566 were Roman Catholics, and 305 were Methodists. The
Christianized Esquimaux numbered 1.36G. making the pop-
ulation of the Newfoundliind portion of Labrador 4.211.
The total population is distributed as follows: On the St.
Lawrence coast from Port Neiif to Blanc Sablon. 4.411 ; on
the .Mlantic coast — white population. 2.845; Esquimaux
(Christianized), 1,360; Indians of the interior, 4,000 ; total,
12,622.
History. — Originally the whole of Labrador was attached
to Canada, but in 1763 inereiLsed importance was given to
the governorship of Newfoundland by annexing to it the
Atlantic coast of Labra<lor. This arrangement was after-
ward altered, but in 1801) finally restored. The Hudson's
Bay Comjiany had lor a lengthened period the exclusive
right of trading with the Imlians of that part of Labrador
which had rivers flowing iiitu the inlet from which the com-
jiany took its name, and which is designated East Main. In
1870, however, the company surrendered all its rights, and
these were transferred to the Dominion of Canada.
According to the Northern Sagas, Biorn and Eric the
Red discovered Labrador about the year 1000, and named
it HeUnland — the land of slate, or naked rocks. Its mod-
ern discoverer was .lohn Cabot, in 14H7, the year in which
he discovered Newfoundland. .\ few years after the
Basques, who were among the most daring of early mari-
time adventurers, were employed in fishing on the gulf
coast of Labrador. According to tradition, a Bjusque
whaler, la Biadore, penetrated to Brad<n'e Bay and gave liis
name to that locality, and afterward the whole region re-
ceived the name of its first visitor. After the Ba.sques
came the Bretons, and tlK-n the French and the British.
Another and more ]irobable aci-ount is that the name Labra-
dor is of I'lU'tuguese origin, and mi'ans a "laborer." When
Cortereal visited the country in 1.500 he carried home some
of the aborigines (probably Red Indians), who seemed so
well a<lapted for labor that King Emanuel thought he had
obtained a new slave-coast whence slave-laborers might be
exiiorted to the Portuguese colonies. Hence he named it
Labrador, or "laborers' land." M. IlARVbT.
Lnbnidorite (also called Lnhroilur .v/»;r and opaJescenl
fe/dxpor): a soda-lime feldspar, of grayish hue. with brill-
iant reflections of color on cleavage surfaces, or, when jiol-
islied. chiefly blue, green, or bronze. It occurs largely in
Labrador, also in the Adirondack Mountains; and though
not much used, makes an elegant ornamental stone. In
Russia columns and walls of churches are paneled with it.
Lahroiisfe. hiii broosi', Hknri Pikurk EHANfois: archi-
tect ; b. IMay 11. IHOl. He built the new library of Sailite-
(ienevieve, Paris, and was employed upon the buildings of
the national library, where he ri'stored the old Mazarin
Palace, lifted it to the usi's of the library, and erected other
buildings to complete the structure. He was the designer
of many private buildings, and was especially known as a
lea<'lier. having a well-known and influent ial iititier in Paris.
He was an ollicer of the Legion of Honor, and a inember of
the Institute. I). .Line 24, 1875.
Labriim : Sie E.ntomoi.ouv.
La llriivf'rc. laa-brl'i'vilr. Jeax, lie : author; b. in Paris.
Aug. 16, HVt5: d. at Versailles. May 11. IGlMi. He was cdu-
caled in the law, adinilled to the bar in 1665; in 1673 pur-
LABUAN
LAC
43
chased a treasury offiee in tlie district of Caen, but contin-
ued to live in Paris. In 1084. tlirougli Hossuet's infiuenee,
it is supposed, he entered the house of tlie great Conde as
tutor of his fjrandson, the Due de Bourbon. He remained
until his deatli attaelied to the house of Conde, with a pen-
sion of 1.11(10 erciwns a year. lie was aihnitled to the .\ead-
euiy in lU'jy. ills great work first appeared anonymously
in 1088 under the title Les Caracieren de, I'/ieophraste, tra-
duils du grec, afec les caracteres ou les mceurs de re siecle,
and had an instant suecess, running through three editions
within the year. The original portion of tlie work, com-
)irising at first only 418 paragraphs, hut after the third ("ili-
t ion enlarged with each successive one during the author's
lifetime, till in the ninth (1000) it contained 1,119 para-
graphs, consists of essentially satiric pictures of human
morals. Though rarely intended as portraits, they arc
often so accurately copied from life that real ]iersons were
thought to be discovered behind them, and keys were pub-
lished to reveal the allusions. The style is wrought with
great concern for brilliancy and epigrammatic effect, some-
1 imes at the expense of clearness. The work ranks among the
masterpieces of French literature, and has been often repub-
lished, the most im|iortant editions being those of C'oste (Am-
sterdam, lT:il), Walckenaer (Paris, 184.5), Destailleur (Paris,
1801), and best, and with full biographical notice, that of Ser-
vois (in the collection of tirands Ecrivains de la France, Paris,
180.5-82). La Bruyere left unfinished Dialogues sur le quiel-
isme, pulilished in 109!). Cf. fidouard Fournier, Lii Coiiiedie
de J. de la Bnii/ere (Paris, 1800, 2 vols.). A. G. C'axkielu.
Labliaii' : an island of tlie JIalay Archipelago. 0 miles
X. X. W. of Borneo. Area. 31 sq. iiiiles; jiop. (1891) 5.853,
of whom 21 were of British parentage. The island was
ceded to Ureal Britain in 1840 by the Sultan of Brunai
(Borneo). Its chief importance is derived from its central
position with regard to Borneo, Annam, the French colony
of t'anibodia, and the Spanish colonies of the Philippines.
There are two ports, a good supply of water, and abundant
mines of coal, for conveying which there is a railway 5
miles long. Chief city, Victoria (pop. 1,500). Sago, camphor,
bird's nests, pearls, and coal are the chief exports. In 1894,
14.957 tons of coal were e.xiiorted. There are A sago-factories.
Labyrinth, Eeryptian [labi/rinfh is from Lat. labi/rin'th us
= (Jir. KapipiyBos. labyrintla, maze]: one of the Seven Won-
ders of the world, now represented by an immense mass of
ruins near the entrance to the Fayum. Brwgsch thinks that
the meaning of the Egyptian name was "temple at the
mouth of the lake." It was constructed by Amenemha III.
of the twelfth dynasty, probably in the shape of a horse-
shoe, containing an area of 8,800 sq. yards, and an inner
court covering 60 acres. Herodotus (ii.. 148) says that it
contained twelve courts, six facing X'". and six S.. with 3,000
rooms, half above and half beneath the ground, and was
more extensive than all the buildings of the Greeks. Strabo
also visited the structure, and has left a brief description
(xvii.. i., 37). The only present remains are stone chips
forming a layer 6 feet in thickness, covering a space larger
than any Egyptian temple. For centuries it was used as a
(juarry for building materials, and the ruins of the houses
of the worknu'u arc still seen. Charlks K. Gillett.
Labyrin'tliodon [Mod. Lat., from Gr. \a$vpiv0os. a laby-
rinth-)- o5ous. uS6irros.n tooth] : the typical genus of an extinct
order of reptiles, or, more properly, amphibians, the Labyrin-
thodontia. which appeared in the Carboinferous period, but
attained their greatest development in the Triassic, soon after
which they .seem to have finally disappeared. They are re-
garded as belonging with the am)4hibians. but ]iossess char-
acters allying them with the ganoid fishes on the one hand
aiul with. true reptiles on the other. The head is defended
by a casque of sculpt iircd bony plates, usually hard and pol-
ished. There are two occipital condyles. The vomer is di-
vided and sup|)orts teeth. The bodies of the vertebnp. as
well as the neural arches, are ossified, except in some of the
earlier forms, and the former are biconcave. Tlie ribs,
when present, are short-. Tliere are usually large palatine
openings. The body is covered with plati'S or sialcs. The
structure of the teeth is peculiarly complicated, and sug-
gested the nanu' for the order. Tiiey form, as I'rof. Owen
has said, "the most beautiful and conqilicated modification
of dental structure hitherto known."
Labyrinfhodnn (Masladuusanrus jaegeri) has a skull up-
ward of 3 feet long and nearly 2 feet broad, and is from the
Triassic formation of Wiirtemberg. in Germany. Several
other species are found in the same formation of Warwick-
shire, England. The genus }retopias has the .skull broad
and olituse, orbits small and distant, and is from tlie Keu-
per. Ziiyosaurus. from the Permian beds at Orenburg, has
the orbits l.-irge and ajjproximate. Dasijceps hucl;landii.
from the Permian of Kcnilworlh, Kngland. has the cranium
10 inches long, in North .America, liaphelts planiceps,
from the Pictou coal. Nova Scotia, has tlut head broad, the
muzzle obtuse, the orbits large. Atiip/iibamus yrandieeps
had an elongateil tail like a salamander, large orbits, and
numerous teeth. The skull is about three-fourths of an
inch across. It i.s from the coal-measures of Illinoi.s. Rani-
ceps hp'lli. from Ohio, is named from the similarity of its
head t(i that of a friig. .Aliout twenty genera of labvrin-
thodons have been described from the Carboniferous strata
of Great Britain and Germany, and many more from Xorlli
America. The Triassic species were mostly of large size,
and their remains occur in India, South Africa, and Aus-
tralia, as well as Europe and America. Later than the Tri-
assic very few .are known, but liliiniisaurus is from the
Jurassic of Russia. O. C. JIarsh.
Lac [ : Fr. /(/c^Me : Germ. /«cA-, from 'Pers.lal: or Hind.
lukh. lac, sealing-wax < Sanskr. leiksa. the lac-insect], or
(iuill-lac: a resinous substance produced by the puncture
by the female insect of Coccus lacca or C. ficus upon
branches of several plants, as the Ficus religio'sa (the bo-
tree or religious tree of the Hindus), the Bhamnus ju-
juba. the Croton lacciferum (or bihar-tree), and tlie Bntea
frondoxn (or the butea-tree), which grow in Siam, Assam,
Pegu, Bengal, and Malabar. The female insect is of the
size of a louse — red, rouml, fiat, and wingless. The male is
twice as large as the female, and has four wings. .Soon
after the twig is punctured it becomes incrusted with a
mamniillated resinous substance, red, hard, and nearly
transparent. It serves the double purpose of jirotecting the
eggs and of supplying food for the young maggots in a
more advanced state. The mothers are held by the adhe-
sive Ibiids which exude from the punctures, and contribute
their .substance to the mas.s. 'J'he characteristic cimstitu-
ents of the incrustation are the lac-resin, derived from the
tree, and the lac-dye. analogous to that of the cochineal.
Coccus cacti, contained in the insects. The most valuable
product is obtained by breaking oS the twigs before the
brood escapes, and drying them in the sun.
Stick-lac. — These dried twigs are called stick-lac, and
from them the other products are prepared. That from
Siam is the best, the incrustation being often a quarter of
an inch thick, all around the twig; that of Assam ranks
next. It is insoluble in water, to wliich it. however, im-
parts its red coloring-matter. It is partially soluble in alco-
hol, coloring it red; is insoluble in fatty and essential oils.
Seed-lac is the resinous concretion separated from the
twigs, coarsely pounded, and washed with water. In' which
much of the coloring-matter is removed. When it is de-
sired to secure the lac-dye also, hot water is used, to which
a little soda is often added.
Lump-lac is simply seed-lac melted into lumps.
Shell-lac is prepared from seed-lac liy placing it in bags
of cotton, about 4 feet long and 6 inches in circumference,
and warming it over a charcoal fire. When the resin be-
gins to melt the bag is twisted, and the clear resin is al-
lowed to fiow over the smooth stems of the banyan-tree or
planks of fig-wood, when it cools in thin layers or scales. •
Lac-resin is very valuable, much harder than colophony,
and easily soluble in alcohol. It may be obtained pure by
treating shcll-!ac with cold alcohol, and filtering the siolu-
tion in order to .•separate a yellow-gray pulverulent matter.
When the alcoliol is again "distilled otT. a brown, translu-
cent, hani. and brittle resin, of specific gravity 1-139, re-
mains. It melts into a viscid ina.-is with heat, and difTiises
an aromatic odor. Anhydrous alcohol dissolves it in all
projiortions. Dilute hydrochloric and acetic acids dissolve
shell-lac readily ; nitric acid slowly ; strong sulphuric acid
not at all. Like most other resiiis.it has a strong allinity
for bases, with which it forms ilefinite compounds^ It dis-
solves in iic|Ueous jiotasli. soda, carbonate of .>^oda. etc. It
ileprives the caustic alkaliis of their alkaline taste. The
solution in caustic potash is of a dark-red color, and dries
into a brilliant, transparent, reddish-brown mass, which
may be re<lissolved in both water and alcohol. Borax ren-
ders five times its weight of shell-lac soluble on boiling with
water. This solution is etpial for many purposes to spirit
varnish, and is an excellent vehicle for water-colors, as when
once dried water has no effect upon it. India ink rubbed
44
LAC
LACE
up with this liquid forms a most valuuhle Inhel-ink for the
laboratory, as it is not atleiti'd by acid vapors. Sal-ammo-
niac is also a solvent for shell-hu-. and the solution has been
sugsestod as a substitute for the alcoholic solution.
Bleached Sliell-lnc. — Hy piussiiii; chlorine in excess through
the dark-colored alkaline solution the lac- rosin is preci[iitateil
in a colorless stale. When this precipitate is washed and
dried, it forms with alcohol an excellent pale-yellow varnish,
esi>ociallvwiih the addition of a little turpentine ami mastic.
By exposure in thin shreds to the sun"s rays or in a finely
di'vidsd slate to chlorine-water, or by reducin-; it lo a fine
powder, suspending in water, and passinj: hydrochloric aciil
vapor into the menstruum, the dark-cohired varieties are
bleached. When this is done the resin loses many of those
qualities that so admirably recommend it for some kinds of
varnishes, bnt it answers well for uniking sealing-wax.
Uses of Shell-lae. — In India lac is fashioned into rings,
beads, and other trinkets. It is the nuiterial of which the
best modern sealing-wax is made. Turpentine is added to
promote fusibility and prevent brittleness. Eartliy matters
are added to increase weight and to prevent too rapid fusion.
For red and other light-colored sealing-wax very pale or
even bleached shcU-lac is used, while for black and dark
colors the darker-colored shell-lac is equally suitable. The
following are common proportions, the first being the best,
Venice turpentine being used in it;
INGREDIENTS.
Shelllac
Turpentine.
Cbalk or magnesia
Gypsum or zinc- white .
Stilphate of baryta
Vermilion
Oil of turpentine
Totals..
1
2
3
500
300
340
125
400
370
140
110
9o
'60
375
65
lao
1,000
1,000
1,000
3:!0
330
160
165
15
1,000
The materials are melted together in an iron pan, with con-
stant stirring. The cool but still soft mass is rolled on a slab
and shapeil into sticks, or the fluid miuss is poured into brass
mollis. The various colors are imparted by cobalt blue,
chrome yellow, bone-black, etc. Perfumed sealing-wax con-
tains gum benzoin, storax, or balsam of Peru. Inferior seal-
ing-wax is colored red with oxide of iron instead of vermil-
ion, or it is made of common rosin with gypsum or chalk.
New Zealand resin, from the Xanthorrhcea hastili/i, is often
used in place of shell-lac. Jlediicval sealing-wax was a mix-
ture of bees-wax with turpentine and coloring-matter. Shell-
lac is used for the preparation of varnishes and for japan-
ning, the ordinary shell-lac varnish being a simple alcoholic
solution. It is used for stiffening hat bodies and many other
purposes. Its solution in sal-ammoniac and water has been
suggested as capable of numerous applications. It is made
by placing 15 parts white shell-lac, 1 part sal-ammoniac, and
6 to 8 parts water in a close vessel for twelve hours, then
boiling with constant stirring till the shell-lac is dissolved.
The solution may be used jis a stilTener, waterproofer, or
vehicle for pigments and dyes, as paint or varnish.
Lac-di/e and Ittc-lake are the secondary or by-products of
the purification of stick-lac. " It is .said to be prepared by
precipitating the aqueous solution of the coloring-matter
with milk of lime, collecting the precipitate on filters, press-
ing and molding it into the form of small square cakes,
which are then dried." Kevised by Ira Hemse.x.
Lac [from Hind, /nt, Idlch < Saiiskr. InKslia. one hundred
thousand]: the sum of 11)0.000 rupees, worth about .*;!7..500.
The term is used in East Indian commerce. One hundred
lacs make one crore of rupees.
LaCaille, Iaa-kaa/',XicoLAS Loi'is, de: astronomer; b. at
Rumigny, Champagne, France, Mar. ].'), 1713; studied mathe-
matics and astronomy ; took part in the survey of the French
coast between Xantcs and Hayoune, and in the measure-
ment of the arc of the meridian, and was appointed Pro-
fessor of Astronomy at the College de Mazarin at Paris in
1741. In 17.")0 he went to the Cape of flood Ilo|)e, and made
observations to determine the parallax of the moon and form
an extended catalogue of the southern stars. His works
comprise Anlrnnomitp, Fundnmenta (1758), Tahuhr Snlares
(17.")H), Observdtions nur ,'iH'i etoilea du zndinqnc (1763), sev-
eral elementary handbooks, and essays on navigation. I), in
Paris, Mar. 21, 17fi2. Revised by S. Nkwcomb.
La Cal|)rcn?(lp, laa-kiuilprc-mTd', Gautier de Costes,
Chevalier de : b. 1601) or 1610 at Cahiu-s, France; d. 1063.
lie studied at Toulouse until 1632, then became an ofTuer
of the guards at Paris, acquired favor at court as a story-
teller, and in IC-W was made king's chaudierlaiu. He wrote
ten draums, but won his chief reputation bv his novels, ('««-
sandre (10 vols., 1642-4.1); Cleopuire (12 "v(.ls., 1647); and
Pharamond (1658-70; left unfinished in seven volumes,
V'aumoriere completed it in five more). Though historical
in the names of their personages, and to a degree in their
matter, their ideas and atuuisphere are those of the French
court. , A. G. Ca.m-ield.
Lac'cadivos (corruption of Sansk. laksha-dnpa, literally,
a lac (10I),()(K)) of islands, a hundred thousand islamls; di'iiia,
island): a numerous group of small islands in the Indian
Ocean (Arabian Sea), consisting of twenty clusters, 100 ndles
from the Malabar coast. Area, 744 sq. miles. They are of
coral foruuit ion, the largest being only 7 miles in length, and
most of them are mere barren rocks. Because of the dangei-s
of surrouiuling reefs the Laccadives are little frequentetl by
navigators. The natives are called Moplays, are Mohamme-
dans of Arabian descent, and live in stone huts. The only
commerce is in cocoa-fiber and betel-nuts. The southerii
islands pay tribute to Cananore in the Presidency of Madras.
They were discovered by Vasco de Gaum in 14!)!)'; the north'-
ern "belong to South Kanasa. Pop. (1891) 14.410.
Laeculitp [from Gr. AaKKos. cistern -f Kieos, stone] : a thick,
lenticular bo(ly of intrusive igneous rock. When molten
rock rises through the earth's crust, it nuiy reach the sur-
face and flow out, or it may stop at some lower level, open
for itself a chamber by lifting the overlying rocks, and
there congeal, forming a laccolite. The rock of laccolite.s,
having cooled slowly and under great pressure, is composed,
like granite, of crystals visible to the eye, and is compact.
It resists well the forces of erosion, so that in a region un-
dergoing rapid degradation laccolites are apt to constitute
mountains. Of this character arc the Henry. I.a Sal, Nava-
jo, Abajo, Spanish, and Elk Mountains of the U. S. See
Geology of the Henry 2Iou7ifai>iK, by G. K. Gilbert, and
Laccolitie Mottnlain Gro^ipn of ('(iliirndo. I'liili, nnd Ari-
zona, by Whituum Cross, Fourheiilh Annual lieport U. S.
Geological Survey. G. K. Gilbert.
Lace [M. Eng. las, from 0. Fr. laz > Mod. Fr. lacs : Ital.
laccio : Span, lazo < Lat. laquens, noose, knot] : an orna-
mental openwork of thread, twisted, plaited, or woven into
patterns. Itself comparatively modern, lace isdcrived from
two most ancient kinds of work, netting and embroidery,
the former of which was used by the Egyptians to ornament
the borders of some festival garments; iiuiecd. the network
of blue beads found on mummies may, as it was made with
the needle, be regarded as a sort of lace. The Greeks and
Komans bordered their robes with embroidery, called, when
of superior quality, opus Phrygianum, from the skill with
which it was executed by Phrygian workers. Among early
Christians it was custouuiry for women to wear veils during
public worship, and writers of the second cent ury complained
that too often those coverings ministered rather to vanity
than to modesty, being frequently of netting interwoven
with gold or silver, through which the face was visible.
Anglo-Saxon embroidery, opus Anglicanum, was esteemed
even in Rome ; the cope and maniple of St. Cuthbert, found
in his collin, and still preserved at Durham, are good speci-
mens of this work.
Lace nuiy be divided into two principal cla.sscs — point and
pillow lace, the former being of much the greater antiquity.
We can not decide when point was first nuide, so very
grailually was it evolved from netting and embroidery, with
which it is often confouniled in old records. The Italians
firolialily derived it from Byzantium, since its earliest de-
velopment nuiy be traced to Venice, Genoa, and other towns
engaged in commerce with the Greek empire. The oldest
point is of two kinds — lac's, or paint conipte (counted
stitch), and cut -work {/toin/ rnnpv). Lacis usually consisted
of netted si|Utir('s. made in the ordinary way on a mesh, then
joined with the needle, and darned <u' embroidered in a pat-
tern, like the modern guipure d'art ; or designs cut out of
linen were laid on the netting and secureii to it by endiroi-
dery. The open ground, again, was sometimes formed by
drawing threails in a piece of linen and fa.steuing I hem
with the needle where I lii^y crossed each other. For cut-
work, threads wcri' strclcluMi nelwise across a piive of linen,
called quinlin from the pliu'c of its manufacture, and a
pattern was made by sewing round with buttonhole stitch
those parts of the linen intended to nniain. and cutting
the rest away. By degrees, skillful workers arrived at
LACE
45
FlQ. I.
Fio. a.
iiiiikiiij; the thick part entii-ely with the needle, using variii-
tions of two stitches (Figs. 1 and 2), similar to those in mod-
ern point. Tlie name "cut-work," though inappropriate,
was long retained, and as late as 1640 was applied to Ital-
ian lace by John
Taylor, the Wa-
ter Poet, in liis
Prayse of the
Needle. Em-
broidery, lacis,
and cut - work
were often com-
bined in one
piece, squares of darned netting alternating with squares of
cut and embroidered linen ; and thiij work, which wa.-; used
chiefly for large articles, such as coverlets and altar-cloths,
was sometimes white or unbleached, sometimes varied w'itli
gold, silver, or colored threads. The earliest pattern-books
extant date from the sixteenth century, and are extremely
rare. The best known is that of Vinciolo, a Venetian (aljout
1G12), who gave new designs, besides republishing many from
older book's. Among these are Le Livre noufeau des Pa-
truns de Lingerie (lievUn, ln2o) ; Knitting and Lace Pat-
terns, Hans Sibmacher (1.j97, reprinted at Vienna 1866), hav-
ing a curious frontispiece representing a workroom where
an aged woman is directing several young pu[)ils; La Pra-
tique de rAiguille indnstrieuse, Mignerak (IGO.j). The de-
signs in these and contemporary works on the same subject
are either geometrical or attempts at depicting sacred, his-
torical, or allegorical scenes. Sibmacher gives St. George
and the Dragon to be worked in lacis ; Mignerak shows how
the seasons, the elements, the death of Lucretia, etc., may be
more or less adequately represented with the needle. In
the South Kensington JIuseum, London, a large piece of
lacis in many compartments contains in each a Bible picture
wrought on a netted ground. As pattern-books were expen-
sive and easily damaged, it was usual for ladies, in the times
when needle-industry ranked as a cardinal female virtue, to
preserve designs and stitches by working laee-samplers or
sam-cloths, which are kept as heirlooms in many families.
In the sixteenth century lace became a very general or-
nament of the dress of both men and women, and it is fre-
quently mentioned in royal edicts and accounts: '"8 peces
of yolowe (yellow) lace were bought for Henry VIll. at a
cost of 5s. 4</." A sumptuary law of Queen .Mary forbade
the wearing of " white woorkes, alias cut-woorkes, made be-
yond the seas." Stubbes, in his denunciation of " ruffes,"
declares them to be "clogged with gold, silver, or silk lace
of stately price, wrought all over with needle-work, speckled
and sparkled here and there with the sonne, the moone,
the starres, and many other antiquities straunge to be-
holde." For those much-reviled yet long-triumphant ar-
ticles of dress, pillow-lace, being lighter than point, was a
favorite edging. This work, usually supposed to have been
invented by Barbara Uttmann, wife of a master miner of St.
Annaberg, in Saxony, is by Joseph Seguin pronounced of
Italian origin. " From Italy," says he, '• a knowledge of the
art passed into France, whence it was acquired by the laee-
niakers of Flanders." Be that as it may, Belgium is now
the special home of this beautiful fabric. Tlie lace-pillow
is a round or oval board forming the base of a hard cushion ;
the worker places it upon her knees, lays on it a strip of
parchment pricked with holes which indicate a lace-pattem,
and sticks a i)in through each hole so that its point enters
the pillow. The thread for making the lace is wound on
bobbins, small pieces of wood, bone, or ivory about the cir-
cumference of an ordinary lead-pencil, having round their
upper ends a groove or neck to receive the thread ; by the
twisting and crossing of these the lace is formed. The
ground or mesh is made by plaiting (Fig. 3) or twisting
Fig. 8.
Fio. 4.
the threads (Fig. 4) ; the pattern, technically called gimp,
by weaving or clothing (Fig. 5. These figures, as also 1
anil 2, represent the stitches considerably magnified). A
large number of bobljins is needed, as many as 1,200 being
sonu'timcs employed on one cushion. Those not immediately
in use hang over the front of the cushion, each by its own
thread, which is so looped as not to become
unwound. The leading lines of the pattern
are sometimes marked by pins with colored
heads, and the gimp threads are wound upon
colored bobbins. Early pillow-lace, like con-
temporary point, was of still design, and may
be compared to the more formal of modern
crochet edgings. Toward the close of the six- p,g g
teenth century lace of all kinds changed from
the geometrical to the flowing style, as may be seen by com-
parison of Holbein's pictures with those of Vandyke. And
every year it was more generally and profusely worn. At
Queen Elizabeth's death 3,000 lace-trimmed habits were
found in her wardrobe. Charles I. wore hunting-dresses
adorned with rich point. In France, and all countries
where French fashion-laws were obeyed, lace during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was used lavishly for
nearly all articles of dress. The falling collars and cravats
which succeeded ruffs were either made of lace or deeply
bordered with it. Ladies wore lace head-dresses, lace
flounces, ruffles of lace at the elbow, aprons frilled with or
composed entirely of lace. Gentlenum had lace cuffs or
ruffles (called pleureuses. weepers) which fell over the hand,
and thus, it was said, facilitated cheating at cards: they
wore lace-trimmed garters, deep frills of lace at the knee,
lace roses in shoes, even quillings of lace to fill up the wide
boot-tops that were fashionable about 1662. Infants' robes,
caps, and cradle-furniture were made of ricli lace, and it
was used for curtains, for coverlets, even for bathing wrap-
pers. Great sums were spent upon lace, and as it was
nearly all brought from Italy. Venice and Genoa were en-
riched with the fortunes of Frencli nobles. For this reason
its importation was, between 1620 and 1660, forbidden by
many edicts, which, however had little effect except to in-
spire numerous satires : of these. La Revolte des Passe-
ments (The Rebellion of the Laces) is siiecially valuable,
since it names every kind of lace known at the time. Soon
after the edict of 1660 the minister Colbert, resolved lliat
France should have a lace-manufacture of its own, sent to
Italy for workers, and established them near Alen(;on. where
they instructed a number of French girls in the art of mak-
ing point. Alen^on lace, which, though derived from that
of Venice, differed considerably from it, was by Louis XIV.
called point de France, and being patronized by that mon-
arch, soon became indispensable to all his courtiers. In
1665 a company was organized with the monopoly of its
sale for ten years, during which time the shareholders re-
ceived over and over again the amount of their original in-
vestments. The manufacture of point de France, though
affected, like every kind of French industry, by the Revoca-
tion of tlie Edict of Nantes, flourished until the Revolution,
when nearly all demand for lace ceased, and many Alcn^-on
workers, having ministered to aristocratic luxury, shared
the fate of their high-born natrons. It was revived by Na-
poleon I., and there exist here and there fragments of a
suite of bed-furniture powdered with the imperial bees,,
which was made for him at imnuMise cost. Venice point is
no longer worked, except by skillful reproducers of old lace.
The raised kind was especially beautiful, and had the ap-
pearance of carving or bas-relief, the outlines of the patterns
lieing worked over thick rolls of cotton. The flowers were
filled in with delicate lace-stitches (technically called »;!od<?«)
and connected bv brides, or bars, of excpiisite lightness
varied bv little stars and picots, or pearl loops. A similar
lace was made in S]ianish cojivents and devoted to church
purposes, ^ucli as altar-furniture, vestments, and the dresses
of images. In the island of Cephalonia nnich Italian jwint
of geometrical design has been found in tombs and sold
under the name of Greek lace. Point d"Alen(;on, the most
costlvand complicated of needle-laces, is made in small seg-
ments and 1)V twelve different worker?, each of whoni has
iicr special province. The pattern is printed off on pieces
of green parchment about 10 inches long, each segment
numbered in its order; the pattern is then pricked upon
the i)archmcnt, which is stitched to a piece of coarse linen
folded double. The outline of the pattern is traced out by
two threads fixed by snndl stitches passed with another
needle and thread through the parchment and its linen
lining. The ground is next worked in fine resrau (net)
backward and forward at right angles to the border; the
46
LACK
LACfiPfeDE
flowers arc worked in, and the various mtxles or fiUiiifrs are
iiitroduciii. The threads which unite laoe, parchment, and
linen are next cut l>y i)iu<sing a razor between the folds of
the linen, and the many segments are joined by an invisible
stitch called assemblage. Point d'Alen^on is the only lace
in which horsehair is introduced along the edge to give
tirmness to the cordonnet. The hoi-sehair has the disadvan-
tage of being a|it to shrink in washing, and thus impair
the beauty of the point. Until the Kevolution there was
nuido at Argentan a point resembling that of Alen<;on, but
with heavier flowers and a bride ground of large hexa-
gonal meshes worked over with buttonhole stitch. The art
of making this lace, which was very strong and elTective,
is entirely lost. Pillow-lace is cither worked in one piece
on the cushion, in which case it can not be of any great
width, or is nuide in separate flowei-s, afterward connected
bv brides or ajiplied on net. Of the latter kind are Brus-
sels, Honiton, and g\iipure de Bruges. The best Brussels
lace is made of wonderfully fine thread, the flax for which
is grown in Brabant and steeped at Courtrai. the Lys water
being very dear. This thread is spun in cellars, since con-
tact with dry air causes it to break ; a ray of light is thrown
on it, but the spinner is guided chiefly by touch, and stops
her wheel when she feels the .slightest uneven ness. The
number of expert spinners being small, and their work
tedious and unhealthful. real Brussels thread is very expen-
sive, costing from 20.000 to 50,000 francs per pound. iMa-
chine-made thread is therefore generally used, but it has
never attained the fineness of that spun by hand. The most
costlv Brussels lace has a fine needle-made ground, called
point il I'aiguille, rarely used except for royal trousseaux;
the pillow-made ground, though much less expensive and ilu-
rable. is also of great value, ami is commonly replaced by fine
macliine net made at Brussels for the purpose. The flowers
are sometimes worked with the needle, but more frequently
on the pillow : a fine cordonnet marks the outlines of the
pattern, which is formed in a variety of beautiful modes.
A piece of Brussels lace passes through seven different
hands, each worker having her own deiiartment. and know-
ing nothing of the intended effect, which is decided by the
head of the establishment. Lace-making is taught in
schools, of which there are over 900 throughout Belgium,
many being attached to convents. Brussels flowers coming
soilecl from the lace-makers' hands are often jarepared for
sale by means of white lead ; this process, besides being in-
jurious to health. ren<lers the lace lialjle to turn black on
exposure to heat or sea-air. in which case it can never be
cleaned, lloniton. the most valuable English lace, is made
along the Devonsliin? seacoast. The flowers, generally from
nature, are of fine woven or cloth-stitch, a thicker thread
marking the outlines. They are either applied on net or
connected by brides, which, like the pattern, are worked
on the pillow; needle-stitches are occasionally introduced.
Guipure de Bruges, sometimes called duchesse lace, resem-
bles Honiton, its sprigs being united i)y brides.
Of the many laces made in one piece on the pillow, Va-
lenciennes is liie most esteemed. Before the French Revolu-
tion it was worked chiefly at Valenciennes, and was called,
on account of its durability, everlasting. It was made in
cellars, the damp air of which favored the use of extremely
fine thread, and was ruinous to the sight, many women be-
coming blind before thirty. At [jresent it is manufactured
only at Bailleul, in France, aii<i in several Belgian towns,
Ypres furnishing the widest kinds, which cost sometimes as
much as £80 per meter. It is a very even lace, one-sized
thread forming both ground and pattern, and, as it bears
washing remarkably well, is a suital)le trimming for white
garments. Somewhat resembling Valenciennes, it is also
used for trimming white articles, but its ground is lighter,
and the flowei-s are outiineil by a flat shiny thread which
looks like einl)roidery. I'illow-lace, less expensive than Val-
enciennes, is made at Lille and Arras, and large quantities
arc manufactured in Xormanily, Lorraine, and Auvergne.
Coarse pillow-edgings, used chiefly by peasant-women for
their costume head-dresses, arc manufactured in Holland,
Sweden, Denrmirk, and some parts of Germany; more deli-
cate kinds are also made in those countries, but not in very
great (piantities. In England Bedfordshire, Buckingham-
shire, and Xorthamptonshire were formerly celebrated for
edgings resembling those of Lille, and culled baby lace from
being used chiefly for infants' caps, but various causes hav-
ing lessened the ilemand for this fine lace, the workers now
generally make .Maltese or Cluny guipure. The term flwi-
pure., now used for any rich lace, was anciently ajiplied only
to a kind maile of carlisntie (thin strips of parchment or
vellum), round whjch gold, silver, or silk thread was twisted.
It was worked either with a needle or on a j)illow, the pat-
tern being outlined with cartisane and filled in with stilclies,
and was very perishable, as the vellum was afTiited bv damp.
Thread guipures, resembling the modi'rn Cluny, Nialtese,
and Hussian.were made in Italy and Flanders. .Some speci-
mens of Russian lace, now in the South Kensington Mu-
seum, are remarkable for bold and correct design.
Blonde lace, both black and white, is either worked entirely
ftn the pillow, like Chantilly, or has pillow flowers applied
on silk net. Black Chant illy lace is now made chiefly at
Baveux. Grammont, in Belgium, j]roduces black laci', and
large (|uanlities arc manufacl\ireil in Spain, particularly at
Almagro, where I'J.OOO-workersaie employed. While blonde
mantillas are worn by .Spiinish ladies at biill-lighls. Irish
lace comprises crochet guipure, very fine tatting, Carrick-
macross, a kind of cut-work, and emiiroidery upon machinu
net, called Limerick lace. The last-named varietv is suit-
able for large articles, such as veils and flounces. ^Vorsted,
mohair, and yak laces, used of late years f<ir dress-trim-
ming, are madi' chiefly at Le Piiy. Greek and Italian ^leasants
work aloe-fibers into a lace which, though pretty, has the
disailvantage nf not washing: .soineliiiies. however, it is
dyed black, and thus rendi-red more useful. A natural lace is
furnished by the Ldgeltnlintearia, a lofty West Indian tree
with white flowers and large smooth leaves; its inner bark
may, after maceration in water, be separated into fine layers
resembling net. Gold and silver laces, employed for uni-
forms and court dress, are made either of very fine wire, or
silk covered with a fine flat thread of golil. silver, or silver
gilt. JIachinery is now generally useil in the manufacture,
which is carried on in London. Belgium. Italy, and Franci'.
The first machine-net. made at Xoltingham about 1T60
upon the ordinary stocking-frame, was a looped fabric, woven
with a single thread, and resembling an open knitting both
in ajipearance and liability to ravel. Improvements in its
manufacture were introduced by Hammond, Robert Frost,
Flint, nnil others, but the olijeet of inventors — an imitation
of the firm tlircc and six sided meshes of jiillow-work — was
not attained until LSI lit, when lleathcot. after long watch-
ing a woman at her pillow, and carefully unraveling some
pieces of ]iillow-lace, found out how to make twist bobbinet.
{See Xkts.) Lace ]iat terns are worked in bobbinet either in
a frame by hand, like Limerick lace, or by an adaptation of
the .Taciiuard api>arafus to the nel-machine. When the ma-
chine-woiked pallern consists of seiiarate sprigs, stars, or
dots, the thick pallern thread (called gimp) is carried from
one to the other, and afterward cul away. Xet t(U'n in the
working is confided to lace-menders, who exactly replace
the damaged meshes. X'ottingham is the chief seat of the
English machine-lace trade.
English machine-net was formerly smuggled into France,
but tlie French now excel in the finer kinds, and show spe-
cial taste in their patterns. Their iirincipal lace-making
towns are Calais.Cambray, Lyons, St. -Omer, Lille, .St.-Quen-
tin, and Caen. Embroidery on machine-nel is done in Paris.
Every kind of pillow-lace is imitated by machinery, and so
accurately as to deceive a superficial or ignorant observer.
In this, as in all work, that done by hnnd even though faulty,
has a character which no machine can supply; and the
very evenness and flatness of imilalion lace make it of
little value from an ai'lislii' point of view. .1. Segiiin's
work, already cited, contains fifty beautiful photographs of
old and modern hand-made lace. See F. Bury Palisser,
Jlin/un/ (if L(ire (London. l.SO.'i. Hvo) ; Mrs. Hailstone, I)e-
siyns i'or Liicc-mitkiiiy (ISTO, fol.); V. Touclie. The Hand-
bank (if Point Laca (ISTl); Madame Goubaud, Uuipure
d'Art (1870).
Lacebark-lroe: popular name of the Loffelta lintenrin,
a large t ree of t he family T/n/nirltFaa-d'. growing in I he West
Inilii'S. Its white inner liark. alter maeerat ion in freshwater,
is stretched out into a material curiously resembling coa'rse
lace.
Lnoediriiion : See IjAconia and Sparta.
LncOpddc, laa s(( lied . Bkhnakd Okhmain 1<;tiknxe dk i.a
Vii,i,K-siK-li.i,ox, Count de: b. at Agen. France. Dec.Sti. ITSO;
early showed great fondness for nuisic and for physics and
natural science ; went to Paris in 1T7() under the patronage
of BufToii and the musician Gluck; became snb-demonstra-
tor in the Uoyal Cabinet 1785 ; member of the Institute and
I'rofessor of llerpetology at the Mnsenin of Naturid His-
tory 17yO; president of "the senate 1801; was grand chan-
LACERTIDiE
LACniNE CANAL
4T
cellor of tlir lyfgion of Honor 1803-14 ; re-entered the
chamber of peers in 1819; died at flpinuy. Oft. 6, 1825.
His earlier works on science and nuisic are nniinportant ;
his l)est works are Ilistoim nalnreUe des quiidrupudes ori-
parex et rifs serpfitts (1788); Histoire yiaturelle di:i rrplili's
(1T8!)); lligtoire nalureUe des poi.itsoiis (1798-180;:!) ; ///.s-
foire niiturcUe den cetaces (1804) : JJinfoire natunlle de
Vllumme (printed after his death, 1827), etc.
Laeer'tidae [iMod. Lat. ; liter., those belonging to the
lizard family ; Lat. laecr'ta, lizard + Gr. patronymic ending
-iSoi. liliir. of -I'Sijs, descended from] : a family of the order La-
cerliliii, containing the typical lizards and those resembling
them, and quite rich in sjiecics ; most of them are inhab-
itants of till- 1)1(1 World, and the representatives of the
family in America are aberrant. The sand-lizard (Lacerta
■ (Iff His), the green lizard (Lacerta viridis), and the common
lizard of England (Zootoca vivipara) are examples.
Laeertilia, las-er-til i-a [Mod. Lat., from Lat. lacer'ta.
lizard] : an order or sub-ordor of reptiles containing the true
lizards. The alisphenoid and orbitosphenoid arc imperfect-
ly ossified, leaving the brain-case open. The quadrate artic-
idates with the cranium. There is a clavicle and interclavi-
cle, and generally four well-developed limbs. The verlebne
are usually concave in front, rarely bi-concave. The trans-
verse processes of the vertebrse are short and the ribs single-
headed. There are never more than two sacral or nine cervi-
cal verteline. F. A. Lucas.
Lachaisc, hfa'shaz', Francois d'Aix : ecclesiastic ; con-
fessor of Henry IV. and of Louis XIII. ; b. at the Chateau
d'Aix, France, Aug. 25, 1624. He was grandnephew of tlie
celebrated Father Colon, and therefore rapidly rose to be
provincial — that is, a high functionary of the Jesuit order.
In 1C75 he became confessor of Louis XIV., tolerated the
numy mistresses of this king, was concerned in the Revoca-
tion of the Edict of Nantes, in the persecution of Protest-
antism, and of Fcnelon and other liberal [U'clates of the
(iallican Church. Louis XIV. built for Father Lachaisc a
splendid mansion in one of the eastern suburbs of Paris.
Ill 1804 the grounds were chosen for the largest cemetery of
Paris, which is known as the Cimetiere du Pere Lachaise.
He wrote in Latin a book on philosophy, Peripateticie quad-
rupUcis philosiipliim plac.ita rafiojialis, naturalis, siipenuif-
uralis et muralis, and some academical essays. D. Jan. 20,
1709.
Lachainheautlie'. laa'shaaii bo dee', Pierre : b. at Sarlat,
Dordogne, France, Dec. 17, 1807 ; would have not been much
known but for his revolutionary tendencies, and if his
fables had not reflected some of the socialistic ideas cur-
rent in 1830 and 1848. Lachambeaudie only received a
primary instruction ; he joined the .Saint-Simonians, and,
through their chief, M. Enfantin, he was able to publish
his Fables popiddiri's in 1839. Though very liberal in their
teachings, their morality was so appropriate and so genuine
that they received the annual prize of the French Academy,
In 1848, during the Revolution, and at the time of the
coup d'etat of Dec, 1851, Lachambeaudie associated with
Esquiros, Blanqui, and other ultra radicals. In June, 1848,
after the insurrection, he was released through the efforts of
Beranger; and in 1851 was saved from transportation to
Cayenne by the Duke of Persigny, who had been his friend
and co-writer for a poetical review published in 1820 in the
de[iartinent of Loire. D. July 8, 1872, at Brunoy. Lacham-
beaudie was, for the French generation under Louis Phi-
lippe, the republic of 1848, and the empire, what Beranger
had been for Frenchmen under the Restoration.
Revised by A. G. Canfield.
LacliappHe, Marie Louise: accoucheuse; b. in Paris,
Jan. 1, 1709; the daughter of a physician named Duges.
Her mother was a midwife at Chatelat, and on account of
her e.xcellent ([ualihcations was in 1775 placed at the head
of the obstetrical .service of the Paris Hotel Dieu. It was
there, under the excellent tutelage of her motlier, that she
acquired her profound knowledge of obstetrics. In 1792
she married Dr. Lachapelle, surgeon to the ."^t. Louis hos-
pital, but continued her services at the Hotel Dieu, becoming
adjunct midwife on the death of her mother in 179,5. The
wretched condition of the Hotel Dieu. and the contiguity of
obstetrical cases to other disea.ses, caused her to urge the es-
tablishiiu'iit of a special hospital — La Maternite. Here she
exhibited her remarkable intelligence in the organization of
the service of wliicli Baudelocque was the professor and slie
the practical instructor. She recorded lier observations and
they were published by her nepliew, A. Duges, under the
title Pratique des accouchements. D. Oct. 4, 1821.
S. T. Armstrong.
Laches, ISshez [from O. Fr. hichesse, laxity, deriv. of
tache > Fr. luclie, |irob. < Lat. laxus. slack]: iii law, such
negligence, remissness, or unreasonable delay in enforcing-
or attempting to enforce a legal or eijuitable right or claim
as will o[>erate to prevent a party from obtaining relief
which is within the discretion of the court. The time with-
in which a party may ask for relief in any matter from a
court of law is in most matters definitely" fixed by statute,
so that the chief occasions for the application of the' doctrine
of laches arise in eases of application for equitable relief
which are not affected by express statutes of limitations (see
Li.MiTATioNS, Statute of) ; and in cases in admiralty courts,
where it is not so usual to say that there has been laches as
to .say that the claim is stale. What shall be deemed to be
negligence or unreasonable delay is not determined by any
precise and definite rule, but according to the circumstances
of each particular case ; and the tendency of the courts now
is to grant or refuse the desired relief accordingas to whether
or not there has been such negligence or delay that to grant
the relief would work greater injustice than to refuse it.
(Boswell vs. Coals. Law Reports, 27 Chancery Division 424,
456.) It is a rule of equity not to encourage stale demands
or give relief to parties who sleep upon their rights. A
claim must be asserted with reasonable ililigence, in order
that the interests of other parties may not be undiily preju-
diced, but it has been held that " it is only when the com-
plainant has slept over his wrongs .so long that if relief be-
given to him great and serious wrong will be done to the
defendant, that laches constitute a complete defense." {Dag-
gers YS.Van Dyck. 37 N. J. Eq. 130, 137.) Such injury may
be caused in various ways, as by a change in the situation of
the parties, difficulty of procuring the neccs.sary evidence
after a long interval has elapsed, etc In the case of legal
titles and legal demands, however, courts of equity usually
act in obedience to the statute of limitations, in conformity
with the practice of courts of law. In some States, also,
there are special statutes of limitations applying to equitable
causes of action. Where this is not the case, and the de-
mand is strictly of an equitable character, the statute of
limitations applying to legal actions is not an absolute bar
in equity as at law, though it is followed in analogous cases.
Where the analogies of the law do not apply, a court of
equity is governed by its own inherent doctrine of dis-
countenancing stale demands. A long delay which would
ordinarily be deemed laches may be excused when the ad-
verse party is in no way prejudiced by the delay ; when a
party is in ignorance of his rights, without any fault or re-
missness on his part ; when a transaction is involved in ob-
scurity, so that information in regard to it can not be-
obtaiiied ; when he was under duress or undue influence
which prevented him from asi^erting his rights; when his
delay is induced by the acts of the other party ; or when he
labors under legal disability, as insanity, coverture, infancy,
and the like. Poverty or pecuniary embarrassment, how-
ever, is not a sufficient excuse for delay. See Kerr On Fraud
and Mistake (London, 1883); Story,'£quilg Jurisprudence^
P. Sturges Allen.
Lachesis, ISk'ee-sis [= Lat. = Gr. Aixea-ts. one of the fates,,
liter., lot, destiny, obtaining by lot. deriv. of Xax.f'if. obtain by
lot, fall by lot] :' the Craspeducep/ialus lac/iesis. or Lachesi»
miitus, one of the most venomous serpents of tropical Amer-
ica, called bushmaster, curucucu, and couamicouchi. It at-
tains a length of more than 6 feet, and has a rudimentary rat-
tle consisting of ten or twelve rows of spiral scales, slightly
hooked at their summits. It frequents the underbrush near
water, and is much dreaded on account of the deadly nature
of its venom. Revised by F. A. Iacas.
Lachinc. laa-sheen' [Fr. for China, so named by the early
expliirers, who hoped to reach China by passing up the St.
Lawrence]; a village of Jacques Carlier County, Quebec,
Canada, on Montreal island (see map of Quebec, ref. 5-B).
A ship-canal extends from Lachine to .Montreal harbor. (See
Laciiine Canal.) It is on the (Jrand Trunk Railway, 9
miles distant from Jlontreal, and connected by a bridge
with Caughnawaga, across the river. (See Bridoes, Contin-
uous Bridges). It is a thriving place. Pop. (1891) 3,761.
Lachine Canal : an important navigaticm canal 8i milis
in hngib, extending from the harbor of Jlontreal to the
village of Lachine on Lake St. Louis. It surmounts the St.
Louis or Lachine Rapids. Its construction was urged as a
48
LACHISn
necossity ns early as 1701, ami in 1815 a grant by the legis-
lature of i'2"),000 was oblaineil in aid of the i>rojuet. In
1819 tlie grant of 1815 was repeaU'il, and an act jiassfd in-
corporating a joint-sloek company for carrying out the de-
sign ; but it proved abortive. I'n May, 1821, a bill was
passed repealing its incorporation, and authorizing the con-
struction of it by (iovernnient in the month of July follow-
ing. In 1825 tlie canal was openeil for the passage of ves-
sels. Its dimensions as then constructed were 28 feet in
width at bottom and 48 feet at the water-line, with 4* feet
depth of water. It had seven locks. 100 feet long and 20
wide, built substantiallv of stone. The cost of that canal
up to Mar., 1826. was $4;i8,404.15, of which the British (iov-
crnment contributed ^.'iO.OOO and the province the remain-
der. This canal being found insufficient, in 1866 [ilans and
estimates were made for a new line with locks 200 feet by
45, and 0 feet depth of water. This line was consti'ucted
with five locks, the locks built subsequently to 1875 being
made 270 bv 45 feet and 14 feet in depth on the miter sill.
The total expenditure on this canal, up to June 30, 18!)0,
was $10,464,000. The total lift of the five locks is 44J feet.
The navigation of the Lachine Canal is open in general
for 210 to 220 days during tlie year, and may be safely
counted upim froui the last week 'in April to the last week
in November. Revised by M. Mekkuiax.
Lueliish, Ifi kish [from Heb. Z/rtWiis/i, liter., impregnable;
cf. mod. name Cm-Lttkis]: a cit\' in Southern Palestine,
among the mountains separating the territory of Judah
from the Slieplulali, or plain of the Philistines. It was an
almost impregnable hill-fortress, as its name probably sig-
nified, but was taken and partially destroyed by Joshua
(Josh. X. 31-35). and fortified by Kehoboani (2 Cfir. X. 32-
35). It resisted for a long time the as-saults of the Assyrian
army under Sennacherib (2 Kgs. xviii. 14, 17, xix. 8; Is.
xxxvi. 2), anil the biblical accounts afford no indication
that it was taken; but among the cuneiform inscriptions
discovered by Kayaril at Kouyunjik several were carved on
large slabs representing the siege and capture of JjakltiKha,
giving a ground plan of the fortress, and a picture of a
procession of Jewish captives from the .same jilace ap|)ear-
ing before Sennacherib. The inscription is: •• Seriimclierib,
the mighty king, king of the country of Assyria, sitting on
the throne of judgment before the city of Lacliisli: 1 give
permission for its slaughter." (Ijayard, Nineveh and Biihy-
lun, ad luco.) Lachish was afterward taken by Nebuchad-
nezzar at the downfall of the kingdom of Judah. Its
ruins have been iilentified by liaunier, van de Velde. and
Thomson with the modern village L'm-Lakis, on a round
knoll covereil with heaps of stones, on the left of the road
between tiaza and Hebron. Other geograjihers. however,
identify it with the adjoining Tel el-Jlasi/. where a cunei-
form letter to the Egyptian governor of Lachish has been
discovered.
Lat'lllan, laaAh'lan: a river of East Australia. It rises
in New South Wales, joins the ^lurruml)idgee in 34° 30' S.
lat. and 144 10 K. Ion., and after a course of 400 miles en-
ters the Murray.
LiH'hnianii, laa/vh'mium, Karl Konrad Friedrich Wil-
HELM : classical and Teutonic philologist; b. at Brunswick,
(iernuiny. Mar. 4, 1703 ; studied at Leipzig and (iiittingen ;
entered the army as a volunteer and took part in the Waterloo
campaign ; became professor extraordinarius at Konigsberg
in 1818, at Bi'riin in 1825, professor ordinarius in 1828, mem-
ber of the Academy of Sciences in 1830. D. in Berlin, Mar.
13, 1851. Ijachmann is the founder of textual criticism as
a science. The restoration of a literary work, according to
Lachmann, calls for a twofold activity. We must first de-
termine the original form of the work. Second, we must
ascertain what is known of the life and personality of the
author, and interpret his thoughts and examine into the
conditions which lielped to shape them. The first of these
tasks belong to textual criticism, the second to hermcneutics.
The former, again, consists of three parts: the recensio fur-
nishes a picture of MS. tradition; the emendatio concerns
it.self with correction where the text is faulty; the so-called
higher criticism finally deals with the origin and authen-
ticity of the Work itself. The recensio is independent of
exegcsi.s, but the emendatio and higher criticism must every-
where go hand in hand with hermeneutical interpretation.
These principles were put into imielice in his epoch-making
cilitioiis of llie New Ttxliimeni (1842). Propertius (pviblished
at the early age of twenty-three), and in his immortal mas-
terpiece, the text and commentary of Lucretius (2 vols.,
LA CONDAMINE
1871, 4th ed.). As specimens of the application of the high-
er criticism we have his Jirtraclihiiiyeii zur lliiis (1847), and
On the Priniifire Form of Ihe I'oem of the Nibe/iini/en Nulh,
in which the famous, but now practically aliandoned, theory
is advanced with great learning and ingenuity that these
epics are made up of a number of early lays which were sub-
sei|ueiitly combined (Liedertheorie). Lachmann was no less
distinguished in the field of Teutonic iihilology. His Ueher
allhoclideulsrhe Delonung und Vernlmnxt (IHiJl) laid the
foundation for all later investigations on the subject of Ger-
man vei-sification. Of his numerous works not already cited
may be mentioned his editions of Catullus and Tibullus
(1820); (iaius's Im^titulionex (1840); Babrius and Avianus
(1845); Lucilius(edited after Lachniunn's death by J.Vahlen,
1876); Wolfram von Ks<henbach (1833); Walter von der
Vogelweide(.5th ed. 1875) ; Ilartniann's heein (4th ed. 1877);,
Lessing's complete works (13 vols., 1838-40) ; translations of
Shakspeare's sonnets and JIarbeth ; Kleine Schriften (2 vols.,
ed. by K. Miillenhoff and Joh. \'alilen, 1876). See M. Hertz,
A'arl Lachmann (Berlin. 1851, pp. x., 25.5, xliii.); Bioijr.
JahrhScher (18.53, \)\>. 88 ff.) ; Laclimanns liriefe an M.
Ilaiipf (ed. by Valileii, 1803). Alfred Gi1'1)E.man.
Lachrymal (hXk ri-inal) Ulaiid. or Toar-gland : the or-
gan ill man and other animals which produces tears. In
man it is of the shape and size of an almond, and is found
above the outer angle of the eye. Its secretion is discharged
by some seven ducts into the space between the eyeball and
the lid. At the inner angle of the eye are two apertures
through which the sujiply of lachrymal secretion is taken
up by the lachrymal canals, passed into the lachrymal sac,
aiui thence through the nasal duct into the nose.
Larli'ryinatory [from Median-. Lat. lacn'mato' rium ,V\teT.,
iieut. of lacrhnah'riiis, pertaining to tears, deriv. of lacrima,
tear]: a po|iular name for the supposed tear-bottles of the
ancients, small glass or earthern vessels found ill ancient
Greek and Roman tombs. That they ever really contained
the tears of mourning friends is unlikely.
LacllutP. la'a-shoof : a village of County Argcntcuil. Que-
bec ; 44 miles W. of Montreal ; on the Montreal and Ottawa
branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway; on the North
river, 8 miles from its union with the Ottawa. It has ex-
tensive water-power. Poji. 1,751, few Freiicli-Canadians.
Lackawaii'iia, or Lackawnnnock : a small river in
Pennsylvania ; rises in Sus(iuelianna ('■ unity, near the north-
east corner of the State, flows S. W. through Luzerne
County, and enters the Susquehanna river at Pittston. Its
lower "course for 30 miles passes through the largest and
most abundant anthracite coal-basin in America, to which
it gives name, though it is .sometimes called the Wyoming
basin. The chief emporium of this basin is .Scrantoii. foi;-
merly called L;ickawaiina. A large ]>ortioii of the anthra-
cite coal used in New York city and in the New England
Statics is furnished by this coal-field, which has an area of
108 sq. miles, and a thickness of from 5 to 14 feet at a
depth varying from 100 to 400 feet beneath the surface.
Laclf'dp, hiji'kled , PiKBRE LiiiUESTE : the founder of St.
Louis, Mo. ; b. in Bioii, France, in 1724 ; became in 1762 a
resident of New Orleans, when he established the Louisiana
Fur Com|iai!y under a charter from the director-general of
the colony, giving it the exclusive right of trading with the
Indians on the .^Iissolu•i. 'I'he jiioneers under his direction
made the fir,st settlement on the site of St. Louis, Feb. 1,5,
1764, erecting a house and four stores, and named the jilace
in honor of Louis XV., then King of Fiance. 1). on the Mis-
sissippi, near the mouth of the Arkansas, June 20, 1778.
Lacmiis: See Litmi's.
La'coii : city ; capital of Marshall co., HI. (for location of
county, see mii[i of Illinois, ref. 4-K) ; on the Illinois river,
and tlie Chi. and Alton Railroad ; 130 miles S. W. of Chi-
cago. It is connected with Sparland. HI., by a pontoon
bridge; ships large quantities of grain; and has water-
works, electric lights. 2 woolen-mills, 2 canning-factories,
shawl-inill, and 2 weeklv newspapers. P„p. (1880) 1,814;
(ISOO) 1.640; (IH!)3) estimated. 2.300.
Kl)^rol^ ok " jMahsiuli. Coi'Ntv I)i:mo(Hat."
La Coildamino, laa-kruVda'a nieen', Ciiahi.hs Mauie, de:
scientist; b. in Paris, France, Jan. 28, 1701 ; educated at the
University of Paris, and after serving for a slioit time in
the army' (1710-20), devoted himself to scientific studies.
With other explorers he visited the iMedilerranean coasts of
Africa and Asia, the Troad.t^yprus. Jerusalem, and Constan-
tinople. In 1735 the Academy of Sciences clioso La Conda-
LACONIA
LACQUER
49
mine, Godin, and Bouguer to execute the measurement of
an arc of tbe meridian, tiie plain of Quito being selected for
tlie purpose. Tliis celebrated measurement was performed
with j^reat care, and occupied several years: l)y it llie size
and figure of tlie earth were delermincd willi great exactness,
and a basis was furnished for tlie modorn metrical system.
TiidUgh La C'oudamine, as a scientist, was inferior to Hou-
guer, he was practically the most useful of the party. After
the conclusion of the survey he made hnportaul observations
on the magnetic iuftuerice of mcjuutains, etc. In the sum-
mer of 17-l-4he descended the Amazon to Para and returned
to i-airope. Subsequently he traveled in Italy, but most of
his life was spent in Paris, where he devoted himself to va-
rious scientitic researches, and especially to the (juestion of
inoculation for smallpox. His most important publications
are Uilation ahregee d'uti voijaijf fait dans rinti-rieur de
VAmi'-riijite Mi'n'd ionale (Paria. 174.")) ; La Figure dn la Terre
ddteniiiiu'e (1749): Journal d'un voyage fail par urdre du
roi (1751J. L). in Paris, Feb. 4, 1774. Herbert II. SsiiTn.
Laco'nia. or Lacedae'mou: the southernmost division of
the ancient Pelopoimesus; bounded W. by JMesscnia, N. by
Arcadia and Argolis, E. and S. by the Argolian Gulf, the
Myrtoan Sea, the Laconian and Messenian Gulfs. To the
S. it ended in the promontories of Ta-narum and Malea, the
present Capes Matapan and Malio. To the Laconian Gulf
flowed the Eurotas, on whose banks was the capital of La-
conia, Sparta iq. v.). Revised by J. U. S. Sterrett.
Lucoiiia: town; capital of Belknap co., N. H. (for loca-
tion (jf county, see map of New Hampshire, ref. 8-F) ; on
the Winnipiseogee river, and the Concord and Montreal
Railroad ; 'iS miles X. of Concord. 102 miles X. of Boston.
It is situated between Lakes Winnipiseogee and Winni-
squam ; has three weekly newspapers, and is principally en-
gaged in the manufacture of hosiery and cai-s. Pop. (1880)
3,790 : (1890) 6,14;3. Editor of •• Herald."
Lacordaire, laa kor'dar', .Jeax Baptiste Henri : preacher
and orator : b. JIar. 12, 1803, at Recey-sur-Ource, in the de-
partment of Cote-d'Or, France ; studied law at Dijon, and
went in 1M21 to Paris, where a brilliant career seemed to
open for him as an advocate. Suddenly he entered the
seminary of St. Sulpice : was ordained a priest in 1827; be-
came preacher at the College de Henri IV. in 1880; and
founded the journal L'Arenir in connection with Lamen-
nais and Montalembert. His standpoint was that the will of
the people in civil affairs, and the teaching of the pope in
religion, is supreme. To maintain this position he drew on
his extensive acquaintance with history, literature, and phi-
losophy. He was the leader in the reaction that took place
against the skepticism of Voltaire. His funeral oi-ations
e.Kcel any of the kind in his day, especially his oration on
O'Connell, which is remarkable for point and clearness.
Summoned before the civil court for the radical tone of his
writings, he was acquitted, but wlien the pcjpe in 1832 de-
nounced his ideas, he immediately retracted and submitted.
In 1835 he began his celebrated conferences in Xotre Dame,
drawing immense audiences, and in 1842 entered the Do-
minican order. In 1848 he was elected member of the
Constituent Assembly, but feeling that his real field of use-
fulness was the pulpit, he retired, and, after 18.53, being
ordered to leave Paris on account of one of his ultramon-
tane-radical sermons, he lived in retirement at .Soreze, where
he died Nov. 22, 1861. Besides his Conferences de yotre-
Dame de Paris (4 vols., 1844-.51), he wrote Vie de Saint-
Dominique (1840 : new ed. 1858) ; Letlres a un Jeune
Homme (1858) : Discours sur le Droit et le Devoir de la
Propriete (1858), etc. Revised by Joux .1. Keane.
Lacordaire, Jea.v Theodore: naturalist; brother of Jean
Baptiste Henri Lacordaire ; b. at Recey-sur-Ource, Fell. 1,
1801. He studied law at Dijon, subsequently devoting him-
self to science, and from 1825 to 1832 made four journeys
to South America especially to collect and study insects.
From 1832 to 1835 he was one of the editors of Le Temps;
in the latter year he was chosen Professor of Zoology, and
in 1838 of Comparative Anatomy in the L'niversity of Liege,
Belgium, a position which he occupied until his death. He
was the author of numerous important papers on the Cole-
optera, including a monograph of tlie Chrysomeliche ; vari-
ous articles on South America. princi|)ally in the Revue des
Deux Mondes, and an Introduction a t'EntomoUigie (2 vols.,
1S34-37) ; but his great work is the Genera des Coleopteres
(in the Xouvelles Suites a Buffon). the first volume pub-
lished in 1854. and ten volumes at the time of his death ; it
was concluded by Chapuis. In this monumental book over
230
8,000 genera are carefully described, and it placed Lacor-
daire at the lieai] of the students of the Coleoptera. D. at
Liege, .July 18, 1870. Herbert H. Smith.
La C'osa, Juan, de : See Cosa.
Lacostc, laakust', Sir Alexandre, D. C. L. : jurist ; b. in
Bouclurville, Quebec, Canada, Jan. 12, 1842; was educated
at St. llyacinlhe College and Laval L^niversitv ; was admit-
ted to the bar in 1863, and became queen's counsel in 1877.
He was a legislative councilor for the Province of Quebec
1882-84; Senator of the Dominion 1884-89, and in the lat-
ter year was Speaker of that body ; was appointed chief jus-
tice of the Province of Quebec "in 1891. privy councilor of
Canada in 1892, and was knighted in 1893. " He has been
Professor of Law in Laval University. Xeil JIacdonald.
Lac'qiier [from Fr. lucre, from Span, lucre, sealing-wax,
deriv. of laca, gum lac. See Lac] : properly a varnish made
of lac, but by extension and much more conimonlv a varnish
of some Gricntal kind, the sap c.f a tree, into the composi-
tion of which lac may not enter at all. These varnishes,
when mixed with other suitable ingredients and ajiplied in
successive coats to seasoned wood-ware, impart to it a highly
polished lustrous surface. Several kinds of so-called lacquer-
ware are made in India by painting patterns upon tin-foil
or other leaf-metal laid upon wood, and then varnishing the
whole ; this is called Kashmir or Haidarabad lacquer, and
in this the transparent fiuishing-coat may or may not be
made from real lac. A similar effect is iJroduced' bv some
Persian painted wares, the ground of which is generally
Papier-mache {q. v.). These are often much more delicate
and artistic than the Indian wares, and the. painted figures
and groups are often good in a decorative way, although the
highest qualities of Persian art are not seen in them. In
some jiarts of India boxes and toys are made by covering a
wooden core with a solid coat of what may be called sealing-
wax ; tliis is sometimes put on in a viscous condition, in
long roj)es wound around 'the wooden body, and the whole
surface is rubljcd down and varnished many times. The
colors are in the solid substance of the lacquer, the resulting
effect being a marbling or sprinkle rather than a pattern.
In these Indian wares real lac is used to a great extent.
The Chinese and Japanese lacquer-wares are verv much
more important, and in them there is no lac at all. ' Of all
the Eastern varieties of lacquer-ware the best known in
Europe during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centu-
ries wa.s the Chinese ware with black ground painted with
figures in gold. Of this ware tea-poys, tables, backgammon-
boards, and even large cabinets with many drawers and
cuplioards have been exported from China in great numbers
to Holland, Great Britain, aTid France : many old houses
contain fine specimens, and the importation still continues
at the close of the nineteenth century, though very fine pieces
arc somewhat rare. Another Chinese variety is that which
is called coral laccjuer, and in Japan Tsui-koko, and a black
lacquer of the same sort called in Japan Tsui-shu, both of
which are called also carved lac(iuer, Peking lacquer, and
Soo-chow lac(|uer, which last is perhaps a mispronunciation
of Tsui-shu rather than the name of the Chinese city. These
wares are made by covering the wooden ground to the
depth of perhaps an eighth of an inch with the lacquer and
then by pressing or carving, or both, producing relief-])at-
terns of great conqilexity in black, dark red, brown, green,
or even all these colors combined in one design. In both
these Chinese wares lac is wholly absent, and the primary
material is the same as in Japanese lacquer-ware, which is
described below.
The lacipier u.sed by the Chine.se and Japanese is diiefly
obtained from the small tree Jilius verniciferu, of the same
genus as the American ])oison-ivy and poison-sumach, by
making incisions in the bark. The best time for collecting
the sap is in the rainy season in summer. The incisions are
usually five in number, the sap which exudes from the low-
est gash being removed first. The best lacquer is obtained
when the tree is about fourteen years old. That obtained
from old trees is called l)y the Japanese sulci or transpar-
ent lacquer. The bright black lacquer is made by mixing a
protoxide of iron with the carefully prepared natural lac-
quer, and in similar ways some few colors are got, but the
most important varieties are the gold lacquer and avcnlu-
rine lacquer, which are made by mixing gold powder or
bronze powder, more or less fine and in greater or less quan-
tity, with the prepared sap. There is an opaque white lac-
(luer very rarely seen, apparently of the same character as
the carved lacquer mentioned above; blue, yellow and rose
50
LACQUEK
LACROSSE
color Jo not seem to be made, tlie only green is of a dusky
and grayish tint, and there are several grays and browns.
Nearly all the fine pieces, however, are of one of the fol-
lowing sorts: (1) Polished lilaik laequer, upon which there
are figures, landscapes, iiatterns. etc., painted in gold lac-
quer in very slight relief, and sometimes diversified by di-
minutive stpuire bits of gold-foil, laid either on the black
ground, on the gold pattern, or on both. A variant of this
has a brown or greenish-brown ground, very slightly niot-
tletl or clouded, and so dark as almost to pass for black ex-
cept in contrast with the intense lustrous tone of the true
black lacquer, i'i) Sprinkled or avent urine lacquer, the
ground being sometimes of a uniform sprinkle of gold and
sometimes in clouds or clusters, the gold specks being much
more numerous, in rounded spots of perhaps an inch in di-
ameter, than in the spaces between : the patterns applied in
gold and in relief exaitly as in black lacquer, except that
thev are apt to be in higher relief. One beauty of this
lacquer is in the translucent appearance of the ground, into
which one seems to look for a certain depth down among
the sprinkled gold, A variant is ma«le with silver powder.
This sometimes has a greenish tinge : the gold powder also
is of many lints, reddish, greenish, etc., so that the gold
and silver sprinkles approach one another in appearance.
(3) Gold lacquer, which is nothing more than the sprinkled
lacquer made with so fine and dense a sprinkle as to resem-
ble a dull metallic surface. Some exceptionally fine pieces
look, indeed, like solid gold slightly dimmed by wear and
use; these are exquisite in delicate beauty. The raised
ornament on all these is put on as in the black lacquer.
(4) Smooth-|)olished lacquer, in wliich the pattern, which
may be very elaborate, with flowers and figures, looks
as if stained on the brownish ground, the whole surface,
ground and pattern, being polished together to a mir-
ror-like surface, (.i) Mokume, or wood-grain lacquer, in which
the whole ground is covered with veins arranged like those
of wood, and varied by different densities and ilifferent col-
ors of gold sprinkle. (G) Opaque reil-ground lacquer, the
patterns of which are generally in relief of gold. (?) Pearl-
sprinkled laccpier. the finely dusted mother-of-pearl mixecl
with a black ground ; not very conuTion among highly
finished old lacipiers. The pattern on this is generally an
inlay of mother-of-pearl in thin veneer. (8) Marbled lacquer
and branched or sprigged lacquer (Tsugiiru-nuri and Wa-
kasa-nuri); these also Inive rarely couie to the West in fine
wares: very cheap and slightly made boxes and trays are
what we generally see in either variety. (!)) Transparent
lac<iupr ; a mere varnish but exquisitely hard and brilliant,
laid over a surface of richly grained wood or the like, which
shows through it.
Many of these varieties of lacquer are enriched by means
of inlaying with ivory or bronze carved in relief, as in the
faces and hands of lacquered figures, or in whole figures,
with mother-of-pearl, black horn delicately carved, coral, and
even small bits of fine stones ; moreover, gold-leaf and silver-
leaf are often laid down in jiieccs larger than the little squares
named above, and cut to shapes to suit the patterns, and
little flat objects of pottery or porcelain are also let into the
black ground, especially in the splendid wares said to be by
Korin, an artist of the seventeenth century, and his follow-
ers. Carved Ijlack and red laccjucr like that of China is also
maile in .Japan.
The most elaborate preparations were made, in old work,
in the way of .seasoning and preparing the wood and the
lacquer: the process of applynig the lacquer an<l adorning
it was also a most protracted one, for no coat might be laicl
until all below was iierfeitly dry, and the drying had to be
so very slow and gradual that special boxes or cabinets were
made for the purpose, the walls of which were thoroughly
wet at the beginning of the drying process. It ap]iears to
be chiefly in these respects, and in the natural changes in
character of design, that the modern lacciuer differs from
the ancient, for nmch of the modern is ailmirable in work-
manship and in delicacy, so far as external a|ipi'arance goes,
and the designs are often very l)eautiful. though with a
tendency to over-elaboration and crowding of the surfa<e.
See J. .1. (Ruin's paper on T/ie Ijun/iiir I ml ii.it ni of J/i/irin
in the Tniii/uirlionK of the Asiatic Soiicty of .Japan, vol.
ix., pt. i. (Yokohama. IHMl) ; .1. .1. Kein's Inclii.slriix of Janiin
(London and New York. IWHl: and Chamberlain"s Thinys
Japanese (London, 18!) 1). Russell Stubois.
LacrPtello. lalikrc-tel', .Iran Ciiaki.ks Dominkjie: his-
torian; b. at Metz, Prance, Sept. U, 1TG6; studied at the
College of Nancy; was admitted to the bar at the age of
eighteen ; wrote at Nancy a tragedy and several academic
essays; went to Paris in 1787; a.ssi.sied his brother Pierre in
writing for the Encyclopedie Methodiqiie : became an editor
of the Journal lies Debats.lov \\\\'\i:\\ he reported the sessions
of the National Assembly; became in 17!IU secretary to the
Due de Uochefoucauld-Liancourl. with whom he was as-
sociated in the project of favoring the king's escape; made
himself popular as an advocate of the constitution at the
Club des Keuillants ; wrote the most extensively circulated
account of the execution of Louis XVI.; was as.s«iated
with Andre Chenier in editing the Journal ile Paris; ex-
erted himself in speeches and with the pen to save the
(iirondins from the popular wrath: was accused of being a
royalist, arrested after a long residence at l-^pinay. and kept
in prison two years (17!»7-t)!)) ; became profes.sor of history
in Paris IHOlt, imperial censor 1810, was admitted to the
Academy in 1811, and ennobled by Louis XVIII. in 1823.
lie remained professor of history for thirty-six years, and
wrote eight valuable histories, covering all the period from
the outbreak of the Revolution to 1846, and several earlier
periods. D. at Macon. Mar. 2(), 18.>5.
Laoretelle. Pieurk Loiis: juridical and political writer;
b. at Mi'tz. France, in 17.")1 : practiced law. Hi-sl at Nancy,
and then, from 1778, in Paris, wlicre he lived in intimate
connection with JIalesherbes and La Ilarpe. During the
Revolution he took part, though with grea' moderation and
cautiousness, in all the principal jiolitical movements, but
after 1804 lived in retirenu-nt. Pnder the Restoration he
belonged to the opposition, and his Mercure de France and
Jlineriv Frunfais. ])ublished in coiuiection with Scgur and
Hcnjamin Constant, were successively suppre.s.sed. 1). Sept,
5, 1824. Besides a number of juridical and ]iolitical works,
he wrote Portraits et Talileaux, Ftudes sur la Pevolution
Fran^aise, and Mes Soirees a JJalesherbes. which are of
great interest to the student of the history of that period.
Laeniix. lali'krwaa', Paul: scholar; b. in Paris. Feb. 27,
180tj; was educated at the College Bourbon, and wrote, un-
der the pseudonym of Le bibliophile Jacob, a vast number
of romances and works of curious learning about the books,
the history, manners, and customs of the Middle Ages: dis-
tinguished himself by his efforts to improve the Biblio-
theque du lioi : was appointed in 18.5.5 conservator of the
Arsenal Library, ami edited from 1854 the liei'ue Vniverselle
des Arts. His best works are Dissertations (3 vols., IS^J!^
47) ; Ilistoire de la rille de Soi.vions (with Martin, 2 vols.,
1837): Co.itujnes historigues de la France (10 vols., 1852);
Le moi/en iige et la renaissance (.5 vols., 1847-52); Les Arts
au moyen aye et a I'epoque de la renaissance (1868) ; Mwurs,
usages et costumes an mot/en (/^f. etc.. with 441 plates (1871);
and La vie niilitaire et la cie reli;/ieuse au nioi/en age (1872).
Several of these have been translated into English. D. in
Paris, Oct. 16. 1884. — His wife. Ai'olli.ne Bifkk. has written
some popular novels ; and his brother JvLKS (b. in Paris, May
7, 180!»: d. 1887) had success as a writer of dramas and as a
translator, imitator, and critic of Shakspeare. His U-.'diptts
Her. a translation from Sophocles, was successfully pro-
duced on the stage in 1858, and received in 1862 from the
French Academy a grand prix of 10,000 francs.
Revised by A. R. Marsh.
Laernix, Silvkstre Francois; mathematician; b. in
Paris in 1765: became Professor of Mathematics at the
Marine School of Rochefort in 1782 ; held subsequently the
same position at the ftcole Noruiale, the l^eole Polytech-
nique, Sorboiine, and College de France, and died in Paris,
Jlay 25, 1843. His best-known work is Traite du Calcul
difterentiel et integral, in 3 vols. 4to.
Lacrosse [=Canad. Fr. la crosxe, liter., the hockey-stick;
la. the -I- rrosse. crook, crutch, lacrosse stickj: a game the
origin of which is unknown further than that it is the de-
velopment of a game called bagataway, which the early
French .settlers of Canada founil among the Indian tribes.
The game had no rules, and consisted in an attempt of a
varying number of jdayers to throw or carry a ball with the
aid of racquets, not unlike small hand-nets, through an op-
posing mass of players. Running and dodging were the
features of the game, whose object seems to have been the
training of warriors for the warpath by cultivating agility
and endurance. The men of a whole village not infrequently
j)artici])ated in the game, which sometimes lasted half a day.
The French gave the game its present name, and it was
not until about 1840 that it was first played by while i)eo-
ple. About 1860 the game became popular in Canada, and
LA CROSSE
LACTUCARIL'M
51
in 1867 Dr. \V. George Beers, a iiiemlier nf the .Muntreal
Lacrosse Club, forimilated the rules whieh, with slight
changes, are in use. There are now five lacrosse associa-
tions in Canada. The strongest in the quality of its players
is the National League of Canada, cimiiio.sed of the Ollawas,
Torontos, Moutreals, Shamrocks ot .Montreal, and the Corn-
walls.
The game soon became known outside of Cana<la, and
through the efforts of J. R. Fliuniery, of the New York
Athletic Club, it was introduced into the larger cities of tlie
eastern and middle portion of the U. S., where the more
prominent athletic clubs now have teams. Lacrosse has
also had a [jrominent place among intercollegiate sports at
Harvard, Cornell. Princeton, I'luversity of Pennsylvania,
Lehigh University, and Stevens Listitute, and between
some of these colleges a lacrosse league has been formed.
The game is steadily growing in popularity in the colleges.
Australia has a good representation of players, the city of
Sydney alone supporting six senior teams. The game was
introduced into (ireat Britain by visiting Canadian teams,
and annual championship matches are played between teams
from England and Irelaml.
The game is played upon a level field having such bound-
aries as the players may agree upon. The object of the
game is to carry or throw the ball with the crosse or stick,
Tlie crosse.
as it is more commonly called, between the opponents' goal-
posts. These posts are two for each side, eai'h pair 6 feet
high and 6 feet apart, with 12.5 yards between the goals.
Each goal is surrounded on the fi'ont and sides by lines
called the crease, drawn 6 feet outside the posts. The play-
ers are twelve in number, and when in position for play ex-
tend nearly across the field from goal to goal at intervals of
10 yards from each other. The goal-keeper, whose positioTi
is within the lines of the crease, is the only player who may
catch or throw the ball witlt his hamls. No player except
the goal-keeper may come within the lines of the crease ex-
cept when the ball is then-. The game requires two um-
pires and a referee. The position of the umpires is behind
the goals, and their duty is to determine whether or not a
goal has been made by the players. The referee has general
control of the game, ilecides on fouls and claims, and ad-
ministers the rules. He may not reverse the decision of an
umpire, but he may remove him.
The picturesque dress of the players, the quick changing
of the play from one part of the field to another, its simple
rules, the graceful action of the runners, all combine to
make it interesting to spectators. Thus far lacrosse is
played only by amateurs. E. Hitchcock, Jr.
La Crosse: city (Indian trading-post 1841, town 1851,
city 1856) ; capital of La Cros.se co.. Wis. (for location, see map
of Wisconsin, ref. 6-B) ; at the confluence of the La Crosse
and Black rivers with the Jlississippi ; on the Burl., the Chi.
and N. W., the Chi., i^Iil. and St. P., and the Green Bay, W.
and St. Paul railways; 196 miles \V. of JLlwaukee. For
many years its principal industry was the lumber business,
but it is now engaged in general manufaetun's and has a
large wholesale trade with adjoining States. The census re-
turns of 1890 showed that 198 numufacturing establishments
(representing .52 industries) reported. These had a combined
capital of ^10,101.2:!'2, . inployed 4,1.55 persons, paid $1.66'2,-
230 for wages and !{;5.'.t72..'s95 for materials, and had jiroducts
valued at §9.172.426. The manufactures inclu<le<l sawed
luml)er, sash, doors, and blinds, boots and shoes, nnichinery,
tanned leather, carriages. Hour, woolen ai\d knit goods, beer
and ale, and cigars. The city contains 50 churches, 6 pub-
lie halls, 3 opera-houses, public library with over 15,000 vol-
umes, electric lights, electric street-railway, a national bank
with capital of if20(),00(). 3 State banks with c(mibined capi-
tal of .i;275.000, anil 4 dailv and 9 weeklv newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 14..505 : (1890) 25.221 : (1895) 28.769. . R. C.\i.vkkt.
Lactaii'tiiis. Firmiani's: also styled in MSS. Lucius
Ca>cilius, or Ca'lius ; one of the Christian Fathers ; b. about
the middle of the third century, either at Firmum. Italy, or
in Africa; studied rhetoric under Arnobius at Sicca in Pro-
consular Africa ; became a distinguished orator, and one of
the most learneil men of his time. At the invitation of the
Emperor Diocletian he settled at Xicomedia as professor of
Latin eloquence (301), became a Christian, and, having been
a witness of the persecutions of the times, wrote his works
in defense of the new religion. He was called by the Em-
peror Constantine to Treves as tutor to his son Crispus,
and is supposed to have ilied there about 330. Lactantius
was called the Christ ian Cii'cro ; he wrote an important work,
InatUutionum Dh'iniinnn tibri VII., ami smaller treatises,
Ve laa Dei and I)e Opijicio Dei. vd Formati<me Ilominis.
The famous work on the death of persecutors (De Morlibun
PersecK forum) is jirobably also a work of Lactantius. The
elegiac poem De are P/toMiice, of which an Anglo-.Saxon
adaptation exists, is believed to be l)y him. The first edi-
tion of Lactantius was printed at the monastery of Subiaco
in 1465, and is one of the first specimens of the typograph-
ical art. The best editio:is are those of le Brun and Leng-
let du Fresnoy (2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1748), Fritzsche (Leipzig.
1842-44, 2 parts), and G. Laubmann and S. Brandt (Vienna,
1890). Revised by M. Warren.
Lac'teals [plur. of lacteal, from Lat. lac'lens, milky, deriv.
of lac, lac'-, lis, milk] : the lymphatic vessels of the small
intestine, a jiart of the general absorbent or lymphatic sys-
tem, pervading all parts of the body, distinguished as lacteals,
since they imbibe from the glandular mucous surface of the
small intestine, foUowiiigthe ingestion of fatty food, a milky,
white, opaque fluid, the chyle. The chyle is fat digested by
the pancreatic and biliary fluids, reduced to an emulsion, mo-
lecular particles of fatty matter suspended in an albumi-
noid liiiuid. The lacteals take up the chyle, traverse the me-
sentery, and terminate, by two or three small trunks, in the
thoracic duct. Here the chyle mingles with the more watery,
opalescent lymph, and with it passes up to enter the left
sul)clavian vein, and becomes a nutritive element of the
blood. See Lvjiphatics.
Lac'tic Acid [from Lat. lac, lac'tis, milk] : acide 7ian-
ceique of Braconnot ; the acid formed in milk when it turns
sour, and existing therefore in buttermilk. It is CaHoOs, and
is formed from lactose or milk-sugar as follows :
CijHjaOu -I- HjO = 4C3H6O3.
The souring of milk is not a process of oxidation, but, like
the vinous fermentation of sucrose or glucose, a breaking
up into simpler compounds ; lactic acid, like alcohol in the
other case, being an intermediate product of decay and dis-
solution. Sucrose undergoes the lactic fermentation like
lactose, under the influence of the same special ferments.
The names of Scheele, Braconnot, Berzelius, Liebig, and
other great chemists are associated in the early history of
the discovery of lactic acid and the extended controversies
that grew out of it. Braconnot found it in sour beer, sour
meal, sour beet-juice, fermented rice, and many other places,
and, supposing it new, called it nanceic acid, after his birth-
place, Nancy. Berzelius appears first to have announced
that it occurs as a normal constituent of flesh, deducing im-
portant physiological conclusions. Liebig denied its oc-
currence in flesh, but afterward found therein sarcolactic
acid, an isomere or metamere of lactic acid. Pure lactic
acid is a colorless, sirupy licpiid ; does not freeze at 12° below
zero F. ; density = 1-215. There are several methods of
manufacture, tine is to dissolve 6 [larts cane-sugar and j\-f
part tartaric acid in 35 parts water. After two days add iV
part rotten cheese, 8 parts sour milk, and 2+ parts zinc white.
The mixture should be allowed to stand for eight to ten days,
with fivqiient stirring, at a temperature of 100 to 110° F.
In a week or so it becomes a paste of lactate of lime, which
is dissolved by boiling in water with some hydrate of zinc.
The lactate n'lust l)e evaporated, pressed, washed with cold
water, ancl pressed repeatedly for ijurification, then decom-
posed bv hvdrogen sulphide. The conversion of the sugars
into lactic acid is caused by the action of several micro-or-
ganisms, most prominent among which is the lincillum acidi
lartici. (See Permkxtatiox.) Some of the salts of lai-tic
acid are useil in meilicine. Revised Ijy Ira Remskx.
Lactiii and Lactose : See Milk.
Lactom'eter [Lat. lac. milk, and Gr. litTpov, measure] : a
graduated cvlinder for roughly estimating the amount of
cream in miik. The term is often applied to ihe t/alaetom-
etrr, which is a hydronu'ter for showing the specific gravity
of milk. See GAi.ACTo.METER, Hydrometer, and Milk.
LactiU'a'riuiii [.Mod. Lat., deriv. of Lat. lactu'ca, let-
tuce, whence Eng. /e//»fp] : a drug consisting ot the *lried
milky juice from the mature stem of Lnetiicn rirom or let-
tuce. It is in reddish-brown lumps, musses, or cakes, of an
52
LACUNAE
KAOMIKAl'LT
opium-like smell, ami bitter tiisle. It wiis intro<lucea into
me«lii'ine in 17!ti> as liavinj,' the property of allayin<; [win
antl iniliieiiip sleep, like ..piuin, but its powei-s are very
feeble, anil it ean not be relieil upon.
l,HPUli;p : See Histology (Bone).
La Cygiio. liui-soen : oily (Uid out in 1870); Linn ea.
Kan. (foV loeatioii of countv, see map of Kansjis, ref. H-K):
on the Osage river, ami the Kan. City. Ft. Seott antl Mem.
Railroad: 37 miles X. of Fort Scott. 63 miles S. of Kansn,*
Citv. It is in an agricultural, fruit-growing, ami stock-rais-
ing region and has valuable timber, coal, and stone in its
vicinity-. Pop. (1880) 835 : (1890) 1.13.-..
Ladakh': a part of Kaslunir. Hrilisli India, extending
from 3-2= to 3l>' N. hit., and from 76 to 79" E. Uin.. between
Great Tibet in the cast and Little Tibet in the west; sei)a-
rated on the X. from Turkestan bv the Karakorum. Area
estimated at 30.000 sq. miles. Pop. 1.50,000. It is a wild
mountainous region along the upper course of the In<ius
mostly of a sterile soil and with a severe clnnate. It is well
eultivated, and its inhabitants, who are Mongolians, raise
large crops of wheat, barlev. and buckwheat, besides rearing
immense herds of shee|>. which supply most of the wool used
in Kashmir. The mountains contain iron, copper, and lead,
and a verv important transit trade between China and Hin-
dustan is carried on. Capital, Leh (q. v.).
Ladanniii : See Labdaxum.
Ladd. George TRrMBiLi.. B. D.. D. D.: Professor of Phi-
losophy in Yale University since 1881 ; b. in Painesville, O.,
Jan. li). 1842 ; was educated at Western Reserve College
and Andover Theological Seminary. He held the follow-
ing posts before assuming his pi-esent professorship : Pastor
Spring Street church. Milwaukee, Wis.. 1871-70; Professor
of Philosophy in Powdoin College 1879-til : lecturer on
Church Polity in Andover Theological Seminary 1879-81 ;
special lecturer on Systematic Theology in the graduate de-
partment of .\iidover Theological Seminary 1883 ; lecturer in
Harvard Divinity School 1883 ; special lecturer on Philoso-
phy at the Dosliisha. Kioto. .Tapan, before tlie students of
the university at Xokio, and at tlie Suiiiraer School. Ilakoiie,
Japan, 1892 ;'president of the American Psychological Asso-
ciation 1893. His principal works are Principles of Church
Polity (Xew York. 1881) ; Doctrine of Sacred. Scripture (2
vols., Xew York and FIdinburgh, 1883) ; Elements of Phijsio-
logieul Psi/chology (Xew York and London. 1887) ; transla-
tions of Lot7.c's Philosophical Outlines (6 vols., Poston,
1884-87) ; VV7ia/ is the Bible ? (Xew York and London,
1888); Introduction to Philosophy (Xew York and London,
1890); Outlines of PhysinUxjteal Psychology (Xew York
and Ijondon. 1891) ; Psychology, Descriptive and Explana-
tory (Xew York and London, 1894) ; also numerous articles
in periodicals. J. Mark Baldwin.
Ladi'no8 [Sp., crafty or cunning, plur. < Lat. Lati nus,
i. e. of Laliuin. Latin]: a name used in Spanish America,
sometimes for persons of mixed European and Indian blood,
sometimes for all inhabitants who are not oure Indian. In
the census of 1891 of Guatemala it is useil to mean Euro-
peans, Creoles, Xegroes, Chinese, mulattoes, zainbos. mesti-
zoes, etc. M. W. II.
Ladins': a people of Rheto-Roman descent, speaking a
Romance dialect; found now only in Eastern Tyrol (Ladin
roper) and in the Grisons of Switzerland (Ilomauche). The
anguage is steadily going out of favor, being generally re-
placed by Italian. ' M. W.'H.
La'dislas, or Lanrelot : King of Naples, surnamed The
LiiiERAL and The Victorious ; b. about 137.') ; succeeded
his father, Charles III., under the regency of his mother
Margaret in 1387: was driven from Xaples in July. 1:J87,
by his competitor, Louis II. of .Xiijou, whom Pope ('lenient
Vn. (of Avigncm) hail invested with the crown ; was rein-
stated by Otto of Brunswick the same year; repulsed two
inya.sion.s made by Pope Urban VI. in 1388 ; was crowned
at Gaeta May 29, 1390, by a legate of the new pope, Boni-
face IS.. ; maintained a war for several years in tlie heart of
his kingdom again.st his rival. Louis II., who was in posses-
sion of the capital ; recovered that city July 9. 1399 ; was a
candidate for the throne of Hungary, and actually crowned
Aug. .5. 1403. but soon withdrew his claims; altcin|itcd to
seize Home in Aug.. 140.-i; was exconimuuicated and de-
prived of his kingdom by the pope June 18, 1406; entered
Home in 1408, retiring in a few months ; after a long series
of alternations of fortune again to<ik by sur^)rise and plun-
dered that city June 8, 14l:J, and ilied at Naples, Aug. 16,
la
1414. He %va.s perhaps the earliest nuHlem Italian ruler who
conceived the project of the unity of Italy; was also a
claimaii* of the throne of Provence and a candidate for the
imperial crown of (iermany.
Ladislas I. (Loktek): King of Poland ; b. in 1260; suc-
ceeded to the duke<lom of Poland in 1296; was de|iosed in
1300. and in that year attended the jubilee at Home; was
restored in 1304 ; carried on a h>ng war wilh the Teutonic
Knights; assumed the title of King of Poland in 1319 by
consent of Pope John X.XII. ; defeated the Teutonic Knights
at Plowee Se|it. 27. 1321. H. at Cracow, Mar. 10, 13;i3.
Ladislas IL: King of Poland. See Jagelloss.
Ladislas III. : King of Poland. See Ladislas V., King
of Hungary.
Ladislas IV.: King of Poland; b. at Cracow, Mav 30,
l.-)!l,^; succeiikil his father. Sigismund 111., Xov. 13, 1632;
irim|ielled the Hnssians to raise the siege of Smolensk
(1632); defeated the Turks in Moldavia (16:M). and the
Tartars of the Crimea; made a tru<e for twenty-six years
with Sweden (1635); began a war wilh the Cossacks (1637):
married a daughter of tlie German emperor Ferdinand
(1637). I>. in Lithuania. May 10. 1648. He was an able
and energetic prince, from the female line of the Jagellons,
and esteemed so valorous that in his early youth a party
among the Russians wished to make him czar.
Ladislas. or Ladislnns: the name of seven Kings of
Hungary: Ladislas I.. TiiK Saint, called also Lancelot, b.
about 1041; succeeded his brother, (ieysa I., in 1077; \vas
victorious over the Wallachian.s, Bohemians. Russians, Cu-
man's, and Poles; conquered Croatia and Palmalia (1087)
for the crown of Hungary; promulgated a new code of
laws at the Diet of Zablon (1092) : stimulated eoniinerce;
aided BoKslas II. in obtaining the throne of Poland; pro-
jected tlie delivery of the Holy Land from the Moslems;
erected many churches and monasteries, and favored the
clergy in their etTorts to civilize the Hungarians. D.July
29, 1095. He was canonized by Pope Celestine III. in 1192.
— Ladislas II., b. about 1134; crowned July 15. 1161, and
died Jan. 14, 1162.— Ladislas 111., b. abo'ut 1185; waj*
elected in 1204 to succeed his father. Emerlcli.but ilied May
7. 1205. — Ladislas IV.. surnaincd The Ciman, b. about
12.50: succeeded liis father. Stephen IV.. In 1272; made war
U|>(m and at first defeated the Cumans (1282). but the latter,
re-enforced by vast hordes of Xogiii Tartars or Mongols
from the [ilains X. E. of the Black Sea (the empire of
Kiptchak). overran and ravaged all Hungary (1285). He
then made terms with the Cumans. adopted some of their
customs, repudiated his wife, and married one of their prin-
cesses, whence his surname, but was finally a.ssasslnated by
them July 19. 1290.— Ladislas V. (III. of" Poland), b. Oct.
31, 1424'; succeeded his father, Ladislas II. (Jagellon), as
King of Poland in 1434; was elected King of lluiigary in
144() by tlic Influence of the famous John Hiiniades. vaivode
of Transylvania, by whose ai<l he defeated the invading
Turks in two great battles (1442-43); made a ten years'
truce witli the Sullaii Amuratli II. at Szegedin In June,
1444. ac(|iilring thereby the sovereignty of Wallachla. but at
the instigation of Ciirdinal Julian obtained a ))apal dispen-
sation from his oath, and Invaded Bulgaria, where he was
defeated and killed in liattle, with a great part of the Po-
lish nobility, at Varna, Xov. 10, 1444. — Ladislas VI., The
PoSTHUMOL's. son of Albert of Austria. Emperor of Ger-
many and King of Bohemia and Hungary; b. Feb. 22,
1440. several niontlis afti'r his father's deatli, when Ladis-
las V. had ah'eady been ]ilaced upon the throne ; was elected
king in 1445; .'issuiiied the goverunu-nl In 1151 ; was crowned
King of Bohemia Oct. 28. 1453. and died at Prague Xov.
23. 1457. He was cowardly and cruel, and persecuted the
followers of John Huss. — Ladislas VII., eldest son of Casi-
mir IV. of Poland ; b. about 1456 ; was designated as his
successor by George Podlebrad. King of Bohemia. July 19,
1469; crowiied at Prague .\ug. 16, 1471; entered Hungary
wilh an army on the death of Mathias Corvinus in 1490;
was iiroclalmed king ami crowned .Sepl. 21; fought against
the Turks, ami. repulsed the army of Bajazet in i.5t)l ; made
peace at Buda .\ug. 20. 1.503 : pi^rmitted the |U-oclaination
of a crusade against the Turks in 1514, and died at Buda
Mar. 13, 1516.
Ladinirniilt. htji me'e'ro . Loiis Rene Pai'L, de: general
and Miialor; b. al Moutinorillon, \'ieiine, France, Feb. 17.
1808. He was educated at St.-Cyr, and passed a large ]ior-
tion of his career in Africa. As a general of division he
LADOGA
I.A FAKIN'A
53
took a decisive part in the canipaiKn of 1859 at the battles
(if Marignan and Sulferino, being wounded at tlie latter.
He became senator in ISfiti; distinguished himself in the
war with Germany (1870-71): commanded tiie Fourth Corps
and tool< an important part in tlie battles of Horny, Mars-
la-Tour, and Gravelotte; on the capitulation of Metz l)e-
came a prisoner of war; after tlie conclusion of peace re-
ceived, in recognition of his lirilliant services and his vic-
tory over the t'oiumunists, the command of the territorial
division of Paris, and was appointed governor of the capi-
tal. Wlien in 187:i the arrangement of territorial divi-
sions was abolished, Ladmirault retained his position of
inilitai'v governor of Paris, and served until 1878. In 1876
he was" elected to the .Senate, and acted as vice-president
of that body several tinu'S. In the elections of 1891 he
was not a candidate, lie is a grand cross of the Legion of
Honor.
Ladog'a, laa'do-gali : the largest lake of Europe, com-
prising an area of 6.80-1 sq. miles; situated in Kussia. be-
tween the governments of ^ iborg, Petersburg, and Olonetz.
It receives the water from the lakes of Onega, Saima, and
Ilnien. and sends it through the Neva to the JBaltic. On
account of shallows, sand-l)anks, and sunken rocks, naviga-
tion is very dangerous, and caiuils have been constructed
connecting" the Neva witli those rivers which flow into the
lake, thereby establisliing a water communication through
the Volga between the Baltic and the Caspian Sea.
Ladrones, laa-dronz', or Marianne (maa-re'e-a~!in ) Isl-
ands: a group of fifteen islands in the Pacific Ocean, be-
longing to .Spain ; situated between 13" and 21° N. lat., and
between 144' and 146' E. Ion. They are of volcanic origin,
have a warm, healthful climate, and comprise an area of
417 sq. miles of fertile land. Only four, including Guam
and Rota, are inhatiited. They were first discovered by
Magellan in l.i"21. and called Las Islas de los Ladrones
(the thieves' islands) on account of a strong propensity to
theft observed in the natives. In 1667 the Spaniards es-
tablished a regular settlement on Guam, and called the isl-
ands Marianne islands, after Queen Maria Anna. At the
time of this settlement the islands had from 40,000 to 60,-
000 inhabitants, who received the settlers well, and made
great progress until the Spaniards began to attack their
independence, when a war broke out which ended nearly
with the extermination of the natives. The present num-
ber of inhabitants is not more than 10,000. and of these
manv have been transferred l)y the Spaniards from Luzon.
Principal town, San Ignazio de Agaua, situated on Guam
island.
Ladybird [ : lady, meaning Our Lady, i. e. the Virgin
Mary, + bird; cf. Germ. Mnrienkafer, liter., Mary-beetle] : a
common name for coleopterous insects of the family Coccinel-
lidie, of which there are more than 1,000 species and many
genera. They are extremely useful to farmers, destroying
vast numbers of ajiliides or plant-lice ; but are objects of
numy superstitions, and are by many viewed with a vague
and unreasonable dread. They are usually of an elongated
hemispherical shape, frequently have bright colors, and are
often spotted. The species are difficult to distinguish.
Lady-chapel : in English ecclesiastical architecture, a
chapel forming part of a cathedral or eollegijite church, and
dedicated to the Virgin Mary. A lady-chapel is attached to
nearly every English cathedral, though occasionally want-
ing, as at Lincoln, York, and Peterborough. It is com-
monly at the extreme east end of the church, behind the
sanctuary, as at Salisbury, Wells, Lichfield, Winchester ; at
Canterbury it projects from the northwest transept : at Ely
it is an independent and very elegant structure, adjoining
the north transept. At Durham it is placed at the west
end. where it serves a double purpose, as Galilee-porch and
lady-chapel. On the Continent no importance seems to have
attached to the chapels of the Virgin, ecclesiastically or
architecturally. A. D. P. Hamlin.
Lady-crab : See Crab.
Lady Day : Mar. 25, the feast of the Annimciation of
the Virgin Mary. In Great Britain it is one of the quarter
days ujion which rent is usually payable.
Lady FrankHn Bay : the Arctic bay on which was lo-
cated the station ot the unfortunate polar expedition of the
U. S. Signal Service, 1881-S;5. It is between lats. 81' and
82' N., between Grinnell Land and Grant Land, and opens
into Kennedy Channel. M. W. II.
Lady in the Chair : See Cassiopeia.
Lady's Slipper : Sec Cvpru'edium.
Laennee. laa nek'. Hf.ni5 TnKonoRF. HvAciurnK : physi-
cian ; 1>. at Quiniper, Mrittany, France, Feb. 17. 1781 : studied
nu-dicinc in Paris IMOO; olitained the degree of M. D. in
1804; became principal physician at the Xeeker Hospital in
1816. and Professor of Alcdicine at the College de France in
1823. In 1824 he retired, through ill heahh. to his native
town, where he died Aug. 13, 1826. He was the inventor of
the Stkthosiope (rj. r.). Besides articles in different medi-
cal jourruds. he wmte Traiti de raii.scultation mediate et
des mahidies des pournim^ el dii eivur (1819).
Laer'tcs (in Gr. Aa4pnis): in Greek mythology, the King
of Ithaca, son of Acrisius and Chalconiedusa. He joined in
the Calydonian boar-hunt, and was a member of the Argo-
nautie expe<lition. By Anticlea he begat Ulysses (Odysseus),
during whose long absence from Ithaca he remained in re-
tirement in the country, forced to see the unseemly orgies
of the suitors of Penelope. On the return of Ulysses and
the muriler of the suitors, he took up his abode in the palace,
was rejuvenated by Athene, and fought against the people
of Ithaca, who stormed the palace to avenge the death of
their kinsmen, the suitors. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Laestryg'ones (in Gr. AaurTpuy6vfs) : a giant race of can-
nibals and pirates (Homer's Odyssey, x.. 80 ff.) that lived in
the far west, where the nights were so short that " herds-
man hails herdsman as he drives in his flock, and the other
who drives forth ans%vers the call," a myth in which there
is probably a hint at the short, bright nights of the far
north. Homer himself does not locate them, but the later
Greeks claimed Leontini in Sicily as their home, wdiile the
Romans placed their abode at Formi* in Latium. Ancient
art lias not portrayed them, and four frescoes found in 1848
on the Esquiline Hill are the only iiictorial representation
we have of them. See Wocrmann. Die Odyssee-Landschaf-
ten mill Esqiiilht: Harrison. J/p////« o///ie Ud yssey (London,
1882, [ip. 45 If.); and Maanga, La Citid di Lamo.
J. R. S. Sterrett.
Laet, laat, JoHAXNES, de (Fr. .Jean de Laet) : Flemish
author ; b. at Antwerp about 1595. In 1633 he was a direc-
tor ot the West India Company, but bevond this little is
known of his life. In 1626 he published lie Niemre Wereld
of Beschrijving van West-Indien (The New World, or a De-
scription of the West Indies),' enlarged in 1630, and which
has had many editions in various languages; it is one of the
most valuable of the early books on America. Laet also
wrote several of the miniature series of the Republics, is-
sued by the Elzevirs; edited Piso's Historia naturalis Bra-
silitp, the natural history of Pliny, etc., and published two
controversial works against Grotius's theory of the origin of
the American Indians. D. at Antwerp in 1649.
Herbert H. .Smith.
La'ta're Sunday. Mid-Lent, or Dominica de Rosa ; the
fourtli Sunday in Lent, the day on which the pope blesses
the Golden Rose (</. v.). Lwiare. rejoice, is the first word
of the introit in the missal for this day (Isa. Ixvi. 10). On
this day only is the organ played during Lent in Roman
Catholic churches.
Lae'vius: a Latin poet of the first half of the first cen-
tury before Christ, of whose life nothing is known. He ex-
perimented with a great variety of (ireek lyric meters, treat-
ing amatory and mythological subjects in a light and
sportive vein. Of his Erotupagnia there were at least six
books, of which only inconsiderable fragments remain. See
pp. 287-293 of Baehrens's Fray. Puetarum Romanorum
(Leipzig, 1886). M. Warren.
La Farge. John : figure and landscape painter ; b. in New
York. j\laf. 31, 1835. He was a pupil of Couture in Paris,
and of William JI. Hunt; became a National Academician
1869 ; member of the Society of American Artists 1877, and
of American Water-color Society ; was awarded a first-class
medal for stained-glass work at the Paris Exposition of 1889,
and receiveti the decoration of the I^egion of Honor. He
has executed decorative paintings in Trinity church. Bos-
ton, vSt. Thomas's church, and the Church of the Ascen-
sion. New York, and has designed and liad executed under
his supervision numerous stained-glass windows, including
the battle window in MemoritU Hall, at Harvard College,
llis pictures are notable for fine qualities of color. Studio
in New York. William A. Coffin.
La Farina, laa-fak-ree'naa, Gh'seppe; historical writer;
b. at Messina. Sicily, in 181.5. At the age of eleven he com-
posed a hymn to Italy which excited great admiration. In
54
LAFAYETTE
LAFAYETTE COLLEGE
1837, after an inefteotual attempt to iletach Sieily from the
(loriiiniun of llie Bourbons liy heaiiing a popular iiiswrree-
tion, he fled to Tuseany. Tlie following year lie was am-
nestied and returned to Sicily, liut after alK>ut three years
he was oiiee more foreed to retire to Tuscany. Here for
several years he occupie<l himself with literary pursuits and
in etTorts to promote Italian independence. The revolu-
tion of 1848 took hira back to Sicily: he was elected deputy
to the Sicilian Parliament, then appointed commissioner to
the courts of Turin, Florence, and Konie, and in August of
the same year he became Minister of War and of the Jla-
rines. In the spring of 184!) he took coniniunil of the Uni-
versity Legion against the Hourbons, and when the liberal
cause was lost he escajied to Paris, where he continued in
relations with Daniel Manin and other patriots till 18133.
After a few months' stay at Tours he established himself at
Turin in 1854. Here he made great etTorts to strengthen
the political party in favor of a united constitutional mon-
archy under the house of Savoy. He co-operated with
Cavour in the war of 185!t. and with (iaribaldi in organiz-
ing the volunteers. In 1860 he was elected deputy to the
Italian Parliament from six districts. I), in 1863. Among
the many historical works of La Farina La Storia d'ltalia
may be specially recommended for its warmth and patriotic
eloquence. Two volumes, L'Epistolarii) di Giuseppe La
Farina, were [niblished at Milan in 186!).
Lafayette : town ; capital of Chambers oo., Ala. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Alabama, ref. 4-E) ; on the
East Ala. Kailwiiy: 18 miles X. of Opclika. 84 miles X. E.
of Montgomery. It is the seat of Lafayette College, which
ha-s 6 instructors, over 200 stuilents, and grounds and build-
ings valued at ^12.000; is an important cotton-market, and
has a large general trade and two weekly newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 1,061 ; (18!)0) 1,36!),
Lafayette : city ; capital of Tippecanoe co., Ind. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Indiana, ref. .i-C) ; on the
Wabash river, tlie Wabash and P^rie Canal, and the CTeve,,
('in., Chi. and Si. L.. the Lake Erie and W., the Louis., X.
Albany and Chi., and the Wabash railways; 63 miles
X. W. of Inilianapolis, 180 miles .S. S. E. of Chicago. It
has a belt line of railway connecting its factories with the
main railways; receives natural gas from wells in Tipton
County, and has improved water-works, electric lights, elec-
tric street-railway, and paid fire department, with fire-alarm
telegraph. There are i~> churches. 9 public schools, public
library (opened 1888, cost |.")0,000, contains 20.000 volumes),
1 savings and 4 national banks, anri 3 daily, 8 weekly, and
4 monthly jjeriodicals. The city is the scat of Purdue L^ni-
versity, organized in 1873, which in 18!)2 had 7 depart-
ments, 622 students, 120 acres of land, 8 buildings, agricul-
tural experiment farm, ^1,800,000 in endowment and an-
nuities, electrical laboratorv (cost *40.0()0), 2 engineering
laboratories (cost .|120.0()0), and 6.000 volumes in its library.
Xear the city is the battle-ground where (icn. Harrison de-
feated the Indians under Tecumseh in 1811. The city orig-
inally derived its chief importance from being the head of
navigation on the Wabash river, and then received an im-
petus which has sustained its growth since the abandon-
ment of the upper Wabash as a channel of commerce. Pop.
(1880) 14,860; (1800) 16,243. Enrrou of ".Iour.nal."
Lafayette : town ; capital of Lafayette parish. La. (for
location of parish, sec map of Louisiaiia, ref. lO-D); on the
Vermilion liayou, and the S. Pac. Hallway ; 60 miles S. W.
of Baton Houge. It is the seat of Mt. "Cannel Convent,
which has 10 instructors, over 150 stiulents, and grounds
and buildings valued at $1.5,000. The town is in a cotton-
growing region, and has a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880)
Sla; (18!)0) 2,106.
La Fayette, Marie Madeleine PiornE de la Vergne,
Comtessc de : novelist; b. at Le Havre, Prance, in 1634.
She received the best possible education, having among her
teachers Menage, Iluet, and Segrais, and frequented the
swiety of the Hotel de Hambouillet. After her marriage
■with the Count of La Fayette (1655) she resiiled mainly in
Paris. After 1665 a very strong attachment grew up be-
tween her and La Kochefoucauld, lasting till his death. I),
in 1603. Her literary fame rests on her short stories, il/o-
demoiselle de Mnntpr-nsier (1662) and La Cuintesi'e de
Tende (about 1G80), anil her novels, Zayde (1670), publisheil
under the name of Segrais, and La Princesse de Cli'vi:i
(1678), her masterpiece. These stdHes seek their interest in
the study of pa.s.sions and the analysis of conduct, and their
brevity, directness, and simplicity are in great contrast to
the long and involved novels of the time. She wrote also
some memoirs: llintoire de Madame llenriette d'Aiiyle-
terre ami Jlemuires de la C'oiir de France, pour les annees
IIIOS et liJi>:t. Cf. La Priticense de C/eres, precedee d'line
etude par M. de Lescure (Paris.i 1881) ; d llaussonville,
Madame de La Fayette (Paris, 1801). A. G. Cakfielu.
La Fayette, Marie Pail Jean Rocii Y'ves Gilbert
MoTiEK. .Man)iiisde: soldier: li. at the Chat eau-Chavagnac,
.\uvergne, France, Sept. 6, 1757, of an ancient family. His
father was killed at Jlindeu, and on his mother's death in
1770 he fell heir to large estates ; married in 1774 a grand-
daughter of the Due de Noailles: entered the guards, and
while a captain of dragoons in 1776 determined to join the
Revolutionists in Xoith America: fitted out a yacht at his
own expense, and landed Apr. 24. 1777, near (ieorgetown,
S. C. ; served as major-general 1777-83 without pay, fur-
nishing also clothing and camji eipiipage at his own exjiense
to the needy patriots; was wounded at Brandywine, and
fought with ^reat honor at Monmouth ; was in France
1779-80, where he induced the king to send Rochainbeau
to Xortli America: conducted the campaign in Virginia,
which ended ,so brilliantly in the siege and capture of Vork-
town ; and then returned to France; visited the U. S. again
in 1784; exerted himself to procure the uljolition of slavery
in the French colonies, and freed and educated his own
slaves at Cayenne ; was in the Assembly of Xotables, Paris,
1787; demanded the convocation of the States General, to
which he was a deputy, 1789 ; became vice-president of the
Xational Assembly, comniandant of Paris, and chief com-
mander of the national guards, which he organized, 1789;
founded the Club des Feuillants 1790; protected the king
and queen from the mob of Oct. 5 jind 6 ; commanded suc-
cessfully the army of Flanders 1792; denounced the Jaco-
bins, from whom he escaped to Flanders, but was impris-
oned for five years by the Austrians at Clmiitz ; was liber-
ated by Xapoleon, and returned to France in 1799, but
would never become a partisan of Xapoleon ; lived princi-
pally upon his estate of La Grange: was in the French
House of Representatives 1815; in the Chamber of Dejiuties
1818; visited the U. S. in 1824-25, and received a grant of
$200,000 and a township of land ; was chosen to the Cham-
ber of Deputies 1827; took part in the revolution of 1830,
and commanded the national guard, but not in pei-son.
La Fayette died in Paris, Jlay 20, 1834. In France lie was
an ardent and consistent democrat, but he was ready to
sacrifice his own preferences for the advantage of the pub-
lic. Even his enemies admitted his iierfect honesty, cour-
age, and ability. — llis son, Gkokiiks WAsiii.N(iToN La Fay-
ette (1779-1849), and his grandsiuis, Oscar (b. 1810) and
EdmoM) (b. 1818), have figured in French jiolitics as re-
publicans.
Lafayette CoUege: an institution of learning at Easton,
Pa.; cbaitered ill 1826, and opeiu'd in 1832. Its )ilan was
very liberal for that date, and embraced, besides the orilinary
college studies, modern languages, military science and
tactics, and civil and military engineering. The first presi-
dent was Rev. George .hiiikin, D. H.. LL. 1)., who remained
at its head, with a'bricf interval (1S41-44|, till 1848. 'I'he
college sutTcred very nuicli from lack of funds in the early
vears of the civil wiir. liut under the jiresidencv of Rev.
\Villiam C. CiittcU. D. D., LL. D. (186;i-83), it began a career
of remarkable growth. Recognizing the favorable situa-
tion for technical studies. Ario Pardee gave large sums of
money for the development of the engineering and chemical
branches, founding Ine Pardee School of Science in 1866,
and as president of the lioard of trustees (1881-92) prosecut-
ing the work. I'liderlhe ]iiesideiKy of Elhelbert D. War-
field, LL. I). (1891), there are now seven cour.ses — classical ;
Latin and general; scientific; civil, mining, and electrical
engineering: and chemical — leading to corresponding de-
grees. The faculty consists of 17 professors and 12 instruc-
tors. There are (]8!)4) 310 students on the rolls. The
buildings are 27 in number, beautifully located upon a
campus containing about 40 acres, overlooking the con-
lluence of the Delaware aiul Lehigh rivers. In addition
to the original college liuildiiig. South College, are Pardee
Hall, the main scientific buililing, I'heniical laboratorv, ob-
servatory, gymnasium, inlirmary, dormilories, etc. There
are fine athletic {a-ounds and other adjuncts of a comi>lete
modern college. The college is under the general direction
of the Presbyterian Church, through a self-iJerpeluating
board of trustees, chiefly' composed of alumni. The college
property, at a conservative valuation, amounts to $1,000,000,
LAFAYETTE FORMATION
LAFONTAINE
55
including liuiUlings, the fine scientific crinipmeiit, lilirarics,
an<l interest-liearing funds. Ethelbert 1). Wakfield.
Lafayette Formation : in geology, a formafion deriving
its name from Lafayette ec, Sliss., wliere it is typically ex-
posed ; originally known as the Orange sands in the lower
Mississippi valley and the Appomattox formation in the
Sliddlo Atlantic coast. It appears at the surface as a nar-
row belt on the Atlantic coastal plain, extending from Hiilti-
nuire, Md., southward through Virginia and tiie Carolinas,
and tlu'uce broadening westward to tlie lower Mississippi
valley, and ap|iears again in Texas. Its area is by estnnate
200.()l)() scj. miles. The formation is composed principally of
well-rounded quartzitic pebbles imbedded in orange-tinted
loam. The rocks are not solidified, are of but sliglit econo-
mic importance, and, so far as known, contain no fossils.
The formation varies in thickness up to al.iout 100 feet, and
overlaps terranes containing well-characterized Miocene fos-
sils. It is considered the youngest member of the Neocene.
Resting on tlie eroded surface of the Lafayette are Colum-
bian and other Pleistocene deposits. Consult Three Fonna-
lions of the Middle Atlantic Slope, by W. J. McGee in
American Journal of Science, ser. 3, vol. xxxv. (1888). and
The Lafayette Format ion. by the same author^in Twelfth
Annual Iiej)ort of the United States Oeological Survey
(18itO-91). Israel C. Russell.
LafHtte, laa'feef, Jacques: statesman; b. at Bayonne,
Prance, Oct. 24, 1767; son of a poor carpenter; went in
1787 to Paris ; became inl788 a bookkeeper in tlie banking-
house of Perregaux ; was soon admitted to the firm ; became
a regent of the Bank of France 1809, and in 1814 its gov-
ernor; was in the Chamber of Deputies 1816-17; acquired
great reputation by his patriotic management of the public
finances ; became banker to Napoleon and Louis XVIII. ;
was widely beloved for his generosity, honesty, and constant
devotion to the cause of good government, his own ]irefer-
ences being democratic ; supported the revolution of 1830 ;
was Minister of Finance 1830-31. D. in Paris, May 26, 1844.
Lafltaii, lalife'e'to', Joseph FRAN901S: Jesuit missionary
and author ; b. at Bordeaux, France, in 1670. In 1712 he
was sent to Canada, where he was stationed at the Iroquois
mission of Sault St. Louis, making considerable excursions
and becoming intimately acquainted with Indian character
and customs. Returning to France in 1717, he published
in 1724 his Mieurs des Sauvages Ameriguains, which passed
through several editions. In it he argues for the Asiatic
origin of the American race. Parkman and others regard
tills as the best of the early works on the Indians. Lafttau
also wrote Histoire des Decouvertes et des Conguetes des
Portugais dans le Nouveau-Monde (2 vols., 1733). and a me-
moir on ginseng, which he believed he had discovered in
Canada. D. at Bordeaux, July 3, 1746. H. H. S.mith.
Lafltte, Jean : long popularly known as The Pirate of
the Gulf; h. in France about 1780. Of his early life little
is known ; but he was attracted to the Gulf of Mexico soon
after the cession of the territory of Louisiana by France to
the U. S. in 1808. He first came into conspicuous notice as
the head of a band of adventurers or privateers on the island
of Grande Terre, about 35 miles W. of the mouth of the
Mississippi. At first he sailed as a privateer under the
French flag ; but at a later period he took advantage of his
oppurlunities, and captured whatever vessels came in his
way, without regard to nationality. His cargoes were sold
openly at Harataiia, and thither the people of Louisiana re-
sorted for profitable |iurchases. He successfully evailed an
expedition sent against him in 1814, under Commodore I'at-
terson. In September of the same year he was offered in-
ducements to enter the service of Great Britain. Lafitte,
however, sent the letters to the Governor of Louisiana, with
the assurance that he would enter the service of the U. S. in
case of pardon for past offenses. After some hesitation
these terms were accepted. He not only was ciuployed to
occupy and defend tlie passes of Barataria Bay, but he
fought with his men under Gen. Jackson in the battle of
New Orleans, on Jan. 8. 1815. Though he was formally par-
doned by President Madison in a proclamation issued teb.
<>, 1815. there are some reasons for thinking that he re-
turned to his former life, with headquarters on Galveston
island. He is believed to have perished at sea in 1817, but
details in regard to his death are entirely wanting. He was
handsome in person and had boundless influence over his
men. See Latour, War in Louisiana; Guyariv, Ijouisiayia;
Parton, Life of Jackson; and De Bow's Review (vols. xii.
and xix.). " C. K. Adams.
Laflnmme, laa flalim , Toussaint Antoi.ve Rodolpue,
I). C. L. : jurist; b. in Montreal, Canada, May 15, 1827; was
educated at St. Sulpice College, and admitted to the bar in
1849. He became one of the editors of L'Avenir; in 1867
was elected president of the Institnt Canadien, Montreal ;
has been Professor of the Law of Real Property in McGill
University; declined a jiuisne judgeship in the Supreme
Court in 1875. He was Minister cjf Inland Kevenue in 1876;
Minister of Justice 1877-78. and rei)resented Jacques Cartier
County in Parliament 1872-78. Neil Maldoxald.
La Fleche, laa-flesh' : town: in the department of Sarthe,
France, on the left bank of the Loire; has manufactures of
paper and leather, and a brisk trade in grain, wine, wax,
cattle, and fowls (see map of France, ref. 4-1)). The pal-
ace, which was built by Henri IV., and which for some time
belonged to the Jesuits, who here liad a celebrated school, is
now used for a school of artillerv. It contains a picture
gallery and a library of 20,000 vols. Pop. (1891) 10,249.
La Fontaine. laa-foiVtnn', Jean, de : poet and fabulist ;
b. at Chateau-Thierry, Champagne, France, July 8, 1621.
His family, though not noble, was of good standing, and his
father held the office of ma'itre des eanx ef forets. In 1641
he began the study of theology, but abandoned it eighteen
months later. The dreamy temperament and the utter
indifference to responsibility that marked his whole life
showed themselves from the first, and he began to live freely
and carelessly to his own pleasure, which he found partly iii
literature. Neither office, which liis father gave u|i to him in
1643, nor marriage, which his father arranged for him in
1647, changed his irregular and improvident mode of life.
His literary beginnings were slow. A poetical adaptation
of the EunucJtus of Terence (1654) had and deserved little
success. In 1658 he composed a narrative poem, Adonis,
and dedicated it to Fouquet. Presentetl to that minister by
a relative, he was received into his household. Thereafter
he continued to live on the bounty of patrons, who provided
for him somewhat as for a child. On the disgrace of Fou-
quet, to whom he remained frankly loyal, the Duchess of
Bouillon (1662), the Duchess of Orleans (1667), Mme. de la
Sabliere (1671), and Mme. d'Hervart (1693) became in turn
his protectors. To please the Duchess of Bouillon he began
to write his Confes et nouvelles en vers, the first two collec-
tions of which appeared in 1665 and 1066. These revealed
his special talent for story-telling and made his reputation,
and he continued to add to them during the rest of his life.
They were short tales in verse which recall U\e fabliaux of
the Middle Ages, the Decameron of Boccaccio, and the Ilep-
tameron of Marguerite of Navarre, from which sources his
matter is in part borrowed. They are frankly licentious,
one series having been forbidden by the censor (1675). Imt
are told with a graceful and nimble art. The first collec-
tion of the fables, containing those that now form the first
six books, appeared in 1668, dedicated to the dauphin. In
these he does not widely depart from tlie manner of ^Esop
and Phajdrus, from whom the subjects of more than 100 of
the 122 are taken. In the second collection (1678), com|)ris-
ing five books, and the third, making a twelfth book (1694),
he drew his materials more largely from the fables of Bid-
pai, from Abstemius, from miscellaneous sources, and from
his own invention, and especially treated liis materials more
freely, giving wider scope to his observation and fancy. He
was admitted to the Academy in 1684. I). Apr. 13', 1695.
Although he produced much in many fields, as the plavs
Ch/mene (1660) and Galatee (1682), the dramatic satire ie
Florentin (1685), the opera.* Daphne (1679) and Astrev
(1691), occasional poems, as Kleyie au.c Sym^hes de Wtux
(IG6\), La (^uinijuina (1682). ami Disrours a JIme. de la
Saliliere (1684). and, lietler remembered, the story in jirose
and verse Les Amours de Psyche (1669), he is read and
prized pre-eminently sis a fabulist. In his fables human
nature and cc^nduet are observed with power and portrayed
with great naluralness, simplicity, grace, spirit, and variety.
A sujiple and alert vei-sifieation adds to their effect. La
Fontaine is easily the master of modern times in this field.
The liest editions of his works are those of Walckenaer (6
vols., 1822-23): Marty-LaTeaux (4 vols.. 1857-60) ; Jloland
(7 Vols., 1872) ; and Regnier (iSdition des Grands Ecrivains),
11 vols., 1883-93). Cf. Saint-Marc Girardin, //« Fontaine
et les Fabulistes (Paris, 1867); H. Taiiie, La Fontaine et
ses fables (Paris. 7th ed. 1879). A. G. Caxfield.
Lafontaine. Sir Loris Hippolyte : statesman; b. at
Boucherville, Lower Canada, in Oct., 1807 ; became a promi-
nent advocate and politician. He was accused in 1837 of
56
LA FOUKCUfc;
LA GRANGE
sviiipathy with the insurj;ciits, a reward was offered for him,
and he csca|>i-d lo Kurupe, but was recalli-d, ami became
I'romier of Canada fur some time, resipdng Ids ollice in
I80I. Ill IfSJ-i lie became chief justice of the (jueen's bench,
a baronet in \6o4, and dieil in Montival, Feb. 2(j, lt<ti4.
La FoiirclH', laa-foorsh : a bayou in Southeaslein I^ouisi-
ana, an outlet of ihe Mississinpi, which begins at Doiialdson-
ville on the risjlit bank, ami flows S. K. tliiougli the parish of
La Ki>urehe Interior lo the Gulf of Mexico, with a total
lensjth of loO nnles. It is navigable by stcainbnats for
about 100 miles from its mouth, aud is one of the principal
channels of communication between the Gulf and the in-
terior. Great crops of sugar and cotton are raised in the
region through which this bayou Hows.
Lnfiionte. laa fw(7n td. Modksto: critic and historian; b.
at Habanel de los Caballeros, Valencia. S]iain. May 1, 1806.
He studied iihilosnphy and theology at Leon and the L'ni-
versity of Santiago de Conipostela. and in 1830 became Pro-
fessor of Rhetoric, subsecpieiitly of Philosophy, at Aslorga.
In 1838 he removed to Madrid, and became a journalist and
critic. Unilcr the names Fray (lerundio and Tirdheqne he
published in periodical form various series of critical an<l
satirical essjiys — Coleccion de Capi/lodas 1/ Dixcipl inmox (Id
vols.); Vinje por Fiaiicia, Belgiea ij Alemtniia (3 vols.);
Viaje aern-ildtico; Tediro social del sii/lo XIX. (2 vols.);
Jiefisia Europea (4 vols., 1844-.')0). His chief work was
llistnria general de Espaila, begun in 18,i0 and completed
in 1863 (3d ed. 26 vols., 1874). D. Oct. 35, 1866.
A. R. Marsh.
La^ardo, Pai-l Anton, dc: textual critic: b. in Berlin,
Prussia. Nov. 2,1827; studied in Berlin and Halle: returneil
as teacher to Berlin in 1854. and in 1860 was made Professor
of Oriental Languages in (iiiltingen and there dieil Dec. 22,
1801. He published Analectn Syriiiea[\A'\\)Z\^. 1S58) ; Titi
Bostreni qnie servata SH)i^ (18.50) ; Cunsliliilii»ies iiposlohrum
^r(pce (1862); Clement ina(\'>iii^); and many similar works of
interest and importance, including elaborate preparations
for a critical edition of the Septuagint. A complete list
down to 1800 will be found in vol. iv. of the Scliaff-IIerzng
£nei/clopiedia. His library is now the property of the Uni-
versity of the City of New York.
La Gnscii, Peuro, de : See Gasca.
Lager Beer: See Beer.
Lagoa dos Patos, Uia-giJali-dos-paa'tos : the largest lake
in Brazil ; in the eastern part of the state of Rio Grande do
Sul; length from N. E. to S. W. 144 miles; greatest
breadth, 41 miles. It is parallel to the Atlantic coast, from
which it is separated only by a narrow region of sand-
dunes and swamjis. At its southern end it narrows east-
ward to a channel called the Rio (irande do Sul, about 50
miles long, but only river-like for about 20 miles above its
mouth. The lake itself is mostly shallow, but there is a
navigable channel for deep-draught vessels. At its north-
ern end it receives the river Jacuiiy {g. v.), or Guahyba. The
Lagoa Miri, to the S. \V., and partly in Uruguay,' is about
half as large as the; Lagoa dos Patos. into which it empties
by a navigable channel, the Rio Siio Goncalo, about 45 miles
long. Both these lakes have eviilentlv been fornu'd by the
cutting oil from the ocean of an old imlentation of the coast.
At i>resent their only outlet is the Rio Grande, and even
this is obstructed by a shift ing bar. Tides are felt in the
lower part of the Lagoa dos Pato.s, but salt water rarelv en-
ters the lake proper. .See H. von Ihering in Deutxch. geogr.
Bldller (Uremen, 1885, p. 164, et seq.). Herbeut H. Sjinii.
Lagoa Miri : .See Laooa dos Patos.
Lago .Maggiore, laa gw-m.-iad-jora [Ital.. Greatest Lake;
L(i go < \,al. la run, lake + maggiore < Lat. m«/or. greater] :
the longest of the lakes of Xortiiern Italy; situated l)etwecn
Piedmont, Lombardy, and the Swiss canton of Tlciuo, and
traversed, or rather formed, by the river Ticino, which car-
ries its waters to the Po ; is ;iO miles in length, and varies
from half a mile to 5^ miles in breadth, and is remarkable
for the beauty of its scenery, wild, rugged granite mountains
altcriuiting with vineclad hills.
Lagonij'id* [Mod. Lat. ; liter., those belonging to the
hare-mouse tribe; Gr. Kaytis, hare 4- ^Cs, mouse -1- patro-
nymic ending -fSoi, plur. of -(Stij, descended from] : a family
of mammals of the ordc'r Ro|)i:ntia (q. i:); externallv n'-
scmbling a guinea-pig, and to some extent a rabbit, having a
squat body, with tiie hinder limbs not very greatly exceed-
ing the fore ones, the back arched, and the buttocks project-
ing backward; the head is deep, but the profile scarcely
arched backward: the eyes snudl, the snout hare-like, the
eare short, and llic tail alnui>l wanting. The skull is de-
pressed. The teeth have four upper and two lowei' incisors
characteristic of tlie Duplicidentati, and five molars in each
jaw, mostly provided with vertical gr(K)ves on the outer as
well as inner surface. The clavicles are wanting. This fam-
ily includes a few species combined in one genus {lAigomgx,
Cuv.), which was formerly as.-<ociated with the hares and rab-
bits in the same family : but the numerous differences bet ween
(he t wo groups have caused modern mammalogists to separate
them. The Lagoinyidn' are of smaller size than most
Lipiiridd'. the laige>t not exceeding the guinea-pig in size;
they inliabit cold numntain regions, and species are found
in Xortiiern Asia and Kaslern Europe, as well as tlie Hima-
laya Mountains ami the Rocky Mi^untains, the best known
among the latter being the little chief hare, Lagomyx prin-
cepa of Richardson. TuEouoRE Gill.
Lagoon' or Ellicp Islands: a group of Polvncsian coral
islamls. claimed bv the British. Thev lie between 5° 30'
and ir 20' S. lat. ."and 176 and 180 "E. Ion., between the
(iilbert and Fiji islands. They consist of nine islands and
several islrt groups, with a total population of about 2..500.
The principal island is Elliee, near the center of the group.
M. W. H.
Laaros. langos, or San J nan de los La^os: a city in the
northeastern part of the state of .Jalisco. Mexico: on the
Mexican Central Railroad; 120 miles E. N. E. of Guadala-
jara, and 205 nnles by the railway from Mexico; 6.1.5:5 feet
above the sea (see map of Jlexieo, ref. 6-F). It is celebrated
for its fairs held in December. In the vicinity there are
extensive deposits of iron ore and opal mines. Lagos was
founded about 1570. Pop. (1880) l;i,.5O0. II. 11. S.
La'gos: a British crown eolonv and protectorate, on the
Slave Coast, Gulf of (iuinea, West'Africa. Area (1801), 1,069
sq. miles: since enlarged (1..500 sq. miles) by small territories
secured by treaties with chiefs along the east frontier of
Dahomey (see map of Africa, ref. 5-C). Lagos was secured
by Great Britain (1861) for the special purpose of giving its
merchants facilities for the palm-oil trade. Until 1886 it
fornieil a deiiendeiicv of the Gold Coast. Poj). (1807) aliout
2.000.0(1(1. The city' of Lagos, at the moulli of the dguii
river, alfords tlie onlv natural harbor along 1.000 miles of
the coast. Pop. (1807) 32.500. The value "of the trade be-
tween Europe and Lagos is about 4'1,400,000 a year, though
most of the roa<ls and rivers to the interior are still kept
closed by the Mohammedans living inland. C. C. Ada.ms.
Lago'tis [Mod. Lat. ; Gr. hayds, hare + oBs, oiriij. ear], or
Lagid'ioil [ >lod. Lat. = (ir. XaylSwi'. diiiiin. of \ayiis. hare] :
tlie name of (wo s;iiall rodents, known as iiioiintaiii viscachas,
and related to the chinchillas. They are about the size of
rabbits, burrow among the rocks, and are found on the west-
ern slope of the Andes in Chili, Peru, and Ecuador.
F. A. L.
La firandt' : city ; T'nion co., Ore. (for location of county,
see map of Oregon, ref. 2-1); on the Union Pac. Railway;
.50 miles S. E. of Pendleton. It is in a rich mining, lumber-
ing, and agricultural region, in the western half of tlie Grande
Ronde valley, and slii]is large quantities of lumber, grain,
and live stock. It has water-works, electric lights, niachine-
shojis, and three weeklv newspapers. Pop. (1880) 836 ; (1890)
2,583 ; (1803) estimated, :1765. Editor of '• Gazette."
La Grange: city; capital of Troup co., Ga. (for loca-
ticm of county, see maji of Georgia, ref. 4-F) ; on the At-
lantic and West Point and the Ga., S. and Fla. railways;
71 miles S. \V. of Atlanta. It has 5 churches for while
people and 3 for colored, a high school, and 3 colleges for
whites and 2 colleges for colored, cotlon-factory, oil-mill,
ginnerv, iron-foundrv, plow-factorv, and 2 weekly newspa-
pers. "Pop- (1««0) 2,205 ; (1800) 3,(i00.
Editor ok " Reporter."
La Grange town; capital of La Grange co., Ind. (for
location of ci>iiiity. see iiiiqi of Indiana, ref. l-K) ; on the Gr.
Rapids and Iml. liailroail ; 45 miles N. W. of Fort Wayne.
It is in a farming section, and has a varietv of manufactures
and four weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1.367 : (I.SOO) 1,784.
La Grange: city (incorporated in 18.53); Lewis co., Mo.
(for location of county, see map of Missouri, ref. 1-11); on
the Mississippi river, ami the St. L., Keo. and X. \V. Rail-
road; 11 miles X. of (|)uimy. 111., 175 miles X. by \V. of St.
Louis. It has important manufactures, a large river com-
merce, and a weekly and a iiuarterly periodical, and is the
LA GRANGE
seat of La Grange College (Baptist, chartered ISSO), which
has 6 instructors, over 200 students, and j,'rounds and build-
ings valued at $30,000. Pop. (ISSO) 1 :.',:',(; ; (IWtO) 1,2.50.
La (iraii^e: cily; cajjital of Fayette co., Tex. (for loca-
tion of county, see uiaji of Texas, ref. ii-I); on the Colorado
river, and the Mo., Kan. and Tex. and the S. I'ac. railways;
75 miles S. E. of Austin. It contains 5 churches, high
school, several private schools, cotton-eonipress, oil-mill.
LA HARPE
57
carriage and wagon shops, and 4 weekly newspapers, am
utities of cotton and
1,335 ; (l«90j 1,626.
handles largo quantities of cotton and C(
newspapers,
irii. Pop. (1
I>. (1880)
Editor of " Payettk Cou.ntv Dk.moch.vt."
Lagrang'e', Joseph Louis: geometer ; li. at Turin, Italy,
Jan. 25. 1736. At the age of nineteen he was nuide a Pro-
fessor of Geometry in the Royal School of ArtiUerv. Turin.
In 1760 he was inviteii to Berlin by Frederick II. li) succeed
Euler as mathematical director of the Academy, of wliich he
was made president. Here he wrote his Mecanique Ana-
li/tiqup. After the deatli of Frederick (1786) he received in-
vitations from the sovereign of his native Sardinia, as well
as from those of Naples and Tuscany, but ultimately ac-
cepted one in 1787 to take up his residence at Paris (rt-eeiv-
ing a pension from the Academy, of which he hml been
elected in 1772 a foreign associate), where the rest of his life
was passed. D. in Paris, Apr. 10, 1813.
The method of the Variation of Parameters, expounded to
a certain point by Euler, but perfected by Lagrange, is one
of his important contributions to analytical mechanics. The
ellipse which a planet would describe around the sun were
there no other attraction undergoes fluctuations of form by
attractions of other heavenly Ijodies. The essence of the
method in question is that, holding fast to the idea of the
simple curve — the ellipse— though it be never realized, the
actual motion of the body is conceived to be on an elliptic
curve, the parameters (or elliptic elements) of which are ever
varying through the disturbing action of foreign attractions.
To subject this motion, which under the name of " revolv-
ing orbits " had its origin with Newton, to analytical calcu-
lation, and to determine the influence of each planet in dis-
turbing the elliptic motion of others, was the problem, tlie
solution of which is in great degree due to Lagrange. As a
natural sequence to this problem arising out of this per-
petual change in the jilanetary orbits comes the greater
problem of the stability and permanence of the solar s'ystera.
the cstablislnnent of which is Lagrange's greatest achieve-
ment. The orbits being thus in constant fluet nation, it is of
the higliest interest to know whether tlie resulting changes
necessarily will be limited in amount, or whether they will
increase progressively until the stability of the solar system
shall be destroyed.
Lagrange demonstrated (though Laplace hail preceded
him with a partial demonstration) that the fluctuation of
the orbital elements is limited to small amounts, and is pe-
rioiiic, extending, however, through long ])eriods of time.
Thus, e. g., the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, now dinjiu-
ishing, will continue to do so for 24,000 years, and llien be-
gin to increase. At the same time the apsides and nodes
are in motion. The grand cycle of the earth's perihelion,
which coincided with the vernal equinox 408!) years B. c.
(al)out the date chronologers assigned to the biblical account
of tlie creation), will be comple'ted in 110,000 years. His
eoinplete works were reprinted by thi' French (ioverinnent
#n thirteen volumes during the years 1860-89, under the
general title of CEuvres de Lagrange.
Revised by S. Newcomb.
La Grita, laa-gree'ta"!i : a city in the southern part of the
state of Los Andes, Venezuela; 56 miles from the frontier
of Colombia; in a beautiful valley 4,005 feet above the sea.
Pop. (with the district) 10,.500. It is surrounded by coffee-
plantations, and exports coffee, cacao, etc. Mines of copper
and coal are reported from the vicinity. La (irita is cele-
brated for its delightful climate (mean temperature 66 F.).
It was founded in 1576, and was the scene of a vietorv over
the Spaniards in 1813. H. H. S.
La (inaira, laa-gwi ra"ii: a city of Venezuela ; the mo.st
important port of tlu> republic; on the Caribbean Sea; le.ss
than 7 miles in a direct line nearly N. of Caracas, but
separiited from it by the mountain-wall of the Si 11a (sec
map (}f South America, ref. l-D). The mountains rise pre-
cipitously from the shore, leaving a strip from 700 to 1,000
feet wide, on which La Uuaira has been built in two long
streets, with outlying houses where the rocky slopes permit
their erection. .Owing to the reflection from the rocks and
sand, and to the cutting off of the cool laml-breezes, the heat
is verv great, though exceeded by other places on the coast
and llanos; the mean annual temperature is 82-6' F., and
the oppression is increased by the great humiditv and by
the slightness of the fall (.5-4') at night. The port is an open
roadsteail, much exposed to the waves, and formerlv com-
munication between ships and shore was troublcson'ie, and
often interrupted ; but in 1801 a breakwater was finibhed at
a cost of nearly $5,000,000, and this gives shelter to a limit-
ed nuniber of vessels, steamers loading directly from jetties.
The city also has been greatly improved, tlie former un-
sightly squares cleaned and ornamented, and a good water-
supply furnished. The old stage-road to Caracas. 23 miles
long, luis been sui)planted by a railway which ascends the
mountains by a tortu<ius route, with a gra<le, in parts, of 3-5
per cent., affording magnificent views. Another railway,
3 miles long, runs along the shore eastward to Macuto,'a
popular resort for bathing. La Guaira exports coffee, cacao,
hides, etc., and imiKirts nearly all classes of goods for the
Caracas markets. It is connected by cabh' with Culm and
Florida. The city was founded in l"588. It was sa<-ked liy
filibusters in 1595 and by the French in 1680, but in the
eighteenth century it repulsed several attacks from the
British and Dutch. During the war for independence it
was a point of great imporiance. The city was completely
destroyed by the earthquake of Mar. 26. 1812, which also
overwhelmed Caracas. Pop. (1892) about 14.000. and rapidly
increasing. Hekbert H. Smith.
La Gueronniere. laa-gn ro'ni-ar', Louts I^tienne ARTHia
Debreuil IIkliox, Vic(jmte de: diplomat and publicist; b.
in Limoges, France, in 1816. In 1850 he became cliief ed-
itor of the Pays, and attracted great attention by his Por-
traita poUtiques oi Louis Napoleon and the Comte'de Cham-
bord. After the coup d'etat of Dec., 1851, he became a
decided supjiorter of Napoleon, was elected a deputy, became
a member of the Conseil d'fitat (1853), and took charge in
the Ministry of the Interior of the delicate relations of the
Governnu'ut to the press and to literature, in which capacity
his conciliating manners enabled him to discharge his func-
tions with advantage. In 1861 he was made senator, and
became one of the most popular orators, especially on the
questions relating to Italy and to home government. In
1868 he was made ambassador to Belgium. As a writer, he
became the most trusted agent of the Napoleonic poliev,
and his pamphlets (hroc/nires) were often the first indication
of coming events. D. in Paris, Dec. 23, 1875.
Lagiiiia : See Keresan Indians.
La Hague, Cape : See Cape La Hague.
La Harpe, laa-aarp', Frederic Cesar, de : patriot ; b.
at Kulle, Vaud, Switzerland, in 1754; studied law at the
University of Tilbingen ; became tutor to a young Russian
nobleman, with whom he traveled through Italy and France,
and was recommended by Baron Grimm to Catharine II.,
who appointed him tutor to her two grandsons, Alexander
and Constantiiu'. His enthusiasm for the French Revolu-
tion made his stay in Russia somewhat difticult, and in 1793
he left the country, but received a pension tor life, and re-
sided partly in Geneva, partly in or near Paris, until 1814.
He supported the revolution in Switzerland in 1797 that led
to the establishment of the Helvetian republic, and was a
member of the .Swiss Directory 1798-1800. On his visit to
Paris the Emperor Alexander received his former tutor with
great esteem, nuide him a Russian general, ami exercised
through him considerable influence on the political reorgan-
ization of Switzerland. In 1817 he returned to Lausanne.
D. Mar. 30, 1838. Revised by C. H. Thurber.
La Harpe. Jean Francois, de: b. in Paris, France, Nov.
20, 1739; made his d('/itit as a poet in 1759 with a vol-
ume of Ilero'idex; wrote Warwick (1763), Timoleun (1764),
and two other tragedies; became in 1768 literary critic on
the Mercure de France; gained several iirizes from the
Academy; obtained praise by a drama. Melanir, on In He-
ligieu.'ie (1770); was elected member of the Academy (1776),
and in 17S6 appointed Professor of Literature at the newly
established Lycee. Here large auiliences gathered year after
year to hear his lectures on literature, from which origi-
nated his best work, Coiirs de la litlerafiire anrieiine ef
modenie (16 vols., 1799-1S05). lie joined the Revolution
with enthusiasm. an<l lectured with tlie red cap on his head ;
was nevertheless arrested and kept in prison for sonie lime,
which wrought a singular change in him; the philosopher
of the school of Voltaire became a fervent Catholic. As a
58
LAHIRE
LAKE CITY
poot, La Harp is entirely forgotten, but his Cours de la Ut-
tiritture is still an interestiuf; ami instructive book, in spite
of the supcrfieialitv an<i harshness with which some parts are
trcateil. D. Feb. 11, 1^0;J. Reviseil by A. G. C'anfielu.
Lnhirc. I.okknt hk: See IIikk-s.
Lahoiitaii, Lake: llie name given to a body of water
which in the Pleistocene period occupied the western de-
pression in the Great Hasin of Utah ana Nevada, while Lake
HoNNEViLi.F. ((/. r.) occupied the eastern depression. Lahon-
tan, named after an early explorer of the region, was an ex-
tremely irregular lake, rising among the mountain ranges,
many of which then formed islands or long narrow promon-
tories. The shores. clilTs, bars, and deltas of the lake are
still distinctly perceptible; the lake bottom is now a series
of desert plains between the mountain ranges, with salt-lakes
and muddy phujax occu|iying its lowest (lepres.sions. Judg-
ing by the deposits formed in the expanded lake, there were
iiere.iis in Lake Bonneville, two epochs of higli water, scpa-
rateil as well as piv<eded and followed by relatively arid
epochs. It is plausibly suppose<l that these humid lacustrine
periods were contemporaneous with the glacial epochs of
the northeastern [lart of the country. W. M. Davis.
Lahore : the principal city of the Punjaub, British Iiulia ;
on the western bank of the Ravi, in lat. iV 3G N., and Ion.
74° 18' K. (.see map of \. India, ref. 4-C). The city is sur-
rounded by a high brick wall, and consists mostly of nar-
row, dirty," and overcrowded streets between high houses
which present only bare walls toward the streets. It has
many magnificent Mohammedan moscpies and Hindu tem-
ples, and its extensive bazaars are well stocked. Outside the
wall are other fortifications, stretching 7 miles in circuit, in-
closing beautiful and luxuriant gardens and i)rouieiuides,
inters[)crsed with large monuments and ruins of the former
splendor of the city, when it was the residence of the Mo-
gul emperors and had 1,00(I,(KU) inhabitants. Since 1849
it hiis been a British iiossession. Pop. (with the suburbs)
176,8.54. Tlie city gives its name to a civil division of the
British territory in that province, and to the headquarters
district of the division. The division has an area of 8,961
sq. miles.
Lahsa. or El-.\lisa (the latter word in Arabic meaning
land where water sinking through thi' surface is retained by
a lower layer): a territory in Arabia; included between
Asiatic Turkey, the Persian Gulf, Oman and Nedjed. It is
generally sterile, hot, and without water, but dotted with
oases, in which wheat, millet, fruits, ami garden vegetables
grow plentifully, t'araels (many thousands of which are
annually sold to Syria and other parts of Arabia), hoi'scs,
and dates furnish the principal sources of revenue. The
aba, a coarse over-garment, is maile in great quantities.
Since 1819, when the Ottomans occui)ied part of the region
after the war with the Wahabecs, a small tribute is nonii-
nallv ])aid tlie sultan. The chief towns are El-Kalif and Ras-
el-lvhyma. I'of). about 160,000. Edwi.n A. Grosve.vor.
Lai'bavli, or Lnyhach : capital of the duchy of Carniola,
Austria; beautifully situated on a nlaiii on a river of the same
name, on the road from Vienna to Trieste (see map of Austria-
Hungary, rv.i. 7-1)). It is an old town, with some manufac-
tures, a considerable trade, many good educational institu-
tions, and several interesting buildings; a.s, for instance, the
Cathedral of St. Nicholas, the Gothic town-house, the castle,
and the palace of ('ount Auersberg. The town is notc^d as
the place where the congress of the great jiowers was held
in .Ian., W'i\, to consider the revolution in Italy. Here and
nt Tropjiau, where the congress began its sessions, the policy
of the Holy .Mliaiice wtis fully carried out. Austrian inter-
vention was authorized, and a large force entercMl Ilnly and
restored the oUi order of things. Pop. (1890) :!0,.')0.5.
Laidlaw, lad law, .Tohn, D. I). : a minister and professor
in the Free Church of Scotlimd; b. in Edinburgh. Apr. 7.
1833; was educated at Kdinburgh University, Reformed
Presbyterian Divinity Ilall, Gla.sgow, and New College,
ICdinburgh : was minisfer of the Free Church at Bannock-
burn 18.)9-0.'i, at Perth lS(i:!-7',>. and at Ai>erdeeu 1S72-81 ;
Professor of Systematic Theology at New College (Free
Church), Ediidiurgh, since 1881. lir. Ijaidhnv has published
Thu liilile. Dorlrine of Man. Cunningham lectures, 1H78
(Edinburgh, 1879; 2d ed. 1894): 7V/e Miraclcx af our Lurd
(London, 2d ed. 1890; New York and Toronto,"l893) ; and
ha.s edited MemorialH of Rev. John UomiUon (Glasgow,
1881) and Memoriala of a Mininlnj, that of Hev. E. A.
Thomson (Edinburgh, 1891). V. K. Hovr.
Lain^. M.m.(olm : historian; b. on the island of Main-
land, (bkneys, in 1762; studied at the I'niversity of Edin-
burgh, and was called to the bar in 1785, but devoted him-
self chiefly to literature. He wrote a continuation of Henry's
llhtory of (rretit Jiritoiii (KH.")), and a Jlixlory of Sruthiitd
from the Union of the Cron-nx to the L'nion of the h'tny-
doniK (1800), with dissertations on the Gowry conspirai;y
and on the Ossian poem.s, adding in the second eilition an
essay arguing the guilt of Mary t^ueen of Scots in the mur-
der of Darnlev. He was elected a member of Parliament in
1807. and died in the Orkneys in Nov., 1818.
Laird. Daviu : statesuum ; b. at New Glasgow, Prince Ed-
ward Island. Canada. Mar. 12. 183:!; was educated at Pres-
byterian Seminary, Truro, Nova Scotia. an<l engaged in jour-
nalism and was for twenty years editor of Ihe Patriot of
Chariot letown. He was a member of the executive council
of Prince Edward Island 1S72-73, and wiiile holding that po-
sition was a delegate to Ottawa to negotiate terms of union
with the Dominion Government; held the jjortfolio of Min-
ister of the Interior 1873-76. and wils Lieutenant-Governor
of Northwest Territories 1876-81. In 1874 as a commis-
sioner he concluded with certain Indian tribes in the North-
west a treaty whereby they surrendered a tract of country
com])rising ."),000 sq. miles. Neil Macdonald.
Laissi'z Faire. hi'safar': See Political Eco.nomy.
Lajanl. hiii^liaar', .Iean Baptiste Felix: archa-ologist ;
b. at Lyons, Fraiu'c, Mar. 30, 17S3: accompanied as secre-
tary a mission to Persia in 1(^07; became interested in the
study of Oriental religions and tirieiital influences upon an-
cient Greece, and made a fine collection of cuneiform cylin-
der.s, which were obtained by the Imperial Library. He
occupied diplomatic posts in Persia, Greece, Russia, and
Denmark, and was afterward in the public service at Mar-
seilles; was elected in 1830 a member of the Academy of
Inscriptiims. Of his numerous and learned miscellaneous
writings, the most im|)ortant is the liecherches sur le Culte
puli/ic el les Jftjstere.'i de Mithra en Orient et en Occident
(Paris, 1847-48)! D. at Tours in Sept., 1858.
Revised by Benj. Ide Wheeler.
Lake, Gerard, Viscount : general; b. in England, July
27, 1744; entered the army in 1758; served in the closing
campaigns of the Seven Years' war, in the American war
(1781), and in Holland under the Duke of York in 1793-94;
rose to the rank of general ; was commaniler-in-chief in Ire-
laud during llie insurrection of 1797-98; defeated the reb-
els and recovered Wexford June 21; defeated the French
troops under Humbert at Killahi, Sept. 8 : was made com-
inander-in-chiet in India in 1800; conducted the Mahralta
war (1H03) with brilliant success, taking Delhi (.Sept. 12),
Agra (Oct. 17), and winning the decisive victory of La.swari
(Nov. 1), which brought the Mogul emiieror into vassalage
to Great Britain, for which he was made (Sept. 1, 1804)
Baron Lake of Delhi and Laswari. He defeated Ilolkar
near lihart|)ur Apr. 2. 1805; returning to England in 1807
was made viscount (Oct. 31), and was aiip<iiiited governor
of Plymouth, where he died Feb. 20, 1808. The title be-
came extinct by the death of the third viscount, June 24,
1848.
Lake Clianiplaiii : See Ciiami'lain, Lake.
l^ake diaries : town : capital of Calcasieu parish. La. ; on
the Calcasieu liver, and the Kan, City, Watkins and Gulf
and the S, Pacific railways; 30 miles N. of Uu- tiiilf of -Mex-
ico, 145 miles E. of Houston (see map of Louisiana, ref.
10-B). It contains a large rice-mill, ice-factory, sugar-fac-
tory, several saw, shingle, and wood-working mills and car-
shops, and has water-works, electric lights. 3 banks, and 4
weekly newspapers; and is the seat of liake Charles College
(uiKlenominalional), opened 1890. Pop. (1880) 838; (1890)
3,412; (1893) about 6,000. Eurrou of " A.mericax."
Lake City: town (originally an Indian selllement ;
founded as a'military and trading post about 1836); capital
of Columbia co., Fla. (for location of county, see map of
Florida, ref. 2-1); on the Fla. Cent, and Pen., the Ga. S.
and Fla., ami the Savannah, Fla. and W. railways: 60 miles
\V. of .lacksonville, 105 miles E. of 'I'allaliassei'. It derives
its name from a number of picturesque lakes which sur-
round it, and is the seat of the .State Agricultural College
and of the agricultural experiment station. It is in a fer-
tile region; is center of Florida Sea island cotton industry;
and has large [ihosphale, lumber, and turpentine interests.
Pop. (1880) 1,379; (1890) 2,020; (1.S95) 1,940.
EurroR of " TonAcco Pla.st and Collmuia Co. Citize.n."
LAKE CITY
Lake City : town ; Calhoun cc, la. (for location of coun-
ty, see map of Iowa, rcf. 4-E) ; on Lake creek, and the Chi.
and N. W. Railway ; 27 miles S. W. of Fort iJodge, 75 miles
N. W. of Des Moines. It is in an ajrrieiiUural region, and
has two weekly newspapers. Top. (liSHO) 24i» ; (liS'JO) :,100;
(1895) 2,053. EniTOR of " Blade."
Lake City: city: Wabasha co., Minn, (for location of
county, see map of Minnesota, ref. 10-(>) : on Lake Pepin,
an enlargement of the Mississippi river, and the Clii., Mil.
and St. P. Railway; {I'd miles 8. E. of St. Paul. It is in an
agricultural region ; has steam-elevators, saw-mills, flour-
mills, foundry, machine-shops, and plow and wagon factories;
and contains a public library, 2 State banks with combined
cajiital of i|100.(IU(l, a private bank, and 2 weekly newspapers.
It is in the midst of beautiful scenerv, and is a pojiular sum-
mer resort. Pop. (1S80) 2,596; (1B9U) 2,128; (1895) 2,616.
Lake -dwellings (called by archaeologists palafittes,
pfahlhauten, or pile-hiu7i/iiit/-'<): dwellings, sometimes form-
ing villages, constructed on piles or on fascines over marshes,
the shallow waters of inland lakes, or along the margins of
great rivers or estuaries. Remains of such dwellings have
been found in many countries. So numerous were such
structures in the Gulf and Lake of Maracaibo, along the
Orinoco, and in other parts of Venezuela, that in allusion
thereto the early Spanish explorers named that province
" Little Venice." The houses of these water-villages were
supported by lofty piles on separate platforms or floors of
split logs, connected with one another by bridges of similar
construction. Each house consisted of two rooms, with
floors of matting and low sloping roofs of thatch. These
houses were reached from the shore in dugout canoes, and
entered by means of long, notched ste|)-logs. Very similar,
although more compact, villages are found in New tiuinea,
in the lakes of Central Africa as well as on the Gold Coast,
in the Celebes, the Caroline islands, and in Borneo and
Si)uthern Asia.
Both Hippocrates and Herodotus, writing in the fifth
century B. c, mention pile-dwellings; the former referring
to villages built over the shoals of the river Phasis, the lat-
ter to the Pra'onians, true lake-dwellers those — who, hav-
ing their village far out over the waters of Lake Prasias,
connected with the shore by only a long, narrow bridge,
were able to defy even Darius and his army — everywhere
else victorious — when he invaded Thrace. The platforms on
wliich their dwellings were built were furnished with trap-
doors, through which, by letting down baskets, the people
caught fish, and we are told that they tethered children by
the feet to keep them from falling into tlie water, and kept
cattle, feeding them in part on fish. Curiously enough, Rou-
manian fishermen iiduUiit wooden huts similarly supported
over the waters of the same lake to this day.
Lake-dwellers are mentioned, although less specifically,
by ancient writers of the Orient ; and on the bas-reliefs of
Assyria such peojile and their villages have been found
characteristically de[)ictccl. The Celtic peoples of Western
Scotland and Ireland inhabited crannogs, or defensive lake-
villages, from post-Roman times to the sixteenth century,
though more in the nature of artificial islands stockaded
and transfixed by piles than of pile-dwellings [n-opcr.
In 1829 numerous piles, apparently artificial, w'cre dis-
covered in Lake Obermeilen, near Zurich, but it was not
until the winter of 1853-5-t that their true nature as the
remains of pile-buildings was revealed. That winter fol-
lowed a drought of unusual severity, ami was so cold that
the lakes were frozen to the bottom except in parts, causing
the waters to recede so far that an effort to reclaim sotne of
the land thus laid bare was nnide by dwellers along the
shore,, and many piles and relics of a stone-age peo]ile were
thus discovered. These discoveries were followed up first
by Dr. Ferdinand Keller, of Zurich, and sulisequent researches
revealed the fact that m,-iiiy lakes and marslies throughout
the Continent of Europe, generally, had at one time contained
extensive pile-villages. Tlie most noteworthy of these set-
tlements were in the Alpine lakes of both Switzerland and
Xorthern Italy. In Zurich, Xeuchatel, Con.stance, Bienne,
(icneva, Moraf, and other Swiss lakes alone, more than two
hundred such villages have been explored, from twenty to
fifty (as in Neuchatel) having been found in each of the
above-named lakes. The village of Wangcn, in the Ijake
of Constance, was supported bv a parallelogramic platform
at least 2,000 feet in length liy 850 feet in width, while that
of Sutz, in the Iiake of Bienne. measured nu)re than 960
sq. rods, or nearly 262,000 sq. feet, and was connected with
LAKE-DWELLINGS
59
the land by a pile-supported bridge or gangway, 300 feet
long and 40 feet wide. These villages were constructed in
various ways. Usually piles from 8 to 10 and 12 feet long,
sharpened by liacking or with fire, were driven into tlic
bottoms of the lakes from 3 to 5 feet apart. On the tops
of these beams were fa.slened, cither with wooden t}ins or
by nu)rtising, and over them platforms of closely laid un-
dressed logs or of riven boards were laid. The piles were
.sometimes further stayed by cross-pieces or poles notched
into them and pinned below. In some cases, where the
bottoms of the lakes were soft or vielding, the village plat-
forms were supported on stacks of" brusli-wood and trees, or
fascines of faggots laid across one another horizontally and
pinned down with piles or ballasted with stones or layers of
clay and gravel. I.ess frequently large square fralnes of
logs were made, to be laid along the bottoms, and upright
po.sts mortised into them, and on these the sui)erstructures
were reared. On the other hand, when the lake bottoms
were liard or stony, the ends of piles were simply rested on
them and held in place by heaps of stones. However held
up. each of the platforms was coextensive with the whole
village— the huts being built in rows upon it, rarely more
than 3 or 4 feet apart from one another. These hut's were
square, the walls made of posts or longer piles wattled with
osiery and plastered with clay, as were also the floors, which
were skirted usually with actual mop-boards. The rooms
were provided with square hearths made of stone slabs, and
were from 12 to 30 feet in length and from 10 to 20 feet in
width. The roofs were of thatch, also weighted down with
stones, or bound with poles.
Some of the villages were reached by gangways connecting
with the mainland, and there is evidence that in many cases
at least these were provided with drawbridges, which could
be lifted up in times of danger or at night. Other towns
were approached only in dugout canoes, several of wliic-h
have been found, ranging in size from 10 to 40 feet in length
by from 18 inches to 4 feet in width amidships.
The relics found under the sitesof these ancient lake-dwell-
ings are of immense variety, and so numerous that nearly all
the great museums of the world and manv private collect'ions
have been supplied with a series of them". A study of these
relics makes it evident that these Swiss lakes were' occupied
by the same people for thousands of years, during which
time they passed from a comparatively rude, but in some
respects remarkably advanced, ('ondition of the stone age,
into that of the bronze age, and in the latest villages even
into that of the iron age. corresiiondipg to the semi-historic
period of Eurojie : also that the lake-dwellers were not a pe-
culiar race, but belonged to the prehistoric nations wliich
peopled the mountains and mainlands of Central Europe
generally.
The oldest station was that of Lake Mosseedorf, near
Berne, which has furnished the most complete collections
representing the stone-age period of the lake-dwellings vet
found. Evidently, like many of the later villages, it was
destroyed by fire; and to tliis we owe the representative
character of the relics found in the lake bed where it stood.
In this stone hammers, picks, celts or hatchets and chisels,
knives, arrow and spear heads of flint, saws toothed with
flakes set in wood with asphalt, horn and bone tools in great
variety, including harpoons of stag-horn, fish-hooks made
of boar's tusks, and a skate made from the leg-bone of a
stag, were discovered. Rather rude but diversified vessels
of earthenware also were found in abundance. The people
had already advanced to a fair slate of barbaric societv; for
the remains of grains — wheat, liarley, millet, flax seed, of
apples, service berries and other fruits — and the bones of
.several species of domesticated animals — the ox, horse, sheep,
goat, swme— |irove that they were both tillers of the soil ami
herdsnu'n.
Perhaps the most interesting and productive lake-village
site discovered was Ih.-il of Rolienhausen, in the Ijog of tlie
former Lake PfaHikon ; for, while ijrinci]ially a stone-age
settlement, it continued to be oc<'Upied up to or into the
bronze period. It covered an area of at least 3 acres (nearly
131,000 sq. feet), and was built on more than lOO.tKX) piles.
It had been, as shown by the character and stratification of
the relic beds, successively burned and rebuilt, yet showed
signs of persistent and almost continuous occupancy. In
the lowest stratum the pottery, like that of Mosseedorf, was
crude and less varied in form than that of the uppermost, but
in the latter o('<'iirrcd highly ornate forms of earthenware —
bowls, cups, pipkins, cooking-pots, urns and vases, decorated
with incisions, textile imprejisions and low-relief patterns —
GO
LAKE-DWELLIXGS
LAKE OF GENEVA
and mure alninilaut bones of ilomesticated atiimnls. The
(iltitforiu of tlie last construction liatl also been formed of
split planks more than 2 feel in widlli by '-i and 4 inches in
thickness, well fitted together; and between the houses thus
supported, cattle stalls hail Ixx-n constructed. Crucibles,
nuule of horse-dunj; and lire-clay, were also found in the up-
per layer, and showed metallic fj'oss, cvideiicini; their use
in smell in'.;; vet no relics of bronze or other metals were
iliscovered. fn a single cut made for a watercourse through
the beds of refuse from this villajfe more than .'3 tons of ani-
mal bones aiul relics of broken articles were taken. Among
the bones were those of cattle, horses, asses, shee]). goats, pigs,
fowls, ilogs; and of wild animals those of the urus or wild
Euro]>ean ox, bison, elk, stag, chamois, bear, wolf. fox. beaver,
and many smaller animuls, besides abundant remains of
birds and fishes. Of reliis there were thousands. Those of
wooil incluiled spo<ins and ladles, tubs, bowls and trenchers.
Hails, hackels and spindles ; clubs, and hatchet-handles, some
with stag-horn sockets for celts; spear, harpoon and arrow
shafts, long and short, and long-bows of yew. Floats and
fish-hooks, matting coarse and fine, fishing-nets and cloths
of great variety, made of bast, flax, and wool, were found,
including skeins and halls of yarn, besides great numbers
of stone tools and weapons, milling and hearth stones, and
spindle-whorls both of stone and pottery. Still more nu-
merous and varied were objects of bone and horn — bodkins.
needles, platting-tools, dirks, scrapers and spatul.i? for taw-
ing, chisels and wedges, sockets and handles, harpoon and
arrow heads, etc. Here also great stores of grain and several
pounds of cakes and coarse bread, charred and thus perfectly
preserved, were procured.
V'arious villages were more strictly of the bronze age.
The most representative and richest of these was that of
Auvcrnier in Lake Xeuchatel. Here, although some stone
objects occurred, indicating ethnical connection with the
older lake-dwellers, most of the tools and weapons were
of bronze, and these — broa<lswords, socketed spear-heads,
arrow-points, celts, axes, chisels, hammers, anvils, knives,
sickles, and an exceedingly great variety of ornaments —
bracelets, anklets, torijues, neck, finger, and ear rings,
brooches, and superb hairpins from 4 to 14 iiu'hes long, in
numerous fanciful forms and styles, many provided with
large heads damascened in gold — all resemble, more or less,
other remains of the bronze ago in Europe, from Scan-
dinavia to the Meiliterranean. Charairtcristic molds of
sandstone or fire-clay and other appliances of the bronze-
worker's art were, however, found, indicating that the ob-
jects described were of native or home production. Pottery,
too, was abundant, still finer and more variral in form and
ornament than that of even the later stone-age settlement
above described. Xot far from this bronze-age station in
the same lake occurred the settlement of Marin, essentially
like the others, save that here the weapons, tools, ornaments.
armor and luirse-trappings. etc., were generally of well and
|>ceuliarly forged filtrous iron. Remains of domestii'.-ited
animals, especially of the horse and ox, were more nunu-rous,
end the presenc'e not only of superior art remains, but also
of Roman and Gallic coins, attests to the fact that this (in
common with a few other .settlements of the iron age in
other lakes) continued to be occupied down to the dawn of
historic times in Western Central Europe. The antiquity
of the older bronze-age villages has been variously esti-
mated, after most careful computations, at from :i.()00 to
4,000 year.s, while the stone-age villages are thought to
reach back nt least 6.000 or 7.000 years. The rapid develop-
ment toward barbaric civilization evidenced bv some, even
of the purely stone-age remains. afTords a striking exam|ile.
as do the vastly different cliff-clwellings of North America,
of the influence of (Uifcnsive necessities and habits of living
developed therefrom, on llie advancement of peoples.
In the case of the- dwellers in caves and cliff-slielters. the
dry. still air of their homes has preserved for centuries their
fniilesi art products; in that of iIk^ Inke-dwi-llers, the tran-
quil watcre have preservi'd their very bread and wearing
material.
liy a study of these abundant remains and the architec-
ture of these two j)eoples we may see that the necessity for
hudilling their houses togelliiM- in a limilecl space di'veloped
at oiici' rectangular buihiings and perfect unity (jf village
organization, giving rise siieedily to a confederal ive if not
communal society. Abiding perforce permanently in the
places thus occupied, they were of necessity obliged to till
the soil and to domesticate animuls (few, however, with the
cliff-dwellers). Thus the accumiihilion of food-stores and
projierty, inviting constant aggressions from outsiders on
the one hand, stimulating commerce on the other, not only
fostered culture-growth and gave rise to new wants and ar-
tificial necessities at home, lait continually increa.sed the
power of these erstwhile weakling tribes, iintil they were
able to extend their occupancy of the land abroad, siueading
their arts and culture far beyond, and in tiuu' f<ircing them
on all intervening peoples. Thus in the Old World we may
look to the lakes as the source of barbaric culture which,
had it not been checked by greater cultures from the south,
wouhl in time have built up a civilization almost purely in-
digenous to and well-nigh coextensive with Eunipe ; as, in
the New World, clitl'-dwellers had already started on the
road to a barbaric civilization — exemplified in the existing
pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona and by the ancient
Mexicans and Central Americans — which well-nigh domi-
luited the vast southwestern part of the continent, anil,
but for the coming of the Sjianiards. doubtless would have
developed as remarkably toward civilization in other than
architectural points as ilid the culture of the lake-dwellers
in the later bronze and early iron ages.
Authorities. — The greal'esl authority on the lake-dweller
remains of Switzerland was their scienlitic <liscoverer. Dr.
Ferdinand Keller, at the time president of the Society of
Antiquities of Zurich. The results of his resear<-lies were
published at various times from 18.'>4 to IHTfi. iu a series of
reports to this society. These were soon after translated in
substance by John Edward Lee. and published finally, in
a second edition, under the title of T/if Ldke-direUings of
Switzerland anil iitlwr Purls iif Europe (2 vols. 8vo, Lon-
don, 1878). The subject has been more geiu'rally iiresented
by Frederic Troyon in his llalnlaticmx Laciistres ties Temps
Anciens et Jfixleniex (Lausanne, 18G0). The writings of
Tylor, Lubb<ick, and Wood, and the early reports of the
Smith.sonian Institution contain much information on this
subject. Prank IIa.mii.ton CrsniNO.
Lake Erie : See Erie, Lake.
Luke Forest : city ; Lake co.. III. (for location of county,
see nuip of Illinois, ref. l-(i) ; on Lake Michigan, and the
Chi. and N. W. Railway ; 28 miles N. by W. of Chicago. It
is the seat of Lake Forest University (Presbyterian, char-
tered 1850), an<l has two weekly newspapers. I'op. (1880)
877; (1890) 1,20;S.
Lake Forest University : an institution of learning
which compi-ises six distiiu-t .schools: (1) Lake Forest Acail-
emy. (2) Ferry Hall Seminary. (;i) Lake Forest College. (4)
Rush Medical College. (5) Chic'ago College of Dental .Sur-
gery, and (6) Chicago College of Law. The first three are
located at Lake Forest, a suburb of Chicago: the three pro-
fessional schools are in Chicago. The charier was granted
in 1857. but the college was not opened until 187(), and the
jirofcssional schools were not associated with the under-
graduate departments until 18S7. The undergraduate work
at Lake Forest is in charge of 40 instructors, and in 18'.i;5-!)4
:!1G students were enrolled. The professional schools employ
!I4 instructors, and in ]8!i;!-!l4 hail 1.557 sluilcnts, making
a total enrollment of 1.87;i. The university is Presbyterian
by aHiliation, but its board of control is self-perpetuating.
Lake Forest Academy is designed to prepare young men for
college, while Ferry Hall Seminary not only does the .sanu'
work for young women, but also offers to them two years of
college work. Lake Forest College is loeilucal ioual. and is
organizeil upon the elective plan, a certain number of credits
being required for graduation, and work upon a nuijor sub-
ject being required for three years. In ]8i);}-94 college work
was offered in seventeen departments. Aside from the three
professional schools in Chicago, the undergraduate equip-
ment at Lake Forest is represented by fifleen buildings upon
65 acres of campus. .Ioun M. Coi'lter.
Lake Geneva: city; 'Walworth co.. Wis. (for locution of
county, see map of NVisconsin. ref. 7-F,); on Lake Oeneva,
ami the Chi. and X. W. Railway ; 10 miles S. E. of 1-Ukhorn,
the count y-.seut. It is a ]iopular suininer resort, is in a rich
fanning section, and has several educational institutions,
flour-mills, and a sea.son and two weeklv news]iaiiers. Pop.
(1880) 1,!)6!»; (1890) 2.297; (1895) 2.452.'
liake (Jeorge: post-oflice name of Caldwell (</. c).
Lake George: See (iEoiioE. Lake.
Lake Leman : See Geneva, Lake of.
Lake .Moeris: See Moeris.
Lake of (ieiieva (in Switzerland) : Sec Geneva, Lake ok.
LAKE OF THE WOODS
LAKES
61
Lake of the Woods: a large lake on the boundary be-
twcuu Miimusola jiiul (.'anada. A small dctaclic<l portion of
Minnesota lies on its northwest side. Its jirineipal affluent
is Rainy Lake river, and its waters flow N., through the
Winnipeg river into Lake Winnipeg. It contains many
small wooded islands, I'drnied by ineipialities in the drift-
covered surface which its occupies. It is 1,060 feet above
the sea, 400 feet lower than Lake Itaska. Wild rice (Zizaiiia
nqnatica) is abundant on its shores. Israel C. Russell.
Lake Poets: a name given by Tlie Edinburgh Revitw to
a number of English [joets, of wlioni (.'oleridge, Words-
worth, and Southoy wi-i'e the most important, who at tlu^
beginning of the nineteenth cent ury lived in the lake region
of Westmoreland and Cumberland, England. They had
little in common as poets, except the desire to break loose
from the conventionalities of the literature of that day.
Revised by H. A. Beers.
Lakes [0. Eng. htcu. from Lat. /u'cus, lake, basin, tank.
Probably mergeil in .M. I'^ug. with Anglo- Fr. la/ce, Idk from
O. F. lac < Lat. to'c«.sj : bodies of water nearly or quite sur-
rounded by land. The jjhysical features of lakes should be
con.sidered in connection with the progress of the general
denudation by which the surface of tlie land is worn down
from the constructional form given by uplifting forces. On
newly uplifted lands, even if of generally even surface, lakes
may be numerous, as in Florida, where they occupy slight in-
equalities in the surface of the uplifted sea-bottom, which is
not yet well drained by the deepening of river channels. In
case the uplifting of a region is accompanied by fracturing,
the constructional depressions between the uplifted blocks
may contain lakes, as among the tilted lava blocks which
form the mountain ranges of geologically recent dislocation
in Soutlieru Oregon; although here the climate is too dry
at present to fill the basins to overflowing. In regions of
geologically modern mountain growth, great lake basins
frequently lie between adjacent ranges, because there has
not yet been time enough to fill the basins with waste from
the mountains or to cut valleys across the basin rims. If
the climate is moist enougli, the basins fill and overflow,
and their lakes are fresh ; such are probably the lakes of
Central Africa, under tlie belt of heavy eiiuatorial rains;
although one of them, Tanganyika, is on the verge of insuf-
ficient rainfall, its outflow to the Lukuga and Congo being
intermittent and its waters brackish. Great basins are gen-
erally in continental interiors, remote from the oceans,
where the rainfall is now relatively scanty ; their lakes are
therefore reduced by evaporation to a moderate de|itli and
variable area ; having no outlet, their waters retain all the
mineral .substances brought into them in solution, and are
therefore salt. Such lakes occupy shallow depressions on
the desert plains that have been formed by the partial filling
of the great basin by mountain waste, like Great Salt Lake
of Utah or like the many lakes of the interior desert of
Central Asia. These great basin-lakes may be fresh or
brackish, if they occupy marginal depressions, whose over-
flow runs on to disappear in the central sandy wastes; thus
Titieaca, 13,.500 feet elevation, between ranges of the Andes,
is brackish, overflowing S. E. by the Uesaguadero to the salt-
swamps of Lake Aullagas, at somewhat less elevation. In
some desert basins a lake may form in the wet season, but
change to a salt-marsh or a salt-bed in the dry season, as the
Ilamum swamp of Persia and various salinas of the Argen-
tine Republic. In recent geological times the climate was
moister, and many of tlie interior basins were filled even to
overflowing. (See" Bonneville, L.\ke, and Lahontan, Lake.)
In deserts near the seacoast depressions that might in
moister regions fill with water and overflow are evaporated
to submarine levels, as the Dead Sea, l,)i00 feet below the
Mediterranean, or the Chottes, salt-laJ<es occupying small
depressions in the Algerian Sahara near the coast, which it
has been proposed to flood by an inflowing canal from the
Mediterranean.
Lakes are usually destroyed by the progress of river de-
velopment, being filled by delta growth at the inlet and
drained by cutting down the outlet ; thus former lakes dis-
appear, leaving plains, such as the Vale of Kashmir. (Sec
Plain.) In certain cases, lakes of small size ami brief
duration are created during tlie normal advance of river and
valley development. Thus the hasty descent of land-slides
may dam a valley, as has frequently happened in Switzer-
land. In older rivers, where flood-plains (see Fi.ood-plaix)
have been produced, the river may cut off a meander, whose
arms then soon become silted up, leaving the abandoned
curve as an oxViow lake, of wliicli many occur on the Mis-
sissippi flood-jilain in all stages of formation and extinction.
The growth of a river flood-plain sometimes shuts off lateral
strcaiiLs. forming lakes, as on either side of the Red river of
Louisiana, and probably along the Yang-tse-Kiang in China.
When a side stream carries more detritus into a valley than
the main .stream can carry awiiy, it may accumulate in an
alluvial fan (see Delta), and form a lake on the main stream
above it ; thus Lake Pepin has been formed on the U()]>er
Mississippi above the entrance of the Chippewa ; thus Tulare
Lake lies south of the alluvial deposits formed across the
broad valley lowl.and of California by Kings river, which
carries much detritus down from the high Sierra Nevada.
Deltas of large rivers, mouthing in the sea. frequently in-
close shallow lakes between their distributaries, or between
the delta and the mainland, as Lake P(mchartrain in Louis-
iana. The head of the Gulf of California has lieen cut off
by the delta of the Colorado river, but as the climate there
is very dry this shallow basin seldom has water in it, unless
for a time fed by a distributary of the river, as in 1891. The
action of shore-waves may build bars across small bays,
inclosing ponds, as on the south shore of JIartha's Vine-
yard, Mass.
After a land region has been denuded during one or more
geological epochs, the constructional lakes that may have
existed in the youth of the region are destroyed by the per-
fected establishment of the river valleys ; but if then a new
deformation of the region occurs, the valleys will be warped,
and deep lakes may again be formed along their courses,
this being the most probable origin of the greater marginal
lakes of the Alps, Lakes Geneva, Lucerne, Constance. Mag-
giore, Conio, Garda, and others. Old mountains, long un-
warped, have no lakes, as the Appalachians, except in their
northern glaciated portion, as explained below. Other dis-
turbances of normal river action produce lakes, as earth-
quake shocks, causing subsidence of certain parts of the
land : thus several lakes were formed on the flood-plain of
the Mississippi in Southeastern Missouri in 1811. Lakes are
commonly associated with volcanic action. Small lakes may
exist in lofty volcanic craters, as frequently happensin .Java,
or in the broad and shallow cajderas left by the destruction
of ancient volcanic cones, as Ijakes Bolsena and Bracciano in
Italy, as well as others in the Azores, and in Sumatra.
Crater Lake, in Northern California, lies in a very deep
caldera. 7 miles in diameter. Exjilosive volcanic eruption
has sometimes produced cavities below the surrounding sur-
face, such as the Maare or pit-crater lakes of the Eifcl dis-
trict of Western Germany. Lava-flows often obstruct
valleys and produce lakes, as has been observed in Iceland.
Lake Tiberias is thus formed on the Jordan in Palestine.
Glaciers sometimes obstnict streams, as in the Merjelen
Lake in the Alps, inclosed by the great Aletsch glacier.
Small lakes form on the Greenland ice-sheet in summer.
Climatic changes are rcs])onsil)le for the appearance or dis-
aiipearance of many lakes. The climate of interior regions
is freiiuently such as to ju-oduce deserts where under a mois-
ter Pleistocene climate large lakes existed in considerable
numbers, as explained above. On the other hand, the colder
climatic conditions which cau.sed the extension of Pleisto-
cene glacial sheets over Northwestern Europe and North-
eastern America and elsewhere produced many basins. Some
lakes existed onlv while the ice was present to obstruct the
drainage of the region. (See AuAssiz. Lake: Glen Koy, and
Prairie.) The erosive action of the ice often excavated
rock basins of greater or less extent, but there is inuch dif-
ference of opinion among geologists as to how far this [iroeess
was carried. Yet such is the admitted origin of many small
tarns in the highlands of .Scotland and Wales, as wellaa
in the Alps, Sierra Nevada, and other mountains. The
irregular deposition of the drift that was dragged along by
the ice, washed out in front of it, and finally left strewn
uneveiilv over the land as the ice melted away, has obstruct-
ed many a valley ; most of the nuniennis lakes of Finland,
the Scandinavian peninsula, Scotland. Canada, and New
England result from the comliined action of glacial erosion
and deposition. In Minnesota and Northern (Germany the
glacial drift-sheet and its moraines cover nearly the whole
surface, and unnumliered shallow lakes lie in the depressions.
The comliiuatidu of the various |n-ocesses of glacial action
is undoubtedlv responsible for more lakes than all other
processes together, although glacial lakes are already de-
crea.sed in number bv filling and draining since the disap-
pearance of the ice. ' Glacial erosion and drift obstrncfion
along old vallevs, aided by a gentle warping of the surface.
62
LAKE.S
are proVjably the cliief ii<;pii( ies by which the great hikes of
Norlli America, incliulinj,' those of Xorthern Canada, have
been foriiieil.
Temperature, Fauna, etc. — Tlic leniperatiiro of the deeper
hike waters is deteniiined in the winter season, wlieu cool
surface water generally sinks to the bottom; but after the
whole body of water is reduced to 39% at which temperature
fresh water has its greatest density, further cooling acts
onlv on the surface waters, which then may soon freeze. If
the winter is not long or severe enough to reduce the bottom
temperature to 39 \ tlie lake will seldom freeze over. From
the conservative influence of water, the districts around the
tireat Lakes of Xorth America have tempered summers
and winters. The reflection of sunshine from the surface
of the Swiss lakes is said to have an influence in hastening
the vintage on their inclosing northern slopes. The winter
ice-crop of lakes is now a nuitter of considerable commercial
value near the large northern cities of the U. S.
In addition to the ordiiuiry lacustrine fauna, seals are
found in Lakes Wener and Wetter of .Sweilen. and Baikal of
Siberia, indicating a former connection with tlie sea during
a depression of the land. An open water or "pelagic"
fauna has been found in Lake Geneva, Switzerland, consist-
ing of transparent crustaceans and lower forms. The fauna
of salt lakes is very limited. Jliimte lunar tides of a few
inches oscillation have been detected in Lake Michigan liy
careful averages of its level with respect to lunar culmina-
tions ; but these are generally masked by the eflects of winds.
Oscillations of lake level, well known in Switzerland, where
they are called seiclien, are produced by sudden changes of
atmospheric pressure, or wiixl squalls; their period varies
with the length and depth of the lake, and with the number
of nodes in the oscillating waves. These oscillations are of
common occurrence on the Great Lakes of Xorth America,
whose waters are seldom free from slight rise or fall in
period of an hour or less. The change of level often exceeds
a foot, and under favorable conditions it may reach 5 feet,
as at Chicago, Apr. 7, 1893. TIh' larger lakes have currents,
driven by the prevailing winds; as in Lake Michigan, where
the watei-s sweep eiistward around the southern end of the
basin, the lake waves and currents act upon the shores,
forming cliUs, beaches, and bars, like those of the ocean.
W. M. Davis.
Law of Lakes. — The common law of England treats the
waters and the bed of all lakes as private property. Ac-
cordingly, the House of Lords decidecl that a grant from the
crown of all fishings in Lough Neagh, a lake about 15 miles
long and 10 miles wide, in the northeast of Ireland, conveyed
nothing. (Bristow vs. (lonnican, 3 Appeal Cases 641).
Whether the rule that each adjoining proprietor, where
there are several, is entitled usque att /Hum dijuci'. as in the
case of a stream above tide-water, was left undecided, al-
though Lord Blackburn suggested that the rule couhl not
be conveniently applied. In Scotland it is applied to the
bed of lakes, and the space inclosed by lines drawn from the
boundaries of each proprietor to the middle line of the
lake is deemed appurleiumt to his land, unless the terms of
his title limit him to the water-line. Each owner, in using
the bed of the lake, as in dredging for marl or taking coal,
must keep within his own boundaries. The rights of boat-
ing, fishing, and fowling, however, are to be enjoyed in
common over the whole water surface by all the owners of
the lake bed. Lord Ilalherly thus explains the origin of
this common right: "A person proceeding from ])roperty
of his own to fowl or to fish upon a lake, could not be con-
veniently arrested the moment he arrived at the medium
filum aijuce ex adrerxo of his own land."' Maclcemie vs.
Banket. 3 Appeal Cases 1324.
Small Lakes in the U. S. — These are governed by the law
of the State in which they are located. It thus' happens
that the Federal courts are obliged to apply one set of rules
to a ciuse growing out of property claims to one lake and a
different set of rules to a case involving claims of the same
character to a lake in another State.
These rules are variable, and may be divided roughly
into three classes. At one extreme is the doctrine of the
New Jersey courts, that all the lakes of that coiiimonwealth
are private property; that the .State hius no interest in their
waters nor then- soil, and that the public has no rights of
fishing, fowling, or boating ujiou them. {(.'iihl> vs. Davenport,
32 New .Jersey Law 3f(9.) None of the lakes are large, and
only one is used at all for commerce. Somewhat incon-
sistently with this general view it has been held that a
deed of land bounded by a lake curries title only to the
shore, and not, as in the case of fresh-water streams, to the
center.
At the other extreme is the Mas,*achusetts rule, which
rests upon the colonial ordinances of l(i41 and lti4T. These
set apart and devoteil all great pi>nils (that is. ponds of more
than 10 acres, and since 1H09 of more than 20 acres) to pub-
lic use, and reserved to the commonwealth the ownership of
the soil under them and of their waters. This ownership
has been held by the Massachusetts Supreme Court, though
by a vote of f<mr to three, to enable the State to give to
municipalities the use of the waters, without making com-
pensation to riparian owners on the outlet streams for dam-
ages sustained by such diversion. ( Watluppa Jienervoir
Cumpany vs. City of Fall h'irrr, 147 Mass. 548.) The law
of New Hampshire treats great ponds ami lakes as public
property, but the State is luit allowed to divert their waters
to tlie harm of riparian owners without making due eoin-
pensatioii therefor, ('oncurd Manufacluriny Company vs.
linliertson, 18 Lawyer'.i Report-'^ Annotated 679.
Between these extremes is the rule which, with some
modifications, obtains in Xew York, and in most of the
Western States. Lakes and jioiids which are not navigable
in fact are private property. Small lakes which arc actually
navigable are subject to a double proprietorship. The ad-
joining land-owners possess the title to the bed of the lake,
while the Stati' retains sovereign rights in its waters, such
as fishing, ferrying, and transportation. These rights of the
State are held in trust for the public, and can not be alien-
ateii to private owners. If the State in its exercise of the
right of eminent domain grants to a municipality the use of
the waters of a lake, such grantee must make due compensa-
tion to riparian owners for the diversion. (Smith vs. City
of Rochester, 92 Xew York 463.) This rule, so far as the
ownership of the lake bed is concerned, was declared by the
U. S. Supreme Court to be the local law of Illinois, and to
warrant the conclusion that a grant to the plaintilT of 4i
acres bounded on a small lake, carried with it the title to
about 25 acres of dry land between it and the water's edge.
an<l a much larger urea of the lake bed — that is, the area in
front of the 4J acres between the lake's margin and center.
The fact that the lake was of a circular form with an irreg-
ular margin, and the ci'utcr line difficult to run. was thought
not to be entitled to much weight. Hardin vs. Jordan,
Mitchell vs. Small. 140 U. S. 371.' 4(16.
The Supreme Court of Minnesota has slightly modified
this rule. It holds that when the State grants to a person
land bounded upon a non-navigable lake his title extends
to the center line ; but when the bounding lake is in fact
navigable, the State remains owner of the l)ed and of the
waters, but only as trustee for the public, and can not con-
vey title to the waters or to the bed to anyone. It also holds
that the riparian owner has the right to accretions or relic-
tions, and if the lake recedes his boundary follows the water,
though as the result he thus may acquire title to the middle
line of the original lake. Lamplry \s. Jiletcalf, H'S Sorth-
western Reporter 1139.
(freat Lakes in the V. S. — These are held uniformly to be
public waters. The State owns the land under them as it
does the soil under tide water, in trust for its people that
they may enjoy the navigation of the waters, carry on com-
merce-over them, and have liberty of fishing therein freed
from the obstruction or interference of private parties. Ac-
cordingly,it has been decided that an act of a .State Legisla-
ture purporting to grant to a railway company the fee <if
lands under the waters of Lake Michigan had but the effect
of a license; that it coulil be revoked. and the State could re-
sume control of such lands. (Illinois Ciiitral Railroad vs.
Illinois, 146 U. S. 387.) The U. S. Supreme Court lias even
held that these great lakes are high seas, within the meaning
of that term as u.sed in a statute giving to the Federal courts
jurisdiction over crimes committed upon the high seas, de-
claring that " a large body of navigable water other than a
river, which is of an extent' beyond tlie niensurement of one's
unaided vision, and is open and unconfiiied, and n<it under
the exclusive control of any one nation or peopli', but is
the free highway of adjoiiiiug nations or people, must fall
under the definition of • high seas.' " United Stales vs. Rod-
yers, 1,50 U. S. 249. Francis M. BfRiucK.
Lakes [from Fr. luijue. lac. from I'l-rs. lak, deriv. of lak,
lac. .See Lac]: pigments prepared by coniliining animal or
vegetable dyes with metallic oxiiles, usually alumina or
oxide of tin. Lakes are used as pigments for |iaiiiting. for
wall-paper, ill calico-printing, and in lithographic and print-
LAKEWOOD
LALO
63
ing inks. Almost all coloring-matters may bo made to pro-
duce lakes, but in practice a few only are found available
for this purpose.
Carmine hike, called also Florentine, Vienna, Munich,
and Paris lake, has a beautiful red color, and is the finest
of all lakes. It is made by adding au alkali to a decoction
of cochineal mi.Ked with alum. Madder lake has a more or
less deep rose-color, with a bluish tint. In I'ersoz's process
madder is washed with cold water, wherein some sulphate
of soda is previously dissolved, and boiled for about twenty
minutes, with ten times its weight of a 10 per cent, solu-
tion of alum free from iron. The liquid is filtered and
cooled to 40' or 35% The red-colored solution is then treat-
ed either (a) by saturating cautiously with carbonate of soda
equal to from one-tenth to one-eighth the weight of the
alum used, so as to cause the formation of a basic alum,
which remains in solution, and which is precipitated on
boiling, as an insoluble basic sulphate of alumina, holding
all the coloring-matter in combination, or (b) by adding a
solution of acetate of lead, containing 78 parts of the salt
for every 100 of alum used, filtering from the precipitated
sulphate of lead, and boiling to precipitate a colored basic
acetate of alumina. This is much finer than that precip-
itated by carbonate of soda. Alizarin-red lake is now
used instead of madder lake. In preparing Brazil-wood
lake the wood is boiled with water, and the solution should
be left .some time to permit impurities to settle.
Logwood gives a violet lake on the addition of an alum
solution to its decoction, and precipitation cold by carbon-
ate of potash. Alkanet yields a pure lake when the finely
cut roots are boiled with potash, and the solution is i^recija-
ilated by alum.
Persian or French berries furnish a yellow lake called
Dutch pink. Potash or soda is added to the decoction, and
then a solution of alum is poured in as long as a precii>itate
is formed. The color is brightened by treating the inoi.st
precipitate with a tin solution. In preparing f untie lake
the decoction of the wood is treated with a little glue or
skimmed milk to remove tannic acid, then made alkaline,
and precipitated with alum. Quercitron and n'eld lakes
are made in the .same manner. In annotfo lake the aqueous
solution of annotto is mixed with carbonate of soda, heated
to boiling, and precipitated by an excess of alum.
Orange lakes may be made by boiling annotto with car-
bonate of soda, and precipitating by alum or salt of tin, by
boiling turmeric with potash and precipitating with alum.
Blue lakes are seldom prepared.
Green lakes are usually prepared by mixing blue and yel-
low lakes, or blue pigments, such as Prussian blue, ultra-
marine, indigo, etc., with yellow lakes. A very good green
lake is made by exhausting 1 lb. of bruised cotTee-berries
with 1 gal. of water, adding 2i to 3 lb. of sulphate of cop-
per, and iirecipitating with caustic potash, avoiding an ex-
cess. Aniline lakes, so called, are not true lakes.
Revised by Ira Rejisen.
Lakewood: popular winter resort: Ocean co., X.J. (for
location of county, see map of New .Jersey, ref. 5-D) ; on
the Central Railroad of N. .1.; 44 miles S. by W. of Xew
York city. It derives its name from its location in a vast
pine forest, studded with many pretty lakes. The place
was known as the Three Partners' Sawmill from about 1786
till 1814, as Washington Furnace till 1832, a.s the Bergen
Iron Works till 1866; and as Bricksburg till 1880, %yhen the
Legislature authorized its present name. During this
period lumbering and the manufacture of charcoal iron from
the native ore were carried on wit h few interruptions. Since
1880 the place has grown rapidly, and now has 4 large ho-
tels, numerous private and boarding cottages, 2 well-en-
dowed seminaries, 2 libraries, a weekly newspaper, electric-
light plants, and many metropolitan advantages.
Liikhimpiir, or Lackimpoor : a district of British
India: situated in the eastern part of Assam, between lat.
26' 51 and 27' 54 \., and between Ion. 93 4!) and 96' 4
E. The Brahmaputra river for about 400 miles of its course
passes through this district, and is navigabli- for steamers
at all times of the year to Dibrugarh. and in the rainy sea-
son to Sad iya. The area of the district is about 11.500 sq.
miles, the gnsater part thinly settled by independent hill-
tribes. Elephants, rhinoceroses, wild cattle, deer, buffaloes,
and bears are numerous. Coal, petroleum, limestone, iron-
clay, and gold are found, and rice and tea raised. Tea,
India-rubber, muga silk, beeswax, ivory, etc.. are ex])orted ;
opium, tobacco, salt, oil, and cotton cloth are imported.
Lakhiinpur has an annual fair, which is helil at the town
of Sad iya. Pop. of settled portion about 200,000.
Lakota : See Siouax Lsdians.
Lakslimi, liik-shmee [Sanskr., liter., sign, omen, (lience)
luck, fortune, happiness, beauty, and (by personification)
the goddess of happiness and beauty! : in Hindu my-
thology, the goddess of beauty and good luck, the consort
of Vishnu the Preserver, and the mother of Kiima, the god
of love. She is said to have sprung in the full perfection of
maidenly beauty from the foam of the sea, as is said of
Aphrodite. (See Venus.) The complexion of her skin is
delicate saffron, and her attendant, like that of Minerva, is
the owl, showing that some Hindus had confounded her
with Saraswati. the goddess of learning. As the goddess of
abundance and fertility, she is worsliiped by agricultural
laborers, the worship consisting of offerings of flowers and
grain. In painting and sculpture she is re|iresented as a
very young girl, with the full breasts of a mature matron,
thus typifying budding beauty conjoined with full fertility.
She is frequently represented as reclining at the feet of
Vishnu. A huge lotus supports them as they ride upon the
silver foam of the churned ocean of milk.
Revised by R. Lillet.
Lalande', Joseph Jerome le Frax^ais, de: b. at Bourg-
en-Bresse, Ain, France, July 11, 1732 ; educated at Lyons by
the Jesuits: studied mathematics and a.stronomy at Paris,
and in 1751 was sent to Berlin to make observations com-
plementary to those made by la Caille at the Cape of Good
Hope concerning the distance between the earth and the
moon. In 1762 was apjiointed Professor of Astronomy at
the College de France, and Director of the Observatory at
Paris. He conducted the Connaissance de Temps from
1760 to 1775, and from 1794 till his death. His lectures
were exceedingly attractive, not only to the student, but to
educated peo])le in general, and his success in diffusing as-
tronomical knowledge and interest was very remarkable.
His most prominent writings are Traile d'Astronomie (4
vols.) and llistoire celeste franfais, the latter being a series
of observations on the fixed stars. D. Apr. 4, 1807.
Lallemand, laal'ma-ah', Charles Fran(;ois A xtoi.ne. Bar-
on: general; b. at Metz, June 23. 1774; entered the French
army in 1792; distinguished himself in the campaigns in
Egypt. Portugal, Prussia, Spain, and Russia; was brigadier
and baron in 1811, and was made lieutenant-general and
member of the chamber of peers on Napoleon's return from
Elba. He accompanied Xapoleon in the Waterloo campaign,
and was sent as commissioner to ('apt. Maitland to treat for
the emperor's surrender to the British navy. He was sent a
prisoner to Malta, and on his release went to Turkey, Per-
sia, and Egypt in an unsuccessful search for employment,
after which he made his way to the U. S., where he pro-
posed to found a colony of French imperialist refugees. An
attempt had already been made in Alabama but had failed,
and Lallemand's venture in Texas was also unsuccessful,
but he and his companions fell back upon the project of a
colony in Alabama. Lands were obtained and the so-called
state or canton of Marengo was founded on the banks of the
Tombigbee river, where a city was laid out, and named
Eagleville. Lallemand, however, took no personal [)art in
the Marengo eolonv. Xapoleon. dying in 1821, bequeathed
100,000 francs to Lallemand, but the French Government
opposed his receiving it on account of his having been tried
and condemned to death in France during his absence. In
1823 he fought in the Spanish war; went afterward to
Brussels; entered France without molestation: returned tothe
U. S.. and established a successful school in Xew York. After
the revolution of 1830, Lallemand was restored to his mili-
tarv and political honors (1832), took his seat in the cham-
ber of peers, and was for two vears military commander
in Corsica. D. in Paris. Mar. 9, 1839.
L'.lllemand. Pauline : opera-singer ; b. in Syracuse.
X. Y., aliout 1862 : studied in Paris, Dresden, and Stuttgart ;
made her first appearance as /.erlina in Don Giovanni in
Konigsberg, Prussia, with great success. She was one of
the sopranos who sang in 1886 in the .American Opera Com-
pany, anil won success in the roles of Carmen. Suzanne in
The Marriage of Figaro, and Katherinc in The Taming of
the Shrew. D. E. Hekvey.
Lalo. l.iiilo'. 6douaru Victor .\xtoin-e : composer; b. in
Lille, France, Jan. 27, 1823 : studied first in the conserva-
tory there, and subscipiently at the Paris Conservatory.
His compositions were principally operatic. His first effort
64
LA LLV,
LAMAISM
«!is Fiesqiie. wliicli took tliird prize at a coneours at tho
Tlu-iitre LyriqiK', Paris, in 1867. A Imllet. yaiiioumi. was
licrforinoti at tlio Oijira. Mar. 6, 1882 ; it was aftiTwanl
traiisforiiu'il iiilD an on-lu'stral suile. His greatest o|>era
was Ln liiii d' Vs. wliich was |irodui'e(l at tlie Opera Co-
mique. May 7, 1888. He also eoiiiposoj a violin concerto
for Sarasiilc : a S'/inpliviiie Eapngnole for violin and orches-
tra; a violoncello concerto for Fischer; a Fanliiigie Norve-
gienne for violin and orchestra : other worlvs for violin and
for violoncello, some sonirs and smaller pieces. lie received
the decoration of the Legion of Honor in .lulv, 188(1. 1).
suddenly Apr. 33, 18!)3. V>. E! Hervev.
Lu Luz, Span. pron. laa-looth' : a town of the state of
Gnanajnalo. Mexico; 8 miles N. W. of Guanajuato city (see
map of Mexico, ref. 6-G). It owed its existence to the
famous La Luz silver lode, one of the ricliest in the world ;
the mines, as late as 18-1.5, produced .$200,000 weekly. They
are now almost ahandoned. owinj; to the difficuitv of drain-
age. Pop. with suburl>s (1880) about 11,000. 'H. II. S.
Lama, laa nia, or Llama : a member {Auchenia lamn) of
the camel family, found in the Andes, es])ecially in Peru, in
a state of domestication. Except in color it very much re-
sembles the GtTAXAro (q. c), and is believed by good authori-
ties to be merely a long domesticated race of that species.
The lama is rather lightly buill. has a long body, and long,
slender neck. The ears are large, and carried erect, and, as
in the camel, the knee is free from the body. The animal
stands about 3 feet liigh at the shoulders. The color is
white, marked with brown or black spots, or sometimes
nearly black. .The lama was domesticated by the ancient
Peruvians, who used it a.s a beast of burden, ate its flesh,
and wove the long hair inio garments. I'nder .Spanish rule
the lama was chiefly used for transiiorting gold from the
mountains to the coast, 100 lb. being a gooil load. See also
ViCUGN'A. K. .\. LlCAS.
Lama, or Lamns, Grand: See Lamaism.
La'maism [Tibetan ilaina, superior] : the corrupt form
of Buddhism which prevails in 'I ibet and Mongolia and a
great part of Tartary. Its chief characteristic is the wor-
ship of grand lamas, in whom Buddha is supposed to be in-
carnate. These jiriest-gods are very nunu^rous, every lama-
sery or monastery of note having one at ils head. The
most important are the rOi/ch-a Rin-po-chhi, or Jhi/ni
Lama, at Lha.ssa ; the Pan-nen Rin-po-eliki, at Ta.shi-
lumbo, in Farther Tibet; the Gniaon Tamlin, at the lama-
sery of the Great Kuren, on the river Tula; the Chang-
Kia-Fo, at Peking; and the Sa-Dcha-Fti, at the foot of
the Himalayas. After the grand lamas rank the khutulilus,
or incarnations of celebrated Buddhistic saints; and next
to these in the lamaic hierarchy come the Lluibilgliauii. in
whom dwell the souls of former patrons or founders of
lamaseries. The lower classes of lamas are incarnations of
nobody in particular, and gain consideration only by .supe-
rior learning or talents; among them, therefore, "are found
scholars, scribes, artists, physicians and sorcerers, prayer-
makers, and artisans. They form a large proportion of the
population— about one-third, according to M. Hue. The
history of Tibetan Buddhism may, according to Csoma de
Koros, be divided into two distinct periods. The first began
in the seventh century a. d., when King Srong-Tsan-Gambo
married two princesses from Xepaul and China. Both
ladies brought to their new home images of Buddha and
works on the Buihlhistic faith, to which the king became a
willing convert. He encouraged the building of teni[)les
and colleges, an<! sent to India his minisler, who there
learned Sanskrit and arranged a 'I'bctan alphabet after
Kashmirian characters. Srong-Tsan-(iaml)o wrote an histor-
ical treatise an Buddhism, called Nani-h'iimbnm, or The
Hundred Thousand Precious ('onimanibuents, and ob-
taineil the name of Chakravarlin (wheel-turner, or circu-
lator of doctrine). Many sacred works were translated
from the .Sanskrit, and Buddhism continued to flourish until
the close of the tenth century, when it was nearly exlir-
imted. In the eleventh centui"v it was revived bv'.Misha,
hBroraston, and other learned 'ribetaiis, and from 'this sec-
ond period dates its division iido sects.
In the fourteenth century Tsong-Kapa, a native of the
province of Amdo, effected a revolution in Tibetan Bud-
dhism. This reformer's birth (in VAT>'t) was caused and ac-
compained by miraculous circumstances. He came into llie
world with a long white beard ; his counlenaiu-e was grave
and majestic ; he spoke fnun the moment of his birth, all
his utterances showing a kncjwledge of the mysteries of ex-
istence. At the age of three years he desired to lead n re-
ligious life, aiul his mother, favoring such early devotion,
herself cut (■If his hair and flung it out>ide the lent. From
it sprang a marvelous tree, having fragrant wood and leaves
inscribed with sacred characters. Tsong-Kapa willnlrew to
the mountains, and spent his time in prayer and contem-
plation, seldom returning to his parents" tent. During
one of his visits thither he nu>t a wandering lama from the
West, who remained with him and instructed him in relig-
ion. When the teacher died the pupil, eager for further
knowledge, traveled westwanl toseeK it. and at la.-it reached
Tibet. There he was 'stopped by a spirit (Ilia), who told
him that in that country he was desliiu-d to teach prayers
and rites. Tsong-Kapa remained at this meeting-place, to
which was given the name Lliii-Ssa (land of spirits), and
applied himself to reform the worship of Buddha. He gained
a reputation for sanctity, and, in spite of opjiosilion from
the priests of higher rank, was joined by many lamas, who
were called Yellow Caps to distinginsh them from the Ked-
Cap lamas, or adherents to the old forms. The new sect
soon sprea<l over all Tibet an<l Tartary. Ils founder died
in 14111 at the lamasery of Kaldan, near LhiLssa, which he
had established, and there, according to Lamaic belief, his
body still reuuiins. unchanged in appearance, and miracu-
lously supported above the earth. He left varicjus writings,
of which the most im|)ortant is Lam-Rim-Tsien-Bo (the
Progressive Path to Perfection).
The title of rOyelva Hin-po-chhi (precious or holy maj-
esty), proper to the grand lama of Til)et, was given toward
the end of the fifteenth century. The Mongols call him
Diilaiciv Tale Lama, by which name he is generally known.
Ilis territorial power dates from 1640, wlu>n Xag-dvang-
bLo-bzang-rgya-mtsho was made temporal lord of Tibet
by the Mongol conqueror of that country and China.
There has since then been a constant succession of Dalai
Lanuis, noru' of whom has made any nuirk in history.
These Tibetan sovereigns have no share in secular business,
which is transacted by a viceroy called nomekhan (spiritual
emperor) and four ministers chosen from the lama class.
The Dalai's ofllce, like that of all other living Buddhas, is
to sit cro.s.s-legged in his temple and silently receive the
adoration of the faithful, toward whom he occasionally ex-
tends his haml in token of blessing. An inearnate Buddha
never dies. He quits his body only, after a brief period, lo
enter that of a young child. Therefore when a grand lama
departs no grief is shown — merely an anxiety to know
where he may be fouiul in his new form. Sometimes he
tells this before his withdrawal, or after it sends a sign,
whii'h is interpreted by the augurs. The Dalai Lama is
chosen by lot from three chaberons or living Buddhas of
tender age ; at least such a form of election is gone through,
but its result is deterniined by the Emperiu- of China or his
ministerii. Like the Tibetan sovereign, the living Budilha
of a lamasery has no real power, that lieing in the hands of
a non-incarnate lama-chief, assisted by subordinate oflicers,
A lama.scry (tUion-pa) or monastery consists of numerous
houses or huts built around a temple (Lha-Khang. spirit-
house). The lamas have no common refectory, but live ac-
cording to their wealth, which, as they are not under vows
of poverty, is sometimes considerable, Tliose who have
reached a certain rank as theological .scholars receive an
allowaiu'c from the endowment. Some are [laid liberally by
the faithful for their services as physicians, exorcists, or in-
tercessors for de|iarted souls. tHhers engage in trade or ■
transcribe the siuuvd writings. Lanun temples are Imilt in
the Indo-Chinese style, and are profusely adorned with
jiaintings and sculptures. Opposite the principal entrance
IS a broad flight of steps sin-mounted by an altar, upon
which are the images. In front of the chief idol, and hard-
ly more lifelike than it, sits the living Buddha.
Besides the monk-lamas, there are hermits who inhabit
cells or eaves and spend their time in contemiilatioii. Also
a large class of wandering lamas, who travel from tent lo
tent and from lamasery to lama.sery, receiving everywhere a
welcome as ready as that given in l''.iirope to the itinerant
friars of the Middle Ages. Female lamas, or nuns, are also
found. Their number, however, is comparatively small.
As a rule, Lamaisis are devoted to llieir religion, and give
generously for the building of lamaseries and other pious
objects. They are fond of going on pilgrimages lo holy
places, such as Lhii-ssa; the lamasery of the Five Towers
near which Biuldha is said to dwell within a mountain ; and
Tsong-Kapa's birthplace, where is a famous lamasery.
There grows the tree sprung from the reformer's hair, all
LAMA-MIAU
LAMARCKIANISM
65
efforts to propagate which liave, says Hue, been unsuccess-
ful. Penance forms a ]mrt of the pilgrim's duties. The
more zealous penitents make the circuit of the lamasery,
prostrating themselves at each step, with their foreheads
touching the ground. Or they carry a heavy load of [irayer-
books, and thus gain credit for having repeated all the
prayers therein contained. Lighter forms of penance are,
walking round the lamasery while telling the beads of a
rosary, or turning a prayer-wheel. This devotional machine
is usually a sort of barrel, moving upon an axis and in-
scribed all over with prayers. The worshiper sets it going,
and it turns prayers for his benefit while he pursues some
more mundane occupation. The most common rosary-
prayer is that called the JIani, consisting of six syllables:
Oin Mani Padme Houm (Oh, the gem in the lotus! Amen).
Even a casual student of Laniaism must observe the simi-
larities between its ceremonial and that of Roman Catholi-
cism. These were pointed out by Hue, for which frankness
his interesting book was placed in the Index Expurgatorius.
To account for them, he premised that the wandering lama,
Tsong-Kapa's instructor, was in reality a Christian mission-
ary. The canonical books of Tibet exceed in length those
of every other country. They are comprised in two collec-
tions, the Kan-jur (bKaah ligyur), consisting of 108 volumes,
containing 1,083 distinct works; and the Tan-jur (A.s7'((»-
hgyur) of 225 volumes, each weighing from -i to o lb, in the
Peking edition. A large proportion of both collect ions is trans-
lated from the Sanskrit, but they contain also many original
treatises by Tibetan and Tartar authors. .See Travels, by E.
K. PIuc; tiie works of Alexander Csoma de Koriis: Die La-
maische Ilierarchie, being vol. ii. (18.59) of K. Fr. Kiippen's
Die Religion des Buddha; Schlagintweit's Buddhism in
Tibet (Leipzig and London, 186:5) ; and Waddell's The Bud-
dhisyn of Tibet.or Laniaiam . . . and its Helation to Indian
Budd/iism (London, 181(o). Revised by R. Lilley.
Lama-Miaii, or Dolaiiur: a town of Mongolia: in a
sandy and barren plain alwut 4,000 feet above the level of
the sea; 150 miles N. of Peking. It is a town of consider-
able dimensions, mostly inhabited by Chinese, though not,
like most other Cliinese towns of the same rank, surrounded
with walls. A considerable trade is carried on here, the
Mongols bartering their cattle, horses, sheep, hides, etc., for
tea, tobacco, and Chinese fabrics -of all kinds. It has an
ecclesiastical and a trading quarter. About 3 miles from the
Chinese town are numerous lamaseries and temples. See
Williamson's Journeys in Xorth China, 3Iongolia,and Man-
churia (London, 1870), and Prjevalsky's Mongolia (1876).
Laiuanski'i, Vladimir Ivaxovich : writer ; b. in St. Peters-
burg, Russia, in 1833 ; has been since 1863 Professor of
Slavic Languages at the University of St. Petersburg. lie
is an ardent and learned Slavophil, and has written several
historical and political works. The best known of these is
his Historical Investigation of the GrcecoSlav World in
Europe, in which he develops the theory of its contrast to
the Latin-Germanic (St. Petersburg, 1871). A. C. C.
Laniantin: See Manatee.
Lamar': town; capital of Barton co.. Mo. (for location
of county, see map of Missouri, ref. 6-D) ; on the north
oranch of the Spring river, and the Kan. City, Ft. Scott and
Mem. and the Mo. Piic. railways; 125 miles S. of Kansas
City. It is in an agricultural region, has an abundance of
coal and timber in its vicinity, and is principally engaged
in farming and manufacturing. There are 7 churches, 5
public schools, 2 banks, and 3 weeklv newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 907 ; (1890) 2,860. Editor of " Democrat."
Lamar, or Lamar y Cortezar, .Iose : Spanish-American
general : b. at Cuenca, in the province of Quito (now Ecua-
dor), in 1778. When very young he went to Spain, where he
entered the army, fought against the French at Saragossa
and in Valencia, and was taken jirisoner. lint escaped. In
1815 he was sent to Peru with the rank of brigadier, and he
was governor of Callao Ca.stle when it surrendered. Sept. 21,
1821 ; he then resigned his commission, joined the patriots.
and San Martin made him general of division. In 1822 he
was a member of the governmental junta, and at the deci-
sive battle of Ay.acuciio (Dee. 9, 1824) he commanded the
Peruvian contingent, and was made marshal. Congress
elected him president of Peru, Aug. 24. 1827 — an unconsti-
tutional choice, a-s he was not a native of the country. The
main aim of his administraticm was to destroy the influence
of Bolivar and Colombia. To this end he demanded and
obtained the deposition of Sucre, Bolivar's friend, from the
231
presidency of Bolivia. On July 3, 1828, Colombia declared
war on Peru ; Lamar, being defeated by .Sucre near Cuenca,
Ecuador (Feb. 26, 1829), signed a treaty of peace; he sub-
sequently tried to evade this treaty, but his own ollicers,
(iamarra and San Roman, rose against him ; he was ariest-
ed June 7, 1829, and exiled to San. Jose de Costa Rica,
where he died Oct. 11, 1830. In 1847 his remains were re-
moved to Lima with great [lomi). Herbert H. Smith.
Lamar, Lucas Ql-i.ntls Cixcinnatls : jurist ; b. near
f^atonton, Ga., July 15, 1797; studied law at Litchfield,
Conn. ; was admitted to the bar, removed to Milledgeville,
Ga., in 1819, and soon attained high position in his profes-
sion. He was chosen bv the Legislature to compile the stat-
utes of the State from' 1810 to 1820. In 1830 he was ele-
vated to the circuit court bench. The duties of this office
he discharged with great dignity and ability; his decisions
were considered of the highest authority, not only in Geor-
gia, but in the adjoining States. Without any known cause,
he fell, at his home in Milledgeville, by his own hand, on
July 4, 1834. Judge Lamar became noted for the classic
purity of his composition, and in forensic eloquence stood
among the first orators of his day.
Lamar, Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, LL. D. : justice of
U. S. Supreme Court; son of L. Q. C. Lamar, jurist; b. in
Jasper co., Ga., Sept. 1, 1825; graduated at Emory College,
Oxford, Ga., with highest honors ; studied law, was' admitted
to the bar, and rose rapidly in his profession ; subsequently
moved to Mississippi, and settled at Oxford in that State ;
was elected to Congress in 1856 ; was re-elected to Congress
(the thirty-sixth), and resigned his seat in that body after
Mississippi passed her ordinance of secession in 1861. At
the outbreak of the war he accepted a colonelcy in the
provisional army of the Confederate States, but was after-
ward sent on a European mission. On his entrance into
Congress in 1857, Mr. Lamar took a high position as a de-
bater and orator. In 1872 he was again elected a member
of the House from Mississippi to the Forty-third Congress.
His speech upon the death of Mr. Sumner was one of the
most eloquent ever delivered in the House. He was U. S.
Senator from Mississippi 1877-85; became U. S. Secretary
of Interior Mar. 6, 1885 ; resigned 1888, and became associ-
ate justice L'. S. Supreme Court. D. at Macon, Ga.. Jan. 23,
1893. -See his Life, Times, and Speeches, by Mayes (1896).
Lamar, Mirabeau Buonaparte : president of Texas and
politician; brother of L. (^. C. Lamar, jurist; b. at Louis-
ville, Ga., Aug. 16, 1798; became a merchant and planter;
established in 1828 a State Rights' newspaper. The Colum-
bus Inquirer; removed in 1835 to Texas, where he was dis-
tinguished at the battle of San Jacinto; became a major-
general, attorney-general of Texas, and secretary of war;
in 1836 was chosen vice-president, and was (1838-41) presi-
dent of Texas. In 1846 he fought at Monterey and on the
Comanche frontier. He was appointed in 1857 U. S. minis-
ter to the Argentine Republic, and in 1858 to Costa Rica
and Nicaragua. D. at Richmond, Tex., Dec. 19, 1859.
Lamarck', Jean Baptiste Pierre A.ntoine de Monet,
Chevalier de : naturalist: b. at Bazentin, France, Aug. 1,
1744; studied at the Jesuits' College at Amiens; entered the
army at the age of seventeen, serving in (he Seven Years'
war, and at its close devoted himself to medicine and phys-
ical science at Paris, and in 1776 published a paper on at-
mospheric vapors, followed by the Flore Franfaise (1778).
In 1779 he was chosen to the Academy of Sciences; became
botanist of the Jardin du Roi 1788 : edited the Diefionnaire
de Bolanigue (15 vols., 178.5) for Panckoucke's Encyclope-
dic Methodique, and was Professor of Zoology at the mu-
seum 1794-1818. His principal works are Systeme des ani-
maux sans vertebres (1801); Philosophic Zoologique (1809).
in which he announced, through his four laws, a view of
the process of evolution substantially in accord with the
Neo-Lamarckianism of the present day ; Ilistoire naturelle
des animaux sans vertebres (1815-22); Tableau encyclope-
dique de la Botnnique (1791-182;i), and other works. D. in
Paris, Dec. 18, 1829. Revised by I). S. Jordan.
Lamarckianism (from its first exponent, the Chevalier de
Lamarck) : a term applied to that phase of Evolution (g. v.)
which formed nearly the whole of the evolution of Lamarck,
who believed that all changes in form and structure of
both animals and plants could be directly attributed to the
effects of use and disuse, of environment, etc. He ignored
heredity, natural selection, and the like. For mo<lern La-
marckianism, see Xeo-Lamarckianism. J. S. K.
66
LA MAUMOKA
LAMAS
La Mar'mora, Alhkrt, Count do : sokliiT ami naturalist ;
eliior lirolluT nf Alfonso; b. at Turin, Italy, in 17H!I; re-
cciveii his military oihualion at Konlainebloau. and in 1H08
sorvod in Calabria, then in Loinbardy, afterward in Austria ;
at liautzcn was decorated by the hand of Napoleon 1. ;
fought at Leipzifj; was made prisoner at Torgau, and re-
leased only in time to join the Sardinian forces at Grenoble
in 1814. Having taken part in the revolutionary movement
of 1821. he was banished to the island of Sardinia, where he
spent nine years in studying the island, especially its geology.
In 1S26 appeared his first volume of statistics of Sardinia, re-
printed at Paris in 18;i!<. After traversing the island nine-
teen times, he described it minutely in a work which is high-
ly esteemed. lie was recalled in 18;!1 by Charles Albert, and
liis military rank was raised. In 1848 he went to Venice to
assist Manin. After being named to the senate ho was sent to
Sardinia as royal commissioner, and by his earnest and friend-
ly councils he calmed the passions of the Separatist party.
In 1857 he published the third and last volume of his Viag-
gio in Sardinia. In 1860 appeared his Itinerario. D. in 1863.
La Marmora. Alfonso Ferrero. Marquis de : general
and statesman ; b. at Turin, Italy, Nov. IT. 1804, of an old
and noljle family ; left the military academy in 1823 with
the rank of lieutenant of artillery; was raised to the rank
of captain in 1831, and between that year and 1848 he visit-
ed almost every country in Europe for purposes of military
study. He took an active and important part in the battles
of 1848 ; saved the life of the king in the insurrection at
Milan ; Wiis made brigadier-general and was for a short
time Minister of War. In 1849 he was .sent to Tuscany to
restore the grand duke ; then to Genoa to suppress the re-
publican insurrection there — an event which he describes in
tiis work. Un Episodio del Risorgimento Italiano. In Oct.,
184!), being again Minister of War, he introduced sweeping
reforms in the military system, including obligatory instruc-
.tion. In 18.54 he organized and took command of the 15,000
troops sent to the Crimea, led them to the victory of the
Tchernaya. and returned to Piedmont to resume his post as
Minister of War. In 18.59 he accompanied Victor Emman-
nel to the field, and after the peace of \'illafranca he became
Premier. In 1861 he was sent as extraordinary ambassador
to Prussia, and in November of that year was appointed
governor of Naples, where he was active in suppressing brig-
andage and maintaining order. From 1864 till 1866 he was
again head of the cabinet, and on the outbreak of the war
in the latter year took part in the campaign against Austria,
but resigned in consequence of the defeats that he sulTered
in that campaign. He was sent as minister to Paris in 1867,
and was governor of Rome in 1870-71. He published in
1873 Un popiii di luce, etc., in which IJismarck's policy was
attacked and certain diplomatic dispatches were made pub-
lic. A sharp controversy followed and la Jlarmora was cen-
sured by the ministry. After this he lived in retirement.
D. at Florence, Italv.'Jan 5, 1878. See his Lifo bv Massari
(1880). ' Kevised by F. M.'Colbv.
Lainar(|ne. laamaark', Maximilien, Count ; soldier ; b.
at St.-Sever, in the department of Landes, France, Julv 22,
1770; entered the army in 1791, and distinguished himself
in Spain by the capture of Fuenterrabia in 1794. In 1801
he was made a brigadier-general; took [lart in the battle of
Austerlitz ; served under Joachim iMurat in Xaiiles in 1808 ;
put down the rebellions in Calabria; captured the island
and fortress of Capri from the English, and wius rewardeil
v»'ith extensive estates. On his return from Elba Najioleon
ma<le him governor of Paris, and later on he sent him to
put dowti the insurrection in the Vendee, which task he ful-
filleil with much forbearance and firmness. On the second
return of the Bourbons he left France, being exempted
from amnesty, and lived at Amsterdam, but was allowed to
return in 1818. In 1828 he was elected a member of the
Chamber of Deputies, where he sided with the opposition,
and exercised some induence by his peculiar eloijuence and
disinterested character. He also published several pam-
phlets which attracted considerable attention by their forcible
style. He was one of the 221 signers of the famous address
against the policy of the court, and was active in the revo-
lution of 1830. His sympathies were with the democratic
element and ho continued his opposition under the .lulv
monarchy. I), in Paris, June 1, 1832. His funeral, June
5, occasioned an insurrection in Paris which cost numy
lives. Among his writings are Ni'cessite d'line armi'e per-
mnnente, etc. (Paris, 1820); IJe I'esprit militiiire en France
(1826) ; and Souvenirs, memoires et lettrea (Brussels, 1835).
Lamartine, laamaarteen, Ai.I'Iuinsk Marie Loris, do:
noct and statesman ; b. at Macon, France, Oct. 21, 1790.
lie studied in a boarding-school at Lyons (1800-02) and at
the college at Bellev (1803-07), but the chief formative in-
fluences of his youtli were received from his mother, whose
example and precept strengthened his deep religiinis in-
stincts, and from books, especially the Bible. He traveled
in Italy in 1811-12. Upon the restoration of the Bourbons
in 1815 he entered the royal body-guard. During the 100
days he took refuge in Switzerland, anil resigned from the
guards after the battle of Waterloo. The next years were
spent in desultory literary attempts while wailing for an
a|)pointment in the public service. In the fall of 1810 he
went to Aix in Savoy for his health, and there met and
loved the lady , Julie des Herettes, Mine. Charles, who, as
Elvire or Julie, is so often celebrated in his verse, and
whose death in Dec, 1817, affeeled him deeply. The poems
of the years 1817-19. of which the Lac is the most famous,
were colored, if not inspired, by this experience. They ap-
peared in 1820 with the apt title JJi'dilaliotix paetiques, and
made a great iuqiression by the genuineness of their feel-
ing and the directness, simplicity, and eloquence of ex-
pression. This volume was one of the greatest literary suc-
cesses of the century, and had a stimulating influence on
the new currents of poetry. Besides praise it brought
Lamartine ap|)ointinent in tiie dii)loniatic service at Naples.
In the same year he married an Knglish lady, Marianne
Birch. The |)eriod 1824-29 was passed at Naples, at St.-
Poiul, Lainartine's estate near Macon, and at Florence,
whither he was transferred in 1825. In 1823 appeared the
Seconder itiditatiuns pueliques, and in 1825 his continua-
tion of Byron, Le Dernier chant du pelerinage d' Harold.
In 1829 he was elected to the Academy, having previously
been a candidate in 1824. In 1830 lie published the Har-
monies poi'fiqiie.'! el religieiiscs, on the eve of the revolutiim
of July. The agitations of the time drew him into politics,
toward which he had discovered leanings some time before ;
he jmblished a pamphlet, Ln Pulilique ro/i'o«f?/e, containing
a liberal programme, and offered himself unsuccessfully for
the National Assembly. A journey to the East followed
(1832), described in Voyage en Orient (1835), and suddenly
interrupted by his daughter's death (1833). Meanwhile he
had been elected from Bergues to the Assembly, to which he
was returned later from Lyons. He began soon to win great
fame and power as a political orator. The poems of those
years. Jocelyn (1836) and La Chute d'un ange (1838), mere
episodes of a vast poem on the history of humanity that had
been in his thoughts since 1821. and Les Jiecueilhments
poeliquex (1839), were more philosojihic in tone than the
earlier works, with more freiiueiit negligences, and hardly
increased his poetic popularity. Partly as an expression of
his political sym]ialhies, which were growing more demo-
cratic and allying him with the oppositiem, he wrote his
most important prose work, the Histoire des (Sirondins
(1847), which became at once an inllucnce. In 1848 he
favored a provisional government, became its chief as Minis-
ter of Foreign Affairs, and for four months wielded supreme
power, holding in check the uprising of May. In the in-
surrection of June he had to give way to Cavaigiiac. and
immediately dro]iped into obscurity, retiring from public
life before the end of the year. His style of life had in-
volved him in enormous debts ami the rest of his life was
consumed in a struggle to free himself by his pen. The
roiiuintic'iUy trealed episodes of autobiography, Les Confi-
dences, hail been begun in 1843, and now appeared (1849)
coiilaiiiing OraBiella and Hophai't. The ^^oureltes confi-
dences followed in 1851. After this his work betrays more
and more the conditions of age and toil under which it was
written. It coin|U-ised literary and critical [leriodicals,
novels. Genievre (1849); Le Tailhur de pierres de Saint-
Point (1851); Fior d'Aliza (1866): and histories. Histoire
de la liestauration (6 vols., I851-.53) ; Hi.tloire de la Tur-
quie (6 vols.. 1854): Histoire de la L'ussie (2 vols., 185.5).
In 1867 the Gtoveriiment came to his aid with a jiension of
25.000 francs. I). Feb. 27, 1809. An edition of his iKurren
completes was published in Paris (41 vols.. 1860-69). His
Memoires appeared in 1871. Correspotiilance (6 vols.) in
1873-75, Poesies inedites (1875). .See Ollivicr. Lamartine
(Paris, 1874): C. de Poinairols, Lamarline (Paris, 1889);
E. Deschanel, Lamartine (2 vols., Paris, 1893); F. Beyssie,
La Jeunesae de Lamartine (Paris, 1892). A. G. Ca.nfielu.
Lanins, Andres: statesman, diplomat, and historian; b.
at Montevideo, Uruguay, Nov. 30, 1817. He was educated
LAMB
LAMBETH
67
in his native city, and early began to amass historical docu-
ments, gathering one of the finest private collections in
South America; selections from lliis have ticen pulilished
from time to time as Cnhcciiin de Obras, Diiciimentus >/ Nu-
ticias para serrir a la historia del Rio de la Plata, lie has
also published other historical works. Dr. Lamas was one of
the founders of the Montevideo Historical Institute; was
prefect of the city during the nine years' Siege; was suV)se-
gueiitly Minister of Finance, and several times minister to
Brazil and the Argentine Republic. Herbert H. Smith.
Lam 1). Caroline; See Melbourne.
LamI), Charles: essayist; b. in London, Feb. 10,1775.
His father, who was a servant to one of the benchers of the
Inner Temple, had some literary taste and a rare fund of
humor, and was author of a small volume of verse. Charles
was educated at the school of Christ's Hospital from his
seventh to his fifteenth year, Coleriilge being a fellow pupil
and friend, and in 17,S9 obtained a clerkship in the South
Sea House. In 1793 he became an accountant in the office
of the East India Company, and remained at this post until
1825, when he retired on a pension. There was a tendency
to insanity in the family, which manifested itself in Charles
for a short time in 171)5, and in his sister Mary the next
year, when she killed her mother with a knife. In 1797
Lamb printed a small volume of verses written by himself,
Coleridge, and Charles Lloyd. He devoted much attention
to early English literature; published in 1807 Tale a from
Shakspeare, and in 1808 Specimens of English Dramatic
Poets icho Lived altoiil the time of Sliahspeare. He twice
appeared as a dramatic author, having printed in 1801 a
tragedy, John Woodcil, and in 1806 a farce, Mr. II ,
which was brought out at Drury Lane theater. Neither of
these plays had the slightest success, and the author wisely
devoted thereafter his literary efforts to the field in which
he is best known and most universally appreciated. Sev-
eral brilliant essays appeared from time to time in Leigh
Hunt's Reflector (1810) and in other pqriodicals, but it was
not until 1820 that he began the Essays of Elia in The
London Magazine. They were collected in 1823, and es-
tablished his reputation as one of the most brilliant and
thoughtful of humorists. In 1833 he added the Last Essays
of Etta. After his retirement in 1825 from the drudgery of
office labor, the remaining years of his life were passed in
the companionship of a host of literary friends, to whom he
was much attached. He was never married. D. at Edmon-
ton, Dec. 29, 1834. An admirable biography and selection
from his letters was published by T. N. Talfourd in 1840, and
his Final Memorials in 1848. A complete edition of
Lamb's works and correspondence, with memoir, by Canon
Ainger, was published in 1888. Also see Hazlitt, Mary
and Charles Lamb (1874). — Mary Ann Lamb, b. in Lon-
don in 1765. sister of Charles, was a woman of considerable
literary talent, and took part in some of her brother's
works, especially the Tales from Shakspeare. She resided
through life with Charles, who was tenderly attached to
her; received a pension after his death from the East India
Company, and died at St. John's Wood, London, May 20,
1847.
Lanil), Martha JoA.NNA Keade Xash ; historical writer;
b. at Plainfield, Mas.s., Aug. 13, 1829; resided after her mar-
riage in Chicago, but in 1866 removed to New Vork, devot-
ing herself to literature. Her distinguishing work was The
History of the City of New York (2 octavo vols., 1877-81).
She edited The Homes of America (1879); wrote Memorial
of Dr. J. D. Russ (1881) : The Christmas Owl (1881) ; Snow
and Sunsh ine {188'i) : Historical Sketch of New York for
the tenth census (1883) ; Wall Street in History (1883). In
1883 she became editor of TIte Magazine of American His-
tory. D. Jan. 2, 1893.
Lambayeqiie, hram-bi a-ka : a coast department of North-
western Peru: separated from Libertad in 1874; bounded
N. W. Iiy Piura, E. by Cajamarca, S. E. by Libertad, and
S. \V. by the Pacific. Area, 17,939 sq. miles. The eastern
part lies on the slope of the coast Coniillera; the remainder
is much broken, but has no very high land; it is generally
dry, and portions are arid, but the valleys are very fertile.
Agriculture is almost the only industry, the principal prod-
ucts being sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, and rice. Pop. (1876)
85,984. Lambayeque, the capital, is situated on a jilain
bordering the river of the same name, about 6 miles from
the sea; it is connected by railway with the ports of Pimen-
tel and Eten. The river is subject to floods, which have
repeatedly inundated and nearly destroyed the town. Esti-
mated pop. (1889) 8,000, a large proportion being sambos and
Chinese coolies. Herbert U. Smith.
Lanibeck, Peter (Lambecius) ; librarian ; b. at Ham-
burg, (xernuiny, Apr. 13, 1628; studied in Holland, France,
Italy ; taught history in a gymnasium in his native city,
and became rector of the same in 1660. On his conversion
to Roman Catholicisin in 1662 he became the su[icrinten(lent
of the Royal Library at Vienna, where he died Ajjr. 3, 1680.
He is chiefly note<i for his Prodromus hislori(B litterarum
(2d ed. 1710), the first chronological survey of the history of
literature, and for his learneil Commentarii de bibliolh.
Vindobonensi (8 vols.; 2d ed. bv Kollar, 1766-82), valuable
also for its contributions to the language and literature of
Old High German. Alfred Guueman.
Laniber, Juliette: See Adam, Mrae. Edmond.
Lambert. JoHAN.N Heinricii : b. Aug. 29, 1728, at Mill-
house, in Alsace, in hundjle circumstances, but succeeded
by industry and perseverance in developing his natural tal-
ent for mathematics and natural science; traveled much as
private tutor to two young Swiss noblemen, and went in
1764 to Berlin, where Frederick II. made him a member of
the Academy of Sciences. His Photoinetria, sive de mensu-
ra et gradibus luminis colorum et umbne (1760) contains the
first scientific representation of the measurement of the in-
tensity of light; and his Insigniores Urbil(E Cometaritm
Proprietates still occupies an honorable place in the history
of astronomy. His metaphysical writings, on the contrarv,
are quite forgotten. D. at Berlin, Sept. 25, 1777.
Lambert, John: soldier; b. at Kirkby Malhamdale,
Yorkshire, England, .Sept. 7, 1619; studied law, and on the
outbreak of the great rebellion entered the parliamentary
army as captain under Lord Fairfax. He was conspicu-
ous in the principal battles of the war; was colonel at
Marston Moor (1644) and major-general in the Scots war
(1650). in which he gained the actions of Hamilton and In-
verkeithing ; was appointed lord deputy of Ireland in 1652;
was a member of Cromwell's council and Parliament (1654);
and aided Cromwell to become Protector, but opposed his
assumption of sovereign power in 1657, refusing to take the
oath of allegiance, and was dismissed from court with a
pension. In May, 1659, he was chiefly instrumental in the
reinstallation of the Rum|) Parliament; defeated the royal-
ists at Chester in August ; came into conflict with and for-
cibly dispersed the Rump in October, thereby becoming head
of tlie committee of safety and virtual ruler of England.
Lambert started with an army to oppose Monk (November),
but, the troops deserting in great numbers, he was soon
seized by order of Parliament (Jan., 1660) and sent to the
Tower, whence he escaped and reassembled forces against
Monk ; ca|itured a second time, he was tried and condemned
to death (June, 1662) by the new court of king's bench under
Charles II. His sentence was commuted to banishment, and
he died on the island of Guernsey in 1683.
Lambertville : city : Hunterdon co., N. J. (for location
of county, see map of New Jersey, ref. 3-C) ; on the Dela-
ware river, and the Penn. Railroad ; 16 miles N. of Trenton,
44 N. E. of Philadelphia. 71 S. W. of New York. It has 2
rubber-factories, iron-foundry, railway construction and re-
pair shops, shoe-factory, and cotton, pa[)er. spoke, and
twine mills. The city is liglite<l with gas and electricity,
and contains 5 churches, high school, 3 ward schools, a pa-
rochial school, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 4,183;
(1890) 4,142 ; (1895) 4,620. Editor ok " Beacon."
Lambeth : a suburb of London, on the south of the
Thames, ojiposite Westminster, with which it is connected
by the Waterloo, Westminster, Lambeth, and Vauxhall
bridges. It is a parliamentary borough an<l returns four
members to the House of Commons. Lambeth Palace, an
edifice of the Middle Ages, has been for centuries the t)rin-
cipal residence of the Archbisho[is of Canterbury, and has a
library of 30,000 books and 14.000 manuscriiits, and a series
of portraits of the archbishoiis. some of whom are buried
here. The so-ealled Lollards' Tower (dating from 1434) of
the palace derived its title from the notion that heretics were
formerlv confined in it. and was in realitv a water-tower.
St. Thoinas's Hospital (built at a cost of £.500.000), one of
the great London hospitals, stands on the Albert embank-
ment, facing the houses of Parliament, and treats about
70.000 indoor and out<loor patients annually. The cele-
brated Doulton [lottery-works are also situated here, and
hat-making, engineering, and glass-making are extensively
carried on. See London.
68
LAMBKTII ARTICLES
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA
Lunibctll ArticlpS: nino nrliclos adopted at n CDiiferenoe
hehl in the paliu'e of tlie Arililiislio|) of t'anterlmry, at Lam-
beth, on Nov. 20. 159"). l)elween the lieU'U'ales of tlie Univer-
sity of Camliridge, William Whitaker and Tyndal, Arch-
bishop Whit^ift. and others. The conferenee was called to
settle the theological controversy which had broken out in
the university, which was the stron<;hold of Calvinisni.
The articles adopted are t'alvinistic. and were drawn up by
Whitaker. They have never had full symbolical authority
in the Church of Enghuxl, were indeed suppressed at the
request of Queen Elizabeth, but are interesting as showing
the a.scendency of Calvinism among the Englisli theologians
cif that period. For history, see .Schaff's Creeil.s, i., 658-
662 ; for text, see same, iii., 523, 524.
Samukl Macauley .Jackso.v.
Lainbin. Dexvs {Dioni/shis Lnmhinus) : classical scholar ;
b. at iMontreuil, on Lake (iencva, in 1520: was educated in
Italy, Amiens, and in I'aris. For the greater part of his life
he enjoyed the intimate friendship of Cardinal Tourron, a
diplomat of .some renown. He accompanied his patron on
all his extensive travels, remaiidng in Italy for eleven years
(1540-60), chiefly in Rome, where he was "on friendly terms
with many well-known scholars, such as Gabriel Faernus
and Muretus. His ample leisure lie occupied in the colla-
tion of MSS. in the Vatican Library which were to serve him
as the basis of his contemplated editions. In 15G1 he was
called to Paris as professor of Greek and Latin. He died
of apoplexy, superinduced by the horrors of the night of St.
Bartholomew, in 1573. His editions of Horace, Lucretius,
Plautus, and Cicero mark an era in the textual history and
exegesis of these authors. They are tlistinguished by sol)ri-
ety of treatment and a profound knowledge of the author's
stylo. His vast learning, in marked contrast to the works
of many of his contemporaries, is kept under control, and
his commentaries have furnished much of the exegetical
material found in modern editions of the above authors.
See t)relli, Unomasticon Ciceronis (vol. i., appendix, pp.
478-491). Alfred Gudeman.
Lambiiipt. hiiimbe'enil, 6mile: landscape-painter; I), at
Versailles, France, Jan. 13, 1815. He was a pupil of Drol-
ling and of Horace Vernct ; was awarded medals in the Sa-
lons of 1843, IH.^i, and 1857, and the decoration of the Le-
gion of Honor in 18(i7. He was a sympathetic and able
painter. I), at Bougival, Jan. 1, 1878. W. A. C.
Lambriischini, lalun-broos-keenee, Raffaeli-o, Abbe :
writer and teacher; b. at (ienoa, Italy. Aug. 14, 1788; passed
some years at Home in the study of theology under the tui-
tion of his uncle, the cardinal, after which the young abbe
returned to his father, then living in Tuscany, to devote
himself to agricultural and philanthropic pursuits, going
from time to time to FloreiU'C for the beiuifit of .scientilic
lectures, especially on political economy, for whicli he en-
tertained a very vivid interest. At the age of forty, Lam-
bruschini published his first work — a work wliich proved
him an elegant, careful, and thoroughly instructed writer
anxious to promote all real progress. The habit of training
plants suggested to him the true method of ti-aining men ;
Vieusseux intrusted to him the education of his nephew.
and he afterward established a boanling-college for boys at
his villa of .San Carboni, and devoted himself exclusively to
education. In 1836 he took the direction of La (luida dclV
Eduratore. In 1848 he, with Ricasoli and .Salvagnoli, wrote
political articles for La Palria, aui\ was elected dcp\ity to
the Tuscan Assembly. In 1849 he published his Lihri della
Educaiione, then his Dialoghi suUa J.i/ruzumi-, enlarged
and reprinted in 1871. In 18,59 he was made inspector-gen-
eral of the schools in Tuscany, afterward of all the ele-
mentary schools of the kingdom, besides being intrusted
with the superintendence of the Istitutodi .Studii .Superiori,
in which he was professor. He was a member of the senate.
U. at Florence, .'\lar. 9. 1S73.
Lamc^llibruiichiirta |;Mi)d. Lat. < lamella, a thin jilate
+ branchiiB, gillsj : a class of molluscs to which many
names — Acephala, Conchifera, Hivalva, Aglossa, I'elecypoda,
etc. — have been given at varicjus times. For the general
structure of these forms, of which the oyster and clam mav
serve as types, see Moi.i.usca. The Lamellil>ranclis arc bi-
laterally symmetrical molluscs, the body Ijcing compressed
from side to side. The numtle folds are large, and each
secretes u calcareous covering .so that the soft parts arc in-
closed in a two-valved shell, the valves being united only by
a hinge on the dorsal line. Insi<le of the numtle cavity are
the gill.s, which in most forms hang as two broad plates from
the body-wall (whence the name of the group). The foot ex-
tends down in the median line, and is either capable of being
freely jirolruded into the surrciunding water, or, in those
forms where the mantle edges are united, a snuiU ojiening
is left, for its extension. Connected with the hinge of the
shell is an elastic ligament which tends to keep the two
valves ajiart ; they are closed by one or two adductor mus-
cles, the number' of these forming the basis of the groups
Monomyaria ami Limyaria, into which the Lamcllibrancfis
were formerly divided. I5y others a division was made into
Asiphonia and Siphomita accordingly as a siphon were ab-
sent or present at the hinder end of the body. The siphon
(familiar to all as the ne<'k of the clam) is a <louble tulmlar
structure formed by the edges of the mantle, and occurs
well develo]icd only in those forms with Inirrowing hal)it.
It there serves to bring water to the mollusc and to carry
away the waste. When the siphon is present it is furnished
with muscles to retract it, and as tliese muscles are attached
to the shell, the conchologist can tell at once, by the mark-
ings on the shell, whether the animal Inul a well-developed
sijihon or not. In the Lamellibranclis there is no well-de-
veloped head (hence Acephala); tentacles, cephalic sense or-
gans, lingual ribbon, etc.. are lacking. On either side of the
mouth are a jiair of folds which serve to bring currents of
water, and with them food, to the opening. The alimentary
canal is long and ccmvoluted, and in many species the in-
testine passes through the hi'art. Some have the sexes sepa-
rate, otliers have them united
in the same individual. All are
aquatic, nuiny occurring in
fresh water, Ijut the majority
are marine ; none is terres-
trial.
The subdivision of the La-
niellibranchiata into smaller
groups has long been a difficult
problem. The divisions upon
the basis of nmscles and upon
the presence or absence of a
siphon widely divorced nearly
related forms. The tendency
is to make the structure of the
gills the basis, and Pelseneer's
groups are adopted here. The
primitive gill or ctcnidium (see
Mollusca) consists of a central
axis <'(mtaining blood-vessels,
Fio, 1.— A Ijaniellibranch (Area)
sliowiiip tile liiiige line and
the two equal valves of the
.sheU.
and from this on either side arise a number of gill-leaves, in
much the same way that the barbs arise from the shaft of
the feather. The gill-leaves may be elongated, fohled back
upon themselves,
and be united with
their fellows, and
the classification is
based primarily
ujion these modifi-
cations. The names
of the i)rincipal
families in each or-
der are given be-
low.
OnnER I. Profo-
hrnncliid. — (iills a
feathered ctenidi-
um. its point pro-
jecting freely into
the imvntle cavity.
Foot with a creep-
ing disk. Ccreliral
and |ileiiral gan-
glia distinct, ('on-
tains the jS'iiculidas
and Si>U;)wmiiid(B
(Fig. A).
Ohdkk II. Fili-
hranchia. — Gill-
leaves modified in-
to long threads
or filaments, each
bent upon itself,
and its tip extend-
ing upward, as is shown in the illustration B. Contains the
Ati(>miid(r, Arcid(T, Trignnidcr, and Jlli/filidip.
Order III. PseiidolamelUbranchia. — Gill filaments bound
Fio. 2— a. Protobranch ; B, Filibrancli ; C,
Eulamellibraneli ; I). .Septil>raiieh Kills :
/, foot ; 1, iniifr cill-lenf : vi, niontli ; o,
out«r i^ilMeaf ; «, septum ; v, visceral iiiafis.
LAMELLIROSTRES
LAMETII
69
together by ciliated disks or by vascular processes. Con-
tains the Pfdinidip, AvicuUdcp, and Ostraida;.
Orukk I\'. J-Julninellibrancltia. — Filaments not distin-
guishable, tliii vascular connections being so numerous as to
make the whole of each row appear like a membrane per-
forated by numerous holes. These are the true Lamelli-
branclis. and here are found the great majority of the bi-
valve molluscs (Fig. C).
Order V. Se-ptiliranchia. — The gills are altered to a mus-
cular partition, broken liy holes, separating a ventral from
a dorsal mantle cavity (Fig. D). The PoruniyidiE and Cus-
pidaricf belong here.
The oysters and clams are an important food element ; the
teredos (see Terediniu.e) mine and destroy the timber of ships
and the piling of wharves in the marine seas of the globe;
while the pearl oysters and the fresh-water mussels sujiply the
pearls and niother-of-peari. .Some live buried in mud or
sand, while others become fastened to solid objects in various
ways. Thus the oysters grow fast to rocks or other shells,
while the mussels and pinnas anchor themselves by silken
threads (byssus) spun by glands in the foot. Living for the
most part the most sedentary of lives and protected by their
shell, they have but little call for sense organs besides those
of taste and touch. Eyes are rare ; they occur at the end
of the siphons in certain forms, while in the scallops {Pec-
tinidiB) highly developed visual organs occur on the margin
of the mantle. For the literature of the group, see MoL-
LUSCA. .J. S. KiNGSLEY.
Lanielliros'tres [Lat. lamella, a thin plate + rostrum,
beak, bill] : an order of birds containing the ducks, in the
widest meaning of the word, and the flamingoes. By most
modern authorities the screamers, Palamedea or Anhima. are
also included in the order. Excluding these last, the mem-
bers of the order are characterized by a bill whose sides are
furnished with little horny plates, projections, or lamelUe,
such as we are familiar with in the common duck. The
end of the bill bears a horny nail, the rest is covered with
soft skin. The toes are webbed. The palate is desinogna-
thous, the sphenoid has low, basipterygoid facets, ru<iimen-
tary in the fiamingo, the angle of the jaw is produced and
curved upward. The eggs are numerous, and the young are
covered with down and able to run and swim as soon as
hatched. Lamellirostres is the equivalent of Huxley's
C'henomorpluB, less the flamingoes, and is about synonymous
with the Anseres of modern writers. See Duck, Flamingo,
Goose, Swan, etc. F. A. Lucas.
Lamennais. laa'ma-na', Hugues Felicite Robert, Abbe,
de : politico-religious writer ; b. at St.-Malo, Brittany, France,
July 19,1783; acquired veryearly a comprehensive knowledge
of theology, philosophy, and history ; adopted, though only
after some hesitation, the ecclesiastical career; received the
tonsure in 1811, and took holy orders in 1817. It struck
him that lack of true religion was the real cause of all the
mental and moral troubles from which the age suffered ;
and although he moved along through many and very sin-
gular windings, and changed his standpoint and allies more
than once, at the bottom of all his different views of the
world lies the idea that the regeneration of the time de-
pends on a religious revival. The first work in which he
set forth his idea with full power was his Essai sur V Indif-
ference en Matierf de Reliyion (4 vols., 1817-20), a brilliant
apology for the Church and the monarchy, haiU^l with en-
thusiasm by the Ultramontane clergy and the old-conserva-
tive statesmen, but offensive to the Gallican party in the
French Church, and hateful to all the different shades of
democracy and liljcralisra. It awakened a certain suspi-
cion, however, even among its best friends. The monarchy,
he held, was not based on its legitimacy, but on its useful-
ness to the Church, and in the Church the highest authority
was not sought for in the infallibility of the pope, but in
the universal consent of all Christians. In his next follow-
ing works. La lieligion consideree dans Its Rapports avec
I'Ordre civil et politique (3 vols., 182.5-26) and Progres de la
Revolution et de la (fuerre contre I'Eglise (1829). tLis ideali-
zation of the existing Church and monarchy developed into
a tendency toward reform of both ; and after the .July revo-
lution in 1830 he openly broke with the old monarchy, and
tried in his journal, L'Avenir, to establish an alliance be-
tween the Church and the free constitutional government.
He was immediately denounced at Rome, and the pope con-
demned in 18;i2 the views set forth in L'Avenir. Nor was
he accepted by the doctrinaires, who felt that his present
standpoint was only an intermediate station from which he
soon would pass into radicalism. At the first moment he
submitted completely to the papal condemnation : L'Avenir
wa-s suspended; but after a year's silence and medita-
tion he published in 18;U his Paroles d'un CroyaiU, which
made an unexampled sensation ; it ran through 100 editions
in a few years, and was translateil into all European lan-
guages. The pope condemned it, and Lamennais answered
by his Affaires de Rome (183(i). By tliese two books he
broke absolutely with the Church, and in his subsequent
works, Le Livre du Peuple (18:i7), Esquisse d'une Pltiloso-
phie (3 vols., 1841-43), De la Reliyion (1841), Du Passe et de
VAvenir du Peuple (1842), he appeared as the apostle of the
democracy, as the prophetic expounder of the alliance be-
tween Christianity and radicalism. In 1849 he was a mem-
ber of the Constituent Assembly ; after the coxip d'etat he
lived in absolute retirement. I). Feb. 27, 1854. In accord-
ance with his will, his corpse was taken to Pere la Chaise
and deposited among the poor aiul unknown, without any
funeral rites ; not even a simple stone marks his grave.
His works have been collected in Uiuvres completes (11
vols., Paris, 1844 £f.) ; Correspondance (2 vols., 1866) ; CEu-
vres posthumes (2 vols., 1866). See E. SpuUer, Lamennais
(Paris, 1892). Revised by A. U. Ca.\field.
Lamentations, Book of: a canonical book of the Old
Testament, following the book of Jeremiah, and generally
attributed to that prophet. It consists of five chapters.
Each is composed of twenty-two verses (except the third,
which has sixty-six), according to the number of letters in
the Hebrew alphabet, and is an acrostic, each verse begin-
ning with a distinct letter. The contents are, as indicated
by the title, a series of dirges or threnodies upon the down-
fall of Israel. Some have found the occasion of its compo-
sition in the defeat of Josiah at Megiddo, and regard the
references to the ruin of Jerusalem as predictive ; but the
internal evidence is decisive that it must have been written
after the event it commemorates. Little opposition has been
made by modern critics to the tradition derived from the
Septuagint text and supported by the Talmud, which refers
its authorship to Jeremiah, treating it as an appendix to the
jirophecies.
La Mesa, laa-ma saa (in full. La Mesa de Juan Diaz) : a
town of Colombia, state of Cundinamarca; beautifully situ-
ated on a plain 25 miles W. N. W. of Bogota ; 4,225 feet
above the sea (see map of South America, ref. 3-B). It is
surrounded by plantations of sugar-cane, coffee, and cacao,
and is the chief center of trade between the towns of Cun-
dinamarca and Tolima. Pop. (1892) about 9,000, and rap-
idly increasing. H. U. S.
Lanictli', Alexandre Theodore Victor, Count de : party
leader ; b. in Paris, Oct. 28, 1760 ; descended f rorti a noble
family of Picardy; was one of three brothers who figured
largely in French politics during and subsequent to the
Revolution, after having rendered services in the American
war of independence on the staff of Count Rochambeau.
Alexandre became a colonel in 1785, and was elected a dep-
uty from the nobility of Peronne to the States-General in
1789, but joined the Third Estate, and took an active part
in the destruction of the privileges of the nobility and
clergy. He was chosen president of the National As.sembly
Nov. 20, 1790; afforded protection to Louis XVI. ; tendered
him counsels which were disregarded ; was a inemljerof the
constitutional committee; had frequent conflicts with Mira-
beau, who taunted him with his subservience to the court;
and he opposed the violent counsels of Robespierre and the
.Jacobins. On the outbreak of war with Austria (1792), La-
mcth served as field-marshal ii> the army of the North ; was
accu.scd by the Assembly (.\ug. 10), together with La Fay-
ette ; escaped from France, was seized by the Austrians, and
imprisoned three years; repaired to England in 1795; was
well received by Fox and the Whigs, but, being ordered by
Pitt to leave the country, joined his brother Charles at Ham-
burg. Under the consulate and empire Lameth was prefect
of several departments; was appointed lieutenant-general
by Louis .Will, in 1814, and during his reign was for four
sessions a leader of the opposition in the Chamt>er of Depu-
ties. Lameth wrote much on politics, his most important
work being flistoire de I'Assemblee cunsliluanle. D. in Paris,
Mar. 18, 1829. Revised by K. M. Colby.
Lameth. Charles Malo FRANgois. Count de : soldier and
party leader; b. at Paris, Oct. 5, 1757; brother of A. T. V.
Lametli ; served as captain on Count Rochambeau's staff in
the American Revolutionary war: was wounded at the cap-
ture of a British redoubt at'Yorktown, and promoted to be
70
LA MKTTUIK
LAMXID.E
colonel, nuring the Uevolutinii his fan'cr wiu< like tliiit of
his brvithrr Aloxiimln': ho was nt out' tiiiu' (July .I. 1701)
chc>s«-ii iin-siili'iit of the Nalioiml Assoiiilily. in which lie had
taken tlie loail in iiinnv iniiiorlaiit nieasiin-s of reform, bill,
like his brother, opiMiseil botli MiraU'au and the more violent
element represi'ilteil by Koliespiem'. lie tried to uphold
the constitutional monarchy anil to defend the kinj; Ufrainst
the attacks of red republicans. .\t tin' oiieniiij; of the
ciimpai;;n of ITS'S he s<'rved as tielil-marshal, iiut had to llee
after the events of .\u;;. lt». 17!ti, and settled at Hamburg.
From I(<0!) to 1814 he serviMl in the army under Xa|M)leon,
obtaining the rank of lieutenant-general, .\fter the Ki'.stora-
lion he lived in privacy until elected to the C'haniber of
Deputies in 182!); ci>-o|H'rated in the revi>liition of IKiO, and
(lied in I'aris. Dec. 28. 1.S52.— His elder brother. Count Theo-
dore, b. at I'aris, .lune 24, IToO. also serveil in .\nierica,
and was a deputy in ITi'l and 17!>2. He contended for the
constitution of ITiU with nMiiarkable courage and tirniness,
and riMnaiiied at his iH>st even after the events of Aug. 10
and the S'pteiuber massacri'S, but finally wils forced to flee.
He t<H)k little part in iM)litics for the rest of his life, though
ho returned to France after the roup d'ltat of the 18 bru-
inaire. D. at Uusagny, Oct. IK, lS'i4.
Revised by F. M. Colby.
I>a Mettrle, liia-m(7 tree', .Iclien Ofkrav. de : philosoph-
ical writer; b. at .>^t.-.Malo, iJriltany, Dec. 2ri, ITOil; studied
medicine, and was aii|H>iuted physician in the army of the
Duke of (irumoiit, but w'as ilischarged on account of his
Ilistuire naliirellf </« I'^me (The Hague, 1745), which book
was publicly burnt for its materialism and atheism. After
the publication of La Pulitique du Medecin de, Mncchiavel
(Amsterdam, 174(i) he was compelled to leave France, and
sought refuge in Holland, but he was expelled from that
country on account of his Jm Faciiltr veiiffi'e (1747) and
Ij'Jhmme-mafhine (Leyden, 1748). He removed to Berlin
on the invitation of Frederick II., with whom he lived in
great intimacy. Ilcrc he wrote L' Ilomme-phmte (1748), Art
3e_;'ouir<17.")l), etc. D. suddenly Nov. 11, 1751. Frederick
II. wrote his Hoge. Cf. Queprat, La Philosophie material-
i»le au XVIIl' Steele (Paris, 187:J).
Keviscd by .\. G. Cankield.
La'iniu. or Lninl'a (in (Jr. Ao^ia and Aaftia) : 1. A daughter
of I'oscidon, who bore to Zeus Libyssa the first or Delphic
sibyl. 3. A beautiful l^ueen of Libya, whom Hera robbed
of her children ijecause she was beloved by Zeus. Hera
made of her a hateful, ugly witch, who went about stran-
gling all the children she coulil find. She could take out
and replace her eyes at will. The name included numerous
hobgoblins, who, vampire-like, sucked the blood of young
men. :i. A mistress of ThemistiKdes. 4. .Vn Athenian' fiute-
player, the daughter of Cleanor. When past her prime she
liecaine the mistress of Demetrius Poliorcetes, who captured
her along with the rest of the harem of Piolemy. She
gained complete ascendency over Demetrius, who even al-
lowed her to levy taxes at her own pleasure, and himself
lcvie<i a tax of 2.50 talents on the Athenians to serve as pin-
money (rouge) for her. The .\tlieniaiis ami Thebans built
temples to her as Aphrodite Lainia. and Sicyon erecleci a
stoa in her honor. (.See Droyseii, (lesrhir.hte dts JhlleiAs-
mus (Golha, 1878), ii., 2, pp. 1U3-193, with note.) 5. A city
of Phthiotis, in Thessaly, still called Lamia, though under
Turkish sway it was called Zeiliin. It was situated ao stadia
N. of the SpiTchius river and 50 stadia from the Gulf of
Malia. The city gave its name to the Lamian War {q. v.).
6. A .surname of the lioman yElian gens, e. g. L. Julius La-
'"'»• .1. K. S. Sterkktt.
Lniniaii War; a war between the Macedonians and the
Athenians and Iheirdicck allies. Alexander theCireat had
already irritateil Ihi' Athenians by re<|uiring them to offer
him divine honors. Iml it was mi')re than thev could stand
when at the Olympic games of the year :t24 n'. c. he caused
to be proniulgati'i! a decree allowing all ixililical exiles to
return to their native countries throiighiiut Gri'cce, and
promising to use fone should anv slate refuse to complv
with his wishes. AUer the death of .Alexander in :i2:i ii. (\,
Athens anil yKtolia determined to resist the ntuni of sd
many dangerous persons, even at the price of a war. .Against
the lulvice of I'hiH-ion the Athenians instructed Leostheries
to collect an army of mercenary troops. He succeeded in
raising 8,000, J^Iilia sent 7,IKKJ. while at the insistence of
Athens most of the stales of .N'orlhirii Greece and the Pe-
loponnesus sent troops to aid in the war. In a bailie at
Ilcracica (323 u. c.) Antii>ater was worsted and withdrew
into the city of La.mia (q. r.) after having been desertoil by
the Thessalian troops. Lamia was invested by Leosthenes,
who. having been killed early in 322, wa.s succeeded by An-
tiphilus. Leonnatus had now come from Asia Minor to the
aid of Antipater with nearly 25,(K)0 men. .Antiphilus raised
the siege of Lamia and liaslened to offer liallle to Leonnatus,
who was killed in a cavalrv charge. In the meanlinie An-
liiialer had escaped to the liighlands of Soullurii Thessaly,
where in an intrenched camp he awaited the coming of
I'ratenis with re-enforcements that swelled the Macedonian
army to nearly .50,000. The battle took place at t'rannon,
on Aug. 5, 322 n. c. Its issue was doulitful. but the Greeks
were disheartened and offered to treat. .A nt ipat cr declined to
receive the emba.<,sy, staling I hat he would treat only with the
iiulividual states. The allies gradually ilrop)>e(l olT, leaving
.\thens and yKlolia alone. Antijiater then marched upon
.Athens, which sent Phocion and Demades to treat with An-
tipater. but he demanded the surrender of the patriotic ora-
tors, Demosthenes, Ilyi)erides, and others, the establish-
ment of a Macedonian garrison at .Munychia, the i)aynient
of the cost of the war, and the reduction of the number of
Athenian citizens to 9,1)00, cilizenshii> being reckoned on a
pro]iei'tv basis. The terms had to lie accepted. The ora-
tors lied, were condemned to death, and were hunted down
and executed. The Jitolians obtained better terms than
did the Athenians. J. R. S. Stkrrett.
Lainiiia'ria [Mod. Lat., deriv. of Lat. la'nunn, thin
plate] ; a genus of seaweeds. The species L. diyilata. bid-
ansa, and unrcliarina, all deep-sea plants, are prized in Eu-
rope for the rich supply of iodine afforded by them when
burned as kelp. The stem of Lamiritiria digilala (sea-
tangle, girdle) is manufactureil into bougies and uterine
tents for surgeons" use. In sonic cases these tents are supe-
rior to tents of compressed sjionge. It is remarkable that
the sea-langle of the -American coasts, specifically identical
with that of Europe, is unfit for this use. .See Kelp.
Luiiiini'tis; See Fabrierv.
Lani'mas Day ; the festival of St. Peter's chains (Aug.
1), probably so called because it was an ancient practice on
this day to make an offering of bread as the first fruits of
the year ; hence Lainnias for O. Eng. hlafmcesse, i. e. loaf-
mass.
Laniinergcior, lani-mer-gi>r [from Germ. ISmmergeier,
laiiili-vulture] : a bird of prev having the appearance of an
eagle and the habits of a vulture; found in the mountain-
ous portions of Southern Europe and Central Asia. The
length is a little under 3i feet, the spread of wing about 10;
tlu' general color of the old birds is very dark brown above,
tawny below, head white, wit li a black line on eil her side, and
tuft of black bri.slles Ijeneatli the chin. The bill is strong,
the feet weak. The tales of the lammergeier's strength and
boldness seem to have little foundation in fact. It kills
small animals, but feeds to a great extent on carrion. It
is fond of marrow bones and tortoises, both of which it
breaks by dropping tlicin upon the rocks. It is supposed to
have been one of these birds which killed the poet .T.schylus
by mistaking his bald head for a stone and drop|)ing a tor-
toise upon it. F. .A. Lucas.
Lammeriiioors': a range of hills, 1,732 feet high, form-
ing the boundary between East Lothian and Berwickshire,
Scotland, and covering the southeastern part of the latter
county, where it presents a bold, rocky, and liangerous
coast to the Xorl h Sea.
Laili'nidw [Mod. Lat., liter., those belonging to the Lam-
na tribe; lammi . \\\c typical genus (from Lat. /«miHa, thin
plate) + Gr. patronymic suflix -fSa, iiliir. of (Sijs, dc-teeniled
from): a family of sharks, with a fusiform body; the caudal
fill with the lower lobe a lillle smaller lluin the upper; with
a keel on each side of the tail ; and two dorsal fins, the first
of which is behind the pectorals. The family embraces
.several genera, including the mackerel shark, and the for-
midable man-eater of the American waters. The row of
teelh on the U|iper jaw in all these forms exhibits a break a
short distance from the symphysis on each side, where the
teeth are much smaller than the others. Two well-defined
groups represent the family— viz., Lamiue, in whicli the teeth
are lanceolate or sigmoidally curved, and not serrated ; and
Careharixlontes, in wliich the teeth are triangular and ser-
rated. The two groups are represented in the Atlantic as
well as Pacific waters of North America, the Atlantic spe-
cies being Lnmnn rorniibira and Varcharodon rnrrhartaa.
The family was well rei)reseiited in past geological epochs,
LAMONT
LAMPS, KLECTRIC
71
and enormous teeth of Carcharmhrn arc found in Tortiary
beds. Revised by D. S. Jordan.
Lamont, Baxiel Scott, A. M. : U. S. Secretary of War;
b. at Cortlaiidville, N. Y., Feb. !), 1851 ; educated at McGran-
ville Academy and Union College, Mr. Lamont was |)ri-
vate secretary to Mr. Cleveland while Governor of Xew
York 1883-8.T; and private secretary to Mr. Cleveland dur-
ing his first term as President 1885-^9. In 1893 he entered
Mr. Cleveland's cabinet as Secretary of War. C. H. T.
Lamotte, hiii'mot', Antoine Houdard, de: author and
critic; b. in Paris. France, Jan. 17. 1673; studied in a Jes-
uit college; obtained success in writing operas of the pas-
toral type, and also with four tragedies, of which Inez de
Castro (1723) is considered the best. lie became blind at
the age of forty; was admitted to the Academy in 1710;
was dramatic censor, and noted for the literary paradoxes
in his critical essays. He wrote many fables, odes, and ec-
logues, depreciated Homer, and brought out an " improved
and corrected " Iliad in French verse, reduced to ten books,
which involved him in a violent controversy with Madame
Dacier. D. in Paris, Dee. 26, 1731. His complete works
form 10 vols. (1754). Revised by A. G. Canfielu.
Lamp [from 0. Fr. lampe < Lat. lampns — Gr. Xaixnis,
torch, candle, lamp, deriv. of Kanneiv, shine] : a contrivance
for providing light by burning some liquiil, which is raised
to the flame by means of a wick, and so burned slowly and
regularly. The simplest lamp is a mere bowl or saucer, in
which a wick is dipped ; this sometimes floats in the com-
bustible liquid, being held up to the surface at one end by
a floating ring or disk, and sometimes lies on the edge of
the vessel in a groove, or corrugation, or spout made for the
purpose. The lamps which hang in the mosques of Damas-
cus and Cairo, often of splendid enameled glass or Persian
decorated pottery, are of the former kind, as are the silver
and brass ones so numerous in the larger Roman Catholic
churches of Europe. The Greek and Roman lamps were
generally of the other sort. They exist by thousands in
museums, occasionally richly adorned, but much more com-
monly made in the cheapest way of common pottery. The
bronze lamps of Etruscan make are sometimes very richly
adorned with relief sculptures. Some have several wicks ;
one in the Museum of Cortona has sixteen, surrounding a
central reservoir ; this one was intended to be hung from
the ceiling or from a projecting arm, as it has no foot, and
the under side is richly adorned. Some bronze lamps found
in Pompeii, and now in the Naples Museum, are far more
delicately and tastefully made than the Etruscan specimens.
One large one at Naples has a beautiful stand of bronze
about 6 inches high, evidently intended to rest upon a table,
and to raise the low and flat lamps to a convenient height
for reading. Among the Romans of means it was more
general to rest the lamp upon or to hang it from a Caxdela-
BRUM (g. v.). It is not known that the ancients had any
means of increasing the light, steadying the flame, or pre-
venting smoking, such as the modern lamp-chimney.
All the modern devices for imjjroved lighting by means
of lamps consist in new fluids for burning, or in appliances
for making the flame brighter and steadier, or both. Thus
petroleum has been used in Asia for many centuries, but
modern ingenuity has provided a purified iforra of it, and
has also furnished lamps which burn it without smoke, with
a vivid and steady light, and with little danger of explosion
or of the flame communicating with the fluid in the reser-
voir. Of all these improvements, the greatest is the lamp-
chimney, jiruducing a steady upward current of air. The
cylindrical wick, moving up or down between two concen-
tric tubes, and allowing the air to reach the inside as well
as the outside of the flame, is a further advance ; this, of
course, would be impracticable without the chimney.
There are certain devices which aim to supplement and
assist the capillary attraction of the wick, such as that of
the moderator-lamp, which has an apparatus with a piston
pressing downward upon the oil in a tulie, and controlled
by a spring; and the carcel-lamp, in which a clockwork
pump keeps up a steady supply of oil.
By extension the term lamp is applied to many lighting
appliances which are not based upon a burning liquid ;
thus the oxyhydrogen light in some of its forms is called
Dobereiner's lamp, Drummond's lamp, and by other simi-
lar names, and in electric lighting it is usual to speak of
arc-lamps and incandescent lamps.
Lampndedro'niia [in Gr. Aa/iiraSjjSpo^ro, the torch-race] :
a race originally intended to commemorate the bringing of
fire from heaven by Prometheus, who concealed it in a reed,
and as he ran from heaven to earth swung the reed to keep the
spark alive. Several files, with several relays of racers in
each file, competed with each other for the prize. Each
runner had to maintain a high rate of speed, and hand over
the torch still lighted to the next runner in his file. The
last runner in a given file, who first reached the goal with his
torch lighted, gained the victory for his file, so that he was
spoken of as the first and last ninner. This race was the
most popular festival at Athens, as well as throughout the
Greek world, for it was held in honor of all the fire and light
gods. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lampa^ias: city (former government abolished 1889,
present city organized Apr., 1890) ; capital of Lampasas
CO., Tex. (for location of county, see map of Texas, ref.
4-H); on the Sulphur fork of the Lampasas river, and the
Gulf, Col. and S. Fe Railway; 60 miles N. W. of Austin.
It is in an agricultural and stock-i-aising region, has an as-
sessed property valuation of ovir .s2,000,000, and contains
a national bank with capital nf ssii.iido. and a monthlv and
three weekly periodicals. Pop. (188U) 653 ; (1890) 2,408.
Lampblack: a term applied technically to carbonaceous
pulverulent matters deposited during the imperfect com-
bustion of carburetted gases or vapors. The quality, both
as regards fineness and color, for use in pigments, blacking,
and printing-inks, varies gi-eatly with the materials burned
in the manufacture and with the methods employed. For
the cheaper commercial qualities the materials employed
are gas-tar, wood-tar, petroleum, soft resinous woods like
pine, pitch, rosin, and even bituminous coals. In making
ordinary lami)black several qualities are obtained at the
same time in the same apparatus, by means of the follow-
ing arrangement : The fireplace is connected with the soot-
chambers by means of a brickwork gallery or horizontal
flue at least 14 feet long, in which inferior tarry material
deposits. A series of chambers or condensers then usually
follows, in which the successive deposits increase in fineness
and value successively. The last chamber has suspended
over it a loose conical hood, of coarse woolen material,
through which the draught percolates, and which of course
collects the finest black of all. As the pores of this hood
become clogged it is shaken or tapped. Its contents are re-
served for fine printer's ink and similar uses.
Lampblack in ciiide form always contains some oily,
tarry, or resinous matters. When printer's inks or oil-col-
ors are to be prepared, these impurities are immaterial, but
when water-colors are wanted, as when to be ground with
gum-water to make imitation India inks, etc., the resinous
and tarry matters must be removed beforehand. This may
be done by careful calcination, but not without detriment
to the quality of the finer blacks. A better way, therefore,
is to work into a paste with heated oil of vitriol, which
chars and destroys the hydrocarbonaceous matters. Thor-
ough washing with water yields then a very superior ma-
terial for India ink. Revised by Ira Kemsex.
Lamprey [M. Eng. lampreie, from 0. Fr. lamproie < Lat.
lam'petra (later himpedra), lamprey] : the common name of
the Pelrotnyzontidtp. cartilaginous fishes of the group Hy-
peroartia. class Marsipohraiichii, having an eel-like body, a
round, sucking mouth with numerous teeth, and seven round
gill-holes on each side of the neck. Europe has two abun-
dant species, the Petromyzon marinus and Lampeira fluvi-
atilis; the U. S. have a number of species, among which
are P. marinii« and species of Ammoccefes and nearly allied
genera. They are jjrized as food by some. The lampreys
are represented in Australia by the pouched lamprey (Ge-
otria austral is), which has an enormous pouch upon the
throat. See Petromvzoxtib^.
Lampri'diiis, ^lius: one of the scriptores historic
Au(jnsf(i>. who lived in the time of Constantine the Great.
Pour biographies are inscribed with his name — nauudy, those
of Commodus, Antoninus Diadumenus, Elagabalus, and
Alexander Severus. See Augustan Historv.
Lamps : See Lamp.
Lampsaciis {^iii^oKos) : ancient Greek city in Mysia, on
the Hellespont, opposite Callipolis ; famous for its wines; a
center of phallic worship. \\ ith Myus and Magnesia it was
assigned to Themistocles for his maintenance. Few remains
exist. Lapsaki, a modern village of 200 houses, occupies
the ancient site. E. A. 6.
Lamps. Electric : devices for converting the energy of
an electric current into light. The two systems of lighting
72
LAMPS, KLKCTRIC
by cicttricitv have been described under Klkctric Lkihtino.
It reinuiiis "to describe somewhat more mimitelv the con-
struction and operation of the devices for the utiliziilion of
the electric arc,
and of filowiufj
carbon filaments
for the purpose of
artificial illumina-
tion.
The numerous
practical devices
which have been
used to secure the
adjustment of the
t wo carbon-pencils
as they wear away,
when "the electric
arc is maintained
between their sep-
arated ends, may
be divided into two
j;eneral classes —
one for use on con-
stant-current cir-
cuits, and the oth-
er on constant |)o-
lenlial circuits.
The former class
constitutes the
larger number of
lamps in operation
in the U. S. (18U4),
but the latter class
is coming; rapidly
into public favor.
Both classes are subdivided into lamps for direct currents
and lamps for alternating currents.
The operating mechanism of constant-current lamps is
either differential in action or else the feeding of the u)iper
carbon is effected wholly by means of a high resistance elec-
tro-magnet connected as a shunt or by-path to the arc.
While the main current traverses the arc, a small part goes
past by this shunt.
Fig. 1 illustrates one form of differential lamp. The up-
per or series electro-magnet is wound with a few turns of
coarse wire, while the lower or shunt
magnet is wound with a fine wire
helix of many turns. The ends of
this latter are connected to the pos-
itive and negative terminals as a
shunt to the arc.
The regulation of this lamp is
effected in the following manner :
The movement of the upper car-
bon-holder is controlled by a train
of wheels carried on a lever which
swings on a fulcrum. This lever is
shown in the center of the figure.
The e.scai)ement is held out of ac-
tion when the lever is drawn up so
(US to separate the carbon-pencils,
and is set free when the lever is
drawn down. The lever has at-
tached to it a retractile spring, ca-
pable (if lifting it tiigclher with the
ciinnei-ted train <iC wheels, llie car-
b(iu-li(ilder, and the upiier carbon-
]iencil. The iron core of the upper
magnet rests on the lever and de-
presses it. As soon as the current
IS sent through the lamp, the core
of the upper helix is lifted and the
spring lifts tln' levir and the up[ier
carbon by means of the gear-train.
The arc is thus formed between the
carbons, and a-s they wear away the
P,„ .J [lotential difference between ihcm
nicreiusrs and a larger current is
deflected through the shunt. The shunt magnet then draws
down its core and the attached lever till the es<'apemenl is
rcleitsed and the wheel-train allows the carbons to approach
by gravity. This shortens the arc, diminishes the shunt
current, and the lever rist's by the combined action of the
series magnet and retractile spring till the cscaperaent is
The arc is thus maintained at a nearly con-
again locked.
slant length. ....
In the other class of constant-current lainpsthe series coil
has no office except to lift the carbon-holder when Uie current
is turned on, and its armature is then held rigidly in front
of its poles. The shunt magnet is arranged to release the
hold of the clutch on the rod of the carbon-holder, or to re-
lease the detent which holds the rack and pinion out of ac-
tion so long as the potential ditference between the carbon-
pencils is less than a predetermined value. The variation
of potential difference required to operate the shunt magnet
is ironi one to five volts.
Arc-lamps adapted to multiple lighting on constant po-
tential circuit contain only a shunt magnet, which serves
the ixirpose of feeding the upjier carbon downward.
The Siemens & Ilalske band lamp illustrates this type.
I''ig. 2 shows the actual mechanism, and Fig. 3 an outline of
the jiart.s. The name of tlio
lamp is derived from the
band of copper which is
wound on the drum b, and
carries the carbon-holder.
An inclined frame r turns
on pins at e and supports
the drum, the pinion-wheels,
and the escapement. The
magnet m is connected as a
shunt to the arc. Its attrac-
tion of its iron armature, e,
and the weight of the car-
bon-holder draw down the
frame r, while the opposing
spring./. ]iulls in the oppo-
site direction. When the
copper band unwinds, the
pinion-wheels revolve and
the escapement with its bal-
ance lever, a, oscillates rap-
idly. So long as the frame
is near its highest position,
a tongue projecting from a
strikes a stop, d, and the
motion of the gear-train is
arrested. When the frame
descends, the balance lever
is released and the copper
band is slowly unwound
from the drum by the weight
of the carbon and holder.
When the current is
turned on, the magnet m
draws down the frame, the
copper band unwinds, and
brings the carbons together.
This diverts the current
from the magnet, and the
sj)ring/ lifts the frame, and
the arc forms between the
carbons. Hy the separation
of the carlxms the magnet
m is again excited, and
draws down the frame to a position of equilibrium. Any
increase of the arc thus causes an excitation of the magnet
sufficient to release the escapement at the point g, and .so to
.start the feeding mechanism. The feed of the lamp is thus
secured at regular time-intervals.
Two such lamps can be placed in series on a 110-volt cir-
cuit. A regulating resistance must be placed in series with
them ; for, if the resistance of the circuit is nearly all in the
arcs, an increa.se in their length increases the resistance and
decrea.ses the current in nearly the same ratio, so that the
jiotential difference between the carbons remains nearly con-
slant, leaving no margin of change to operate the feeding
mechanism. About 2o ]>er cent, of the energy required
for the lamps is absorbed by this regulating resistance.
Arc-lamps for alternating currents are constructed in sub-
stantially the same manner as those for direct currents,
except that all iron composing the cores and armatures of
the electro-magnets must be laminated.
The light-emitting portion of an incandescent or glow-
lamp is the carbon filament. Its efficiency depends upon the
temperature at whi<'h it can be run. The possible limit is
the temperalure of the volatilization of carbon, which is
probably lower in a vacuum than at atmospheric pressure;
Fio. 8.
LAMPS, ELECTRIC
LANARKSHIRE
73
Fio. 4.
but there is another effect, which puts a lower limit upon
the temperature which can be maintained in practice.
When the filament is above red heat an action begins by
which the carbon is dissociated and is projected upon the
inclosing bulb, which gradually blackens by the deposit of
carbon particles. This disintegration is greater with fila-
ments having a dead-black surface than with those possessing
a smooth, hard, steel-gray one. Hence the latter is usually
the better, even though its eraissivity is smaller.
The successful processes of manufacturing filaments re-
quire the use of materials containing carbon in chemical
combination with other elements, such as
I ii ' cotton, silk, woody fiber, or pure cellu-
I lose. Such materials, after being reduced
^[^~r^ to the proper form, require baking at a
^^ ■ " '^ high temperature out of contact with the
air, and then raising to incandescence by
means of the electric current in an at-
mosphere of hydrocarbon vapor. The
first process is called carbonization ; the
second flashing. By the first, the vola-
tile constituents of the filament are driv-
en off, nearly pure carbon remaining ; by
the second, the filament is coated with
carbon from the dissociated vapor, the
deposit assuming the silvery-gray luster
so much desired for endurance.
Filaments made from the bamboo by
Edison's process are cut and shaped, bent
round a form, and carbonized. These
may be used without further treatment,
Viut they are improved by the flashing
])rocess.
The Swan process in England consists
in parchmentizing cotton thread by
drawing it through sulphuric acid, which
converts it into a substance called amy-
loid. It is then shaved down by pulling
through a sharp-edged draw-plate, carbonized on a form
which accommodates itself to the shrinkage of the thread
during the heating, cut into the required lengths, subjected
to the flashing process, and mounted in a glass globe.
Another process of treating cotton, resulting in practically
the same substance, consists in dissolving cotton in a solu-
tion of zinc chloride, forcing the viscous solution through a
small hole into a vessel containing alcohol, which hardens
it. This produces an amyloid thread of such uniform cross-
section that no shaving by a draw-plate is required.
In Weston's process the cotton is first converted into
pyroxyline and then into celluloid. This is rolled into thin
sheets and treated with ammonium sul-
phide, which converts it again into cel-
lulose. The filaments are cut or stamped
out of this flexible, transparent sub-
stance, and they are then carbonized in
the usual way.
When silk is used for making fila-
ments it does not require the action of
acid, but it may be carbonized without
preliminary treatment. Special precau-
tions must be taken with the tempera-
ture during the carbonization of animal
substances.
The treatment required to give to the
filaments the requisite thin coating of
dense carbon is best applied before
mounting, because of the brown deposit
which appears on the glass envelope.
The filament is mounted in a rarefied
atmosphere of benzole or pentane (Fig.
4), and is kept at a bright-red heat by
the electric current till it shows the de-
sired resistance. This process reduces
the resistance by thickening the fila-
ment, and at the same lime reduces the
emissivity. The filaments are attached
to the in-leading platinum wires by a
cemented or deposited carbon joint.
This deposit is best made in a hydrocar-
bon liquid. The filament is so clamped
to the wires that the cement which heats
the joint passes through only a short length of the carbon
near the platinum. A mixture of four parts of best kero-
sene and one part of turpentine gives a rapid and hard de-
1
Flo. .5. — Sixteen-can
die lamp.
posit, without danger to the operator. The filament near
the joint is raised to a bright-red heat, and a hard joint may
safely be made in the liquid in one minute.
The finished filament is finally mounted in a glass re-
ceiver, the air is exhausted as perfectly as possible, and the
globe is then hermetically sealed. The globe is provided
with two brass terminals (Fig. 5), connected electrically to
the ends of the filament, and these serve to connect the
lamp with the lighting mains by means of a screw or fric-
tion socket.
The diameter of a round filament may be expressed by
the following formula :
d = aS,
where a is a constant and c the current. The constant a is
/|S\
made up of two others, o and j8, such that a = ( - ) .
The following values of -a for filaments flashed to give a
definite ratio between their resistance cold and hot have
been computed by G. S. Ram :
Conductivity of flashed
Cold resistance.
filament (hot).
a
P
Hot resiitance.
Conductivity of equal fila-
ment not flashed (bott.
1-6
1167
1-43
1,715
10 68
1-7
1-362
1-43
1,469
1009
1-8
1-6
1-43
1.250
952
1-9
19
1«
1,053
902
20
2-28
1-43
876
8-46
2 1
2 83
1-43
707
7-91
2 2
3 52
1-43
568
7-35
2.3
4 62
1-43
433
6-72
2-4
6-44
1-43
311
601
An improvement in glow-lamps consists in filling the
globe, after exhaustion of air, with a rarefied vapor, pref-
erably one containing carbon. This vapor is not simply an
inert gas to preserve the carbon from chemical attack, but
it has a reparative function. By its means the waste of the
carbon, due to the disintegrating action previously described,
may be at least partially compensated, so that the efficiency
of the lamp remains more nearly constant throughout its
entire life. A filament overheated in such a vapor thickens
and falls in resistance, while one overheated in a vacuum
increases in resistance.
For further details relating to the history and manufac-
ture of incandescent lamps, reference may be made to The
Electric Light. Alglave and Boulard ; Tlie Incandescent
Lamp and its JIanufacture, G. S. Ram.
Henry S. Carhart.
Lamp-shells : a name applied in a large sense to all the
Brachidpoda (g. i:), but especially to those of the family
TfiREBRATi'LiD.E {q. v.). The valyes
are united, and the pedicle for attach-
ment passes out through a foramen of
the projecting one, as the wick passed
out of an ancient lamp ; hence the
name. Shells of several species of
inollusks are also used as lamps (as the
Eusus antiqtius in Shetland).
Lanarkshire, or Clydesdale [Lan-
ark is from Cymric Llaneret, a forest
glade] : from its manufactures and
nietallurgic industries and mineral
wealth, the most important of Scottish
counties ; bounded on the N. by Dumbartonshire and Stir-
lingshire, on the S. by Dumfriesshire, on the W. by Ayrshire,
Renfrewshire, and Dumbartonshire, and on the E. by Stir-
lingshire. Linlithgowshire, Midlothian, and Peeblesshire.
Area, 883 sq. miles. The county is traversed by the Clyde,
which, rising in the extreme south, flows generally N. and
N. W., and falls into the Firth of Clyde at Dumbarton.
The whole of the Clyde basin is occupied by a Carboniferous
formation, with valuable beds of coal, iron-stone, and lime-
stone. The surface rises from north to south up the valley
of the Clvde. attaining an altitude of 2,403 feet above sea-
level. The village of Leadhills (1,307 feet) is the highest in-
habited land in Scotland.
Divisions. — Lanarkshire is governed by a lord-lieuten-
ant and a county council. For administrative purposes it
is divided into three ward.s. Uj)per, Middle, and Lower, of
which Lanark, Hamilton, and Glasgow are respectively the
capitals. For parliamentary purposes the county has six
Lsimp-shell.
74
LANCASHIRE
divisions, each rptiiniiiip one niomhcr. Bpsidcs tlipso, Glas-
gow n-turns seven menilx«rs, one for each of its seven divi-
sions. Lanark, Ainlrie, and Hamilton arc prouped with
■ Falkirk in Stirllnjrshire and with IJnlith'iowsliire to form
the Falkirk l)oronj;lis, which return one member. One mem-
ber is also retnrned by Glusgow Univei-sity in conjiinetion
with the I'niversity of Aberdeen.
Pupiiliiliiiii and I'rinripiil Toirnx. — In 1831 the popula-
tion of Lanarkshire was :tl6.Slil, which ha<l become y04.413
in ISSl, and, inereasin;; IJtit! |>cr cent, during the succecd-
ins ten years, reached in 18!)1 1,046.040, more than a fourth
of the whole population of Scotland. In 1891 (ilasgow had
65().!t46 inhabitants; in June, 181)3, 785,000. The popula-
tion in IS'.d of the other large towns was as follows: (iovan.
61,364: I'artlck. 36.5;!H : Coatbridge, 2!).!)% ; Hamilton. 24.-
863; Motherwell, 18,662; Maryhill, 18,313; Airdrie, 15.133.
Lanark, witli a population in 18111 of 5,537, is the old county-
town and a royal burgh. The weaving of winceys, shirtings,
and druggets is its principal industry. Within 3 miles of
Lanark are the three famous falls of the Clyde, and nearer
it the manufacturing village of New Lanark, the scene for
many years of Robert Owen's social-industrial experiments.
Near Hamilton is Hamilton Palace, the seat of the Dukes of
Hamilton, and Bothwell Bridge, where the Duke of Jlon-
niouth defeated the Covenanters in the engagement described
in Sir Walter .Scott's Old Mortal it;/, and aljout 12 miles from
Lanark are the remains of Douglas Castle, which was the
scene of his Castle Dangerous.
Industries. — In 18!)1 10,382 persons, 8,179 of them females,
were employed in cotton-mainifactures, 39,820 in coal and
other mines, and 32.391 in the iron-manufactures. Cotton-
manufacture was intmduced into Lanarkshire at the New
Lanark .Mills about 1785 by David Dale, the father-in-law of
Robert Owen, and with calico-printing and kindred processes
Ijecame a great industry. (See (iL.\soow.) The production
and smelting of iron ore in Lanarkshire was comparatively
limited until the discovery of the blaokband ironstone con-
joined with the invention'of the hot blilst by Neilson, which
enable<l raw coal to be used in blast furnaces instead of coke,
for the production of which the coal, abundant in Lanark-
shire anci elsewhere in Scotland, was not generallv suited. In
1829, just after Neilson took out his patents, the" total output
of iron in Scotland was only 29,000 tons. In 1891 Lanark-
shire alone turned out 473,013 tons of pig iron, in the pro-
duction of which were used 1,093,465 tons of iron ore and
1,023,048 tons of coal. In the same year there were in the
county 73 blast furnaces, of which 41 were in blast, and
from the mines of Leadhills, which have been worked for
ages, there were raised 2.084 tons of lead ore. Yielding 1,544
tons of the dressed metal and 11,848 oz. of silver. In 1891
the output of coal in Lanarkshire amounted to 14,093,000
tons, being more than half the whole output of Scotland
in that year, which was 25,420,161 tons. Large quantities
of fire-clay, of oil-shale, of limestone, and of building-stone
are also raised. Besides its maimfactures, ClvdesJale is cele-
brated for its fruit and for its breed of horses.
Ilistortj. — Before the Roman invasion Lanarkshire be-
longed to the Damnii. The Roman occupation must have
been mainly military, since no traces of permanent settle-
ments are found. On the departure of the Romans, Lanark-
.shire was occupied by the old tril)e then known as the Strath-
clyde Britons. Aftir nniny vicissitudes it became part of
the kingilom of Scotland under .Malcolm Canmore. After-
ward it was a.ssociated with the career of William Wallace,
one of whose first exploits was to drive out the Knglish. The
men of Lanarkshire playeil a prominent part in resisting the
persecution of the Presbyterians by Charles II. The subse-
quent hi.story of Lamirkshire is merged in that of Glasoow
{q. v.). .See Irving, Upper Ward of Lanarkshire (1HG4);
Groome, Ordnance Oazelteer of Scotland (1884) ; parlia-
mentary i)apers, etc. F. Espi.nasse.
Lanrashire. or Coiintj- of Lancaster : a county in the
northwest of Englanil ; bounded on the W. by the Irish
Sea, on the K. by Yorkshire, on the N. bv Cumberland and
Westmoreland, and on the S. and S. Vl. by Cheshire. Area.
1,887 s<|. miles. The pliysicul aspects of Lancashire range
from the flat country between the .Mersey and the Liverpool
and Manchester Itailwav, which was carried at an immense
cost through a peaty and boggy district, to the eastern hills,
which reach an elevation of 1,831 feet, and to those in Fur-
ncss, of which the Old .Man of Coiuston is 2.633 feet above
the sea-level. The district of Furne.ss in the northwest is
detached from the rest of the county, and includes Coniston
Lake, while Windermere extends into it for several miles.
Furne.ss also contains some of the richest iron ore and most
productive iron-works in the kingilom. The great Lanca-
shire coal-field, some 217 miles in extent, irregularly lies
between the two most important rivers in the county, the
Kibble and the Jlersey, Both rivers form estuaries as they
flow into the Iri.sli Sea.
(ion-rnment and Parliamentary liepresentation. — Since
the accession of Henry IV., Duke of Lancaster, to the throne,
the duchy of Lancaster has been an appendage of the sov-
ereigns of England, and the revenue derived from the crown
lands in the duchy is part of the personal income of the sov-
ereign. Unlike the revenues from the other crown lands,
this does not become a jiart of the consolidated ftnid from
wJii<'h allowances are granted by Parliament, but ]iasses di-
rectly to the sovereign. The annual net income from this
source accruing to the Queen averages t'50.000. There is a
chancellor of the duchy, but his local duties are merely
nominal. He is, however, a member of the Government,
and frequently a caliinct niini.ster. The duchy of Lancaster
extends beyond the county, which is also a county palatine,
with a court of chancery possessing a certain legal jurisdic-
tion. The administrative body in Lancashire i.s, as in other
counties, a county council, elected by the ratepayers; but
fifteen large boroughs have been constituted administrative
counties of themselves. Lancashire returns fifty-seven mem-
bers to the House of Commons, or nearly an eighth of the
members returned by England, exclusive of Wales. Of
these, twenty-three are county members; the rest represent
boroughs.
I'opulation, etc. — At the census of 1891 the population of
Lancashire was 3.957.906, one larger than that of any Eng-
lish county with the exception of the county of J>ondon.
In 1881 it was 3.454,224. Laiu'aster, which gives its name to
the county, is the county-town, but is comparatively insig-
nificant ; pop. (1891) 31,034. The following cities and towns
have populations exceeiling 100.000 : Liveriiool, 517,951 ;
Manchester, 505,343; Salford, 198,136: Oldham, 131,463;
Blackburn, 120,064; Bolton, 115,002; Preston, 107,573.
Knowsley. near Prcscot, is tlie scat of the Earls of Derby,
and Worslcy, near Manchester, is that of the Earls of Elles-
mere, to whom it.'has descended from the last Duke of
Bridgewater, the founder of British canal navigation. The
remains of Furness Abbey are very fine examples of medi-
aeval ecclesiastical architecture.
Communications. — Lancashire is traversed liy raihvaysin
every direct ion, and to a less degree by canals. (For the Man-
chester Ship-canal, see Mancmkster.) A new railway, the
Lancashire, Derbyshire and East Coast line, is in course of
construction to traverse England in a straight line, starting
at Warrington, and having its terminus at Sutton, on the
Lincolnshire coast.
Industries. — For more tlian a century the chief industry
of Lancashire has been the manufacture of cotton goods,
and the county is the center of the cotton-manufacture of
the world. This pre-eminence is in great part due to the
machinery invented by natives of the county. (Si'c Ark-
WRIOHT, kirnARi); Ckojii'Ton, Samiki. ; and Hakureavks,
James.) Four-fifths of the cotton worked up in the nulls of
Manchester, Salford. Oldham. Blackburn, and Preston, and
other places is supplied bv the U. S. Between 1837 and
188(; the nund)cr of spindles increased from 18.000.000 to
43.0(J0,()00. and the number of looms from lOO.OOO to 600,-
000. The number of persons employed in cotton-factories
in 1870 was 450.087 : in 1885. 504.069. Of the popiUation of
Lancashire, about 528.000 persons are directly employed in
cotton-manufacture, the femak's to the males in the propor-
tion of 3 to 2. Of the whole number. 25.000 are employed
in bleaching, dyeing, and printing calicoes. Among other
industries is the numufacture of linen, which in 1891 em-
ployed some 17,000 iJcrsons. while the woolen and worsted
numufacture employed 10.6:i5 ; silk g Is, 5,080; alkali-
maimfacture, 8,000;"glass-making, 7,705; tanning and leath-
er-nnmufacture, 43,780; nuu'hinery, especially that required
for cotton-mills, 44,636. The output of coal by 79,546 min-
ers was 22,722,618 tons. In iron mining and manufacture
64,100 persons were em|)loyed. and the total make of pig iron
was 715,305 tons. Out of'4.H blast furnaces 26 were in use.
Jlistiiri/. — LaiU'Mshire was part of the province occupied
by the Brigantes before it became part of Honum Britain,
and after the departure of the Romans it bccainc part of
the Sa.\on kingdom. It had not attained the dignity of a
county when the Doomsday survey wasnuide. audit was only
after there was a duchy of Lancaster that Lancashire wjis
LANCASTER
LANCET FISHES
75
created a county palatine of Edward lU. At the Reforma-
tion many of the old families remained loyal to the Church
of Rome, but the middle class became strongly Protestant,
and with the triumph of Protestantism Lancashire was al-
most the only county which adopted the Presbyterian form
of church government. The Jacobite rebellions of ITlo and
1745 found many adherents in Lancashire. Through the
development of the cotton-manufacture Lancashire became
not only populous and wealthy, but politically important.
It was 'the headquarters of the Anti-Corn-law League
{g. v.), which overthrew the corn-laws and with them protec-
tion. Since that achievement the principal incident in the
history of Lancashire has been the cotton famine caused by
the cessation of supplies of cotton during the civil war in
the U. S.
The best work on Lancashire is the Jlisiorij of the Duchy
and County Palatine of Lancaster, by Edward Baines (4
vols., 3d ed. 1886). The standard work on the cotton indus-
try is The History of the Cutton-manufacture, by his son,
Sir Edward Baines (1835). Of the development of the cot-
ton-manufacture since 1835. there is an instructive sketch
by J. Slagg, formerly M. P. for JIanchester, in vol. ii. of
Humphry Ward's Reign of Victoria. Also see P. Espi-
nasse's Lancashire Worthies (2 series, 1874-77), which in-
cludes lives of the founders of Lancashire industrialism in
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. F. Espinasse.
Lancaster, langkas-ter : the capital of Lancashire, Eng-
land; on the Lune, near its mouth; 5U miles N. N. W. of
Manchester (see map of England, ref. 6-F). It is a neatly
built town, with an old castle, a fine aqueduct, which car-
ries the Lancaster Canal across the Lune, and manufac-
tures of furniture, leather, and cast-iron work. Pop. (1891)
31,038.
Lancaster : town ; capital of Coos co., N. II. (for location
of county, see map of New Hampshire, ref. 3-F); on the
Connecticut river, and the Concord and Mont, and the Me.
Cent, railways ; 137 miles N. of Concord. It has 5 churches,
public librarv, an academv, several manufactories, and 3
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,721 ; (1890) 3,373; (1893)
estimated, 4,000. Editor " Coos Couxty Democrat."
Lancaster : village ; Erie co., N. Y. (for location of coun-
ty, see map of New York, ref. 5-C); on the Del., Lack, and
W. and the Lehigh Val. railways ; 10 miles E. of Buffalo.
It has manufactories of foundry products, glass, soap, brick,
flour, and tanned leather, and a weekly newspaper. Pop.
(1880) 1,602; (1890) 1,692.
Lancaster: city; capital of Fairfield co., 0. (for location
of county, see map of Ohio, ref. 6-P) ; on the Hocking river
and the Cin. and Musk. Val. and the Col., Hocking Val. and
Toledo railways; 30 miles S. E. of Columbus. It is in an
agricultural and natural-gas region; has a court-house that
cost $150,000, several public schools, and 2 daily and 4
weekly newspapers; and manufactures flour, foundry prod-
ucts, shoes, glass, and agricultural implements. The State
farm for the reformation of boys is in the suburbs. Pop.
(1880) 6,803 ; (1890) 7,555. Editor of " Gazette."
Lancaster: city (settlwl 1729, State capital 1799-1812,
incorporated as a city 1818) ; capital of Lancaster co.. Pa.
(for location of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6-H) ;
on Conestoga river, and the Penn. and the Phila. and Read-
ing railways; 36 miles B. S. E. of Harrisburg, 68 miles W.
of Philadelphia. It is in a rich wheat, tobacco, and lime-
stone region, and is noted for its manufactures. The cen-
sus returns of 1890 showed that 508 manufacturing estab-
lishments (representing 74 industries) reported. These had
a combined capital of $7,389,952 ; employed 7,385 persons ;
paid $2,362,835 for wages and $5,815,765 for materials ; and
had products valued at $10,293,638. The manufactures in-
cluded cotton goods (capital investment»$l,953,109, value of
products $1,336,384); cigars and cigarettes (capital $1,740.-
098, products $3,022,728) ; foundry and machine-shop prod-
ucts (capital $430,733) ; malt liquors (capital $279,090) ; car-
riages and wagons (capital $268,835) ; and confectionery
(capital $231,5:i5). The city is the seat of Franklin and
Marshall College (German Reformed, organized 1852), which
in 1893 had 19 professors and instructors, 270 students,
nearly 20,000 volumes in its libraries, and an endowment of
$490,000, and comprised a college of liberal arts, a prepara-
tory academy, and a theological seminary. The city has an
assessed valuation of over $15,000,000, 8 libraries of various
kinds, 7 national banks with combined capital of $1,685.'000,
and 5 daily, 10 weekly, and 7 monthly periodicals. In 1777,
during the occupation of Philadelphia by the British, the
Continental Congress held its sessions in Lancaster, and in
1818-25 the citv was the largest inland one in the U. S.
Pop. (1880) 25,769 ; (1890) 32,011.
Lancaster: town; capital of Lancaster co., S. C. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of South Carolina, ref. 4-E) ; on
the Rich, and Danv. and the Charleston, Cin. and Chi. rail-
ways; 72 miles N. of Columbia. It is in an agricultural re-
gion, and has 5 churches for white people and 3 for colored,
graded schools, and 3 newspapers. Pop. (1880) 681 ; (1890)
1,094; (1893) estimated with suburbs. 1,400.
Editor of " Ledger."
Lancaster, Joseph : educator; a member of the Society
of Friends; b. in London, Nov. 25, 1778; opened a school
for children in Southwark in 1798 on the principle of mu-
tual instruction, and having achieved a brilliant success, es-
tablished numerous schools on the same plan in other cities,
and devoted himself to the popularization of his method.
In 1818 he removed to the U. S.. where he had some success,
and obtained from the Legislature of Canada a grant for
the purpose of establishing his system of instruction. D. in
New York, Oct. 23, 1838. His family removed to Jlexico,
where several of his grandchildren, under the name of Lan-
caster-Jones, have figured in politics, and where his system
was received with much favor, and was supported by legis-
lative grants under the management of a national Lancas-
terian society. The same system has been largely adopted
in Colombia and other parts of South America.
Lancaster, Duchy of: a territorial division of England
nearly corresponding to the county of Lancashire, but dis-
tinguished from it in law as a separate administrative en-
tity. It derives its origin from a royal charter of Edward
III., by which it was conferred upon Henry, Earl of Derby,
JIar. 6, 1351, and on his death in 1362 it was granted to the
king's son, John of Gaunt, and his heirs forever. It re-
ceived a grant of a chancery and palatine privileges in 1^77 ;
became a crown possession on the accession of Henry IV.
to the throne in 1399, at which time the order of succession
to the duchy Tvas declared to be independent of the succes-
sion of the crown, so that should the house of Lancaster
lose the latter it might still retain the former. This ex-
pectation was not realized, for on the accession of the house
of York in 1461 Edward IV. confiscated it to the crown, and
in turn attempted to make it a private appanage of his de-
scendants. To this Parliament gave its consent, but it was
provided that it should be " held separately from all other
hereditaments." As a result of this, the government of the
duchy has been vested in the sovereign, not as King of Eng-
land, but as Duke of Lancaster, and the revenues of the
duchy are exempt from parliamentary control. (See Lanca-
shire.) Since 1873 tlie administration of justice has been
assimilated to that of the rest of the country.
Lancaster. House of: See England, John of Gaunt,
Henry IV.. V., and XL
Lancaster Sound : a body of water leading from Baffin's
Bay to Barrow Strait, between the island of North Devon
on its northern side and several minor islands on its south-
ern. It is 250 miles long, forms the entrance to the north-
western passage, and was discovered in 1616 by Baffin.
Lance : a thrusting weapon, designed to be used in the
hand, and not thrown as a dart or javelin. It derives its
principal effect from the velocity of at tack, and for this reason
is used by mounted men only. It was the favorite weapon
of the knights, and as used by them was sometimes 20 feet
long and correspondingly heavy. The modern lance is usu-
ally from 10 to 12 feet long, the handle of hollow steel
or tough wood, and the blade of steel about a foot long. A
small flag or pennon is fixed on the handle near the head.
The lance is not used in the U. S. or in Austria, and al-
though the typical weapon of the Cossacks and other East-
ern tribes, it has been in part replaced by the saber in the
Russian Cossafk regiments. On the other hand, it has been
adopted in Germany as the principal arm of the cavalry,
and in addition to the carbine and saber is carried by all
mounted troops (1894). It is used to a greater or less extent
by the armies of other European powers, and the tendency
to its abandonment which was developed after the wars of
1870-71 and 1877-78 seems to have been somewhat checked
by the action of Germany. The 5th, 9th, 12th, 16th, and
17th British light cavalry are lancers. James Mercur.
Lancelet : See Leptocardii.
Lancet Fishes : See Acanthueid.*;.
LANCET WINDOW
LAND LEAGUE
Lunrct Window: a naino npplied to the long, narrow-
poiiituil wiiuluns clmraetcristio of tin- ecdosiiistioal archi-
tecture of KnglanJ in the tirst half of the thirteenth cen-
tury. With tlie intnxiuction of the pointed arch early in
that century, these tall and narrow windows, often without
a single einbellishrneut to their deep and flaring jainbs, grad-
ually took the place of the shorter and broader round-
arched windows of the Norman style. They were used
singlv, in (wiirs, or in threes, except in a few cases where five
are grouped together, as in the I'ive Sisters in York Cathe-
dral. They mark an intenuediale stage betwecii the Nor-
man winilow and the windows with bar-tracerics of the
fullv develojied Gothic or decorated style. They are not
found in French architecture, where the corresponding
stage is marked by the use of coupled windows separated by
a single or clustered shaft, and spanned by a single dis-
charging-arch or hooil-mold. The name " lancet-pointed "
has bt'en sometimes applied to the English Gothic style of
the early thirteenth century on account of the prevalence
in it of lancet wimlows. A. D. F. Hamlin.
Lancewood : popular name of the wood of Guatteria
firgalii and laitnfolia. used (especially the former) for car-
riage-shafts. The tree is tall and very straight. It is of the
family Anonace(B, and grows in the West Indies. Lance-
wooti is also obtained from Duyitetia quitiirensia, of the same
family, a Brazilian tree. Revised by h. II. Bailev.
Lanciani, laiin-chaanee, Rodolfo A.mkdeo, Ph.D.,
LL. D., F. A. S. : arclia>ologist ; b. in Home, Italy, Jan. 1,
1847; was educated at the CoUegio Romano and University
of Rome ; in 1873 became .secretary of the arclL-eological
committee of Rome; in 187.5 vice-director of the Kircherian
Museum; in 1877 director of excavations; and in 1878 Pro-
fessor of Roman Topography in the University of Rome.
He has received degrees from the universities of Rome,
Harvard, (ilasgow, and Wur/.burg; is a member of .several
scientific institutes and academies, and hius been decorated
by the governments of Italy, Prussia, Russia, and other
countries. His published works number about 300, and in-
clude Im cilia di Porlo Roma (1870) ; Sulle vicende ediliiie
di Ituma (Rome, 1878); J coitunenlarii di Frontino intorno
le acque ffjli ac(iitedulli (Rome, 1880), a work crowned by
the Itoyal Academy at Rome ; L'aula e gli L'fficl del senato
Romano (Rome, 1883) ; Ancient Home in the Light of Re-
cent Discoveries (Boston, 1888); Pagan and Christian
Rome (Boston, 1892); and Archceological Maps of Ancient
Rome (.Milan, 18y:5).
Laiieiano, laim-chaa'no (Lat. Anxanum) : town of South-
em Italy (see map of Italy, ref. .5-F). This is one of the
most beautiful towns in the Abruzzi. It has many fine
public buildings, among which the cathedral should be first
named. This church. Our Lady of the Bridge, stands high
above the river-valley on grand and lofty Roman bridges of
the time of Dioclet ian, and from some points of view seems
to be suspeniled in the air rather than resting on the earth.
Its architecture, both external and internal, is striking.
Lanciano is in railwav communication with Ancona and
with Naples, and good common roads connect it with the
neighboring towns. It manufactures linen on a large scale ;
also silk, wool, and various chemical products. Pop. 8,234.
Lancrct, laan kra, Nicholas : painter ; b. at Paris, 1690.
His first ma-ster was Pierre d'Ulin, professor of the Acad-
emy, but a very poor painter. He afterward studied with
Claude Gillot, a pupil of Walteau. Lancret emulated Wat-
teau's style, so that his work was soon mistaken for the
ma-ster's. He was elected meinlK-r of the Academy in 1721
and in 1735 he received the title of counselor. D. in Paris
1743. W. J. S.
Land : See Property.
liiindaii, lilii ilow : town of Rhenish Bavaria, on the river
yuiieli ; 17 miles S. W. of Spires (see map of German Em-
pire, ref. 6-1)). It was from oIiUm times a fortress, but its
fortifications were destroyed in 1871. In the Thirty Years'
war it was taken eight tiines. It has a (iothic church built
in 128.5. and considerable tobacco manufactures. In 1884 it
was fortified bv Vauban, and wa.s thought impregnable, but
in 1702 Louis of Ba<len tfjok it. Pop. 11,136.
Lundati : See Carriages.
l/Und'Crab: name of a large number of tropical crabs,
remarkable as being gilled animals, which in the perfect
state are air-breathers. In the U. .S. the (ielasimus vocann,
or fiddler — so called because one of its claws is thought to
resemble a fiddle — distantly represents them. See Crau.
Lander, Loimsa: sculptor; b. at Salem, JIass., Sept. 1,
1826: early manifested her genius for sculpture by model-
ing likenesses of members of her family and executing
cameo heads; went to Rome in 1855; became a pupil of
Crawford, and modeled two statues, Tu-J)ay mnd Galatea;
also busts of llawlhornc and (iov. Gore of Massachusetts,
statuettes of Virginia Dare and Undine, a life-size statue
of Virginia, and a reclining figure of Evangeline.
Landes, hijind : department of France, bounded N. by
the (iironde, S. by the Basses-Pyrenees, and W. by the Bay
of Biscay. Area. 3,r)!)!) sq. mile.s. The eastern and south-
ern part s' are hilly and fertile, and well adapted for agri-
culture: much excellent wine is produced. The western
part, bordering on the ocean, consists only of desolate tracts
(landes) of sand-banks, marshes, and swamps, covered with
heath and dwarf shrubs, and inliabitcd by a few scattered
families, whose members stalk along on stilts in the sand,
herding sheep and swine. On the downs are forests of pine
and cork trees, ami these plantations alford some resources
to the inhabitants in cork-cutting and charcoal-burning.
Pop. (1891) 297,842. Capital, Mont-de-Marsan.
Land League : a popular organization for agrarian agi-
tation in Ireland. The years 1877-79 were characterized by
short crops and general agricultural depression throughout
Great Britain and Ireland. Distress in the poorer regions
of the latter island became very acute, and, as has always
happened in such circumstances, the perennial friction be-
tween landlords and tenants increased in intensity. The
number of evictions rose ra]>idly. with a corresponding mul-
tiplication of agrarian crimes ami hostile encounters between
populace and police. MiiOiael Davitt, a well-known agi-
tator, conceived in 1879 the plan of a general organization
of the Irish tenant-farmers for the purpose of maintaining
their interest in the existing contest and of agitating for a
general settlement of the hmg-debatcd land question. In
the autumn of that year Jlr. Parnell, wlio was just assum-
ing the leadcrslii|i of the Home Rule party, bec'ame con-
vinced of the utility of the project. Accordingly, on Oct,
21, 1879, a meeting of prominent Irishmen at the Imperial
Hotel, in Dublin, resulted in the formal organizatiim of the
Irish National Land League. Its objects were declared to
be, first, to effect a reduction of rack-rents; second, to pro-
mote the ownership of the land by the cultivators. Mr.
Parnell was chosen president ; Messrs. Kettle, Davitt, and
Brennan, secretaries ; and Messrs. Biggar, O'Sullivan, and
Egan, treasurers. The executive committee included some
sixty members, representing all parts of Ireland. For the
development of the organization it was ]iroposed to establish
a branch of the league in every parish or group of parishes
in Ireland, with a membership fee graduated according to
the value of the tenant's holding. Each branch was to be
under the immediate supervision of the ci'iitral executive,
and on the first of each month half of the funds in hand
had to be forwarded by the local trca.surer to the committee
at Dublin. The plan of the leaders conteniplate<l also the
establishment of affiliated branches in (ireat Britain, the
U. S.. and wherever else the Irish spirit was strong. The
money raised by the organization was to be devoli'd to the
relief of distress among the farmers, and to furnishing them
w'itli legal counsel in resisting oppression by the landlords.
An appeal to the Irish race was published, calling for finan-
cial anil moral support in the organized elTort to extirpate
landlordism from the soil of Ireland. Cimfiscation of land-
lord's rights was not advocated ; but the transference of
those rights to the tenants with fair compensation, and the
establislimenl thus of a peasant proprietary, were declared
to be indispensable to the jirospcrity of the land. On the
lines thus laid down (he Land League soon became a for-
midable organizatir)!). Mr. Parnell visited Amerii'a in the
winter of 1879, addressing large audiences throughout the
country, enlisting the co-operalion of prominent men, and
winning enthusiastic support for the enterprise. In Ireland
itself branches of the league sprang up everywhere, aiui be-
came centers of effective hostility, not only to oppressive
landlords, but to landlords in general. The constitution of
the league excluded from membershij) any one who took a
farm from which another had been evicted for non-payment
of unjust rent, or which had been surrendered on grounds of
excessive rent, as well as any one who took part in any ])roc-
ess of eviction, or who purchased stock or produce seized
for non-payment of rack-rent. These provisions snlTiciently
indicate the line of the Land League's activity. It every-
where worked for the prevention of evictions" and for the
LANDLORD AND TENANT
n
reduction of rent?, and as its membership grew it became
the real arbiter of all questions between landlords and
tenants. The agitation conducted by the league, and the
real distress that was conspicuous in Ireland, led Mr. Glad-
stone's newly established government in the summer of
1880 to take up a bill which had been originally proposed
by an Irish member, providing for a temporary suspension
of evictions for non-payment of rent during the existing dis-
tress. The measure passed the Commons, but was rejected
by the Lords by an overwhelming majority. This action
was followed by a great increase in the agitation in Ireland.
The league's membership and income greatly increased, and
agrarian disturbances became more serious. In the autumn
months the historic incident at C'apt. Boycott's Mayo farm
gave an enormous impetus to the practice which soon came
to bear his name. Mr. Forster, the Irish secretary, found
it practically impossible to enforce the laws in the face of
the hostile influences which developed under cover of the
league's authority. In Nov., 1880, the Government in-
stituted a prosecution on charges of conspiracy against Par-
nell and other leaders of the league, but failed to secure a
. conviction. At the opening of Parliament in Jan., 1881, the
cabinet announced a bill dealing with Irish land tenure, and
at the same time coercion bills, based on the disturbed con-
dition of Ireland. The coercion measures, after exciting
and revolutionary scenes in the Commons, due to the Irish
members' opposition, were passed by Mar. 1, and the ad-
ministration was thus enabled to contend on rather more
even terms, but with scarcely greater success, against the
agrarian movement. As to the crime which was rife in
Ireland, the chiefs of the Land League were sufficiently ex-
plicit in denunciation ; but their influence was inadequate
to control the passions which were aroused by the agitation.
Where the boycotting of land-grabbers was authoritatively
recommended, a more positive form of maltreatment might
be expected to follow in many cases ; where defraying the
legal expenses of persons charged with agrarian crime was
generally recognized as a relief of distress within the pur-
view of the league's financial system, it could hardly occa-
sion surprise if branches in the less enlightened regions
made positive appropriations for the commission of crime ;
and where the avowed policy of the organization was to
abolish unjust rents, it was not a long step in the ten-
ants' thought to the conception that all rents were unjust.
It was hoped by the Government that the passage of its
Land Bill in Aug., 1881, would cut the ground from under
the agitation. The law, however, while immensely bettering
the legal position of tenants, fell far short of the abolition
of landlordism. While a part of the less extreme element
in the Land League was disposed to accept gratefully the
concessions obtained by the law, and to suspend the agita-
tion, a convention of the organization at Dublin in Septem-
ber indorsed the policy recommended by Parnell, to test
the utility of the act for getting reduced rents, but, until a
favorable result from the test cases should be secured, to
maintain the attitude of resistance to the landlords. This
action sealed the doom of the Land League. Mr. Glad-
stone angrily denounced its proceedings as treasonable, and
prepared to suppress the organization. Already the ticket
of leave under which Davitt, a convicted Fenian, was at
large had been revoked, Davitt, Dillon, Sexton, and other
leaders had been arrested as suspects under the coercion
acts, and the funds of the league had been removed by the
treasurer, Patrick Egan, to Paris. On Oct. 13 Parnell was
arrested and committed to Kilmainham prison, where in the
next few days most of the other chiefs were sent. The pris-
oners promptly played their last card by issuing from the
jail the famous manifesto calling upon their followers to
refuse entirely the payment of rent to the landlords. As
promptly followed the Government's proclamation, Oct. 18,
declaring the Land League an uidawful body, and decree-
ing its suppression. After a stormy career of just two years
the organization ceased to exist. Agrarian agitation con-
tinuerl in a less systematic form to disturb Ireland, and a
year later the programme of the Land League, together
with that of Ilome Ride, was incorporated in the constitu-
tion of the Irish National League, which, under Parnell's
leadership, achieved many of the objects of the earlier asso-
ciation. See Ireland. William A. Dunning.
Landlord and Tenant {landlord is from 0. Eng. landh-
■Idford, owner of land, ruler of a country. See Lord] :
popularly, the owner of land and one who is, by agreement
with the owner and subject to the latter's title, entitled to
the temporary possession of the land. The term " owner "
is used in a very relative sense, however, as any one who
has an estate in lands, whether it be a fee simple, a life es-
tate, or merely a leasehold, may be a landlord ; the only req-
uisite to the existence of the relation being that the land-
lord shall have some portion or fragment of his estate left
after the termination of his tenant's estate. The estate or
interest of the tenant is called a " term " ; that which re-
mains to the landlord is known as the " reversion," being
that interest in, or remnant of, the estate which returns or
" reverts " to him when the tenant's term comes to an end.
This conception of tenancy is all that survives of feudal
tenure, as it prevailed under the earlier common law. By
that system all lands were held of, and in subordination to,
greater or lesser lords. This was true even of estates in
fee simple, notwithstanding the fact that they might be
alienated by the holder, or " tenant," and that, if he died
seised or possessed of such an estate, it would descend to
his heir. Such a tenant, whether in fee simple, or for Life, or
for years, or at will, was bound to make return for this " hold-
ing," or tenure, by rendering rent or other feudal services
to his lord. If this tenant of the lands sold them to an-
other, he would himself stand in the relation of a lord to the
purchaser, and the latter would be the tenant of the seller
and would be bound to render to him the rent or other serv-
ices due. And so the process might go on, creating an in-
definite number of lordships and tenancies intermediate be-
tween the original lord and the present tenant or owner of
the lands. This process of subinfeudation, as it was called,
was abolished by the statute (Jiiia Emptores (18 Edw. I.,
A. D. 1290), which destroyed the relation of landlord and
tenant in all cases except where the lord granted away only
a part of his interest in the land, so as to leave a reversion
in himself. This left the relation of tenure, or of landlord
and tenant, intact only where the holder of the greater es-
tate conveyed the lands to another for life, or for a term of
years, or to be held at the will of either party, and these are
the forms in which the relation has survived to this day.
Nature of the Relation. — The estate of the tenant was con-
ceived of at common law as being a practical ownership of
the property during his term. He was the " particular ten-
ant," while his landlord, whose estate was postponed during
the continuance of the term, was described as the " tenant in
reversion." The particular tenant could convey his interest,
whatever it might be, in whole or in part, without consulting
the wishes of his landlord. The latter, ho%vever, having parted
with the "particular" or present estate, had incapacitated
himself from further conveying the property by any of tha
methods of alienation known to the common law. His estate
in reversion was regarded as a mere future interest, an incor-
poreal right, not susceptible of seisin or of present convey-
ance, and he could transfer it only by a writing under seal,
technically known as a "grant," and which did not become
a complete conveyance even of such future interest until it
was acquiesced in by the particular tenant. The consent of
the latter was manifested by his "attorning" to the grantea
of the reversion ; that is to say, by making some formal
acknowledgment of the newcomer as his landlord. This
complex process, known as "grant and attornment," was
the only possible method of conveyance to a stranger in all
cases where the land was subject to a life estate or to a
term of years. There was one other mode of alienation
permitted to the landlord without waiting for the term,
which postponed his enjoyment of the estate, to come to an
end. He might, after the particular tenant had taken pos-
session, or "entered" under his lease, convey his interest
directly to the latter by a " release," as it was called, of his
reversion. This release, like the " grant " above described,
was also effected by a writing under seal, and it operated to
vest in the particular tenant the greater but remote estate
of his landlord, which, combining with the tenant's right
of present possession, gave the latter the entire estate of
freehold of which the landlord had originally been possessed.
This result is technically called " merger," which signifies the
merging or " drowning " of a lesser estate in a greater, when
both become vested in one and the same person without the
intervention of an intermediate estate. See Merger.
There has been but little change in these relations of
landlord and tenant, with the exception tliat the former
may now convey his interest in the property to a stranger
without the necessity of an attornment on the part of his
tenant, and that the tenant may accept a release of his land-
lord's estate without having first made an actual entry upon
the lands conveyed. Attornment was abolished in England
LAXI>l-OKI» AND TKNAST
bv statute while the Amerii'an colonies were still youiiK (4
Amu", r. 10, A. u. 1T05», and the jinu-tii'e never went into
extensive use in the colonies. Notwitlistaiuliti^ the fael
that the prineiples iroveniiiijj the ri'lutions of landloril and
tenant n " .!ly as at eomiiion law. the nuMhTn
jHiint of ^ >se ri'lations is very difTrn-nt from
that will... , . > I or three eentiiries ap>. We no
longer re;;ard the reversioner, or landlord, as havinj; a mere
future interest in laiuls, the present or |>arlieular estate in
which is vested in another, but as the present and ai'lual
owner of the iiro|)erty, and the particular tenancy is re-
t^rdwl as in tne luiture of an incumliniiicc on the land-
onl's estate, lie may sell the land without his tenant's
con^- '" ' 'he purclia-si'r takes the proiH-rty as present
owi .iuly tolhe burtlen of the existin;? tenancy.
Th;- ; of the nature of the relation of landlord and
tenant ninki-;, it clear that no ai't on the part of the former
could in anywi,-e affect the rights of the latter. Whether
the laiullon.1 lives or dies, whether the estate devolves upon
the heir or [Misses to a stranjier, the tenancy goes on, unaf-
fected by cirt'unistances, until the term has expired. As
has bts.'n said aUjve, the common-law view of the relation of
the parties to one another and to the land left no room for
restrictions u|K)n the tenant's right of alienation. As the
particular tenant, or present owner, he might convey the
lands in whole or in part, for the whole or a portion of his
term, and such, in the absence of agreement to the contrary,
is the law at the present time. In some |>ortions of the
country, however, especially in cities, it is customary to in-
sert in leases a covenant or condition against alienation by
the tenant without his landlord's permission. If the tenant
alienates the whole of his estate the conveyance is termed an
assignment, and the assignee steps into his shoes as the
tenant of the |>articular estate. The relation of tenure, or
"privity of estate," formerly subsisting between the land-
lord and tenant is destroyed by the assignment, but the
transaction results in the creation of a new privity of estate
lietween the landlord and the assignee. On the other hand,
if the tenant alienates only a part of his estate in the prem-
ises— that is, conveys them for a shorter period of time than
the whole remaining portion of his own estate, the process
is described as a sub-letting, and results in the creation of a
new or sub-tenancy. The old tenure, or privity of estate,
remains unaffected, and a new one has been created, with
the former tenant as landlord and the grantee as particular
tenant. The new tenant has nothing to do directly with
the original landlord, who continues to hohi his immediate
tenant to the obligations of their relation of tenure, entirely
uimffected by the new relations which the latter has created.
The privity of estate into which the sub-tenant has en-
tered is a Continuous chain, linking him, through every in-
termediate tenure, to the ultimate reversioner, or landlord,
insomuch that the latter may, if his interests so require,
ignore his immediate tenant and impose his authority di-
rectly on the sub-tenant in possession.
It lias Im^cii noticed above that it was very easy at com-
mon law for the landlord, or reversioner, to convey his
estate to the particular tenant by a releaxe, so as to vest the
whole estiite in the latter. Kqu'ally simple and direct was
the process by which the tenant coiiveyed his estate back to
the landlord. This was called a surnnder, and it had the
effect of vesting the whole estate in the landlord by the
operation of the iloclrine of merger, previously described.
A surrender, which v»as in effect a dissolution of the rela-
tion of landlord and tenant by agreement of the parties,
could be cffecteil either by parol or bv such cundiicl on
their part as amounted virtually to a <leuial of the relation-
ship. This latter was called surrender "by operation of
law." It is best illustrated by tjiking the most familiar
case of the making of a new lease between the parties before
the expiration of the old one. The acceptance by the ten-
ant of a new lease, even though for a much shorter term,
was held to be an acknowli-di^riient of the landlord's right
to lease the preniisi's, and tlH'refore to be inconsistent with
the continueil existence of ilic former lea.se. The latter,
therefore, wius •• by operation of law " deemed to have been
surrendereil. In this way, and quite irres|H'ctive of the
actual intention of the parties, even an estate for life might
be sacridccd by the acceptance (inin the laiidliird nf a lease
for a year, or even of a tenancy al will ; althnugli. in order
U) have this effect, it was essi-nlial that the new lease,
whether long or .short, should be a valid one. The only
chanu'e which hiLS iM-en miule in the law of surrenders, as
above described, was effected by the SUitute of Kraudsi in
re<iuiring pirol surrenders to be put in writing liy the ten-
ant, though the landlord might still signify his as-sent in
any proper way. .Surremlers usually are made by ojicration
of law, and it would sceiii that, at the present time, any
dealings between the jiarties, which may .seem to the jury
to indicate a mutual nitention to bring the tenancy to ah
end, will be allowed to have that effect. Accordingly, the
delivery by the tenant of the key of the premises and its
acceptance by the landlord have in many instances been
held to be gooil evi<leiice of a surrender. It should be added
that, although the effect of a surrender is to dissolve the re-
lation of landlord and tenant, it will not be allowed to preju-
dice the previously acquired rights of third jicr.sons. .\n in-
stance of the application of this rule is found in ca.se the
tenant has maile a sub-lease of which the landlord is cog-
nizant. The landlord could not accept a surrender so as to
impair the rights of the under-tenant without the latter's
consent.
As has been said above, the term "tenancy" is no longer
appropriate to a tenure in fee, but it is still apiilicalile to es-
statcs for life, as well as for years and at will. Whatever
the particular mode prescribed by law for creating a ten-,
ancy, it is |>roperly described as a hase, and the parties as
lessor and lessee respectively. This is true of the creation
of a life estate as well as of a lea.sehol<l proper. Although
these surviving forms of tenure have thus much in common,
they still differ widely in dignity and in the manner of their
creation. A life estate, although created by lease, is not a
lea.schold, but a freehold, and as such is still regarded as of
equal dignity with an estate in fee simple or fee tail. It
can arise only by the most .solemn form of conveyance. At
common \a\f, feoffment, with " livery of seisin," was neces-
sary ; to-day a deed is required, as in alienations in fee. The
mode of creating other tenancies, however, has varied a
good deal at different times, and still varies in different
jurisdictions. At common law all leaseholds i)roper, no
matter what their length, whether for a day or a thousand
years, could be created by oral agreement; although, in or-
der to consummate the relation of landlord and tenant, the
agreement must be followed by the entry of the lessee upon
the lea.«ed premises. Until such entry he had only a quali-
fied interest or estate, called interesse termini. This inter-
est bound both parlies and was capable of alienation by the
tenant, or, if he died without having entered, would descend
as a part of his estate. By the Statute of Frauds (29 Car.
II., c. 3, A. D. 1676) leases for a term of three years and up-
ward are required to be in writing, and this enactment has,
with some variations, been followed by similar legislation
in all of the U. S. In this country, however, the statutes
generally allow leases for only one year, or less, to be created
by oral agreement, all others being required to be put in
writing. In England and a few of t he U. S. there is a further
requirement that the writing shall be under seal — i.e. a deed.
Tenancies at will may still, as at common law, be createil by
oral agreement, followed by the entry or occupancy of the
tenant.
liiglits and Obligations of the Parties. — The relation of
landlord and tenant once constituted, a variety of reciprocal
rights and obligations at once arises. These exist indeiiend-
ently of any express agreement between the parties. The
rights and obligations which spring out of this relation of
tenure — that is to say, out of the " privity of estate " — may
be and usually are supplemented by others created by ex-
press contract. This contract relation, described as " privily
of contract," may survive, even though the relation ol land-
lord and tenant has been brought to an end. Accordingly,
although the tenant may a-ssign his term to a third parly,
thus relieving himself of the obligations imposed by his
tenure, he may nevertheless conliiuic liable to his former
landlord in consequence of the privily of contract created
by the exjircss agreement between thciii.
Of course, the new tenant has ordinarily nothing to do
with the contract between his predecessor in the estate and
the landlord. That is a matter which lies exclusively be-
tween the contracting parlies, and can affect no one else.
There is, nevertheless, a cliuss of contract obligations which
not only continue, as in the case supposed, to bind the C(m-
tracting parlies themselves, but which become nllache(l, as
it were, to the land itself, like an easement or other burden,
and which accordingly bind any one, whether lussignee or
heir, into wlios*- hands the estate may come. These obliga-
tions, known as "covenants running with the land," are few
in number, and are not favored by the law, as tliev tend to
restrict the alienation of estates. No novel or unusual cove-
LANDLORD AND TENANT
79
nants of this kind can be created, and only such as directly
affect tlic use and enjoyment of the land have heen allowed
to " run with " it. Covenants to pay rent ami to keep prem-
ises insured are familiar covenants of this kind. Whether
the covenant be ope which runs with the land or not, the
lessee, in any event, remains liable during the entire ten-
ancy, or until the contract between the parties has wholly
spent its force. The a.ssi^nee. on the other hand, beinf^
liable to the lessor only on the ground of his relation to the
estate, may terminate all resjionsibility to him by making an
assignment to a second assignee. There may thus be an in-
<lehnite series of assignees, any one of whom will be liable
for a breiich of covenant occurring during his ownership,
but not for any occurring after he has parted with his estate.
The obligations which spring naturally out of the rela-
tion of landlord and tenant, without express agreement,
"implied covenants" as they are called, may be briefly con-
sidered. The principal ones are, on the part of the land-
lord, to secure the tenant in the quiet enjoyment of the prem-
ises : on the part of the tenant, (1) to pay rent, (2) to commit
no waste, (3) to keep the premises in repair, and (4) to render up
pos.session at the end of the term. The only one of these
■which requires further notice in this place is the landlord's im-
plied covenant. In every lease under seal, there is an im-
plied "covenant foniuiet enjoyment." This does not mean
that the landlord guarantees his tenant against all wrongful
disturbance of his possession, but only against all acts of
the landlord himself, or those claiming under him (as his
heir or grantee), or of any person asserting a paramount
title. A disturbance of the tenant's possession by any one
of these persons is an " eviction," and entitles the tenant to
consider the tenancy at an end. An eviction may either be
partial or total. The former does not necessarily discharge
the tenant absolutely. He may still be liable to perform in
part the obligations of the lease. Thus if a landlord should
lease two houses for a gross rent, and the tenant should lie
evicted from one of them by a person having a better title,
rent would still be due for that portion of the premises ac-
tually enjoyed by the tenant. This rule does not apply to
a partial eviction by the wrongful act of the landlord. In this
case the entire rent is suspended while the eviction contin-
ues, as he is guilty of a breach of his portion of the contract.
The doctrine of "constructive eviction" should be referred
to. This is a modern principle, allowing the tenant, in case
the landlord renders the occupation of the premises practi-
cally valueless by his own wrongful act, to abandon them,
and make use of this theoretical eviction as a defense to the
payment of the rent. This ground can not be taken unless
the tenant vacates the premises. The mere deterioration of
the premises in value is no eviction. Accordingly, if one
hires a house and lot, and the building is accidentally de-
stroyed by fire, the tenant can not, by the rules of the com-
mon law, leave the premises and cease to pay rent. The land
still remains, and by legal theory the rent is indivisible and
can not be apportioned. There may be a clause inserted in
the lease that on the buildings becoming untenantable the
tenant may abandon the premises and be relieved from lia-
bility. The same result is uttained in some of the States
by statute modifying the common law. The rule itself is
not to be extended to the case where the subject-matter of
the lease has wholly ceased to exist. This is not properly a
case of eviction, but rather of a want of material for the
contract of the parties to operate upon.
The tenant's obligation to pay I'ent may be enforced by
"distress." The right to distrain for rent in arrear is a
necessary incident of the relation of lessor and lessee.
Whatever movable things are upon the demisoil premises,
whether belonging to the lessee or not, are, with a few tri-
fling exceptions, liable to distress. In New York and many
other .States, however, this time-honored method of enforc-
ing the landlord's claim for rent has been abolished by
statute.
It is not by virtue of any covenant, expressed or implied,
but as a necessary consequence of the relation of landlord
and tenant, that each party is estopped fronj denying the
interest or title of the other. As will readily be seen, there
could be no such thing as a tenure, or tenancy, if this doc-
trine of " estoppel " did not forbid the landlord to deny the
validity of his lease and prevent the tenant from denying
the lessor's right to make the lease. Practically the rule
amounts to this, that so long as a tenant remains in undis-
turljed possession he can not set up as a defense to an action
for rent by his landlord that the latter has no title. On
similar principles, all encroachments made by the tenant on
the land of others enure to the benefit of the landlord as be-
tween him and the tenant. In other words, the latter is
not pernutted to deny that he was acting for his landlord.
The rule ceases to prevail as soon as the tenant is evicted by
some person having a superior title. So, if he be threatened
with an eviction by such a person, he may yield the pos.ses-
sion to him or become his tenant, and set up these facts as a
defense to any action by his lessor. It may be further
stated. that the tenant, while he can not deny his landlord's
original title, may show that it has expired or has been sub-
verted. Thus if the lessor has fallen in debt, and his estate
is sold on an execution, the tenant may purchase it and
himself become owner. See Estoppel.
A covenant being merely a contract, collateral to the main
transaction of creating an estate in lands, its breach will or-
dinarily have no effect on the tenancy, but will simply give
the injured party an action at law for'the damages sustained
by him. Nevertheless, a covenant may, by reason of its sub-
ject-matter or the form in which it is cast, have the force of
a condition subsequent, and the effect of a breach of condi-
tion is the forfeiture of the estate. This is true of all of the
implied covenants, so called, and the express stipulations of
a lease are usually so expressed as to give them the effect
either of conditions or of covenants, as the injured party
may elect. It is, however, not quite accurate to describe
the result of a breach of condition by a tenant as a forfeit-
ure, as its real effect is only to give the landlord the right
to enter and terminate the tenancy if he chooses to do so.
The tenancy continues as before until such entry, and the
landlord may waive the breach and thus deprive himself of
the right to enter. The doctrine of waiver is readily ap-
plied, and the courts infer that a forfeiture is waived by any
act on the landlord's part inconsistent with the forfeiture
of the estate ; such, for example, as acceptance of rent with
knowledge of the breach of condition.
The foregoing account of the nature of the relation of
landlord and tenant is applicable generally to all of the
forms of that relation. It remains only to call attention to
the leading differences between the several forms. It has
already been observed that the only forms of feudal tenure
which have survived from the earliest period of the common
law are estates for life and for years and tenancies at will.
To these, in order to make the modern record complete, must
be added tenancies from year to year, and at sufferance.
Life Estates. — The distinguishing characteristic of life
estates is their uncertainty ; for, as an early writer expressed
it, " although nothing can be more certain than death, noth-
ing is more uncertain than the hour of death." The estate
may be for the life of the tenant, or for that of the lessor
or any third person. In the latter case it is described as an
estate pur autre vie, and the person upon whose life the es-
tate depends is called cestui que rie. If the tenant should
die before the latter, there will remain an unexpired fraction
of the estate (to continue until the death of the cestui que
vie), which would at common law have been open to the
first comer to seize and occupy as " general occupant," or
which would go to any one designated in the deed as " spe-
cial occupant." An estate for life not being an estate of in-
heritance, it would of course not go to the tenant's heir.
By statute in England and most of the U. S. this remnant
of an estate pur autre vie is now disposed of by making it a
part of the estate of the deceased tenant, to descend with
his personal property to his next of kin.
Of course, the termination of the life estate puts an end to
any interest or tenancy dependent upon it. Thus if a per-
son having a life estate in land should purport to lease it
for twenty-one years, and should die within a few days
afterward, the lease would terminate at the moment of his
death. Owing to this fact life tenants are frequently unable
to make advantageous leases. To remedy this defect it is
not uncommon for one who creates a life estate to confer
upon the life tenant a power (see Powers) or authority to
create a lease commencing during his tenancy, and continu-
ing for a moderate period — viz., twenty-one years. If this
power is executed the result is that while the life tenant
lives the rent is payable to him : after his death, to the next
owner (or so-called reversioner). The ordinary life estate,
as above described, arises by act of the parties, i.e. by agree-
ment or conveyance. There are some life estates, however,
which arise without intei-vention of the parties, solely by op-
eration of law. The most important of these are the estates
of dower and curtesy. See Estate and Dower.
Estates for Years. — These have, as their distinguishing
characteristic, certainty and definitencss of extent. The
80
LAXDLOKl) AND TENANT
length of the tt-riu is iiniimtiTiiil— whetlicr it l>o for twoiily-
four hours or for 1. IKK) veiirs— provideii the i>ori.Hl of timi'
be dertiiiti' »iul lorlaiii, it is oouHlly an csttite for years. '1 he
hiiiiible origin of this estate, ilatiiit;, us it i1(k'S. from a time
when no e.st:ite less than an estate for life wiisileeineil worthy
of u freeiiiHii. iniiitiineii with the eiri'nnistanee that a term of
year^* wii.-< f.iniierly ret,'anle<l as a mere contract riirht ami
iiot an estate ill lands, has iinpressi'ii on it a |ieciiliar char-
noter. Althou^fh it is now a recofinizinl estate, it is not a
fn>eh.ilil, but a leiis.-h.ilil inleri'sl,aml it is not real but per-
soiial proiKTty. Aironiiiifrly, if a tenant dies leavinf; a
part of his term unexpin-d, it will not descend to his luirs
as land, but to his executor or lulininistrator as a chattel. The
interest of a tenant for vears is called a " term,' and the
tenant is sometimes ealU-*! a •' termor." The lease creating
a term of years is pro|H'rly teriiic<l a " demisi'." Of ccmrse,
no notice is re<|uired to terminate an estate for years. It
comes to an end dellnitelv bv lajise of the term.
Trnanry at H'lV/.— This can arise only by agreement of
both |«irties, and it may lie termiiiati'd at the pleiusure of
either. Any oivupation'of land by the owner's [lermission
and withoutexpn-ssedlimiliil ion of'a term createsa tenancy at
will. Aceorilingly, an entry by a tenant under a void lease or
under a mere agri'eineiit for li lease will give rise to a ten-
Biicy at will. Originally at common law a tenant at will was,
in the absence of s|»'cial agreement, under no obligation to
pav rent, but he is now generally held liable to pay a reason-
able ri'nt for us*' and occupation of the premises. So, too.
at common law the tenancy could be terminated by either
partv without previous notice to the other, and in case ot a
pure' tenancy at will this is the general rule to-day. In New
York, however, and a few others of the U. S., the landlord is
compelled by statute to give the tenant at will a reasonable
notice of his intention to terminate the tenancy.
Tenaticy from Yfiir to Year. — This is a nuxlern estate dc-
velopitl out of tenancy at will. It is, in fact, a tenancy at
will which has by operation of law acipiired certain quali-
ties of |K'rnianency and security. It arises where the pay-
ment of rent at regular iH'rio<ls. with or without other cir-
cumstances, raises the inference that it was the intention of
the parties that the tenant should not be disturbed from
month to month or from one year to another. This fact
being established, the " will " to terminate the tenancy could
be exercised only at the expiration of the current month, or
quarter, or year, acconling as the tenancy was deemed to be
from month to month, from (piarter to quarter, or from
year to year. Kven to terminate it at its regular period,
notice niust be given to the tenant of the landlord's in-
tention to put an end to the tenancy. This notice, except-
ing where the common-law rule hiLS been alteiv<i by statute,
must be six months for a tenancy from year to year, one
month for a tenancy from month to month, etc. Where
such notice is not given the tenant may, if he desires, con-
tinue in possession for another full period of his tenancy,
anil if he stays over into a new period he will be liable for
rent to the end of it.
Tenancy at Sufferance. — This so-called tenancy is a legal
fiction to describe the forbearance of the land-owner toward
one who, having come rightfully upon the land, remains in
nossi'ssion wrongfully. It arises most frequently by the
holding over of a tenant for years or at will, whose term or
tenancy has expired. The landlord may in such cases treat
the hoM-over as a trespas.s<'r, and eject him accordingly. If
he fortiears to do this the trespass is condoned, and the
wrongdoer ai'qiiires a certain legal status. If the landlord
at:quiesces in the [Hissession of tjie tenant, the latter becomes
a tenant at will. If he accepts rent at regular intervals, or
by other acts recognizes the tenant's right to periods of oc-
cupancy, the latter becomes a tenant from year to year, or
from month to month, lus the case may be. Although the
landloni may elect whether to eject a holil-over tenant or
deal with him as a tenant at will, or from year to year, the
tenant has iin such option. He is deemed io have made his
election by holding over. From the first day of his wrong-
ful occupatiim of the premises the tenant is lield to all the
consequences of his choice. He can not stop sliort of a
tenancy from year to year if his landlord chooses to hohl
him to it. In such coses the terms of the new tenancy are
usually determined by the terms of the expired leiuse.' See
also hIjiltl.KME.NTS, Ki'xTi-KKs, and Wastk. Consult also the
following works: Leake'n llnjest nf Low uf Hint I'nip-
erlu; IVllock's //rtir i/f Latiil : \V'a-.liburne, Jieal I'ruptrlij;
and Taylor's Landlord and Tenant.
Ueobui: W, KmcuwEV.
LANDOUZY
Lniidois, la"aii dwiia , Leonard Christian Clemens Au-
oi'.sT, M. 1),: physiologist; b. in Miinster, (Terniany, Dec. 1,
isa* ; was educated at the University of Ureifswald ; was
tutor ill (ircifswald lSti;{-72; has been Professor of Physiol-
ogy and director of the Physiological Institute there since
isrj. lie Inus published Die Lehre vom Arterienpuls (1H72);
J>ie Trannfiwiun des JJIiits (1875) ; Graphiscke Unter-
suchungen fiber den Ihrzsclitng (1876); Die I'raemie (2d
ed. 18!tl); Lehrhuch der Fliijsiologie des Menxchen (Hlh ed.
18'j;J; English, French, Italian, Kussian, and Spanish trans-
lations). C. H. TllUKBER.
Landolt, Edmi'nd, M. D. : ophthalmologist : b. in Aarau,
Switzerland, in 1846; pursued his professicmal studies in
the I'niversities of neidelticrg, Vienna, Uerlin, Utrecht,
and Zurich, graduating M. I), at the latter in 1869; then
worked more than a year as Horner's assistant in the Zurich
clinic for eye diseases; in 1874 he established himself in
Paris as an ophthalmologist. His investigations in his spe-
cialty have been distinguished by their originality. In
1880 he became cocditor of the ^lrf/inT,s d'oplit/ialmologie.
Among his more inqxirtant works are Le diagnostic des
maladie.^ des yeux (Paris, 1877) ; Manuel d'op/itlialmoscopie
(Paris, 1878); Traite complet d'ophtlidlmologie (Paris, 1886).
S. 1. Armstrong.
Landon, Letitia Elizabeth : See Maclean.
Landor. Walter Savage: author: b. at Ipsley Court,
Warwickshire, England, Jan. 'SO, 1775. Being the son of
wealthy parents he was intended for the army ; received a
careful early training from private tutors and at Kugby
.School (1785); entered Trinity College, Oxford, in 1793;
was rusticated in the summer of I7!»4 for a breach of dis-
cipline, and never returned ; printed in 17!I5 a small vol-
ume of poems, which attracted no attention; studied law,
though never called to the bar, and issued in 1798 a poem
(Gebir) oi considerable length, which in 1802 he published
in a Latin translation (Oebirtis). Landor visited Paris in
1802, succeeded soon after to his patrimonial estates, spent
immense sums in improving them, in buying others in Mon-
mouthshire, and in building a palatial mansion; and in
1806. in a moment of irritation, sold all his lands, ordered
his niagiiififciit house to be torn down, and ]ire]iared to live
abroad. In 1808 he raised a body of troo]>s at his own ex-
pense, joined the Spanish general Blake in defending the
Peninsula against the French invasion, and contriliuted a
large sum to the Spanish military treasury, receiving the
thanks of the supreme junta and a commission as colonel.
Landor inarrieil m 1811 : resigned his commission on the
return of Kcniinaiid VII. to Sj.ain, and in 1815 settled in
Florence, Italy, where for seven years he occupied the palace
of the Medicis, and afterward bought the celebrated villa
(jherardescaat Fiesole. In 1812 he published Count Julian,
a Tragedy ; in 1820 Idyllia Heroica, in Latin (published at
Pisa) ; in 1824 another volume of Latin Puetns, ami in the
same year the first series (2 vols.) of his most celebrated
work. Imaginary CotiversatioJis of Literary Men and States-
men, of which the second series appeared in 182i). A pas-
sionate enemy of convcntionalvsm and of tyranny, whether
|M)litical or social, he indulged in startling paradoxes, defend-
ing Tiberius and Xero, and advising the (ireeks in their
struggle with the Turks to discard firearms and employ only
the weapons of their' classical forefathers. After thirty
years' residence in Italy Landor took ii]) his residence at Bath
in 18;15, published in 18;i6 one of his best works. J'erieles
and A.tpa.iia, followed by ,1 Satire on Satirists (1830), Pen-
tameron and Pentalogue (1837), and the dramas Andrea of
Hungary and Giovanni of JVaples. all written in Italy;
T/ie Hellenics {IS4~), Popery, Jinlish and Foreign (1851),
77/c Last Fruit of an Old I'ree (1S5S), Antony and Octavius
(1850), and J>ri/ Sticks Fagoted (1858), besides some minor
works. I), in Florence, Sept. 17. 1864. A collective edition
of his works appeared in 1846 (2 vols.), and a complete
edition, in 7 vols., wius begun in 1874. His biograi)hy was
written by .lohn Foi-ster (186!) ; new ed. 1874). Lander's
writings have never been popular, but they all contain un-
mistakable e\1dence of a high order of genius, which is best
appreciated by the " lit audience thougTi few " of poets pos-
sessing kindreil gifts. Kevised by II. A. Bkkrs.
Lnndoiizy, Loiis. M. I>. : neurologist ; b. at Hheims,
France, in 1850; graduated M. 1). from the Paris .School of
Medicine in 1876, Ids thesis being Contribution a I'l'tude des
convulsions et pitralysies lii'es our meningo-enri'iihalites
fronto-parii'tales. He continued his studies in nervousdis-
eases, and for his monograph Des paralysies dans les mala-
LAND-RAIL
LANDSCAPE-GARDENING
81
dies aicfues, in the concours ot 1880, he was appointed asso-
ciate professor in the Paris Faculty of Medifine and physi-
cian to the liospitals. la INbl lie was appointed [ihysician
to the Tenon Hospital, and in 18!(0 physician to the Laennec
Hospital. In lbi)3 he became full professor in the faculty.
He has been one of the chief editors of the Hevue de mide-
cine since 1881, and is the author of many valuable mono-
graphs on nervous disorders. S. T. Armstronu.
Land-rail : See Corx-cbake.
Landscape: a tract or stretch of country as seen at one
time from one point, and so called with reference to its ap-
pearance to the eye, as in Milton's lines —
Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures
Whilst the landscape round it measures.
Also visible inanimate nature in general, what one sees out
of doors, and especially in the country — hills and groves
and streams, with the sky ; and the stiuly or examination of
such aspects of nature, as in Kuskin's phrase " We will ex-
amine, in detail, not the landscape of literature, but that of
painting." Also a representation in art of such as|)ects of
nature as " a fine landscape " — that is to say, a fine painting
or drawing of a landscape.
Landscitpe in line art has this peculiarity, that in most
epochs and among most people known to us it has been sub-
ordinate to figure-subjects, and yet has been a principal sub-
ject under very difl'erent circumstances. Thus in China a
splendid school of landscape-painting existed in the twelfth
century A. D., and its influence has been felt ever since in
China, and also in .Japan, so that there has been an almost
continuous series of artists who have made landscape their
chief study. In Europe the great development of landscape
art did not take place until the seventeenth century, and the
Dutchmen Kuysdael, Hobbema, and their fellows, together
with the Lorrainer Claude Gelee, were the beginners of a
system of painting which has been steadily kept in force
ever since. These are the greatest instances of large move-
ments in art especially directed toward landscape as a prin-
cipal subject. The sculptured slabs of the Assyrian pal-
aces show a decided feeling for landscape beauty in their
backgrounds, and in the later Greek bas-reliefs an extraor-
dinary pictorial effect is obtained by the free use of tree-
form, distant peeps of hill, and battiemented wall and the
like, behind the principal figures. In like manner in the
well-known Ghiberti gates of the Florence baptistery —
those of the east doorway, modeled about 1425 — landscape
is brought into the sculptured composition with remarkable
effectiveness, for, however one may dispute the artistic pro-
priety of forcing sculpture to a task not natural and easy
for it, it is certain that the composition of these ten panels,
each containing figures in vigorous action, buildings, trees,
craggy rocks, and distant mountains — all in bronze relief —
is a very noticeable phenomenon in decorative and expres-
sional art. To be compared with these are the curious carv-
ings in wood of the Chinese and the Japanese, where the
incidents of pilgrim.age to a mountain-shrine are worked
out in minute detail, their little figures scaling the steep
paths, their boats moored at the mountain's foot, the trees
growing among broken rocks, and the combined human and
unconscious natural interest forming one and a very power-
ful design. As a matter of course, it is in painting and
drawing that landscape art is most often seen, both as prin-
cipal subject and as background and setting for scenes of
human action. See Pai.ntixo. Russell Sturgis.
Landscape-gardening, or Landscape Architecture:
the art of making .such changes in the character of the scen-
ery of a given field, and of so bringing it under contempla-
tion from innumerable points, that the pleasure of the be-
holder is increased. To this end artificial objects, such as
houses, monuments, bridges, and roads, are to be so fash-
ioned and disposed in connection with and in relation to
natural objects — as, for example, masses of foliage, hills,
dales, rocks, and waters — that the mind will be drawn from
materialistic toward poetic moods. Landscape has effects
on men which vary in degree and in kind according to the
character of that which is contemplated and the conditions
under which it is contemplated. The scenery of a given
field may be enjoyed either from fixed points such as a
landscape painter would select for an effective picture, or
from the points of view of one moving here and there with-
in the field in question.
The term landscape-gardening was introduced late in the
eighteenth century to denote the application of gardening
operations to the purpose which has thus been explained.
232
But this purpose, then a novel one, being much misunder-
stood, the term was soon ]>opularly much misused. In time
it came often to be applied to (iperations in the direction of
which there was no purpose of landscape; still oftener to
operations in which, if a landscape purpose entered at all,
it was confused with purposes of an inconsistent and dis-
cordant character. Coming to be associated with such oper-
ations, a confusion of ideas resulted that is yet common.
The terra landscape architecture as a substitute for land-
scape-gardening is growing in favor, the word architecture
being taken in that sense in which it was used by Jlilton
when referring to the Almighty as the architect of the world.
There are two branches of horticulture which in ordinary
practice are often confounded with landscape-gardening.
One of them is the cultivation of plants with special regard
to interest in their distinctive individual qualities. The
other is the cultivation of plants with a view to the produc-
tion of effects on the principles commonly studied in the
arrangement of precious stones, enamel, and gold in an
elaborate piece of jewelry, or of flowers when sorted by col-
ors and arranged for the decoration of a head-dress, a din-
ner-table, or a terrace.
The adoption of a landscape purpose does not require that
on a given piece of ground to be dealt with there shall be no
garden, using that word in its ancient and not yet wholly
lost sense of a treasury of choice plants. It only requires
that such a treasury shall be so situated and so planned with
reference to its surroundings that it will not be a discordant
feature in the general scenery of the neighborhood. It may
be observed that the best writers of the time when the term
landscape-gardening was coming into vogue sometimes used
the word scenery as it has here been used — interchangeably
with the word landscape.
Origin and Development of the Art. — In the minds of our
savage ancestors any confused, undefined scene was sugges-
tive of hidden dangers, hence was unfavorable to a tranquil
state of mind, and this mental attitude toward most forms
of natural scenery was transmitted to their more civilized
descendants as a slowly lessening inheritance. Even toward
the end of the Middle Ages, as Kuskin observes, mankind
still looked with aversion upon all scenery that was intricate
and obscure. They especially wanted everything coming
under view from their dwellings to appear clearly defined.
Paradise was pictured in the churches as a plain divided
into squares by straight walks and canals bordered with
rows of trees, each tree so trimmed and trained that its in-
dividual mass of foliage would have a distinct outline, no
part of it blending or intermingling with the foliage of an
adjoining tree. This habit of mind, wherever it prevailed,
established certain principles of design for gardening. The
ancient formal style of gardening continued to be practiced
in Italy during the period of the Renaissance, and was main-
tained in other parts of Europe. Characteristic examples
of grounds laid out in geometric style, as it is sometimes
called, are yet to be found at Rome, where the great gardens
of the nobility were arranged by the architects of the villas
to which the grounds were attached. Groves, clipped hedges,
parterres, fountains, grottoes, staircases, terraces — all bore
"a direct relation to the house." Another example of this
style is that at Fontainebleau, France, where a garden of
several acres has its parterres arranged in rectangular form
surrounding a central basin of water.
With progress in civilization exceptions to the general
sentiment in regard to natural scenery begin to be more or
less apparent in literature. At length Milton is found im-
agining the Garden of Eden to have been charming, not
because of its orderly, artificial character, but because of its
natural landscape. The literature of the early parts of the
eighteenth century shows that a keen enjoyment of natural
scenery had come to be not uncommon with the more culti-
vated men of the time, and that a disposition was growing
to speak slightingly of the beauty of gardens when com-
pared with the beauty of certain passages of natural scenery.
At length, under advice of one William Kent, who had re-
turned from a study of the pictured landscapes of old mas-
ters in Italv, with their vistas often realistically treated, an
English nobleman had the walls of his garden razed, its
geometric lines obliterated, its stiff trees feDed.and a stretch
of partially wooded pastoral scenery laid open to view from
his windows, the composition being improved liy planting
here and felling there. The result was so highly praised
that it proved to be the setting ot a fashion, and this fash-
ion rapidly spread. Kent was not a gardener in the old
and then still usual sense of the word, having previously
82
LANDSCAPE-GARDENING
t
been a [lainter and sculptor, and lastly an architect, and in
gardening, sti far as this wonl can in>ply at all to his work,
ho was skilled only as a dosisncr. \\ hat ho aimed at was a
result, not mori-ly of a dilTiroiit kind, but of an opposite
kind from that of funloniiiff, usin;; this word as it had be-
fore U-en us»'d. Ni'Vertlieless, in urdor to advance his ob-
ject, ho wisely omployod men skilled in the manual opera-
tions of pinioning, such as disffin); and jilantinf;. To dis-
tinguish the new art from the old art of "pirdening" it
was fur a time referred to as the " now iriirdcning," and the
first tri-nlise printol u[H)n it bore the title, Minlini (larden-
ing. After a time the [MH-'t Shonstone, seeking a prolix that
would In.' expressive, suggested that of "landscape." A few
years later the loading practitioner of the new art, Ilum-
' hrey Kepton (17.52-lSi8), assumed " landseaiie-gardener " as
is professional title, but this attempt to unite the idea at-
tachotl to the word landsi'ape with the old idea attached to
the word garden was found to Ix- perplexing. Sir Walter
Scott was one of those who realized this fact, but he failed
to propose a more fitting term, and his protest had no ap-
preciable effect in checking the tendency, which he deplored,
toward a confusion under the name of landscape-gardening
of purposes that could not be amalgamated.
Landiseapf -gardening Applied to Small Plots. — There are
many situations in which plant-beuuty is desired where the
area to be operated niion is so limited, or so shaped and
circumstanced, that the depth and breadth of landscape
scenery must be considered impracticable of attainment.
In the U. S. ganlening is required fur the improvement
of places of this class many thousand times for one in
which such restraining conditions are not encountered ;
and the question nniy be asked whether they must all be
excluded from the field of landscape-gardening, and if not,
what, in these cases, can be the significance of the prefix
"landseape"f As a general rule, prdbably, so many pur-
poses roipiire to be served, and so many diverse conditions
to be reconciled, that the only rule of art that can be con-
sistently applied is that of architecture, which would pre-
scribe that every plant, as well as every moldino;, snail
bear its part in the " adornment of a service." To this
end, parterre and specimen gardening are more available
than landscapc-gnnlening: but it may happen that in a
space where, with due regard to considerations of heallli and
convenience, there would be scant room for more than two
or throe middle-sized trees to grow, a thoughtful man may,
with careful study, by a judicious treatment of the materi-
als at hand, succeed in producing effects to which the term
landsca])e is applicable.
As an example, sup|>ose a common village dooryard, in
which are found a dozen trees of different sorts planted
twenty years before, and that among them there is one,
standing a little way from the center, a linden (Tilia).
Trampled under by ruder and greeilicr neighbors, and half
starved, youth and a good constitution may yet have left it
in such condition that, all the rest being rooted out, sun-
light given it on all sides, shortened in, balanced, watered,
drained, stimulated, its branches will grow low and trail-
ing, and, regaining its birthright, it will also acquire a
staleliness of carriage unusual in a tree of its age and sfat-
nre. If landscape-gardening is for the time to take its
order from this tree, and all about it ma<lc becoming with
its state, the original level surface of the ground need be
but slightly modified, yet it may perceptibly fall away frain
near the trunk of the tree, dipping in a long and vervgentle
wave to rise again with a varying double curve on all sides.
There can not, then, be too much pains taken to s|>rea<l over
it turf unif(irm in color and quality. Looking upon this from
the lu)Uso, it should seem to be margined on all sides by a
rich, thick bank, generally low in front and rising as' it
rc<:crhs, of shrubs and flowering plants, the preparation for
which may have required for years a clean-lined border,
curve playing into curve, all tlie wav round. A very few
plants of delicate and refined character mav stand out in
advance, but such interruptions of the quiet of the turf
must be made very cautiously. Of furniture or artificial
ornaments there must be none, or next to none. The rear
rank of shrubs will nee<l to stand so far back that there
will be no room to cultivate a suitable hedge against the
street. The fence may be a wall of cut stone, with deco-
rated gate-piers: or with a base of stone it may be of
wrought iron, or there may be used a wooden construction
of les.s cost, in which there is a reflection, with variety, of
the style of the liou.se if that is of wood also. The gateway
being formed in a symmetrical recess of the fence nearly
opposite the tree, the house-door being on the side, the ap-
proach to it should bend, with a moderate double curve, in
such a way as to seem to give place to the Iree, and at the
same time allow the greatest expanse of unbroken lawn-
surface. Near the gateway, and again near the corner far-
thest from it, there may be'a small tree or a cluster of small
trees or large shrubs, forming low, broad heads, the tops of
which, playing into that of the loftier linden on the right,
will in time show to those sitting at the bay-window of tho
living-room a flowing sky-line, depressed and apparently
receding along the middle.
Suppose, on the other hand, that it is an aged beech that
has been found on the place, badly used in its middle age as
the linden in its youth — storm-bent, and one-sided, its trunk
furrowed and scarred, and spreading far out to its knotted
roots. If a dressy door-yard had been desiied, this interest-
ing object would have been cut away though it were the last
tree within a mile. Accepting it, nothing would be more
common, and nothing less like landscapi'-gardening, than to
attempt to make a smooth and even surface under it. Let
it be acknowledged that fitness and propriety require tliat
in front of the house there should be some place of reposo
for the eye, and that nowhere in the little property should
there be a dusty or a muddy surface. Starting from the
corner nearest the tree, and running broader and deeper
after it has [lasscd it and before the house, let there be a
swale (a gentle waterway) of well-kept turf. Now, to carry
this fine turf right up over the exposed roots of the beech
would be a great mistake; to let it come near, but cut a
clean circle out about the tree, would be a barbarism. What
is re(iuired is a very nice management, under which the turf
in rising from the lower and presumably more humid ground
shall become gradually thinner and looser, and at length be
mixed with moss, and finally patched with plants that on
the linden's lawn would be a sin. Tufts of clover, even
plantain and sorrel, may appear. The surface of the ground
may continue rising, but with a broken swell toward the
tree, and, in deference to its bent form, hold rising for a
space on the other side'; but nowhere should its superior
roots be fully covered.
.Suppose that the owner of this house is to come to it three
times out ot four fmm the side o|iposite that in which the
beech stands; his path then should .strike in well over on
that opposite side and diagonally to the line of the road;
there may be a little branch from it leading toward and lost
near the tree (the children's path), while the main stem
beiiils short away toward a broad porch facing the road at
the corner nearest the gate. There may be nothing in front
to prevent a hedge, but must that mean a poor pretense of
a wall in leafage i Perhaps it must have that character for a
few years till it h.Hs become thick and strong enough at bot-
tom. It should always be moilerately trim on the roadside,
but its bushes should not be all of one sort, and in good time
they will become bushes in earnest, with loose and feathery
tops, sometimes 10 feet high. Yet to one looking from the
house, let part of their height be lost behind an under and
out growth of brake and bind-weed, dog-rose, and golden-
rod, asters, gentians, buttercups, poppies, and irises, and
growing irregularly benealh them let spring up chickweed,
catnip, cinipiefoil. wild strawberry, hepatica, and lilies-of-
the-valley, and still farther out plant crocuses and dalfodils.
Near the gate the hedge may well be a little overrun and
the gateposts overhung and lost in sweet clematis; nav, as
the gate must be set-in a little, because the path enters side-
wise, let there be a strong bit of latticv over it, and on the
other side plant a honeysuckle to re-enforce the clciiialis.
Inside the gate, by the pathsi<le, and again down by the
porch, there may be cockscombs, marigolds, pinksj and
pansies ; but avoid using plants tied to the stake and prig-
gish little spruces and arbor-vita-s. Any common woodside
or fence-row bushes of the vicinity may be set near the edge
of the properly to put out ot sigh't the prim, conveiilioiially
arranged trees and shrubs that may satisfy one's neighbors;
or if an evergreen (conifer) wilTbofit the place, a short,
shoek-hea<ied mountain-iiine, with two or three low savins
ami a prostrate juniper at their feet. Finally, let the road-
si<le be managed lus before. Then if the gate be left open
not much will be lost even if a cow comes in ; yet from the
porch, the window beyond, or a seat under the tree there
will be nothing under view that is raw or rude or vulgar;
oil the contrary, there will be a scene of much refinement as
Well as of nuich beauty.
The Trentment of Ijorge Areas. — Where more extended
areas are dealt with, as in' parks or on large estates, often de-
LANDSCAPE-GARDENING
LANDSEER
83
fects in the landscape are to be olxscured by screening planta-
tions. To form these, in some cases choice is made of bushes
by which, when fully grown, the objectionable detail will be
hidden, but other consistent and harmonious elements of
landscape, lying beyond, left unobscured. Suppose that, at
another point, high-growing trees are planted because bushes
or low-spreading trees would not have sullieient elevation to
fully accomplish a similar object. In the choice of these
high-growing trees such are taken as will, through the darker
tint and stronger texture of their foliage, cause other foli-
age beyond to appear relatively lighter and its detail less
distinct, thus making it apparently more distant than it
actually is. There ai'e many methods for making landscape
more effective, the general nature of which has been thus
suggested. '
In the possibility, not of making a perfect copy of any
charming natural landscape, or of any parts or elements of
it, but of leading to the production, where it does not exist
under required conditions and restrictions, of some degree
of the poetic beauty of all natural landscapes, will be found
not only the special function and the justification of the
term landscape-gardejiing. but also the first object of study
for the landscape-gardener, and tlie standard by which alone
his work is to be fairly judged.
Nature acts both happily and unhappily in producing
her landscape effects, and a landscape-gardener must take
measures to secure the happy action. He need not wait
for the slow and uncertain process by which in nature a
certain po.sition would be adapted for a certain tree. He
may make the .soil fertile at once. He need not take the
chance that a certain thick growth of saplings will be so
thinned by the operation of what are called natural causes
that a few of them may yet have a chance to become vigor-
ous, long-lived trees. Knowing that a very few of these
will be more valuable in the situation, with the adjoining
turf holding green under their canopy, than the thousands
that for years nuxy otherwise occupy it, struggling with one
another and barring out the light which is the life of all
beneath them, he may make sure of what is best by using
ax and bill-hook. The ultimate result is not less natural or
beautiful when he has done so than it would have been if at
the same time the same trees had been eaten out by worms
or taken away by disease.
Limitiitionii of the Landscape-gardener. — There are sev-
eral considcrat inns, neglect of which is apt to cause too much
to be asked of landscape-gardening, and sometimes perhaps
too much to be professed and attempted. Tlie commiju com-
parison of the work of a landscape-gardener with that of a
landscape-painter, for example, easily becomes a very unjust
one. The artist in landscape-gardening can never have, like
the landscape-painter, a clean canvas to work upon. Always
there will be conditions of local topogi'aphy, soil, and climate
by which his operations must be limited. He can not when-
ever it suits him introduce the ocean or a snow-capped moun-
tain into his background. He can not illuminate his picture
with constant sunshine nor soften it by a perpetual Indian
summer. Commonly, he is allowed only to modify the ele-
ments of scenery, or perhaps to bring about unity and dis-
tinctness of expression and suggestion in a locality where
elements of beautiful landscape already abound but are
partly obscured or seen in awkward, confusing, and contra-
dicting associations. This is especially likely to be the case
in undulating and partially wooded localities, such as in the
U. S. are oftenest chosen for rural homes. Again, the artist
in landscape-gardening can not determine precisely the form
and color of the details of his work, because each species of
plant will grow up with features which can not be exactly
foreknown in its seed or in its sapling condition. Thus
he can see his designed and imaginary landscajie only as
one may see an existing and tangilile landscape with half-
closed eyes, its finer details not being wholly lost, yet no-
where perfectly definable. Still, again, it is to be remem-
bered that works in landscape-gardening have, as a general
rule, to be seen from many points of view. The trees which
form the background, still oftener those which form the
middle distance, of one view must be in the foreground of
another. Thus the working out of one motive must be
limited by the necessities of the working out of others on
the .same ground, and, to a greater or less degree, with the
same materiahs. Finally, conditions of health and conveni-
ence in connection with a dwelling are incompatible with
various forms of captivating landscape beauty. A house
may be placed in a lovely situation, therefore, and the end
of long and costly labors of improvement about it prove
comparatively dull, formal, and uninteresting. What is lost
is a part of the price of health and convenience of dwelling.
The landscape-gardener may have made the best of the case
under the conditions prescribed to him.
The merit of landscape-gardening works consists largely
in the degree in which their designer has been ins|)ired by a
spirit congenial to elements of locality and occasion which are
not, strictly speaking, gardening elements. The grounds of
an ordinary, modest home, for instance, may desirably be
designed to give the house, gardens, and offices an aspect of
retirement and seclusion, as if these had nestled cozily down
together among the trees in escape from the outside world.
The grounds of a great public building will, on the other
hand, be desirably as large in scale, as open, simple, and broad
in spaces of turf and masses of foliage as convenience of ap-
proach will allow, and every tree arranged in subordination
to, and support of, the building. The grounds of a church
and of an inn, of a cottage and of an arsenal, of a burying-
place and of a place of amusement, will thus differ, in'each
case correspondingly to their primary purpose. Realizing
this, it will be recognized that the choice of the site, of the
elevation, aspect, entrances, and outlooks of a building for
no purjiose can be judiciously determined except in connec-
tion with a study of the leadmg features of a plan of its ap-
proaches and grounds; also, that in the design of roads,
walks, lakes, and bridges ; in the method of dealing with va-
rious natural circumstances, as standing wood, rocks, and
water ; in a determination of what is possible and desirable
in respect to drainage, water-su|)ply, distant prospects to be
opened or shut out, the avoidance of malaria and other evils
— all these and many other duties are necessarily intimately
associated with those of gardening (or the cultivation of
plants) with a view to landscape effects. See Repton, Ob-
servations on tlie Tlieori/ a)id Practice of Landscape-garden-
ing (IjonAon, 1803; new ed. 1840); Gilpin, Practical Hints
upon Landscape-gardeni7ig (London, 2d ed. 1835) ; Down-
ing, Treatise and Practice of Landscape-gardening (New
York, 1841). See Fine Arts, Floricultire, and Horti-
culture. Frederick Law Olmsted.
Laiidseer, Charles : painter ; son of John and brother
of Sir Pjdwin H. Landseer ; b. in 1799 : studied in the schools
of the Royal Academy, and exhiljited in 1838 ; was chosen
an associate in 1837, an academician in 1845, and keeper in
1851. He painted historical pieces. His Plundering of Bas-
ing House, an incident of the civil war in England, is well
known. Other pictures are Clarissa Harlowe in Prison,
The TJeparture of Charles II. in Disguise, The Motiks of
Melrose, and The Return of the Dove to the Ark. D. Jidy
23, 1879.
Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry : painter ; son of John
Landseer, line-engraver ; b. in London, l\Iar. 7, 1803 ; ex-
celled while a boy in the painting of animals ; became a
student of the Academy in 1816. Landseer Wiis the most
popular and admired animal-painter of his time ; his pic-
tures have great vigor of treatment and power of charac-
terization. Some of the best may be seen in the Vernon
collection (National Gallery), as Dignity and Impudence and
Spaniels of King Charles's Breed ; others in the Sheepshanks
collection at South Kensington, as The Old Shepherd's Chief
Mourner, A Jack in Office, and A Highland Breakfast.
Edwin Landseer was elected an associate of the Royal Acad-
emy in 1826, and an academician in 1831. In 1850 he was
knighted by the Queen. On the death of Sir Charles East-
lake in 1866 he was elected president of the Royal Academy,
but declined the honor. D. Oct. 1, 1873.
Revised by Russell Sturqis.
Landseer, John : line-engraver ; b. in Lincoln, England,
in 1761 ; was the son of a jeweler ; received his earliest in-
struction from William Byrne. His first productions were
vignettes for Maclin"s Bible and liowyer's History of Eng-
land^ (1793) ; in 1799 was engaged on a series of views for J.
M. W. Turner and J. C. Ibbetson ; in 1806 gave lectures on
engraving at the Royal Institute, which were published ; in
1807 was chosen associate engraver by the Academy ; in
1814 began a series of line-engravings illustrating the an-
tiquities of Dacca (British India), twenty plates ; in 1834 a
catalogue, descriptive, explanatory, and critical, of the ear-
liest pictures in the National Gallery. As late as 1851
he exhibited at the Royal Academy views of Druidical tem-
ples in Guernsey and Jersey. D. in Lon<lon, Feb. 29, 1852.
Revised by Russell Sturois.
Landseer, Thomas : line-engraver ; b. in London in 1795 ;
elder brother of Sir Edwin Henry, an engraver of ability
84
LANDS END
and repute, llis liest-kiiowii work is the reproduction of
his briilhor's patun'S, wliirh hi> exci-uled with spirit and
doliciK'V. The plate o( Kosa IJ.Miheiii's Hume Fair, |ml>-
lished 111 IStil, cave him celebrity, lie wrote the Lije of
Willitim Hnrick (artist, 1^71) ; was made an associate of the
Uoyal A.a.h-my in IStW. 1). .Ian, 20. !»»«.
Laud's Knd : See Coknwall.
Landr«hut. Iiumts hoot [Germ.. liter., land's defense ; land,
couiitrv + /iij/. ilefeiisi', protettionl: capital of the district of
lAJWer'Uavaria ; on the Isjir ; 44 miles by rail N. K. of Munich
(see map of tierman Kinpire. ref. 7-F). It is the seat of the
district (,'overiiiiieiit, and is well provided with educational
and charitable institutions. It has larice bri'weries and maiiu-
faetures of tolmeco, and iiuinv interestinj; buildings, aiiionjc
which are St. .Martin's church, built in 14.'K), with a tower
454 feet hi;;h ; the old caslle, built in Vi'A2. of which a part
was put in splemlid repair by the King of Havaria 1873-74;
a royal palace with beautiful fresccH-s. From 180() to l^JO it
was the seat of a university, previously located at liigolstadt,
and subsecpieiitlv reinoveil to Munich. It was the capital
of the duchv of'Buvaria-Landshul r255-1.50;{. The city is
often called the Drtihilm Stadt because it has three helmets
in its arms. Pop. (1890) 18,862.
Landskroiiu, laands-kroonaa : town in the province of
Malm.;. Sweden ; on the Sound : IG miles N. N. E. from
Copenhagen (sec map of Xorway and Sweden, ref. 14-D). It
lias a goinl harbor, some manufactures of leather and to-
bacco, and a steadily increasing trade. It is connected by
a branch line with the railway .syslem of Sweden, and by a
line of steamers with Liilieck. The great battle of Lauds-
kroiia, which saved Sweden from the Danish invaders, was
fought near heiT in 107G. On the island of liven, a mile dis-
tant, were the residence and the observnlory of Tycho Brahc,
the celebrated astronomer, of which nothing remains. The
island is now a mere hunting-ground. Pop. (1891) 12,491.
Landslip: a sort of avalanche of earth and rocks from
the side of a mountain or hill. Earthquakes, frost, and
especially the action of water, arc frequent causes. Soils
resting on inclined planes of smooth rock, or masses of earth
or rock resting on beds of clay, are liable to slide en rnasne
during long-continued rains. Elevated peat-swamps have
been known to absorb so much water as to burst and deluge
lower regions with torrents of mud. I'nderlying strata of
clay may become liquefied and gush out, leaving the surface
to topple in. A remarkable landslide occurred near Nice,
Prance, when the castle and village of Koccabruna, sur-
roundeil by orange and hinon groves, moved for some dis-
tance down the mountain without disturbing the houses.
One of the most famous landslides was that in which GoUlau
in Switzerland was destroyed. In 1826 there was an exten-
sive landslide 2 miles from the Notch in the White Moun-
tains of New Hampshire, which choked up the Saco' river,
and flooded the surrounding country.
Kevised by G. K. Gilbert.
Land Tax : a revenue derived by a government from an
assessment on land. See Ta.\atiox and Sinoi.k-tax.
Land Tenures: See Fkuual System and Folc-la.nd.
Lane, Eowaku William. Ph.D.: Arabic scholar: b. at
Hereford, Englaml. Sept. 17, 1801; was educated for the
Church, but never took orders ; went to Egypt in 182.'), and
resided there three vears, studying the Arabic language a'ld
literature, ami making two voyages up the Nile; again
silent two years there (IMHIJ-.").')), preparing, at the request of
the Sf)ciely for the Ditlusion of Useful Knowledge, his
popular and entertaining work on the Manners and Cusloms
uf Ihr Mmlirii EiiyplianH. which was published in 18.36 ;
madi. a Iranslatlon of The Arabian Air/lils, with notes
(lH:f8-IO): went to Egypt for the third time in 1842, and
afterward resided in Cairo, principally engaged in the prepa-
ration of an Arabic lexicon, under the patronage of the Duke
of Norlhuinberlan<l, an<l aft it (he death of that nobleman
with the support of the British Government. The first part
appi'ured in lM»i:( ; four others had come out previous to the
author's death, and since thai event three have been ]iul)-
lished miller the eilitorship of Stanley Lane-Poole. Mr.
Lane also published SelirliimH frimi l/ie Kiir-an (1843); was
in 1K«4 made corresponding membi'r of the Institute of
France, and in Feb., 187.'), rei'elved the degrees of master of
philosophy and doctor of litiTalure from the University of
1-eyden. 'l). at Worthing, Aug. 10, 1M76.
Lane, .Ioskimi : soldier ; b. in Buncombe co., N. C, Dec.
14, 1801 ; removed in youth to Indiana, where he engaged
LAXFRANC
in business and in politics ; served as colonel of the Second
Indiana Volunteers in the Mexican war, and was made a
brigadier and brevet major-general for gallantry at Bueiia
Vistaand in many minor actions ; became in 1848. and again
in 18.'j3, Governor of Oregon Territory: was a delegate in
1851-.')y; U.S. Senator 18ij»-61 : and in 1860 was nominated
for Vice-President on the Breckinridge ticket. 1). in Wake
CO., N. C, Apr. 19, 1881.
Lane-Poole, Sta.vley: author and numismatist; b. in
London, Dec. 18, 1854; took the degree of B. A. at Oxford
in 1878 ; prepared the oflicial catalogue of the Oriental coins
in the British Musemn (8 vols.. 1875-83); he was crowned
by the French Institute; on the death of his great-uncle,
Edwanl William Lane, he undertook the completion of his
Arabic lexicon, and brought out the sixth, seventh, and most
of the eighth volumes. 1877-89. Among his other principal
works are Life of J-Jdward William Lane {MilT): Life of
Stratford Canning, Viscount Stratford de liedclife (2 vols.,
1888); Essays in Oriental y urn isina tics (2 series. 1872-77);
Arabian Sorieli/ in the Middle Ages (1883) ; Social Life i>i
Egg/it (1883); The Moors in Spain (1886); Turkey (1888);
The Barharg Corsairs (1890). the last three in the Story of
the Nations Series; and, with F. V. Dickins, The Life^of
Sir Harry Parkes (2 vols., 1894).
Lanfranc: b. at Pavia, Italy, about 1005; was for many
years a popidar Professor of Jurisprudence in that city; re-
moved to Fiance, taught with success at Avranches, and in
1042, from motives of piety, entered the abbey of Bee in
Normandy, where his .school was visited by a great many
scholars, among others by Ansclm of Lucca, afterward Pope
Alexander II., and where he sustained a controversy with
Berengarius, whom he tried in vain to convince of his
heresy. In 1063 he became abbot of St. Stephen, and in
1070, contrary to his own wishes. Archbishop of Canterbury.
As Prior of Bee. Lanfranc had opposed the Norman dulie
William in the matter of an illicit marriage, which was
afterward legalized by Koine through the help of Lanfranc
himself. In the administration of his Church Lanfranc was
a most devoted an<i prudent bishop, succeeding even in
vindicating its titles to lands usiir|ieii under the conquerors,
lie rebuilt the Cathedral of Canterbury and founded two
opulent hospitals outside the city, lie employed his influ-
ence, which was very great, with the Conqueror in the sup-
port of justice and the protection of the natives, though, for
the rest, he ably seconded William in the line of action
which resulted in the subordination of York to Canterbury,
and in the gradual but canonical removal from power of all
English prelates and alibots. and their replacement by
fereigners of good repute, but devoted to the new order.
Lanfranc was a man of great political prudence, and fully
conscious that only the strong hand of the Conqueror could
S reserve peace in the island ; hence he was careful in his
ealings, aiming to preserve harmony between the king and
the pope, yielding to the one when he enacted a legislation
of a very Galilean character, and furthering with prudence
the decrees of the other against simcuiy and the married
clergy. In the latter case he tempered the Gregorian legis-
lation so far as to allow their wives to those clerics who had
married in good faith, being priests, but in the future, no
one, monk or canon, was to be ordained deacon or priest if
actually marrii'd. Lafranc was always on the best terms
with (iregory VII., but knew the political situation in Eng-
land better than the pope. When the latter complained of
the conduct of William in eeclesiaslieal matters, Limfranc
replied to him among other things: " Pray (iod that he may
live, for while he remains we have some manner of peace.
After his death we can not count on its ])rolongation."
Again he writes to the pope that he has tried to ilissuade the
king from certain acts unfavorable to the Roman see. but
has failed in his elTorfs. Dii'd at Canterbury. May 24, 1089.
His extant works arc not numerous. In his Epistolarnm
J^iber there are fifty-live letters from his hand. The Elucida-
rium sire dialngus de summa totius ChrisfianiF theologiw is
probably not his, though said to be an adequate sketch of
the scholastic theology in its earlier stages. 1 1 is works were
edited in one folio volume by the Benedictine d'Achery
(1648). and by Giles (f)xford, 1844, 2 vols. 8vo). See Migne,
I'atroloqia Latina. The ('hronicle of Bee and the JAves of
the Abhots of liec are the sources for his life, with the
Erelesiasticnl Ilistorg of Ordericus ^'ilali■^<, See Hook's
Liresofihe Archbishops of Canterbury (vol. ii.); Freeman's
Norman Conquest (vols, ii.-v.); Linganl's History of Eng-
land (\o\. \.) ; Uevtte des Questions I/istoriijues (vol. xxx.,
LANFRANCO
LANGE
85
1881)-, and Chevalier, Repertoire des Sources Historiques du
Moyen Aye, s. v. LaiifraiiL-. John J. Keane.
Lanfraiico, la'an-fraanko, Ctiovaxxi: painter; b. in Parma
in 1581. He studied with Agostino Caraeci. and. after his
death, with Anniiiale Caraeci, who intrusted iiini with the oar-
toons for the Farnese Palace in Rome. He also etched the
greater part of the Lofigie of the Vatican. After the death of
Annibaie Caraeci he returned to Parma and Piacenza, where
he developed an individual style of painting. His most famous
oil-paintings are St. Andrea AveUino at Rome, the Dead
Christ at Bologna, and St. lioch and St. Conrad at Piacenza.
He painted the cupola of St. Andrea della Valle at Rome,
destined for his rival Donienichino, and finished the latter's
work in the treasury of St. Gennaro at Naples. He also
painted the cupola of the Church of Jesus at Rome. The
grandeur of his architectural inventions, and the effective,
rapid style of painting he adopted makes Lanfranco one of
the most successful fresco-painters of his time. D. at Rome,
1647. W. J. Stillman.
Lanfrey, hian'fra', Pierre: French historian; b. at Cham-
bery. Savoy, then a part of the kingdom of Sardinia, Oct. 26,
1838. His father was a Frenchman who had been a mili-
tary officer under the empire. Pierre entered the Jesuit
college at Chambery, but left on account of having written
a pamphlet against his reverend instructors, and completed
his studies at the College Bourbon in Paris, where he quali-
fied for the bar, but afterward turned his attention to
philosophical and historical studies. His first work, T/ie
Church and the Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century
(1855), made a considerable sensation, which was deepened
by An Essay on the French Revotution (1858) ; The Political
Jiistory of the Popes (1860) ; Political Studies and Portraits
(1868) ; and The Restoration of Poland (1863). In 1867 M.
Lanfrey began the publication of his most important work,
a History of Napoleon /., of which the fifth volume (to the
organization of the army for the invasion of Russia) ap-
peared in 1874, the ablest and most complete arraignment
of the first empire at the bar of history that has appeared.
Lanfrey served in the mobiles of Savoy during the Franco-
German war, was elected to the National Assembly in Feb.,
1871, and in October of that year was appointed by Thiers
minister to Switzerland, resigning in 1873 ; elected life sena-
tor in 1875. D. at Pau, Nov. 16, 1877.
Lan^, Andrew: author; b. at Selkirk, Scotland, Mar.
31, 1844. He was educated at the universities of St. An-
drews and Oxford, and was chosen fellow of Merton Col-
lege in 1868. He has published between twenty and thirty
volumes in verse and prose, and excels especially in transla-
tion, in vers de societe, and in clever half-humorous essays.
Among his books are Ballads and Lyrics of Old France
(1872); the Odyssey (trans, with Prof. Butcher, 1879); Bal-
lades in Blue China (1880); 7'heocritus, Bion, and Moschus
(trans. 1880); the Jliad (trans, with Leaf and Myers, 1883);
Custom and Myth (1884) ; Rhymes a la Mode (1884) ; Let-
ters to Dead Authors (1886, new ed. 1893) ; Books and Book-
men (1886, new ed. 1887) ; Myth, Ritual, and Religion (2
vols., 1887); Grass of Parnassus (1888); Letters on Litera-
ture (1889) ; Life and Letters and Diaries of Sir Stafford
Xorthcole (2 vols., 1890); Essays in Little (1891); St'. An-
drews (1893). H. A. Beers.
Lang', Carl, Ph. D. : director of the Bavarian meteoro-
logical service; b. at Regensburg, Bavaria, Oct. 10, 1849;
was educated at the Regensburg gymnasium and in the
Technical High School and University of Munich. He was
assistant in Physics from 1870 to 1878, then adjunct to the
Royal Meteorological Central Station until 1885, when he
became director of it, and has continued in this position to
the present. In combination with Prof, von Bezold and
Dr. Erk he has compiled and published the fourteen an-
nual quarto volumes of the Bavarian meteorological service.
He has, besides, published very many papers on thunder-
storms, climatology, and practical meteorology, in meteoro-
logical and other journals. D. Sept.. 1893.
iMark W. Harrington.
Lanjr, John Marshall, D. D. : minister of the Church of
Scotland; b. in Glasford, Lanarkshire, May 14, 1834; grad-
uated with honors from the University of Glasgow 1856;
minister of the East parish, Aberdeen, 1856; of the parish
of Fyvie, Aberdeenshire, 1858 ; of Anderston church, Glas-
gow, 1865 ; of Morningside parish, Edinl)urgh, 1868 ; of the
Barony parish. Glasgow, 1873. In 1872 he represented the
Church of Scotland before the General Assembly of the
Presbyterian Church in the U. S. of America. In 1880,
1884, and 1888 he participated prominenlly in the coun-
cils of the alliance of the Reformed Churches, and is chair-
man of the western section of the alliance. In 1890 he
was made chairman of the commission of the Church of
Scotland on the religious condition of the people, and in
1893 was called to the moderator's chair. He has published,
besides sermons, lectures, addresses, etc., Gnostic Sects and
Heresies (1873) ; Heaven and Home (1875) ; The Last Supper
of our Lord (1881) ; Life : is it Worth Living ? (1883) ;
Ancient Religio7is of Central America (1882, St. Giles's Lec-
tures); The Church of England (1884, St. Giles's Lectures);
Gideon and the Judges (1890, Jlen of the Bible Series); The
Church and the People (1893). Willis J. Beecher.
Lan^dale, Sir Marmaduke: soldier; b. in Yorkshire,
England, about 1598; was sheriff of that county in 1642;
embraced the royalist cause, and became one of the most
valiant generals of Charles I., defeating the Scotch at Cor-
bridge, and raising the siege of Pontefract Castle (1645) ;
commanded at the battle of Naseby, June 14, 1645, which
was lost through the imprudence of Prince Rupert; joined
Montrose ; was defeated ; escaped to the Isle of Man ; went
thence to the Continent; joined the Scotch royalist army in
1648; took Berwick by surprise (April); was defeated by
Cromwell at Preston (Aug. 17); captured and imprisoned in
Nottingham Castle ; escaped to Flanders ; was made baron
by Charles II. ; was lord-lieutenant of Yorkshire on the Res-
toration in 1660. D. at Holme in Yorkshire, Aug. 5, 1661.
Clarendon in his History of the Rebellion gives Langdale a
high reputation for courage and skill.
Langdon. John, LL. D. : Governor of New Hampshire ; b.
at Portsmouth, N. H., June 25, 1741 ; became a successful
merchant of that town. In 1774 he assisted in securing for
the colonies the ordnance stores in the fort near Portsmouth.
In 1775 he was sent to the Continental Congress. In 1776
he became navy agent. Speaker of the New Hampshire As-
sembly, and judge of the common pleas. He gave the money
with which Gen. Stark's famous brigade was equipped, anel
in person commanded a company at Bennington, Saratoga,
and elsewhere. In 1779 he was president of the New Hamp-
shire convention and Continental agent. In 1783 he was
sent to Congress, and was afterward more than once Speaker
in the New Hampshire Legislature. He was president of
New Hampshire in 178.5, and in 1787 was in the convention
which drafted the Federal Constitution. In 1788 he was
Governor, and again in 1805-09 and 1810-12. He was a
U. S. Senator 1789-1801, and declined the secretaryship of
the Navy and the vice-presidency of the U. S. D. at Ports-
mouth, Sept. 18, 1819.
Lange. laang>, Albert Friedrich : philosopher and phi-
lologist ; b. in Solingen, Germany, Sept. 28, 1828 ; studied at
Zurich and Bonn Universities ; was gymnasium teacher in
Cologne 1870-72, and was appointed Professor of Philosophy
in Zurich LTniversity in 1872. D. in Marburg in 1875. His
principal works are Geschichte der Materialismtis (2 vols.,
1866; 3d ed. 1876); Grundlegung der Mathematischeii
Psychologic (1865): and -/. St. Mills Ansichteti uber die
soziale Fragen (1865). J. M. B.
Lange, laange, Joiiann Peter: theologian; b. at Sonn-
born, near Elberfeld, in Rhenish Prussia, Apr. 10, 1802, in
humble circumstances ; acquired his first education by his
own energy; attended for a year and a half the gymnasium
of Dilsseldorf ; studied theology at Bonn 1822-2.5 ; preached
in several places, and was appointed Professor of Theology
at Zurich in 1841, and in 1854 at Bonn. His Leben Jesii
nach der Evcmgelien (3 vols., Heidelberg, 1844-47), translated
into English by Sophia Tavlor and J. E. Rvland (6 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1864; new ed. Philadelphia, 1872), Christliche
Dogmatik (3 vols., 1849-52), and Apostolische Zeitalter (3
vols., Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1853-54) exercised a widespread
and highly beneficial infiuence; of his Theologisch-homiltt-
ische Bibelwerk. a commentary upon the entire Bible, edited
and partly written by him, an English edition has been pre-
pared. Lange's Commentary, by Philip Schaff, in collabora-
tion with numerous translators and editors, and published
at New York (1864-74. 24 vols., with an original volume by
E. C. Bissell on the -l/)Oi-;v//)/iff, 1880). It was one of the
most successful of commentaries, especially from a publish-
er's standpoint, both in its German and English form. D.
at Bonn, July 8, 1884.
Lange. Thomas : novelist ; b. in Copenhagen, Denmark,
1829 ; took the theological examination in 1857, but devoted
86
LAXGK
liitns<'lf fiilirvlv to litoratiiiv. Ilis first work. I I iigHnm-
mrn, Siildriuiier (In Yoiilh, ri>rtraitiir.>s, ItCtS). hut sli(,'ht
valuV, ami wiis followi-d l>v siiiiilur volumes. Evrnli/reU
iMmi (Woiiclt-rlaii.l, lf<«S),' the stene of wliicli is liiiil in
Western Jiitlaml, marks the ln'siimiiif: of his stiulies of na-
tun' ami its iiivstieal n'lations to the soul of man. It was
fullowe<l by Aiitn ix/ llavrt (The Urook ami the Sea. IHTO).
his chief work; Ilomantixke Skildrimjer (Koinaiitic I'or-
traiture-s, 1W72); l>t lijse Sirller (Lif,'lit Nitihts. 1875); £1
Sumij.^on (1877): ami Syt Liv (New Life, lS7i»). D. Aug.
•a. \V»r U. K. DouuE.
Lanpe. Thor: Danish writer; has lived for many years
in .M..s*i)W, when' he is Danish consul. Amon^ his works
mav U- mentione.! Frn /{usIiiiul.Skililnniier oy Slemnini/er
(K^m Kussia, Kestript ions ami M.xxls); H'c*;ia, SkiUlniiff-
er frti dm russUkt Literatiir (Wesnii, Descriptions from
Russian Literature. lSf<6); Kn miuined i Orieiilen, Flyytize
Skiizer (\ Month in the Kast, Fleeting Sketches, 1887);
ami SkiUfr uy I'lianlaxier (Sketches ami Fantasies. 1890).
He has als<i made an admirahle translation of Lonjifellow's
Ooldrn Legend (ed. iii.. 1891 ). lie posses-ses {treat descriiitive
powers anil a delicate fancy. D. K. Dodue.
Lanirobpk. hiHn{;>-l>ek. Jacob: historian; b. in Skjold-
borj:. Dcniiiurk. .Ian. •->;$. 1710. In 174.5 he founded Selskubet
for Kiwlrelaiidets Historic og Sprog, and as its president
e<litc<l ai>d chielly wrote the first six volumes of Danske
Jiagazin. He also revised the material collected by Kost-
gaanl. which forms a portion of the sources of the great dic-
tionary of the si-ientinc society. His chief work, of which
onlv three volumes were published, is Scriplorex rerum
Da'niearum mrdii lufvi (1773-74). D. in Copenhagen. Aug.
16. 177ri. D. K. D.
LanppHer, laai'uh'li-iV, Francois Charles Stanislas,
Q. v., LL. D. : professor : b. at Ste. Rosalie, Province of Quc-
liec, Canailn. Dec. 26. 18:i8; gratluated at Laval University
in 1861, and. after filling the chair of Roman Law, was ap-
pointed I'rofessor of Civil Law and Political Economy in
that institution in 1876. He has been twice president of the
Instil ut I'anadien ; wits mayor of Quebec 1882-90; is presi-
dent of the Council of Arts and Manufactures, and a mem-
ber of the Council of Public In.struction for the Province of
t^uelM-c. He has held the oflices of commissioner of crown
lands and treasurer of the Province of Quebec; and has
been a member of the Dominion Parliament 1884-94. — His
brother Ciiakles, b. at Ste. Rosalie, Aug. 23. 185;i, gradu-
ated at [javal University, and was admitted to the bar in
187r). He was a memlx^r of the Parliament of Canada 1886-
90, when he became provincial secretary in the government
of the Province of Quebec. Neil Macdcvald.
Lan^enbeck. Herxhard RrDOLK Konrab. von, M. D. :
surgeon; b. in Horneburg. Germany. Nov. 9. 1810; entered
the University of Gdttingeii, where he grailuuted M. D. in
ISJS; visileil Knince and Kngland. and returned to Giit-
tingen, where he U'came a privat dix'ent. His graduating
thesis, De relina> xlructura penitiore, wils elaborated into a
volume, l)e reliiin obnerralioiiej) analomico-patholngica
(Gfittingcn, 18:16). In 1842 he was called to the University
of Kiel as Professor of Surgery and director of the Fried-
richs Hospital. In the war with Denmark in 1848 he was
general field surgeon of the army ; in the .same year he wont
to IJerlin to take the cliair, vacated by Dieffenbach's death,
as director of the Clinical Institute for .Surgery and Ophthal-
mology. For his services as surgeon-general in the war with
Denmark in 1864 he was ennobled. He was in active serv-
ice in the campaigns cif ls(>(l, 1,S70, aiid 1871. He was nmde
Gcheimer Mediciner Ralh. and subse()uently Gehcimer
Oljer-.Mediciner Katli after the Franco-German war. He
was coeditor of the Arekiv fur klinUche Chiniryie in 1860.
He hius written a number of pafK'rs on surgical topics, espe-
ciallv those pertaining to military surgerv. D. in Wiesba-
den, Sept. :!0, 1887. S."T. Armstro.no.
Lungcnhiolail, laang>n-bcc'low : collective lyime of a
numl»er of villages in Silesia. Prussia, which together form
a town exienrling more than 4 iriiUs along the banks nf the
Itiela (s<-e map of German Km|)ire, ref. 5-1). It has impor-
tant cfitton and woolen mills and sugar-refineries. Pop.
(IHiK)) 1. '5,860.
l.ang(-n(HJk. Pikteii: |K,et and playwright ; b.al Haarlem,
Holland, .lulv 2."), lt>H;t; d. in 17."iG. Ills father, a prosper-
ous mason, diecl when he was a ehilil, leaving liim to the
care of an extravagant and incom|wtcnt mother. 'I'hc latter
soon removed to Tlio Hague, where Langciidijk was obliged
LANGEVIX
to forego further education and become a designer in a
ilannisk-factory. By this trade he lived to the end. first at
The Hague, then in' Amsterdam, and finally (after 1722) in
Hiuirlem. He was unhappy in his mother, in his wife, and
in his own ]ioor management of his affairs; yet he wrot«
steadily, and, as a maker of farces and comedies, came near
greatness. His failure actually to attain this was perhaps
due to the period in which he lived and to the i)articular in-
fluences felt by him. At the age of seventeen he had writ-
ten a comedy. /VoH Qiiic/mt, which was not produced, how-
ever, till 1711, after his removal to Amsti'nlani. Here he
had come into relations with members of that ambitious and
self-satisfied group of persons styling itself " Nil Volentibus
Arduum," which, taking the French Academy for its model,
had assumed the charge of regulating and disciplining both
the Dutch tongue and the forms of Dutch poetry. Here all
was mediocrity, and it must be said to Langendijk's credit
that he succeeded in lifting himself much above his instruc-
tors and models. He felt to the end. however, their admira-
lion for things French, and his genius was imfjeded by the
iileals they were trying to establish. This is particularly
the case with his earlier pieces: De Xirelser (1712): Uel
u'tderzydsch ITuicli/k.il>edrog (1712); A'relis Lojiwen (1713);
De Wiskou.tlejianrs (171')); (^uincampoix of de windliaiide-
la(ir.'< (1720); Arlequyn Aetianist (1720). For some reason
a period of nearly twenty years intervened between this
group of pieces and his later comedies. When he took up
his pen again it wjis with the intention of producing come-
dies of manners, like Molierc's, instead of mere farces.
The first of the new group was Xantippe of het booze wyf
des filozoofs Sokrales beteugeld — only too clearly suggested
by his own experience as a husband. This was followed by
Papirius of het oproer der vrniiwen bimten Romen. not a
success; an<l bv the best of all his comedies, though not
quite completed by his own hand. tSpiegel der vaderlandsche
koopUeden. Even the latter, however, lacks the freshness
and directness of the work of Brederoo. Besides his dra-
matic pieces, Langendijk wrote many occasional poems of
slight value. These, with the plays, are printed in the col-
lected edition of his works, Gedicliten (Haarlem, 1760).
Some of his farces are still i)layed on the Dutch .-^tage, and a
separate edition of them appeared in 1851. A. li. Mabsu.
Langpnsalza. laangen-zanl'tsalt : town of Prussia, prov-
ince of Saxony; 13 miles bv rail N. bv W. of Gotha (see
map of German Empire, ref. 5-K). Pop'. (1890) 11,501. It
was several limes the theater of battles. On Feb. 15, 1761,
the allied Prussians and British, under Sydow and Spiire-
ken. defeated the Gernuin imperial army under Steinville;
Apr. 17, 181;}, the Prussians defeated the Bavarians; June
27, 1866, a bloody contest took place between the Prussians
and the Hanoverians, in which the latter were victorious,
liut suffered so heavily that a few days after they were
forced to surrender to the Prussians, who were strength-
ened by re-enforcements.
Langcvin, laan^h'viln, Sir Hector Louis: statesman; b.
in the city of Quebec, Caiuida, Aug. 26, 1826: was educated
at the seminary there, and admitted to the bar in 18.50.
lie was a member of the executive council of Canada 1864-
67, and after the union of the provinces was appointed
Secretary of State of the Dominion, a portfolio which he
retained until 1869, when he became Minister of Public
Works. He was Postmaster-General from Oct. 19, 1878, un-
til Jlay 20. 1879, when he again became Jliiiisler of Public
Works. During the absence of Sir .lolin Macdonald in
1885-86, Langevin. as .senior minister in the Houise of Com-
mons, acted as leader of the (iovernment. In 1891 the dis-
covery of various irregularities in his liepartment led to his
retirement, though he, i)ersonally. was not directly implicated.
He was a delegate to the Charlottetown union conference
in 1864, to that in Quebec the same year, and to the Lon-
don colonial conference 1866-67, to complete the terms of
the union of the British North Aineriean ))rovinces. In
1871, at the desire of the privy council, he visited British
Columbia with a view of ae(|Miring a knowledge of that
province in relation to the Pacific Haihvay. and in 1879 pro-
ceeded to London to lay before the imperial Government tlio
views of the Canadian ministry in connection with the pro-
po.sed dismissal of .M. Leiellierde Saint-Just, the Lieutenant-
Governor of the Province of Quebec. In 1873 he was
elected Conservative leader in the Province of Quebec. He
was created a Companion of the Bath in 1868, Knight Com-
mander of the Roman Order of St. Gregory the Great in
I 1870, and Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael
LANGEVIX
LANGSTONT
87
and St. George in 1881. lie edited MeJangex Reh'gieux
(Montreal, 1847-4!)) ; in 1857 Courrier du Canada ((^uebee) ;
and is autlinr of La Canada, sen Institiitiona (yiioliee,
1855); and Droit Administratif, ou 3Januel ilis J'aroinses
et Fabriques (180^). Neil JIacdonald.
Lanisrcvin, limn3h'vari, Jean Pran(;ois Pierre La Force :
Roman Catholic bishop; brother of Sir Hector Louis Lan-
gevin ; b. in Quebec, .Sept. 22, 1821; educated at the Semi-
nary of (Quebec ; Wiis ordained a priest in 1844, and conse-
crated Bishop of St.-Germain de Kiraouski in 1867, and
■was also titular Archbishop of Leontopolis. He was Pro-
fessor of Higher Mathematics in the Seminary of Quebec
1840-49; principal of Laval Normal School 1838-69;
founded the College of Rimouski in 1870, L'Hospice des
Soeurs de la Charito in 1872, and Les Soeurs des petites
eeoles in 1874. In 1886 Bishop Langevin was constituted
a Roman count, and an assistant to the aiiostolic throne.
D. Jan. 26, 1892. Among his works are Traite de Calcul
different ifl (Quebec, 1848) ; Ilistoire du, Canada en tableaux
(1860); Cours depedagogie {1865). Neil Macdonald.
Lan^hiliu, Simon: cardinal; b. at Langham, Rutland-
shire, England, about 1310; became a monk in Westmin-
ster in 133.5, prior and alibot in the same year, 1349, high
treasurer of England 1360, Bishop of Ely 1362, chancellor
1363, and Archbishop of Canterbury by papal provision
July 24, 1366. llis most noted action was the removal of
Wiclif from the headship of Canterbury Hall, Oxford, in
which he was supported by Pope Urban V., who signalized
his approval by making Langhara a cardinal-presbyter
(1368), while the king, Edward III., was favorable to the
Reformer. The new cardinal was forced to resign his arch-
bishopric (Nov. 27, 1368), and retired to Avignon, where he
became a trusted counselor of Pope Gregory XI. ; made
cardinal-bishop (1373), and died July 22, 1376. After the
accession of Richard II. his remains were removed with
great pomp to Westminster Abbey in 1379.
L.iiigland, Laiigelande, or Longland, William: author;
b. probably at Cleobury jMortimer, Shropshire, England,
about 1332 ; was educated at Oxford ; became a fellow of
Oriel College, and a tonsured clerk at Malvern. His Vision
of Piers Plowman, in alliterative verse, written about 1362,
was a religious and moral allegory, containing much satire
upon ecclesiastical corruption and the social abuses of the
time. It was originally in eight divisions, or " passus," to
which was added a continuation in three parts. Vita Do
Wei, Do Bet and Do Best. About 1377 the whole was
greatly enlarged by the author. The best edition is that of
W. W. Skeat (four parts with glossary 1867-84 ; another
edition in 2 vols., 1886). Langland died about 1400.
Revised by H. A. Beers.
Langles, la"angles', Louis Mathieu: Orientalist; b. at
Perenne, Haute-Loire, Prance, Aug. 23, 1763 ; studied Ori-
ental languages at Paris, and attracted considerable attention
in 1787 by his translation into French from the Persian of
Tamerlane's Institutes. In 1789-90 he edited Amyot's Man-
chu-French dictionary, and in 1795 he induced the French
republican government to establish a special school of Ori-
ental languages, of which he himself became the first ad-
ministrator and Professor of Persian. Through this school,
and through the Geographical Society of Paris, of which he
also was the founder, he exercised a great and beneficial
influence. He was also the author of numerous works re-
lating to Oriental languages and literature. I), in Paris,
Jan. 28, 1824. Bexj. Ide Wheeler.
Langley, James Wilberforce, JI. A., Q. C. : journalist;
b. in Paradise, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia, Jan. 4, 1849 ;
graduated at Acadia College 1871 ; was admitted to the
bar 1875 ; and in 1882 was appointed a commissioner for
revising and consolidating the statutes of Nova Scotia. He
was elected to the Legislature in 1882; became member of
the Government in 1884; Attorney-General 1886; has taken
an active part in creating the policy of unrestricted reci-
procity between Canada and the U. S. lie edited T/te Aca-
dian Becorder 1872-87, Tlie Morning Chronicle 1887-91, and
has contributed extensively to British and U. S. magazines.
Neil Macdoxald.
Langley, Jonx Newport, M. A., F. R. S. : physiologist ;
b. at Newbury, Berkshire, England, Nov. 10, 1852; was edu-
cated at Exeter Grammar School and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1877. In 1883
he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society ; in 1884 was
appointed a lecturer in Natural Sciences in Trinity College
and a lecturer on Histology in the university; in 1892 was
awarded one of the medals of the Royal Society. His pub-
lished [lapers include On tlie Salivary Glands (Journal of
Pliysiiiloiiy, 1H7!), Proc. Roy. Soc, 1886, Journ. P/iysioL,
1889); (Jii the hirer (Proc. Jioy. Soc, 1HS2 and 188.5); Fer-
ments in Alimentary Canal (Journ. Physiol., 1882); Secre-
tory and Va-fo-motor Fibers to tlie Foot (Journ. Physiol.,
1891); Arrangement oftlieSympatlietic System (Proc. Roy.
Soc. and Journ. Physiol., 1893). He also has written many
papers in conjunction with other specialists; among these
are Gastric Glands (with Dr. Sewall, Journal of Physiol-
ogy, 1879) ; Pepsinogen and Pepsin (with Dr. Edkins, Jour-
nal of Ptiysioliigy, 1886) ; papers on the action of poisons
(with Dr. Dickinson, Trans. Royal Society, 1888) ; Secondary
Degeneration (with Mr. Griinbaum, Journal of Physiology,
1890); 31ovements of the Iris (with Dr. Anderson, Journal
of Physiology, 1892).
Laiigley, Samuel Pierpoxt: astronomer; b. at Rox-
bury, Mass., Aug. 22, 1834. In 1865 he was appointed
assistant professor in the L'. S. Naval Academy, and in
1867 became director of the observatory at Allegheny. He
devoted himself principally to obsen-ations on the sun, es-
pecially to the measurement of the heat of the sun and
moon. He is the inventor of the bolometer, one of the
most delicate instruments known for the measurement of
radiant heat. In 1881 he organized an expedition to occupy
the summit of Mt. Whitney, Cal., in order to study the sun's
rays before they reached the lower strata of the atmosphere.
In 1876 he was elected a member of the National Academy
of Sciences. He has received the gold medal of the Royal
Astronomical Society of London and the Rumford medal
both from the Royal Society and from the American Acad-
emy of Arts and Sciences. In 1887 he succeeded Prof.
Baird as secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. He has
published several investigations into the dynamics of the
atmosphere and the ilight of birds, with especial reference
to the possibility of aerial locomotion. S. Newcomb.
Langlois, la'aiVglwaa', Victor : Orientalist ; b. at Dieppe,
France, Mar. 20, 1829 ; studied Oriental languages and trav-
eled in 1852-53 in Cilicia and Armenia, where he discovered
over eighty new Greek inscriptions, and undertook excava-
tions at Tarsus, frcfm which he removed many interesting
antiquities to Paris. (See his Voyage en Cilicie et dans les
Montagnes du Taurus.) In 1867 he published Le 3Iont
Athos et ses Monasteres, containing a photo-lithographic
reproduction of the geographical work of Ptolemy. In 1868
he began the publication of Collections des Ilistoriens an-
ciens et modernes de I'Armenie, which was unfinished when
he died, May 14, 1869. Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Langres, laaiigr: town; in the department of Haute-
Marne, France; situated on the left bank of the Marne, on
a plateau at an elevation of 1,460 feet. It is 184 miles
E. S. E. of Paris by rail (see map of France, ref. 4-H). It
is an old town, with a cathedral of the eleventh century, a
college and a theological seminary, a large trade in grain
and cattle, and a manufacture of fine cutlery. Pop. (1891)
10,719.
Lang-Son : a city of Tonquin ; 100 miles N. E. of Hanoi,
and only 12 miles from the Chinese frontier; capital of a
district of the same name; lat. 21° 57 N., Ion. 106" 57' E.
Its occupation in 1885 by the French followed the bloody
battles of Lac-nanh and Song-thuong. It is an ancient city,
well fortified, a center for trade in opium, oil of anise, and
coarse cotton cloths. M. W. H.
Langston, John Mercer, LL. D.: educator; b. at Louisa
Court-house, Louisa co., Va., Dec. 14, 1829. He was born a
slave, but was emancipated when six years old; was edu-
cated at Oberlin College, where he graduated in 1849, and
from the theological department of the same college in
1853 ; studied law, being admitted to the Ohio bar in 1854 ;
pursued his profes.sion for thirteen years in Ohio, when he
was called to a professorship in the law department of the
Howard University at Washington, D. C. ; became dean of
the faculty, and in 1873 vice-president and acting president
of the university. He was appointed in 1871, by the Presi-
dent, a member of the board of health of the District of
Columbia, of which in 1875 he was elected secretary. From
1875 till 1885 he was U. S. minister and consul-general in
Haiti ; in 1885 was appointed president of the Virginia Nor-
mal and Collegiate Institute in Petersburg. He has pub-
lished papers on various subjects, and a volume of addresses
entitled Freedom and Citizensliip (Washington, 1883).
88
LAXGTOFT
LANGUAGE
Ijiutrtoft, Peter: AiiRlo-XormBn writor: <1. about 1S07.
He s«-ius to have Ixvii a native of the [larish of Lanptoft in
Yorksliire, and to have re<eive«i his iiaiiie from it. He \vii> n
eaiioa of tlu'onler -' "• ^■ -^tine ill ltri<lliii^rton in York-
stun-, lie wrote ih I'ri'ncli ver^- a ( Via/hiV/c of
i.'iy/<i(u/ fMiu the - , :..)(lown to the dealhof K.!-
warvl I. HU antlioriiv for the earlv mythical jieriixl was
(teoffroy of .Monmoulli: then he followed various writers
until he reaehed the |ierio<l eontemin.rary with his own life.
The ChronicU was translated in larf,-!' [uirt into Knfjlish hy
K<,l " vnj; of IJourn in Liiuulnsliire (lomnionly
kn rt de Itrininei. The historical part of this
tra; -- luililisheil bv Ilearne in ITU'5, tlio mvthieal
part l>v l>r. Fumivall in llie Holls Series in 1*«7. The
ori^nnai French was edited by Thorne in the Hulls Series
(l(<66-68). with an intriKluetion by Wright, Riving all Ihe
tvliable facts of Ijinirtoft's life. Besides the f/iniiiicli-. Le-
la,,! ' ' • ' '.ft a Fn-nih version of Herbert du
It- > (i Iirrk>l, but Wright has shown
thiiL ,,.. , .... .-:. I earlier French than Langtoft was
e«i>able of, and also that the work its»'lf distinctly states
that it was done bv a certain FreJe Benet. Sec also P.
Mover in Hfvuf Criii<iiif (It^l. ii., p. UW); id., Jiiilltliii de
la iioc. df* Aiic. Teste* fraiif. (1878) ; Hvmanin (xv.. p. 313).
A. K. Maksu.
Langton, SrErnEs: cardinal; b. in Dovonshirc, Lincoln-
shire, or Sussex, Kngland. alxiut 1160; wa-s e<lucate<l at
Paris, taking degri'cs in philosopliy and Iheologv ; became
a profes.sor and chancellor of the luiiversilv and canon of
Notre Dame; was a fellow student with fxjihario Conti.
who liecame |>o|>e in ll'J8, and was named in the same year
a member of the papal hou.sehold. In l-HH! Langton, while
on a visit to Home, was made a cardinal, and in December
of the same year was by express order of the fHipc elected
Archbishop of Canterbury in opposition to the will of King
John. Though consecrated by tlic pope at Viterbo in .June,
1207, I.angton was not permitted to take ])ossession of his
s»>c until the submission of King .Tohn to tlic papacy in
1213, when ho imnn'diately joined the insurgent baron's in
their conllict with that monarch, a.ssistcd them at Bury St.
Edmunds (Nov. 20, 1214) in drawing up the biusis of Magna
Charta, and headed the list of baronial signers of that in-
strument at Uunnymeile (June 15, 1215). For this conduct
he incurrinl the censure of the pope, and iiolwitlistanding
a visit to Komo was suspended from his archiepiscopal func-
tions in December of that year, but restored Feb., 121(i.
He returned to England in 1218; crowned Henry III. in
1220; presided at the (-'ouncil of Osney in 1222, which drew
up a code of canon law ; watched over the observance of
Magna Charta. ami in 1223 again placed himself at the head
of the barons to demand its conhrnialion from Henry III.
The division of the Bible into chapters ha-s been commonly
Bttributeil to him. He is representeil as having been a man
of greul learning and author of mimerous theological works,
none of which, however, is extant. 1). at Slindon, Sussex,
July 9, 1228. See Hook's Archbinhiips of Canterbury;
Chronicle of lioyer of W'eiiilin-er ; Pearson's Ilintory of
England; lji[)penl>crgs (Ifxeliirttle von England, \o\. iii. ;
and Lingard's llistory of England, ii., eh. 5.
Kevi-sed bv Joh.n J. Keane.
Laniertry , Emelie Charlotte (Lillie): actress; b. at St.
Hclier's, island of Jersey, in lH.»:t. Her father, Kev. W. C.
le Breton, was the dean of the Anglican church of the
island. She liecainc noted for her beautv, being known
as the Jersey Lilv, and married Edward Langtry, of Bcl-
fa.st, who derivetNiis income from landed property in Ire-
lan(l. Irish |M>litical troubles deprociateil the value of the
estate, ami she ilelermined to adopt the .stage as a profes-
sion. She llrst ap|N,>ared as an anuiteur at Twickenham,
Ijondon, Nov. l!t, IHHl, as the Young Widow in .1 Fair En-
counter. Her professional ili'ltut was made at the Haymar-
ket theater, London, as Miss Ilanlcaslle in She Sloops to
Conquer. In 18N2 Mrs. Langtry went to the I'. S. under
Henry Abbey's mamtgemeiit. and ap|)eaied at W'allaik's as
Hester Grazebroi)k in -la I'luijual Match. J^ubseipienlly
she played Kosjdind in A« You Like II, and Juliana in Tlte
Honeymoon. .She then made a tour through the principal
cities. It was successful linancially, more on aieount of
the curiosity of the audiences than excelh-nce of her acting.
She returned to London, playing, in 1HK5, in La I'rinceme
Geurgex M\>\ The School for Scandal. In 18H(J she aiipeare<l
in Enrmien, aiv\ in the name year in The Lady of Eyotu<.
In 1880 she reappeared in New York at the Fifth Avenue
theater in The Lady of Lyons, and in 1887 produced As in
a Looking-glam. In Sept., 1892, she created the part of The
(Jueen uf Slanoaiuhowiou.
B. B. Valle.nti.ve.
Langiiutfe [(with u, originally not pronounced, inserted
by analogy of Fr. langue and Lat. lingua) < JI. Eng. tan-
gage, from O. Fr. lunqage < Lat. lingua, tongue, langmigc.
.See Toxoi'e] : priniarilv, utterance by the tongue, that be-
ing the most active antl essential of the articulating organs.
It is in accordance with this that we use the word ; it de-
notes articulate utterance for the expression of thought;
but this also in two ways. First, we mean by language the
general |K)Wer or faculty of expression of thought by articu-
late utterance, a jwwer possessed Jind exercised by all nor-
nnillv constituted and circumstanced human beings (not by
the (leaf nor by the solitary) ; in this sense, speech is its
common synonym. Second, we mean a particular body
of arlicidate utterances, signs for thought, used in some
definite community, present or past, as their means of ex-
pre.ssion ; intelligible between members of that community,
but not to outsiders. It is of the highest importance to
hold these two senses clearly apart, for upon tlicir confu-
sion depends no small part of the false views of language
more or less commonly held.
We shall begin by considering the external body of lan-
guage, the auilible sounds. These are produced by an ap-
paratus lcx.ated in the throat and mouth, supplied with
material by the lungs. That branch of linguistics which
concerns itself with the physical character of alphabetic
sounds, as dependent on the voluntary movements of the
organs, is called phonetics or phonology: it involves sotne-
thing of acoustics and something of aiuitomy, but is cpiite
distinct from either. A brief consideration of its leading
principles will lie all that is needed here.
The number of distinct articulations capable of being
produced by the organs of utterance is indefinitely great.
Nearly 300 liave been represented separately by Ellis in his
'• Pahcotype " (first chapter of Early English Pronuncia-
tion); but many of these are variations, hardly percepti-
ble to any but skilled and observant ears, of what is prac-
tically the same sound : and no single language uses for
purposes of speech more than a fraction of this number.
The most important division of the system is into vowels
and consonants. The vowels are the opener sounds, those
in which the modifying action of the mouth-organs on the
intonated currents of breath is least; the consonants are the
ch>ser sounds, those in which the element of oral action pre-
vails more or less over that of tone. Upon the antithesis of
vowel and consonant, the succession of alternately opener
ami closer sounds, depends what we call the articulate char-
acter of our utterance ; the stream of audible sound, con-
sisting especially of the vowels, is narrowed or cut off from
point to point by the consonants, and so broken into arti-
culi, "joints," being thus made both distinct and flexible to
a degree that would be attainable in no other way. There
is a class of consonants — p. h. k. g. t. d — in which the inter-
ference of the mouth-organs with the stream of breath is
carried to the extreme of complete stoppage: these are called
mutes (slops, chcchs). There is another in wliich the organs
are so closely approached that a rustling or buzzing is heard
at the orifice, and is the conspicuous element in tne sound
jiroduccd : these are called fricatives; they are conveniently
divided into sibilants — such ils s z, sh zh (of azure) — and
spirants — such as f v. the two M-sounds (thin, then), and
tne German ch. Another very distinct class is that of the
nasals or rescmants; in these there is a complete closure of
the mouth-organs at the same points as in tlie utterance of
the mules, but the nasal passage is unclosed, so that tho
sounds are sonorous and continuable — as in. n. ng (in King-
ing); in the nasal vowels (e. g. of French) there is an un-
elosure of the iia.sal passage along with ordinary vowel ut-
terance, giving an added twang to the product.' One more
ela.ss of consonants remains, the semi-vowels y, u; I, r —
sounds which stand on the line between vowel and conso-
nant,// being only infinilesimally dillerent from the » of
pii/ue (the cc-soiind), and w from the « of rule (the oo-
.souml); and/ and r being convertible, and by iniiny lan-
guages converted, to vowel uses.
In English, and in the majiu-ity of other languages, there
are in the mouth three places of complete closure, produc-
ing mutes — a front, or labial, at the lips, giving p and b; a
back, or palatal, between the back of the tongue and the
soft palate, giving A- and g; and an intermediate, or lingual,
between the lip or front part of the tongue and the roof of
LANGUAGE
89
the mouth at or back of the upper front teeth, Rivinf: t and
d. The last two pairs may vary in character iiccording to
the place on the [jalate and the parts of the tongue used ;
and different t's and A'.s are sometimes found side by side in
the same language. Usually there is, as in English, a cor-
responding nasal to each unite closure ; but the other con-
sonants also tend toward the same organs of production:
thus the /and c and ware more labial; the th, the s and
z, and the r and I are lingual ; and the ch, the sli and zh,
and the y are more palatal. Even the vowels show the
same tendency : from the o-sound of far. which is the [jur-
est alphabetic tone, least modified by the mouth-organs, the
tongue approaches the palate, toward the A--position, more
and more in the a of pan, the e of pen, and the i of pin,
giving thus a palatal series of vowels ; and the lips are more
and more rounded and approached in the a of all, the o of
pole, and the u of rule, giving a labial series.
There is one more principle of relationship to be noted :
that of sonant to non-sonant or surd (or voiced to breathed)
sounds. The s and z, for example, are uttered with the
same articulating positions of the mouth-organs, but the
former with simple breath, the other with intonated breath
or sound; the former a hiss, the latter a buzz; and the
difference of t and d is the same, sound beginning in the
former only immediately after the breach of mute contact,
which is made with breath alone, but in the latter before
the breach, by forcing air enough to support for a moment
the sonant vibration of the vocal cords up into the closed
cavity of the mouth. Thus the mutes and fricatives go
usually in pairs, of surd and sonant ; but in the opener posi-
tions the mere breath is not sufficiently characterized to
give an alphabetic constituent for each position, and we
throw all the different products together as h.
The principles, then, which determine the system of the
alphabet are : (1) the degree of approach of the organs,
between the absolute openness of a (far) and the abscjlnte
closure of Ic, t, p ; (2) the particular organs or parts of the
mouth brought toward or against one another ; and (3) the
kind of material furnished to the mouth-organs by the
fhroat, whether breath or sound. Annexed is a sample
alphabet thus arranged, containing (with neglect of some
minor distinctions) the simple sounds of the English lan-
guage :
M> O
■
a
1
m A
vowels.
sonant. ■ ■
e 9 0
J
1 y
r. I
w semivowels.
[ny
It
m nasals.
surd, h
aspiration.
M>
sonant. zh
surd. sK
t
«
j- sibilants.
'■1
sonant.
dh
t' (
surd.
th
i ,- spirants.
* f
sonant. q
surd. X-
d
t
p !• -"'-■
'fi
palatal
lingual
labial
series.
series.
serie
s.
In this scheme (f represents the a-sound in pa7i, A the
sound in all, and ^ the "neutral " vowel-sound in hut, hurt.
See Phonetics.
The spoken alphabet of every language may be reduced
to a systematic form more or less resembling this. Alpha-
bets are, however, of very different character as regards
both the number and the identity of the sounds composing
them. Languages differ not only in their sounds, but in
the coml)inations of sounds allowed in forming syllables,
and in the combinations of syllables allowed in forming
words. Some have hardly more than a dozen articulations,
all told, while the Sanskrit and English each possess near
fifty ; some allow only one consonant in a syllalile, and that
always before the vowel, while the Engli.sh makes such in-
tricate and difficult combinations as .strands, twelftlis ; some
(as Chinese) admit only words of one syllable, while Amer-
ican Indian languages sometimes count the syllables of a
word by the score. As they differ in these respects, so also,
and far more, in the combinations of sounds by which they
represent any given conception ; whence the diversity and
mutual unintelligibility of human languages. This diver-
sity, which is very different from what we might antecedent-
ly expect, considering the fundamental unity of the human
mind and its operations, is one of the problems which the
science of language has to explain.
We have said that articulate sounds are produced by the
voluntary action of their utterers. Of course this does not
imply that the speaker understands at all the mechanism
which he sets in motion, or commands it otherwise than as
he commands the mechanism of locomotion or of gesture.
Each human organ is capable of making all the sounds
that are found in any human alphabet, an<l a great many
more; and (ajiart from special individual disabilities) any
sound is equally easy at the outset, before haljits are formed,
to all human beings : there is nothing characteristic of race
in the alphabets of different races; but each person grows
up to produce by imitation just those .sounds which he hears
others make about him. Some sounds, however, are easier
and sooner learned than others ; the norm in every language
is given by the practiced adult speakers, and the child, be-
ginning by reproducing only imi>erfectly what he hears,
gradually acquires the same facility and accuracy as his
fellows possess. Just so, every well-endowed child is ca-
pable of gaining the skill of eye and hand required for any
one of an indefinite number of trades ; and he actually
g^ins that to which he is ma<ie to apply himself. Without
such application he would learn none ; and so he would ac-
quire no language if he were not taught it. There are, we
may say, a thousand different languages in the world, and
each of them has a different word for hand, or green, or
run ; there is no reason why any human being uses one of
the.se thousand words instead of another for a given pur-
pose except that he hears it used by others, and then him-
self learns to reproduce it by imitation, and to associate it
with the same idea which it represents in their use. There
is no such relation between the articulating apparatus and
the apparatus of mental action, of perceiving, and com-
paring, and judging, that anywhere in the world a human
being produces a series of articulate sounds by an internal
and natural impulse as representative of a certain concep-
tion. The relation of uttered signs for ideas is precisely
what that of acted signs would be ; the hands and arms are
capable of making an infinity of combinations of motions,
and, as the experience of the deaf-mute shows us, a person
is capable of associating conceptions with these motions to
such an extent as to make them a full apparatus for the ex-
pression of thought. We see clearly enough that the tie
between such signs and the movements of the mind is an
external and artificial one ; but it is not less the case with
our own signs. That is to say, every uttered word is an
arbitrary and conventional sign — arbitrary, because any
other could have been made (and a great number of others
are made) to answer the same purpose; conventional, be-
cause the selection of this one has its sole ground in the
accordant usage of a community. It was learned by the
direct instruction or from the examjile of others who used
it already ; it has no tie with its inner content or meaning
save that of a mental association, lie who has acquired
and learned to use one set of signs may add another and
another, and use them also with readiness, even forgetting,
if the shift be made early enough, his first acquired set, or
" native language," in their favor.
We see, then, clearly, what the " gift of language " is to
man. It is a general power of expression. It consists in
such gifts of mind and of body, and in such command over
them, that any human being can possess himself of any of
the systems of expression established and current in the
world, and make use of it, more or less perfectly, for com-
munication and for the operations of his thought. It places
all existing languages within his reach, but puts none into
his possession ; he can learn to speak anything, but can
speak nothing without learning ; but the power to use im-
plies also, to a certain extent, the power to produce. If
there could be such a thing started as a speechless com-
munity of human beings, it would, by the exercise of its
gift, make a beginning of supplying itself a language,
which would become increased and extended and perfected
until, after generations enough had made their contribu-
tions to it, it would compare with some of those now cur-
rent. Of what kind the beginnings would be we shall see
better after considering the main facts relating to the life
and growth of existing tongues.
Men are, even now and everywhere, makers as well as
learners and users of language. If the whole life of lan-
guage consisted in simple teaching and learning, every
language would continue the same from age to age ; but
not one does in fact continue the same : all arc changing,
some more and some less rapidly. The English has changed
so that the form of a thousand years ago, which we call
Anglo-Saxon, is as a wholly strange tongue to us. Latin
changed into Old French, and this into modern French ; Old
High German changed into Middle, and this into New ; and
so on. This is simply the effect of the collective mind of
90
LANGUAGE
the si>»'akinKCommiinitv workins underneath its apparatus
of i'X|.n><i"n. ami a<lapting tlic laltiT to ils clianj;int; needs
ami sliifliii^' i.ri'feniues. Nothing is plainer than tliat
whatever new knowledge and alleriKi eon<e[ptioiis iniiy arise
in a eoninuinitv niii~t somehow liiid expression in itss(K'eeli;
that llie pa-ssing out o( mind of old ei>neeplioiis is ueeoiii-
uanied l>v the oblivion of tlieir signs (if not transferred to
new us.'s); and then tlierv is, liesides, a kiml of wear and
tear of words, by which they ehange shape or disjippear,
ami a eoiistaiit prodnetion of new material to take the
plaec of what is liwt, and to extend and improve tlie means
of expn-ssion. To unilervtand these changes is to under-
stand the growth of language: ami in order to be under-
stoinl, in themselves and in their causes, they need to be
studied in their detail: the general etieet is only the sum
of an infinite number of details, each of which has its own
historv and occasion.
The" changes of language may be l>est grouped under tlirec
hea»ls — (1) alterations of old material; (-') loss of material;
Qi) additions of new material. .Mtcrations of old material,
again, are made either in the external audilile form of words
or in their internal content, their meaning. Kach kind of
alteration is inde|Kndent of the other; and for the reason
that the tie between form and meaning is, as pointed out
above, only one of the convenience of use : otherwise the
two could not be divorced. Each is determined by the re-
quin'mentsof the convenience of the users; and this, so far
as alteration of outward form is concerned, makes chiefly
toward ease of utterance, economy of the muscular effort of
eimncialion. The princijile of ease shows itself most obvi-
ouslv in the constant abridgment which words undergo by
the loss of initial, and especially of final, sounds and sylla-
bles, and the omission or contraction of interior elements.
Thus bear in "we bear" is from bharamasi.bi>re in "we
bore" from babharmaxi, had in " had we" from habaide-
deima; n/m.i is from elermoiiiur: and so on. We may fol-
low the gradual rciluction of a word like b/iarnnmxi through
such forms as plierome.i (dial. Greek) and ferimu.i (Lat.),
and bairam (Goth. I ; and so in innumerable similar cases.
By this means especially the endings which once showed
the grammatical forms of words are worn out and lost. As
is well known, few languages show the results of this al)-
breviating piwess in such a degree as the English; the
monosyllalih's whiili form two-thirds to tliree-i|uarters of
our language as spoken or written were all of them words
of two or three or more syllables in its earlier condition.
The constituent elements of words that are s|)ared also be-
come variously altered. The character and extent of the
spoken alphabet are all the time slowly changing. Old
soun<ls go out of use; new ones are introduced: both vow-
els and consonants are shifted to other places and modes of
utterance. Thus the old Iiido-Kuropean aspirates (mutes
with a puff of ftalun, a kind of /(, following the breach of
their contAct) have long since disappeared in Europe, be-
coming variously altered : the root bhiir, instanced above, is
in ancient tireek p/ier (//A), but in modern Greek, as in
Latin, /er (the /a sound not found at all in the original al-
phabet); in Germanic, icr; and so on. -Ml such traiisitiniis
of sound are more or less strictly reducible lo rule, being
governed by the physical relations of sounds and by tlu'
general tendencies of language, as modified by the special
tendencies and habits of each particular community. To
trace them out, and, so f;ir as is possible, explain tl'iem, is
the task of iihonctic science. .Assimilation is the head un-
der which the larger part of them fall; both on the smaller
scale, making ditllcult combinations more pronounceable,
and on the larger scale, approximating the whole vowel
and consonant sy.-itenis to one another, making the vowels
closer anil the consonants opener, and thus filling uj) the
alphalH'lic sy.slem with intermediate, more slightly diflereii-
tiateil sounils. There arc examples of the opposite princi-
jile, dissimilation, and more difliciilt and anomalous cases:
of whi<'h the most noted and intricate is the so-called
Grimnrs law of the rotation of mutes in Cermaiiic lan-
guagi\ whereby, of the original surd, luspirate, and sonant
mutes (in this order) i-ach is by the majority of Germanic
diale<'ts pushed around oho step, and in the 'High Cicrman
two sle|«s: thus Sanskr, lad, Eng, that, Ger, daa (the sibilant
replacing the aspirate).
i'he changes of internal content or meaning of words arc
as various as those of form, and even more irreducible to
sysleiuatic order. There is lianllya conceivable transfer of
use which may not be found exemplified in the historv of
words. The greater purl of them may bo rudely classified
under two great heads— restriction and extension. l?y re-
striction or specialization is meant the taking of a general
wort! expressive of quality or action, and nuiking of it the
specific appellation of some thing or class of things pos-
sessing that along with other qualities. Thus the sun is
named from its "shining," the mwin from her "measuring"
of time; a planet from its " wandering" motion ; the elec-
tric force from its displaying itself in "amlier" (when
rubbed); a crescent from the shape of the "growing" moon;
and so on. This is one of the earliest, most constant, and
most fruitful methods by which names of things have been
won. A name, once won, becomes the appellation of a class
of related things, and the limits of classes arc constantly
shifting and sjireading by direct and indirect means. Even
«m;i and tmwn become class-names when the progress of as-
tronomy discloses other bodies of analogous character with
them; planet is, by the same means, both changed in appli-
cation (made to exclude sun and include earth) and wid-
ened (to take in Uranus and Neptune and the asteroids).
Not ties of scientific classification alone ; tics of analogy, of
every kind and degree, are used to extend the sphere of ap-
plication of words. Jiuard is made to signify the " table,"
and then the food set on it, and the body of men that sit
round it (board of directore, etc.), I'ust, literally "put,
placed." gets a whole sehcrae of meanings, seemingly of
utter diversity, although each is really fastened to some one
of the others 'l)y a traceable tie of association. Tlius a great
part of our words come to have a variety of senses more or
less remote from one another — senses which it is the office
of the lexicographer to place in their right mutual relations,
but which the ordinary speaker would often be nuzzled to
explain. There are two special departments of this change
which require a wonl of notice. In the first place, all our
expressions for intellectual and moral conceptions and re-
lations are obtained thus from leniis originally indicative
of what is physical and sensible; thus right is "straight,"
and wrong is "wrung" or "twisted"; understand is "stand
in the midst" of anything; imply is "fold in," apply is
"fold to," reply is "bend back," comply is "bend along
with"; dei-elop is "unwrap": occur is "run against"; ap-'
prehend is "take hold": and so on. In the second place,
words indicative of relation, form-words, connectives, aux-
iliaries, are made from words formerly of more definite and
material meaning, by a gradual extension so wide that it
results in a complete elTaccment, by attenuation, of that
meaning. Thus the verb be, the copula between subject
and predicate, is made up of roots signifying originally
"grow," "dwell," "sit," "stand," and the like. The aux-
iliary have, now a sign of past time (I have do7ie). of future
obligation (/ hai-e to go), and so on, is from a root meaning
" seize, grasp " ; will comes from " inclose," s/iii// from "of-
fend," may from " be st rong." The art icles are from demon-
stratives and numerals; relatives, from demonstratives and
interrogatives; conjunctions, from adverbs and other parts
of speech.
By both these methods the material of a growing and cul-
tivating language is constantly undergoing conversion to
finer, more formal, more concc]itual uses, and this is perhaps
the grandest general movement tli.'it goes on in it. There
are nunor movements of every kind, many of which are
made the subject of exposition and illustration in such works
as Trench's Study of Words and English Past and Present:
there is no space to dwell upon them here.
The second general division of linguistic change is that of
loss. It is a comparatively sim[.le subject. As language is
maintained and kept in existence only liy use, disuse causes
disappearance of any of ils elements. A word is lost when
the conception for which it stood dies out of men's knowl-
edge and remembrance; so, for example, the jihrascology of
ancient religion and ancient arts, when these are superseded
by new — unless, indeed, some of the old words should take
on new and changed meanings; then we have only that
minor kind of loss which consists in the disappearance of an
internal content. Words are also crowded out of use by
the iiprisal of new terms which come into fashion and make
them disjiensable. When, f(U' exanqile, the flood of words of
Latin origin was brought in upon English, it caused the
obsolescence, of manyan ecpially good term of Saxon origin;
and sporadic cases are always liable to happen of words be-
ing allowed by carelessness, as it were, to die out, which wo
afterward regret.
A more important department of loss consists in the dis-
a|jpcarance of the signs of grammatical distinctions, and
with these of the consciousness of the distinctions them-
LANGUAGE
91
selves, cliiefly as a result of the wearing-out processes of
phonetic decay. As already noted, no modern languaRe offers
more abundant exempliiicatiou of this than our English.
•Thus the seven original cases of our family have been re-
duced to two (in certain pronouns, three) ; the five original
tenses, to two ; the agreement of the adjective with its noun,
in two forms of declension, is entirely lost; the scheme of
artificial or grammatical gender is obliterated ; the sub-
junctive mood is nearly gone. The same is true in less de-
gree of all the languages akin with ours, and of all others
which have any grammatical structure at all. The law of
abbreviation is inexorable in its working, and, along with
what can well enough be spared, takes away what is valuable.
I The third division of change includes additions to the
material of language. Of the addition of new meanings to
old words, sufficient notice has already been taken ; and it
is evident that by this means the resources of expression of
a language may be .very much increased without any cor-
responding outside show. It is possible also to pile away
the results of new knowledge in the old words : however
much we may come to know more than of old about the sun,
heat, rising, and falling, and innumerable other subjects, it
does not disturb our employment of the traditional names.
These are just as real parts of the growth of language, pro-
duced by the same forces and for the same purposes, as the
more external additions. External additions are of two
kinds — those made by borrowing from abroad, and those
made by the development of native material. Borrowing is
a well-nigh universal process of language-making ; there is
hardly one unmixed tongue in the world, unless here and
there a dialect which never comes into contact with any
other. Only those languages borrow on a large scale of
which the speakers have derived to a large extent their cul-
ture, knowledge, institutions, from other communities. The
Persian in this way gets material of expression indefinitely
from the Arabic ; the Turkish, from the Persian and Arabic ;
the modern dialects of India, from the Sanskrit ; the Japan-
ese, from the Chinese. So also all the peoples who inherit
Greek and Roman civilization have taken abundantly from
the Greek and Latin vocabularies. English has borrowed
more than any other language that is not descended direct-
ly from the Latin : partly because the forcible fusion of a
Germanic and a Romanic dialect which was the result of
the Norman conquest opened the door to such borrowing
and made it easy; and partly because the native processes
of composition and derivation in English had become so
inactive that not much growth could be accomplished by
their aid. As our vocabulary presents itself in the diction-
aries, about five-sevenths of it are of classical origin. Of
course, in actual use, in speaking or writing, the propor-
tion is very different, because the core of the language,
embracing the words of most frequent use, is almost ex-
clusively Germanic; the Germanic part is 60 to 90 per cent.
Names of things are most easily and directly borrowed,
connectives least easily, grammatical apparatus, endings
of derivation and inflection, almost not at all. The foreign
material is stripped of its native grammatical form, and
often shaped over a little to assimilate it to the native stock
of the borrowing language ; and it is prepared for free prac-
tical use by means of the grammatical apparatus of the lat-
ter, each borrowed element thus often becoming the nucleus
of a little family of derived and inflected words. What
thus comes into a language is to a very great extent only
words of learned use, employed almost exclusively by
those who know it as of foreign origin and recognize its
source ; but more or less of it, according to circumstances,
works its way down into popular use, and is then in no
way distinguishable from that which is of ultimately native
growth : the mass of speakers use their words simply be-
cause they are in use, neither knowing nor caring whence
they came.
For obtaining new resources of expression out of the old
material of a language, the methods can not, of course, be
very various. In the course of the phonetic changes of
language a single word sometimes divides into two or even
more forms, which then go on to lead an independent life ;
so Anglo-Saxon of has separated into of and p^, Anglo-
Saxon an into one and an or a, ealsira into also and as ; and
we have such doublets as minute and rninute. conduct
and conduct, gentle and genteel and gentile, and so on ; but
such a method operates only on a very restricted scale. A
process of much wider reach and greater importance is that
of the formation of compound words, which is very exten-
sively and fruitfully resorted to by all the tongues of our
family, although much more by some than by others. We
have in English, for example, combinations of every grade
— from such loose ones as book-cover, chair-hack, through
closer, like tablecloth, inkstand, homestead, railway, steam-
boat, to such as have been so far altered in proinmciation or
meaning, or both, that we do not ordinarily think of them
as compound at all, like breakfast, forehead, boatswain, or
such as have their origin wholly concealed from all but
learned eyes, like such and which (from so-like and ivho-
like). Many a seemingly simple word of ours is proved by
historical inquiry to be put together, not far back, from two
or more others ; for we are always ready to forget the origin
of the terras we use when they are once made and put to
use ; and then the processes of phonetic change seize upon
them and alter and disguise them past recognition.
Very frequently these processes act only upon one, the
latter, of two members of a compound, converting it into
a dependent addition to the other. Thus our ly in godly,
manly, homely, etc., is to us a mere suffix, forming adjec-
tives from the nouns god, man, home ; or, in other words,
as freely, truly, it makes adverbs from adjectives ; but in
Anglo-Saxon it was an appended adjective, lie, lice, our
like. The d which makes the past tense of our " regular "
verbs is similarly traceable to the verb did, added as an
auxiliary in early German language to some verbal word.
The ai of French chanterai is an auxiliary^'V/i, " I have."
The bam, bo, and vi of Latin verbs are of the same origin ;
so is the aw (so) of the Greek future. These are but ex-
amples of a large number of endings or suffixes which come
demonstrably from independent words, at first compounded
with other words, then disguised in form, and finally com-
ing to be felt as mere modificatory apjiendages, and ex-
tended in use in that office. No other method of producing
such elements of expression is known through all the his-
torical epochs of language. It is true that by no means
all suffixes admit of this explanation ; but that is because
the evidence which would constitute an explanation is no
longer attainable. The facts in our language which seem
to make against it — especially the instances of internal
change like man men. lead led, give gave — are capable of
easy explanation as inorganic or accidental results of pho-
netic change, and traceable to original external addition
like the rest. In short, we have here a method of linguistic
growth which is in complete accordance with the facts and
tendencies of known linguistic history, and which, in the
opinion of the best modern students of language, is capable
of having produced the whole structure of speech. It works
very slowly, indeed, as compared with wholesale borrowing,
but its effects are infinitely deeper and more important.
All these methods of change are carried on, it will be ob-
served, in the interest of convenient expression. There is
new knowledge of every kind to be provided for — new facts,
new classifications, abstractions, deductions ; and there are,
not so indispensable, but as inevitable, changes of the in-
strument of expression itself in its uttered form, in its ap-
paratus of connection and relation. As a whole, the process
seems a highly intricate one, but in its details it is perfectly
intelligible. It is a constant name-making, a never-ending
satisfaction of the individual needs of expression, as sug-
gested by and built upon the already subsisting uses of a
language, as governed in the mode of satisfaction by the
existing habits of speech, and by the circumstances of the
case. The idea being conceived, the mind reaches after the
means of its signification, and finds this wherever it lies
most ready at hand. The mind is easily content : no nicely
adapted sign, essentially bodying forth the conception, is
required ; only a representative which shall be henceforth
associated with the conception, and one having such rela-
tion to antecedent expression that it shall commend itself
to the acceptance of the community ; for this is an ordeal
which everything in language must pass. Nothing is lan-
guage until it is adopted by a community as its means of
communication. Though ev'ery individual change proceeds
from individual action, and has its own time and place and
occasion of origination, the common action is equally a fac-
tor in its history.
It is easy to' find, in the antithesis of individual action
and that of the community, the explanation of dialectic
variation. Every language is all the time changing ; it
changes by specific items, which begin with individuals and
spread by" communication, by imitation, through the whole
mass of the community. So' long as they do thus spread,
the language of the community, however rapidly it may
change, remains homogeneous throughout its whole terri-
92
LANGUAGE
ton- with the eii-fplion of those- minor local ami class dif-
ferviui-s which (.nviiil within the limits of every cxistin;;
toufiue without ilispiirttKcini'nt to its unity, lK>euuse those
who s()eak it can all uiukTstan.l one another in reference to
the most necessary subjects. If the (lurls A anil U and t,
and so on. Lecomo separated from one another, so that the
changes initiated in A do not siin-ad into H ami C, nor those
mad.'" in B or I' into the rest, then the local dilTerenees he-
L'in at once to l>e multiplied and decpeneil ; mutual intelli-
geiae Ixvomes more and more dillicult, and tinally impo.ssi-
ble : and dillerent lan{;uat;es are the result. All, then, that
makes for unity of coiumuiiitv n'presses dialectic frrowth ;
and the forces "of culture are those which work most elh-
cientlv toward this result. A literature, writing:, instruc-
tion, tend to check the rate of chanire of a laiif;naf;e, and to
elTat'e local and class dilTeivnces alrea<ly existiiif;. Ifrnij-
rance and barbarism »)otli encouriHre rapid alteration, and,
by favorins the isolated and antajjonistic posUion of dis-
tricts and tritws. make for divarication also. The mainte-
nance of wide-extended unity of speech, alonir with wide
unity of other institutions, is possible only under civilized
conditions.
The state of lanpua^'c throughout the earth is precisely
what the principles here laid ilown would lead us to ex-
pect. The world is full of dialects, some closely and ob-
viously akin with one another, others having reseniblances
discoverable upon closer examination, others apparently
unrelate<l. If speech began to exist with a single race or a
limited number of races of human beings, and spread with
them from land to land and from continent to continent,
ever altering and divaricating dialectically with every new
divi>ion of a race or community, the result would finally be
what we see it to be. In the' long ages of barbarism the
growth of dialects was the prevailing tendency ; since civil-
ization has become the overwhelming force in the history
of the world, the tendency is the other way : the cultivated
dialects of the leading nations are extending, and crowding
out diversity, and men may look forward to a lime when
one or two or a few languaj^es shall prevail universally.
Such being the case, it is evidently one of the first ob-
jects to be aimed at by the students of language to make a
classification of all human dialects according to their rela-
tionship and its degrees: only thus can the way be prepared
for the historical research of language in general. This
work has been accomplishe<l, so far as the assemblage of
materials has made it possible — provisionally, that is to say,
and with full a<-knowledgment of the probability of amend-
ment and improvement hereafter. In imitation of genea-
logical phraseology, the dialects regarded as demonstrably
descended from a common ancestor are called a " family, '
each family being then divided into branches, sub-branches,
etc.. as may be found convenient.
Inilii- European or Aryan Famili/. — This is also called by
the (iermans Indo-Germanic. It is the family to which our
own tongue belongs, with most of the other languages of
Europe, and with those of Southwestern Asia; and it is by
far the most important of all. It is divided into seven
principal branches. There is (1) the Indian, or Sanskritie, an
intruder into India from the northwest, perhaps not more
than 2000 to ;i()00 years b.c, and gradually filling all the
northern country, with a j)art of the southern peiiinsula,the
Dekhan ; the rest remaining in nos-session of t^ie more abo-
riginal Uravidian tribes. Its oldest language is the San-
skrit, the earliest parts of the literature of which, the hymns
of the Veda, go back probably to near 2000 n. c, the remot-
est date anywhere reached among Indo-Kuropoan reconls.
The language is also less altered, by changes either of form
or of meaning, from the original common speech than is
any other; and hence the Sanskrit lakes llie leading place
in all researches into the oldest language-history of the
whole family. The great groups of varying dialects known
as Hindi, iiengali, .Mahratli, are the modern rei)resenlatives
of the branch; and l>etween them and the Sanskrit lie the
I'rakril ilialects and the Pali, the siu:red language of .Soiitli-
ern liinldhisni. (See Sanskkit.) (2) The /roHiV/?i branch, oc-
cupying the great Iranian plateau between the borders of
Mesopotamia and of India. II is nearly akin with the Indian,
and the two arc often, and very properly, combineil together
into a single "Aryan" branch; their oldest dialects are
hanlly more unlike than, for example, someof the (iiTmanic
languages are unlike one another. The oldest reconls of the
liranih of definite dale are the eiineiform iiis<ri[ilions of
Darius ami his success<irs (from about .ItK) n. c); in part,
probably, older is the bible of ilie Zoroastrian religion, the
.•\ vesta; its language is called the Zend, or Avestan, or Old
Hadrian. Of considerably later date is the problematical
lluzvaresh.or I'ehlevi: and the Parsi but little precedes the
.Modern Persian, which has a great and valuable literature,
beginning from about lOUU a. d. To this branch belong also
the Kurdish, the Ossetic in the Caucasus, and probably the
Afghan; also the Armeiiiaii, which has a literature going
liack to the fifth century of our era. (See Iranian Lan-
OLAtiES.) (3) The (r'reek branch. Of this the history is too
well known to rciiuire more than a word here. It has in the
poems of Homer the oldest monuments of the family out-
side of India. What were the relations, to it and to tlio
family, of the languages on the N.. and of those on the E.,
in Asia Minor, is very uncertain, and will perhaps never be
determined. The present .\lbanian, or Skipetar. regarded
as modern representative of the ancient lllyrian, is of dis-
puted character, but more probably Indo-European. (See
Grekk Lanuuaoe.) (4) The Jtalic branch. This includ-
ed a considerable number of the languages of Italy ; and
of some of them, especially the Osoan and the Uinbrian,
considerable remains are left; of others, as Volscian and
Sabine, the merest fragments. All were wiped out by the
Latin dialect of Rome, which also extended itself, along
with Koman dominion and institutions, in both directions
through Southern Europe, giving rise to the modern group
of the Komanic languages, embracing as its principal mem-
bers the Italian, Eremli. Pioven<;al, Spanish and Portu-
guese, Kuinaiish. and Wallachian, each including a great
variety of dialects. The literatures of these modern lan-
guage's commence between the tenth and thirteenth cen-
turies; fragments of Latin come down from the third cen-
tury B. c. (See Italic Languages and Latin Language.)
(!)) The Celtic branch. The Celtic languages formerly occu-
]iied a very broad S(iace in Europe, but they have been con-
tinuSilly encroached upon by both Romanic and Germanic,
until now they survive only on the farthest western edges of
their old territory. The \Velsh, the Cornish (extinct since
the end of the eighteenth century), and the Armorican of
Hriltany constitute the Cymric division of the extant dia-
lects ; the Gadlielic includes the Irish, the Gaelic of Scotland,
and the Manx of the Isle of Man. Irish and Welsh monu-
ments go back to the eighth and ninth centuries. (See Celtic
Language.) (6) The ^SVai'o«ic, or >S'/o?'«-/yf//ic branch. The
seat of the Slavonic languages is in Eastern Euro|ie. The
important members of the eastern subdivision are Russian,
Bulgarian, and Servian ; of the western, Polish and Bohe-
mian. The earliest Slavonic record is a Bilile version made
in the ninth century. The branch is a double one, in virtue
of being made to include the more remotely but still spe-
cially kindred Lettish dialects — namely, the Lithuanic, Li-
vonian, and (extinct) Old Prussian. These have no records
older than the sixteenth century, but the Lithuanian espe-
cially is distinguished by the priinitiveness of .someof its
forms. (See Slavic Languages.) (T) The Germanic (or Teu-
tonic) branch. This is divided into four suli-branches. The
Moeso-Gotliic.or dialect of the Goths of Moesia. is long since
extinct, and is represented only by parts of a Bible version
made by Ulfilas in the fourth century. It occupies, as both
oldest in time and most primitive in structure, much such a
position in the branch as the Sanskrit occupies in the family.
The Scandinavian sub-branch fills Oenmark. Sweden. Norway,
and Iceland. It has its oldest living re]>resentative in the
Icelandic, and its oldest and most original monuments also
come from Iceland in manuscripts of the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries. The more proper German is divided into
the High German of the central and southern region, and
the Low tTcrnian of the northern lowlands. The High
(lerinan begins its Olil period in the eighth century, its
Middle in tiie twelfth, and its Xew in the sixteenth; what
we call the (iennan language is its only cultivated ilialect,
A great part of the Low German territory in (icrmany now
acknowledges the supremacy of the literary High German;
but the Netherlandish or Dutch has an independent culture
and literature, and the English is its colony, brought to
Britain by the .Vngles and Saxons in the fifth century and
later. The oldest Anglo-.Saxou remains are from the sev-
enth century. See Teutonic Languages.
Respecting all this great and important body of lan-
guages is to be held, in conformity with the jiriiu'lples laid
down above, that they are descenilcd from the tongue of a
single community which lived somewhere, within narrow
limits, at .some remote period, and by spread and emigra-
tion broke up, over and over again, into separate jiarts,
with the inevitable consequence of the breaking up of it»
LANGUAGE
93
speech into dialects. Where and when that original com-
munity lived it is impossible to determine from any evi-
dences as yet brought to light ; certainly language does not
give, and can not be exi)ected ever to give, any definite in-
formation about it. The question of the time depends wholly
upon the grander question of the antiquity of man on the
earth ; the historical linguist will only say that he does not
know how to compress all the events of the Indo-European
language-history into the brief space of 6,000 years, and will
welcome an extension of the period ; but what extension to
ask for he does not know. As for the place, the facts of
language admit of being reconciled with almost any theory
that can be suggested. While language is thus silent as to
place and time, it gives some definite information respecting
• the condition of the primitive community, showing it to
have been not merely nomadic, but of settled and agricul-
tural life, with well-developed family organization, with do-
mesticated animals, with some of the arts of life, and with
knowledge of a metal or two. See Indo-Europeans and
Indo-European Languages.
The history of development of Indo-European language
is better understood than that of any other family, the ma-
terials being exceptionally abundant, and having received
an amount of study which has been bestowed upon no
other ; its main features are pretty clear, though there re-
mains abundance of obscurity in its details. The language
began in a condition of "roots" (analogous with those of
which, for example, the Chinese language is even down to
the present time composed), utterances which were neither
noun nor verb, but were as ready to turn to the uses of one
as of another. They were of two classes — verbal roots, ex-
pressing material or sensible act or quality ; and a small num-
ber of pronominal or demonstrative roots, indicating posi-
tion and direction. That the distinction of these classes is
primitive is not to be assumed; but it is at any rate earlier
than the growth of Indo-European structure. The first im-
portant step of growth, it seems, was the making of a predi-
cative or assertive form — a verb : it was done by combining
verbal with pronominal elements, and restricting the com-
bination to assertive uses. Thus were made the three per-
sons of a verbal form, in three numbers, singular, dual, and
plural : and the addition of a preterit tense with augment,
a reduplicated preterit or perfect, and a future, left to this
simpler form the character of a present. I\Iore or less of an
imperative, optative, and subjunctive, and of a middle or re-
flexive voice, also were products of the original tongue be-
fore the separation of the branches. The establishment of
a verb left the remainder of the linguistic material in the
condition of noun, noun substantive, and noun adjective ;
for these two parts of speech were at first identical. A sys-
tem of inflection was by similar means created for these
also, indicating case, number, and gender. The pronouns
are a class of words inflected like nouns and adjectives, but
coming from pronominal instead of verbal roots. From
the same roots come naturally the principal adverbial words,
indicators of position and direction ; adverbs are a part of,
or closely akin to, the case-formation of nouns; the other
particles, prepositions and conjunctions, are yet later to arise.
The interjection is no "part of speech," but rather an un-
analyzed, holophrastio utterance, analogous with t lie undevel-
oped root. Thus by combination of element with element,
and the assignment of the combinations to specific uses in
definite connections, this language arose from a mere indefi-
nite intimation of meaning — intended but not yet construct-
ed sentences — such as our exclamations give, to orderly and
distinct statement : first in single clauses, then in elaborate
combinations of clauses, in periods. How much time the
process occupied it is impossible to say, but it must have
been a long time ; and before the separation of the branches
took place a height of synthetic development was reached
from which, although every branch has more recent syn-
thetic formations to show, there has been on the whole a
recession, by the substitution of more "analytic" means of
expression of relation, of form-words and auxiliaries. See
Indo-European Languages and Syntax.
The importance to us of the study of Indo-European lan-
guage lies partly in the fact that it is our own family, and
that also to which belong the tongues of the founders and
leading representatives of our civilization, so that the study
is connected in its bearings with a variety of other inquiries
in which we are especially interested. It has also been the
principal foundation, and almost the initial phase, of the
general science of language, because there was nowhere else
in the world so large and varied a body of related linguistic
phenomena, by the examination of which the general laws
of linguistic life could be deduced, and methods of research
worked out which might be fruitfully applied where the
material was less abundant, and exhibited a less length of
development. Hence, and not from any overestimate of
this language, as alone worthy of investigation, or as fur-
nishing the norm of human speech, comes the conspicuous
absorption of linguistic students thus far in Indo-European
studies. At the present time the profounder comparative
study of other families also is well prepared for, is be-
coming more and more urgent, and is engaging more and
more labor ; although none has yet received anything like
the same degree of comprehensive and penetrating exami-
nation as the Indo-European family. We shall, according-
ly, review the others much more briefly.
The Vral-Altaic or Scythian Family. — This group of
languages, widely coterminous with the Indo-European, is
often also called the Turanian, and is generally reckoned
to contain five great branches : (1) The Finno-Hungarian,
chiefly European in locality, including, besides Finnish
and Hungarian or Magyar, the Lappish and the dialects of
a host of unimportant tribes stretching through Northern
and Eastern Europe across the Ural chain. (2) The Samoyed,
along the shores of Siberia, from the White Sea to the
Yenisei, and up that river to the Altai Mountains, probably
its original seat. (3) The Turkish, recent occupants of Asia
Minor, and overlapping the border of Euroiie, extending
over a vast tract of Central Asia, and having an important
branch, the Yakut, even on the Lena, to its mouth. (4) The
Mongolian, yet farther East, but nowhere reaching the
ocean. (5) The Tungusic or (from the name of the princi-
pal people) Manchu, beyond in the northeastern end of Asia,
save its peninsulas and islands ; the Manchus have also held
China in their grasp during the past two centuries. The
languages of the first or westernmost branch do not differ
remarkably in their general character from the Indo-Euro-
pean, but have more of what is called the " agglutinative "
type : that is to say, root or theme and ending are less inti-
mately united, rather "stuck together " than fused together,
the ending retaining a more independent character: this
results in both a greater regularity and a greater intricacy
of formation. The two easternmost members are of a much
less developed and more jejune character, verging on the
stiff inexpressiveness of monosyllabism ; and this, in con-
nection with other peculiarities, linguistic and physical,
easts some doubt on the coherence of the family. There is
neither abundance nor antiquity of literary productiveness
among the Scythian races; their main p>art in history has
been war and devastation ; the wild and curious mythic
popular poetry of the Finns (the Kalevala) is their most
original work — unless, indeed, it shall turn out to be true, as
is claimed of late, that the " Accadian " people, who laid the
foundation of Mesopotamian civilization, and invented the
cuneiform writing which was afterward borrowed and
adopted by both Semitic and Indo-European peoples, was
Scythian, of the Ugrian branch. This would carry the an-
tiquity of Scythian language back to a point fully as remote
as that reached by either Indo-European or Semitic. The
question is not yet settled.
Of the various and diverse languages of the Northeastern
Asiatic waters, the Japanese is the only one that deserves
mention. It is, though highly polysyllabic, of an exceed-
ingly simple structure, phonetically and grammatically,
much like the Mongol and Manchu, and may perhaps yet
be proved of one family with them. Its culture is derived .
from China.
The southeast of Asia is fllled with languages which have
monosyllabism as their distinctive characteristic. The Chi-
nese is by far the most prominent and important among
them. This is a language in the highest degi'ee remarkable
for the paucity of its resources and the exceeding deftness
with which they are used, so as to perform the duties of a
highly cultivated speech during an unprecedently long
period. The Chinese literary monmnents go back to nearly
2000 B. c, and are of great variety, extent, and merit. The
language is composed of only some 500 different words, as
we should write them ; but their number is raised to about
1,500 by the tones of utterance, this element having been
pressed into the service of intellectual distinction in the
scanty monosyllabic tongues, both Chinese and Farther
Indian. The means of formal distinction are in part form-
words, particles and auxiliaries, and in part position in the
sentence. The intelligibility of the literary language is
much aided by the mode of writing, which is to a great
94
LANGUAGE
extent indicative of meanins, instead o( pronounced form.
The iHipular dialects are nuiiienms, and s<j diverse as to be
like so iiiBiiv iiideiRMident laMj;uajres. Some of tliem are
said to make a de^cree of approach to an agglutinative
structure.
The i-nlv tie to connect the Farther Indian and the Hima-
layan (at least in part) with the thiiie.<e dialects is their
common numosvllabic structure. The Burmese, Siamese.
etc.. have literatures of no great antiquity founded on that
of Inilia, whence conies their religion (Huddhisni) also; and
nearly the same is the case with the Tilwtan. A vast deal
has siill to be done to make clear the character and relations
of this gn-at and perplexing confusion of little-known and
uniiniMirtant ilialects.
Off this c.iriier of Asia lies the vast and sc^nttered array of
the isles of the I'acilic Tliev are occupied by at lea.-t three
inde|«endeiit and wholly insular races and language-families.
Australia and Tasmania are the home of one, the Australian.
New Ciuinea, [wrt of Borneo, and the more inaccessible parts
of sovend other islands and groups, are inhabited by a black
race with frizzled hair, the I'amian or Negrito: its dialects
arc verv little known, but are believed to be unrelated with
anv others. The great islands nearest .Malacca (and -Malacca
itself by recent immigriitioii), and the shores of the others
just mentioned, and the se^attered groups within the limits
marked by Formosa and New Zealand, by .Madagascar and
Kaster island, are the home of an immense and well-dc-
iined family, the Malaii-Pubinexian, in three branches —
Malav, Mehinesian, and I'olyiiesian. .Several of the dialects
of the Malay branch have literary culture, ilerivcd from the
mainland: that of Java and Bali, coining from India, has
records going back even to the first centuries of our era.
The Malay has adopted Islam, and with it the Arabic alpha-
bet. These languages, though not monosyllabic, are nearly
bare of structural development, not having even a clear dis-
tinction of noun and verb, nor anything that could fairly be
called inflection. Their phonetic form is also simpler than
that of any other known tongues.
The DraviiUnn grouj) of languages of Southern India is
of an agglutinative type, somewhat resembling the I nil-
Altaic, and some linguistic scholars have been ovcrlmsty to
pronounce it a branch of that family. Its principal inem-
Ders arc the Tamil, Canarcse, and Telugu. They have liter-
atures of some anti<)iiity, founded on the .Sanskrit, their
culture being derived from the Aryan races of the North.
The t'aiicjisus region is lilleil with a medley of peculiar
dialects, apparently akin with no others in the world, and
not traeeably related even with one another.
77ie Semitic Famiti/. — This is the only Asiatic family re-
maining to l)c considered. Its home is in the great but
barren ami thinly populated peninsula of Arabia, with its
border lands — Palestine and Syria on the N. \V., Mesopo-
tamia on the N. E. — and with an outlier in Africa, across
the Stniits of Babelniandeb. It is divided into two branches,
northern and southern, the former composed of the Canaan-
itic or Palestinian, the Aramaic or Syrian, and the Assyrian,
the latter of the Arabian and Ethiopian languages. The
Canaanitic subdivision includes the llebrew with any other
related dialects in Palestine, and the l'ha>nician with its
African cohjny, the Punic of t'arthage. The sole surviving
literature of the Hebrew written during the life of the
language (it became extinct as a vi'rnacular two to four
centuries Ijefore Christ) is our Old Testament : its oldest
parts come from near the middle of the second thousand
years b. c. Neither Phcenieia nor Carthage has left any
literature: their language, very closely like the Hebrew, is
known iinly from inscriptions, from (iOO to 400 b. c. Of the
Miiabilic, a remarkable monument, from 900 n. c. was dis-
covered a few years ago; the laiigimge was almost jiure
Hebrew. The llebrew hius been kept in artificial learned
existence, like the Latin, and has an immense literature as
such. The Aramaic of .Syria, spreading into Palestine and
displacing there the llebrew, and coming to occupy also
must of .Assyria, is represented by inscriptions, by passages
in Ezra and Daniel (often, but iiiiproperly, called ChaMee),
bv the Targums. et<\; then, soon after Clirisl. springs up at
Kdessa a considerable "Syriac" literature; later the whole
branch, save very scanty fragments, is overwhelmed by the
Araliic. The Assyrian or Babylonian, a lanpiagc only of
inscriptions on alabaster and on clay tablets, has been
brought to light but recently, and is now engaging a large
share of the attention of Semitic scholars; the mass of its
re<'ords dates from UKHl-.'illd n. i'.. but some are claimed to
come from more than yOUO ii. c. The Arabic proper makes
its appearance only recently, po.sse.ssing but few records
whicli are older tlian .Mohiimmed (seventh century); but
there are in the southwestern corner of the peninsula remains
of a wholly indeiiendeiit and much older civilization, and
of dialects', calleil Saba-an (less corrcctlv Ilimyarilic), very
different from the classical Arabic. Tlie Semitic dialects
of .\byssinia are a colony from these, and marly akin with
them; the Ethiopic, or Geez, has a Christian literature dat-
ing from the fourth century; the Amharic, which has
crowded the other out of cultivated use, does not appear
until the twelfth or thirteenth. This is the ancient distri-
bution of Semitic dialects: since the rise of Moliainiiiedanism
the Bedouin Arabic has spn^ad itself over nearly the whole
Semitic territory, extinguishing the other dialects, has taken
possession of Egypt, now its main seat of literary cultiva-
tion, and of the northern border of Africa, and" has influ-
enced, and more or less filled with its material, the Persian,
Turkish, and Hindustani, and even the widely sundered
Spanish and Malay, thus winning a sway comparable to
that of the Latin, though falling far short of the Latin in
the importance of the derived languages to which it has
given birth.
'I'lie Semitic race has played a far greater part in history
than any other, save only the Indo-Euroiiean, and its lan-
guages possess a corresponding degree of imiiortance. Their
range of dialectic differences is much less than that prevail-
ing in our family ; they are closely kindred forms of speech.
Not. aiij>areiitly, because they have been more recently sepa-
rated than the Indo-European dialects, but because their
structure has been especially rigid and unchanging. The
typical Semitic structure is more peculiar and problematical
tiian that of any other family of languages. Its striking
characteristics are its tri-consonantal roots and its internal
flexion. The roots, namely, have not, like the Indo-Euro-
pean, each a constant vowel, which is, even if more variable
than the consonants, an integral part of it; the vowel or
vowels in Semitic have a formative value, are indicative of
relation, not less than the vowels of man and men, of bind
and bound and band and bond. And (with minor excep-
tions) the radical consonants are three. SufVixes and pre-
fixes-'-and even infixes, elements inserted within the body
of the root — are not unknown, but the sphere of their
application is limited, because so much of what is done in
Indo-European by affixes is here accomplished by internal
change of vowel. Thus, for exainjile (in Arabic, which is
by far the most regular and transparent in its structure
oi' all the dialects), all that we can call the root correspond-
ing to "kill" is q-t-l: qatala is a third person singular,
meaning "he killed," and qutila its pa.ssive, "he was
killed," aqtala its causative, " he caused to kill," qatala
its conative, "he tried to kill," inqafala its reflexive, "he
killed himself," and so on. Then (u)qtul is imperative,
"kill!" and a second set of verbal persons (hardly to be
called a tense) has this form of the root: yaqtiilu, taqtulu,
aqtulu, and so on. The active participle is qCdil, "killing,"
the intensive iqtal. "causing to kill,' the passive jnay/tJZ,
"killed." The infinitive or verbal noun is qatl, "act of
killing," and qitl, "enemy," and qutl, "murderous," are
specimens of derivative words. These examples are suf-
ficient to .set forth the remarkable features of Semitic
.speech. We have paralleled above the internal flexion with
the Germanic ablaut of bind and bound and their like; but
the es-sential ditTereiice between the two cases is that what
in Indo-European is rather a sporadic phenomenon, and
capable of easy explanation as the gH«.s'i-accidental result
of iilionetic change consequent iiimn external adilitions, is
in Semitic the very life ami soul of the language, irreducible
to anything different. It is, however, the prevailing belief
among linguists that this condition of Semitic language
must be the result of a very peculiar history of development
out of beginnings more analogous with those found in other
families of speech; and attempts are constantly making to
penetrate the .secret of the development, but as yet without
any considerable measure of success. It is very certain,
meanwhile, that there can be no proof of anv relationship
between the Semitic and any other family until the attempts
prove successful. It is a favorite sul:]ject of cITort with
some philologists to demonstrate the primitive unity of the
.Semitic and Imlo-European races; and there are many in-
dications outside of language which favor the conclusion ;
but thus far, at any rate, the language is an impa.ssable
barrier.
The other peculiarities of Semitic structure are of small
account as compared with those already noticed. The verb
LANGUAGE
95
tends more to conjiigational distinctions, such as have been
illustratoil, than to distinctions of tense and mood. It
marl<s the difference of gender in its personal inflection.
The noun is almost destitute of case-variation; it and the
verb have the tliree numbers found in early Indo-Kuro|iean.
Secondary derivation, or the forming of derivative from
derivative, is almost unknown, as is also the formation of
compounds. Connectives of clauses are few and simple.
See Semitic Languages.
Among the languages of Africa, those nearest to Asia,
grouped together as the Hamitic family, are often claimed,
but on grounds which must be pronounced thus far iii-suHi-
cient, to be akin with the Semitic. The family is reckoned
to comprehend three branches — the Egyptian, the Libyan
or Herlier, and the Ethiopian ; the most conspicuous mem-
bers of the last are the Galla and Somali. The Egyptian
of the modern period is the Coptic, which has a Christian
literature beginning early in our era; it was overpowered
by the Arabic, and became extinct several centuries ago.
The ancient Egyptian is the language of the hieroglyphs,
and has older records perhaps than any other form of hu-
man speed), reaching, in .scanty measure, proliably into the
fourth millennium before Christ. The Egyptian is a tongue
of the simplest possible structure, with deficient distinction
of its parts of speech, and with very little flexion ; so en-
tirely lacking the characteristic features of Semitic that, in
spite of apparent coincidences in their pronouns and else-
where, the two can not well be brought together until the
riddle of Semitic structure is solved.
The extreme south of Africa is occupied by the Hottentot
and Bushman dialects, which have been claimed, though
grobalily without good reason, to be connected with the
[amitic family. N. of them, and up to the equator, are
found the branches of a well-defined family, the South
African (or Bantu, Kaffir). The marked peculiarity of its
structure is its use of [irefixes, instead of suffixes, as prin-
cipal inflectional apparatus. Those of its languages which
border upon the Hottentot share with the latter (from whom
they are believed to have derived the peculiarity) the po.s-
session of clicks, or smacking and clucking sounds, in their
alphabetic system.
Between the South African languages and the Great
Desert lies a perfect baliel of languages and races, into the
little understood classification and characterization of wliich
we can not here enter. Even the best authorities are greatly
discordant in their treatment of it. See African Lan-
guages.
The ancient Etruscan of Northern Italy, and the Basque,
on the border between France and Spain, by the Bay of
Biscay, are the only other languages of the Old World
which call for mention. Both seem unrelated with any-
thing else in the world, and the Basque is perhaps a relic of
a family which occupied at least some part of Western Eu-
rope before the intrusion of the Indo-European peoples.
It is of an intricately agglutinative structure, commonly
styled polysynthetie. See Basque Language.
The same polysynthetie structure characterizes the lan-
guages of the New World, in the main, and is the only tie
by which, if at all, they are to be connected together as a
single family. See Indians of North America, Indians of
Central America, and Indians of South America.
The classification here given is strictly a linguistic one,
making no account of the ethnological division of human
races. Between the two there is not a necessary accord-
ance. Every language, as we have seen, is an institution,
kept in existence, like all the other parts of our acquired
and accumulated culture, by a process of teaching and
learning ; it does not go down by descent. Just as any in-
dividual can, if circumstances favor or require, learn as his
first language or " native tongue "' a <lialect which is not
that of his ancestors, so a community — which in this re-
spect is only an aggregate of individuals — can do the same.
Such cases have c.iccurred, over and over again, in the his-
tory of the World. Like the useful arts, the sciences, art.
religions, a language may be abandoned by a race which
had produced it, or assumed by one which had no part in
its production, because nature makes all men capable of
speech, but prescribes to no one what speech he shall use.
Vet. while a language is a traditional institution, it is the
most clinging and persistent of institutions, and .also the
one running out into the greatest infinity of detail and
possessing the most notably objective character. Words,
sentences, grammatical structure, can be recorded and
turned over and compared almost as if they were real sub-
stances, like fossils or archa?ological remains. These qual-
ities make language, beyond any other human product, of
value in tracing out the relations of the different sections
of the human race anterior to the epoch where trustworthy
historical record begins. Its evidence yields no certainty,
but only a probability. Human communities have been
influencing one another since the beginning of time; and
it is not possible to say absolutely of any race on earth that
it has not obtained its speech somewhat as the French got
their Romanic, or the Normans tlieir French, or the Irish
their English. It is only the forces of civilization that give
a language the power to propagate itself widely beyond its
natural limits — that enable a minority of a mixed com-
munity to determine the speech of the whole; the ruder the
people, the greater the probability that its linguistic rela-
tions represent its ties of blood. Hence the trustworthi-
ness of linguistic evidence is greatest where it is most de-
sired— among wild and primitive races, as to whom recorded
history is silent. The ethnological [iroblem is doubtless too
difficult to be ever completely solved by us ; the mutual en-
croachments and superpositions of races, with consequent
mixture of blood and of speech in every degree, the dwin-
dling and disappearance of one race and the expansion of
another to greatness, form a web so intricate that it will
never be unraveled. In the present condition of ethnol-
ogy, language is the richest and most reliable source of in-
formation. There are ultimate questions which it can not
decide, and as to which zoology and biloogy will probably
some day show a higher authSity. Such, for example,
is that of the unity or variety of the human race ; here
linguistic science can only say that there are, on the one
hand, no differences between human languages which might
not be the result of later divergence from a common nu-
cleus; and that, on the other hand, there are a great many
languages so unlike that they can never be proved descended
from the same ancestor, since they show no correspondences
which might not be the result of accident. Linguistic ma-
terial is not, like physical, analyzable to its minutest ele-
ments ; creation, annihilation, transmutation, are the com-
monest of processes within it; it yields its results only to
historical methods of investigation. Thus far, it has been
found possible even to unite into families only languages
which had the bond of a common structure ; correspond-
ences of material, of radical elements, anterior to the
growth of structure, have not been available ; and although
it need not be declared impossible tliat they may yet be
found available between certain families, it is absolutely
impossible that they should be so between all. Koot-cora-
parisons, among families of unrelated structure, are in the
very highest degree precarious ; none yet made are to be
approved as soimd.
The question of the origin of language has assumed an
entirely new aspect in consequence of the recent progress
of linguistic science. It is clearly seen that language as a
concrete possession, a stock of words and phrases used for
the communication and elaboration of thought, is in no
proper sense of the word a gift, a natural capacity, a fac-
ulty, but rather an accumulated acquisition, the outcome of
certain faculties and tendencies which belong to man and are
a characteristic part of him. To maintain tlie divine origin
of language now is simply to hold that man was endowed by
his Creator with those faculties and tendencies, with the fore-
seen and intended purpose that he work them out to the pos-
session of language : as, in a different but still essentially
similar way, with the capacities that have brought him to
the possession of his other institutions — of regulated society,
of art, of the arts of life. To hold that lie was put in pos-
session at his birth of a developed speech is analogous to
holding that he was provided with houses and clothes and
instruments and machines. The formal structure of lan-
guage, even the more formal part of its vocabulary, we see
to have been developed by degrees out of a simple body of
formless roots, indicative of external, sensible acts and qual-
ities— in the same manner, and for the same reason, that in-
struments and machines have been developed out of simple
sticks and stones and flakes of flint, that architecture be-
gan with caves and huts, and dress with skins of animals
and fig-leaves. To investigate the origin of language is to
inquire how these rudiments of speecli were produced. The
inquiry is not a part of the historical science of language,
because history brings us only to the recognition of these,
and to the recognition of them only in their kind, not in
their concrete identity as such and such utterances. It is
an essential and prominent part of linguistic philosophy as
96
LAXGrAGE
a linmch of anthropulnpy. and can only be properly treated
by »iio who understands 'the facts of later languugc-hislory,
aiid can read their ineaninp.
To expr<-ss himself is naturnl to man, and he has for that
puriKise a variety of inslriinicntalities— namely, gesture, gri-
mace, iiml utterance. All are capable of being put to use,
ai>art froni anything conventional, between human beings
anxious to understand one another; and alj are, under de-
temiinin:; circumstances. s»> put to use. That any one of
them should be employed with the intent to communicate
is enough to constitute an act of language-nniking. It is by
the addition of this intent that they pass over from the
condition of natural to that of conventional expression.
The sphere of natural, instinctive expression is limited to
the feelings or emotions of the expresser; it is purely sub-
jective, and, so far as the action of the voice is concerned.
It extends only to tones: it does not include articulations,
spccillc combinations of vowel and consonant. There is
nowliere, in the whole domain of language, anything going
to show that a sound or combination of sounds is ever pro-
duced as the natural representative of an act of the intel-
lect, a conception or a judgment. While human expression
remains instinctive and emotional, it is not language, any
more than that of the lower animals, with which it is anal-
ogous. When, for instance, a cry which was at first the
direct outburst of pain or nlcasure or disgust or warning is
repeatetl or imitated for tlie purpose of giving to another
an intimation of pain, etc^then the making of language is
begun. The lower aninifS, some of them, are able to make
a beginning here : if a dog .stands at a door, and scratches
or barks in order to attract attention and be let in. waiting
for the oiiener who. he knows, will answer his call, that is
an act of language-making, as genuine and perhaps as good
as the earliest attempts of a human being would be. There
is, to be sure, an essential dilTerence between the two cases;
but it lies only in this: the dog, with his limited powers,
can go no further ; he is incapable of a continuous progress-
ive deyelojiment ; but the man sees and appreciates what is
gained by his linguistic act, an<l tries it again, and tries
others ; and so. by a gradual process of accumulation, he
arrivi's at a body of exjiressions which use by and by renders
conventional ; and by manipulation he comes to linguistic
structure, and finally, in races more gifted or more favored
by circumstances, to vocabularies and grammars like our
own. Then, by a process of development showing the most
striking analogies with that just described, he adds the art
of writing, a mode of record of speech which continues and
completes its value both to the individual and to the race.
This exposition shows the true ground on which the dif-
ferent relation of men and of the lower animals to language
is to l)e put and argued. Usually the great and ruinous
error is committed of assuming that at the beginning cer-
tain combinations of .sounds must have naturally signitied
something to man, and then of searching anxiously for
similar phenomena among the animals also. This can
never leail to any valuable result. The true point for the
attention of naturalists is this : What signs are to be discov-
ered in animals below man (like that t|Uoted above of the
dog) of the power to adapt means to ends in the way of ex-
pression, with more or less of free consciousness and intelli-
gence f That their power is extremely liii\ited is clear
enough from the fact that no race or community of animals,
so far as we know or have reason to suspect, possesses any
conventional language kept up by teaching and learning.
It is here just as in the case of instruments: the power to
use a sticlc or a stone as tool or weapon can not be abso-
lutely denied to certain animals; and men began with
nothmg better; but, except in man, it is not a growing and
developing jiower. With the animals it remains a natural
gift; with man it becomes by ilegrees an institution, and
leails to the possession of ships ami steam-engines and can-
non. To as<,'ribe the lack of lang\iage in animals to the
want of some specific nuaital power is an error, like the
error of ascribing its possession by man to the aiidition of
some specific mental power, some 'linguist ie faculty or lan-
guage-sense. The lack and the possession are both alike
the results and indications of a whole cast and grade of
mental capa<ity, of eond>inations of faculties which show
thcms4lves abundantly also in other ways. Xo animal be-
low man has any accnmulate<l results of the exercise of his
natural powers, any institutions — any civilization, in short.
To make language dependent on a power of forming gen-
eral icleas or coneejits is h-ast of all to be approved ; for it is
past all reasonable i|uestioii that the lower animals do form
such, in their degree and within their limits; nothing like
intelligence is possible otherwise. The power of tiie dog in
this resiK-et is not sensibly different from that of the wholly
undeveloped and speechless man; but the acijuisition of
language, impossible to the dog. trains and eijuips the
power in man. and makes it capable of vastly higher and
more abundant work.
The prominence in existing language everywhere of the
voice as means of expression has its ground, not in any
especial nearness of the organs of utterance to the move-
ments of the soul, but only in a kind of natural selection
and survival of the fittest. The voice is, for obvious rea-
sons, the most available instrumentality, in Ilu' infinite va-
riety and rapidity of its aiipreheiisilile combinations, in the
small expenditure of muscular effiul whiih Ihey cost, in
their power to comnuind attention from any direction and
in the dark as well as in the light, and in the liberty alTord-
ed the hands for other work at the same time. Experience
brought all this to light, even as it has brought to light the
various availabilities of wood and stone and metal. That
we find every part of the human race, at the very beginning
of our knowledge of it, in jiosse.ssion of a spoken language, a
more or less eoni))lete system of vocal signs for ideas and
their relations, nu'ans no more than that the whole race had
lived long enough to have worked out its natural gifts to
their necessary and intended results. It by no means
proves that there was not a time when gesture, more than
utterance, wits the principal means of expression, or even
that for a period, of duration impossible to determine, men
may have liail no expression different from or higher than
that of the animals next beneath Ihein in the scale of crea-
tion. The natural (as distinguished from the conventional)
means of expression still continue most important auxil-
iaries to language; for anything but the driest scientific
statement, tone and gesture and posture and facial expres-
sion are re(iuisite; they are the subjective means whereby
the personality of the speaker is impressed upon the hearer
— whereby he moves, excites, jicrsuades. Their power is
greater aiul their aid more indispensable the lower the grade
of the language and of tho.se who use it. In the highest
elaboration of sjiecch. and with those trained to employ
and interpret it with the keenest sensibility, even the writ-
ten page shows the reader the very tone and action of the
writer — seems to smile or scowl or weep or excite.
Out of the leading part assumed by the voice grows the
importance of ononuitopccia. or the vocal imitative princi-
ple, in the earliest history of language. The intent being
to make an intelligible sign, and the voice the instrument,
audible sounds are tlie matters most easily signified. This
is just as natural and necessary as that in a written system
of signs the outlines of visible objects are most easily, and
therefore earliest, signified. A hieroglyphic mode of writ-
ing, intended for the eye to understand, begins with pictures
of things that strike the eye, anil proceeds from them, in va-
rious ways, to indicate matters of more varied and even of
subjective knowledge. A system of audible signs begins in
like manner with a rude, sketchy depiction, as it may bo
called, of audible sounds, and arrives, by figurative transfer
and by various ties of association, at the intimation of other
classes of acts and qualities. The sphere of imitation is by
no means restricted to the actual sounds occurring in nature,
though these may well enough have been the first subjects
of reproduction. What its limits are may be best seen from
the range of onomatopoelic expression in existing languages.
There is a figurative imitation, whereby rapid, slow, abrupt,
repeated movements are capable of being signified by com-
binations of sounds which make through the car upon the
mind somewhat the same imiiressicms as the movements
themselves through the eye. While this was a princi|)al
suggestcr of the means of mutual intelligence, it may well
enough have been found even more fertile than we now
regard it as being. Our recognition of the value of the
imitative principle is thus founded upon our general theory
of language, in con\binal ion with the fact that the same
principle continues elVicient, in greater or less degree,
through the whole history of language; it does not depend
upon our ability to trace the main mass of material in any
existing language to an oiioinalopoet i<- origin: for. the in-
tent being simjily to provide by the most available means
for communication t)etween imin and man, onomatopa^ia
Would be gradually crowded out, after the provision of a
certain (piantity of intelligible signs, by the later and now
abuost exclusive method (if the combination an<l variation
of those signs; and, with that readiness to forget derivations
LANQUEDOC
LANMAN
97
anil disguise etymologies which is a leading and most valu-
able feature in "universal language-history, the signs of imi-
tative origin \voul<l be hidden and disappear.
If by such methods as those here described there could be
made a sufficient working provision of signs, to be devel-
oped by degrees into such languages as we now find in the
world ; if these methods are in harmony with the known
history of hinguage, the one stage passing into the otlicr
without a break or a change of governing ]5rinciple ; if, from
what we know of man and of his linguistic capacities and
activities, these are the methods by which a new language
would be created if it were possible that a community of
human beings should begin life again without any — then
this is such a solution of the problem of the origin of lan-
guage as science demands.
It may be briefly pointed out, in conclusion, th.at there is
no relation whatever between the development of language
and any development of man himself out of a lower type of
animal. Man was man in endowment when the pro'duction
of his present speech l)egan ; its acquisition, like that of the
other parts of his civilization, has only helped in the devel-
opment of his powers, raising liim higher and higher in the
scale of manhood, and being, of all his acquisitions, the one
most fundamentally important, most needful and helpful to
everything else that he possesses.
The view of the history, nature, and origin of language
here compendiously presented will be found worked out in
much greater fullness in the writer's works, Language and
the Study of Language (Xew York, 1867) ; Oriental and
Linguistic Studies, I. (1872) ; and T/ie Life and Growth
of Language (1875). Other general works on the subject in
English are Max Miiller's Lectures on the Science of Lan-
guage ; n. Wedgwood's Origin of I^anguage (London, 1866) ;
F. 'W^. Farrar's Chapters on Language, Families of Lan-
guage, etc.; A. II. Sayce's Principles of Comparafire Phi-
lology (London, 1874) ; an Introduction to the Study of the
History of Language, by Messrs. Strong, Ijogeman, and
Wheeler (London, 1891), founded on Paul's Principien der
Sprachgeschichte. of which there is also an English transla-
tion ; J. Clark's Maitual of Linguistics (Edinburgh, 1893).
To trace the history of the study of language, from the
often surprisingly acute but crude and narrow speculations
of the ancients down to and through the remarkable collec-
tions, comparisons, analyses, deductions, of the great linguis-
tic scholars (especially in Germany) of the nineteenth cen-
tury, constituting the vast and rich department of " com-
parative philology," is a task by itself, and will not here be
attempted. The best authorities for it are L. Lersch, Sprach-
philiisophie der Alfen (1840); II. Steinthal, Geschichte der
Sprarhwissmschaft bei den Griechen und Riimern (186S3) ;
T. Benfey, Gesrhic/ite der Sprachwissenschaft und der Orien-
talischen Pliitologie in Deutschland (1869). J. Jolly has
added a general sketch of the history to his German trans-
lation of the writer's Ijanguage and the Study of Language
(JIunich, 1874). and some interesting details are given in the
first series of Miiller's I^ectures. W. D. Wuit.ney.
Lang'iiedoc, hiiihg'dok' [Fr., orig. the name of the dialect
of French spoken there ; langue, language + de, of + oc,
Prov. for yes, which being distinct from the northern o~il
{> Mod. Fr.oui) gave this distinctive name to the language] :
one of the old provinces of France ; Ijounded S. by the
Mediterranean and E. by tlie Rhone ; it bore while a Ro-
man province the name of Gallia ^"arhonejisis; |>assed
from the Romans to the Goths, from the Goths to the Sara-
cens, and from the Saracens to the Counts of Toulouse ; in
1271 it was finally annexed to the French crown. Chris-
tianity was introduced from Greece through JIarseilles and
Lyons, but from the very beginning the clergy complained of
the jieouliar ]u-edisposition the people showed ftir heresy.
Languedoc was the chief seat of the Cathari, and afterward
of the Camisards. It is now divided into the dejiartnients
of Ardeche, Aude, East Pyrenees, Upper Garonne, Gers,
Herault, Lozere, Tarn, and" Tarn-et-Garonne. The chief
city of Languedoc was Toulouse.
L.in'ler, Sidney : poet ; b. at Macon, Ga., Feb. 3, 1842.
He served in the Confederate army during the civil war,
and was taken prisoner. After the war he taught school and
practiced law in Alabama and Georgia, removing to Balti-
more, Md., in 1873. From 1879 to 1881 he was lecturer on
English Literature at Johns Hopkins University. He was a
practical musician, and applied musical principles to poetry
m his (S'cfence of English I'trw (188(1). He wrote the can-
tata sung at the Centennial Exposition of 1876. A com-
233
plete edition of his poems, with a memoir, was published in
1884. He also wrote Tlie English Novel (1883), and edited
for boys Froissart's Chronicle, the King Arthur, the Ma-
binogion, and Percv's lieliques. I), at Lvnn, X. C, Sept. 7,
1881. ■ " II. A. Beers.
Laiijuiliais, laah'^hiii-na', Jeax Dexis : jurist and states-
man ; b. at Rennes, France, Mar. 12, 1753; studied law;
))racticed law, and was appointed Professor of Ecclesiastical
Law in his native city in 1775, and Ijecame conspicuous as a
man of superior talent, when in 1789 he was elected a deputy
to the States General. As a member of the Convention he
sided with the Girondists, and while he wished to destroy
the special privileges of classes and to improve the condition
of the common people he opposed the more radical meas-
ures of the Jacobins. Though denying the right of the Con-
vention to try the king, he voted him guilty of the offenses
charged, but advocated banishment instead of the death
penalty. On June 2, 1793, he was arrested, but escaped to
Rennes. and resumed his seat in the Convention in 1795, after
the fall of the Terrorists. During the Directory he was a
member of the Council of Ancients, and of the senate during
the consular rule, in which latter position he led the opposi-
tion against the monarchical tendencies of the government
of Xapoleon, who nevertheless made him a count on the es-
tablishment of the empire. In 1808 he was made a member
of the Institute. He voted for the deposition of the emperor
in 1814, was made a peer of France by Louis XVIIL, and
advocated liberal principles during the Restoration, in op-
position to the reigning political and ecclesiastical reaction.
D. Jan. 13, 1827. Among his more important legal writings
are Ap])reciation du projet relatif aux trois concordats
(1817); Constitution de la nation franfaise (Paris, 1819);
De I'organisation municipale en France (1821). He was a
man of great literary attainments, and after his death his
son, Victor Ambroise de Lanjuinais, published a collected
edition of his writings (4 vols., Paris, 1832), also a Life.
Revised by F. Sturges Allen.
Laiikester, lang'kes-ter, Edwin, M. D., LL. D., F. R. S. :
writer on scientific subjects ; b. at Melton, Suffolk, England,
Apr. 23, 1814 ; studied medicine at University College, Lon-
don, 1834-37 ; graduated at Heidelberg 1839 ; became a
lecturer at St. George's school of medicine 1843 ; secretary
of the Ray Society 1844 : Professor of Xatural History at
Xew College, London, 1850 ; president of the Jlicroscopical
Society 1859 ; was elected coroner for Central Middlesex
(city of London) 1862. He acquired wide fame as a lecturer
and writer upon sanitary and social science, physiology,
botany, zoology, foods, microscopy, etc. ; was author of
many valuable reports and scientific papers, and of various
books upon the above subjects, mostly designed for popular
use, and since 1866 edited The Journal of Social Science.
D. Oct. 30. 1874.
Laiikester. Edwin Ray, LL. D., F. B. S. : zoologist; son
of Edwin Lankester, M. D. ; b. in London, May 15, 1847;
was educated at St. Paul's .School, London, and at t)xford,
where he became a fellow of Exeter College in 1872. He
was appointed Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anat-
omy in University College. London, in 1875, and Linaere
Professor of Comparative Anatomy and fellow of Merton
College, Oxford, in 1890. He was elected president of the
JIarine Biological Association of the L'nited Kingdom in
1891. He has devoted particular attention to the structure,
development, and classification of invertebrates, and was
the author of the articles Jlullusca and Protozoa in the last
edition of the Encyclopa'dia Brittninica. Among his earlier
works are Fishes of the Old Red Sand.itone (1870) and Com-
parative Longevity (1871). Since 1869 Prof. Lankester has
been editor of Tlie Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Sci-
ence, besides contributing numerous articles. F. A. Lucas.
Laiiiiiaii. Charles : author : b. in Monroe, Mich., June
14, 1819 : was a clerk in Xew York from 1835 to 1845, when
for a few montlis he edited the Jlinn'oe Gazette; was asso-
ciate editor in 1846 of the Cincinnati Chronicle, find was as-
sociated with Tlte Daily Express. In 1848 he became a
correspondent of Tlie National I)itelligencer: held at Wash-
ington the positions of librarian of the War De[iartment, and
as such organized the library in the executive mansion;
librarian of copyrights in the State Department, and private
secretary of Daniel Webster; librarian of the Interior De-
partment, and librarian of the House of Representatives.
He published a numlier of volumes of travel ; Private Life
of Daniel Web.^ter (Xew York and London. 1852) ; Diction-
ary of Congress, 6 eds., three of them published by the
98
LANMAX
■ ..f .l/iV/iiV/nii (Detroit,
^ Viirk mill Li'iiiliin.
.,„mrnt of tltf L'nilnl
.. Now York, ISSST) ; y.ciiii-
. ; JJaplitizaril J'fisuiiiililies
, mi iiiiuT wiirks. Kroin IHil to 18S3 he
V. I lie .Iii|innese lepition. D. JIar. 4, ISDn.
LaniiiiiM. CiiAKUKs UiKKWELU A.B., Pli. I>. : Sanskrit
g,.|i.!ir; K ill N'Twii'h Town. Conn.. July 8. IHot): {ifriulu-
II lyTl, tiien l».)k a two years' course
>rit anil euinpaialive philolouy under
: ;iieil his stiiiiics at the L'nivei-sities of
! . Ueipzi-;: on his return to the L'. S.
ite instructor at Johns Hopkins I'ni-
versuv, liailiinore; in 18811 was appointoil Professor of San-
skrit lit Harvard University. During a visit to Imlia in 18.S!)
he aeijuireil a vnliialile eolleetion of Sanskrit Ixioks ami
MSS. for the university library. He was secretary of the
Aiiiiiican Philological Association from 1879 to 1884. eil-
it..; :hi' volumes of its I'rocefdiiit/i iini\ 'J'ransarHonn {IS~9
tu lS8i!j, anil ilurinj; 18U0 wa-s president of that society.
He was corresponding secretary of the American Oriental
S<x'iety from 1884 to 18W4, and projected the Harvard Ori-
ental Series, the first volume of which, edited by Prof. H.
Kern, of Levden.apwared in 1891. Prof. Lannian has pub-
lished On Soiin InUfclion in the Vedas (1880) ; a ISaiuskrit
lir:il,r with dictionary and notes (Leipzig, London, and
Uotoii, 1881 : new cd. 1888).
Lnnnes. laan, Jk.w: one of Napoleon's marshals; b. at
Lectouri', in liuienne, Apr. 11, 1769, of poor parents: was
apprenticed in his fifteenth vcar to a dyer ; in 1793 left this
octu|pation and enlisted in tiie army, where he soon rose to
the rank of a colonel ; was nevertheless discharged in 1795,
at the reori;anization of the army, but in 1796 followed
Napoleon to Italy as a volunteer, and very soon attracted
his attention by his boundless audacity; distini;uishcd him-
self in every battle by some darinj; feat, and was made a
bripulier-treneral in 1797; in 1798 accompanied Napoleon
to Egypt, returned with him in 1799, and rendered him
great services by his faithful adherence on Nov. 9. 1799, in
reward for which he was made a general of division in 1800,
and commander of the consular guard ; led the vanguard
when in the same year the army crossed the .\lps al St.
Hernard, and gained a brilliant victory over the .Vustrians
at .Montebello. On the establishment of the empire he was
made a niai'shul. He led the memorable siege of Saragos,sa,
aiul com|K-lled the city to surrender Feb. 21, 1809, after
which Napoleon created him Due de Montebello. At the
battle of Aspern, May 22, 1809, a cannon-ball cut off both
his legs, and on May 'i\ he died. Napoleon said of him that
he had found him a pygmy and made him a giant. See
Henc Perin, Vie mililaiie de J. Lannes (Paris, 1809), and
the Life by Thouimis (1891).
Lan'oline : the purified hydrous fat of sheep's wool, with
not more than 30 per cent, of water; introduced into medi-
cine with the idea that, as it was derived from the secretions
of the skin, it would be a useful ba.sis for medicinal oint-
ments. This it has proved to be, and is frequently used in
place of lard and other fatty substances where it is desirable
to apply medicaments to the skin or mucous membranes in
the form of an ointment. H. A. Hake.
La Noiio, Francois, de: soldier; b. in 1531, in the vicin-
ity of Nantes, of an old noble fainilv of Hrittanv; embraced
the Keforiiied creed, and distinguished lilniself in the army
of the Prince of C'omle a« one of the most valiant Huguenot
soldiers. ,\t the siege of Fontenav-le-Comtc, in 1570, he
lost his left arm, and had it replaced by one of iron, whence
he rc'civcd his suriiauie, Jini.s de Fir. He was taken pris-
oner by .Mva at .Moiis and sent to Charles IX., who treated
him with unex|iected kindness, and induced him to act a.s
mediator between the city of La Uoihelle and the court.
La None thus filled the two incompatible positions of king's
agent ami commander r>f Hufrucnot troops in the rebelliolis
city, and, ^trantjely enough, wius trusted by both parlies; but
when the war was renewed he fought as before on the Hugue-
not side, and defeniled the city for four years with great suc-
cess. After tli<rconclusiiin of peace of iicrsjerac in 1577 he
went to Flanders, entering the service of the Low Countries;
was taken prisoner by the Spaniards, and retained at Ma-
drid for \\\y- years, but at last exchanged in 1.585 for Count
F:,'iiionl. Under Henry IV. he again fought for the cause
of hi-, religion, and died at .Moiicontour, Aug, 4, 1591, from
a Wound he received ut the siege of Lamballo. Duriii" his
LANSING
several imjirisonments he engaged in literature, and his Di»-
raitnt imltliquex el niilildires (Uasel, 1587) have been often
republished. His corres|>ondence was published in 1854.
See C. Viucen's Lea Herus de la Hi f urine. : Fr. de La Xoue
(iy75). Kevised by F. M. Colby,
Liiiisdowiie, Henry Chari.es Kkitu PErrv-FnzMArRicE,
Maniuis of: b. in Kngland. Jan. 14, 1845; was educated at
Eton and at Oxford I'niversity, and succeeded liis father as
maniuis in l86'j. He was Lord of the Treasury lHtJ»-72,
Under Secretaiv for War 1872-74. and was Under Secretary
for India for two months in 1880, when he resigned owing
to a disagreement with the Government. He was appointed
Governor-tieneral of Canada in 1888. and for five years ad-
ministered the duties of that odice with such tact and skill
as rendered him very iiopiilar among all races and classes in
the Dominion. As tiie functions of the representative of
rovaltv in Canada are largely social, the marchioness con-
tributed in no slight degree to the success of his reyime in
that country. In 1888 he becanie Viceroy of India, and in
the administration of the affairs of that dependency was not
less successful than he had been in the pei-foriiiancc of the
less impoilant duties devolving upon him in Canada. He
retired from the viccrovship in Seiit., 189;^, and was suc-
ceeded by the Earl of Elgin. The niarquis was married in
1809 to Lady Maud Evelyn Hamilton, youngest daughter of
the Duke ofAbercorn. " Neil Macuo.nald.
LansddfVMe, IIe.vry PETTY-FiTZMAfRicE, Third Marquis
of : b. ill London, England, July 2, 1780; second son of W ill-
iam Petty, first Earl of .Siieliukxe ((/. c), who in 1784 was
created Martjuis of Lansdowne ; educated at Westminster
School and at Edinburgh under the tutorship of Dugald
Stewart ; graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1801,
and under the name of Lord Henry Petty was chosen as a
Whig in 1S02 to a seat in Parliament for the borough of
Caliie. He distinguished himself in debate, giving his chief
attention to finance; was ele<-ted member for the Univer-
sity of Cambridge in 1806 on the dcHlli of Pitt, and in the
same year became Chancellor of tlie Exchei|uer in the
ministry of Greiiville and Fox, retiring from office in 1807.
On the death of his elder brother in 1809, he succeeded to
the title, and became one of the heads of the Liberal party
in the House of Lords. He was an early advocate of Cath-
olic emancipation, the abolition of slavery, parliamentary
reform, and free trade. (Jn the return of ilie Whigs to
power in 1827, he became Secretary of the Home Department
under Canning, Secretary of Foreign Aflairs under Lord
Goderich (1828), Lord President of the Council under Earl
Grey from Nov., 1830, to Nov., 1834, under Lord Melbourne
from Apr., 1835, to Sept., 1841. and under Lord John Rus-
sell from July, 1846. to Feb., 1852. For many years he had
been the Liberal leader in the up]ier house, when he re-
signed that position in 1852, not intending to return to
olUce. but in December of the same year, on the formation of
the Aberdeen ministry, he consented to take a scat in the
cabinet without a portfolio, and again in the first Paliner-
ston ministry, Feb., 1855, to Feb., 1858. He twice declined
the premiership and once refused a dukedom. He was a
man of cultivated taste, formed a splendid library and col-
lei'lion of art-treasures, was a generous patron of literature,
and made Lansdowne House the center of polite .society ill
England. After the death of the Duke of Wellington ho
was the patriarch of the House of Lords, and for some years
wius the most honored statesman of the realm. I), at Howood
House, Calne, Jan. 31, 1863. Revi.sed by C. K. Adams.
Lansing: city (incorporated in 1859); capital of Michigan;
Ingham County (for location of county, see map of Michi-
gan, ref. 7-1) ; on both sides of the Grand river, at the mouth
of Cedar river, and on the Chi. and (ir. 'I'k., the Det., Lans,
and N., the Lake S. and Mich. S., and the Jlicli. Cent, rail-
ways; 85 miles N. W. of Detroit, 72 miles S. E. of Grand
Rapids. It has an elevated location; derives good water-
power from the rivers, which are here crossed by eight
bridges; has important manulactiires; and is the tenter of
an excellent farming region. In and near the city are ths
State Reform School, established in 1855. with property val-
ued at $255,000; the State School for I lie UliiKl. eslabfished
in 1880. with |iro|ierly valued at .<;17(5.375: and the Slate
Agricultural College, with ,58 buiidings and a farm of 078
acres. The State Capitol was begun in 1S71 and finished in
1878, covers four city blocks, and cost $1,500,000. 'I'he city
owns the waler-works, and contains 24 church buildings,
public-school property valued at 1^120,000, 2 miblic [larks,
electric lights, electric street-railway, 14 hotels, a national
LANSING
LAODICEA
90
bank with capital of $100,000, 3 State banks with combined
capital of $-i46,98G, ami 3 daily, 5 weekly, 2 Sfiiii-monthly,
and 2 monthly perinilieals. The maiiufaetiircs ineliiile ag-
ricultural implements, sleds, stoves, carriages, road-earls,
bt;ite Cjipilul. Lansing, Mich.
wheelbarrows, pressed stone, condensed milk, flour, knit
goods, and various kinds of machinery. Pop. (1880) 8,819;
(1890) 13,102; (1894) 15,847.
Lansing, Jonx Gulian, D. D. : an exegetical seholar of
the Reformed Church in America ; b. in Damascus, Syria,
Nov. 27. 1851 ; a graduate of Union College and New Bruns-
wick Theological Seminarv. lie became minister at Jloliawk,
N. Y., 1877, at West Troy "1880; Professor of Old Testament
Languages and Exegesis in the New Brunswick Seminary in
1884. He is the author of the American Revised Version
of the Book of Psalms (New York, 1885) ; Ati Arabic Man-
ual (1886 ; 2d ed. 1891). W. J. B.
Lnnsing))iirgll : village (named from Abraham J.Lan-
sing, who settled here in 1771): Rensselaer co., N. Y. (for
location of county, see map of New York, ref. .5-K) ; on the
Hudson river, and tlie Fitchhurg Railroad; 3 miles N. of
Troy. It is connected with Troy by electric railway and
with \Vaterford and Cohoes by bridges across the Hudson.
There are 11 churches, 5 puljlic schools, parochial school,
public-school liljrary, academy, and 2 weekly newspapers.
The industries include the manufacture of brushes, crackers,
oilcloth, and collars, cuffs, and shirts, and the village has
considerable river trade. Pop. (1880) 7,432; (1890) f0,550 ;
township, including village, 10,871. Editor of " Ti.mes."
Liinta'na [Jlod. Lat.] : a genus of mostly tropical shrubs
of the fa?nily Verbenacece. Many have stimulant and aro-
matic qualities. L. pseudothea is highly esteemed in Brazil
as a suljstitute for tea. A number of the species are beau-
tiful greenhouse shrubs, notably L. camara and mixta of
tropical America. The U. S. have at least two species na-
tive to the Gulf States, L. camara and itwoliicrata. Some
have square stems. The flowers are mostly showy and of
changing colors.
Lantern [M. Eng. lanfcme, from 0. Pr. < Lat. lanter'na
(also later 7ia), from Gr. Ka/MTrriip. light-stand, torch, liter.,
lighter, deriv. of \dfinfty, shine, give light. Cf. Lamp] : in
architecture, a small .structure oJE somewhat light and open
design and decorative aspect, surmounting or crowning a
dome or other more massive and important architectural
feature. A conspicuous example in mediaeval architecture is
the lantern of the Church of St. Ouen at Rouen, Prance, a
polygonal turret of rich open-work tracery over the inter-
section of the nave and transept of that church. The lan-
tern, surmounting a dome, is an invention of the Renais-
sance, intended to give lightness and movement to the ccn-
Terging lines of the exterior dome, to which it serves as
finial. The lantern of the Duomo at Florence, finished 1461
from the designs of Brunelle.^'hi, is the earliest example of
these. Even more celebrated is the great lantern of St.
Peter's at Rome, designed by Jlichaelangclo and finished
after his death in 1564. A'. D. P. Hamlin.
Lantern-fly: a name given to several insects of the
familv Fiilf/orido'. Of the.se, Fulgora candelarin of China
anil F. lanternaria of Guiana arc the best-known species,
and the name may have been bestowed upon these insects
on account of a fancied resemblance to a lantern shown by
the large projecting head. None of them emit light. They
are nearly 3 inches long, and arc the largest, of the Homop-
tera. Some of the genera produce a fine white wax, util-
ized in the southeast of Asia. Revised by P. A. Lucas.
Lan'thanuni [Mod. Lat., from Gr. KavBdyeiv, to escape
notice]: one of the chemical elements of rare occuirrence, to
which Mosander, its discoverer, in 1839. gave this name, be-
cause it had escaped notice for a long time after the min-
eral which contains it was discovered. It occurs in several
rare minerals in Norway, as cerite, gadolinite, and allanite.
Lanthanum forms an oxide of the formula La^Os, analogous
to that of aluminium. Its atomic weight is 138. I. R.
Lanza, laan'zaJi, Giovanni: statesman; b. at Vignala,
Piedmont, Italy, in 1815 ; studied medicine at Turin, and
practice<l in his native city; in 1848 was elected a member
of Parliament, and espoused the policy of Cavour; in 1855
entered the cabinet of Cavour as Minister of Pulilic Educa-
tion, and in 1858 exchanged this office with the Ministry of
Finance; in 1S59, after the Peace of Villafranca, resigned,
together with the whole cabinet of Cavour, and then worked
simply as a member of Parliament, of which he was elected
president several times; in 1864 took charge of the Ministry
of the Interior under La Marmora, but retired in 1865.
Once more entering Parliament, and having been elected
president in Sept., 1867, he opposed the financial policy of
the ministry of Jlenabrea, and resigned his presidencv when
the ministry triumphed. His re-election in 1869 caused the
dissolution of the ministry, and he now undertook to form
a new cabinet himself. 'He occupied the Ministry of the
Interior, and the' other members belonged mostly to that
section of the Right which had supported Menabrea's inter-
nal policy, but o])posed his financial measures. Lanza en-
deavoi'ed to introduce the greatest possible parsimony to
bring order into the internal affairs of the kingdom. Nev-
ertheless, as the annexation of the papal states in 1870 took
place while he held office, large expenses for the army and
navy were necessary. The peculiar tendency of the Italian
Parliament to grant the expenses, but to reject the taxes,
overthrew the cabinet of Lanza in 1873. On June 23 he re-
signed, as the Parliament would not allow Sella's tax bill to
be discussed. •!). in Rome, Mar. 9, 1882.
Lanzarote, hiim-thaa-ro'ta : the most N. E. of the Canary
islands; area, 325 sq. miles. It rises to the height of 2,000
feet, and ctmtains several active volcanoes. It is very fer-
tile, and produces the finest grapes and wines on the Cana-
ries, but it is much exposed to drought. Pop. (1887) 16,409.
Tegnise is the capital; Arrecife the principal port.
Lanzi, laan'tsel:'. Luigi : antiquary; b. at Monte dell'
Almo, Italy, June 14, 1732; entered the order of the Jesuits
in 1749, and became, after its dissolution in 1773, assistant
director of the gallery of Florence. He devoted himself
much to the study of art and arclueology, especially Etrus-
can language and antiquities, and his two works on these
subjects, Sa(j(jio di lingua etrusca (3 vols., 1789) and Storia,
pHtorica dell' Italia (6 vols., 1792), attracted great atten-
tion ; the latter wvis translated into English by Thomas Ros-
coe. D. in Florence, Mar. 30, 1810.
Laoc'oijn (in Gr. Aaoicdiuv): a Trojan patriot and priest
who oppo.sed the introduction of Sinon's wooden horee into
the city of Troy. He almost defeated the plans of the
Greeks, and thereby aroused the anger of Athene, who loved
the Greeks because she hated Paris. When Laocoon was
sacrificing, Athene sent from Tenedos two huge serpents,
which killed Laocoon and his two sons. His myth is vari-
ously given, but the account in Vergil's ^lEneid is the best
known. The death of Laocoon and his sons is the subject
of a noble group now existing in the Vatican. It is de-
scribed by Pliny, and was rediscovered on the Esquiline Hill
in 1506. It was executed by Agesander, Athenodorus, and
Polvdorns, Rhodian artists who probably lived in the time
of Titus. The Laocoon h;is been an oliject of Lessing's mas-
terly criticism. See his LoorooH, translated by Ellen Froth-
ingham (1875); see also his Laocoon, heraiisgegehen mil
kritischen mid archciologischen Erlauterrnigen von 11. BKim-
ner (2d ed. Berlin, 1880) : Robert. Bild mid Lied (p. 192 ft.,
Berlin, 1881). Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Laodicp'a (in Gr. AaoSiVfia): the name of six Greek cities
built bv the Seleuciila', moiiarehs of the Syrian empire,
who, after the death of Alexander the Great, were the chief
representatives and inheritors of his Eastern conquests, five
of them having been named in honor of Laodice, wife of
100
LAOMF.nOK
LAPAROTOMY
Seleui-u.i Xicalor, ainl one in honor of the wife of Aiitioiluis
Theo*. Of thesis one in Metliii. one in Mesonoliiniiii, iind
ani>ther on the ((routes in I'hu'tiieia (railed Cdl'iasa by
I'toleniv and ad Lihunum by I'liny). have not been iilen-
lifled ill luixleril times. 1. LaoKIiEA I'OMIIISTA [Hr. KaTiwc-
KovM'Vi). till' burned], now /,<«/iA-, situatetl to the X. \\ . of
leoninin on the hit'hroad frt>in Greece to the Knhliratcs.
and varionslv assigiuHi to Lyeaonia, Pisiilia. and Gahitia. as
the Ixmndaiies of these provinces were chanircd. Strabo
derived the name from the vohanic nature of the surronnil-
inseoinitrv. but Hamilton {Kisearcheg. vol. ii.) asserts that
there is not a particle of volcanic or ijjneous rwk in the
nfijiliborhood, and proposes to derive the name from some
contlafiration. Leake (Asia Minor, p. 44) found at Ladik
more tiumcrous frasments of ancient architecture and sculp-
ture lliaii at any other place visited by him in that country.
LniKTial coins'uf the reigns of Titus and Domitian show
that it must have been a large city. — IL Laouuka ad
]jVCfM. now Eski-llixmr, a city in the S. \V. of Phrygia,
sometimes reckoned to t'aria and to Lydia. near Colossa;,
40 miles K. of Kphesus and 6 miles W. of Hierapolis, situ-
ateil on the sour of a hill between the valleys of llic Asopus
and Capriis brooks, which here fall into the Lyeus, was
originally called Dinxpulis and afterward Tlions, and hav-
ing bi-en" rebuilt bv Aniiochus H. (Thcos). 260 n. c, was
named from his wife Laodice, by whom lie was poisoned
B. c. 24(5. From the Syrian monarchs it passed to the Kings
of ivrgamus, and was annexed to the Koman empire on
the death of Allalus IIL, 133 B. c, when it became the
capital of the vast province of Greater Phrygia, and rapidly
took jKisition as one of the most populous, splendid, and
wcaitliy cities of Asia Minor, distinguished also in litera-
ture, noted as the seat of a great medical school, and was
the oflicial residence of Cicero during his proc<msulate in
Asia (4SI-50) : and very interesting accounts are to be
found ill the great orator's correspomlence. It became the
residence of great numbers of Jews; wius one of the earliest
seats of Christianity in Asia Minor, the Church having
been founded by Paul, who wrote an epistle to the Laodi-
ceans (now lost), mentioned in the Epistle to the Kpho-
sians. According to the su|)erscription to 1 Timothy, Paul
wrote that epistle from Laodicea. called " the chicfest city
of Phrygia Paeatiana." but there is no furtlie'r notice of his
visit. The terrible threat conveyed by the author of Iteve-
lation to the "angel of the Church of the Laodiceans," one
of the seven churches of Asia (iii. 14-22), will readily occur
to mind, and has rendered the term Laodicean a synonym
for lukewarm, " neither cold nor hot." During the reign of
Tiberius the city was nearly destroyed by earthquakes, but
was quickly restored, ami was the seat of two important
general councils of the Christian Church; the first, whose
date is variously placed from 363 to 372, enacted sixty
canons, one of which defined the books (thence called
(•«;io;i I'crt/) of Scripture ; the second in 470 condemned the
Kutychians. It was again overthrown by an earthquake in
4!I4. wiLs cajitured by the crusaders in ll!)!l, by the 'I'lirks in
125.5, and finally ilestroyed by Tamerlane in 1402. Its
splendid and widely .scattered ruins, including a stadium,
gymnasium, aqueduct, and three theaters, have been fre-
quently described by mo<Iern travelers. (See good account
in Smith's Diet. Geog.. ii.. 122.) — III. Laodicea ad Mare, a
city of Syria, foundeil by Seleucus Nicator. now IjAtakiah
(q. v.). Revised by J. R. S. Stekrett.
Ijiioni'odon (in Gr. Aao/i/Sui') : in Greek mythology, the
father of I'riam and Ilesioius and King of Troy. Apollo
ami Poseidon Imilt the walls of Troy for a specified reward,
which Laomedon refused them after the completion of the
Work. Thereupon Apollo sent a plague and Poseidon a
sea-monster to distress the land, which, according to an
oracle, might only then gain rest when llesionc had been
ofTered up to the sea-monster. Heracles went to Troy on
his return from the hind of the Ama/ons just at the time
when Ilc'sione had beiii chained to a rock to await the com-
ing of the monster, ami olTereil to rescue her in return for
the horses given by Zeus to Tros after the rape of Gaiiy-
meile. Once again Laomedon declined to keep his word.
Heracles made war upon him, captured Troy, and killed
Laomedon along with all his sons except Priain.
J. R. S. Sterrett.
Laon, Ilia oil' (I;at. Lugdu'num, later Laudu'num): town
of France; the ancient Jjiiiiilunnm Clavatnm, the liibrax
of Ca'sar; capital of the department of Aisne ; 87 miles
N. E. of Paris (see ma]) of France, lef. 3-G). It is situated
on till' top of an isolated hill with steep declivities, and sur-
rounded by a wall Hanked with towers. Its Gothic cathe-
dral, crowning the toji of the hill, adds much to the pictur-
esqueiiess of its appearance, and is of itself one of the most
beautiful creations of the art of the twelfth century. Each
of its three facades had formorly two towers with spires,
and there was also a central tosver; but the spires have
fallen, and of the towers only four remain. This ancient
citv was the scene of an ecclesiastical council in !l4y, was
memorable in the Hundred Years' war. the wars of Napoleon
I., and in the Franco-German war of 1870. having capitu-
lated to the Germans Sept. !>. Poi>. (18!n) 12,959.
Laos, laa oz: a i)eople of Cetitral Indo-China, more espe-
cially of the middle valley of the Cambodia or Mekong
river. They are nearly related to the .Siamese, and call
themselves Thai or Thaiyai (ancient Thai), while the Bur-
mans call them Shans. They are somewhat civilized, though
still often in tribal relations, while there are certain unciv-
ilized tribes of them called Lava. The Laos are small,
strong, slender, and rather graceful. 'J'heir skin is yellowish
white, becoming brown on exposed parts of the body; the
eves are oblique, the hair straight and black, and is usually
sliaved off, except a tuft on the top of the head. They are
garrulous, vain, cunning, gentle, peaceable, lazy, and not
exclusive. In religion they are Buddhists. Their language
resembles that of the Siamese. They belong in part to
Siam (the .Siamese Laos), in part to Xortheastern Burma
(the Shan states), and are found in large numbers in Ton-
quin and Annam. Mark W. IIarrinoton.
Lao-tse, or Lao-tsu (literally, old boy or Tcnerable phi-
losopher), sometimes also Luo-kilin (literally, venerable
prince) : a Chinese philosopher, the reputed founder of
Taois.m (q. i:). According to the Chinese hi.storiaii Sze-ma-
tsicn (B.C. 100), his surimmc was Li (pronounced H>e), his
name nrh, and his style jwh-ynny. lie was born in the
year 604 B. r., in the village of Kiuh-jin (oppressed benevo-
lence), in the jiarish of Li (cruelty), in the district of K'fl
(bitterness), in the principality of Ts'fi (distress), in the pres-
ent province of Iloiian, or perhaps in Ngan-hwuy. His
father is said to have been a peasant, who at seventy mar-
ried a woman only half his age. Little is known of Lao-tse
except that he was state librarian and keeper of the imperial
archives at Loyang, the capital of Chow. In the year 517
he was visited by Confucius (then a man of fifty, while Lao-
tse was eighty-five), who wished to consult him in regard to
ceremonies, and to hand in a book to be preserved in the
archives. The account of the interview was not flattering
to Confucius, whose attachment to the ancients, and whose
conventional methods of establishing society ill comported
with the deeper system of Lao-tse, who sharply exclaimed:
" Why talk on forever of men who are long dead, and whose
very bones are dust i Only their words remain and are
heard. When the wise man meets with opportunity, he
rises with it ; if he does not. he lets the weeds grow, goes his
way. and follows his destiny. I have heard that a shrewd
merchant conceals his opulence, aind the sage of perfect vir-
tue loves to seem sim|)le. Put away your pride and your
many desires, with the endless ambition which is manifest
in your manner. It is all folly; and that is all I have to
sav." On returning to his disciples. Confucius remarked:
"I know how birds can lly. how fishes swim, and animals
run; the runner maybe snared, the swimmer hooked, and
the flier shot; but there is the dragon — I can not tell how
he mounts on the wind through the clouds and rises to
heaven. To-day I have seen Lao-tse, and can only compare
him to the dragon."
Some years after this Jjao-tse resolved to retire, and with-
drew to the west, lingering for a time, however, at the Ilaii-
k'ow ^jass or barrier in the X. \V. of the state, instructing
Yin-hi. the warden, at whose request he wrote a book of
about 5.000 words, entitled Tan-teh-kiiig (literally, the Classic
of the Way and of Virtue). The date and place of his death
are unknown. Tradition states that when last seen he was
riding away into the wililerness of Tibet mounted on a black
ox. l''or his teaching, see Taoism. See also Lnu-tzti, a SliiJu
in C/iinese Philomplnj, by T. Walters (London, 1870). and
the works mentioned under Taoism. R. Lilley.
Laparotomy: the operation in which the abdominal cav-
ity is opened, is a suigi<al procedure of recent yiars. at
least in its general performance. Lately the iianu' ailiulomy
has been propo.sed as a more accurate term, etymologically.
This operation was proposed and even performed by some
of the ohier surgical masters, but the danger of peritonitis
LA PAZ
LAPIDARY WOUK
101
was so great that it remained for the period of antiseptic
surgery to render tliis a comparatively siMii)le and safe oper-
ation. It lias been o( especial service in the surgical treat-
ment of diseases of the ovaries and uterus. In the former
the operation of ovariotomy is now one of the commonest
surgical operations. It was first performed by an American
physician, Dr. Iilphraim McDowell, in 1801), and subsc((uently
by the same surgeon in many cases, but did not gain gen-
eral popularity with physicians until very recent years.
Laparotomy is applied in all cases where surgical diseases
of the organs of the pelvis or abdomen require direct treat-
ment or removal. It consists in the careful opening of the
abdomen, generally through tiie middle line of the liody.
Careful cleanliness or asppiiis is necessary to avoid the great-
est danger, peritonitis; and in the subsequent closure of the
incision accurate adjustment must be obtained to obviate
the danger of weakness of the walls and hernia. With the
modern improvements in surgery both of these dangers are
extremely slight, and in uncomplicated cases the mortality
of the operation in itself is almost Jiil, William Pei'per.
La Paz, laa'-paaz' : a town in the northwestern jiart of
the province of Entre Kios, Argentina; on a bluff about 100
feet high, a little back from the left bank of the Paransi;
hit. 30 ' 44' 27" S. and Ion. .59° 37' 28" W. (Gould) ; pop.
about 9,000, and rapidly increasing. It is one of the most
important ports of call of the upper Parana, exporting
large quantities of hides and beef-products, and timber from
the Montiel forest. The town is built on the site of the old
Ouarany village of CavalU'i-Cuatia. II. II. S.
La Paz : a northwestern department of Bolivia ; the most
important and populous of tlie republic, and, according to
official figures, the largest ; bounded N. \>y Brazil, E. by
Beni and t'oehabamba, S. by Oruro, and W. by Peru. The
official but very vague calculations give an area of 275,413
sq. miles. It may be broadly divided into two jiarts. The
northern portion, until lately included in Beni, is a vast
tract, almost entirely unexplored, between the river Beni on
the E. and Peru on the W. ; its area depends on the unset-
tled boundaries with Brazil and Peru ; but if the above-
mentioned official statement is taken, it has over 200,000 sq.
miles. So far as known it is a plain, mostly covered with
forest, drained by the Beni, Jladre de Diiis, and Purus, and
inhabited only by savage Indians. The remainder, and at
present by far the most important portion of the depart-
ment and of Bolivia, is in the Andean region, and, as a
whole, is the highest part of the republic ; the area is esti-
mated at 69,000 sq. miles. It includes most of the Bolivian
portion of the great Titicaca basin, 13,000 feet high, with
al)out half of Lake Titicaca and the upper portion of the
Desaguadero river. E. of this basin, and limiting it, the
Eastern CVjrdillera, here known as the (Cordillera Real, ex-
tends from N. W. to S. E., including Sorata, lUimani, and
other snowy peaks, the highest in Bolivia. Sub-ranges and
spurs of the Cordillera cover all this portion of the depart-
ment, subsiding eastward to the Beni valley; the Beni itself
rises high among the mountains, and receives numerous
tributaries. La Paz includes nearly every variety of cli-
mate, soil, and productions. The finest portif)ns are the
cool, elevated valleys on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera,
where most of the jjopulation is gathered. The wet season
lasts from October or Xoveraber to March, rains being more
abundant E. of the mountains. The principal agricultural
products are potatoes, quinoa, and barley in the Titicaca
basin ; maize, wheat, beans, cocoa, etc., in the high valleys;
and colfee, cacao, rice, sugar-cane, and tobacco toward the
Beni valley. The forests of the lower moiuitain slopes and
plains are rich in cinchona, rul)ber, calnnet woods, etc., as
yet but little utilized. There are large areas of excellent
pasturage, and cattle and sheep breeding are important in-
dustries. The rich gold regions of Bolivia are partly in-
cluded in this department ; the Corocoro copper mines, near
the Desaguadero, produce most of the Bolivian supply of
this metal ; and silver, tin, and other minerals are olitained.
The few manufactures of Bnlivia, and nearly all its pro-
jected railways, are in this department, which is the com-
mercial center of the country. Pop. (estimated for 1888. and
excluding the wild Indians of the northern plains) 346,139.
IlEHni:ltT II. S>UTH.
La Paz: a soutliern departnumt of Honduras; bounded
N. by Comayagua, E. by Tegucigalpa and Paraizo, S. by
Salvador, and W. jjy Gracias ; area, 1,230 sq. miles. Pop.
(1889) 18,800. It was separated from Comayagua about
1880, is hilly or mountainous throughout, and agriculture
and grazing are the only industries. La Paz, or Ijas Piedras,
the capital, is a small village. Herbert II. S.MrrH.
La Paz: capital and principal town and port of the ter-
ritory of Lower California (Baja California), JMexico; on La
Paz Bay, west coast of the Gulf of California (see map of
Mexico, ref. 5-C). It is on a snuiU but very bea\itiful and
verdant plain between the bay and the coast mountains;
built in the typical Mexican fashion, and offers little of in-
terest. The inhabitants are mainly engaged in gohl and
silver mining in the .surrounding region. The pearl-fish-
ei'ics of the l)ay. once famous, have greatly declined ; the
divers em|iloveil in the work are Yaquis Indians. The ex-
ports of La Paz in the year 1890-91 amounted to $808,000,
the greater part being precious metals. Pop. (1892) about
6,000. Herbert II. Smith.
La Paz, or La Paz de Ayaciiclio: a city of Bolivia;
ca])ital of the department, and at ]>resent the seat of the
Bolivian Government; in a high valley on the eastern slope
of the Cordillera ; separated from the Titicaca basin by a
low pass, and communicating with the lake by a road 45
miles long ; elevation, 12,226 feet (see map of South America,
ref. 1.5-C). The city occupies a space 3 miles long by a mile
wide, on both sides of the little river Chuqueapo ; the ground
is very irregular, so that few of the streets are level, and
some are steep. The paving is poor, and the siilewalks are
narrow. The river and several streams which flow into it
are crossed liy stone bridges. Most of the private and pub-
lic buildings are unpretentious, built of concrete or brick,
with tile roofs; there is a fine but unfinished cathedral, and
many churches. The city has a university, schools of law,
medicine, etc., and a public library. At the southeast end
is the Alameda, a beautiful promenade planted with four
rows of trees; from it there is a sujierb view of the moun-
tains, including lUimani. La Paz is the commercial me-
tro|iolis of Bolivia, and is the center of a proposed network
of railways, some of which are in course of construction ; at
present it is generally reached by diligence from Lake Titi-
caca, or from the Oruro Railroad. The mean annual temper-
ature is about 50' P., the extremes observed during sev-
eral years being 19'4' and 73'4° ; the nights are nearly always
cold. Pneumonia and kindred diseases are somewhat prev-
alent, but consumption is rare. La Paz was founded in
1.548 on the site of the Inca village of Chuquiapu. It was
nuide a bishop's see in 1605. Pop. (1893) about 65,000 (75,-
000 according to some estimates). Herbert H. Smith.
Lapeer: city; capital of Lapeer co., Mich, (for location of
county, see map of Michigan, ref. 7-Iv) ; on the Chi. and Gr.
Trunk and the Mich. Cent, railways ; 46 miles W. of Port
Huron, 60 miles N. by W. of Detroit. It is in an agricultu-
ral region, with a large trade. Pop. (1880) 2,911; (1890)
2,7.53 ; (1894) 2,952. , Editor of " Clarion."
La Peruse, laa-pa'riiz', Jeax, de : poet ; b. at Angoulcme,
France, about 1530. He was an eager follower of the revival
of classical letters in France. He wrote a mediocre tragedy,
Mfdee (15.53), after Seneca, by which he sought to support
Jodelle's attempt to reform French tragedy according to
classical models, and Poesies diverses, consisting of sonnets,
elegies, odes, and love poems, of considerable originality and
pure aiul good style. He died in 1555. leaving his works in
manuscript ; they were published in 1556. A. G. C.
Laitliam, Increase Allen, LL. D. : naturalist; b. at Pal-
myra, X. v., Mar. 7, 1811. He was a civil engineer by pro-
fession, and was secretary of the Ohio Canal commission
(1833-35). He early won 'fame as a botanist and geologist.
In 1836 he removed' to Milwaukee. Wis. He published valu-
able papers and works on the geography, geology, mineral-
ogy, and history of Wisconsin, was a careful observer of the
meteoi'ology of the region, and prepaivd a memorial to Con-
gress showing the necessity of storm-predictions for the
benefit of commerce, and how they could be secured, the
suggestions of which were subsequently carried out. He
became an authority on the antiquities of Wisconsin, espe-
cially the abciiiginal earthworks which abound in that State.
The 'Smithsonian Institution puljlished his report on this
subject in 185.5. In 1873 he was appointed to take charge
of a geological survey of the State. He organized the sur-
vey and conducted it with great efficiency for two years,
until, in consequence of polit ical clianges, he was sui)erscded.
I), at Oconomowoc, Sept. 14. 1875.
Lai>idary Work [lapidary is from Tjat. lapida'rius,
stone-cutter, substantive use of adjec. /o/j/rf«rn/,«. belonging
to or having to do with stones, deriv. of la pix, lapidis.
lO'l
I. A I'IKDAU
j(,,.,..i ii,.. i,..i,.T I'l n of prwious stones for jewelry by
^.y, 111. Thi-leriiiexcliulesllieeiit,M'"v-
i„„ iiul (he like, wliiih is ealled f;eiii-
cnsriiwi.g. iiol aiaiiK.i.vl-iiiltiiis. Tlie lirsl slop in |>.ilisli-
ing 8 sloiio is lo eliip it with ii lur^e. s<iuiirc-i-ilj,'i-<l haiiimer
oifnn iniii pliite ; or to slit it liy iinaiis uf n liriiilar disk of
tliiu slii-et iron pluroil hori/.oiitally. ami iiiaile to revolve
bv V - U- inaehiiierv. Itiaiiiuiul-ilusl. mixed with
s,",, : „il. is M|i|>lied to the edjre of the iron phile.
j( I around the table is provided, to prevent the
loss of liie ilnst. A sniuU (piunlity is pnt on the disk and
it is chargcil from time lo time. When ent, the stone is
ground on horizontal wheels ma.le of lead, iron, copper, tin,
or allovs, ami somelinies of wood of dilferent ile;;rees of
hanlness and calleil laps. On these is spread emery, dia-
mond, or eorundnm powder. For the hist milisli, for some
gems, wheels are used oovered with cloth, leather, or hard
brushes. The emerv. finelv ground, gradually imbeds itself
firndy in the lead or other soft metal of which the wheels
are iiinde. Tlie stone is held cemented to a gcin-slick with
shcll-lac and brick-dusi, and pressed against the wheel. The
facets, or flat surfaces which give brilliancy lo transparent
stones, are cut bv a simple contrivance. Hy the side of the
horizontal grindlng-wheel is placed an upright heavy, club-
like piece of wood, resembling a long-nei-ked, very narrow
bottle reversed. In this, in dilferent places, notches arc cut.
The gem presses <in the wheel as it revolves, and I he surface
is cut away. To make a new facet, the rod holding the gem
is held against a notch, wliich gives a new inclinalion or a
new angle. .\ woihIcu instrument is used by some lajii-
daries to hold the gem-stick, and by a mechanical contriv-
ance the facets arc adjusted. Only in the verv commonest
imitation work is the stone held in the hand. The diamond-
powder used is made from borl or imperfect coarse dia-
monds, and sells at from 7.5 cents to ?3 per carat. The
workmen acquire woinlerful facility in shaping and polish-
ing stones, and from a given pattern will produce any object
recmired with great rapidity. ^lost of the beads, bracelets,
and interior "precious stones" made or prepared by lapi-
daries come from Oberstein and Waldkirch im Uieisgau in
Germany. The finest cutting of precious stones is done in
New York, London, and Paris, and in the .Jura; of semi-
precious stones, ill faris and the .Jura: of garnets, in Bohe-
mia : of amethysts, citrine, Spanish topaz (brown (piartz), in
Paris, Oberstein, etc.; of blue, white, and green topaz, ame-
thysts, green garnets, jasjicrs, agate, rock-crystal, etc., in
wonderful perfection, in the Ural Mountains; of imitation
stones, in Paris, the .Jura, and Turnau and (Jablonz in Uo-
hemia, and in I^rovidence, K. I. For further information,
consult the works of Dr. A. Billing, Dr. Feuchlwaiiger,
King, and lloltzapfcl, and Stre>'ler"s Dieulafnit. See also
AoATE. .Ikwei.rv, and Pkk( iocs Stont.s. (i. F. Kixz.
La Piedad, hia-r"'e-«-da1id', or La Piodad dn liivas: a
town in the northern part of the slate of .Michoacan, iMe.xi-
co ; 78 miles N. W. of Morelia; on the little river Lerma,
which flows into the Lake of Chapala (see map of Mexico,
ref. 7-G). Pop. {\XH\)) 10.000, and ranidly growing. It is
the center of an important agricultural district. 11. II. S.
Lapis Luzilli [liter., stone of heaven, azure stone; Lat.
lupin, stone + .\rab. aziil, heaven, / representing Arab, or
liomanee article and Lat. genitive ending -i]: a natural
silicate of aluiiiiiia with lime and soila: usually ma.ssive, but
attimes crystallizing in llie monometric system ; of a beauti-
ful Berlin-blue color. o|iac|ue, and often spcckecl wilh yellow
iron [lyrites (the so-<alled goM). It is really a mixture of
two minerals, hauynile and another, lately named lazurite.
which has nearly the compositicui of artificial ullramarine.
It is highly valued for the manufaclure of ornamental
articles, ami wius long the sole source of the rich paint ullra-
inarine, which is now prepared artificially. The finest lapis
lazuli, or azure stone as it is nfien called, is found in Persia,
al.'o near Lake Baikal in Siberia, ami an inferior variety in
the Amies of Chili. Probably this stone is the .sapphire of
the ancients, which was traded by the Persians with the
Kgyptiaiis for their emeralds. .See C'obi'Sdum.
fiKOROE F. KUNZ.
Lap'itlllC (in fir. Aairfdoi): in (ireek mythology, a race of
This>.aliaiis, the desecmlants of Lapithes, a s<jn of Apollo.
Their king was Pirit lions, son of Ixion ; they were therefore
half-brut hi'rs of the Centaurs, with whom, for varying rea-
sons, they were continually at war. Tin' chief war between
them iiroM' from the fact that at the marriage of Pirit liuus
to Ilippodainia the Centaurs carried olf the women of the
LAPLACE
Lapithn-. In this war Theseus assisted his friend Pirithous,
and so the mvth came lo be considered by the Athenians as
a national one. It was used on the pediment, friezes, and
metopes of temples built by Athenian artists to typify the
superiority and final victory of intelligence (Laiiilha<) over
the wild forces and manners' of untamed nature (Cenlaui-s).
So we find the wars between the Lapithic and the Centaurs
on the metopes of the Parthenon, on the friezes of the so-
called temple of Theseus at Athens and of Apollo at Bas-
.sjc. ami in the western pediment of the tcmiile of Zeus in
Olympia. In all of these tein]iles the Lapilha' stand for
the tireeks (especially of Athens) resisting and overcoming
tlie rude force of the Persians, who are represented by the
Centaurs. •'■ H- S. Sterbett.
Laplare. la'a'plaas', Pierre Simo.s, Marquis de : mathema-
tician and astronomer; b.at Beaumont-en-Augc, Xormandy,
France, Mar. 23, 1749. His parents were poor, and he was
indebted to the interest of weallliy friends for adniissi(m to
the College of Caen and the military schiiol of Beaumont.
Brought to the notice of d'Alembcrt, who procured him the
mathematical, ina-stcrship of the military school .'it Paris,
that city became his residence at the age of eighteen. Two
papers on the Theory of Frolidbilities. printed at the Acad-
emy during the ensuing five or six years, are mentioned by
the Academy as chosen for publication among many, with
the culogv, "This society has never known so young a per-
son lo furnish in so short a time so many important
memoirs on subjects so divci-se and so difficult." lie was
elected an associate, and in 1785 a nieniber. His political
career during the Revolution and under Xapoleon has been
much commented upon, but neither sjiace nor adccpiate data
allow its discussion here. Laplace is styled by Prof. Forbes
"a sort of exemjilar or type of the highest class of mathe-
matical natural philosophers of this, or rather the immedi-
ately preceding, age"; by Airy, "the greatest mathematician
of the past age"; and by Prof. Nichol, "the titanic geome-
ter." It may be added that the present age has produced
no recognized rival ; that lo Newton alone, as a " mathe-
matical philosopher," is, in any age, superiority conceded.
His more imiiortant investigations are his improvements
of the lunar llieory ; his discovery of the cause of the great
iiiecpiality of Jupiter and Saturn's motions; his theory of
the tides'; his work on proliabilit ies. Newton's newly dis-
covered law of gravitation had been so successfully applied
to the lunar motions as with one important exception to
reconcile them to the requirements of the theory; the un-
explained exception was "that the mean motion of the moon
has been accelerated from century to century by a minute
((uantity, which, in the lapse of thousands of years, has be-
come recognizable." The earliest authentic observations of
eclipse, made at Babylon in the years 71!l, 720, 721, show
that they (xcurrcd 1} hours sooner than if the present mean
motion of the moon then obtained. The interval has been
longer than it should have been found to be, and hence
the motion less rapid in former centuries. As regards the
moon's orbit, "the effect has been that at each lunation she
ap])roaches nearer to the earth than during I he last by one-
fourteenth of an inch! — thus describing a spiral of almost
infinitely slow convergence."
A compari.M)ii of ancient observations with modern re-
vealed an acceleration of the mean motion of Jupiter and
a ri'tardation of that of .Saturn, whereas modern observa-
tions alone show a contrary effect to be in jirogress. The
revealing after many years of stu<ly of the source of the re-
sulting discrejaincy between astronomical tables and ob-
servation is regarded as one of the iinuulest ac-lii<'vements
of its author, though Airy regards his theory of the tides as
furnishing a "greater claim for repulation."
Analytical expressions for celestial phenomena can, in
general, be but approximations, in which terms considered
insignificant, as involving the square, cube, or higher pow-
ers of minute (pianlitics, are discarded. Ijaiilace d<'mon-
strated thai among those which had been thus neglected in
the expansions of the mutual perturbations of Jupiter and
Saturn were some multiplied by sines or cosines of angles
ri'iidered small by small mullipliei's. Mathematicians are
familiar wilh the fact thai, subjected to integration, such
terms, by making the small multiiilier a divisor, produce
(luanlities of appreciable niagnilude. The effect of this
discovery and the restoration of such terms was a complete
reconciling of ancient and modern observations. Thus
were removed from the llieory of gravity the two most
forinid.-ilile obstacles to its acknowledged adequacy to ex-
LAPLAND
lOS
plain celestial jiheiinmena — the anomaly of the lunar acccl-
rration ami the jcreat ineipialities of Jupiter and Saturn.
The doctrine oX Probabilities — the subjeetin^ to the rigor
of uiathemalieal inetlio<is subjects which know no law (i. e.
of chance) — furnishes the most subtle and at the same time
the most fascinating of problems, occupying as it were a
borderland to Metaphysics. Logic, and Mathematics. Tlie
Theorie anali/fii/iie des Probabilites of Ijajjlace is regarded
as one of the aljlest specimens of mathematical writing of
his age : but one which can not here be_ discussed. See
PrOUABILITY, TllKOKY OF.
In this brief notice it woidd he in vain to discuss La-
place's distinctive claims to greatness as a mathematician
and a philosopher. His mastery of mathematical analysis
was perhaps unsurpassed, and he has contributed greatly
to the development of this powerful agent of human rea-
son, especially in its application to physical problems. He
is the inventor of tlie most powerful calculus (since gener-
alized and enlarge<l as the Spherical Harmonic Analysis)
known generally as that of Laplace's coefficients. (.See
Coefficient.) It is due, however, to Legendre to say that
he (according to Dr. Forbes) " was the first to imagine and
employ those artifices of calculation known as ' Laplace
Functions.'" His longest and most systematic work, the
Mecanique Celeste, is a compendium of the (jroblems of
physical astronomy which had been accumulating for a
century, but which are treated by methods mainly original
■with himself. This work, though written with entire dis-
regard to preserving the order and connection which would
enable the reader to follow liim, is justly considered his
most imperishable monument. Dr. Bowditch, who has ap-
pended voluminous explanatory notes to his translation, was
accustomed to remark, " Whenever I meet the words of il
est aise a voir (i. e. it is easy to see), I am sure tliat hours
and perhaps days of hard study will be necessary for me to
discover how it plainly appears." It is certainly a disparage-
ment to tlie work that it should be so, for most mathema-
ticians will admit that a little more regard to order and
connection, and a slight condescension to furnish explana-
tion or clew, would make tlie work more useful, certainly
more easily read.
For a short time Laplace was one of Napoleon's minis-
ters. The cause of disagreement is unknown, but his was
not the character of mind best fitted for politics or diplo-
macy, and he was evidently out of his element. No more
infelicitous or unjust characterization than that applied by
Napoleon. " the infinitesimal philosopher," could have been
made. No modern mathematician has exhibited greater
powers of generalization ; and in his Nebular Hypothesis
we have one of the grandest conceptions of the origin of
the actual cosmos, as the result of continuous action of
physical "laws," and one which has anticipated modern
thought in relation to development. Laplace has been cen-
sured for " meanly " suppressing in the second edition, jiub-
lished after the emperor's fall, the dedication, "A Napoleon
le Grand," which had been given to the first edition. Jlr.
Todhunter (History of the Theory of Probability) thinks
that " the fault was in the original publication, and not in
the final suppression " ; and that it would have been " al-
most a satire to have repeated it when the tyrant of Europe
had become the mock sovereign of Elba or the exile of St.
Helena." He has, too, on very inadequate grounds been
charged with atheism. His last words (he died in Paris,
Mar. .1, 1827), so similar in sentiment to language attributed
to Xewton, his great predecessor, prove that, like that great
philosopher, insight into the mysteries of nature ileeper than
other men's nourished in him not arrogance, but humility:
"Ce que nous connaissons est peu de chose: ce que nous
ignorons est immense." Revised by S. Newcomb.
Lapland, or Lapplaiid [lit., the land of the Lapps; in
Ijappish, Same ddnayii] : an extensive territory in Northern
Europe, stretching along the Arctic Ocean from the Atlan-
Itic to the White .Sea. It is not an independent political
unit, but includes the northern parts of Norway, Sweden,
and Finland, and the northwestern part of Russia, and con-
tains, in addition to the original Lapps, a considerable num-
ber of Norwegians, Swedes, Finns, and Russians in its
population. Down to the fourteenth century all Lapland,
including the Kola Peninsula, was supposed to belong to
Norway, and Norway collected her so-called fin-tax. (irad-
nally Russia secured control of the Kola Peninsula, and in
1752, after much dispute, the present boundaries of Nor-
\
which Knare and L'^tsjoki (both now Finnish) became Swed-
ish, and Kaiitokeino and .\vjovarre Norwegian possessions.
Lapland is bounded on tlie N. by the Arctic Ocean and on
the E. by the Wliite Sea, but its southern and southwestern
boundaries are irregular and indefinite. Its total area is
estimated at l.>1000 sq. miles, of which about 16,000 belong
to Norway. 4!).000 to Sweden. 20.000 to Finland, and 62,000
to Russia proper. That part of Ijapland whicli Ijchrngs to
Norway and Sweden consists of mountain plateaus and
deep-groo%-ed valleys. The general aspect of the country is
barren and somber, but there are spots where the soil is fer-
tile, and the monotony is occasionally relieved by luxuriant
forests, large lakes and rivers, and snow-capped mountain-
peaks. Jlore than half of Finnish and Russian Lapland is
a low, flat country, containing vast stretches of dasolate
tundni — woodless plains covered with mosses and lichens.
Industries. — Agriculture is pursued only in some of the
valleys in Norway and Sweden, but the summer, with its
midnight sun. is too short to permit grain to ripen. There
are many excellent iron and copper mines, and the exten-
sive forests of pine, spruce, and birch give employment to
thousands of people, and yield handsome revenues. Along
the coast fishing is an important industry and the principal
one, while in the interior, on the mountain plateaus, the
nomadic Lapps, the only inhabitants, get their subsistence
exclusively from the reindeer. The number of nomads is
decreasing, partly because many sell their herds and take to
fishing and stock-raising, and partly because the Russian
laws of 1852 prohibit the Norwegian and Swedish Lapps
from pasturing their reindeer on Russian territory.
The People and their Habits. — The Lapps, whom the
Norwegians and Danes usually call Finns (Finrier). are in
their own tongue called ,Same (pi. sameh), or same-hits, in
which we find the same root as in the Finnish suo7na-lais-
set and in the Esthonian soom-lasse. The word Lapp is
doubtless of Finnish origin, the Finnish word lappaan
meaning to flit, to move from jilace to place, and from time
immemorial the Lapps have lived a nomadic life. They
belong to the Lapponian subdivision of the Ugro-Finnic
group of the great Turanian family. Many Lapps having
abandoned their nomadic life and taken to fishing and
stock-raising, thus adopting more or less civilized habits of
life, scholars are in the haliit of dividing them into vari-
ous separate groups. Thus we have mountain Lapps, for-
est Lapps, sea Lapps, and river Lapps, but this classifica-
tion is wholly artificial, based simply on accidental circum-
stances, there being no fundamental differences between
them. To quote E. Torrey, the Lapps "are small of stat-
ure, with large head, short neck, small, gray reddish eyes,
hair dark brown, beard short, hands long, legs thin, ab-
domen projecting, the result of improper or insufficient
food, complexion light, chin protruding, check-bones promi-
nent." According to Retzius. the Lapp is the most brachy-
ce[ihalous type of man in Europe, nerhaps in the world.
The Lapp is hospitable, cheerful, aniT talkative, and given
to asking countless questions. In his conversation he is
bright and sometimes very sarcastic. His moral character,
considering his limited knowledge, is of a high standard.
He is thrifty even to avarice, but not dishonest. He seldom
steals, and adultery is rare. Formerly the Lapp buried his
money, in the form of silver, in the ground, but now he either
puts his savings in a bank or loans it on interest. About
20.000 Lapps "are found in Norway, 7,000 in Sweden, and
3.000 in Finland and Russia. The true representatives of
the race are the mountain and forest Lapps, who subsist on
the reindeer, and follow them to the coast or to the interior,
according to the season, in search of reindeer-moss. Of the
20.0ftO Lapps in Norway, not more than 1.200 are nomadic.
These nomads suffer hardships which it would be impossible
for civilized man to endure. They live with their reindeer
day and night, and utilize every part of that animal. The
blood, meat, marrow, and entrails are all eaten. The skin is
used forshoesand clothing, and the sinewsarc torn into threads
for sewing. The antlers and bones are made into all kinds
of household utensils and into ornaments. What can not
be converted into food or clothing for themselves is either
cooked into soup for their dogs, llieir only servants in herd-
ing the reindeer, or manufactured into glue. By the sale
of meat, skins, and glue, they are able to buy cloth, salt,
coffee, and tobacco. The wonien do their full share of work
in herding. They do all the sewing, but the men do the
cooking, a remarkable fact doubtless based on .-iome old
superstition. While caring for his reindeer herd the Lapp
frequently sleeps with no other covering than the snow, into
104
LAPLAND
wliioh lie digs a liolo. His reiniWrclothinp koons liim wiirin,
una muki'S suoli liitnlsliijis iKissihli-. Tlic size of tin- Iut<1 ik-
tormiiU'S the wwilth uf tlii' Lu|«p. A fiimily I'aii live on
30*» rciiuli'cr. ami if tliey dwn l.tXK) thi-y uro in imisv ciiiuin-
staiicfs. In Norway lli'e nouiailiu Laipps s|ifn<l tlif wiiilors
01, fi "'iiin |iljiti'auj near Kautoki'ino ami Karasjulili.
wl,, vv is less <li-c|p lliaii aloiij,' the I'oiu-it, and tliis
inj.K I (or tlio n'iiidccr {» j,'i't ut tlio moss and lich-
ens, llu-ir iPiiMiiinil food. In the summer they Hit from
plai-o to i«laee, the reinileer tliemselves seekins out the hest
pastun^s. The summer tent of the Ijipp is made of canvas,
while his winter tent is maile of maltui;; and woven {,'rass,
and is lined with reiiuleer skin. The tireplaee consists of
three or four stones laid in the center of the tent, and u hole
in the top serves as chimney.
In the summer the n-iiulecr steers are made to carry the
tents, household utensils, the fooil, and the little children
on their backs, while in the winter they draw the [inlks, and
in thesi' boat-formed sledRes sit the Lapps with their ba^'-
pige. The post is carried bv Lapps and reindeer overlanil
from Allen to Vads.i, Kau'tokeino, Karasjokk, and other
points in Laplanil, ami it rarely fails to arrive on sclieilule
time, the reindeer making easily 100 miles in a day. Were
it not for the reindeer the dreary and extensive tundra of
Lapland could not be inhabited by man ; l)ut 1 his " camel
of the north" serves the Lapp as a'substitule for the horse,
the cow, the sheep, and the goat, none of which can exist in
these Arctic regions.
Reliijion am) Etliicnlion. — The Ijipps arc Christians, and
those in Norway, Sweden, and Finland bclonj; to the Lu-
theran t'hnrch, "the state religion of those countries, wMiile
those in the Kola Peninsula are Greek Catholics. While
their knowledge of the principles of Christianity is super-
ficial, they cling with tenacity to the outward forms, and
are very parlicnlar to have their diildren properly baptized
andconlirmed. the marriage ceremony [jcrftprmed by a regu-
larly ordained priest, and to have their dead l)uried in con-
secrated ground. The Lapps of Norway. Sweden, and Fin-
lanil are all able to read, and the children attend school
liuring the winter months, while the Lapps are gatliercd at
their winter riuarters. I'rominent winter stations in Nor-
wegian liapland are Kautokeino and Karasjokk, where there
arc churclies and scIkpipIs.
P(jpul(ilioii. — The populalippn of I,apland is only about
102.000. It is ra<pst dense in the Norwegian and most sparse
in the Russian part. Tluis the Norwegian part of Laplanil
has abiput .50,000 inlialiitants. the Swedish about 37,000, the
Finnish about 0,000. the Russian about 9,000. The nali.Pim!
groups are rcpresentcMl bv :i0,0()0 Lapps, ix.mo Swedes, :>0.-
0(X) Norwegians, 1.5.000 'Finns, 7,000 Russians, ami 2.000
Karelians. Tliese figures are mere approximations, as there
are many mixed nuirriages. The chief cities are Vanl"),
Vadso. and llammerfest, with about 2.(K»0 iidiabitants each.
Ilammerfest is the i^st northern city in the world.
Ili/itory. — The oliffst known reference to the Lapps is
found in the Oermania of Tacitus. He calls theni Feiini,
but there is no doubt that he refers to the ancestors of the
Lapps. Hetween the years .500-8.50 they are occasionally
inenticpned for their skill on skees (snow-shoes) by the Goths
and Longobardians, as ukrito-Jiiii. xLrito-vini, crrfenme, etc.
Ottar speaks of his visit to the "Skriilfinns " in his report
to King Alfred of Kngland (about WKi). The reindeer had
been domcsticaleil l<png In-fore Ottar's time. From the
ninth century on the Lapps are never lost sight of in Scan-
dinavian literaluri'. In the old Niprse sagas we nail tliat
Krik Hloo<l-axe. on a visit lo Hjarmahuid in 922, nut wit li
Gunhild, a daughter of Asur Tote, who ha<l been sent
thither to live among the Lajpps in order to get a thorough
knowledge of witchcraft, and the Russian chronicles tell us
that Ivan tlie Terril)le si'ut f<pr sorcerers from Lapland in
ordiT to have the causr cpf the appearance of a cipuiet ex-
plaini'd tip him. Wheme the Lapps originally came is slill
an uns4>ttled ijuestion. but all nivestigalors adcejit the Lap-
pish answer, " From the east we have come." It is certain
that no traces of them can Ik- found S. of 60° N. hit. in
Scjinditiavia. The llrsl Chrislian missionaries went to them
from the .Swedes in tin- Ix-giiining of the seventeenth century.
The chief apostles of the Lap|is were the Norwegians Thomas
von Westcn and N. V. Stoikllelli. and the two Swedish
brothers Lars Levi and I'etrus La'sladius. Thomas von
Weslen practically coiivertid the Lapps to Christ ianitv in
the first ipiarter of the eighteenth century, while .Stipcklleth
and the brothers La-stadius did tlnir work in the fust half
of the nineteenth century. Stocktleth particularly did the
Lapps a great service by creating an alphabet for them, and
traiislilting the most important religious and devotional
biHpks into tlieir own hinguage.
.Ltiuqii(uie.—'i\w Laoiiisli language is a branch of the
l'grip-J''innic group spolieu throughout Western Siberia and
Northeiustern Kurone. It is agglutinate, the inlleetional
endings being loosely added to the princijial word, all modi-
fications being post-positive, like the definite article in the
Scandinavian languages. There are no prepositions. Re-
lations expressed in English by prepositions are in Lappish
represented by case-endings, which, accordingly, are much
greater in number than in any Aryan tongue. Post-posi-
tive syllables or words also take the place of our possessive
pronouns. The verb is but little infli'cted, and has no fu-
ture tense. Lappish has neither article nor gender, but, on
the other hand, it has the dual number, like the Greek and
Icelandic. As the Lapps are spread over an extensive ter-
rilorv, their language has been broken into a number of
dialects, the most important of which are the so-called Nor-
wegian, Swedish, Finnish, and Russian, all with subdivi-
sions. The ilialect found in Norway has been aihppted by
Stockfleth, Friis, and others as the book-s])ecch. ^ The best
grammar is by J. A. Friis, published in 1H.50. A Niprwcgian-
Lappish dictionary by .Stocklletli aiipcared in Christiania in
18.52. and J. A. Friis is (1804) publishing an exhaustive
Lappisli- Latin-Norwegian lexicon.
Lihnilure. — Lappish literature is of course limited in
extent, and consists mainly of school-books and religious
and devotional works translated from other languages. In
18.5(i J. A. Friis published a book called Luppiske Sproc/-
nruver. which contains a collection of stories ami riddles m
Lappish. From E. W. Borg we also have a small collection
of stories gatlicre<l from the lips of the Finnish Lap|is.
Lonnrot and Andelin have also ccpllected some specimens ipf
Laip]pish in Finland, and Genctz has published a few stories
from the Russian Lapps in an Hungarian periodical. Be-
siiles this we have some lyric poems, and two epics of consid-
erable length and of rare beauty. One of these epics is
called I'direii Parne, and in it we are told how the son of
the sun learned of a golden land in farthest north, and
goes in search of it. He sails on until sun and moon are
left Ijeliiml. and replaced by the north star. He reaches the
golden land, which is inhabited by giants. The king's daugh-
ter falls in love with the stranger. She heljis him with her
powers of sorcery, and he carries her off together with a
cargo of golden stones. After the son of the sun has de-
liarled with his treasures, the brothers of the princess re-
turn home, and at once begin pursuit of the fugitives. I5y
Avitchi-nifl again the (princess produci-s a vir>lcnt storm for
the ships of her brothers. Thus she and her lover escape,
and when the sun rises the giant brothers are turned into
stone. This poem has many features in cipuimon with .Sam-
po"s journey ni Kalei'dla. The other epic is called Pifichas,
suH of I'anc/ia.s, and in its main outlines reminds us of the
stories of Lcmminkiiinen and Kullervo in Kalvcidn. Both
these epics and many lyric poems were known by heart by
the aged priest A. Fjellnef of Sorsele. himself a Lapp by
birth. He had committed parts of them tip writing, and
shiprlly befipre his death he dictated them to the celebrated
Lappish scholar Prof. O. Donner, of Helsingfors, who after-
warii published them in the Finnish periodical Sunmi. They
also appeared in a German translation. Lieder tier Lappen
(187((). A Swedish translatiipii of Piiiven Parne is given in
Guslaf V. Diiben's work. 0/n Lnpplanil tirh Liippnrne(\H~S).
Mi/l/dildi/i/. — The Swedes began to gather materials fipr a
Lappish mythology about the ycarlGTO: Danes and Norwe-
gians a century later. As the Laipjps have taken no care ipf
their traditions themselves, our information on this subject
is rather fragmentary, but we have sullicient data to show
that the Lappish religion consisted of a personification of
the visible forces and phenomena of nature. The son
(Puiff). the moon {Jltinim). and the stars {Xaxfck) were
lionorcd as masculine deities, who had wives and children.
and were conceived to live a |iatriarchal life. I'hief among
the gods was Piiive, the author and father of all things.
The sun's daughter {Ptiiren neilit) represented goodness,
and was probably identical with Riinnri neila. the goddess
of spring, who < iolhed the fields with a carpet of green.
'I'irrmi's, or JJiiriiDy, was like the Norse god Thor. wor-
shiped not only as the gipd of thunder, but also as the divin-
ity who sent the beneficent rains and blessed the [pastures
for the reindeer. The god of thunder was also called Jiih-
riiil, Jihiiu'l, and IbmcJ.tiM of which are variations of the
Finnish Jiitiuilti, originally the god of thunder, or the home
LAPLAND
LA PORTE DU TIIEIL
105
of thunder, but now meaning simply god. In Southern
Lapland Tiermes was called Ilora. a corruption of Thor.
and as such he was not only the god of thunder and light-
ning, the latter being a fiery arrow which he shot from tlie
rainbow, but he also presided over the weatlier and the sea-
sons, and over tlie woes and weals of the Lapiis generally.
Hora has neither chariot nor goats like Thor, but has been
entirely naturalized and adapted to his Lappish home.
There were also a large number of lesser divinities corre-
sponding to the nymphs of the Greeks and to the elves and
nisses of the Norsemen, and supposed to have their abodes
within various ol)jects, whose guardian spirits they were.
Such a guardian spirit was called a lialdih. Thus the alder
(laipe) was a sacred tree, doubtless on account of the blood-
like color obtained from its bark, and in tliis tree dwelt a
spirit called Leip olmai (the aldcr-man), plural Leip olinak,
for there were many of them. There were wind and water
spirits (Biegga-gahs and tjatje olma'c) who inhabited and
protected the seas, rivers, and particularly the waterfalls.
On the origin and generation of life they had a curious and
very complicated myth. Maihr-atje (earth or progenitor)
dwelt in the upperinost air. His wife was 3Iader-akka,
whose abode was in the middle air. Wlien this pair created
a soul, Mader-afje took it into his belly, which was always
open for this purpose, and circled through the sunbeams
around the sun until he came to Mader-akka. If the soul
was to be a son, she introduced it into one of her earthly
daughters called Juks-nkka (the mother of the bow and ar-
row), who was the guardian spirit of the hunters. If the
soul was to be a daughter. Mader-akka put it within her
other terrestrial daughter Sar-akka (the mother of creation),
the guardian spirit of women. Juks-akka and Sar-akka
gave the souls the first marks of gender, and then transmit-
ted them to the women, who were to give them physical
birth. This process of generation applies to both men and
animals. There was a third daughter, Llcs-akka (the door-
mother), who resided near the door of the njalla, or tent,
and who protected the child alter it was born, and made it
strong and healthy. These akkas were zealously worshiped
with prayers and sacrifices. Thus a little milk was always
thrown out of the door at meal-time in order to win the fa-
vor of the Uks-akka. This strange myth of generation is
found only among the Lapps.
Lappish mythology teaches a life hereafter, but in all re-
spects like that before death. Hence the dead were buried
with their pulks, implements, and ornaments, and the graves
were carefully protected with heaps of stones. The dead
had their tents and reindeer and pastures in subterranean
regions. The heathen Lapps immersed their children in
water when they named them. The mothers sometimes
dreamed before their confinement, which ghost from the
realm of the dead (saico) was to rise again in the child,
but usually this had to be learned by means of sorcery.
Sometimes a child was immersed several times, and the
name changed as many times, as the child's illness or mis-
fortune would lead to the conclusion that the wrong saivo
or jabmek had been chosen. Lappish mythology has no
place for evil gods. There is no dualism. The divinities
are all beneficent, while they have human attributes and
frailties, make mistakes, get angry and quarrel. The gods
also practice witchcraft, by which they produce sickness
and mishajis among men. To appease the gods the Ijapps
offered sacrifices consisting chiefly of a piece of meat or
cheese, a little milk, a piece of reindeer antler, etc. On
important occasions they might sacrifice a whole reindeer.
A reliable work on Lappish mythology is Lappisk Mgthologi
Erentyr og Folkesagn, by J. A. Friis, published in Christiania
in 1871.
Bibliography. — The most thorough and comprehensive
works on Lapland are Lappland oc/i Lappiirne (ISTo), by
Gustaf von Diiben, and Dagbog over mine Missions reiser i
Finmarken (1860), by N". V. Stockfleth. Von Dliben's work,
which has mainly been consulted in the above article, gives
a list of more than 300 writers on Lapland and Lappish
subjects. From this extensive literature the following may
be selected as the most important : P. Hogstrom, Beskrifning
ofoer de till Si'eriges Krona lydende Lappmarker (1T4G) ; K.
Leein, Beslcrivelse over Finniarkens Ijiipjier (1767); C. von
Linne. Larlusis Inpjxmicn.or ii Tour in Lapland. ])ublisheil
by J. K. Smith (London, ISll); P. La'stadius, /oh™«/ />«•
TJensfgOring sdsom Jlissionaire i Lappmarken (2 vols.,
18:n-3:?); Bayard Taylor, Xorthern Travel (18.58); .1. A-
Vuia, Ethnografisk Krirf ver Finmarken i 10 Blad (1862);
J. A. Friis, Russisch Lapland (in Petermann's 2Iittheilun-
geri, 1870); J. A. Friis, En Sommer i Finmarken (1871);
Aubel, Reise nach Lappdand (1874): P. B. Du Chaillu. The
Land of the Midnight Sun {\mi); Edward Itue, The \nile
Sea Peninsula (1882). Kasml's B. Axuekson.
La Plata, Bolivia : See Sucre.
La Plata : capital of the province of Buenos Ayres, Ar-
gentina; on the south shore of the Rio de la Plata, 24 miles
below Buenos Ayres, with which it is connected by railway
(see map of South America, ref. 8-E). The Plata is here
deeper than before Buenos Ayres, and forms a bay, some-
what sheltered on the side of the sea. The village of Ense-
nada existed previous to 1882, Tolosa being a little inland.
By law of Apr. 22, 1882, 63* sq. miles of land, including
these two places, was set apart for a provincial cai)ital with
the name of La Plata. The first stone of the new city was
laid Nov. lU, 1882, and since then its growth has been phe-
nomenal; in 1889 it had (including Ensenada and the sub-
urb of Tolosa) 65,000 inhabitants. A fine dock has been
constructed at great expense, communicating with the deep
channel of the Plata by a canal nearly 5 miles long, ad-
mitting vessels of 21 feet draught, and with ample wharves
and landing facilities. These advantages have transformed
La Plata into the commercial port of Buenos Ayres. The
city has numerous public buildings, a museum, library, ob-
servatory, cathedral, provincial college, etc., fine parks and
many handsome residences. As yet it covers only a small
portion of the allotted space. There is a large floating pop-
ulation. See Coni, Besefla estadistica y descriptiva de La
Plata (1885). Herbert H. Smith.
La Plata Biver: See Plata, Rio de la.
La Plata, United Provinces of: the official name un-
til 1830 of the Argentine Republic. During a portion of
this time it included Uruguay ; later the strife of the feder-
alists and centralists brought'about the separation of Buenos
Ayres and the confederation's dissolution. H. H. S.
La Porte : city ; capital of La Porte co., Ind. (for location
of county, see map of Indiana, ref. 1-D) ; on the Chi. and
W. Mich!, the Ind., III. and la., the Lake Erie and W., and
the Lake Sh. and Mich. S. railways ; 12 miles S. of Lake
Michigan, 5!) miles E. of Chicago.' It is built on a high
plateau on the edge of a rich prairie, and near it is a chain
of seven beautiful lakes, on which are four popular summer
resorts, including the State Baptist Chautauqua. Large
quantities of ice are cut on the lakes and shipped to Chi-
cago and the South. The city has the Holly system of water-
works, electric lights, electric fire-alarm, public library. Odd
Fellows' library, high-school library, horological institute,
orphans' home, old ladies' home, a national bank with capi-
tal of $100,000, 2 private banks, and a daily and 4 weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 6,195 ; (1890) 7,126.
Editor of " Herald."
La Porte : town (laid out 1855) ; Black Hawk co., la. (for
location of county, see map of Iowa, ref. 4-1) ; on Wolf
creek, and the Burl.. Cedar Rap. and X. Railway ; 15 miles S.
of Waterloo, the county-seat, 40 miles N. W. of Cedar Rap-
ids. It is in an agricultural region, and has manufactures
of flour, carriages, anil wagons, and a weekly newspaper.
Pop. (1880) 1,006; (1890) 1,052; (1895) 1,296.
La Porte du TheiL laa-port'du-tar, Francois Jean Ga-
briel: scholar; b. in Paris, July 16, 1742; received a mili-
tary education, and served in the later campaigns of the
Seven Years' war, but devoted all his leisure hours to the
study of the Greek language and literature, and published
in 1774 a translation of ^sehylus's Orestes, and in 1775 of
the Hymns of Callimachus. From 1776 to 1786 he resided
in Rome, and having received admittance to the Vatican
Librarv, which at that time was generally closed to foreign-
ers, he'brought back to Paris nearly 18.000 documents illus-
trative of European history of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. Three volumes of these documents, containing
among other things the letters of Pope Innocent IIL, were
published in 1791 ; but the further publication was inter-
rupted bv the Re%-olution, and the materials were placed in
the National Library. Among other works may be men-
tioned a new edition of Bruinoy, Le theatre des (irers. a
translation of Hero and Leander. A commentary to Afhe-
mpiis was left incomplete. His translation of Petrontus,
with a learned commentary, was ready for publication, when,
on the advice of Sainte-Croix that such a work wcmld still
further demoralize an .-ige already corrui>t. he burned all the
copies alreadv printed (1800); two, however, escaped de-
struction. He then returneil to the study of the ancients,
106
LAin'EXBEKG
mill wruli- Tic''''- /''■■'■•/le. Irmliiil da grer en fraiirais
(i;y4). Ill til, 'f his lifo he wiis woiipieil with n
truiu-iiitioii !•( 1 1 .■''!/ '>t Strulx), of which only seven
books were l■uli^hl•J, wlitn he ilie<l Miiy 2H, 1^15.
Revised by A. GlDEMAN.
Lapnp|ib)>rtr. liui'|>rn-brirrh, Joh.vnx Maktin : hislorian ;
b. at lluinl'iiri;. Ciernmny. July ;tO, 1T!»4: stiulieil nieilicine
at Kilinliuru'h anil law lit Lomloii. Berlin, and »iOltiiii,'en,
reoeiviiii: the iliH-turate in IHlti ; was for u lime minister
ri'Si.l • ' ■■ 'limburirat Berlin; U'eame in 1^!23 keeper of
the
in II-
von Kniititnd {i vols., Hamburg, ls;J4-y7) ; he also wrote
vultmble histories of the tierman llansc Towns, of lleli{;o-
lanil. ete. Mia IJixlory of £ii(/l(in(l relates to the Anf;lo-
.Sitxou |K'ri<Kl, and is still a leading authority for early Kn<j-
lish hislorv. It has been translated into Knirlish, with notes
and additions, [■y Benjamin Thorpe, The lUMorij of Kny-
Uiiul under the yunn<in.i. bejjun by LappeubcrK and linislied
bv I'auli, was also translated by" Thorpe. Of t;reat value
also are his Qiiellen zur (iesrhi'chte der Erzbixlhumx und
der Sladt Bremen, and his editions of Thietniar of Merse-
burp, Adam of Bremen, llelmold, and Arnold of Liibeck in
I'ertz, MoHumenta Uisl. Uerm. U. Nov. 28, 1865.
Ilaml'wri:, anil wius in 18.")0 iilenipotenliary
It eonfereiiee. His best work is O'escliiclile
Laprade, laa pralid , Pierre Marie Victor Richard, de:
ct ; b. at Montbrison, Kranee, .Ian. 13, 1812. He studied
poeL ,
law, but soon abamloned its practice for literature. lie
first gaincil notice by J'si/rhe (1841) ; then followed Udes el
poemes (1H44): Hoflnes emngeligues (1852); Symphonies
(18.55): Idi/lles heroicjiies (1858); Pemette (1868); Puhnes
civiques (XiiTi); Le Lirre d'un pere(\S~6); CKiirres poeligues
(3 vols., 1878). In 1847 ho was made Professor of French
Literature at Lyons, but was removed in 1861 for a political
satire, lie entered the Academy in 1858, and was a mem-
ber of the Chamljer of Deputies from Lyons in 18?2-73. D.
at Lyons, Dec. i:t, 18s;j. llis poetry suggests Lamartine; it
celebrates nature, and is pervaded by a religious and jihilo-
sophical tone. " A. G. Canfield.
Lapse [from Lat. lapsus, a falling, slipping; deriv. of
labi, lapsii.i(esi), slip, glide, slip down, fall] : a term used in
law in several cases to denote the failure or loss of an estate
or right owing to the occurrence or non-occurrence of some
conditiim precedent.
In England the term is used in criminal proceedings in
the same sense as abate to denote the determination or end-
ing of prot^'cedings in an action owing to the death of one of
the parties or to some other occurrence. It is also used to
denote the lessor failure of the right of presentation to a
benefice when the right of presentation is not exercised by
the patron within si.x calendar months after the avoidance
of the benefice, exclusive of the day of avoidance, in such
s case the right devolves (1) to the bishoj) lus ordinary, (2) to
the metropolitan as superior, and (3) to the sovereign as
patron paramount.
The most important use of the term, however, is that in
connection with wills where it denotes a failure of a devise
or be(|uest, originally valid, to vest at the death of the tesla-
tor owing to there then being no person who can accept the
devise according to the terms of the will, or because of such
pers<jn's unwillingness to accept it. The lack of a person
capable of accepting may result either from the death of the
legatee before he is to take under the will (usually by his
death before that of the testator) or by the non-occurrence
of some event upon which the legacy to him is comlitioned.
The reason why a devise or legacy lapses bv the death of
the beneficiary before that of the testator is that a will takes
effect only from the time of the testator's death, and the
beneficiary can accjuire no rights in the devise or beipiest
before that lime. A lapsed devise or legacy is distinguished
from one that is void, the gift Ix'iiig void when the jierson
specified as rlonee is deail or incomnetent to take the prop-
erty at the time of the making of I he will.
The effect at common law of I he lapse of a devise is that
the pro|>crty devised passes lo llie heir at law of the testa-
tor, while in the case of a legacy the properly beqiieatheil
passes to the residuary legatee if one be iiaTiieil in the will,
nnil if not to the next of kin. (See Ki.v, Next of.) The
effect of a devise or bequest Iwiiig void is in general the
same as that of a lapse, but there arc some cases both in
Kmjland and the V. .S. in which it has been held or said
ohiter dirtiim that in the case of a void devise the propertv
passes to till- residuary devis<'e and not to the heir. (See 1
Jarmau On WilU, p. '.Kl, Bosloii, IHH:!; als., 1 .larman On
LARAMIE
\\'ilh, 4lh ed., p. 588, xeq. : and Vnn Kleeck vs. Duleh Church,
20 Wendell ii".) The common-law rules have, however,
been to a considerable extent modified by statutes. Thus in
England and in some of the U. S. by slalute lapsed devises
go to the residuary legatee ; in others of the U. S. a contrary
rule has been established.
A lapse will not be |>revented by a declaration in the will
of the testator's intention that the legacy or devise shall not
lapse, but there must be a designation of some one to whom
the legacy is to be paid. In any case the question of lapsing
is simply'whelher Ihe testator has by his will, as interpreted
accoriling lo the rules of law, designated a person in whom
he wishes the properly lo vest, and the statutes above re-
ferred to are stalules of iiilerpretation only, and will not
override any expressed intent of the testator.
For a fiilier treatment of the technical details of this sub-
ject, see Jarman On Wills ami Redlield On the Law of Wills.
F. .Stl'rges Allen.
Lapwing [M. Eng. lapirimj, by analogy of lap, to fold,
and iring<0. Eng. hleapewime ; Itliapan, leap, run (>
Kng. leap) + wincan, move aside, turn (> Eng. wink). The
name refers to the irregular flight], or Pec'wit [named
fiuin its note] : a large species of plover ( ]'anellus cristalus),
having a well-developed hind toe and an erect, slightly re-
curved, pointed crest on the head. The crown, fore throat,
upper breast, and half the tail are glossy black ; the mantle
deep green with a purjilisli gloss ; the sides of the neck, un-
der part of body, and lower half of tail are white ; some of
the tail coverts are rusty yellow. The lapwing is common
in Europe and Northern Asia. It is aliout as large as a
pigeon. The flesh and eggs are excelleiil, and many of the
latter are sent to market, especially in London, under the
name of plover's eggs. The nest is a shallow depression,
lined with a few grass-stalks; the eggs are four in number,
E ear-shaped, olive in color, with spots and blotches of dark
rown. The nest is carefully concealed, and the parents
endeavor to divert attention from it by fluttering about as
if injured. F. A. Lucas.
Lar: city of the province of Laristan, Persia; 60 miles
from the (julf of Persia; situated on an extensive plain
covered with palm-lrees and at the foot of a mountain range
(see map of Pei-sia and Aral)ia. ret. 5-11). It was formerly a
thriving city, but much of it is now in ruins. It is famous
for its tobacco, camels, and for its maiuil'aclures of sword-
blades, muskets, and silks, and has fine bazaars. The hill in
the rear of the city is crowned by the ruins of a castle once
considered iin]iregnable. Pop. 12,000.
Lai'a, laa nia : one of the norlhwestem states of Vene-
zuela, formed in 1881 from a portion of Falcon ; lying be-
tween Falcon, C'arabobo, Zaniora, Los Andes, and Zulia,
with only about 20 miles of coast on Ihe Caribbean Sea,
where it [lossesses the port of Tucacas. Area. 9,296 sq. miles;
population (estimated 1800) 200,681. Capital, Barquisimito,
united lo Tucacas by rail. The surface is mounlaiiunis in
great part, but interspersed with fertile valleys and plains
in which coffee, cacao, sugar-cane, etc., are cultivated ; wheat
is grown lo a small extent at higher points. Lara is noted
for its coiiper mines, the only ones worked in Venezuela.
Heruert II. S.MITH.
Laramie: city (laid out in 1868, incorporated in 1873);
capital of Albany co.. Wyo. (for location of county, see map
of Wyoming, ref. 12-K) ; on the Big Laramie river, and the
Union Pac. Railway ; 57 miles N. W. of Cheyenne. It is in
the midst of the Laramie plains, 7,122 feet above sea-level,
and has mountains rich in ores on Ihe E. and W., and a
vast iilateau of agricultural and stock-raising land on the
N. and S. The first irrigating ditch in Wyoming discharges
its surplus water inio the river 3 miles from Ihe city, and
streams of clear cold water, fed by a spring at Ihe foot of
the Black Hills, a few miles E. pa.ss through the city. Lara-
mie is the seat of Ihe Stale I niversity, Ihe .Slate Agricul-
tural College. Ihe .State fish-liiitchery. Ili«: State jienilen-
tiary, and of the Protestant Episcopal bishopric of \\ yoining
and Idaho. It contains !) churches, public library, uni-
versity library, 3 national banks with combined capital of
$300,()00, and a monthly, 2 daily, and 4 weekly iieriodicals.
Besides extensive railway-machine shops, there are rolling-
mills, tie-[)re.servii:g plant. soda-reiUktion works, severid
stone-quarries, glass and soaji works, and Hour-mills. Pop.
(18W0) 2,6"J6 ; (18'J0) 6,;!88. KunoK or " Boomeraso."
Laramie: a river in the .Sta*" of Wyoming; formed by
the union of two branches, the Big and the Little Laramie,
LARAMIE GROUP
LARCENY
107
■wliich rjsii in the Medicine Bow Mountains, and flow N. E.,
skirting on the E. tlie plains of the same name. It enters
the North Fork of the Platte at Fort Laramie, and is much
used for floating; hunber from the mountains.
Laramie Group : an American goologieal fornuition of
transition character passing lielow into marine Cretaceous
and above into fresh-water Tertiary terranes. It occurs
along the eastern border of the Rocky Mountains from Cen-
tral Mexico, northward through the U. S. and far into Can-
ada, a distance of 2,000 miles : this belt was originally 500
miles broad, but has been broken into detached areas by
erosion. Tlie rocks are mostly light-yellow sandstones with
shaly layers, and had a tliickness when deposited of about
4,000 feet. The fossils are brackish and fresh-water nioUusks,
which indicate many changes in the condition of deposi-
tion, together with land plants, the bones of small land mam-
mals anil of huge re[itiles, but no true marine species have
been found. Valuable beds of coal occur in this group, es-
pecially in Xew Mexico, Colorado, and Montana: the coal-
fields on Puget Sound have been referred provisionally to
the same period. The stratigraphic position of the Laramie
has been the subject of long discussion, a summary of which,
together with references to the literature, is given by C. A.
White in Bulletin No. 82, U. S. Geological Suiwey.
Israel C. Russell.
Laramje Mountains : a range rising at the Red Buttes,
near the Sweetwater river, Wyoming, and extending in a
curve southward to the Arkansas river, near Ijong's Peak in
Colorado, forming a wall which closes in the Laramie Plains
to the X. E. anil E. It is composed of a nucleus of red
syenite, with margins of fossiliferous formation. Carbonifer-
ous, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and in some jilaces lig-
nite Tertiary, the beds inclining from a central axis at
different angles. This range is connected with the Big
Horn Mountains and Black Hills by low anticliuals extend-
ing across the prairie, the most complete and beautiful
to be found in the Rocky Mountain region. The numerous
branches of the Platte rise in this range, of which the prin-
cipal summit is Laramie Peak. Coal has been found in
considerable quantities.
Larash, or Laraclie : See El Araish.
Larceny [liy analogy of burglary, filimi/, and words in
-y, from earlier larsun. from 0. Pr. larrecin > Fr. larcin <
Lat. latroci nium. robbery ; deriv. of la' fro, hired servant,
robber. Cf. Gr. Karpis. hired servant]: the taking and re-
moving by trespass of personal property, knowing that it
belongs to another, and for the purpose of depriving him of
such property. It was a felony at conmion law, anil, if the
value of the property stolen exceeded twelve pence, the
punishment was death. This excessive penalty accounts in
part for the abundant technicalities and subtle distinctions
in the law of larceny, for it induced in the judges a greater
anxiety to save human life than to be logical. Only personal
goods are subjects of larceny. Injuries to realty, or any-
thing savoring thereof, may constitute a trespass, but not
theft. This is mainly attributable to the fact tliat while the
common-law rules on this subject were forming, real prop-
erty was in small danger from thieves, as it consisted chiefly
in lands and castles. The doctrine was made to yield ex-
traordinary results. Deeds of land, and even the chests in
which they were kept, were deemed to savor so much of the
realty as to have no value ajiart from it, and therefore not
to be subjects of larceny. Even where trees, or growing
grass or grain, or precious metals, or Fixtures (o. v.) had
been wrongfully severed and feloniously carried away, it
was held that the offense was a trespass and not theft,
unless the severance and the removal were distinct transac-
tions. At one time it was thought that at least one day
must intervene between them, on the theory tliat the law
would not take notice of the fraction of a day; but this
view was discarded, and it was settled that no particular
space of time need elapse, provided that the severance and
the carrying away were not a continuous act. Accordingly,
where a person severed an article from the land and con-
cealed it for several hours vuitil it was convenient for him
to carry it off, it was held that he had not committed larceny ;
for he h.ad not abandoned the article, nor had his possession
of it passed to any one else, and his removal of the article
was but a continuance of the transaction that began with
the severance.
A chose in action (see Chose^ could not be stolen. The rea-
sons a.ssigned for this were that it was not a chattel ; it had
no intrinsic worth ; it was mere evidence of value ; it derived
aU its importance from the relation it bore to something
else. Hence mortgage securities, bonds, bills of exchange,
and even bank-notes were not subjects of larceny at common
law. Nor was the paper or parchment on which a valid
ch<;ise in action was written, because its value was absorbed
in the higher character of the writing ; but it the chose in
action was invalid, or had been extinguished, the paper or
parchment, though of an intrinsic value less than the small-
est coin, became a proper subject of larceny.
Only those chattels can be stolen in which another than
the taker has a property. Hence there can lie no larceny of
things wliich are not the subjects of private ownership, or
those which have been abandoned. Theft can not be com-
mitted of wild animals while living, unless they have been
brought within the power and dominion of another than
the taker. Even when reduced to private ownership, if they
were of a liase nature, the common law refused to treat them
as subjects of larceny ; for the reason assigned by Lord Coke,
perhaps, that "no person shall die for them." Theft could
be committed of dead wild animals if they were fit for food.
In the U. S. some courts have held that any wild animal of
pecuniary value to its captors is the subject of larceny.
(State vs. House, 65 N. C. 315.) An exarajile of abandoned
property is afforded by the case where the owner of a worn-
out horse turned it over to a servant, who was to kill and
bury it. The servant sold it to a tanner for 15s., and the
court held there was no larceny.
Taking and Removal. — The thief must take the property
into his physical possession and control, but the length of
time during which he retains it is immaterial. He must
remove it, but not to any prescribed distance. It is not a
taking and removal to set a bag of grain on end, nor to
turn a barrel over, preparatory to carrying it away. In such
cases the trespasser's control is not complete. Nor has he a
thief's control of a coat which he seizes and carries the
length of a chain that fastens it to the owner's premises ;
but if he lifts a purse from its place in the owner's pocket,
although instantly dispossessed of it, the taking and removal
are complete. It is not necessary that the thief should grasp
the property. Enticement, or trick, or the agency of an in-
nocent third party, may take the place of forcible prehen-
sion : but it is not larceny to shoot and kill another's animal,
where the wrongdoer leaves it undisturbed after its fall.
In England, by a fiction of law, a thief is guilty of taking
the property in every county through which he carries it,
and therefore may be indicted for larceny thereof in either
county. If the theft was committed on the high seas, or in
a foreign country, no such fiction is indulged in ; the only
felonious taking is the original caption. In some of the U. S.
the courts have held, and in others the statutes declare, that
a thief who brings into the State property that he has stolen
elsewhere is guilty of a new taking and removal in such
State, on the ground that every moment's continuance of
the felony amounts to a new caption and asportation. Other
States follow the English rule, and reject the idea of a new
conventional taking.
Trespass. — At common law there can be no larceny with-
out a taking and removal by trespass. In applying this
doctrine the courts experienced great difficulty, and resorted
to distinctions that were more subtle than satisfactory.
Trespass (g. v.) to property consists " in. the wrongful dis-
turbance of another's possession." A bailee does not com-
mit larceny by converting to his own use the property of the
bailor, for "the possession is in him at the time of taking. If
prior to the conversion he does an act which terminates the
bailment, then his taking may be felonious. A bailee who
breaks bulk in converting the projjerty to his own use com-
mits theft, because, it is said, he had possession of the ex-
terior casing of the goods, but not of the goods themselves ;
but the-rule has been applied to bailments where the goods
were not encased or wrapped up. (Nichols vs. People, 17
N. Y. 114.) An eminent English judge said of the cases on
this topic, "the law has resorted to some astuteness to get
rid of the difficulties that might arise in the case of a
wrongful dealing with one or more of several articles, all
of which, when intrusted, had been contained in one bulk."
A servant is not guilty of larceny who wrongfully con-
verts his master's pro|ierty to his own use before the master
has become possessed of it (see E.mbezzlement) ; but he is
if the taking and removal occur while the property is in
the master's actual or constructive possession. If the serv-
ant is sent by the master to buy and bring an article to
the latter, and makes away with it before his return, he is
not guilty of larceny, for the master had not actjuired pos-
103
LARCENY
session of the ortkle; but if having tho masters carriage
for the trip, he puts the iirtiole into that, it thercuiKin is in
the master's tonstruitivo jM«s>essioii, nn.l imincaiately a
felonious taking an.i renii>v«l Un'oiiies possible.
\ per>on uiav steal u'.hhIs of wliieli he is the general owner.
For exaniiile, a slieriif levies an exeeutiou on the debtors
horso- the debtor thereafter sells and delivers the horse to
a Ihinl person, and oharjies the sheriff with liavinj; disposed
of the animal : the debtor is (fuilty of larceny. , . , ,
While it is neeessarv that Ihetakinj; and removal include
a trespass, the act uf' trespass need not be felonious when
committed. If one takes another's coat, honestly supposiiiB
it to be his own. and at a later time, ui>.>ii diseoveriHK his
mistake. wroiijifuUv converts it to liis own use, the inadvert-
ent trespass will sullice to make the transaction laneny.
As trespass consists in the wrongful disturbance of an-
other's possession, and it is immaterial whether such posses-
sion be lawful. laReiiv mav be committed of stolen j,'oods
while in the control of lhe'fir>t thief. The same is true of
propertv which the law i.ruhibits a person from having, and
subiefti to forfeiture. Until it is forfeited and taken from
hiiu by due process of law, it is the subject of larceny.
Comm'onireallh vs. Siiiilh. 1'29 >liu<s. 104.
Common law carefullv distinguished larceny from false
pretenses. If a pet»>n asks another to give him small bills
for a large one, and upon receiving them withdraws his bill
and makes .ilf with all the money, he is guilty of larceny.
Had he obtained tlie bills on a check which he knew to be
forged, his i.lfense woulil have been false pretenses, but not
theft. Wherever the owner intended the projx'rty to iiass to
the swindler, though he would not so have intended had he
known the real facts, there is no larceny. In'cause the taking
is not bv trespass. Where the owner intends not to pass the
title but to transfer the custoily, the taking is by trespass,
and there is larceny. "The distinction." said Lord IJlack-
burn, ■■ is inscrutable to my mind, but it exists in the cases."
(Reg'ina \s. Prince, 11 Cox,'Critiiinal Cases 193.) Kveii where
the owner coiisent.s to the transfer of his property, his con-
sent may be invalid if obtained by a trick. When two or
more persons conspire to iiuluce another to put his money
into the hands of one of the confederates, on a wager between
hira and the other, and the stakeholder makes off with the
money, he is guilty of larceny, as well where the bet is lost
to the' owner by a "trick of the confederates as where he wins
it. It does not matter that the owner, in case of winning,
did not expect the return of the same money that he put up.
Where the owner resorts to a decoy {ov the detection of a
thief there will be no larceny if the owner or the decoy sug-
gests or induces the act. or co-operates with the woulil-be
thief in the act, as distinguished from facilitating tho thief's
execution of his own plan.
Knowledge of Ownership. — k person may commit tres-
pass in taking and removing the personal protierty of an-
other, and yet not commit larceny. He may honestly be-
lieve the property is his own. or that he has a right to take
it, as in satisfaction of a debt. If he is mistaken, he is lia-
ble to a civil action for the trespass, but not to a criminal
prosecution for stealing. The taking of another's goods
under a bona fule, though legally groundless, claim of right
is not larcenous.
Mention. — In order that one taking by trespass be guilty
of larceny his purpose inu-;t Iw to deprive the owner indefi-
nitely of his |)rcii«rty. .\ person wlm wrnngfully takes the
horso of anotlier to use for a time and to return him, con-
verts, but does not steal him: but if one wrongfully takes
railway tickets to usi-, though he intends to return them to
the company through the conductor, he is guilty of larceny.
He iWs not return the property that he took. He has not
only used the properly, but he has used it up. One who
wrongfully takc-i anotlier's goods and pawns them for his
own debt commits larci'iiy, tliongh he may expect to be able
to redeem ami restore them. In subiiiillingaca.se of this
class to a jury an Kiiglish judge remarked : " I confess 1
think that if this doctrine of an intenllon to redeem prop-
erty is to prevail, courts of justice will lie of very little
value. A more glorious doctrine for thieves it would be
dilTicult to discover, bul Ji more injurious doctrine for hon-
est men can not well be imagined."
The finder of properly, who, hoin'slly believing the owner
can not be discovereil, lakes it with the intention to convert
it to his own u.se, is not a thief; but he is if when taking it
with such intention he had reason to believe the owner
could be founil. In the latter lase his purpose is to deprive
the owner of his properly ; in the former he has no such iii-
LARD
tention. This felonious intention must exist at the time of
taking, unless such taking was by trespass. Hence where
the Under knows the owner of lost property, and takes it,
intending to restore it to him, such finder does not commit
larceny bv willfullv converting it to his own use later.
There is some authority for the proposition that a larce-
nous taking must be litcrl causa. It was accordingly ruled
in aiale vs. Jhiir/:iii.'<. 8 Porter (.\la.) 4()1. that one wh.>
took a slave from his master and secreted him siniplyto aid
him ill escaping to a free State did not steal the slave.
However, the [irevailing view is that a larcenous taking
does not involve an intended gain or advantage to the thief.
If the purpose of the wrongful taker is to deprive the owner
of his propertv in<lefinilely, it is felonious, though the taker
intends instantly to destroy it or present it to another.
Kinds ot Lar'cenij. — At common law the theft of property
of a value exceeding twelve pence was grand larceny, while
if tlie property was of twelve pence or less the crime was
petit larceny. ' The former was punishable with death, the
latter by fine and imprisonment. Modern statutes have in
maiiv jurisdictions abolished this classification, in others
thev have changed the limit of value separating the classes,
ami in all thev have taken this crime out of the category of
capital offenses. The coinniuu law also distinguished sim-
ple larceny from compound larceny, the latter consisting in
stealing property which at the tinie of taking was under
the protection of a person or a building. The former differs
from RoBHEBV (</. i:) in that no force or fear is applied to
the possessor prior to tlie taking. The latter diffei-s from
BvRCiLARY (q. V.) in that it does not involve a breaking of a
building.
Stalutory Changes.— ^otM in Great Britain and the L. S.
the rules governing larceny have been greatly modified by
statutes. Slany of the subtle distinctions cstuijlished by the
courts have been abolished, and simpler and more reasona-
ble doctrines have been declared. 1- ra.ncis M. HlRDirK.
Larches [larch is from O. Vr. larice < Lat. la'rix, laricis
(whence Germ, lerche) = Gr. \ilpii. larch]: coniferous trees
with deciduous leaves belonging to the genus Larix. The
Larix enropcea. called Scotch larch in the U. S., is not a
native of Great Britain, though extensively grown there. Its
wood is valuable for a great variety of purposes. In Russia,
Orenburg gum, a wholly soluble and edible product, is ol>-
taincd from the charred trunks of this tree, as is Brianvon
manna in France. The Himalaya larch is Larix griffithsii.
For the American larch, see Hackmat.^ck.
Lart'oni. Liov : poet ; b. at Beverly. Mass., in 1826. She
was a mill-girl at Ijowell, Mass.. and afterward a teacher in
Illinois and in Massachusetts. From 18()6 to 18T4 she edited
Our Young /V/i-.s-, a iieriodical published in Boston. Among
her pnlilications are Ships in tlie Mist (Boston. 18.")9) ; Wild
Roses of Cape Ann (Boston, 1880); and an autobiography
in i)rose, ^1 New England Girlhood (Boston. 1889). An
edition of her poetical works was published in 1880. D. in
Boston, Apr. 15, 1893. Revised by II. A. Bekrs.
Lard [M. Eng. larde. from O. Fr. lard < Lat. lardxtm,
fat of bacon]; hog's fat extracted from the containing tis-
sues by melting at a temperature slightly above the boil-
ing-point of water, extensively used for culinary puqioses
and for the manufacture of candles, illuminating oil.s jio-
mades. unguents, and soaps. The ordinary lard of com-
merce is obtained from the entire fat of the animal; the
best (piality. known as leaf lard, is that deriveil from the fat
which surrounds the kidneys. It is often adulterated to the
extent of 2o per cent, or more by the addition of cottonseed
oil, alum, lime, mutton suet, starch, potato-flour, or other
farinaceous substance, \vhile water may be employed for the
same purpose up to 12 per cent. The lueseiue of water is
detected by the loss of weight under moderate heat ; that of
starchy substances by changing to a blue cohT in a solution
of iodine. The composition of lard is 02 ]>artsolcine to 38
of stearine and palmitine. the former, called lard oil, being
used for lubricating machinery and for illumination, while
the latter is chielly employed for the manufacture of hard
candles. The manufacture of lard is an important part of
the business of pork-packing, and is largely carried on at the
great slaughtering centers, notably at Chicago, Kansas City,
anil Omaha. The amount pri>diiced is nearly 250.000.000
lb. per annum, as shown by a compari.son of the statistics
of several yeai-s. Lard is the chief material employed in
pharmacy, in combination with vegetable balsams and oils,
for the |)reparation of unguents and cerates, for which pur-
pose, however, only the best (juality can be advantageously
LARDNER
LARID^
109
I
used. Laril oil is exported from the U. S. in immense
quantities, chiefly to France, wliere it is largely used for the
adulteration of olive oil. Lard oil is often mixed with 25 per
cent, of rosin, tlie latter substance forming an acid which
protects the oleine from its tendency to rancidity when ex-
posed to dampness, and also increasing its power of illumi-
nation. The melting-point of pure lard varies from 78° to
87' P. Revised by H. 11. Wing.
Lardner, Dionysius, LL. D. : writer on physical science ;
b. in Dublin, Apr. y, 1793 : graduated at Dublin University
1817; remained in his college, of which he was for a time
chaplain, until 1827, and received many honors, mostly for
excellence in mathematics and physics; abandoned the
clerical profession ; became in 1828 Professor of Astronomy
and Physics in the University of London ; resided 1840-45
in the U. S., and afterward in Paris. D. at Naples, Ai)r. 29,
1859. The greatest of liis works was the Cabinet Crjclupwdia
in 134 vols., 12rao (1830-44), composed of a series of trea-
tises, partly written by himself; he also produced an Alge-
braic Oeometry (1823) ; a work on Calculus (1825) ; on the
Steam-enqine (1828) ; a series of Handbooks upon science
(1851-56)'; the Museum of Science and AH (12 vols., 1824-
56) ; and other works.
Lardner, Nathaniel, D. D. : clergyman ; b. at the Hall
House, Hawkhurst, Kent, England, June 6, 1684 ; studied at
Utrecht and Leyden 1699-1703 ; was a private tutor; became
assistant to his father ; was from 1729 to 1751 assistant min-
ister in the Presbyterian meeting-house in Poor Jewry Lane,
Crutched Friars, London. He became partially deaf in 1723,
and after 1753 could hear nothing. D. at the Hall House,
Hawkhurst, Sunday, July 24, 1768. He is chiefly remem-
bered as author of Tfie Credibility of the Gospel History
(14 vols., 1727-55), first delivered as a series of lectures at
the Old Jewry, and still a standard work. As a supplement
he issued a similar work on the apostles (3 vols., 1756-57).
Other less known but important works are Letter on the
Logos (1759, distinctly Socinian), a work which converted
Priestley ; Jewish and Heathen Testimonies to the Truth
of the Christian Reliyioii (1764-67,4 vols.); a History of
Heretics of the First Two Centuries (1780), etc. See his
Works with biography by A. Kippis (11 vols., London, 1788 ;
reprinted 5 vols., 18ld ; 10 vols., 1829 ; 10 vols., 1838).
Lare'do : city ; capital of Webb co., Tex. (for location of
county, see map of Texas, ref. T-G) ; on the Rio Grande
river, and the Int. and Gt. N., the Jlex. Nat. and the Rio G.
and Eagle Pass railways ; opposite Nuevo Laredo, Jlexico,
with which it is connected by two steel bridges : 153 miles
W. of San Antonio. It is in the Rio Grande coal region ;
has an import and export trade with Mexico, averaging .$12,-
000,000 annually ; is about 13 sq. miles in corporate area ;
has an assessed projierty valuation of over $2,500,000, and
city jn'operty valued at over S200,000 ; issues 3 daily and 3
weekly newspapers; and has a national bank with capital
of $120,000, ami a private bank. It was settled by Spaniards
as a frontier town of Mexico, and on the annexation of
Texas to the U. S. many of the Mexican inhabitants moved
across the river and founded Nuevo Laredo. Pop. (1880)
3,521 ; (1890) 11,319. Editor of " Times."
La'res [= Lat., plur. of lar. kind of tutelary spirit] : in
the religion of ancient Rome, tutelary spirits or deities. The
lares familiares were the protecting spirits of the house-
hold, but whether they were originally thought of as gods
of the fields (and hence of the house and family of the Ro-
man citizen as the possessor of landed property) or as the
spirits of departed members of the household it is impossi-
ble to determine ; but it is certain that the latter view came
ultimately to prevail. The lares were tlie household gods
par excellence, to whom prayers and sacrifices were offered
at the daily meals, and to whom more especial gifts were
presented on certain feast-days, particularly the kalends of
each month. In every household celebration of joy or sor-
row, however insignificant or important, the lares were re-
membered, and the dependence of the welfare of the family
upon their favor recognized. Besides the household lares
there were the lares compitales (of the cross-roads or streets),
which in a certain sense insiy be called the public lares, since
their worship was a matter of state concern, at least since their
restoration by Augustus. The relation of the lares compi-
tales to the community or district surrounding any particu-
lar shrine was practically only an extension of the relation
of the household lares to the members of the family. So,
for instance, the young wife offered sacrifice of an as to
the lares compitales of the new district in which her hus-
band's home lay, as well as to the lares of her new home
itself. Along with the restoration of many ancient religious
rites the lares compitales were brought to new honor by
Augustus, and to their worship was joined the worship of
the genius of Augustus, an institution which perhaps con-
tributed most to the preservation of the memory of the first
emperor in the minds of the peojile. The lares were usu-
ally reprtsented as youthful figures with high-girt togas,
holding cups or liorns in their hands. See Preller, Horn.
Mythologie, ii., p. 101 ff. ; Jordan, Vesta und die Laren (Ber-
lin, 1865). G. L. Hendrickson.
Large : one of the characters or notes in ancient music,
and the longest in point of duration. The notes formerly
in use were, in the order of their respective time-values, the
large, the long, the breve, and the semibreve. They were
commonly written thus :
Large. Long. Breve. Semibreve.
The relative duration of these notes was, theoretically con-
sidered, equivalent in proportion to 8, 4, 2, and 1, the large
being equal in time to two longs, or four breves, or eight
semibreves ; the long, to two breves or four semibreves ; and
the breve, to two semibreves. It may be considered certain,
however, that these ratios were not very accurately observed
in the practice of music, but were regarded only as approxi-
mate measures of slowness or rapidity, subject always to
such variations and irregularities as might take rise from
the feelings of the performer, or (in vocal music) from the
accentuation, purj^ort, and proper expression of the words.
The actual length of time represented by each of these
ancient notes was also much less than would be inferred
from the names of the first two, which suggests a highly
prolonged duration. It will be observed that while in mod-
ern music the breve is the longest note in use, yet in ancient
music its duration was short, as indicated by its name and
by comparison with the large and the long, A note such as
the large, equal in length to four breves, eight semibreves,
or sixteen minims, would, of course, be impracticable if the
old time-table were not essentially different from our own
as a measure of rapidity. Some idea of the rate or speed of
the old notation may probably be derived from the hearing
of Gregorian music as still in use in the Church of Rome,
where the mode and velocity of chanting, as handed down
by tradition, may be taken as a sufficiently correct repre-
sentation of the time-value of the ancient note. Judging by
such a standard the ancient large, long, breve, and semibreve
would, at the longest, be only equivalent to our present breve,
semibreve, minim, and crotchet ; while this relative propor-
tion might probably be still better represented by our semi-
breve, minim, crotchet, and quaver. In the absence of any
positive rule for the translation of ancient notes into their
equivalents under the modern system, the most common
mode followed by musicians is to render the long by a semi-
breve, the breve by a minim, and the semibreve by a crotchet,
as in the example following :
Ancient.
'™'-@=^ErEfc
3^
Good Lord, de - liv - er us.
Modern.
P
^^^
See Notation. Revised by Dudley Buck.
Lar'idiB [Mod. Lat., liter., those belonging to the gull
family ; la'rus, the genus of gulls proper (from Lat. ki'rus =
Gr. \ipos, a ravenous sea-bird) -I- Gr. patronymic ending -iSat,
plur. of -iSris, descended from] : a family of birds distin-
guished by the schizognath palate, lateral open nostrils, feet
completely webbed between the three anterior toes, hallux
or posterior toe rudimentary (and free) or obsolete, and
wings elongated and pointed." The family embraces several
well-marked minor groups, distinguished by most recent
authors as sub-families — viz. : (1) the jagers {Lestridin(e), (2)
the gulls (La.rijia>), (3) the terns {Sterni7icp), and (4) the
skimmers (Bhynchojnnce). These groups are very definitely
distinguished from each other, but the first two and last
two are contrasted with each other, the jagers and gulls on
one hand being closely allied, and on the other the terns
and skimmers. A Monograph of the North American Lari-
dcp was published bv Dr. E. Coues in his Birds of the North-
~pul:
west (1874). See also Gull.
P. A. Lucas.
110
LAUISSA
Iaris'<ii fin Gt. Anpurva. or Kipin): the nnmo of eight
1 tiiiu>s. Thec'hiul oiii'S wen-: (l)Thecapi-
ilv, on the smith bunk of the IViieus in the
, .lis. It is still 11 i>hiee of iiiiporlnnce, unci
I Larissji, though the Turks cnlleil it Vini
.s,,. , - . l\'r. imi.-le. the haii(;ins ljiirissu(nii\v tiiir-
liikii, in !• part of I'hthiolis on a hi^'li hill whose
slopes are ill •,'anlens, henee the name. (3) The
Aeropi.lis of .Vii;.---. (-1) .\ eily on the eastern hank of the
Ti-ris anil the nortlicrn bank ofllie jrrealer Zab. Its ruins
wiMV .liseril>eil bv Xeiiophon. These ruins now bear the
name ot Nimrnd," anil were (lartially exiiivated by Sir Aus-
ten Laviinl in the interest ot the ISritish .Museum.
J. K. S. Stkrrett.
I4iri<tan [liter., province of Lari. Cf. Pei-s. stan, place,
proviiKi) : ilistriet of Persia, part of the provinces of Ker-
man ami Karsistan: bonlerinir on the Persian Gulf. It is
mostlv an arid, .sandv waste, lUid the truinea-wonn is a per-
petual plague. The 'population is alKint !K).tKJO. partly Arabs,
who live almost independently, and partly various tribes of
Iranian stock siKjaking an aiviiaic form of Persian.
Kevised by .M. \V. 11.\kki.noto.\-.
La Rividre, laa-R'evi-Sr', Alpuoxse Alfrku Clement:
Canadian journalist ; b. in Montreal, .Inly 24, 1842 ; was
educated at St. Marv"s College, Montreal, and graduated at
the mililarv school there. He was for .several vears special
corresfKindent of La Minerve, (Montreal), and later became
chief editor of Le Mnniloba: a director of the Coiiiiiiercial
Bank of .Manitoba: has been a member ot the council of
the I'niversity ot Manitoba, ami president ot the board of
arts and manufactures for the Province of tiuebec. He has
held the olVices of provincial secretary, mini.ster of agri-
culture, and treasurer in the government of Manitoba, and
has been a member o( the Dominion Parliament since 1889.
N'eii, Macdonald.
LBrivry.liiaree'va, Pierre: French dramatist : b. about
15.")0 of all Italian familv settled at Troyes. His lite is very
obscure. He was caiioii ot the Church ot St. Etienne in
160); d. 1G12. He was the most noticeable writer of com-
c<ly in tne latter halt of the si.xteenth century. He pub-
lished two eollectiiuis of comedies, one (157!t) conlaiuiug six
and the other (1611) three. They are all taken from the
Italian, but are so completely adapted to the conditions of
French society by the originality ot the adaptation, and
given in so firm and good a prose style, as to have almost
the value of new works. Molicre may have borrowed from
them. A. G. Ca.nfield.
Larix : Sec Larches.
Lark [M. Eng. larke, eontrac. ot laverock < O. Eng. ?«-
ferce : M. II. Germ, lewerke > Mod. Germ, lerche, lark] : the
popular name fur birils of the familv Alaiidiilw, a group of
oscinine birils having the tarsi seutsllated and rounded both
before and-l)ehind, with a deep groove along the inner and
a shallow groove on the outer face. The hind claw is
straight and very long, the wings long and pointed, the bill
varying according to the genus. Larks are practically re-
strictc<l to Kurope. Asia, and Africa ; none are found in
New Zealand, and but one out ot the hundred recognized
species occurs in Australia. No true lark (ot the genus
Alaiida) inhabits America, but the shore-lark, a horned.
lark (OlocorU alpislris). so named from the pointed tuft
ot feathers over each eye, is widely distributed Ihrouglimit
North America (as well as Europe), forming several distinct
races or sub-species. The most famous member of the
family is the skylark (Aluuda arrensia), noted for its powers
of song. It is found so abundanlly in Northern Asia and
throughout Europe that many hundre<l thousand are an-
nually bronglil to market. Ill-advised enthusiasts have
endeavored to introduce it into the U. S., an eltuit which
has unfortunately l)een at least partially successful. The
bird is very ilestruetivc to growing crops and its succes.s-
ful aecliinalization wouM !«■ iierhaps worse than that ot
the English sparrow. The titlarks liclong to another fam-
ily, the Mnliicillid<e, and the shore-lark is an oriole, one ot
the IcIeriJit. F. A. Lucas.
Larkspur: a popular name of the herbs of the genus
fJel/j/iiniiim (family Jiuiiuiiriilaci'n'), which are found in
the cool regions of both liemispheres. The U. S. have eight
or ten native species, and Europe as many. They are reputed
to bo poisonous herbs, and have n limited use in medicine.
Several of tliese, together with some yVsiatic species, are
favorite garden llowers.
LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOUH'r
Lar'nnka (anc. Citium): chief port of Cypnis, with a
good roadstead on the southeast coast (see map of Turkey,
ret. 7-K). It exports wine, oil, morocco leather, pottery, and
cotton. Very attractive as beheld from the sea, it is iiever-
Ihele.ss situated in the most bare and sterile part ot the isl-
and. Pop. T,5U3. E. A. G.
LariK'd : city (founded in 1873); capital of Pawnee co.,
Kan. (for location of county, see map of Kansas, ret. 7-D; ;
on the Arkansas and Pawnee rivers, and the .\tch.. Top. and
S. Ke and the Mo. Pac. railways ; 60 miles N. W. of Wich-
ita, ;iO0 miles W. of Kansas City. It has 8 churches, 4 pub-
lie schools, a ilailv and 3 weeklv mnvspapcrs. and is engaged
in milling and agriculture. Pon. (1880) 1.066 ; (I8!)0) 1,861 ;
(18!iO) 1,560. Editor of '• CnRONoscopE."
Lamed, Charles William : U. S. officer and educator;
b. in New York city. Mar. 9, 18.50 ; graduated at the U. S.
Military Academy and was promoted second lieutenant
Third Cavalry .Innc, 1870; was transferred to Seventh Cav-
alry (let. 10, 1870; served with his regiment in Kentucky
and the Northwest ; was assistant Professf)r of Drawing at
the U. S. Military Academy 1874-76 : becoming full Profcs>ior
in 1876. He is a member of the .\merican Philological .\s!-
sociation and the New York Aroliiteetunil League, and has
published various articles upon art and education.
James Mercur.
La Roche. ^Iarie Sophie (mn Giitermann) : author; b. at
Kaufbeuren, Dec. 6. 1731. Her father being a highly learned
physician, she received an excellent education. Wielanil fell
desperately in love with her, and remained an intimate friend
during the whole of her lifetime. After her marriage to La
Hoche her home at Ehrenbreitstein became something of a
literary center, as may be seen from Goethe's description of
his visit in his autobiography. During this visit Goethe fell
in love with .Sophie's dauglitcr ^laximiliane, who afterward
married a merchant of Frankfort, and who was the mother
of Bettina von Arnim and Clemens Brentano. one of the
founders ot the Komantic school in Germany. Thus Sophie
La Koche may be said to have been personally connected
with Wicland, Goethe, and Brentano, the leaders of the
most important periods in German literary life. She at-
tained considerable fame as a writer of fiction, though her
novels are now entirely forgotten. D. in Olfenbach, Feb.
18, 1807. Julius Goebel.
La Roi'hefoncaiild. laa-rosh'foo'ko', Francois VI., Due
de. Prince de Man-iliac till his father's death in lOoO: moral-
ist; b. in Paris, Sept. 15. 1013. His education was very sum-
mary. At the age of fifteen he was married, and at sixteen
he was in the army. The next year he appeared at court, and,
winning the favor of .^nne of Austria, soon became involved
in the plots against Richelieu, whose displeasure repeatedly
banislie<l him from Paris. On the cardinal's death he hoped
for advancement from the queen, and in his disappointment
joined the leaders of the Fronde. After its suppression
(1652), cmbittere<l by his failures, he passed several years in
l)anishmcnt upon his estates at Verteuil. Here he wrote his
Mhnoires of the years 1643-52, com|>leted later by those of
his youth, 1624—43, published with sjuirions additions in
1662. from the authentic manuscript in 16S9. In 1659 he
was permitted to return to Paris, and was granted a pension
of 8.000 livrcs. He fre(|ueiiteil the brilliant salons of Mine,
de Montpcnsier and Mine, de .Sable, made friendships among
literary people, and formed a deep attachment for Mine, de
La Fayette. Here, from his experience and his acute obser-
vation of the manners ami morals of the court, he composed
the Hejhxions, on sentences et nuuimes nwvnles. epigram-
matic reflexions on human nature and conduct, expressed
with the utmost conciseness and polished elegance, and dic-
tated by the conviction that selfishness is the universal
motive ot conduct, and virtue only a more or less disguised
form ot calculation. These JIaxijnes, which hold a place
among French classics, appeared in 1665, and were con-
slantlv revised and added to in successive editions (1666,
1671. "1675, 1678). D. JIar. 17. 1680. The best edition of
his tEiivres is by Gilbert and Gourdault (Edition des Grands
Ecrivains, 3 vols., Paris, 1868-83). A. G. Canfield.
La Rocliefniieaiild-Lianronrt. -le"i''aaiikoor', Fuan^ois
Alexanuki; Kni';i)i';iiic, de : publitist and philanlliropist ; b.
in Paris, France, Jan. 11, 1747: was president of the Na-
tional Assembly in 1789; emigrated in 1792; lived in Kng-
land and the U. S. ; returned to France in 1799; was much
in luiblie life umler the Restoration as an advocate of lib-
eral measures, and died in Paris, War. 27, 1827. He was a
LA ROCHEJAQUELEIN
LARVALIA
111
very voluminous writer on different social topics, but his
name is best known as that of a jrreat practical philanthro-
pist. He established the first model farm in France, intro-
duced vaccination, founded at Liancourt a school for indus-
try and art. which developed into tlie celebrated Ecole des
Arts ct Metiers of Clullons, brouj;ht the nictliod of mutual
instruction into use, and established the first savings-liank
in France. Revised by A. G. Caxfield.
La Rochejaqnelein. Iaa-r»sh'2lia~ak'lah' (the name of an
old noble family of La Vendee in France), Henri du Ver-
ger, Count de : b. at tlie chateau of La Durbelliere, in Ven-
dee, Aug., 1772: joined Lescure in the first Vendean war;
became one of tlie ablest of the royalist leaders, and on the
death of Lescure was chosen to the chief command. La
Rochejaqnelein is the noblest personification of those roy-
alists who thought sincerely that only the return of France
to the legitimist monarchy could give the country peace
and happiness. He twice defeated the army of the National
Convention around Autrain, and occupied Le Mans, La
Pleche, Laval, and other cities, but was opposed by vastly
superior forces, and could not retain his advantages. He
was killed at the battle of Nouaille, near Chollet, Mar. 4,
1794. — His brother, Louis du Verger, Marquis de, b. in
1777, was a general in the last Vendean war having per-
sisted in his loyalty to the Bourbons in spite of Napoleon's
attempts to win him over. He was placed by Louis XVIIL
in command of the army in La \endee, and during the
Hundred Days maintained the king's cause in that region.
He fell in battle near St.-Gilles, June 4, 1815. — His widow,
Marie Louise Victoire (1772-1857) published Memoirs of
theWar in La Vendee (Bordeaux, 9th ed. 1881), which are of
value to the historian of this period. — His son, Hexri de la
Rochejacjuelein', gave up the ultra-legitimist opinions of
the family, rallied to the imperial regime, was made a sena-
tor by Xapoleon HL, and died in 1867. — His son, however,
JuLiEN Marie Gastom de Verger de la Rochejac^uelein,
b. at Chartres, Mar. 27, 1833, returned to the legitimist tra-
ditions of his family. He was elected to the National As-
sembly of 1871, and has been several times a monarchist
representative to the Chamber of Deputies. F. M. Colbv.
La RocheHe, laa-ro'shel' : town of France ; capital of
the department of Charente-lnferieure ; on an inlet of the
Atlantic formed by the two islands Re and Oleron (see map
of France, ref. 6-C). It is fortified, well built, with hand-
some streets and many fine buildings, and has a large, deep,
and perfectly safe harbor, a great areenal, building-docks,
extensive manufactures of glass, earthenware, iron and cop-
per wares, sugar, and brandy, and considerable trade in wine,
corn, and colonial products. In the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries it was the stronghold of the Huguenots,
and played a very conspicuous part during the religious
wars. It was one of the free cities granted to the Hugue-
nots by the Edict of Nantes (1598), but upon the renewal of
the war in Louis XIII.'s reign it fell into the hands of Riche-
lieu after a long siege (1628), and its loss destroyed all power
of effective resistance on the part of the Huguenots. Pop.
(1891) 23,467. F. M. Colby.
Laronsse, la"aroos', Pierre : lexicographer and encyclo-
paedist ; b. at Toucy, Yonne, France, Oct. 23, 1817 ; began to
be known as partner of Boyer, a celebrated Paris publisher
of books for primary education. Many of these books are
used in French schools, and were written by Larousse him-
self. In 1863 he conceived the idea of his universal diction-
ary {Didionnaire du XIX' Siecle), and set to work, sur-
rouniling himself with the best writers. The work was
published by subscription, and had an immense success,
though it slowly ajjpeared in small fascicules in a pamphlet
form of about fifty pages each. Larousse exhausted his
strength in this stupendous work, and he died Jan. 8. 187.5,
leaving his encyclop;edia at the letter M. The work was.
however, completed, and has no rival in France. The tone
of it is anti-classical.
Laromigniere, laa-rorae"e'gi-ar', Pierre: philosopher:
b. in Guienne, France, Nov. 3, 17.56 : d. Aug. 12, 1837, in
Paris : was Professor of Philosophy at the College of Tou-
louse 1784-1790 : made professor in' the Lycee Louis XIV. in
1795, and in 1811 professor in the Faculty of Letters in
Paris. He was a raemlier of the Academy of Moral Sciences.
His greatest work is Lefons de Philosonhie (3 vols., 1815-
18). J. M. B.
Larra. laar;<a. Jose Mariano, de: satirist and critic : b.
in Madrid, Spain, Mar. 24, 1809 ; died by his own hand in
Madrid, Feb. 13, 1837. When he was barely twenty-one
certain of his productions fell into the hands of Ventura
de la Vega, who proclaimed them the work of a genius, and
within five years he had become the best-known and most
popular writer in Spain. He was the boldest and most
dreaded critic of the then existing order of things, and his
satiric pictures of Spanish society, government, literature,
and art, produced a deep effect upon the minds of his con-
temporaries. About 1732 he began to publish, under the
name Juan Perez de J/unr/uia, his Car/as del pobrecito
Hahlador ; and about the same time, under the name Figaro,
a long series of critiques and satiric sketches in various jour-
nals (/iccj.s/o is's/jn/Io/a, Oltservador, El Espanol). His brief
historical novel. El Doncel de don Enrique el Doliente. and
his drama upon the same slory, Macuis, have real merit.
His comedy A o mas m.ostrador also won praise. A collec-
tion of his works appeared in Madrid in 1837 (13 vols.) ;
another in Paris in 1848 (2 vols.). There have been numer-
ous editions of particular pieces, both in Spain and in Span-
ish America. A. R. JIarsh.
Larramendi, Manuel, de : philologist ; b. at Andoain,
Spain, province of Biscay, Dec. 24. 1690 ; died at the famous
Jesuit monastery of Loyola, near San Sebastian, Jan. 28,
1766. He was the son of Domingo de Garagorri, but for
some unknown reason assumed the name of his mother,
Manucia de Larramendi. He studied at Bilbao, became a
Jesuit, and was Professor of Philosophy and Theology suc-
cessively at Palencia, Valladolid, and Salamanca. In 1730
he became confessor to the dowager queen, Maria Anna of
Neubonrg. and fulfilled this office till the end of 1733. His
last years were spent in studious retirement at Loyola. He
is famous as the first serious student of the Basque language.
Ilis theories with regard to this are most of them exploded,
but the impulse given by him to the investigation of the
Basques can hardly be overestimated. His first important
work in this field was El imposible veneido : Arte de la len-
gua Bascongada (1729). This was followed by the AnU-
guedad y Cniversalidad del Bascuence en Espaila (1728),
and a Diccionario trilingiie del Casiellaiio, Baacuence y
Lai'in (1745). See the periodical Euskulerria of San Seljas-
tian for Dec. 30, 1890, entirely devoted to Larramendi, in
commemoration of the bi-oentenary of his birth.
A. R. Marsh.
Larrey, la"a'ra', Dominique Jean, Baron : military sur-
geon : b. at Baudean, Hautes-Pyrenees, in July, 1766: stud-
ied surgery with his uncle. Oscar Larrey, a successful sur-
geon of Toulouse, under whose care the baron's elder broth-
er, Charles Frangois Hilaire Larrey, M. D. (1774-1819), an
able surgeon and writer, also was trained. The younger
Larrey went in 1787 to Paris; entered the navy: returned
to Paris ; studied under Dessault ami Sabatier ; joined the
army in 1792; invented the ambulance votante 1793, and
was made surgeon-in-chief; served in Egypt, Germany,
Spain, everywhere displaying the grandest courage and per-
fect devotion to the comfort and health of the troops, and
especially to the wounded, whether friends or enemies ; was
made a baron on the field of Wagrara 1809 ; was wounded
at Austerlitz and Waterloo ; made numerous and exceeding-
ly important improvements in operative and clinical sur-
gery, and made important observations in general medicine.
D. of pneumonia at Lyons, July 25, 1842. Author of 3Ie-
moires de medicine et de chirurgie militaire ; Clinique chi-
rurgicale. See the biography by Werner (1885).
Lar'va [from Lat. lar'va, mask, also ghost, specter, skele-
t(m] : a term applied to the earlier stages of animals, and es-
pecially invertebrates, in which the young after issuing
from the egg are very different from the adults, and under-
go a great change of form, or metamorphosis, before assuming
their perfect shape. The larva is so called because the form
of the young masks or conceals that of the adult. The mag-
got is the larva of the fly, the caterpillar the larva of the but-
terfly or moth, the zoa'a is the larva of 'the crab, and the
tadpole the larva of the frog. See Entomology.
F. A. Lucas.
Larva'Ha [Mod. Lat.] : an order of Tunicata (q. v.) rep-
resented by Appendicularia, Fritiltaria, etc., in which the
animal retains throughout life the tail which in other tuni-
cates is characteristic of the larval stages. They may be
briefly described as tadpole-like forms, in which the tail is
foldeii over the transparent body. Some species .secrete a
gelatinous case, the Eaus of German naturalists, which they
carrv about with them. All are marine and almost micro-
scopic in size.
J. S. K.
112
I.AKYNGITIS
Laryniri'tis fMwl. T.at.. from Or. Xdpuyl larynx + Mod.
Ut. iiKHliiul affix -Hi)]: innaramalion of tlu- larynx. It
H fniinil in iiuuionms forms wliali vary acconliuf,' to the
, • . raui^.—/.,tn/i,gilis oil<irrli,ili.% V>. croupom or
a. L. pliltijmnnosa ; one otlit-r form is n'l'ognized
I. ilit'y of the intlainmalion— i. Ayi>"^/o"i>n. /-"-
runqilis eatd'rrhaliit exists in the acute an.l ui the cliroiuc
form. Aciito hirvngitis is produced by all those causes
which pive rise to inllammati.in of mucous memhraue. <>r
theso the most commoulv acoepted cause is that mythical
entitv calle.l .atehinR cold. Besides this, there is inhala-
tion '.if irritatiiiK substances, either in the form of hnely
sulxlivided solids, dust, small particles of iron, or other
metals, or in the form of irritatiii!,' pi-ses. Excessive speak-
ing sinoini;, or shmitinp uiav produce acute larynffitis, but
it isdoiTbtful whether something more, as a predis|K)sition
to this disease, inav not also be necessary. tJf t he infectious
diseases, measles 'is the one which most coininonlv causes
thisalTi'ction : it is verv much less common in typhoid fever.
ervsiiH-las. scarlet fever, and whoopins-coush. Extension
ofan innammation from the nose or pharynx to the larynx
is a verv common occurrence. The disease may be recoj;-
nize<l by its svniptoms, but a laryngoscopic examination m
every case materially assists the physician in all directions.
TheVeneral svrnptoins varv greatly with the individual af-
fected. Thev'arc usuallv absent, though tliey are somet imes
present asth'ev would be in an acute inllammation of the
respiratory tract— malaise, loss of appetite, chilliness, more
or less febrile movement. The local symptoms are hoarse-
ness; a hoarse, barking cough, at first dry. then accompanied
with the expectoration of a small quantity of mucus: tick-
ling dryness of the throat, sometimes jiain, which can usu-
ally 1)6 'elicited by pressure on the larynx. In children, and
sometimes in ailiilts, this condition produces the combina-
tion of svniptoms known as croup. The patient is put to
Ih'd suffering with the svniptoms of an ordinary cold : dur-
ing the night he is awakened by a barking, hoarse cough,
accompanied bv prolonged, loud inspirations; with this
there is decidecl' pain in the larynx and great difficulty in
breathing. The expression of the child becomes anxious,
it cries with and after the cough, its color changes, some-
times being bluish, it sits up in bed or wants to be held up.
With this all those symptoms characteristic of dyspncea ex-
ist. After a varying length of time the attack passes over,
and the patient 'again falls asleep, perhaps breathing rap-
idly, or in any event noisily. During the night one or more
attacks may occur, but in the morning the patient seems
comparatively well, with the exception of a cougli which be-
comes looser during the day. I sually the second night is
like the first, except that thc'attacks are less severe, and then
no more attacks occur. Four or five days sees an end to the
disturbance. The hynoglottic form is niore serious, as more
swelling occurs, which in the young child may cause suffo-
cation. An uncomplicated attack may be readily distin-
guished from the catarrhal form, anil prompt measures, in-
tubation, or tracheotomy give absolute relief.
Acute laryngitis, when |)roducing the croupish symptoms
before describerl, is called false croup, to distinguisli it from
tnie croup, laryngitis diphtheritica, or croiiposa. (See
Diphtheria.) li is a harmless affection, with a mortality so
low that a physician may never in his whole experience see
a fatal case. 'Fhere are many children especially predispose.!
to croup; indeed, thrre are families in which all the chil-
dren become croupy on the slightest provocation ; however,
the disease is not fatal. Ilow great the suffering is may be
seen in adults, who sometimes remain croupy, although the
rule is that at the expiration of the tenth or twelfth year
laryngitis no longer produces croup. It is only the first or
second attack of croup in children that should cause uneasi-
ness; in these it is soraetinifs difficult to determine whether
one is dealing with tnie or false croup. After it has once
been establisheil that a child is preclisposed to this condi-
tion, the attacks no longer cause alarm. Methods of treat-
ment vary; possibly the most common one consists in giv-
ing emetics — ijiecac, tartar emetic, or others. While it may
be said of this mi'thod that it gives jirompt relief, it may be
unnecessary ami do harm, ils the remedy may do more injury
than the dis(>ase. liocal a|)plicatioiis to the throat, hot com-
presses, the so-calleil I'rii'ssnilz a{iplication (a cloth wrung
out in cold water and covered with llannel or oiled silk), the
hot-water bag — all give relief. Inhalations of steam, not
too hot, from an atomizer, or by means of filling the room
with aipieous va|ior from a croup kettle, are of great bene-
fit. Medication is most valuable when directed against the
LARYNX
production of increased reflex action ; the bromides are
therefore very useful, and by continuous use it is not un-
common to prevent a second croupy night.
Ill tlie adult acute laryngitis seldom requires treatment;
all that is necessary will be to give relief to the symptoms,
whiili may be done with various remedies.
Chronic lan/ngitis, which may develop fiom the acute
form, rarely ailects children. It is produced by the same
causes as the acute form, except that these must act for a
greater length of time; therefore, speakers or singers are
liable to it ; also millei-s, tobacco-workers, masons, in short,
all those whose occupation causes them to breathe air which
contains irritating substances. This form is not unconi-
nionlv found in drinkers. It is recognized by the laryngo-
scojte, and only by this instrument. The treatment must
be local — i. e. all remedies to jiroduee results must be ap-
plied to the affected parts. There is an exceiition to this
rule, when it is found that laryngitis is produced by some
general disturbance, rendering the larynx more liable to
react upon local irritations; in these cases a removal of the
cause facilitates cure by local remedies. It may be said
that in laryngitis chronica of long duration all local treat-
ment is productive of relief only ; change of occupation or
change of climate will do more than can be accomplished
by any treatment. P. Forcuueimkr.
Iiaryii'grosroi)e [Gr. \dpvyi. larynx -t- (rKoire7ii, examine]:
an insfrumcnl proposed and in part introduced by RonERT
LisTON [ij. r.) and emi>loyed by other eminent surgeons of
his time; but greatlv improved and first systematically used
by Prof. Czermak (d. 1873). It is employed for examining
tlie condition of the diseased larynx, and also for observing
the action of the vocal cords during phonation. It consists'
of two mirrors; the larger one. concave, throws light upon
the smaller, which is held in the throat of the patient and
illuminates the interior of the larynx, at the same present-
ing a reversed image of the glottis, vocal cords, and sur-
rounding parts. The laryngoscope is of great value in treat-
ing local diseases of the throat.
Lar'ynx [Mod. Lat., from Or. \ipvy^. throat, gullet, up-
per part of the windpipe] : the human organ which pro-
duces sound. It is situated at the beginning of the wind-
pipe, is entered by way of the pharynx, and therefore com-
municates with the no.se and the throat. Its essential
structure is of cartilages, muscles, blood-vessels, and nerves;
it is covered on the outside by the skin, and lined within by
mucous membrane. The cartilages, of which there are
nine, are for the purpose of giving rigidity to the whole,
and also for attachment of various parts iise<i for functional
activity. The cartilages have derived their names from
their forms; hence the thyroid, or shield-like cartilage; the
cricoid, or ring-like cartilage; the arytenoid, or pitcher-like
cartilage, etc. Their relations toward each other are such
as to form a box-like apparatus, with forward and upward
projections from its lower plane formed by the arytenoid
cartilages, to which the vocal chords are attaclieil. The
opening to this box is protected by a si)ecial cartilage, the
epiglottis, which partially prevents the entrance of foreign
substances into the larynx. The thyroid cartilage, which,
by means of one of its processes, rests and moves upon the
cricoid cartilage, produces that projection in front which is
known as the Pomum adami, or Adam's apple. Nearly
all the parts of the larynx are so constructed as to have
some bearing upon the vocal chords.
The vocal chords are two bands, clastic in nature and
covered by mucous membrane. They are stretched across
the interior of the larynx, attacheil anteriorly to the thy-
roid cartilage on either side of the median line and poste-
riorly to the arytenoid cartilages, the right vocal chord to the
right and the left chord to the left arytenoid. The space be-
tween the vocal chords is called the glottis. For the [lurpose
of brealhingihe glottis must be kept open, while for the jmr-
poseof phonation it must be more or less closed. The mech-
anism of the vocal chords, then, resolves itself into the pro-
duction of motion. This is caused by muscles of which there
are two kinds, intrinsic and extrinsic. These, by causing
motion in the cartilages to which the vocal chords have at-
laidiment, thereby cause motion in the chords themselves.
These muscles are un<ler the control of nerves going from
the larynx to the central nervous system, consecpicntlv all
the processes that go on in the larynx are controlled by
the nerve centers.
In addition to the closure of the glottis, it is necessary
for the production of sound that the vocal chords can be
LA SALLE
LA SERNA £ HINOJOSA
113
stretched and relaxed. The force which throws the vocal
chords into vibration is sup])lied by air expelled from the
lungs. One result, then, uf bringing the entire mechanism
into play is the throwing of tlie vocal chords into regular
vibration, which, under the circumstances, produces sound.
The three qualities of sound, pitch, clang-tint, and quan-
tity can all be produced by the larynx alone. Pitch is pro-
duced by the tension and proximity of the chords, clang-
tint by their peculiar individual shape and the shape and
size of the larynx and adjacent cavities, and quantity
bv the force of the expelled air acting upon the larynx.
The character of voice, male or female, soprano, alto,
tenor, or bass depends entirely upon the size and form of
vocal chord, and the size, shape, and configuration of the
larynx. The range of voice — i. e. the number of notes that
can be sounded — also depends upon these factors, but largely
also upon the muscles, and for this reason cultivation can
do much in extending the number of notes which can be
sung by the individual. During respiration the glottis be-
comes wide with inspiration and narrower with expiration ;
hence the difficulty in producing sound while breathing in
air, and the ease with which phonation is accomplished in
expiration. The muscles which control the respiratory
movements of the glottis are controlled by nerves connected
with the respiratory center, and as a result all these move-
ments are synchronous.
The raucous membrane of the larynx is very sensitive in
places, being endowed with a great number of nerve-end-
ings, and acts as a protector to the remainder of the res-
piratory tract during respiration. During normal respira-
tion the air first passes through the nose, where the first
warning of impurity is given the individual, if given at all,
then through the pharynx and larynx, where the next warn-
ing takes place. As a result of this nervous mechanism,
very irritating substances, if finely divided, produce attacks
of coughing, larger bodies province spasmodic contractions
(commonly called swallowing the wrong way), and it is only
by a very unfortunate train of circumstances that bodies
can pass the larynx and enter the bronchi, producing very
dangerous conditions.
The diseases of the larynx may be classified upon an
anatomical basis. There may therefore be diseases affect-
ing all the tissues, or diseases aifecting one or more. Ma-
lignant tumors, cancers, and sarcomata belong to the first
class, while the second class is subdivided into diseases of the
cartilages, of the muscles, of the mucous membrane, of the
nerves, and finally of the nerve centers controlling those
nerves. As most of the diseases affecting the larynx are
carried to it by the air in its passage through it, the most
common form of laryngeal disease is that which affects the
mucous membrane. Inhalations of various poisons, of lower
forms of life, or of irritating substances will produce inflam-
matory changes in the mucous membrane. Neither is it
uncommon to find benign tumors in the larynx, which,
when recognized, can be readily removed by skillful hands.
In the laryngoscope we have an instrument by means of
■which every part of the larynx is made accessible to the eye.
It is just as idle to ti'eat a diseased lar)Tix without looking
at it as to treat a sore finger without examining it. The
laryngoscope has made clear the subject of laryngeal dis-
ease, and much is done in daily practice which would have
seemed miraculous years ago. F. Forchheimer.
La Salle : city ; La Salle co.. 111. (for location of county,
see map of Illinois, ref. 3-E) ; on the Illinois river, the Illi-
nois and Michigan Canal, and the Chi., Burl, and Q., the
Chi., Rock Is. and Pac, and the 111. Cent, railways : 99
miles S. W. of Chicago. It is in an extensive and profitable
bituminous coal region, at the head of river navigation. It
contains several zinc-smelting works, manufactures glass
and hydraulic cement, and ships annually to Southern mar-
kets a large quantity of ice. The citv is connected with Peru,
a mile \V.. bv electric railway. Pop. (1880) 7,847; (1890)
9,855 ; (1892) 11,920. Editor of " Democrat-Press."
La Salle, Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de: explorer;
h. at Rouen, France, in 1043; became a Jesuit, but, re-
nouncing his profession, embarked for Canada in 1666, and
obtained a grant of territory at the head of the rapids in the
St. Lawrence river above Montreal, where he seems to have
intended to live as a resident seigneur, but, attracted by the
reports of some Seneca Indians visiting his post in the win-
ter of 1668-69, he set out in search of a great waterway
which was thought to lead to the South Sea. and offer a
route to China. He explored Lake Ontario, and reached the
2.'!4
Illinois or some other affluent of the Mississippi, but prob-
ably did not penetrate as far as the main stream. He vis-
ited France in 1674; was ennobled and received important
grants in Canada. Returning in 1678 from another voyage
to France, he explored the Great Lakes, and attempted to
colonize their shores; descended the Illinois and the Mis-
sissippi, reaching the Gulf of Mexico Apr. 9, 1682, and
named the region Louisiana. In 1683 he went to France,
and, having received a commission, endeavored in 1684 to
plant a colony at the mouth of the JMississipjii, but failed to
reach this point, and lauded early in 1685 on the coast of
Texas, probably in the neighborhood of Matagorda Bay,
where he built a fort. Dissension arose between La Salle
and Beaujeu, the captain of one of the vessels, and ended in
the latter's return to France. La Salle made two fruitless
attempts to reach the Mississippi, death and desertion hav-
ing in the meanwhile reduced the number of the coloni.sts
to forty-five. Leaving twenty of these behind. La Salle
made a third attempt, in the course of wliich he was mur-
dered by his companions near the Trinity river about the
middle of March, 1687. The murderers were never apjire-
hended, and nothing was ever heard of the few colonists left
behind at the fort. See Justin Winsor, Cartierto Frontenac
(New York and Boston, 1894); Sparks's Life, of La Salle;
and Parkman's History of the Discovery of the Great West.
F. M. Colby.
Lascaris ; the name of two distinguished Greek grammari-
ans, born of a noble Bithynian family. They emigrated to
Italy after the fall of Constantinople (1453), and contributed
greatly to the study of Greek in Italy and France. CoN-
STAXTixos, the elder of the two brothers (or cousins), became
the tutor of the Princess Ip])olita .Sforza of Milan. There-
after we find him teaching Greek at Rome, where he became
intimate with Bessarion, at Naples, and Messina. I), about
1500. His famous Greek grammar (Erulemata) was the
first Greek book ever printed (Milan, 1476). — Johaxnes
lived for a long time at the court of Lorenzo di Medici in
Florence, and was sent by him to Greece in search of new
MSS. and works of art. He was called to Paris by Charles
VIII. as a teacher of Greek, but recalled to Rome by Pope
Leo X. to take charge of a Greek institute. He revisited
Paris as a member of an embassy to Francis I. (1518), and
founded the Royal Ijibrary. Thereafter he lived for a time
in Venice till recalled to Rome by Pope Paul III., where he
died in 1535. He is now chiefly remembered as the printer
of five editiones 2>rincipes. among them a long famous edi-
tion of the Greek Anthology. See Villemain, Lascaris. ou
les Grecs au XV' Siech (Paris, 1825). Alfred Gude.man.
Lascars: an Anglo-Indian name applied to non-com-
batant native male followers of the army in India, and also
to native seagoing crews on British ships.
Las Casas, Bartolome, de ; See Casas.
Las Cases, laas-kaaz', Emmanvel Augustin Dieudonne
Marie Joseph, Marquis de ; writer of memoirs; b. at Las
Cases, Languedoc, France, in 1766; entered the navy; emi-
grated in 1791 ; served for some time in the army of the
Prince of Conde ; later on lived in London, where he pub-
lished his Alias historique (1803) ; returned in 1805 to
France ; held several offices in the civil and mihtary service
during the empire, and accompanied Napoleon to St. Helena
in 1815. A letter to Lucien Bonaparte (Nov. 27, 1816), in
which he spoke freely of the numner in which Napoleon was
treated, caused him to be arrested and transferred to the
Cape of Good Hope. After thirteen months' imprisonment
he was liberated ; settled in Belgium, but returned to France
after the death of Napoleon. In 1824 he published his Me-
morial de Saiiife-IIelhie. containing a record of the remarks
which Napoleon had made to him in their conversations.
D. at Passy, May 15, 1842.
La Serena. Chili : See Coquihbo.
La Serna 6 Hinojosa. laa-siir na'u-a-ee'no-hosaa, .Tose,
de: general and administrator; b. at Jerez de la Frontera.
Spain, 1770. He entered the army as a cadet; served in
the defense of Ceuta 1784, against the French in Catalonia
179.5, and subsequently in many campaigns. At the second
siege of Saragossa (1809) he was captureil and carried to
France, but escaped; returned to Spain in 1811, and served
under Wellington until the French were expelled in 1813. In
1816, having attained the rank of major-general, he was
sent to take command of the army in Tpper Pent, relieving
Pezucla, who had lieen appointed viceroy. La Serna reached
his post in Nov., 1816, and was ordered by Pezuela to take
114
lashkar
tUe ofloiisivo Hjiiii^t till- insurgents at Sjilt«. lie did so
ajjaiiiji Ills o" 1. uiiil was twice di'fcatcil — «t Sallu
»ml Injiv. I • ri- so frc(|Ut.'mly opiKiseil to lliose
of' :i. liiiiillv ri'.-i;.'iu'd, aiid in lyl!> wont to
Li ition iif rvliiriiiiif: to Spain : Iml in view
of « • ■ 'n of IVru by Sjin Martin, his |iurli-
gji! lini til iiinain; and llie viuerov, to
av , iiottd liiin to lii'iilenant-trenural and
I,,:, ■ I'lf thofountilof war. After San Martin
liii . ^ivfiiconinmnil of till' army. OnJaii. 2!t,
lSi\. llio ..lli.cij. of the army forced I'uziiela to rcsifin. and
nittile La Scriia viceroy, an irrcfrular iiroceeding. which,
however, wius cventuaHV ratified l)y tlie Spanish govern-
ment. On July 6 of tde same year La Serna evacuated
Lima, and made his headipiartcrs at C'uzco. During the
succeeilinj; three years ami a half he wjus practically cut o(f,
with his armv, from Spain, ami was forced to comliat not
only the patriot forces of Peru, but those of the Platine
states, nnd bands of guerrillas in Charcas. In the face of
til,. ' "■ lies he kept his army in good condition, ami
til on of the struitixlc was largely due to his skill
aiii ,. ;i. lie was finally defeated and captured by
Sucre at the battle of AvAcicHO {g. v.), Dec. 9, 1824. On
the same day he had l>een created Count of the Andes. On
his return to Spain he was well received, and subsequently
held several important posts in the Peninsula. I), at Cadiz
in is:!-,'. Herbert II. Smith.
Laslikar : the southern of the two parts of Ciwaliob (</. c),
a cilv i)f India. Its name is proi)erlv Gwalior-Lashkar (i. e.
camp of Gwalior). Pop. (181*1) 85.040.
Las'kpr, Euward: politician ; b. at Jarocin, in the Prus-
sian province of Posen. Oct. 14, 182!), of .Jewish parents;
studied jurisprudence and nuithematics; spent three years
in England studyini; Kn^lish constitution and law; and re-
ceived in 18.50 ah ollice in the Prussian Govermncnt. His
creed, however, and his constitutional views, which he set
forth in several excellent papers, prevented him from ad-
vancing in the service. In 180.') he was elected a member
from Berlin to the Prussian Huiise of I)e[)Utie.s, and thence-
forward Lasker devoted himself with great energy and
steadily increasing influence to his parliamentary career,
regardless of his practice as an attorney and of other per-
sonal interests. Until 1868 he reiirescnted in the House of
Deputies a district of Berlin, and then .Magdeburg; in tlie
North German and in the (ierman diet he reiiresented first
a distrii-t of Berlin, and then one of Saxc-.^leiningcn. At
first, his political conviction allied him with the progressive
party, but when it liecamc evident that Bismarck's policy
aimed at the establishment of a united Germany, Ijasker
became one of the founders of the national liberal party, of
which he was the most eminent member until he left it in
IS.'^O. He was appointed an attorney-at-law in Berlin in
1870, and on all important laws of a later date, especially
on those concerning trade and tralTic, usury, imprisonment
for debt, loans with iiremiunis. etc., he exercised a decisive
influence. D. in New Vork city, .Ian. 4, 1884. He wrote Zur
Verfrixxitngsgesr/i irhle. Pre ii mi' lis (1875) ; W'pge nnd Ziflke
der Knlturenlwickelung (1881). .See the biographv bv A.
VVolir {\x>H). Uevised by C. H. Tiicruer.
Las Paliims, laas-paaVnnfiis [Span., the palms]: town on
the northeastern coast of (Sran Canaria, one of the Camiry
islands. It is iieautifully situated at the feet of lolly hills,
with a spacious and good harbor. It is also well built, with
H fine old cathedral and beauliful promenades. It has manu-
fa<-tures of gla-i*. leather, wdoIciis, anil hats. Pop. 11.400.
Lassn. liuis:ia, Lliassa, or lI'Laxsn [Tibet an IJin-Sa,
liter., (iod's ground) : the capital of Tibet; situated in hit.
2fl° :}!) N. and Ion. 'Jl" 57 K. ; in a plain on the right bank
of the Kichn, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, 11,5H0 feet
above the sea; encircled l)y lofty barren mountains (see map
of China, ref. 6-C). It is a well-built town, with broad and
regidar streets, and a po[iulalion estimated at from 30,000
to 80.000 (nearly half of whom are Buddhist monks), and
an extensive trade in precious stjuies. gold, velvet, sill;, anil
cashmere. <»n Ihi' Infi of a hill adjoining the city is the
Potala or palace of the Dalai Lama, lh<' head of the Buddhis-
tic hierarchy of Til)et and Mongolia. It forms "a group
of fori ifical ions, temples, monasleriis. and sch<«ils, sur-
mounted by a dome entirely covered with gilded iilales, and
surroutidcd by a peristyle nf gilded columns." ThoMsands
of pilgrims annually visit il ; hundreds of them slay there
to comiilete llieir theological anil philosophical education;
and all of them leave behitid them a present to the Dalai
LASSON
Lama. Besides the Potala, the city contains many temples,
convenl.s, and schools, and the life of the city in all its phaties
is deeply colored with religious riles and symbols.
Lassalle. la'a-saal'. P^EROiNAXt): social agitator and found-
er of the social dcinoeralic movement in (icrmany; b. at
Breslau, Germany. .-Vor. 11. 1825; the son of a rich .lewish
merchant; he sliidied philulogy and philosophy in his native
citvand in Berlin; and was a disciple of Hegel. In 1H4»
he "was banished from Berlin on account of his participation
in the riots of 1848, and lived for several years in the liliino
country. In the meanwhile he had been the champion of
the Countess of Hatzfcldt in her famous suit against her
husband, who after eight years of litigation was forced to a
compromise most favorable to the countess. Down to lH)i2
he was cliieflv known for the jmrt that he had taken in this
trial and as the author of iJie I'ltiUinojiliie iferahleilim ties
iJiinhelii ran Ephi'sus (1858) and of Syxtem der erirorheuen
Keclite (1861); but in 1862 he stiddenly turned his atlen-
,tion to politics, and became a social agitator of great influ-
ence. The problem which he set before himself was the
emancipation of the workingmen from the tyranny of the
capitalists, and the manner in wiiich he proposed to solve
that problem was by the formation of productive associa-
tions with capital furnished by the state. I-'or this purpose
he published a great number of pamphlets (Veber Verjasii-
luii/swexi'ii, Arbeilerprofframm. Ziir Arheiterfrage, Bastiat-
Vi'litsrli. Oder Capital uiid Arbeit, etc.), and founded the
AUgemeiner Deutschcr Arbeilerverein. Lassallc's idea was
that the inevitable result of the present social system was
the " iron law of wages" continually tending to reduce the
wages of labor below the point necessary for subsistence.
To remedy this he demanded state intervention. His career
was suddenly broken off by his being mortally wounded in
a duel. D. at Geneva, Aug. 28. 1864. See Buchncr's Meine
Begegnmig mil Ferdinand Lassalle (Berlin. 1893), and
Bernstein's LaxKalle as a Social Reformer (Berlin, 1892;
trans, by Eleanor Marx Aveling, London, 180;i).
Hevised by F. M. Colby.
Lassen. laasfn. Christian: Orientalist; b. at Bergen, Nor-
way, Oct. 22. 1800; studied at Christiania, Heidelberg, and
Bonn ; attracted great attention by h'\-^ Ensai surh I'al'i.^vii'-
ten in connection with Burnouf (Paris. 1820). and his edition
of Ilitopadefa, a collection of Indian fables, niade in connec-
tion with A. \V. Schlegel (Bonn, 1829-;!!) ; and became as-
sistant Professor in Indian Languages at the Universitv of
Bonn in 1830; full jirofessor in 1840. D. May 8. 1876. I^as-
sen must be regarded as virtually the founder of Indian
philology in Germany. In his Allpersisc/ie h'eilin^cltriflen
(Bonn, 18:)6) he made also a most imijortant contribution to
the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. His princi-
)ial work is Indinclie Allertliuni.s/iunde (4 vols., Bonn, 1844-
62 ; 2d ed. since 1860). Other works are Jnstitutionex Ungues
pracritiae (1837); Anthologia Sanscrita (1838: new ed. by
Gildemeister. 1865-68); Ziir Gescliiclite derc/riechisclien tind
indnislnjihisriiin Konige in Bahtrien, A'abiil, nnd Jndien
(1838); ]'e>ulidad {\H5'2)- and many highly important con-
tributions to journals. Revised by Benj.'Ide Wheeler.
Lnsspn, EnrARii: composer and conductor: b. Apr. 13,
18:i0. at Copcidiagen. Denmark, but was taken to Brussels
when two ycai-s old. and educated there. He took many
prizes in the conservatory, including the great Government
prize in 1851. He composed a five-act opera. Le lioi Kd-
gard, which was produced in 1857 at Weimar by Liszt with
great success. This was followed by Frauenlob and Der
Ciefangene. He succeeded Liszt as director of the opera at
Weimar, and produced Wagner's Tristan und Isolde in
1874. He has composed two symphonies, music to Goethe's
Faiist and l'<niiora. Sophoclcs's (Edipiis. Hebbel's A'l'fte-
luiigen, a Fest-Cantate, a Tc Deum. a violin concerto, and
many songs. The Tniversity of .Icna gave him the degree
of Ph. D., and the King of Belgium decorated him with the
Order of Leopold in 1881. D. E. Hervey.
La.ss(>n Peak: a mountnin of Shasta co.,Cal., standing
at the north end of the Sierra Nevada. It is of volcanic
origin, and has an altitude of 10,437 feet.
Lanson, Adom-, Ph. D. : metaphysician ; b. in Alt-Strelitz-
Mecklenbnrg, Genuany, Mar. 12. 18;J2; educated at the Uni-
versity of Berlin ; was gymnasium teacher in Berlin (1858);
head ieaeher (1H61) : doeeiit in the university in 1877. His
principal works are /•'. G. FIrlile im Verliallniss zu h'iirhe
und ,S'/rto/ (Berlin. 1863) ; MrUler FIcliart der jVi/slihr (Ker-
lin, 1868); Prineip und Zukiiiift des VUlkesrechts (Berlin,
LASSUS
LATHAM
115
1871); Si/s(em der Rechtsphilnmphie (Berlin, 1882); Zeit-
liches und Zeitloses (Leipzig, 1891). J. M. B.
Lassus. lali'si'is'. Jean Bai-tiste Antoixe: architect; b.
in Paris, Mar. If), 180T; pupil of H. Labroiiste and Lcbas.
He was employed upon several important Paris buildings,
and, as the interest in ancient structures increased, u|)on
restorations, such as that of the Sainte-Chapelle, upon which
he was engaged until his death. In connection with Viollct-
le-Duc he was given charge of the restoration of Notre
Dame, but relinquished this work in order to take charge of
the cathedrals of Chart res and Le Mans, and to carry on the
building of churches in Dijon. Belleville. St.-Aignon, and
other towns. The Album of Villard de Honcourt was pre-
pared for publication hy him and pulilished after his death,
and the great Government nionograj)!! of the Cathedral of
Chart res was also in a great measure his work. He was a
member of the Legion of Honor, but the tendency of his
teachings was contrary to those most in favor, and the
highest honors were not likely to reacli him. U. at Vichy,
July 1.5, 1857. Russell Sturgis.
Lastarria, laiis-taVreeaa, Jos£ Victorino : publicist and
author : b. at Rancagua, Chili, in 1817. He was educated
at Santiago, and early became connected with various news-
papers. In 1838 he was named Professor of Common Law
and Literature in the National Institute. After 1843 he was
several times elected deputy to Congress ; Minister of Vi-
nance 1862-64, and of the Interior 1876-78; and was envoy
to Peru, Argentina, and Brazil ; later he was Minister of the
Supreme Court. Lastarria is one of the most prolific of
Chilian authors, his works including biography and criti-
cism, history, descriptions of travel, civil and constitutional
law, and two novels; his studies on the Chilian constitution
and its history are especially valuable. Among his best-known
works are Elemeniosde derecho publico constituciondl.Inves-
tigaciones sobre la influencia social de la Conquista, Bosque-
jo historico de la Constitucion, and Ilistoria consiituciondl
de medio siglo. He founded the first Chilian literary magazine
in 1840, subsequently established others, and aided in the foun-
dation of several literary societies. Herbert H. Smith.
La'sns (in Or. Aatros) : son of Chabrinus or (according to
Schneidewin) Charniinus ; a Greek dithyrambie poet and
hymn-writer of Hermione inArgolis; fiourished about 510
B. c. He was a contemporary and rival of Simonides, and
the reputed teacher of Pindar. To him is ascribed the new
development of the dithyrami), and famous among his tours
de force was a poem composed without a single sigma (»■).
Of all his poems, only a fragment of a hymn to Demeter re-
mains, which is given in Bergk's Poe.tm Lyrici Ormci.
Las Veg'as, laTis-vagaas : city; capital of San Miguel co.,
N. JI. (for location of county, see map of New Mexico,
ref. 10-S) : on the Pecos river, and the Ateh., Top. and S.
Pe Railroad ; 70 miles E. of Santa Fe, the territorial capital.
It is in an agricultural, stock-raising, and mining region,
and has large jobbing and wool interests, gas and electric
lights, street railway, 2 national banks with combined cap-
ital of .$200,000, and a dailv, monthlv, and 4 weekly news-
papers. Pop. (1880), not in census", about 1,500: (1890)
2,385. Howard T. Vaille, sec. Commercial Club.
Latacun^a. hfa-ta'a-koong'ga'a (Tacu.vka by abbreviation):
a city of Ecuador, cajiital of the province of Leon; on the
Andean plateau ; 56 inilcs S. of Quito, and 25 miles S. E.
of the cone of Cotopaxi ; 9,384 feet above the sea (see map
of South America, ref. 3-B). It is built on a beautiful plain
between two small rivers, affluents of the Pastaza. The
average temperature is 59' F. Latacunga is the fourth city
in Ecuador in population, but its importance is mainly
local; a large proportion of the inhabitants are Indians. A
good carriage-road unites this place with Quito. The city
was founded in 1535. It has suffered greatly from earth-
quakes, and was four times destroyed between 1698 and 1797.
Mtrate of potash is obtained from volcanic de])c>sits in the
Ticinity. Pop. about 12,000. Herbert H. Smith.
La TaUle, laa-ta'a't'eZ, Jean, ile : poet and dramatist: b.
at Bondaroy. France, about 1.540. He studied humanities
at Paris and law at Orleans, l)ut was drawn away to poetry
by the works of Ronsard and du Barta.s, and <livided his
time between letters and arms. He wrote two biblical
tragedies, Saul fiirieux (1562) ami Les Gabaonites (1571),
and two comedies after Italian models, Le yegromante and
Les Corriniur (1576). He was a voluminous writer of verse.
D. in 1611. His works have been edited by Rene de Maulde
(4 vols., Paris, 1878-82). A. G. Canfield.
Lataki'ah. laa-ta^-kee'a'a, or Ladiki'.reli (ane. Laodicea
ad Mare) : a port of Syria, Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of
Beyrout on the Mediterranean (see map of Turkey, ref."(>-G).
The harbor is insecure, the commerce small, and the town
dilapidated. Debris from ancient buildings abounds. The
envii'ons are fertile; their chief jiroduct is the famous Lata-
kiah tobacco. Pop. 10,000 to 12,000, of whom 2,000 are
Christians. E. A. G.
Latent Heat : See Heat.
Lateral Pressure : the horizontal pressure of water,
mud, or earth upon a dam or wall, or upon the sides of an
inclosing vessel. See Earthwork and Hydrostatics.
Lat'eran : the name of a place in Rome occufiying the
site of the estates of the ancient Roman family Lateranus.
The two principal buildings in the place are tlie Church of
S. Giovanni and the palace. The old Lateran palace be-
came imperial property under Nero, who put Plant ius Lat-
eranus to death and confiscated his estates. Constantine
the Great presented it to the pope, and it was the pontifical
residence until, in 1:309, the holy see was transferred to
Avignon. On the return of Gregory XI. to Rome in 1377,
he took up his residence in the Vatican. Having been
burned down under the reign of Clement X., the Lateran
palace was rebuilt in 1558 under Sixtus V., but it remained
unoccupied until Innocent XII. in 1693 made it an orphan
asylum. In 1843 Gregory XVI. established here the Museum
Grcgorianum Lateranense for antiquities, the Vatican and
Capitoline museums ail'ording no more space. The church,
S. Giovanni in Laterano, was founded by Constantine the
Great, overthrown liy an earthquake in 896, rebuilt by Ser-
gius III. 904-11. burned down in 1308, restored by Clement
v., and subsequentlvmuch altered and modernized by Mar-
tin v., 1430, Pius IV., 1560. Borromini, 1650. and Galileo,
1734. For centuries it was the principal church in Christen-
dom— Omnium urbis et orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput.
Five great oecumenical councils were held there.
Lateran Councils : councilsthus called because they were
held in the Church of St. John Lateran in Rome. They
comprise, besides six minor, five great a'cumenical councils,
namely: (1) that convened by Calixtus II., and opened
Mar. 18, 1123, by which the long strife between the popes
and the German emperors concerning investiture was ended
on the following terms : •' The emperor surrenders to God,
to SS. Peter and Paul, and to the Catholic Church all right
of investiture by ring and staff. . . . The pope agrees that
the election of German prelates shall be had in the presence
of the emperor, provided it is without violence or simony."
(2) That convened by Innocent II., and opened Apr. 20,
1139. by which the anti-pope. AnacletusII.. and all who had
received office under him. were deposed. (3) That convened
by Alexander III., and opened Mar. 2, 1179, by which it
was established that henceforth " the election of the popes
shall be confined to the college of cardinals, and two-thirds
of the votes shall be required to make a lawful election, in-
stead of a majority only, as heretofore." (4) That convened
by Innocent III., and opened Nov. 11, 121.5, by which a crusade
was determined upon for the liljcration of Palestine from
the infidels, the heresy of the Waldenses was condemned,
and the expression " transubstantiation " was sanctioned by
the Church. (5) That convened by Julius II.. and opened
May 3, 1512, by which the acts of the Council of Pisa were
annidled. and the concordat concluded in 1516 between
Francis I. and Leo X., who succeeded Julius II., and closed
the council in 1517, was substituted for the Pragmatic Sanc-
tion of Bourges. Revised by J. J. Keane.
La'tes [Mod. Lat., from Gr. Xaror. a fish of the Nile] :
name of a genus of large perciform fishes, of which the type
is Lates nilolicus. from which Latopolis in Egypt took its
name. This fish is the largest in the river Nile. It grows
to a length of 3 feet, and is of fine flavor. L. 7iobilis is an
excellent food-fish of the tidal parts of the Ganges.
La'tex [= Lat.. liquid, juice] : scientific name for the
thick, milky juice of certain plants, as the niilk-wced, celan-
dine, etc. It is distinct from the true sap. and is contained
in a set of tubes called laticiferous vessels. Many impor-
tant vegetable products, sudi as opium and caoutchouc, are
the dried latex of some one or more species of plants. See
Histology Vegetable.
Latham. John : ornithologist ; b. at Eltham, Kent. Eng-
land, June 27. 1740; studied medicine and natural liistorj- ;
established himself in 1763 as a physician at Dart ford ; aided
Sir -V. Lever in forming his museum, and was one of the
116
LATHAM
LATHE
foiiiiilers of tlie lioyiil S<x'it>ly iiinl of tlio Liiiim'uu Six-icly.
lW>iiU-s j>a|)t'rs on liu-ilicino ami iiHtiii-Hl history, he whs tlie
BUlhorof u (l^nrriit Si/im/uiig nf Binln (8 vols., 1781-lbOl)
ami of an Iiulrj- Oniilhiiliiyiciui (ITiU), Iwth which wcmv
tombiiiiMl ilia new etlilion niuler the title A (linrriil llix-
tury of liirtU (W Vols., 1821--.24). 1). at Koinsey, Feb. 4, Wi'.
Ijlthaiu, UoBKRT lioBiK)X : philoloffian and othnolojrist ;
I), at Uilliii:;sl)oroii^li, Lincoliishiie. Kiij,'laiiil, Mar. 24, 1812 ;
wiu-ieiUiealeil at Ktoii ami at Caiiiliriilfie. when> ho became a
fellow of Kiiift's I'ollejie ami received dej,'rees in arts and in
niedirine; l«vaiiie a lecturer at .Middlesex Ilospilal ; |iiili-
lisliid yiinrtiij and the Soneryiiin^ (1840): translations
from the Swe<lish, etc. ; lieeame in 1841 Professor of Kiifjlish
Literature in I'niversity t'olleiie. London; after a tour in
the north of Kuro|ie pulilished a work on The JCui/lish Lan-
ijHtuir (1841) : a seriesof Kii'jlish Kranimars (184;{-50) ; ]IU-
Inri'i III' Ihf Kiiiilifh Ld/i'/Hdi/c (I84".l): a translation of Syd-
euhaiiVs U'..ri".s- ( l848-4!>") ; S'alurul llislory of Man (W'M)\
Jlandljiiuk (if the K'ni/liKh Laiii/iiage (lt<i)l) ; Man and his
Miqratiim» (IHTjl); a series of wi>rks on cthiioloj;y (18ot>-5i)),
including: Elhnutmjy of the lirilhh Colonies (18.52); Kth-
noliiyy of Eurojie (1802); yatiie Races of the Ititssian iCm-
ydVf (IsiVi) ; \arieties of the Human .Species (ISiia); The
h'thnoloyy of India (18.VJ); Comparatii-e Philoloi/y (l»<i-i):
a thoroii^'hly reviseil edition of ,lohnson"s Dictionary, in
thirtv-six iiuinbei-s (18.57-70); The Xalionalities of Europe
(ls«:{): OuHineg of General Philology (1878), etc. D. at
I'ntiiey, Mar. it, 1888. Revised by H. A.BtEKS.
LiltliP, \!ilh [from Icel. lodh, plur. ladhar : Dan. lad. a
Miiith's lathe]: a machine for shapiii;; materials by the
process culled tin-niiifj;. It has a great variety of forms, as
the footdathe, the en<riiie-lathe. Ilie lathe for turninj; irreg-
ular forms, or as classified by reference to the art to which
the ttH>l is peculiarly adapted. In the lathe the material to
I >e shaped is sustained by two centei-s, between which it is
given a mot ion of revoliilion, while a tuniiiig-lool. held by
the workman or by a tool-holder attached to and moved by
a slide- rest, cuts away the exterior, and gives the mass the
shape required in the finished piece.
The lathe was known in very early times. Its invention
is claimed by Diodorus Sicuhis for Talus, the grandson of
IHedalus: Pliny as<ribes it to Theodor of Sainos (740 n. c),
and states that Phidias aii<l Pericles were very exjiert in its
use. t'icero called the workmen using the lathe ra,^cularii.
PhidiiLs is suppose«l to have been the first to adapt the ma-
chine to turning wowi. It had jireviously been used in
turning vases and other forms in clay; and the potter's
wheel, which is a kind of lathe, was in use among the an-
cients, it is mentioned in the Bible as used by the He-
brews. Very rude lathes were
used in Europe at a period
which antedates history, and
tliev are still occasionaliy met
witli. Turned objects in wood
were exhibited at the inter-
national exhibition at Vienna
in 1873. made by the peasan-
try of Galicia.among tiie Car-
pathian forests, on these old
lathes. Fig. 1 n'presents this
ti>ol. The workman selects
t wo trees growing side by
side, and close bv a young
maple or beech. "Two iiia|ile
cones inserted in the trees
serve as centers, and the bluck
to be turned is fixed between
them, the eml being first trimmed to cylindrical shape to
take the bight of the rope, one end of which is attached to
the end i>f the saiiling and the other to the treadle seen be-
low. The cross-bar d is a rest to support the turning-tool.
The treadle being worked bv the foot, the piece revolves,
and the turning is reailily perf.irmed.
Lathes wiM-e adapleil to other than cvlindrical forms of
revolution in comparatively modern times. Leonardo da
\ inci, .)iu'(pies Hesson. Salomon ilc Cans, and .lercmie Car-
dan produced modifications and improvements, their object
biing the priHliiclion of oval and other geometrical figures.
Tl;e engine-lathe, with ils slide-rest, was invented bv .Joseph
iJramah. an Fnglish m.chanic. in 17114. The lathe for turn-
ing irregular forms was invented about 1820 by Thomas
Hlamliaiil, an ingenious mechanic of Massachusetts, and
was applied to lurniiig giin-stoeks and shoe-last.s.
The foot-lathe is driven bv the foot of the workman
operating a treadle beneath. \Vhen the tool is larger, and
is driven by steum or water-power, it is called a power-
lathe. Xearly every trade uses some form of lathe, which
by some peculiarity of detail is especially fitted for its
work. The forms of the lathe are therefore numerous,
while the variety of attachments is enormous.
Fig. 2 represents a very complete foot-lathe. A tioriTOn-
tal shaft, extending beneath the bed of the lathe from end
Fio 2.— Screw-eutting engine-lathe, witli foot-motion.
to end, carries a pulley balance-wheel, which by means of &
belt not shown drives the spindle which runs in bearings in
the head of the lathe at the left. This driving-shaft is
turned bv a treadle which is worked by the foot of the
turner. 'I'he slide-rest, seen at the middle of the lathe be-
tween the two heads, is moved either by hand, or antomat-
ioally, by a small shaft running from end to end of the
lathe, and partly concealed by that portion of the slide-rest
which carries the handle for attacliing and detaching it.
The tool is shown in its place in the tool-holder, which is
mounted upon and carried by the slide-rest. The back
center is shown al the right, and the back-liead, in which it
is carried, is adjustable in position at any distance from the
fixed liead, and is clamped by the nut and handle seen be-
neath it. The center is moved backward and forward by
the handle at the right, which turns a screw within the
shell, and wlien in ailjiistmenl it is clamped by a smaller
.set -screw or clamp. .<een above it. The train of gearing at
the end of the lathe ailjacent to the driving-head is used
to determine the relative motion of the tool and the work,
when it is desired to secure an exact velocity-ratio, as in
cutting screws. The gearing seen behind the driving-
spindle takes its
motion from the
pinion on that
spindle at the left,
and, turning with
the belt - cone,
transmits it, with
a reduced velocity-
ratio, to the gear
on the driving-
spindle at the
right. This gear
drives the live
spindle to which it
is keyed. With
this arrangement
the driviiig-pullcy
and its attached
jiinion turn loose-
ly on the driving-
spindle. A rapid
motion of the
driving - wheel is
thus C(>nverte<l in-
to a slow, si rong
movement of the live center, and the lathe is thus adapted
to turning metals. Throwing the biK'k-geiiring out of gear,
the largest gear can be clamiied to the belt-cone, and the
Fio. 3 Jeweler's latlie.
LATHROP
LATINI
117
(lriviiif,'-s|iin(lle then partakes of the rapid motion of the
latter, turning witli the higher velocity required in working
wood and other soft materials.
Both the Ijaek-geariug and the screw-cutting attachment
are usually dispensed with in lathes intended for turning
wood only. Fig. 2 represents a large foot-latlie, cajialjle of
takitig pieces 10 inches in diameter and 40 inches long. A
more usual size turns pieces 6 or 8 inches in diameter and
ahout 2 feet long. The jeweler's lathe, shown in Fig. '3,
illustrates this style.
A good lathe must be capable of turning a truly cylin-
drical surface, and of producing a perfectly plane face upon
the end of the cylinder, or of any piece secured in the lathe
in such manner that the face to be finished shall lie in the
transverse plane. These requirements are attained by skill-
ful design and careful fitting. Lathes used in screw-cut-
ting are driven by an arrangement of belting which permits
them to be turned in either direction at pleasure. As the
reversal of motion usually occurs very suddenly, frietion-
EuUeys, which are not affected by shocks, are generally used,
lathes for turning metals are driven at speeds much less
than tliose adopted in working wood. These speeds are :
Material. Feet per minute.
Iron, chilled white cast 5
Iron, soft gray 15
Steel 15
Iron, wrouglit 30
Brass and bronze 50-60
Wood 1,500-4,300
In the rose-engine lathe the spindle carrying the work is
movable, and is vibrated by a guide-wheel or i)attern-wheel
turned at a fixed rate of speed, and having an outline which
is determined by the shape of the design to be cut. Several
wheels being used in succession, intricate and beautiful geo-
metrical combinations are obtained. The lathe is now made
in immense variety of form and often of great size. The
largest are those employed in turning marine engine shafts
and in finishing heavy ordnance, the limit of size of the lat-
ter being at present about 120 tons.
Lathe-tools are usually of the finest crucible carbon steel.
The self-hardening steels sometimes employed are commonly
alloys of iron and chrome, tungsten, or manganese. They
permit heavier cuts and higher speeds, and reduce costs of
turning very considerably. Tools of chilled cast iron are
sometimes used. See Holtzapffel's Mechanical 3Ianipula-
tions; The Lathe and its Uses; Manuel da Tourneur; Ma-
terials of Engineering (vol. ii.). R. II. Thurston.
Latlirop, George Parsons: author; b. at Oahu, Sand-
wich islamls, Aug. 2.5, 1851. He was educated in New York
city and at Dresden, Germany; was connected editorially
with The Atlantic Monthly in 187.5-77 and with TTie Bos-
ton Courier in 1877-7U. He married a daughter of Nathaniel
Hawthorne, and published in 1876 A Study of Hawthorne,
and in 187!) he took up his residence at The Wayside, Haw-
thorne's old home in Concord, Mass. Of late years he has
lived in New York and at New London, Conn. Among his
publications are Rose and Mooftree, verse (1875) ; Afterglow
(1876) ; An Echo of Passion (1882) ; Spanish Vistas (1883) ;
Gettysburg, a Battle Ode (1888); Would Tou Kill Him?
(1889) ; Dreams and Bays, verse (1893). H. A. Beers.
Lathrop, Rose (Hawthorne) : poet ; b. at Lenox, Mass.,
May 20, 1851. A daughter of Nathaniel Hawthorne, her
childhood was passed mainly in Europe during her father's
consulate at Liverpool and his travels on the Continent
(185.3-60). In 1871 she was married to George Parsons
Lathrop. She has contrilnited stories and poems to the
magazines, and published a volume of verse. Along the Shore
(new ed. 1888). II. A. Beers.
Laticif'eroiis Tissues : See Histology, Vegetable.
Latil'ido* [Mod. Lat, liter., those belonging to the La-
tilus tribe ; La tilus, the typical genus (dimin. of Lat. la'tus,
broad) -t- Gr. patronymic suffix -(8ai, plur. of -ISris. descended
from] : a family of fishes of the sub-order Acanthopteri, dis-
tinguished by sub-jugular ventral fins, each of which has a
spine and five branching rays ; a more or less elongated body
(the vertebral column having more than ten abdominal and
fourteen caudal vertebra"), covered with scales, and with the
lateral line sub-median along the tail ; an elongateil dorsal
fin, of which the spinous portion is shorter than the soft ;
and a compressed head, with a snout truncated or moder-
ately produced. These are the principal diagnostic char-
acters of a group of fishes which have been variously placed
by different naturalists. The .species are few, and chiefly
confined to tropical America. The species of Caulolatilus
known as Blanquillos or whitefish are valued as food. One
species, the tilefish (Lopholatilus). of great beauty, is found
in the Gulf Stream. Revised by 1). S. .Iordan.
Latimer, IIl'Gh, I). D. : bishop and martyr; b. at Thur-
caston, Leicestersliire, England — it is generally said in 1491,
but Demaus thinks the date should be 1484 or 1485. He
was educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he was chosen
a fellow 1509; passed a bachelor 1.510, and a master 1514;
was cross-bearer to the university, and in 1516 became
Greek professor; was ordained a priest at Lincoln ; became
interested in the principles of the Reformation through the
labors of Bilney ; was disnussed from the university as a
heretic by Wolsey 1527; became chaplain to Henry' VIII.
1530 ; became rector of West Kingston, Wilts, 1581 ; was
excommunicated, but absolved on his submission, 1.532 ; was
chaplain to Anne Boleyn 1.534 ; became Bishop of Worcester
1.535 ; resigned his office 1539, not being alile to accept the
Six Articles (31 Hen. VIII., c. 14), and was imprisoned in
the keeping of the Bishop of Chichester ; was afterward si-
lenced by authority and sliut up in the Tower 1.546-47; de-
clined his former bishopric 1.548 ; was preacher to Edward
VI. 1549-.50; was imprisoned in the Tower by proclamation
of Queen Mary 1553 ; transferred to the Bocardo of Oxford,
with Ridley, 1554 ; tried and condemned by ortler of Car-
dinal Pole 15.55 ; and burned at the stake with Ridley in the
ditch near Baliol College, Oct. 16, 15.5.5. Latimer was one
of the most influential and fearless of the English Reform-
ers, and his admirable Sermons (4 vols., London, 1845) are
models of forcible and witty .speech. See his Life by Rev.
R. Demaus (1869). Revised by W. S'. Perry.
Latin Cliurch : that portion— the Western— of the Roman
Catholic Church which retains the use of the Latin lan-
guage in its Church service ; so called to distinguish it both
from the schismatical Greek Church and from that other
portion of the Roman Catholic Church which uses the Greek
language in its liturgy. These are called United Greeks,
and acknowledge the supremacy of the pope, in the same
sense as those of the Latin rite. See Bergier, Theologie, in
Encyclop. Methodicpie (1789. ii., 408) ; Millman, Latin Chris-
tianity (1854; ; Addis and Arnold, A Catholic Dictionary.
J. J. Keane.
Latin Empire ; the empire formed at Constantinople in
1304 by the crusaders under Baldwin IV., Count of Flanders,
and Boniface II., Marquis of Montferrat. Tui-ning aside
from their original purpose of invailing the Holy Land,
they interfered in a dynastic quarrel in the Eastern Empire,
and finally placed Baldwin on the throne. Tlie rule of the
Latins thus established was overthrown in 1261. See By-
zantine Empire.
Lati'ni, la'a-tee'ne'e [Lat., liter., Latins] ; originally the
name borne by the inhabitants of Latium associated in the
Latin league. After the dissolution of the league in 340 b. c,
and the annexation to Rome of a number of the communi-
ties which had formed it, the name continued to be borne by
the former members of the league which had maintained their
independence, and was extended to inhalntants of Italian
communities which were granted the same a<lvantages over
the other Roman allies, in their relation to Rome, as the mem-
bers of the Latin league had enjoyed. Their position was a
middle one between that of foreigners and Roman citizens ;
thus, for instance, they possessed the same business and ju-
dicial privileges (commercium) as the Roman citizen, but not
the right of intermarriage nor political equality. From the
Latin communities founded after the fifth century of the
city the Latinus could he admitted to Roman citizenship
only in case he had held a magistracy in the place from
which he came, while from the original or older Latin towns
it was only necessary for the individual to announce his in-
tention of transferring himself probalily at the time of the
census. The revocation of this right by Rome (95 B. c.) pre-
cipitated the social war, which resulted, however, in the ex-
tension of citizenship to the whole of Italy. From this time
on the privileges which the Latini had enjoyed were ex-
tended, under the same name (lus iMtii), to communities
outside of Italy, until by the edict of Caracalla in the third
century a. d. citizenship was extended to the provinces. See
Mommsen, Abrtss d. rom. Staatsrecht. p. 56 ff. (Leipzig,
1893). G. L. Hexdrrkson.
Latini, Brunetto : writer: b. in Florence, Italy, between
the years 1310 and 1230. In 1245 his name first appears
lis
LATIN LANGUAGE
in public (lifmn-'tits lie w.-i* » (iiii'li)li in politics, and in
jj.M X. of Ciustile. While lie
« iviitiiie liuelplis were ile-
1,. lain- .1 .u.iu.i|..i!i (Sept. 4. 12WI). iiml lie
\> ■,) live in exile for some years. Most of this
tu; , ..: in Fnince, |irobably in I'aris. The exael dale
of his i\>tiini is niikiiown, but in V2&J he was prolhonotarv of
the viear-fjeiierul of Charles irAiijoii in Tuscany, and in
1270 ill the same eapai'ity at I'isa. In ViT.i he wils scriha.
or chaiuellor. of the Florentine commune, ami from this
dat« till his .leath (Vi'M tir Vi'Xi) he held many im|iortant
olUces and t<Kik [nirt in the deliberations of the chief };ov-
crnin^ Ijodies of Florence, lie was a man of very {jreut
influence. Daute (/"/., xv.) sijeaks of him with extraor-
tlinarv restwrt, and his words have even {{iven risc^ to the
supiKKiition tliat he himsi'lf had him for a teai'her. Thus can
hanllv lie true in the exact sense of the word. Giovanni
Villain also attributes j.'ival importance to his influence in
■Florence. The chief works of Brunetlo Lalini that have
<-oiiie down to us are // Tt.soro (commonly known lis II
Tejiorettu, to distin^'uish it from the Italian versions of his
large work in French), a [locm in setleiKtrj in rhymed coup-
lets, desi-ribing au imaginury journey through the realms of
Xature, Virtui', and Love; and Li livms dou Tresor, a vast
«ncvcloi>.Tdia of the history aud science of the time, written
during the author's exile, or between 1262 and 12ti6. It is
in French, owing to Latini's belief in the greater excellence
and wilier liillusion of that tongue ; but it was speedily ren-
dered into Italian, both in prose and in verse. Besides these
works we have two minor [liexics and some bits of transla-
tion from t'icero. The Tesorello has been edited by B.
AViese in the ZeiUchrift f. rom. Phi!., vol. vii. (ISSS). The
TrimrUas been edited by I\ t'habaille. (I'aris, 18(5;j). See T.
Sundby, Otiln vita e delle aprre di Brnnetto Latini, trad.
dal da'nese da U. Jirnier (Florence, 1884) ; also the notice in
d'Ancona e Hacci, Munuale delta Ittleratura ituliana, vol.
i. (2d ed. Florence, IS'J-i). A. 11. Marsh.
Latin Langruoge: originally the language of the Latins,
i. e. the inhabitants of the district of Western Italy known
as Latium, the leading city of which was Rome. During
the republican period of Itonian history the Latin language
remained practically confined to its original home, but with
the inuugiinition of the imperial system it extended rapidly
to the provinces, and soon became — at least in the cities and
large towns — the language of the entire Uoinan empire.
Position of Latin in the Indo-European Familij. — Rela-
tion to I lie oilier Laiigiinf/es of Itali/. — Until recently schol-
ars generally accepted the theory that Latin was historically
more cl<)S«-ly related to (rrcek than to any other group of
the Indo-Kuropean family of languages. Supporters of this
view assumed that at some eiu anterior to history there ex-
isted a (ira'co-ltalic community, whose ultimate dis.solution
gave rise to the Greek and Italic races as separate linguistic
groups. This theory seems to have been suggested rather
by the intimate connection between the civilizations of the
Greeks and Kornans than by any valid linguistic data. Such
<lata, in (lu-l, are almost wholly lacking. So far as Latin
has a dotinite historical relationship with any one division
ol the Indo-European family it. is with the Keltic group.
Thus Latin and Keltic stand alone in the possession of the
peculiar passive formation in ;•, e. g. amor, aniiitur; in the
future formation in -/<«, e.g. amabo, and in the extension of
/t- steins bv an n- suflix, e. g. da-ti-on-is, Gr. i6ai% (tor Saris).
Sec l.NiMj-Liitoi'E.v.N Lanhuaues.
As regards the connection of Latin with the other lan-
guages of Italy, it stands in the closest relationship to the
Uinbro-Samnitic dialects (Uinbriaii, Sabellian, and (Jsean),
being descended with these from a primitive Italic parciit-
spewh. Of the other languages of ancient Italy, the Gallic,
of Northern Italy, as a member of the Keltic group, was
related to Latin. The .Messapian of Southeastern Italy seems
to have been at leiust Indo-Kuropean, but it is s'canlily
known. The Ligiirian was not Indo-Huropean. The Etrus'-
can still remains as niucli of a riddle as ever; some scholai-s,
as Ueecke, conlblinlly as.sert its Indo-Kuropean origin, and
associate it with Latin ; others, however, dispute these con-
clusions. Sec Italic Dialects.
.Staoks in tiik Devkloi-.mext op the Latin Lanouaoe.
A. Preliterary Period.— Vrom the earliest times down to
the beginning of Uoinan literature, about 240 u. c. Only
8<'anty remains of this period have descemled to us. The
chief of these are the Carini'ii Saliare, ('arincn Arvale, Leges
Kegiie, and Laws of the Twelve Tables. The text of the
Carmen Arvale and Carmen Saliare is extremely uncertain,
being constituted in radically different ways by different
scholars, while the language of the Leges I{cgia> and of the
Laws of the Twelve Tables (the latter assigned to 450 B. c.)
has become greatly altered in the course of transmission.
>Iore trustworthy than the foregoing are a few inscriptions.
The most famous of these, the Manios inscription, on a
fibula found at l'ra>nesle, is the oldest monument of the
Latin language. ISucclieler refers it to the sixth century
n. c. Of later date (JioO K. r. f) is the Dveiios inscription,
on a curiously shajwd earthen jar found at Home in 18^0.
Later still are a few inscriptions on coins, drinking-vesscis,
and the like, ranging from ;i50 to 250 n. c.
B. Archaic Period. — From the beginning of the litera-
ture (about 240 B. c.) to Cicero (81 n. c). This is the forma-
tive perioil of the language. The poet Eniiius(2;!!»-16i) B.C.)
is a central figure here, from the point of view of the lan-
guage as well as of the literature, lie first introduced the
ouantitative meters of the tireeks in jilace of the native
Latin meter known as Saturiiian. He also enriched the vo-
cabulary of the language, and added to its precision and
flexibility. Inscriptions are found in this period in increas-
ing number, and give testimony of the greatest value as to
growth of the language.
C. 'Ihe Cicerimian Period. — From the appearance of
Cicero (81 B. o.) to the death of Augustus (14 A. u.). Cicero
elaborated and perfected the prose of this era. As molded
by him the language is characterized by the development of
the periodic structure, great strictness of syntacticid usage,
and by regularity of idiom. There was one fixed standard
of expression, admitting only the slightest deviations.
D. Period of Silver Latin. ^Vnnn the death of .Augustus
(14 A. D.) to the death of Hadrian (138 a. D.). The chief
characteristic of this period is a marked reaction against
the restrictions of the preceding era. The strict prose of
the Ciceronian age now shows the effect of two influences —
the infiisicm of poetic words and constructions, and the ad-
mission of idioms from the colloquial language. Also a
marked striving for rhetorical -effect. Seneca, Pliny the
Younger, and Tacitus are typical representatives.
E. The Archaizing Period. — From the death of Hadrian
(138 A. D.) to 200 A. D. This i>erioil is (•haniclerized by the
revival in the literary language of the diction of the Archaic
Period. Pronto and his pupil, Aulus Gellius, are conspicuous
representatives of the age.
F. Period of IJecay.— From 200 A. v. to GOO A. D. In this
period the language suffers extensively from the infusion of
colloquial words and idioms. In the provinces, too, special
dialectic peculiarities began to develop. These circumstances
ultimately led to the complete decay of the literary Latin as
a living language. It continued to be used by the clergy, by
scholars, and lor diplomatic intercourse; elsewhere it dieS
out toward the close of this peri<Kl, and its place was taken
by the collo(juial idiom {lingua rustica).
Alphabet.
The oldest Latin alphabet consisted of twenty-one letters,
a, J, c, d, e, f, z, h, i (both vowel ami coii.soiiant ). k. I, m, n,
0, p,q, r, s, t, u (both vowel and consniuiiit), .r. These char-
acters were borrowed from the (ireek alphabet of the Chal-
cidian colonies of Lower Italy and Sicily. The special typo
of the Greek alphabet employed by these colonists was that
known as the \v'est Greek. Peculiarities of this were C for
Gamma, the use of Q (Koppa), and the eiuployment of .\ for
.'■instead <>( ch. The Latin adopted all of these. As the
Latin language lacked the aspirates (/>/(, th, ch), it was unable
to utilize Greek *. 0. * (= ch in West Greek) as letters; it
accordingly einjiloyed them as numerals — * = 1,000; 9 =
100; V = 50. These characters subseciueiitly underwent sev-
eral changes of form, * becoming first a>, and later X, whence
M; ©(perhaps through G) bec-aiiie C; V bec:.me j, i, and
finally L. In the earliest Latin iilpliabet K was used for f,
and C fori?. .Subsequently K jiractically ilisap|ieared from
use, C took its place, and a new cliiiracter. G, was formed for
(/. Yet C for (i survived in the abbreviations C and Cn for
OaiuK and Gnaeun. Z disapiieared early (about 300 n. C),
but was introduced again, shortly before the time of Augus-
tus, for the purpose of tiansi iterating Greek words. Y was
introduced from the Greek for the same luirpose and at the
same time. The Emperor Claudius eiKleavored to secure
curreiK-y for three other characters, viz., I-. to designali' the
sound intermediate between i and ii ; d for v. o foi" ?"•
The.se were employed to some extent during Claudius's reign,
but do not appear later. Long vowels were denoted some-
LATIN LANGUAGE
110
times by doubling, e. g. paasfores, sometimes by a mark
like an accent, called the apex, e. g. actvs. Long i had a
special form higher than the utlier letters, e.g. dIvo. Latin
was nearly always written from left to right. The Manios
and Dvenos inscriptions arc written from right to left, and
one inscription is written ^ouffTpocpriSif. ('apiials only were
known in the classical period ; the smaller letters arose later.
See Alphabet.
Proxunciation.
The vowels had substantially the same sounds as in Ger-
man or Italian. Long and short e, however, differed in
quality ; e was close, e was open. So also 5 was close, d was
open. A similar difference of quality probably existed be-
tween I and Ji; y had the sound of French u, German u.
Of the diphthongs, cf was pronounced like ai in aiale ; ce like
oi in oil; ei as in rein; (tu like uw in hoio; eu with the two
vowels pronounced in quick succession; ui like we. Of the
consonants, c and (/ were always hard, as in can, get ; s
always voiceless, as in sin. In the early language final s is
often omitted, indicating that its sound was weak. V was
pronounced like English w; y (i. e. consonant 4) had the
sound of English y; ^ was either zd or dz. The aspirates,
ph, th, ch (occurring mainly in Greek words) were through-
out the classical period jjronounced like llie simple/), /, c,
with a following breathing, as in chop- house, hot-house,
block-house : late in the history of the language (fourth cen-
tury A. D.) /j/t seems to have developed into the spirant /.
Pinal syllables in m in poetry in some way became absorbed
in the initial syllable of the following word, if that began
with a vowel, but the process is not understood.
. Phoxology.
A. Vowels. — Latin a, e, i, o, u correspond in the main to
the same sounds in the parent-speech, but many special
phonetic changes occur. Thus an originally unaccented a
becomes e in close syllables, also when final or before r, e. g.
particeps for parficaps; accepfus for dccaptus (see below.
Accent) : pede for peda ; reddere for redddre ; before a single
consonant or ng unaccented a becomes ■?, e. g. adigo for
addgo ; contingo for contango. Short e becomes i in un-
accented syllables before a single consonant (except r), e. g.
colligo for collego ; but generis, not geniris. Short i becomes
I before r, e. g. sero for siso \ also often when final, e. g.
mare tor mari; lere for levi. Short o in unaccented syl-
lables regularly changed to u, e. g. filius for earlier filios
(found in inscriptions); vehunt ioT vehont. Before r, o re-
mained unchanged, e. g. temporis ; so also after u and v until
the Augustan age, e. g. mortuos, servos. Short u before
labials, beginningabout the Augustan age, becomes Hn many
words, e. g. optimus for earlier optumus; libet for lubet.
B. Diphthongs. — In the earliest stages of the language
preserved in inscriptions the Indo-European diphthongs are
much better represented than later. \et by 200 B. c. orig-
inal ei had a[iparently already become a monophthong, and
en had passed into ou, e. g. douco for deuco. Of the other
diphthongs ai, oi, eu, ou appear frequently in early inscrip-
tions ; ai subsequently became ae, or, in imaccented syl-
lables, i, e. g. occldo for uccaido ; oi became regularly ^i, e. g.
unus for earlier oinos; in a few words the diphthong was
retained and written m, e. g. fwdus, moenia ; an was retained,
but in unaccented syllables became u, e. g. co7icludo for
cbnctando; on soon passed into u, e.g. diico for douco. The
Indo-European diphthongs, di, iii, oi. du, eu, ou, had, with
the possible exception of Hi, disappeared before Latin be-
came an independent language.
Ablaut. — The Indo-European ablaut (see Ablaut) is much
less perfectly preserved in Latin than in other languages of
the Indo-European family, e. g. Greek or Gothic. Com-
paratively few Latin roots exhibit all of the phases which are
theoretically possible in the different ablaut series. Ex-
amples are the following:
e-series : rc-ri, rd-tus (a for a) ;
a-series: std-men, stu-tus (a for a) ;
o-series : do-nuni, dd-tus (a for j) ;
e-series : gen-us. gi-gn-o ;
a-series: amb-ages, ug-ilis, ug-o;
(5-series : fod-i, fod-ere.
C. Vowel-changes.— \. Contraction. liike vowels regti-
larly contract (frequently, too. even when separated by h),
e. g. copia for conpia; prendere fnr prehendere; nemo for
nehemo ; nil for nihil. For unlike vowels the following
princi])les prevail : ea, eo, ia, iii, ua, ue remain unchanged ;
so also all combinations where the second vowel is long and
accented. In case of other combinations contraction takes
place, and tlie quality of tlie first vowel prevails. Thus a +
e give a, e. g. amdre for amaere ; a +u give a, e. g. malo for
ma(i')olo; ae + I give (P, e. f:.. prcetor for pree-itor; e -t- a
give e, e. g. dego for deago ; o + </, give o, e. g. cogo for coago ;
0 -I- e give o, e. g. promere for proeinere. 2. Parasitic Vow-
els. Before the liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel fre-
quently develops. Before I and ;« this takes the form of u
(earlier o), e. g. pociilum for po-clum ; sa'culum for sa:clum ;
dracuma for dracma ; volumus for volmus. Before n the
parasitic vowel takes the form of i, and is found chiefly in
Greek loan-words, e. g. mina (fiva.), teehina irixi^). Before
r we have a parasitic vowel in words of the type of ager for
agr; acerioracr. .3. Compensative Lengthening. A short
vowel was often lengthened in apparent compensation for
one or more omitted consonants. This phenomenon is
chiefly, if not exclusively, confined to cases where one of the
two consonants is s ; the other is usually a liquid or nasal.
Examples are equos for equons; p'llum for 2}>nslum; luna
for lucsna ; suhtemen for subtecsinen ; dimoveo for dismoveo.
4. Syncope. Many words show the dropping out of a short
vowel, e. g. ardor for aridor (aridus); audere for avidere;
valde for valide. So also words of the type of ager, acer
arose by syncojje from agros, agrs, etc. 5. Apocope. Final
short vowels frequently disappear, e.g. e/(eTi) ; aut for azUi;
quot for quoti ; tot for toti (toti-dem), and in the personal
endings of the primary tenses of the verb, e. g. e.'it for esti
(iarl) ; regit for regeti, etc. This phenomenon was originally
confined to these cases where tlie following word began with
a vowel. Then the apocopated form became general. 6.
Assimilation of Vowels. Instances are tugurium for teguri-
um ; homo for hemo ; purpura for porpura. The phenome-
non is not frequent.
D. Consonants. — L Liquids (/, r). These frequently in-
terchange in order to avoid the repetition of either Z or r in
successive syllables, e. g. militaris for militalis ; lucrum for
luclum ; ca'ruleus for cceluleus {ca-lnm). Sometimes the
repetition is avoided l)y dropping a \Uimd. e. g. prcestigicB
for prcestrigice.. By ablaut the liquids sometimes became in
I.-E. sonant, and then developed as Latin or («;•), ol (ul), e.g.
porta for prid; curvus for crvos; occultus for ocellus. 2.
Nasals (m, n). These present few peculiarities as consonants,
but like the liquids they often became in I.-E. sonant, and
then commonly developed as en {in), em (im), e. g. septem for
septm; decern for deem; mil item for mililm ; sinqjlex for
smple.r; pinguis for pnguis. 'd. Wutes. Most important
here is the development in Latin of the Indo-European voiced
aspirates, hh, dli, gh palatal, and gh velar. These appear as
follows :
Indo-Eur. hh. dh, gh (palatal), gh (velar).
Latin / (initial), / (init.), h (init.), / (init).
i (medial), (/,i (med.), h,g(med.), gu, r(med.).
Examples are: fui, root bhu- ; albus for albhos; fumus
for dhumos ; medins for medhi/os ; rubra- for rudhro- (b be-
fore r) ; hiems for ghiems ; reho for vegho ; ango for angho ;
(g after 7t) ; form us for ghonnos; ninguit for sninghit (gu
after n); jiicis for snighis {v between vowels). The last
three examples iUustrate the velar gh. The other Indo-
European mutes p, b (labial), t, d (dental), k, g (guttural,
including both palatals and velars), present, for the most
part, few peculiarities in Latin. Final p in op, ap, sup (by
apocope for opi, apo, supo ; cf. Gr. iari, xmi) was assimilated
to b before an initial voiced consonant, and then the forms
with b became general. D shows a tendency to become I,
e. g. solium for sodium (sedere) ; lingua for dingua ; lacruma
for dacruma. Palatal k and c regularly become c and g in
Latin ; but velar k gives regularly qu, e. g. quis, sequor. -que,
while velar g gives v, if initial, e. g. rorare, from root gor-,
hnt gu after 71, e. g. stinguo. 4. Spirants. .Sis of chief im-
portance. Between vowels tliis became r (rhotacism) about
the close of the Preliterary Period. The tradition of the
older spelling survived, however, and the grammarians cite
arbosem, pignosa, etc. Some apparent exceptions to rho-
tacism occur, e. g. misi, causa (for m'lssi, canssa) ; also some
real ones, c. g. mi.ier, basium, cresnries.
E. Consonant Changes. — I. Loss of Consonants. Many
cumbersome consonant groiqis are simplified. Thus at the
beginning of words, e. g. locus for stlocns : sternuo for
psternuo; tilia for ptilia. So also in the process of inflec-
tion or word-formation, when three or more consonants
come together in the interior of a word, all were regularly
dropped except two, e. g. snesco for sued.sco ; di.sco for
didcsco ; asporto for absporto ; but a mute and liquid may
120
LATIN LANGUAGE
stand with anotlier consonant, e. g. illuKtris. 2. Assimila-
tion. In tile interior of words a voiced mute (A, (/, ff) regu-
larly boioiiU'S voiceless U'fore ttiiotlier voiceless mute or a,
e. g. sfriptiiin for xrrili-litm ; scn'pxi for ncrib-si ; iicliim for
ligliim. Analogously the first of two mutes is assimilated to
the secoml. e. g. xiicc'e iixeu kir fiilice imeo ; so io = </'/ ; f>f —f '•
,{g = gg ; Jf = f ; dc = cc : tc = a: So further dl =11 ; tl =
II: bn. pn'= liiii; Id = II ; Is =11: rx = rr. Nasals also
adapt themselves to the following consonant, e. g. giiendam
for mifindiim. etc. :{. Final Cunsonant.s. At the end of a
word miinv consonant combinations were simplified; e.g.
laf for lac't : eor for cord ; /who for ^oitlx : piih for piiHu.
4. Other changes. Metathesis occurs in nd for dn. e. g. fun-
dus for fiidniix : uitd<i for udiitt. So also with change of /
to d in pundo for p<itiw ; leiidu for lelno. Initial i/y' became
/, e. g. Jupiltr for Djeu-piter.
V. Dropping iif Si/lliiblf-i.—U two successive syllables are
similar in souiid one is often omitted, e. g. lapicida for lupi-
dieida ; venejiciis for fenenifieus ; calamitosus for ealamita-
tosus.
Accent.
The Latin accent was essentially a stress accent, and not
musical like the Urcek. In the historical period the follow-
ing principles for its position prevailed : 1. The accent was
strictly limited to the last three syllables of a word. 2.
Polvsyllables were never accenled unon the last syllable.
3. The accent stood np<m the next to the last syllabic, if that
was long; otherwise upon the svllablcprccetling. Although
the Latin accent was essentially a stress accent, yet there
are good grounds for believing that Latin was accented less
energetically in the historical period than are Knglish or
German, for example. In the prehistoric [jcriod, on the
other hand, there is clear evidence that the accent was more
strongly stressed. The accent was also much less restricted
in position at that time than later, regularly receding to the
initial syllable of a word. Thus such forms as peperci, ce-
c'ldi point to an earlier peparci, ceaedi. with strong accent
on the first syllable ; so also ejrerreo, rontubeniatix, confirio
point to an original exarren, cuiifaberiialis, confario. The
principles laid ilowii by Koman grammarians for the ein-
loyincnt of the acute, grave, and circumflex accents in
latiii are [irobably mere inventions modeled after the Greek
accents. See Accent.
iNh-LECTION.
A. yoiins. — 1. Cases. Of the eight Indo-European cases,
the Latin recognizes only six in the regular declensicm of
nouns: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative,
ablative. The liwative is preserved in town-names of d
and 0 stems, and in a few other words, e. g. lionue,, Cor-
inthi. humi, milititp, while the instrumental appears in the
so-called dative and ablative plur. of a and o stems {menxis,
hortix), and probably also in the ablative sing, of consonant
stems, e. g. /^crff. Moreover, in the so-called genitive sing,
of d and o stems {meitati; harti) we probably have original
locatives that have assumed genitive functions. All, there-
fore, of the eight Indo-Kuropean cases are actually repre-
sented in the Latin noun inflection. 2. Stem Formation.
The stems of Latin nouns end in -d (1st declension), -o (2d
declension), consonants, I, 7, ii. and diphthongs (:id declen-
sion), u (4th declension), and i- (.'ilh declension). All of
these are inherited from the Imlo-Kuropcan parent-.speech,
except the last, which is an independent development .if
the Latin, -i. Case-emlings. As regards case-endings, Latin
nouns show peculiarities of two kinds. First, certain end-
ings originally belonging to the pronominal declension have
become attached to the noun-iieclension, e. g. the noin. plu-
rals m>nx(n (for menxux), horii (for /tortus) ; also the gen. plu-
rals me iixfir 11)11, /lorloriiin. Si'conilly. the original case-end-
ings, parlicularly as added to vowel stein.s, have become
much disguLsed as the result of phonetic changes. The fol-
lowing are the case-endings as they originally existed : Sing,
nom. -s or lacking; gen. -ex (rarely -x,-ox): dat. -ni'; ace.
-m ; voc. wanting; abl. -«</ ; locr. -f; instr. -n, Plur. nom.
-fs ; gen. -dm ; dat. -box ; ace. -»« : voc. like nom. ; abl. -box ;
instr. -CIS (f). Neuters of o-stems have -m in the nom. ace.
sing.; neuters of consonant sicins have no ending in the
sing.; all have -d in nom. ace. plur. Of the dual number
no certain traces survive in the Latin noun. See Declen-
sion.
B. Pronouns. — Personal pronouns are forme<l from the
stems me- and tins- for the Isl person ; Ire- an<l rox- for the
2<1 person; sve- is the stem of the reflexive. From all of
these arc formed possessive pronouns. Demonstratives are
t
formed from the stems ho-, ei-. The stem of the Indo-
European pron. xo, xa. tod is probably to be recognized as
the second inember of the Latin demonstratives ixte. ipxe,
ille. The relative and interrogative stems are quo- and qui-,
corresponding to (treck no-, n-. The inflection of all these
stems is extremely complicated.
C. Verbs. — 1. Conjugations. The original distinction, still
well ])rescrved in Greek, between verbs with and without
the tliematic (connecting) vowel (-« verbs, and -/u verbs)
has almost totally disappeared in Latin. Nearlv all Latin
verbs are inflected with the thematic vowel. \'estiges of
the untliematic conjugation are seen in ease, and in some
forms of ferre, velle, dare, and a few othere, c. g. es-l, fer-t,
vul-tis, dt'i-mux. 2. Voices. The Latin recognizes only two
voices, the active and i>assivc — the latter distinguished by the
peculiar endings in -r. The passive is really a development
from the middle: it originally represented the subject as
acting upon itself or in its own interest. Traces of this
primitive middle force frequently appear, c. g. galeam in-
duitur, " he puts the helmet on (himself).'' 3. Moods. The
Latin has an indicative, subjunctive, and imperative mood.
Yet these do not always represent corresponding liulo-
European formations. Thus the fut. perf. ind. is in origin a
subjunctive. So also the fut. ind. in -am. The perf. subjv.
(e. g. viderim) is in origin an optative, as are also the pres.
subjunctives in -im. as sim, velim, etc. The Indo-Kuroiiean
optative as a recognized mode has disapjicarcd. Latin also
has an infinitive, which is in origin a verbal noun in the
dat. or loc. case. There are two verlial nouns (gerund and
supine), and four participles. 4. Tenses. There are six
tenses: the present, imperfect, future, perfect, plujierfect.
future perfect. Of these the plup. ind. and subjv. are new
creations of the Latin, being really aorist formations. The
fut. perf. ind. also is in origin an aor. subjv. The perf. ind.
is the result of the fusion of the true perfect with the aorist.
The Latin also has developed several new types of this tense,
viz., in -xi, -vi, -ui. The imperf. and fut. in -bam and -bo
(root bliu-. become) are new I'oriuations. The imiicrf. sulijv.
is historically an aor. ; so also the perf. subjv. 5. Augment
and He<lu|>lication. The Indo-European augment (p-). the
sign of past time, has totally di.sappeared. and the redupli-
cation is no longer largely represented. 6. Pers(>nal End-
ings. The earliest endings were: act., primary, sing.; 1st
pers. -0, 2d pers. -si, 3d pars, -ti: plu., 1^ pcrs. -hjo.s, 2d
pers. -tes, 3d pers. -nfi. Secondary, sing., 1st pers. -m, 2d
pers. -s, 3d pers. -f ; plu., 1st pers. -7nos, 2d pcrs. -tes, 3d
pers. -nt. Passive, both [irimary and secondary, sing.. 1st
pers. -r, 2d pers. -ris (-re), 3d pers. -tur ; plu.. 1st pers. -mur,
2d pers. , 3d pers. -iitur. The perf. ind. act. originally
had sjiecial endings of its own, but in the fusion of perfect
and aorist these disappeared.
Word-formation.
Words are forme<i either by appending suflixes or by
composition. Of noun suflixes the coniincmest are o. d. iro,
clo (for tlo), io, vo, no, mo, to (ero, tero), lo {ulo), bro, to, co,
{Ico, ico), all with eorrespon<ling d-forms; li (ri), tion, tat,
en, on {ien, ion), men, tor, nt, os (es). The comjiarative suf-
fix was ios, that of su]ierlatives originallv tiimo-. Verbs
form their present stem from the root by tlie suflixes o, no,
xci), to, io, ao, CO, uo. The commonest types of noun and
verb compounds are those in which the first part is a prep-
osition cr one of the inseparable prefixes re, in, dis, etc.,
e. g. corn-par, re-dux, in-figo.
Syntax.
Latin syntax at all periods, in conformity with the prev-
alent tcndcnc'V of the language, was much less free than
(ireek; at the same time its modes of expression were
logically more correct. In the cases the prominent role
plaved by the ablative is especially notewortliy. 'J'his case,
which formally was a result of the fusion of the true abl.,
the loc, and the instr.. also performed the various functions
of these three cases. It also dcvclojicd certain new uses
specifi<'ally Latin, e. g. abl. of quality, abl. of coniparison,
the abl. absolute. The use of cases with prepositions is
somewhat restricted in Latin as conqiarcd with (ireek.
Neither the gen. nor dat. is construed with prepositions,
and but few govern the abl. In the moods the Indo-Euro-
pean opt. and subjv. have become fused into one. yet their
original syntactical functions are preservcil. Thus we have
a volitivo (hortatory and jussive) use, descended from the
Indo-European subjv.; on the other hanil, we have the
subjv. to express wishes and the notion of contingency or
LATIN LANGUAGE
LATIN LITERATURE
121
possibility (potential subjv.). These last represent the In-
do-Kuropean opt. From these primary functions of the
subjv. have been developed a variety of special uses. In
fact, the wide employment and manifold uses of the siibjv.
constitute one of the most characteristic features of Latin
syntax. Noteworthy, too, is the great extension in use of
the Bubjv. within the historical period, the climax being
reached in .Silver Latin. The aorist, though no longer rec-
ognized as sueli, nevertheless still survived in the so-called
historical use of the perf. ind. ; certain uses too of the perf.
subjv. show the aor. origin of that tense.
Vocabulary.
One of the most significant features of the Latin vocabu-
lary is the great numljer of (rreek words which it has ail-
raitted — a nat\iral result of Home's great indebtedness to
the Hellenic civilization. Tliese loan-words, which entered
the language early in Rome's history, in time were num-
bered by thousands, and came from eVery department of
life and thought. Less numerous are loan-words from
other languages. A few have been drawn from Keltic
sources, e. g. petorrita ; a few from other Italic dialects, e. g.
hos, popina ; from Etruscan, e. g. histrio ; also from Oriental
sources, chiefly Semitic and Egyptian.
Prosody.
The Latin within historical times gives clear evidence of
the existence of two radically different metrical systems.
The earliest Latin verse of which we have any knowledge —
the so-called Saturnian — was, like English, an accented one,
i.e. the essence of the verse lay in the succession of ac-
cented and unaccented syllables. This is in harmony with
the theory above set forth concerning the strongly stressed
character of the early Latin accent. The Saturnian verse
was still in vogue at the dawn of Roman literature ; but
almost at the very outset of the literary period we note the
rise of a metrical or quantitative verse, i. e. one in which
the basal principle was a succession of long and short syl-
lables. While tliere can be no doubt that the predominant
influence of Greek literature had much to do with the rapid
extension of the quantitative verse, yet it seems probable
that the greatest cause of this was the change in the lan-
guage itself, which had apparently largely lost its strongly
accentuated character and become essentially quantitative.
Dialects.
As compared with Greek, Latin practically presents no
dialectic variations. Like the Roman state, the Roman
speech was, during its flourishing period, in the main homo-
geneous. In its earlier stages the only dialectic differences
were those existing between the literary language and the
language of common life, senno cottidianus. The distinc-
tion between these two of course began to exist as soon as
there was a literature, and was early recognized by the Ro-
mans themselves. Beginning with the days of Plautus and
Terence the divergence between them became more and
more pronounced with successive centuries until it cul-
minated, in the latest period of the language, in the estab-
lishment of two independent idioms — the literary language
and the lingua rustica, or the language of the people. The
former of these remained the possession of scholars and the'
Church ; the latter developed into the Romance, assuming
a different character in the different provinces, Gaul, Spain,
etc. Our sources of knowledge of the popular language are
inscriptions and the later writers, particularly from the
third century on. An earlier source of great value is
Petronius's Satiricon (60 A. D.). Earlier still we find scat-
tered specimens of the popular language in the comedians
and the satirists.
The best general Latin grammar is that of Kiihner, Aus-
fuhrliche Orammatik (3 vols., 1877 f.). The grammars of
Jladvig and Ruby are also of value. On pronunciation the
most valuable work is that of Seelmann, Die Austprache des
Lutein (1885) ; valuable too is that of Ellis, Quantitative
Pronunciation of Latin (1876). On phonology and inflec-
tions the standard works are Brugmann's Grundriss der
vergleichenden Granimatik (3 vols., 1886-93, incomplete)
and Stolz's Lateiniarhe Grammatik (vol. ii. in Miiller's
H<indbuch der Ktaxtiisrhen Attertnmsu'isxeyischnft. 2d cd.
1880). On syntax the leading special works arc Sclnnalz in
vol. ii. of Miiller's Hnndt)uch \ Driiger, Hifitoriache, Syntax
der Lateinischen Sprache (3 vols., 2d ed. 1878 f.) ; and Del-
bri'ick in Brugmann's Grundriss (vol. iii., 1893, incomplete).
Charles E. Bennett.
Latin Literature : the literature of the people of Latium,
especially of Rome. The literature of Rome is less original
and complete than that of Greece, with which it stands
most closely connected, but it can hardly be said to be less
important. Roman law everywhere underlies the constitu-
tions of Europe; the language of Rome is the parent of sev-
eral of her chief tongues ; her literature has alwavs been
the chief study of the schools; she has given to Christianity
its nomenclature : and from her grejit power of assimilation
and adaptation she has preserved to us whatever was most
valuable of the Greeks, and probably of all other nations
with which she came in contact.
The literary life of the Romans may be divided into three
periods : (1) The Archaic Period, beginning a. u. c. .514 (b. c.
240), when Livius Andronicus exhibited the first regular
drama in Latin at Rome ; (2) the Middle Period, the Cicero-
nian and the Augustan age, which begins A. u. c. 671 (b. c.
83) ; (3) the Imperial Age, beginning a. d. 14.
The Archaic Period. — The earliest literature proper of
the Romans, as of other nations, was poetic, and the earliest
author Livius Andronicus, a. u. c. 470-550. He translated
the Odyssey of Homer into Saturnians, and also rendered
from the Greek tragedies, imitating the easier Greek meters.
Cn. Nievius began to exhibit plays a. u. c. 519, and with
more originality than Andronicus ; he also wrote an epic in
Saturnians, the Bellum Poenicum. T. Maccius Plautus (cir-
ca A. u. c. 500-570) was a prolific writer of comedy. Of the
plays ascribed to him, twenty-one were considered by Varro
certainly genuine, of which we have twenty, with'eonsid-
eralili' fragments of the Viduiaria, and nineteen others were
proljalily genuine. He borrowed his plots from the Greeks,
but worked them up with great ability. His measures are
skillfully handled, and sometimes witli harmonious effect ;
his diction is of great importance in the history of Latin.
His plays long maintained their ]iopularity, and have been
extensively studied aiul imitated in modern times. Q.
Ennius (a. u. c. 51.5-.585) had a higher social and political
position than the literary men that preceded him, and was
the first to attain the full privileges of a Roman citizen.
Cicero was very fond of him. and largely quoted him in his
writings, and Horace styles him Pater J^nnius. as the
founder of Latin poetry. His greatest work was the An-
nales, or history of his nation, from the arrival of .^Eneas in
Italy down to the poet's own time. He also wrote trage-
dies, mostly after Euripides and Safurce — that is, prob-
ably, miscellaneous poems in various measures. We possess
them only in fragments. Jl. Pacuvius (a. u. c. 534-622), the
nephew of Ennius, was a painter and a poet. There are ex-
tant fragments of his tragedies imitated from Sophocles and
Euripides ; we have the titles of thirteen of his plays. To
this period belong Statins Cajcilius, an able imitator of the
Greek New Comedy, and Luscius Lanuvinus, the rival of
Terence, against whom all the Terentian Prologues are di-
rected except those of the Hecyra. P. Terentius (died a. u. c.
595) at an early age came from Carthage to Rome, where he
was a slave of the senator Terentiu.s, by whom he was edu-
cated and set free. He was intimate with Scipio Afrieanus
the Younger, and hence the ramor that Scipio was the au-
thor or elaborator of the plays of Terence. Six comedies
are extant, and proliably these are all that he wrote. They
were great favorities with the ancients, as they have been
with the moderns. He has not the versatility of Plautus,
neither has he his extravagance ; his verse is not so varied,
but it is more melodious ; his language is truly Roman, and
his phrases often reappear in the best works of the best
period of the literature. His plays also have often been
imitated in the modern drama. Roman prose, like English,
was reached by an intermediate step, the earliest Roman
historians employing the Greek language. These were Q.
Fabius Pictor (circa A. u. c. 525) and L. ('incius Alimentus.
JI. Porcius Cato (a. u. c. 530-605) was the first real Latin
prose-writer. His writings were numerous and various. He
wrote Origines in seven books, an account of the Italian
tribes, and published instructions on agriculture, health,
and eloquence, but only his De Agri euJtura has been pre-
served entire. There were orators of this period, as Q.
Fabius Maximus, M. Cornelius Cethegus. the Gracchi, and
others; and also jurists, as Sextus ^-Elius, who wrote the
fir.^it Roman treatise on law. L. Accius or Attius (a. u. c.
584-668) wrote tragedies after the Greek, and dealt also
with purely Ronum subjects. He wrote other works, and
resembled Ennius in the varied character of his writings,
but he was more polished and accurate in style. L. Afranius
(b. about A. u. c. 605) wrote Fahulm Togata;, of which we
12-2
LATIN LITEKATURE
1..
ii)
liavc tlip tiili *. He comhineil the popiilar manner of Plau-
liis wii' iiif iif Ti'ivnce. C. I.ucilius (a. r. i% 574-
r of srtiin- pro|K'r {iJur. H. ii. 1 and i. 10).
lis <-lii-v* wiTi' nniiuTons, of wliirli tlien?
<l upwanl of IKX) frai.'ini-iit>, vrrv valuable
. ..rly Ijitiii. An iui|iurlaiil liUTiiry work of
.s . .luil onV much ooiiiiil and usoil in tlio Middle
A. lie tlowii to us in 1 ho 7i'/n/oc(<v< (i<i /if ri»nHi«m,
a ioiM|pi<ii- manual adapted from Greek souroes. It is by an
unknown hand, not I'oniitieius.
The Middle /'erioi/.— This is the froldon affp of Latin
literature, and may \tc sulidivideil into two peritnls in the
first of wliieh, the I'ieeronian, prose culminated ; and iu the
seeond, the .\ui,'«stan, i>ootry was ].iv-eminent.
The I'ieerimiiin .Ij/f.— M. Tercntius Varro (a. U. r. 638-
727), styled by tjuintilian vir Homanontm ernditixsimiix, of
ancient family and .senatorial rank, was an extensive writer,
versatile in matter and in form. The total number of his
works wiLS seventy-four, of which four were written in verse.
His prose-wriliMi; embraced litenilurc, eloquence, history,
jurispnideiK-e, j;rainmar. iiliilosophy, -teoirraphy, husbandry,
and other suiijects. .M. '1 uUiiis t'icero (A. r. c. (148-711) was
bom near .\rpinum in Ijitium; his father wii.s a Uoman
knisht. He was endowed with gre«t talents, hiui iron in-
dustry, was kind and generous in his disposition, and cher-
isheil the liiftiest aims. His tone of mind (pndilied him to
become the interpreter and tnmsphinter of Grecian culture
and ivtinetnent. He was a true patriot and full of good in-
tentions, but was without calmness and that (tounige which
might have carried him safely through all the dangers anil
distractions which bc.set him. Cicero possessed, to a, mar-
velous degree, the U<>man power of aiipropriating and a,s-
similating foreign ideas. He thus enriched Houian litera-
ture by introducing into it several new departments not
previously attempted. He became the creator of a stauilard
f)rose so refined and so suitcl to the genius of the Latin
anguagc that it was never afterward surpassed. The real
busini-ss of t'icero's life appears in his legal and political
speeches, and here his ability shows to the greatest advan-
tage ; the knowledge and experience gaineil in this career
Were turneil to the highest account in the rhetorical treatises
which he composed toward tlie end of his lite. His later com-
positions also incluiled politii^il science, ethics, the philosophy
of religion, and theoretic philosophy. Heside all this his ex-
tensive personal connections and his social disposition led
to a voluminous eorrespomlence. Of his speeches fifty-seven
have come down to us; we have fragments of about twenty,
ami we know of thirty more delivered by him, making in
all al>out 107. Of these the most famous are those against
Catiline, for Milo, against V'errcs, and the second against
Antony (Tac. Dint, de Or.. :57: Jm:. Sal. 10, 12.j, ,s«/.). In
the case of Verres, Cicero prosecuted, and Hortensius, his
great rival, defended; and Cicero bv his success became
head of the bar, rex Judicioriim. "fhe extant rhetorical
works of Cicero are Khetorica, or De Inrentione, an imma-
ture work; De Oratore, written a, u. c. 69i), composed,
after the manner of I'lato, in a dialogue, and between the
two greatest orators of the preceding period, L. Crassus and
M. Antonius. and several others; this work is one of the
most elaborate productions of Cicero, varied in its contents
and grand and eloipient in style; De Clarin Onitoribim, or
Bruins, a history of Uoman eloquence; Orator ad Jf. Bru-
tnm, giving his ideal of an onitor; Partiliones Oralorict, a
sort of catechism of rhetoric; Titpica ad ('. Trebatium, an
explanation of Aristotle's Toirixa, written down from mem-
ory iluring a sea-voyage — a marvelous feat ; De O/j/iiiio
(hnexf Oritturum, forming the introduction to his transla-
tion of l>euiosthenes"s and ^'Eschincs's speeches for and
against Clesiphon, which translation is lost. The four col-
lections of letters that have comedown to us, if we count
in niriity addresseil to Cicero, contain altogether H64, and
are a treasure of contemporaneous history, anil on some mat-
ters the sole authority extant. Thev consist of Ad Fami-
liares, 1« lM>oks (a. f". i. «i»3-7ll) : Ad Alliciim. 16 books
(a. u. c. 68ti-711); Ad Qiiiuhtm Fralrem, :i books (a. ii. r.
«!t4-700); Ad M. Bntlitm. 2 books (ouestioned bv Markland.
Londoti, 17l."i. .M, yer, IHHl ; defeniied by C. ^. Hermann,
(iollingen, I8M; Cobcl, 1H70, and others). Cicero studied
nhdosophy originally to iicrfict himself as an orator, and in
his latitr years wrote on tiie subject! partly as a matter of am-
bition, anil partly as a solace amiil his trouliles and in the
thought fulnes.< of declining life. Admirable lus the nuilter
sometimes is, and imporlani lus it sometimes is from the cir-
cumstance that it in uur ordy means of knowing the system
or view in question, the form is scarcely less admirable or
important. Ueing the first Uonnin writer who treated phil-
osophical subjects in a clear and elegant manner, he cre-
ated the philosophical style in Latin. The following is a list
of his extant works in this department: De Jiepiiblica,6
books, of which scarcely a third has reached us; De Legi-
bmi. perhaps in 6 luxiks originally, of which we now possess
only three and some fragments; I'arddujii, an exposition of
six'striking maxims of the Stoics; ('oiisolalio, on liis daugh-
ter's death, of which only fragments exist; I/urtenxiiis. on
the praise of philo.sophy, now fragmentary; De Finibiu
Bunoruin ft Maloruni, iu 5 books, a comjiilation on the doc-
trines of the (ireek sects concerning the Supreme Good and
Evil, perhaps the most carefully elaborated of all his philo-
sophical works; Academica, ov doctrines of the Academy,
originally iu 3 books, afterward rewritten in 4 books; we
have now the second book of the 1st ed., and of the 2d ed.
the first part of the first book and some fragments; Tuscu
laiue DixputatianeK.m '> books, on certain nietaphysicaland
moral points; Timieiix. a free rendering of Plato's dialogue
of this name ; De Deonim Kalura, in 3 books, mainly ex-
cerpts from the Greek philosophers on this subject ; Cato
Major, or praise of old age, containing mitteriuls drawn from
Plato, Xeiioplion, and others, with a careful delineation of
Cato's character, finished in style and iiiiportaiit in matter;
I)c Divinalione. in 2 books, a suppliiiiiiil to De Deorum
Nittura; De Fato. now in mutilated form, attacking the
views of the Stoics and defending those of the Academics;
Lielius, or praise of friendship, largely drawn from Greek
sources, composed in a highly interesting manner; De
(jloria. in 2 books, now lost ; De Offieiitt, in 3 books, ad-
dressed to his son to form his nionils. hastily written and
practical, containing some just and profound views and en-
livened by illustrations from Koman history; De \irtulibiu)
and De Aiiffiiriis. \ioth lost. In the department of juris-
prudenee he wrote />p Jure f'ivili. He made some attempts
in history, as Commentariug CoixKulatus Sui and Admir-
anda, which are lost. In poetry this great prose-writer was
little more than a versifier, and only subjected himself to
the ridicule of the great poets, as Juvenal (Sat. 10, 124, seq.)
and Martial (2, 8il. 3. i<eq.). Cicero's freedman and friend,
Tiro, survived him, and ]uiblislied his orations and letters,
at least in [lart. C. .Julius Cavsjir (a. u. c. G.i4-710) had the
most varied talents ; he was second as an orator only to
Cicero — was a historian, a grammarian, a great statesman
and general. Of his literary works the most imiiortant has
come down to us, Comnicntarii de Bello (lallicn, in 7 books,
and De Bella Civili. in 3 books ; and after his death the last
year in Gaul was narrated by Ilirtius, and the Alexandrine,
African, and .Sjiaiiish wars by some unknown hands. Ce-
sar's style is a model of simplicity, precision, and directness,
with little rhetorical ornament. Cornelius Xepos (a. u. C.
65.5-730), the friend of Cicero and Atticus, and also of Ca-
tullus, was a somewhat voluminous writer of history and
biography, but only a portion of his De Viri.t lUustribns is
extant. His style is graci-ful. but deviates in some points
from classic usage. T. Lucretius Canis (a. u. c. 658-699)
in his De Renim Xatnra, iip(! books, treated of physics, of
metaphysics, and the Epicurean ethics, in imitation of Em-
pedocles and Ennius. This work is iniiiorlant as being the
fullest exponent of the doctrines of hpicurus, and though
written in an archaic style, it was composed with great
mastery of thought and cxjiression. He received little at-
tention in his own age. but the Augustan poets .admired and
copied him. His work has been ediUd by the great Lach-
mann (Hcrlin, 18.50). and bv the accomplished English schol-
ar. Munro (Cambridge, 186(1; 4tli cd. 1886). C. Snllnstius
Crispus (a. t;. c. 668-720) devoted the last years of his life to
history. Of his works we have Helium Calithur and Helium
Jugurthinuni complete; of his lli.itoriiv. in .5 books, we have
only fragments. .Sallust was the first Roman historian who
wrote according to fixed rulee. Like his great model, Thucv-
dides, he was sententious and concise, sometimes even to ob-
scurity. He deviated from llic usiigis of his time, perhaja
largely through hatred of Cicero, and atTi it ed archaic dic-
tion. C. Valerius Catullus (a. u. c. 667-700). called by
Tcuffel the greatest lyric poet in Latin, and by Niebuhr the
greatest poet Rome ever possessed, except perhaps some few
of the earlier ones, followed at first the track of the Alex-
andrine poets, but afterward developed rich lyrical talent
which was ripened by love and a bilter experience of life.
The 116 pieces that have come down to us refer to such a
variety of topics, are composed in so many ditferent styles
and meters, that it is hardly possible to classify them. Some
LATIN LITEKATUKE
123
are strictly lyrical, one is a legendary heroic, two epithala-
niia, four may be called elegies, ami several epigrams. His
genius adorned whatever it touched, but many uf his poems
are defiled by gross coarseness and sensuality. P. \'ergilius
Maro (A. u. c. 684- 735), by way of eminence the Roman poet,
was alike distingnislicd for ability, learning, delicacy, and
amiability. His extant poems are ten Edugie or bucolics,
imitations and partly translations of Theocritus; Gaurgica,
in 4 books, in which he partly availed himself of his own
experience in youth and partly drew on the Greek writers,
especially on Xicander and Hesiod, and partly on tiie Ro-
man writers Dt Rebus Rustkis; the masterly diction of
tills work makes it tlie most perfect Roman poem a£ a work
of art; the ^-Eneid, in 12 books, on which \ ergil spent the
last ten years of his life, and dying regarded as in an un-
finished state. In this poem, which has taken its place
among the great epics of the world, Vergil partly availed
himself of Greek models, and partly relied on his extensive
studies in Italian legends, history, and localities. Beside
these undoubtedly genuine works, we have several Carmina
Minora, perhaps wrongly attributed to him. As to the
form of his name, the inscriptions of the time of the Repub-
lic and of the first centuries of the Christian era are in fa-
vor of Vergiliun ; the earliest dated instance of the use of
the form Virgilius belongs to the fifth century after Christ.
Q. Iloratius Flaccus (a. u. c. 689-746) h;is shareil with Ver-
gil the greatest popularity among all the Roman poets.
The branch of poetry he first cultivated was satire; of this
we have two books or eighteen pieces ; his Epodon Liber, of
about the same date, a sort of satire of a more special char-
acter, contains seventeen pieces. He afterward resolved to
transplant Alca?us and Sappho into Roman soil, and the re-
sult is the three first books of the Carmina or odes, to
which he added a fourth after an interval of about ten
years. These are the most elaborate of all his works. The
Epistulm, 23 in numlier in 2 books, are of the same general
character as the Saline, but being written in the maturity
of his learning and ability, have higher qualities and are in
a more perfect form ; the third of the second book, the Ars
Poetica, treating of aesthetic questions in the Greek style, is
the most famous of the Epistles. Albius TibuUus (circa
A. u. c. 700-735) followed the Alexandrine poets in his choice
of amatory subjects; his representations are natural and his
style very simple. We have four books of Elegies under his
name, of which the third and part of the fourth are un-
doubtedly spurious ; the third being by an imitator of Ti-
buUus; Lygdamus is his real or fictitious designation. Sex-
tiis Propertius (circa a. u. c. 705-739) was also an elegiac
poet, and a disciple of the Alexandrines, learned and often
obscure, but lively and original. Five tjooks of Elegies are
extant. P. Ovidius Xaso (a. u. c. 711-770), the most pro-
lific of the great poets of Rome, was carefully bred as a
pleader, but from natural bent turned off into' the path of
poetry. The following are his works now extant : Heroides,
21 letters in elegiac verse, feigned to have been written by
ladies or cliiets in the heroic age ; Lihri Amorum, 49 elegies,
chiefly amatory pieces; Ars Amatoria, a didactic poem in
elegiac verse ; Remedia Amoris, of the same character and
form; Jletamorphoseon Libri XV., a collection of the most
remarkable faljles of classic mythology, in dactylic hexame-
ters; Faslorum Libri IT., an exposition in elegiacs of the
festivals in the Roman Calendar; Tristiam Libri V. and
Ex Ponto Libri IV., the former consisting of 50 elegies and
the latter of 46, describing his sufferings on his way to exile
and while he was in exile; Ibis, a poem in elegiacs written
against an enemy whose name is concealed ; Halieulica, a
fragment in hexameters on fishes. Ovid had a most fertile
mind, possessed great mastery of form, and treated his sub-
jects with inimitable eiisc and grace, and had he been as re-
fined as Vergil, he would have rivaled him in fame. T. Li-
vius of Patavium (a. v. c. 695-770) was the most important
prose-writer of the Au,^ustan age. He wrote on philosopliy
and on rhetoric, but his great work was his ,14 Urbe Coii-
dita Libri, or history of Rome from the foundation of the
city to A. u. c. 745, in 142 books, of which only 35 are extant,
being the first decade and books 21-45; but we have a sum-
mary, Periochce, of most of the lost portion. For his matter
he drew especially on Polyliius and the later annalists; but
his manner, eminently natural and lively, of relating events
and of de[)ieting mooils anil characters, was his own. His
diction was wanting in strict classical Latinitv ; and its
provincial characteristics were designated as Patavinitas
(Q'lint. 1, 5, 56). .Justinus, who probably lived early in the
third century, abridged the Universal History of Trogus, a
work in 44 books, written in the age of I^ivy. Vitruvius
Pollio composed (c. A. u. c. 740) De Architectura Libri X.,
and dedicated it to Augustus.
The Imperial Age, the Silver Age of Roman Literature.
The First Century, A. D. 14-117. — C. Velleius Palerculus
(A. D. 30) treated the history of the empire in his abridgment
of Roman history in two books. His words are classical,
but his style is affected and pompous. To the same period
belongs V'alerius Maximus, whose I'actorum et Dictorum
Jlemorabilium Libri IX.. addressed to Tiberius, is a com-
pilation made without taste or discrimination. A. Cornelius
Celsus, of the time of Xero, wrote on various practical mat-
ters, and composed an encyclopa'dia, of which the eight
books treating of medicine alone have reached us. Pha;-
drus, partly under Tiberius and partly under his successor,
published his book of ^sopean Fables in good iambic sen-
arii, and in good literary style. L. Anmeus Seneca (4 B. c-
A. D. 65). the most brilliant figure of his time, in genius and
culture may be compared with Ovid. His works were on a
great variety of subjects, but composed with an aim to brill-
iancy rather than accuracy. Many of them are known only
in fragments or by quotations. Among those extant may
be mentioned Epislulce ad Lncilium, Apocolocyntosis, a
satire upon Claudius, Dialogi, and JSiaturales Quwstiones.
We have also certain epigrams and tragedies attributed to
Seneca. The latter, nine in number, agree in the main with
one another and with the prose works of Seneca. Q. Curtius
Rufus, under Claudius, wrote HistoricE Alexandri JIagni, in
10 books, the two first of which are lost. He is rather a rhet-
orician than a liistorian.and in his style somewhat resembles
Seneca. Contemporary with Seneca was Columella of Gades,
who wrote De Re Rusfica, in 12 books. Under Caligula or
Claudius. Pomponius Mela wrote his Z)e Chorograpliia, in 3
books, the earliest geography we possess. A. Persius Flac-
cus (a. d. 34-62) wrote some compositions that have been
lost, and six satires, which are mostly reflections on tenets
of the Stoics, with extensive employment of Horatian words
and phrases. M. Annjeus Lucanus, a friend of Persius and
nephew of Seneca (a. d. 39-65). wrote on various subjects in
prose and verse. We have his Pharsalia, in 10 books, an
unfinished epic on the civil war between Pompey and C:esar.
It is historically accurate, but the style is artificial and pa-
thetic, possessing great beauties and great defects. In
X'ero's time arose that ethical novel which we have under
the name of Petronius Arbiter. Originally a large work, it
is now a heap of fragments, the largest of which is the Cena
Trimalchionis. C. Plinius Secundus, Pliny the Elder (a. d.
23-79), an oflScer and inspector of finance, was also a person
of great and diverse literary activity. Of his works there is
extant only his Xaturalis Ilistoria. in 37 books, a sort of
encyclopedia of natural science. It was compiled from a
great number of autliors, and is remarkable for the extent
of its information, but bears marks of haste, and is com-
posed in an uneven style. It long enjoyed great authority.
The only poet of the time of Vespasian that has come down
to us is ^ alerius Flaccus, whose Argonautica, in 10 books,
is an imitation of Apollonius of Rhodes. The style is pre-
tentious and the phraseology mostly derived from \'ergil.
Under Domitian wrote C. Silius Italicus (a. d. 25-101),
originally a politician, then a literary man. He wrote the
Punica. a poem in 17 books, deriving his matter from Livy
and Polybius, and in style imitating Homer and Vergil.
At the same period (a. d." 40-96) lived P. Papinius .Statins.
His earliest and largest work was the Thebais, in 12 books,
drawing on Anfimachus for material and following Vergil
in form ; he left his Achilhis unfinished ; his Silvcp. in 5
books, are very interesting, forming valuable sketches of the
time. Mostly under Domitian also flourished M.Valerius
Martialis (a.d. 40-104) ; we have by him fifteen books of
epigrams, turning on the social life of Rome in those davs,
with all its grossness and servility. Martial appears in
these writings almost equal to Ovid in ease and elegance of
poetic f(irm. but sinks quite below him in moral degrada-
tion. M. Fabius Quintilianus (a. d. 35-9.5) hohls a high
place among the prose-writers of this period. Educated at
first for the bar, he afterward became the most distinguished
teacher of eloquence in Rome. He composed a work, which
is lost, on the causes of the decay of oratory; we happily
still possess his great work Institiitio Oratorio, in 12 books,
on the complete training of the orator. This work is very
valuable for its matter, and treats the subject in an inter-
esting anil judicious manner. Quintilian was sensitive to
the faults of the diction of his peciod, and continually re-
verts to the earlier and better usage, never wearying of
124
LATIN LITERATIHE
LATITUDIXARIANS
praising' ami recoinmending Cicero ; but Quintiliaii's own
style !i«'Oiiis arlitii-iul ami unsrai'ofiil to the ailinircrs of
that lunsiimiiiuto writer. Soxtus .hilius Frtuiliiius (a. u. 4(X-
10;l), a ilisliiiffuislRil fii^'iiiwr, has left records of his experi-
oiice ami stmlies; we have extant •SIriildyrmiilii. a work on
tactics, ami />•■ A<jiiiK I'rfiis Uamtr, in 2 Umks, written in a
concise iind retineil style. The most eminent ix)et of the
time of Tnijan is 1>. Junius Juvenalis (a. d. 56-140), who
tunied from the stmly of oratory ami the pursuits of war to
the study of poetry. We have l)y him sixteen satires, the
last of which betray the infirmities and faults of ajre. The
earlier sjttires depict the vices of Roman society in it man-
ner always interesting, and s<imetimes horribly vivid. Ilis
style is concise, enerj;etic. and always suited to his theme,
oiilv he indulges now and then in a flash of sarcastic wit
even in his most grave nassages. Among the prose writers
of the time of Trajan, the first place has been conceded to
P. t'ornelius Tacitus (a. n. 5.5-1 lil). His extant works are
Dialogus de Omturiliiix. composed with a fullness and grace
not fouml In Tacitus's other writings; Agricoln, a valuable
biograj>hy of his father-in-law. reminding us now of Sallust,
now of Cicero; (cVc;hohi((, written in a sympathetic spirit
and with a highly rhetorical coloring; Jlinlurne, a narra-
tive chiefly of the Flavian dymisty (a. d. 6!)-!)6), originally
in fourtei'ii Inioks, of which only the four first and the first
half of the fifth have come down ; AiiniileK, or Ab E.rcfs.iti
Divi Aiii/u^li, in 1(5 iKioks, a history of A. i). 14-68. of which
we now have only the first and the last third. His style is
peculiar ; it is concise often to harshness, audacious in its
irregularities, and withal of a poetic coloring; it is coin-
raoiily sententious, but on occasions grand and sonorous,
and then reminds us of the best periods rounded by the
hand of Cicero. C. Plinius C;ecilius .Secundus, Pliny the
Younger, nephew ami adopted .son of Pliny the Klder (a. n.
63-113), was a fluent, smooth, and intensiing writer. We
have of him the speech, commonly called l'<tnegijricus, in
which he returned thanks to Trajan for the consulate;
JCpisliiliF, composed with a view to publication, in 9 books;
and t^piiilidie Plinii et Trajani, belonging chiefly to the
years 111-113, when Pliny wiis governor of IJithynia.
Of the second century of the Christian era are Suetonius,
the author of the Ijives of the Twelve Cu'snr-i; Floras, who
wrote an abriilgment of Roman history; Tereiilius Scaurus,
the grammariiin ; the jurists Clpius and (Jains ; t he anti-
quary Aulus (iellius, author of the Xocles A llicw ; Apuleius,
author of the Metamorphoses'; Minucius Felix, whose Oc-
tavius is the earliest extant work of Christian Latin litera-
ture ; Tertullian, a defender of Christianity; Acron and
Porphyrion, the elitssic comiiicntators ; Tereiitianus Maii-
rus, a writer on meters; the Versio Veins of the Bilile,
afterward revised and called the Vulyala. In the third
century we find the jurists Ulpian and .lulius Paulus; Cyp-
rian, Bishop of Carthage, chiefly an apologist : Arnobius, a
Christian apologist, and Lactaniius his pupil, the most ele-
gant of all the Christian Lutinists. To the fourth century
belong Nonius the lexicographer ; the grammarians Vic-
torinus and Donatus; Kutropius the historian; the theo-
logian Hilary ; the poet Ausonius ; Damasus, one of the
earliest writers of Christian hymns; Amniianus the histori-
an ; the grammarian Servius ; St. Ambrose, whose hymns
ap|)roiU'h classical perfection ; St. Jerome, the translator of
the Bible ami reviser of the earlier version ; Prudentius, the
greatest of the Christian poets; Claudian. the last classic'
iioct ; and St. Augustine, the thi'ologian, the greatest of the
Latin Fathers (the last four extending also into tlio fifth
centurv). This period, the period of decay, can not well go
beyond the lime of the philosopher Boethius, circa a. d. .524,
and certainly not beyond the age of .lustinian, under whom
the great Corpus Juris was drawn up, toward the miilille of
the sixth century. Later writers will be fcnind considered
under thc^ir res|>eclive names.
Altiiokitiks. — TeiilTel, Geschiclile der li'nnisrhen Lilern-
tur, neu heitrlieitet run L. Schwahe (Leipzig, 5th ed. IMIIO;
English translation by Warr, London, 1891-!(2) ; Schanz, Oe-
grhiehte der Jtomisrhen Lilernlur bis zum (resetzr/ebuix/swer/c
de8 Kaisers Justinian (1st part, Munich, IHliO; 2ii part,
I8!t2) ; Ribbeck, Oesrhirhte der Homlschen Dirhtung (Stutt-
gart i., IHHV; ii.. IRS!); iii., Isil2); Maiiitius. Gesrhichte der
Chrisllirh-laleinlsriien /'ociiV (.Stullgart, IsKli; Kliert, yl//-
gemrinr tieschirhle der Literatur des MiltelaUers im
Abendlande. (Leipzig, Ud. i., 2d ed. 1«WI); Palin. f':iuiles
sur la noesie laliiie (Paris, 18«:l) ; Simcox, A Ilistnri/ of
Latin Literature from Knnius to Hoelhius (2 vols., Loiidoii
and New York, \mi) ; .Sellar, The Uoman Poets of the Re-
public (Oxford, 1892), Vergil (1891), TTorace and the Elegiac
l'oet8(lH'i'i)\ and Mayor's Bibliographic Clue to Latin Lit-
erature. Revised by M. Warrkn.
Latin Union: an international monetary association
formed by the treaty of Dec. 1865. betwi'en France, Switz-
erland, lialy, and Belgium; Greece and Roumania after-
ward became meinbers. The convention prescribed the de-
nomination, weight, and fineness of coins to be struck by
each of the contracting parties in general confonnity to
the F'rench system as then modified. By the terms of the
treaty the coinage of gold and of five-franc silver pieces of
full legal-tender value was unlimiled at the ratio of 15^
kilogrammes of silver to a kilogramme of gold. All other
silver coins were to be coined on government account, and
made subsidiary. While silver was redeemable in gold, the
chief object of the union was to establish an identical coin-
age to be taken as legal tender in each country, and the
introduction of bimetallism was only incidental. (!>n ac-
count of the depreciation of silver the coinage of the five-
franc silver pieces was limited in 1874, and suspended in
1876. In the subseijiienl conferences of the union other im-
portant modifications were made in the treaty, which was
renewed in 1885 by France, Italy, Greece, and Switzerland
for five years, and has since been renewed. Upon the ex-
piration of the convention each country may return the sil-
ver which it has received from the other membeif! of the
union, but must accept its own silver in return. A system
of coinage similar to that of the Latin Union is emi)loyed
in Finland, Roumania. Spain, Servia, and to a certain ex-
tent in several of the South American republics.
Lati'nns: a King of Latium ; according to the common
tradition, a .son of Fauiius and the nymph Marica, and the
father of Lavinia, whom he gave in marriage to .,'Eneas.
Besides this there were many other different traditions con-
cerning his descent and history.
Latitude [viii O. Fr. from Lat. latilu'do, breadth, width,
deriv. of In fiis. broad, wide] : on the earth, the distance of
a place from the equator measured on the meridian passing
through the placi>. and expressed in ileiiominat ions of cir-
cular meiusure. To the ancient geographers the largest
dimension of the known world was that which lay in the
direction E. and W. Hence distances measured E. or W.
from a meridian assumed as an axis of reference were called
longitudes (Lat. longitudo, length), and those measured in
the transverse direction, latitudes (Lat. laliliido, breadth).
Geographical or astronomical latitude is the angle which
the vertical line (or juTpendicular to the horizon) at the
place makes with the plane of the eipiator; liut as the earth
is not truly spherical, this vertical is not coincident in direc-
tion with the radius drawn to the place from the earth's
center except on the equator and at the poles. The angle
made by this radius with the |)lane of the equator is called
the geocentric latitude. The astronomical latitude is also
equal to the elevation of the pole aliove the horizon. Hence,
if there were a star situated truly in the pole of the celes-
tial sphere, the latitude of any place at which such star
could be seen could be determined by the .simple observation
altitude of that star, correction having been made for the
effect of atmospheric refraction. As the star called the
pole-star is not truly in the pole, when it is observed for
latitude further and more important corrections are neces-
sary for its position at the time of observation relative to
the true jwle. A meridian oliscrvation of any star or other
celestial boily, whose declination (distance from the e(|ui-
noctial or celestial equator) at the time of observation is
known, affords an easy means of determining latitude.
Meridian observations of stars passing near the zenith fur-
nish the most satisfactory results, being but little affected
by refraction. See Earth.
Lalitude in the heavens is tlie distance, in angular meas-
ure, of any ci-l(>slial object from the ecliptic, or jilane of
the earth's orbit, measured on a secondary (that is. a circle
perpendicular) to the ecliiitic. The lalitudi' is called geo-
centric if given a.s it would seem if ob.served from the center
of the earth, ancl heliocentric^ if given in like manner as if
ob.served from the center of the sun.
Revised by S. Newcomb.
Lntitiidinnrinns [from ;\Iod. Lat. latitudina'rius, cm-
bracing a wide circle, liavim; free scope, di-riv. of Lat. /n/l-
tu'do, brcarllh, deriv. of /(/ Ins, wide, broad]: a term apjilied
to a parly in the Church of KiiglaiKl, correspoii<ling to what
is styled the Broatl Church party. Their chief .seat was
Cambridge, and the reign of (Jueen Anne was their most
LATIUM
LAUD
125
flourishiiis period. The Latitudinarians attempted to unite
the Puritan and Presljyterian elements witli tlie national
church. Tliey were strongly Protestant and Low Cluireh in
feelings, and generally Arininian or indifferent in <loctrino.
Burnet, Wliist on, Tillotson, Chillingworth, Cudworth, More,
Gale, and Willcins were among their greatest names. 'J'he
modern liroad Church party is sometimes called Lalitudi-
nariau. Revised by VV. S. Pkkkv.
La'tlum : the region of Italy lying between the Apennines,
the Til)er, and the Mediterranean, and eventually stretching
to the S. as far as the Liris, the boundary of Campania. It
is a plain of volcanic origin, from which arises an i-solated
mountain range, of which the Mons Albanus is the most
conspicuous elevation. The other eminences of this plain,
such as the hills on which Rome is built, are due to erosion.
By neglect of the watercourses a large portion of Southern
Latium had even in antiquity become transformed into vast
marshes, while the region alxnit Rome, the so-called Cam-
pagna, which in antiquity was the most fertile part of Italy,
is now a barren and unhealthful waste for the same reason.
See Latini. G. L. Hendrickson.
Lato'iia : See Leto.
Latop'olis: See Esneh.
La Tour d'Aiiverjfne, lali'toor'do'varn', TufepHiLE Malo
CoRRET, de : soldier; b. at Carhaix, Brittany, France, Nov,
23, 1743; was educated at the college of Quimper; was a
captain at the outbreak of the Revolution ; fought witli
brilliant success in the republican armies of the Alps and
the Pyrenees, and became the commander (although still re-
taining the title of captain) of a vanguard of 8,000 men,
composed of grenadiers, which soon became famous as the
Infernal Column, and more than once decided the battle by
its irresistible impetuosity. In 179.5 he retired from service
on account of ill-health, and making a sea-voyage he was
taken by a British cruiser and held as a prisoner of war
till 1707. He re-entered the army as a substitute for the last
son of one of his friends ; fought under Massena in Switzer-
land, and then at the head of his own company in Germany,
where he fell at Oberhausen, Bavaria, June 27,1800. His
indomitable courage, his noble pride, and the generosity
and simplicity of his character made him tlie idol of the
soldiers. After death his heart was embalmed and carried
in a silver vase by his company, and his name called at roll
till 1814, the oldest sergeant answering, " Died on the field
of honor." Revised by C. K. Adams.
La Trappe, laa-tra"ap' : a retired valley in the depart-
ment of ( Irne, Normandy, France ; 8 miles N. of Mortagne.
Here in 1140 a Cistercian abbey was founded with very severe
rules, from which originated the celebrated religious order
known as the Trappists {g. i:).
Latreiile, la'a tracer, Pierre Axdre: naturalist; b. at
Brives, in the department of Correze, France, Nov. 29,
1762; studied first theology, and was ordained priest in
1786, but devoted himself afterward to the study of ento-
mology ; became superintendent of the entomological divi-
sion of the JIuseum of Natural History at Paris in 1798,
member of the Academy of Sciences in 1814. and professor
of zoology after the death of Lamarck in 1839. I). Feb. 6.
1833. The most prominent of his numerous and volumi-
nous writings are Ilistoire nalurelle des Cruataces et des In-
sectes (14 vols., 1802-0.5) ; Genera Cnisfaceonim et Inseeto-
rum (4 vols., 1806-09); Cours d'Enfomolugie (1831). He
also wrote parts of Bufl'on"s Natural History and the ento-
mological ))art of Cuvier's Regne animal.
La'tro, Marcus Porcius: orator and author; of Spanish
birth; flourished in Rome in the time of Augustus. He is
higldy spoken of by Quintilian, and also by the elder Sene-
ca, who had known him from boyhood, and who has given
in his Controrcrsia' interesting details of his personal and
professional character, and specimens of his declamations.
Among liis pupils was the poet Ovid. He died B. c. 4, hav-
ing taken his own life, according to .lerorae, while .suffering
from a severe fever. His writings have perished. The De-
clamatii) in C. Sullustium Crispnin and the Drclamatio in
Ciceronem have been ascrilied to him without sufficient rea-
son. See Lindner, De M. Porcio Latrone Cnmmeniatio
(Breslau, 18.55) ; Froment, Porcius Latro. ou la declamation
sous Aiiguste (Bordeaux, 1882). Revised by M. Warren.
Latrobe, la-trob': borough; Westmoreland co.. Pa. (for
location of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-B) ; on
the Loyalhanna creek, and the Ligonier Valley and the Penn.
railways; 41 miles E. of Pittsburg. It has coke, coal, steel,
mower, reaper, and brick works, machine-shops, paper-mill,
brewery, and a daily and a weekly newspaper. In the vi-
cinity are St. Vincenfs monastery and St. Xavier's convent.
Pop."(1880) 1,815; (1890) 8,.589 ; (1893) estimated with sub-
urbs, 6,000. Editor of " Evexi.ng Clipper."
Latrobe. Bexjamix IIexry: architect and engineer; b. in
Yorkshire, England, May 1, 1764 or 1767; was educated at
the University of Leipzig; served in the Prussian array
(1785) ; returned to England ; studied architecture ; became
surveyor of public offices of London (1788); removed to the
U. S. in 1796, built the bank of Pennsylvania, the .Schuyl-
kill water-works, the cathedral and exchange at Baltimore,
completed the Capitol of the U. S. in Washington, and began
the work of rebuilding it after its destruction by the British
in 1814 ; built steamboats at Pittsburg in the same year. D.
at New Orleans, Sept. 3, 1820. He published Aniiiversary
Oration before the Society of Artists of tlie United titates,
May S, 1811 (Philadelphia, 1811).
Latter-Day Saints : See Mormonism.
Laiiban, lowba'an : town of Prussia, province of Silesia,
on the Queiss ; 15 miles by rail E. of Ciorlitz (see map of
German Empire, ref. 4-II). It has a bell-foundry, several
breweries, and manufactures of cotton and linen goods,
cloth, and tobacco. Pop. (1890) 11,958.
Laube, low'be, Hf.ixrich : b. at S()rottan, Silesia, Sept.
18, 1806 ; studied theology at Halle and Breslau, but soon
devoted himself to journalism and literature. In 1832 he
settled in Leipzig and edited the Zeilung fiir die elegante
Welt, in which he defended the revolutionary ideas of
Young Germany, a literary movement which was led by
Heine and Gatzkow. He was in consequence of his partici-
pation in this and other revolutionary movements expelled
from Saxony, and later on imprisoned. As soon as he was
set free he turned to Paris, where he stayed for several years,
traveling much in France in the meantime. After his re-
turn to Germany he resumed the editing of the journal
mentioned above, but this time devoted his attention chiefly
to the drama. In 1848 he was elected to the Frankfort Par-
liament, but resigned his seat as soon as he was convinced
that the political regeneration of Germany could not be
attained by that body. He was in 1849 apjiointed director
of the famous Burgtheater of Vienna, and entered upon
the most successful period of his literary and artistic activ-
ity. From 1867-70 he occupied a similar position as direc-
tor of the Stadtheater of Leipzig. In 1871 he returned to
Vieinia and founded a new theater, which he successfully
conducted until 1879, when he retired into private life. He
died Aug. 1, 1884. Laube's earlier writings, in which he
proclaims the gospel of Young Germany, and which are
characterized by a frivolous sensuality, must be distinctly
separated from his later productions, which are chiefly dra-
matic. Though his dramas (Slonaldeschi, 1845 ; Rococo,
1846; Siruensee,\%'i~i ; Die Karlsschuler, 18i~; Graf Essex.
1856 ; Demetrius, 1872, etc.) are not the works of a genius of
the first order, they display, nevertheless, great plastic power
and a perfect mastery of the technicalities of the stage. As
the artistic manager of the Burgtheater, Laube became a
reformer of dramatic art in Germany. Possessing the rare
gift of detecting and developing individualities among the
actors, he was able to surround himself with the best talent,
carefully trained by himself. It was chiefly due to his un-
tiring efforts that the Vienna Burgtheater became the lead-
ing stage of Germany and the best school for German actors.
Julius Goebel.
Laud. William : archbishop ; b. at Reading, Berkshire,
England, Oct. 7, 1573 ; was the son of a rich clothier; en-
tered St. John's College, Oxford, in 1.589; became a fellow
in 1593; became master of arts in 1598, and was ordained
a priest in 1601. From 1601 to 1621, when he was conse-
crated Bishop of St. David's, he held several minor posi-
tions. In 1607 he was appointed vicar of Stanford, North-
amptonshire; in 1609 rector of West Tilbury, Essex; in
1611 president of St. John's College, Oxford ; in 1615 arch-
deacon of Huntingdon, and in 1616 dean of Gloucester. In
all these positions he plainly showed his cliaracter and
abilitv, and by degrees he attracted the attention of James
I. He was a learned man and a libera! supporter of learn-
ing; an exemplary clergyman, energetic, dignified, and
benevolent to the "poor; lint he thoroughly distrusted the
Puritans, and the fearlessness and consistency with which
he resisted their encroachments upon the establishment
gained for him the implacable hatred of this powerful
120
LAL'D^V^XM
body, lie w!>> a ohim-hnian as well as a tlioolopian. In
1617 |„. „ ! KiiiK -liiiiifs U) Scotland, ami an at-
loinpl »a mlri"liui' fjiisi'opju-.v into tin- ■rovcrii-
„„,,H ^.f ' I'lfli, but it failrd. By riiarK'S 1.
l,,iu,l »a till' cliiipi'l ifval, tlion dean of
WLStiiiiii- ■' ^^as traiisfiTivil to llii- si'o of Ijon-
doii. Ill Iti.M 111' WHS iiiado a nii'iiilnT of the I'Otirt of liitfli
coinniissiiiii. in 1027 a privv foiim-ilor. and after the assas-
sination of l!iirkin;,'liain he became Prime Jliiiister (lli^iS).
In I(J:ll) he \vii> ihoseii ehaneellor of the I'niversity of Ox-
ford, and ill lti;!;i he was made Arehbishop of Canterbury.
Thesi' powerful and iiillueiilial positions he used with more
zeal than prudence to carry out his eeclcsiasliual views.
The Puritans were everywhere and in every way repressed.
Those who would not c;)nforin to the Kstablished CMiurch
were fined, imprisoned, branded on the forehead, and ex-
iled ; in some cases thev even had their ears cut oil aiul
their noses slit open. 'Vliis was the work of the court of
hiirli commission, of which the primate was a member.
IVsides these harsli measures, in onler to coini>el i>eople to
conform to the Established Church, that which the arch-
bishop did to perfect the institution itself was rather of a
character to increase its ceremonial and make its worship
raon> beautiful than to brini; it into conformity to the pre-
vailing simplicity of rcliRious service, which the Puritan
party s-night to briiif; about. Laud issued re-rulatioiis with
resocct to the pro|>er place of the altar, the manner in
which the altar ought to be railed in, the republication
of the Declaration of Sunday Sports, etc. The result was
a deep anil implacable hatred on the part of the Puritans,
which was not appeased even with the archbishop's blood.
In 16:35 a new attempt was made to introduce the episco-
pacy into the Scotch Church, and this time it led to the
Si-otch rebellion, which ushered in the English revolution.
When in 1(540 the hong Parliament met. the artdibishop
was imi>eached for high treason, and by order of the Com-
mons was brought to the Tower. There he reinained three
years, exposed to manv indignities. At last his trial came
on, and although he defendi'd himself admirably, and was
not found guilty by the Lords, the Commons sentenced him
to death, and gave orders for his execution, which took
place .Ian. 10. 104-"). on Tower Hill. London. He died, as
he had lived, for the Church of Kngland, and he is regarded
by High Churchmen as a saint and martyr. He was a
friend of loirning. and in his controversy with Fisher, the
Jesuit, on the claims of the Papal Church he showed his
freedom from any tendency toward Rome. His life-work,
to quote his own words, was a coiitinueil effort '"that the
external public worship of God — too much slighted in most
parts of this kingdom — might be preservi'd, ami lliat with
as much decency and uniformity as might be, being still of
opinion that unity can not long continue in the church
when uniformity is shut out at the church doors." His
Diary ami his letters are of great historical interest. The
liest source of the biography of LaucI is in the last two vol-
umes of his works (published in the Anglo-Catholic Library,
O.xfonl, 1847-57), edited by Dr. .lames Bliss. The opposite
view of his character and measures will he found in Prynne's
Canterbury's Doom. See also the Life by A. C'. Benson
(Ijondon, 1887), and that by "A Romish Reciisiint " (Lon-
don, 18!I4). Revised by \V. S. Perry.
Lnndaiiiim forig. variant spelling of Ladanum {q. r.)] :
the tincture of opium, made by percolating the dried and
powderi'd drug in alcohol. It is a valuable opiate, though
of variable strength. It ought never to lie given to young
children as a domestic remedy. It has a more stimulant
and astringent effect than morphine, and frequently causes
headache. See OflUM.
Lander, William: author: b. ejirly in the eighteenth
century; wils educated at Kdiniiiirgh University ; iiublished
in 17:J!) a collection of modern Latin verse; and, ticeomiiig
a tciu-her of Latin in London, contributed to The (frn-
lleman's Miujazinr in 1747 a s<'ries of articles uttempling
to prove that .Milton had in his ['(trndise. Lost borrowed
largely from moilcrn Latin poems by (irotiiis. Masenius, and
others. Thes<' essays were ■•••prinled in a volume in 1751,
with a preface by l)r. Samuel .bilinsoii. but it was soon as-
certained that the work was an imposture, the puridlel pas-
sages quoted being either forged or taken from a Latin
translation of /Mradise Lost. Lauder confi'ssed his offense
and went to Barbado.s, where he died in 1771.
LnndordHlo. .Iamkh Maitlash. Kighth Karl of: states-
man and I'coiioniist ; b. in ,S<'otlaiiil in 1751); entered I'ar-
LAUENBUUG
liamont in 1780; was one of the managers of the iin[>cach-
nieiit of Warren Hastings in 178t<; succeeded to the title
in 1780, ami was elected one of the sixteen representative
iiei-rs of .Si-otland; favored the French Kevolulion ; visited
France and formed an intimacy with Brissot and the lead-
ing IJiroiidists; energetically ojiposed all t lie war measures
of Pitt; resigned his seat as representative peer; became a
citizen of London, and ran iiusuccessfiilly for sherilT; wrote
much upon linance and Indian affaii's, and on the accession
of the Whigs in 1800 became a baron of the United King-
dom, privy councilor, and chancellor of Scotland. In Aug.,
1800, he was charged with an unsuccessful mission to France
to treat for i>eace; resigned the chancelloi-ship the next
year; continued in the House of Peers to oppose the war
policy; in 1810 endeavored to obtain the release of Napo-
leon from St. Helena by act of Parliament. He published
in 1804 a very popular work, ^-In Inquiry into the yalure
and Origin of Public Wealth, in 180!) a treatise on the sys-
tem of government for India, and several pamphlets, chiefly
on questions of public finance. D. Sept. 13, 183!).
Liiiidcrdale, .loiix ^Iaitland, Duke of: statesman; b.
at Leihington. Scotland, May 24. 1010; was educated as a
rigorous Covenanter; was commissioner to treat with Charles
I. "in his prison in the Isle of Wight, and obtain the signa-
ture of the treaty known as the "Engagement" (Dec. 26,
1047), by which tiie king was again recognizeil in Scotland;
was the chief favorite of Charles 11. during his brief rule
in Scotland (104!)-51): was taken prisoner at the battle of
Worcester (Sept.. 1651). and remained nine years in the
Tower and other prisons; \vas made Secretary of State and
high commissioner in Scotland by Charles 11. in ItiOO; re-
ceived in rapid succession all the highest posts in Scotland,
of which kingdom he was the virtual ruler for many years;
was created Duke of Laudeniale in 1672; raised to the
English peerage in 1674 as Earl Guilford, and sworn to the
privy council, forming a member of the celebrated Cabal
ministry. He was a flatterer of Charles, and has been
painted in the darkest colors by Macaulav in his History
of England. D. at Tunbridge, Aug. 20, 16'82.
Laiidoii. lowdon. Gideon Ernst, von, Baron : Austrian
general of Scottish descent; b. at Trotzen. Livonia, in 1710.
and entered in his fifteenth year the Russian military serv-
ice, but was dismissed after the Peace of Belgrade (173!))
with the rank of lieutenant. He ofTered his services to
Frederick 11. of Prussia, but was not accepted, because,
it is said, his personal appearance was displeasing to tho
king. He then went to Vienna, was employed as a cap-
tain, and fought in the Bavarian and in the second Silesian
war with distinction, but without promotion. After the
peace he was removed to a regiment stationed on the Turk-
ish frontier, and here he was nearly forgotten. In the lirst
year, however, of the Seven Years' war he distinguished
himself as colonel of a regiment of Uhlans, and in 1757 was
made a general. At Kunersdorf (Aug. 12. 175!)) he decided
the liattle and turned the victory which the Prussians had
gained over the Russians into a comiilete rout of the Prus-
sian army. Having been made a field-marshal and placed at
the head of an independent eor])Sof 30.()(M) men. he defi'aled
the Prussians once more at Lamlshnt (.lune 23. 1700). and
took Schweidnitz (Oct. 1. 1761). His strategical skill in the
conduct of his troops won the admiration of Frederick the
Great, who considered him a master in the art of making a
retreat serve the purpose of victory. After the Peace of
Hubertsburg he lived in retirement on his estates, engaged
in studies, until .Joseph II. placed him in command of the
whole Austrian army in the war against thi> Turks. The
campaign was a most brilliant one; I he Turks were rcpeat-
eilly defeati^il anil Belgrade was taken. In the Bavarian
war of succession he commanded the Austrian army, and
succeeded in placing the Prussian armies in a very dilliciilt
position when |ieace was concluded. The Austrian empire
gave him the title of generalissimo. 1). at Xcutitschein,
.Iiily 14, 1790. See .lanko, Leben des Feldmarschalls von
London (Vienna, 1869). Itcviseil by F. M. Col»y.
Lillienhlirg', low>n-boor(;h : district in Sclileswig. Prus-
sia ; on the right bank of the Elbe, between Holstein ami
^lecklenburg. Lauenburg was founded as a duchy in 1200
by .lohann, son of AlbiiThl I. of Saxony, ami in 1702 ciimc
into the possession of Ituke Georg Willielni of Celle, who
paiil to Saxony an indemnity of 1,000,000 t balers. It was
incorporated with the French empire in IHIO, was restored
to llaiiovur after the battle of Lei]izig in 1H13, was ceded
to Prussia in 1815, and transferred to Denmark, In 1864 it
LAUEXBURG
LAURENCE
127
was ceiled to Austria and Prussia, in tlio following year was
acquired by the King of Prussia on paynicnt of i,H7"),00l)
tlialers, and in 1876 was merged in Prussia. Area, 45(5 sq.
miles. Pop. (18!)0) 48,874. B. B. Holmes.
Laucnbiil'fJ : town; in the jirovinee of Pomerania, Pnis-
sia: on tln^ Leba; ii8 miles >. W. of Uantzic (see map of
German Kmpire, rcf. 2-1). It has manufactures of linen and
woolen fabrics, and valuable fisheries. Pop. (18'J0j 8,0r)0.
Laiifrliiiigr-a:a8: See Xitkous Oxide.
Laii^Iiin;; Jackass: See Dacelo.
Laiiu'hliu, lawcli lin, James Laurence, Ph. D. : professor
of political economy: b. at Deerfield, O., Apr. 2, 18r)0: edu-
cated at Harvard College; appointed instructor in Political
Economy at Harvard 1878; assistant professor 1883-87;
president of Philadidphia Manufacturers' Mutual Fire-in-
surance Company 1888-90; Professor of Political Economy
anil Finance at Cornell 1890-'J3; became head Professor of
Polilical Economy at Cnivereity of Chicago 1892. He has
published ISaxon' Ltijal Procedure (1871); Mill's Pob'tical
i^coHomy (abridged edition, 1884) ; TIte Stud// of J'o/itical
EcoHotiui (hints to students and teacliers. 188.'5) ; The His-
tory of Buntlalixm in the United States (1885); 'The Ele-
ments'of Political Economy (1887). C. H. Thurber.
Lail^rlltpr, laf ter [M. Eng. < O. Eng. hleahfor : O. H.
Germ, hialitai- > Mod. Germ, ge-ldchter]: the expression,
principally througii the muscles of the face and of respira-
tion, of pleasurable emotion. The angles of the mouth are
drawn backward and upward, the upper lip is slightly
raised, the lower eyelids are partially closed, and to a lesser
extent the upjjcr lids, smoothing the brows and wrinkling
the skin at the outer angle of the eyes. The latter acquire
a bright appearance. With an increase of emotion the
mouth opens and the facial movements mentioned become
more decided. A deep inspiration occurs, followed bV short,
jerky expiratory movements, particularly of the diaphragm,
producing, by the expulsion of air between the vocal chords,
the voice-soun<ls recognizaljle to the ear as a laugh, differing
from a cry of distress, in that the latter has a short inspira-
tory and a prolonged expiratory sound. When laughter be-
comes violcMit, the respiratory movements are greatly in-
creased; the heart beats excitedly; the face becomes con-
gested ; tears flow ; the whole body may be arched forward,
more frecjuently backwai'd, and various purposeless move-
ments are made by the arms and legs, while involuntary ex-
cretions may take place. See Spencer, The Physiology of
Luuyhter, in Illustrations of Universal Progress; Darwin,
Tlie Espri'ssion of the Emotions in Man and Auininls;
Bell, Anatomy of Expression: Mantagazza. La Physionomie
et r Expression. Revised by J. Mark Baldwi.n.
laiigier, lozhi-a', Auguste Ernest Paul : astronomer ;
S(m of Andre Laugier, chemist (1770-1832); b. in Paris,
Dec. 22, 1812; studied astronomy under Arago; obtained a
post in the observatory at Paris ; made important discov-
eries in regard to magnetism, comets, eclipses, meteors, and
solar spots; made improvements in astronomical clocks;
determined the exact latitute of the Paris observatory
(185:!). correcting previous errors; published a catalogue of
fifty-three nebuUr. and another (1857) of the declination of
140 stars, and contributed astronomical papers to the Con-
naissance du Temps. He was long associated with Arago in
researches on terrestrial physics, and was for some years presi-
dent of the Academy of Sciences. D. in Paris, Apr. 5, 1873.
Laiincostoii, hians'ti/n: parliamentary and municipal
borough of England; formerly capital of the county of
Cornwall ; on the Kensey river, a tributary of the Tamar,
32 miles >f. E. of Plymouth, with which it is connected by
railway (see map of Flngland, ref. 14-D). It is situated on
a steep hill, at the top of which are the ruins of Castle Ter-
rible, built by the ancient princes of Cornwall ; has elal)o-
rately carved gates, several public buildings, and a gram-
mar school founded by Queen Elizabeth. The original name
was Dunneherel (the swelling hill) ; Launceston — anciently
Lanstephen — is derived fr'im an old monastery dedicated
to St. Stephen. Pop. (1891) 4,345.
Launceston ; the second town of Tasmania or Van Die-
men's Land ; capital of tlie county of Cornwall ; on the
river Tanuir at its conlhience with the Esk ; 32 miles S. E.
of Port Dalrymple (see map of Australia, ref. 9-1). It has
many churches and schools, several banks and newspajjers,
eommoiiious government buildings, a mechanics' institute,
a convent, a theater, and exports wool, timber, and fruits,
importing manufactured goods. Pop. (1891) 17.108.
La I'nlon : See Union.
Lanra'cese [Mod. Lat., deriv. of Lau'rus, name of the
princifial gentis, from Lat. lau'rus, laurel]: the Laurel
Family (q. v.).
Laurel: town; Prince George's co., Md. (for location of
county, see map of Maryland, ref. 3-E) ; on the Bait, and
Ohio Railroad ; 20 miles X. W. of Annapolis. It is in a
choice building-stone and valuable iron-ore region, and has
several quarries, iron-foundries, and mills, and two weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,206; (1890) 1,984.
Lanrel [M. Eng. loral, loryeJ. appearing also as lavrer,
loryzer, from 0. Fr. laurier and Proveni;. laurel, from Lat.
lau'rus, bay-tree, laurel]: a name properly belonging to the
Laurus nohilis or bay-tree of Europe. Asia, and Africa. In
the warmei' parts of Eurojie it becomes a large tree. Its
wood has a limited use in the arts ; its essential oil is em-
ployed in perfumery; its fruit yields a fixed oil, used in
veterinary medicine; its flowers afford rich bee-pasture;
its leaves were the material of the laurel crown of victors in
war and of successful poets and artists. The name is often
loosely extended to all the Lauracea;, to which this tree be-
longs. Shrubs of the genus Kaljiia (q. v.) are called laurels
in the U. S. Some of the larger rhododendrons of the U. S.
are called mountain-laurels. The evergreen cherry-trees are
called Cherry Laurel {q. v.). In Great Britain they are often
simply called laurel. The Portuguese laurel is one of the
cherry laurels. Several kinds of magnolia are known locally
in the V. S. as laurel-trees. In England the iJaphne laure-
ola is called spurge laurel. It is a haiulsome European
evergreen shrub, sometimes planted in the V. S., and is of
the family Tliymekeacew. It has a poisonous bark. Among
the ancients the laurel found many symbolical and super-
stitious applications. It was a sign of truce, like the olive-
branch, and it was a sign of victory. It was believed that
lightning could not strike it.
Revised by Charles E. Bessey.
Laurel Family : the Laiiracece. a group of about 900 spe-
cies of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs, for the most part na-
tives of warm climates. Their flowers are apetalous, 3- or 4-
merous, with a single, simple, superior ovary, containing
one ovule. The laurel (Laurus nohilis) is a well-known
member of this family; its American representative is the
California laurel {Umlellularia califomica). Cinnamon,
cassia-bark, camphor, and sassafras-bark are produced by
trees of this family, the last named from Sassafras offici-
nale of the Eastern U. S. Charles E. Bessey.
Laureiuberg, low'rem-bardi, Johann; b. Feb. 26. 1590. at
Rostock, where his father was Professor of Medicine. He
studied at Rostock, traveled in Holland, England, F^ ranee,
and Italy, studied medicine at Paris, and received the degree
of M. D.'at Reims in 1616. Returning to Rostock in 1618,
he was made Professor of Poetry, which position he held
until 1633. when the King of Denmark appointed him Pro-
fessor of Mathematics at the newly established I'liiversity
of Soroe. He died Feb. 28. 1658. Laureniberg's chief works
are the ^'iederdeutsche Scherzgedichte, written in Low Ger-
man. They belong to the best satires of the German lan-
guage, showing a poet of deep moral and patriotic pathos,
who ridicules successfully the imitation of French customs,
language, and dress on the part of his contemjioraries. See
\V. Braune's critical edition of the Scherzgedichte (Halle,
1879); E. MUller. Zu J. Lauremberg (Cothen, 1870); L.
Daae, Om Humanisteti og Satirikern Johann Lavremberg
(Christiania, 1884). Julius Goebel.
Laurence. Richard. D. C. L. : archbishop ; b. at Bath,
England, in 1760; graduated at Corpus Christi College, Ox-
ford, in 1782; took orders in the Church of England;
preached the Bampton lectures 1804 upcm the theme An
Attempt to Jlhi.itrate those Articles of the Church of Eng-
land which the Calrinists Improperly Consider Calvinis-
tical (Oxford, 1805: 3d ed. 1838); was anpointed to the rec-
torv of Mersham. Kent. 1805; became Regius Professor of
Hebrew and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 1814; Arch-
bishop of Cashel, Ireland,' 1822. D. in Dublin. Dec. 28, 1838.
Archbishop Laurence was one of the restorers of Oriental
studies in England, and perhaps the only high dignitarv of
his times who made a study of the dialeits of the Semitic
languages. His most important service to theology was the
recoverv from Ethiopic manuscripts of several interesting
apocryphal works, often quoted by the early Fathers, but
supposed to have been lost. These were the Ascension of
the Prophet Isaiah, edited with Latin and English versions
l:i>>
LAL'UEXS
in 181U, and The Book of Enoch the Prophet (1821 ; Sd eil.
l.S;W). llf brouj;lit out a ik-w version of Fourtli Ksdrns
(ISA)), al*t> from the Ktliiopie: piiMislied .1 Disserlaliuii on
/^,. I . r c» l..i.„ , isiisi- Crilical Jirfltclioii^ u^<in mine
/„, eonlaineJ in the inilan'iiii
y,, J (\Hl\): On the Existence of
the HDiil'iiller iMill, (lNi4i; and numenms occasional es-
says and sermons.— His elder brother, Fremu Laikknck,
LL. 1>.. b. at Bath. Apr. U. 1757: was educated at ONford,
and bi-CHme Regius Professor of Civil haw there in 17"JG.
D. at Elthani, Kent, Feb. L'O, IWtll. lie was autlior of Crit-
ical Remarks on Iklticlied I'assiuies of tlie Sew Testament,
particularly the lietelation of St. John (Oxford, 1810) and
other works, but is liest known for his interesting Corre-
spondence irith Edmund liurke, whose literary executor he
was, publislied in 18-^7. The Poetical liemuins of the two
brot'heis, with memoirs bv U. Cotton, was |)rivatcly issued
in Dublin in 1872. ' Revised by S. M. J.\ckso.n.
Laurens. Hkxry: statesman; b. at Charleston, S. C, in
1724; received a business training in Charleston and Lon-
don: aciiuireil an ample fortune in mercantile business, and
was cons|iicuous in the contests with the crown admiralty
judges, whose decisions were often unjust He serveil as a
major agjiinst the'Cherokees; went to Kngland in 1771, and
while there strove to avert war; became in 1775 member
of the South Carolina Congress, and president of the coun-
cil of Siifety : in 177(5 was sent to the (leneral Congress, of
which he was (iresident 1777-78. In 177!» he was sent as
r. S. minister to the Netlierhiuds, but was made a prisoner
bv the IJritisli wlnle at sea, and kept a close prisoner in the
"fower for fifteen months. In 1781 he was released, and ap-
pointed by the Congress one of the commissioners to nego-
tiate a peace, with Franklin and Jay as his colleagues. I).
Dec. 8, 1792. at Charleston, S. C. Hy a direction in his will
his body was burned. Some of his pamphlets and other
papers have Ix'en rcjjrinted.
Laurens, Iw'raahs', Jean Paul: historical painter; b. at
Fourquevaux. llaute-Garonne, France, Mar. 28, 1838. He
was a pupil of Leon Cogniet and of Hida ; was awarded a
flrst-chiss medal at the .Salon of 1872 ; medal of honor, Salon
of 1877; became an officer of the Legion of Honor 1878;
member of the Institute 1891. He is a strong draughtsman
and colorist, whose work is essentially virile. Excommuni-
cation of Unbert the Pious (1875) and Release of the Pris-
oners Walled up at Carcassonne (1879) are in the Luxem-
bourg Gallery, Paris; Ilonorious{lH>^0) is in tlie collection
of D. 0. Mills, New York. One of his finest works, Death
of General Marceau, is in the Museum at Ghent. Studio
in Paris. William A. Cofkin.
Laurens, Jonx: soldier; "the Bayard of the American
Revolution"; b. in Charleston, S. C., in 175:5; a son of
Henry Laurens, statesman ; was educated in Knglaml ; re-
turned to South Carolina on the outbreak of hostilities;
in 1777 joined the army an<l was placed upon the stalT of
Washington. From .Monmouth to Yorktown lie was in all
of Washington's luittles, and displayed the utmost valor, .so
that Washington is reiiorteil to have checked him for rash-
ness. Col. Ltturons was badly wounded at Germantown and
Coosahatchie. In 1781 he went as a sjiecial minister to
France, and successfidly negotiated a loan. Returning, he
served with great activity under Greene, and was killed in
the contest on the Combahee, Aug. 27, 1782. See his Life
and Correspondence, by W. G. Simms (New York, 1867).
Laurent. lii niiiii', Pai-l Matuieu : historian ; b. at Bonrg-
Saint-Andeol, .\rdeche, France. Sept. 14, 179:i; stmlied law,
jiracticed as a lawyer at Privas, was ii]ipointed a judge in
1840. but retired in' 1H5I, and was in IMo:) made administra-
tor of the library of the arsenal. He was an adherent of
Saint-Simon, but disjigreed with Knfanlin. 1). in Versailles,
Aug. 7, 1877. His most widelv known work is his Ilistoire
de Sajmleon (1H2H), ilhistrated by Horace Vernet and often
reprinted. Among his other works are Du principe d'au-
lorite en poliliiiue, des causes de sa deciiilence el des moi/ens
de la relerer (1844); Con/) d'wil philosophii/iie sur In rero-
lution du i dfcembre, /.v.v.' (IH.52) : lirfulation de VJIisloIre
de France de Vabhf de .}finili/aillaril, in which he under-
takes to explain and justify koUcspierre's conduct (3d ed.
1843), etc.
Lnnrentinn Hills, otherwise called The T/At'RKXTiDKs :
an upluinl Inll .,f Kasleni and Central British America.
From lOastern Labrador it runs southwest ward and then
curves Westward and northwestward, approaching the Arc-
LAURIC ACID
tic Ocean E. of the Coppermine river. It separates Hud-
son's Bay from a line of depressions holding the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, the Laurentiau Lakes, the Lake of the Woods,
and Winnipeg, Nelson, Reindeer, Athabasca, Great Slave,
and Great liear Lakes, and holds the main water parting
except at two points where it is traversed from \\ . to K.
bv the Nelson and Churchill rivers. In general it is a pla-
teau from 1,000 to 3.000 feet in altitude, with an uneven
surface, abounding in rocky hills and in lakes. Climate and
soil conspire to render it unfertile, and it is almost unin-
haliited. G. K. Gilhekt.
Laurentiau System : in geology, the lowest and oldest
division of rocks." The name was first applied by William
Logan in 1854 to rocks in the Laurentiau Mountains of
Canada, which hiul previously been called metamorphie,
and which are separated by a great unconformity from the
overlying Potsdam sandstone. Subsei|ucnlly the name Hu-
ronian (sec Hihoniax Seriks) was applied to portions of the
pre-Polsdam rocks, and Laurentiau was restricted to por-
tions believed to be older. In a general way the rocks
grouped together as Laurentiau were paler aiul more sili-
ceous than those called lluronian. and from this fact sprang
a petrogniphic classification of pre-Cambrian rocks which
was widely ado]ited and ajiplied to the fornuitions of all
countries. The subsccpient discovery that many of the
Laurcntian gneisses are altered granites, and that many of
the granites classed with the Laurentiau are really newer
than the dark schists classed with the lluronian, has tended
to discredit the classification, and has stimulated the en-
deavor to base a chronology of the older rocks on their
physical relations. See Algoxkian Period and ARrnEAX
Era. G. K. Gilbert.
Lauren'tius, Saint: according to traditicm. a .S[ianiard
by birth and a pupil of Sixtus IL. who made him deacon,
and afterward archdeacon and ti'easurerat Rome (257 A. D.).
In 258 A. n. the nuigistrate, during the Valerian persecution,
commanded Laurentius to reveal the treasures of the
Church ; accordingly, the saint collected a company of i>oor,
sick, lame, and blind persons and presented them as the
recjuired treasures, for which act he was condemned to be
roasted alive on a gridiron over a slow fire. He underwent
martyrdom with great courage and resignation Aug. 10,
258. ' In his honor Philip II. of Siiain erected the Kscorial,
because it was ujion his day, Aug. 10, 1557. that he won at
St.-(^uentin his great victory over the French, and built it
in the form of a gridiron because that was the instrument
of his martyrdom. Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Laiirianu, AuuustuTrebon: Roumanian historian ; b. in
1810 in Transylvania; studied there and at Vienna ; became
teacher of Philosophy at the College of St. Sava at Bucharest
in 1842; took jiart in the political movements of 1848; was
appointe<l inspector of schools in Moldavia in 1851 ; went to
Bucharest in 1859 as profes.sor at the university; became a
member of the Roumanian Academy in 1867. I>. in 1880.
Among his imblishcd works are: Tentamen criticum in
originem, derirationem el formam linyuw liomano! in
utraque Vacia vigentis (1840): M'igazinu isloricu pentru
Dacia (with Balceseu ; 5 vols.. 1845-47) ; Isloria Pomaniloru
(1853): with J. C. Massimu. or Maxim. Dicliimarulu limbei
roniane (2 vols., 1871-76, for the Roumanian Academy, a
work which was very unfavorably received, as not being
really a Roumanian dictionary in any ]iroper sense on ac-
count of incompleteness and excessive introduction of Latin
words and etymological spellings); and (with the same)
(tlossariu care coprinde vorbele d'i)i limb'a romann straine,
etc. (1871). K. S. Sheldon.
Laurie Acid, Laurostear'ic Acid, or Pichu'ric Acid
Unuric is from Lat. lau'rus. laurel ; lauroslearic is from
Lat. lau'rus + (ir. artap, (TTiaros. tallow: pichuric is from
the pichnrim bean]: an acid ( (CuIljjGj) belonging to the
fatty acid series (Ci.lIjnOj). It is olitained from the fat of
Ihe.bay-tree (Laurus xubilis). and from the fat and the vola-
tile oil of the pichnrim bean (Falnf pichurim maj.). It ex-
ists as a glyci'ridc (laurosteariu or laurin), from which it is
[)re|iared by saponifying these fats or the wax by caustic al-
kaline .solutions, and after the soaji is separated by common
salt, decomposing the soa|is thus formed by hydrochloric or
tartaric acids. Laurie acid also exists in other like vegelalile
bodies, sometimes in connection with myristic acid (CkHj,-
Oj), as in Mi/rica cerifera and the so-called I>ika brea<l
{Mangifera gabonetisis), and in a salve-like fat obtained
from Coccus axin, the Age or axin of the Mexicans. In con-
nection with many other fatty acids, it exists in spermaceti
LAURICOCHA
LAUZUX
129
and in the oil of the cocoanut It fuses at about 43° C. to
a colorless oil, and solidifies to a scaly crystalline white
mass, and crystallizes from its alcoholic solution in white
tufts and silky needles, or sometimes in nearly translucent
scales. It dissolves readily in ali'oliol, and yet more freely
in ether. Its alcoholic solution luis a I'eelily alkaline re-
action. It is quite insoluble in water, but when boiled in it
volatilizes with the vapor. The sodium, potassium, and
barium salts of lauric acid are soluljle in water. The salts
of the heavy metals with lauric acid are insoluble, or spar-
ingly so. Revised by Ira Remsex.
Lauricocha. low-ree-kocluui : a lake of Peru, in the de-
partment of lluauuco; on the Andean plateau, 50 miles
N. N. W. of Cerro de Pasco and lliT miles N. \. E. of Lima;
near lat. 10' 10' S. (Exact astronomical position and alti-
tude undetermined.) It is only 3 miles long, but has been
celebrated as the source of the Jlarafion and Amazon ; on
old maps it was represented as a large body of water. It
is doubtful if Lake Lauricocha should be regarded as the
true head of the Amazon, or even of this branch of it. After
flowing about 20 miles the rivulet which forms its outlet
joins the Nupe, a larger stream, which has already flowed
40 miles from its source. The Xupe therefore must be re-
garded as the most distant head of the upper Maraiion ;
while the Ueayali, which joins the Jlaranon far below, is
considereil by many as the upper portion of the Amazon.
Such discussions are in fact trivial; tlie Amazon has many
sources scattered through hundreds of miles of the Andean
region. Herbert H. Smith.
Laurie, law're"e, Simon Someeville, A. 51., LL. D., F, R.
S. R. : educator and philosopher ; b. in Edinburgh. Scotland,
Nov. 13, 1829 ; was educated at the Edinbargh High School
and Edinburgh University ; after graduating he taught in
Europe for about Ave years, till in 1855 he was appointed
secretary and visitor of schools to the Church of Scotland
education committee, which up to the passing of the Edu-
cation Act in 18T2 had control of the majority of schools in
Scotland. He was appointed Uick bequest visitor of schools
in 185ti, and in that position did more than any other man
in Scotland to uphold the best traditions of Scottish edu-
cation; was made secretary to the endowed schools com-
mission in 1873 ; and in 1876 was appointed to the newly
established chair of Education in the University of Edin-
burgh. His activity in this chair is especially known
through the following important educational works: Pri-
mary Instruction in Relation to Education ; Tlie Train intj of
the'Teacher and other Educational Papers ; Life and Edu-
cational Writings of John Amos Comenius; Occasional
Addresses on Educational Subjects ; Language and Lin-
guistic Method in the Schools: Teachers' Guild Addresses;
Lectures on Medieval Education and the Rise of Univer-
sities ; Institutes of Education (1893) ; and a History of
Education in Ttie School Review for 1894 (Hamilton, N. Y.).
He has also written Notes on British Theories and jlorals;
JUetapliysica JVova et Vetusta by Scofus JS'ovanticus ; and
Ethica, or tlie Ethics of Reason by Scotus Novanticus. He
was the first president of the Teachers' Guild of England.
C. H. Thurber.
Laiirier, 15'ri-a', Wilfrid, B. C. L., Q. C. : statesman ;
b. at St.-Lin. L'Assomption, Province of Quebec, Canada,
Nov. 20, 1841 ; educated at L'Assomption College, and ad-
mitted to the bar in 1865. He edited Le Defricheur for a
short time ; was a member of the Quebec Assembly 1871-74 ;
in 1874 he became a member of the Dominion Parliament ;
anil was Minister of Inland Revenue 1877-78. On the re-
tirement of Mr. Blake, Laurier became the leader of the Ca-
nadian Liberals. In July, 1890, he became Premier.
Laii'rium (in Gr. \avfnov. or Aoupeioi') : a range of hills in
Southern Attica. Greece, famous in ancient times for rich
mines of silver, lead, zinc, and antimony. At the beginning
of the Christian era these mines were "deserted, being con-
sidered exhausteil. In 1861! a French company began to re-
work with profit the refuse left by the ancient miners, and
now the mines themselves have been reopened. At iiresent
(1894) five companies (two Greek and three French) are
mining the hills of Laurium. Tlie chief products of the
mines are lead and zinc. A village (Ergastiria) of more
than 5,000 inhaliitants lias sprung "up around the furnaces
at the old harbor, and is connected with the mines and with
-Athens by railways. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Laiirvi?, lowr'vich: town of Norway; on an inlet of
Christiania Fiord; 65 miles by rail S. S. W. of Christiania
235
(see map of Norway and Sweden, ref. 11-C). It lias a good
harbor, large distilleries, some trade in timber, and very im-
portant iron-works in its vicinity. Pop. (1891) 11,269.
Lausanne, I'jzaan' (in Lat. Lausonium): capital of the
•canton of V'aud, Switzerland ; on the northern shore of the
Lake of Geneva; built on two hills, connected by a splen-
did bridge of granite (see map of Switzerland, ref! 6-B). It
has a beautiful Gothic cathedral, begun about 1000, com-
pleted in 1275, a library of 60,000 volumes, many good edu-
cational institutions, and several manufactories'of tobacco,
leather, and gold and silver ware. On account of its beau-
tiful situation on the southern slope of the Jura Moun-
tains, and near the Lake of Geneva, it attracts yearly a
great number of tourists. Lausanne is famous in literary
annals from having been the residence of Haller, Voltaire,
and (iibbon. The house occupied by the latter while writ-
ing liis celebrated History is still shown, and visited by mul-
titudes of travelers. Byroji wrote here his Prisoner of Chit-
Ion. An ecclesiastical council was held here in 1449, a con-
ference between Calvin, Farel, and Viret in 1.536 leading to
the adoption of the creed of the Reformed faith, and in mod-
ern times it has been the scene of a noted peace congress
(Sept.. 1871) and a Masonic universal convention (1875).
The city is of ecclesiastical origin. When Bishop Martin of
Aventieum chose the place as the seat of his new bishopric,
a town grew rapidly, and it remained an ecclesiastical do-
main until 1596. Pop. (1888) 34,049.
Lanssedat, losdaa', Aime: colonel of engineers and sa-
vant ; b. at Jloulins, France, in 1818 ; graduated from the
Polytechnic School into the Corps of Engineers in 1840 ; was
employed on the fortifications of Paris and later upon the
defenses along the Spanish frontier. In 1851 he became
Professor of Astronomy and Geodesy in the Poh-teclinic
School; in 1865 Professor of Applied Geometry at "the Con-
servatoire des Arts et Metiers. During this time he retained
his military position, and was made colonel in 1874. Col.
Lanssedat has made most interesting discoveries in the sci-
ences, especially as applied to military art. He invented the
apfjlication of photography to the making of maps and plans
of inaccessible places. He designed many instruments for
the observatory of the Polyteclinic School, established by
him. In 1879 he succeeded Gen. Morin as director of the
Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. To him is due the col-
lection and arrangement of the section of liberal arts of the
Exposition of 1889. It was upon his recommendation that
Paris time was adopted for the whole of France. He is com-
mander of the Legion of Honor, memlier of the superior
council of public instruction, and of that of technical instruc-
tion, vice-president of the council of the observatory, presi-
dent of the commission on aerial transportation, and presi-
dent of the Polytechnic Military Society ; also memlier of
the Societe des Ingcnieurs Civils. William R. Hi'ttox.
Laiiziin', Antoixe Nompar de Caumoxt, Due de ; cour-
tier of Louis XIV.; b. in Gascony in 1633 of a poor but
noble family ; gained the favor of the influential women of
the court by his cleverness and attractive manners, and rose
rapidly in the official .service. He was appointed governor
of Bcrri and mareschal de camp, with the promise of the
grade of grand master of artillery, but boasting of his influ-
ence over the king lost favor at court; and tor a time was
imprisoned in the Bastilc. On regaining his liberty he
sought to marry Mile, de Jlontpensier, the granddaughter
of Henry IV., but a court intrigue prevented the marriage,
though by some writers Lauzun is thought to have secretly
effected the union. Having offended Jlme. de Jlontespan,
Lauzun was again imprisoned, and this time for several
years. He was free again at the time of the English revo-
lution of 1688. and is said to have accompanied the queen
of James II. and her son in their flight to France, and to
have taken part in the expedition against Ireland. Though
Lauzun never played a great part in politics or war, his
name constantly recurs in the memoirs of his contempora-
ries, and is associated with many romantic but improbable
stories. I). 1723.
Laiiznn. Armaxd Louis de Goxtaut, Due de : soldier;
1). in Paris in 1753; commanded a naval expedition which
ca]itured Senegal and Gambia from the English (1779);
fouglit on the side of the North American colonies against
tireat Britain : afterward succeeded to the title of Due de
Biron ; was a deputy to the States-General ; a confidant and
secret agent of the Duke of Orleans ; appointed general-in-
cliief of the army of the Rhine July 9, 1792, of the army of
the coa.sts of La RocheUe May 15,'l793; took Saumur, and
130
LAVA
LAVATER
lii'feiiteil tli>> VemU-ans at Partlieniiy. He then temlereil
his ri'.siffiiation, luit Ikmiik accusoil l>y I'arrivr bi'furi' the
cominittif of iiulilio safety of too great lenity to the Ven-
ileaiis. lie was .lejn>s«'<l. thrown into the Alibaye jirisoii, con-
deinneil for con>|>inirv liv the revolutionary tnbuinil, antl.
exei'Uted i^n Jan. 1, ITIM. meet in;,' his fate with cynical
courage. Lauzuii hail gri'at ability, but was dis.s<iliite and
unprincii'led. His Mfmoires were published at Paris in
l«-2 and IS.V*.
Lara [from Ital. tura. stream, espcc. of molten rock,
deriv. of lamre. wash < Lat. lava re. wash, whence Kng.
laif] : the r»K'k wliieh i.ssues from a fissure or vokanie vent.
Volcanic pnnlucts are both fragniental and solid. The for-
mer are distiiiguisheil acciirding to their degree of tiiieness
as volcanic tlust. a-h. lapilli, rapilli. tutT. and bombs. The
term lava is rescTveil for the non-fragmeiital volcanic prod-
ucts which form continuous Hows, sheets, or dykes. Such
lavas differ very much in their chemical and mineralogical
com|M>sition. structure, and texture. .Some are acid, light
in color, and of low specitic gravity, like rhyolile. trachyte,
or pumice: others are basic, ilark in color, and of high
siMH-ific gravity, like basalt ; still others are intermediate in
character, like' andesite. Again, some lavas are altogether
crystalline, while others arc wholly gla-ssy : mo.st, however,
contain more or less glass, in which crystals of various sorts
are imbedded. Lavas differ most of all. at least to oxtcrnal
ap|icarances, in their degree of compactness or porosity.
This is called their texture. All lavas in a molten coiuli-
tion contain largo amounts of ga.ses. principally jwiueous
vapor. \Vhen they rise so far in the volcanic vent as to be
relieved from pressure, these gases tend to escape, giving
rise to explosive action, more or less intense, according to
their amount. As the molten mass solidifies during this
pr(M>ess, it is rendered more or less scoriaceous or vesiciilur
DV the escaping and imprisoned ga.s-bubbles. It these are
very abundant, the lava may be a pumice light enough to
float on water ; if they are lessnumerous, the lava is called a
scoria, or slag. Such cavities when filled with secondary
minerals produce an amygdaloid. Some lavas, whether
glassy or crystalline, are only slightly porous, or may even
be dense aiicl conomct. The production of these is usually
accompanie<l by a niinhnum of explosive action. an<l indicates
relatively little absorlied gas. .\ lava stream is most porous
at or near its surface, and more coMi]iacl in its center.
Molten lava flows like molten ir<in. and usually carries im-
perfectly fused portions of its substance, or crystals which
nave already formed within it. The escape of gases from
lava as it cools often produces a boiling or explosive action.
The rapid solidification of a lava stream at its surface
quii'kly forms a crust which is a [loor conductor of heat.
Hence it is often pcpssible to walk <in the surface of lava
which is still molten and in motion a short distance below.
The flowing away of the lava from such crusts frequently
|iri"luces caverns of considerable size.
JIud lava (lava d'arqaa) is a name applied to torrents of
water, due either to the smlden melting of snow on a vol-
cano or to the disru|)tion of a lake, mingled with fine vol-
canic debris. Such streams, because 4if their more rapid
motion, are often more destructive than flows of real lava.
The compact gray. substance sometimes called lava, and
useil in the manufacture of ornaments, is not true lava, but
a fine variety of limestone, hardened by the action of vol-
canic heat. G. H. Williams.
LavaL liia vaal' : town of France, the capital of the de-
partment of Mayenne; on the Mayenne river: 40 miles by
rail K. of Kennes (see map of Krance, ref. 4-1)). It is one of
the loveliest towns in France. It consists of two ])arls of
very different appearance. On the right bank of the river —
here spanned by Ihree beautiful bridges — stands the old
town with its soudpi'r ant icpie cast le. now used as a prison;
its gayer new castle, now u.sed as a court-liou.se: its cathe-
dral,partly from the twelfth and iiartly from the sixteenth
century, etc. On the left bank, wliich is lower and almost
level, stands the new town, with its broad avenues and its
lufMlern structures. The place is noted for its linen manu-
factures, which Were introduceil from Flanders in the four-
teenth century ; linen goods to the value of ."iOO.OOO francs
are s< lid at each of its monthly markets. Among its other
manufactures are paper and earthenware, and it has a con-
siderable trade in grain, timber, and cattle. Pop. (IHlll)
:«),:J74.
Lavnl. FRAN1701S iiK MoNTMoKKsrv. de : ecclesiastic : b.of
ail ancient and noble family, at l<aval, France, Mar. 2!j,
1623 : became a priest in Paris 1645 ; declined the bishopric
of t'ochiii-China in 1651 ; became Archdeacon of Evreux in
165:!; Uishop of Pelra'a in partibus and vicar-apostolic of
New France in ItioS. In 166;i he founded the seiiiinarv of
t^uebec, and in 1666 consecrated the parish chuichof N'otre
Dame. In 1674 he was bishop of the new see of t^ui'bec,
from which he retired in 16(<8 to his seminary, to whidi he
gave his worldly possessions. He was de facio ruler of
t'aiiaila. in civil as well as ecclesiastical affairs. The Laval
I'nivei'sity at t^ncliec commemorales his name. I), at (Que-
bec, May 6, 1708. See his Life by Louis Bertraiid de la
Tour (L'ologne, 1751).
Lavalle, laa va'al yii. .Ivan : general : b. at Buenos Ayres,
Argentine Uepublic, Oct. 16. 17!»7. He joined the |>airiot
army in 1813. fought in Uruguay. Chili, Peru, and Ecuador;
returned to Buenos Ayres in 1828. and from 1825 to 1828
look part in the campaigns against the Brazilians, distin-
guishing liimself at the battle of Ituzaiiigo Feb. 20. 1827.
On Dec. 1, 1828. he hea<ied a military revolt at Buenos
Ayres. in favor of the Tnilarian parly; Dorrcgo. the feder-
alist governor, was deposed, and shortly after captured and
shot (Dec. K!). Lavalle was made governor of Buenos
Ayres. but a congress of the provinces declared his govern-
ment illegal, and a civil war ensued. Lavalle ultimately
resigned and retired to Brazil, and on Dec. 6. 182!). Hosas
was elected goveinorof Buenos Ayres. thiisopeiiing the way
to his dictatorship. Gen. Lavalle. sometimes with the Bra-
zilians and sometimes in eoiiiiiiaiid of provincial forces,
made dcleriiiiiied efforts to overturn Hosas, and became
the acknowledged leader of those opposed to his tyranny.
Ill 18:i8 he marched on Buenos Ayres, but was compelled to
retreat : and after repeated defeats fled to .Injuy, w here he
was assassinated Oct. 9, 1841. Herbert H. Smith.
Lavalley. hiiivaariii, Alexandre: civil engineer: b. at
Progny. Aisne. Fiance. Nov., 1821 ; studied at Tours, and
1840-42 at the Polytechnic School, from which he gradu-
ated as sub-lieutenant of military engineers. At this time
there were only 200 miles of railway in operation in France.
He resigned, went to England, and entered a machine-shop
in Liverpool, where with hammer and file in hand he
passed through all the branches from the forge to the erect-
ing-sliop. He also served a tei-m as fireman of locomotives,
in order to study the details of their operation. Heturn-
ing. he was employed on the Northern Hallway of France
under Clapeyron. In 1846 he became engineer and mana-
ger of the works of Ernest Gouin & Co.. constructors of
machines, and especially of locomotives. In 18.52 he built
the first wrouglit-iroii railway bridge in France, and after-
ward built others in Hungary, in Italy, and in Hussia.
When the construction of tlie Suez (I'anal (q. v.) was
threatened by the withdrawal of the Egyptian forced labor,
de Lesseps ajiplied to Lavalley to undertake its completion.
He accepted, and, associated with Paul Borel (d. 1869),
completed the lanal three months in advance of the stipu-
lated time. I'poii the conijiletion of the canal in 1869 La-
valley was made its chief engineer, a post he retaiiie<i until
1875. 1874 he ]>laiined a harbor and railway on lie de la
Heunion (formerly lie Bourbon), and from 1878 to 1886 was
engaged in their construction. He was elected senator from
Calvados ill 1885. He was an officer of the Legion of Honor,
and a ]iast president of the Societe des Ingenieurs Civils.
I). .Inly 20. 1892. He published ilcscriptioiis of the methods
of con.structing the Suez Canal and harbor and railway of
tie <le la Heunion in Comptex renduK de In Societe dea In-
ffeiiieiirs Cirih (1866, 1867, 1808, 1809. and 1886).
William H. Hitto.n.
Lavater. lali vaatiir'. Johaxx Caspar : founder of the art
of physiognomy; b. at Zurich. Switzerlaml. Nov. 15, 1741;
studied theology, and in 1764 was appointed preacher, first
of the orphan house, then of St. Petri church in his native
town, and held this position till his death in 1801. Truth
was with him not a duty, but a passion — not the honor ot
his soul, but the necessity of his nature. Wherever he found
trul h he acknowledged and accepted it unciaidil ioiially. Tho
conseipience was that his adversaries to<ik the opportunity
to accuse him of almost every kind of heresy which ever
had appeareil in the history of Christianity, ilis talent cor-
responded with his character. In theology and philosophy
he was a mystic, but in all his writings tliere was a charm
which gained for him the friendship of many of the promi-
nent writers of his day. In 1775-78 his J'ht//:i(iri>wmiKche
Fraymenle. which has made his name famous, apjieared in
four volumes. The work started a new idea, or, rather, it
LAVELEYE
LAVOISIEK
131
(lesoribed a natural and necessary process which takes pUice
whenever man meets man, with such exactness and felicity
as to raise this process from a dull and sluggisli practice to
a conscious and free mental activity. lie held that where
there is combination there is significance, where there is
movement there is character. Consequently the human figure
must signify something of its nature, and the motion of its
parts, the |)lay of its features, must express something of its
charac-tcr. He asserted that the soul, the character, the his-
tory of an individual, was painted on his face, that a human
face might be read like a printed leaf. The work produced
the profoundest sensation. lie died from a wound received
at Zurich at the time of its capture bv Massena. See Lives,
by Ileisch, 1842; Muncker, 1883; Steck, 1884; and Von der
Hellen, 1888. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Liiveleye, laliv'la', Emile Lol-is V^ictor : political econo-
mist; b. at Bruges, Belgium, Apr. 5, 1822; studied at the
Athenipum of his native city, and at the College Stanislas in
Paris, and took high honors in the law course at the Uni-
versity of Ghent. From 1848 he was entirely occupied with
those economical studies which gave him so great a repu-
taticm. At first he wrote in the Belgian periodicals, de-
fending liberal principles against the Ultramontanes ; be-
came from 1858 a constant contributor to the Rerne des Deux
Mimdes ; was in 1864 appointed Professor of Political
Economy at the University of Liege ; and in 1867 repre-
sented Belgium as member and secretary of the interna-
tional jury upon paintings at the Paris Universal Expo-
sition. Among his numerous works that on Property and
its Primitive Forms (1873) has already become a classic.
In .June. 187.5, he published a volume on the Religious Con-
flict ill Europe, with a preface by W. E. Gladstone, and in
the same year liis Du respect de la propricti privce en temps
de guerre. He publisheil also Le Sociatisme contemporain
(1881) ; Le parti clerical en Belgique (1874) ; and Le gou-
vernement dans la democratic (1891, 2 vols.). D. Jan. 3, 1893.
La Vendue : See Vendee, La.
Lavender [from 0. Fr. lavendre, from Ital. lavanda, lav-
ender, liter., a washing, deriv. of lavare, wash] : popular name
of a labiate shrub {Lavandula vera), a native of the south of
Europe, very extensively cultivated for its fragrant flowers,
which yield a volatile oil much used in perfumery. Lav-
endt^r water, spirit of lavemler, etc., are of considerable serv-
ice in pharmacy and medicine.
La'ver : any one of several edible seaweeds, such as Ulva
latissima, Porphijra laciniata, and P. vulgaris. These are
commonly eaten as luxuries in P^urope, either pickled or
stewed.
Laveran, Alphoxse, M. D. : discoverer of organism caus-
ing malaria; a son of Louis Laveran; b. at Jletz, France,
1843 ; studied medicine under his father; entered the medical
corps of the French army ; during a tour of duty in Algeria he
discovered in the blood of persons suffering with malarial or
paludal fevers a micro-organism, the Hmmatozoon malarice,
and in 1881 he announced his discovery in a brochure, Na-
ture parasitaire des accidents de Vimpaludisme. At first
but slight importance was attached to this publication, as
the scientific world was committed to a supposed Bacillus
malaria, of Klelis and Tcjinmasi-Crudelli ; but later the ex-
istence of this organism within the blood-corpuscles of per-
sons affected witli these fevers was confirmed by observers
in various parts of the world, and to Laveran is due all
credit for the persistency with which he pursued his obser-
vations and sustained his discovery. He was appointed
professor at the school of Val-de-Grace and is the author of
a number of important communications to scientific soci-
eties. Among Ills works are Traite des maladies des armees
(Paris. 1891) ; Traite des fievres palustres (Paris. 1884) ; Du
paludisme (Paris, 1891). S. T. Armstrong.
Laveran, Louis, M. D. : epidemiologist ; b. at Dunkirk,
France. Jlay 30, 1812; graduated M. I), from the Paris
Medical School in 183.). having been a pupil of tlie military
instruction hospital at Lille; entered the medical corps of
the French army; was professor at the Jlctz military hos-
jiital from 1841 until 1850. then served a number of years
m Algeria; in 1856 appointed to the chair of Jlilitary Sledi-
eine in the Val-de-Grace scliool, subsequently beconung di-
rector of the school; during the Franco-Ciermau war served
as medical inspector in the Army of the North; in 1872
went to Montpellier to organize the military school there,
subsequently returning to Val-de-Grace. He was the nuist
prominent French author on military eiiidemiology of the
century. His most important work is De la mortalitd des
armees en campagne. L). Aug. 7, liS79. S. T. Akmstroxo.
Laverdiere. laa vardi-iir', Claude Honore : educator and
autlior: b. at Cliateau-Richer, Canada, Oct. 23, 1826; was or-
dained a Human Catholic priest in 1851 ; became a professor
in t)ie seminary and librarian of Laval University. He took
part in the publication of three volumes of .Jesuit Relations
(1858) concerning early missions in Canada ; edited the voy-
ages of Ciuunplain (5 vols., 1870), with notes and a biog-
raphy ; the Journal des Jesuites (1871); wrote J/iatoire du
Canada for schools, ami several treatises upon subjects con-
nected with early Canadian history, and edited several books
of songs and hymns. U. at (Quebec, JIar. 27, 1873.
Lavig^erie, laa-ve'e2he-ree', Charles Martial Allemand,
Cardinal: b. at Bayonne, France, Oct. 31, 1825; studied
theology, and was ordained priest in 1849 ; was called to
the chair of Ecclesiastical History in the Sorbonne 1854, and
held that position till 1861. 'in 1863 he was appointed
Bishop of Nancy, but in 1867 was transferred to the see of
Algiers, wdiich was afterward made into an archbishopric.
In Algiers he sought to combine the propagation of Chris-
tianity among the colonists with works of active benevo-
lence toward the Arabs, but in his charitable endeavors
came into conflict with the military authorities, and was
notified that his duty was to attend to the spiritual needs of
the Catholic colonists, and to leave the care of the Arabs to
the Government. Lavigerie persisted in his work in spite
of these commands. Under the republic he came out boldly
in favor of the monarchy, addressing a letter to the Corat'e
de Chambord urging him to return in person to France and
claim his hereditary right. Lavigerie's greatest distinction
lies in his earnest efforts to suppress the slave-trade. Lie
addressed large audiences on this suliject in the various
European capitals, and secured from the British and Ger-
man Governments a promise rigidly to enforce the anti-
slavery clause of the Congo conference. In 1890 he pub-
lished a letter showing a complete change of faith in politi-
cal matters. In it he rleclarcd that it was the best policy of
the Church to accept the republic. 1). in Algiers, Nov. 26,
1892. F. M. Colby.
Lavin'iuni (now Prafica) : an ancient city of Italy, in
Latium ; situated 17 miles. S. of Rome, near the sea. It was
founded, according to tradition, by ^Eneas, on his arrival in
Italy, and named after his wife Lavinia. In historical
times it had ah-eady lost any importance it may have pos-
sessed earlier.
Lavisse, hfa' vets'. Ernest : historian ; b. at Xouvion-en-
Thierache, France, Dec. 17, 1842; studied at the Sujierior
Nonnal School in Paris, where he was afterward one of the
professors, and was called in 1888 to the chair of Modern
History in tlie Paris Faculty of Letters. In 1892 he was
elected a member of the French Academy. JI. La\isse has
devoted his attention chiefly to the history of Germany.
His more important works are Etude^ sur I'une des origines
de la monarchie pnissienne (1875) ; Etudes sur I'histoire de
Prusse (1879); Questions d'enseiynement national (1885);
Essais sur I'Alliniagne imperiale (1887); Trois empereurs
d'Allemagne (1888); Etudes et etudiants (1889); Vue gene-
rale de I'histoire politique de I'Eurojie (1890 ; English trans-
lation bv C. Gross, New York, 1891) ; La /eunesse du grand
Frtderi'c (1891 ; English translation, London, 1892).
Lavoisier, hraVwali'si-il', Antoine Laurent : chemist and
savant; b. in Paris, France, Aug. 16. 1743; studied at the
College Jlazarin ; pursued astronomical knowledge under La
Caille; studied botany under Bernard de Jussieu ; worked
in Rouelle's chemical laboratory in the .Tardin des Plantes ;
became an associate of the Academy in 1768; obtained a
farmer-generalship in 1769, in order to increase his income,
his expenditures in chemical research requiring a large out-
lay of money ; took a prominent [jart in jmblic affairs, writ-
ing numerous and able papers on state questions; discovered
the compositi(m of water in 1783; and made many impor-
tant researches in physics. In chemistry, the science to
which his attention was chiefly directed, he made not only
important discoveries and great inventions in apparatus and
in methods of work, but he was one of the first and ablest
of philosophical chemists, the destroyer of the false theories
of Stahl and Priestley, and was the principal inventor of the
system of chemical nomenclature which prevailed exclusive-
ly for more than fifty years after his death. Lavoisier was
guillotined by the Jacobins May 8. 1794. on account of his
former connection with the farming of the taxes. The
132
l-AW
oiiiy.
Iiniiit
iiu>st important of his works arc TraiU lie Chimie (1789)
Mti.l M,'m.,irrji dv f/ii/siiiue el (/f (ViiHii'e, which iiicluiles
Ills |iriMi i|.iil .»-iii-;i'iiiiil !<iiMilitif |i«i>ers.
Law : ill ' st'iiMic'i-s, a tiTiii used, as Pr. Ilollaml
olHu-rv.'s (./ .. 5th eJ.. I). IT), to di'si^'nati- "thf
i,l 1 ..I in.- .itistTVOil n'laliiiiis of |ilii'iioiiieiiu. bf
I IIS insliinct'S i^f ciinsiilioii or of iiii'rl' s^u■lr^sioll
iii ..luo." Tims we s|K'ak of thi- " laws" of astroii-
■f rli.iiiistry. eir. In tho sticial st-ii'iices, on the other
I lie t<nn is useil to express "the ahstract iJea of the
rules whieh n-f;uhite hiiuiuu aelioii." It should be noted,
however, that in the smial seienees also we assiH'iato with
I lie term i<le«.< of eause and elTeet. This is olearly the case
when we speak of "economic laws," but it is also the case
when we s|ieak of laws, in the most usual and proper sense,
ns riilr.t of sijciiil cuiuliirl ihehirrtl tiiiil iiifurced liij politiail
tiiitli'irily. Such rules are cnuimoulv delined iiv English
jurists as cnmmaiul»\ but many of the most imi>ortant rules
of law. particularlr in the field of private relations (properly,
family, etc.). simnly stale that cerlain fads shall be attend-
ed with certain leiral results. Tims a deed drawn in a cer-
tain way. and n>>,'istered in a cerlain public ollicc. will con-
vey all the rii,'lils of the grantor lo a piece of land. .\ deed
pro|ierly drawn but not registered will be inelTective against
thinl parties. A deed improperly drawn will perhaps have
no result whatever. .Such rules as these are commands only
in a very remote and indirect sense: on their face they are
slatemeiils of cause and effect or occfLsion and result, and
in so far they are similar lo natural laws. What really dil-
fereiitiales lliein from nalural laws is that the result is arbi-
trarily determined by liuinaii volition. Hence the customary
(ierinan detinition of laws as derlaralinns of public will is
more accurate than the English definitions.
Duuble Mraning of the Word Liiu: — In all the various
uses alx>ve noted the word law has a double meaning. It
sometimes indicates a particular rule. i. e. a particular se-
fjuence of fact and result, and it sometimes indicates the
tolalily or sum or "abstract idea" of a body of connected
or iLssociatod rules. In the latter sense the word carries
with it idejis of harmony, order, etc. ; and in the field of
huinaii law, further ideas of an ethical nature — ideas of
right and justice. Hence the system of S(X'iaI order which
We call law is called by the tiennans. French, Italians,
Spanish, etc.,." right ■' (jiee/it, droit, diritio, dfrecho, etc.).
Words analogous to our "law" in derivation or in etymo-
logical significance {(rexetz, hi. lepye. Icy. vtc.) are nseil by
them, as the Koinans used lex, to describe single rules of law",
|iarticularly those of a statutory character. English-speak-
ing [woples always eranloy the word in this sense when speak-
ing of a law, and usually when speaking of loirs; andalwavs
use it in the more general sense when they speak of the law.
Liiir in Ginenil. — The conception of law. in the general
«.r abstract sense, has been discussed in the article on JiRis-
I'RiDKNCE. In that article also the vari(uis kinds of law,
public and private, substantive and remedial, are indicaled.
and the principles on which they are classified explained.
The lollowiug table presents a list of the dilTerent branches
of national or municipal law, and also a cla.ssificalion of the
objects to which these branches apply:
Substantive.
Public.
I Constitutional.
t Adinliiistrative.
1 Private.
I Natural.
Persons. •{
I .Juristic.
( Huslinnrl and wife.
Family. J Parent and cliil.l.
[ Oliartliau and ward.
I Realty.
r Infantfi
J minors.
I Women.
I Lunatics.
) Corporations.
t Foundations.
Property.
Personalty.
Inheritance
or
i succession.
Movables.
Trade- iimrlts.
pal<'nls. and
copyriKht.
Contracts
and quasi-
contracts
tohlljiations).
Intestate.
Wills and tes-
taments.
Kehcuiai.
■ Putilic.
( Crimes and misdemeanors.
I Criminal procedure.
*^"-"luwiVoccd«re.
Across nil this cla.ssificiil ion, biLsiMl on the nature of the re-
latiotis with which each jiortion of the law deals, run other
lines of historical ami national division. Of the various
systems of national or municipal law which have existed or
still exist, the niosl iniportani are the Hoiiian and the Eng-
lish. Erom the historical iniint of view, again, the .system
of law established bv the Koman Catholic I'lmrch, during
the ceiduries in which it exercised really sovereign powers,
and the body of customary law established by the merchants
of Euro|ie, at a linic when their usages were everywhere ac-
cepted jis binding, are of great importance. Tlie.sc are
treated under Canon Law and Mkrcantile Law {gq. v).
Sourres of IjOir. — The law. as a system of social onler, is
composed of rules jiarlly ciistiniiiiry and partly slatutiiry.
The part played by custom in making law is treated in the
article on JuKispKfDENCK ((/. c); but somelhing remains to
be said of statutory rules. It is, in fact, to lhe.se rules that
we commonly restrict the term "laws." Kules of custom
constitute a part of the law, liut we seldom call them laws.
We draw nearly the same ilistinctioii in other words, when
we divide all law into written low and iniirritten taw ijus
scriptiim and jus mm scriptum). These lerius, accurate
enough in early society, have become soinewlial misleading
to-day : for when we seek to discover the rules of iniwritten
law, we have recourse to works written and printed (particu-
larly to judicial rejxjrts). At the same time, the writing is
here simply evidence of the rule : it is not, as in the case of
a writlen law. itself the rule.
^Yrilten Law. — All written or statutory law proceeds from
the political sovereign or some authorized organ of the sov-
ereign. (1) The orgaide or c.oii.sfiliilional law theoretic-
ally proceeds directly from the sovereign: but in the U. S.,
where the sovereignty is in the people, conslilutional amend-
ments are draftcil and proposed by a representalive body
(Congress, or a niitioiiiil convention) and accepted by repre-
sentative bodiestSlatclcgislatiircsorc-onventions). In nearly ■
all of the cmiinioiiwealtlis included in the U. S., constitu-
tional amendments are proposed by the ordinary Icgi-slalure
and accepted by direct popular vote; but in most of the
commonweallhs the conslilution may be revised by a conven-
tion, and in some of them the revision may become law with-
out being submitted to the jieople. In most European coun-
tries the constitution is inaile and amended by the ordinary
legislature, and such acts and anieiidments are called "con-
stitutional laws." ('3) Ordinary ti/jlsldtiou. in modem
states, usually proceeds from a representative body: but in
Switzerland laws passed by the legislature may recjinre popu-
lar approval, and [irovision is also made for legislation on
popular initiative (the so-called referendum: see Law-mak-
ing. .M KTiioDs OK.) In the U.S.. in many of the State con-
stitulion.s, and especially in the ninic modern constitutions,
there arc luimeroiis provisions lliat trench upon the field of
ordinary legislation : and. of course, new legislation on the
matters covered by the constitution can be obtained only
by the process of constitutional ameiulmeni ; so that, as in
Switzerland, there is a tendency lo legislation by popular
vote. (3) A subsidiary or sujiplciiuiitary power of making
rules may be vested, by the conslilution of a country, or by
act of its general legislalnre. in the executive or judicial
branihes of government, or in siiecial organs of local gov-
ernment, like a cily council. Tlie ordinance power of the
chief executi\-e may (and in most modern states actually
does) amount to an independent or at least a supplementary
power of legislation. In the U. S.. however, the power of
making law by ordinance is usually obtained only by specific
delegation of authority from the legislature; but, within a
more or less strictly limited domain, executive orders or de-
crees and the (U'dinances of local authorities, as well as the
rules of court liiiil down by judicial t ribiinals, have the force
of laws. The authority from which the rule proceeds must
of course be a competent authority, and the regulation issued
must be within its competence. A rule enunciated by an
incompetent authority, or by an authority which has ex-
ceeded its powers, is mill and void, and it is the duty of the
judiciary to refuse to enforce it. This )irinci|ile governs
alike the ciuse of an unconstitutional statute and that of
an illegal ordinance. In some countries, however (e.g. Ernncc
and Prussia), the judiciary is forbidileii to question the con-
stitutionality of a law properly published by executive
aulhority; and in Great lirilain. of course, acts of Parlia-
ment can not be unconslitulional, because the Parliament is
unlimited in its powers.
All the classes of written law above noticed differ mainly
in the degrees of authority possessed by the organs from
which they proceed. In a broad sense they are all laws, hut
the word is not comnmiily used in so broa<l a sense. We
LAW
135
liabitually distinguish " tlie constitution and the laws " on
tlie one hand, and "laws and ordinances" on the other, thus
confining the term laws to aets passed liy the ordinary lef,'i.s-
latures. We are ill tlie lialiit, also, ul' usinjj the term stat-
utes in the same limited sense.
Special or Private ^4(;/«.— Some writers insist upon a fur-
ther limitation, asserting; that the so-called special or prira/e
acts ])assed by a legislature — acts, that is, whose operation
is confined to a sinsjle person, or a narrow f;roU[i of persons,
or to a single locality — are not properly laws. This asser-
tion is evidently due to a feeling that laws ought to be gen-
eral in tlieir scope, and to the observeil fact that special
legislation is open to great abuse. For this reason many
State constitutions in the U. S. prohibit the passage of
special or private acts. It has been found difficult, however,
to enforce such prohibitions. In the first place, it is almost
impossible to say a priori what a special act is. Some acts
are more general in their character than others, and some
are less general : it is a cpiestion of degree. Back of this
technical difficulty, however, is one that is more serious.
In a highly civilized society — i. e. in a society that has
reached a high degree of differentiation and specialization
of functions — equality is anything but equity; it is right
and expedient that different clas.ses of persons and different
kinds of relations should be governed by different rules;
and it is not easy to draw a scientific line of demarkation
between such special legislation as is Just and desirable and
such as is unjust and injurious. For these reasons the courts
have regularly avoided definition of the term "special" as
applied to laws, and have rendered their decisions on the
merits of each case. From the standpoint of scientific juris-
prndence, the contention that a special law is not a law
seems to be indefensible. Some special laws are good and
some are bad, but all have the criteria of laws. They are
declarations of public will enforced by public authority.
Methods of Abroyutiiiff Laws. — For the methods in which
laws are made, see Law-making. Laws are abrogated or
put out of force (1) by constitutional amendment, as was
the case in the U. S. with all laws regarding slavery after
the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Federal
Constitution. ('3) By the exercise of a superior legislative
autliority. Thus where concurrent legislative power exists
in the national and in tlie local (state, provincial, or cantonal)
legislatures, the enactment of a national law covering mat-
ters previously I'egulated by local laws deprives the latter of
legal force. This will be the ease, for example, with all the
State bankruptcy laws in the U. S. whenever Congress shall
again adopt a national law. In cases of this character, how-
ever, it is possible to hohl that the State laws are not abro-
gated by the national law, but that their operation is simply
suspeniled, so that they regain full force with the repeal of
the national law. (3) By repeal, i. e. Iiy a contrary statute
enacted by the same legislative authority. Repeal need not
be expressly declared : a new law whose provisions are incom-
patible with those of an older law effects /)ro tanto the repeal
of the older law. In case of doubt as to whether the old and
the new law are contradictory and incompatible, the presump-
tion is always in favor of the survival of the older rule.
It was maintaineil by the Koman jurists that statutory
law was capable of being abrogated by contrary custom or
by non-user. This is generally denied by modern jurists;
but their denial seems due to the fact that they think of
usage only as popular usage, and do not recognize the law-
making force of governmental usage. (See Jurisprudexce.)
It certainly seems true that even statutory laws may be
practically abrogated by an executive or juilicial non-user.
In many modern states the statute-books contain laws that
are never enforced, and that are generally regarded as
"dead letters." An examination of these laws will show
that their enforcement is regularly dependent upon govern-
mental initiative, and that an executive custom of non-
enforcement has been developed with the general approval
of the community. Cases have also occurred where the
courts of a country have so interpreted a statute as either
to rob it of all force or to attain a result other than that
contemplated by the legislature; and in such cases it certainly
might be said that statutory law had liccn abrogated by the
custom of the courts. Cases of the last sort, however, do
not occur in modern times; modern judges are not in the
habit of exercising such a power.
The Domain of Lair. — In early times and in semi-civil-
ized communities the domain of law is regularly determined
by race or liy religion; so that the law of a certain tribe or
that of a certain confession or sect follows the members of
the tribe or sect everywhere, and governs them only. Such,
for instance, was the operation of tribal law in the Frankish
empire. L'ntil a very recent period most Kuropean countries
recognized that the peculiar laws of the Jews governed their
marriages and family relations; and in British India the
courts still rec:ognize and enforce the laws and customs
of the different confessions. In the U. S. Indians living
under tribal government are largely ruled by their own
tribal laws. In most non-Christian countries (e. g. in the
Turkish empire, in China, and in Japan) Kuropeans and
Americans are regularly exempted from the local law, and
are governed by their own national laws; but these sur-
vivals of an older practice are tending to ilisapiiear. The
modern principle is that all laws are territorial in their
operation ; that they govern all jiersons within the territory,
except foreign sovereigns and the diplomatic representatives
of foreign countries ; and that they do not operate outside
of the territory. An apjiarent exception exists in that the
courts of all countries, when called upon to deal with a case
which has arisen in a foreign country or which is naturally
subjected, on other grounds, to a foreign system of law, will
regularly apply the foreign law. The exception is, however,
only an apparent one ; for the foreign law is applied only in
so far as the written law or the judicial usage of each state
authorizes its application. In other words, the rules of in-
ternational private law are really rules of law only in so far
as they are parts of each national, territorial system. See
Inter.national Private Law.
Retrospective Legislation. — As the domain of law is lo-
cally restricted, so again it is temporally restricted. A law
begins to be apjilied only when it comes into existence, and
ceases to be applied when it is abrogated. The only ques-
tion that arises in determining the temporal domain of laws
is whether a law is to be applied to all derisions rendered
during its period of existence, even when the facts upon which
the decision must be based have occurred before the enact-
ment of the law. This question is regularly answered in the
negative. It is recognized as a principle of justice that laws
shall not operate retrospectively ; that the legal character
which has been impressed upon the acts of men or upon
other facts by the law existing at the time, shall not be
changed by subsequent legislation. This principle of the
non-retroactivity of laws is affirmed in the V. S. by constitu-
tional provisions, such as those which prohibit ex post facto
laws (see Ex post facto) and those which restrain the States
from impairing the obligation of contract. In countries
where no such constitutional restrictions exist, the legisla-
ture is competent to pass retroactive laws; but it is a gen-
eral principle of construction not to assume that the legis-
lature has had such an intention unless it is indicated
expressly or by necessary ini]ilication. In the field of private
law, however, this whole doctrine of the non-retroactivity
of laws is limited to cases where definite rights have been
vested under an older law. Were capacity to acquire rights
and mere expectations (such as those of a presumptive heir)
are not protected against legislative interference.
Revisions and Codes. — The ascertainment and the appli-
cation of statutory laws are greatly facilitated by periodical
revisions, in which antiquated and repealed provisions are
eliminated and repetitions avoided, and in which some gen-
eral order of arrangement by subjects is observed. This
work was done for the imperial statutes of Koine by the
codices of Theodosius and Justinian, and similar compila-
tions have been made in almost every country. The U. S.
and the majority of the single States publish revised stat-
utes from time to time. Where this is not done, private
compilations of a similar character are usually made; but
these, of cour.se, are not authoritative; they serve only as a
means of discovering the various statutes still in force.
Another method of attaining the same ends is to reduce all
the rules which govern a certain field of legal relations (e. g.,
public education, public health, banking, insurance) to the
form of a single general act or statute. When such a gen-
eral act covers a very broad fiehl. it is frequently termed a
code. Thus, for example, we have, in many of our States,
political codes, criminal codes. codes of civil and of criminal
procedure, and, more rarely, civil codes. The latter term
commonly indicates something more than a mere revision
and orderly presentation of the statutory law; it involves
the reduction of the judicial custom, the unwritten common
law, to statutorv form. Such codification in any common-
wealth of the U. S. implies (1) the withdrawal from the
courts of the power further to develop the common law by
decisions, and (2) the future development of the law of the
134
LAW
otHlifvin-; States on iiartiouluristic ami probably conflicting
lin.s.' S-e foi'K. (.'oMMoN Law, foNSTniTiox, Kx post kaito,
LxTEKrRETATiox, J iKisFKLUtxiK, Law-makinu, and Leois-
LATLRfs. For litiTulure, see esjicciaUy JfBisi'KfKKNi E.
JlixROE Smith.
Law. Kusifxn, D. D. : pn-late ami nietaphysieian : b. near
Cartnii-I. Laniasliire, England, in 1703; was educated at St.
.Iiiliii"s I'ollegc, t'anibridge, of wliicli he was chosen fellow
u|xin graduation in 1723: obtained the rectory of tirayslock,
(.'unilierlund. in ITW; became Archdeacon of Carlisle in
17-»:t: nia-ter of IVterhotise College. Cambridge, in 1754:
libnirlan of the university, I'rofessor of Casuistry, and Arch-
deacon of I^incoln soon afterward ; prebendary of Durliani
in 1767. and Bishop of Carlisle in 17(t«. D. at Kose Castle,
Carlisle, Aug. 14. 17H7. Uishon Law was one of the most
learned and liln-ral prelates and acute metaphysicians of his
agi'. His works are translations from the Latin of Arch-
bishop Kuu/s Kaxiii/ on the Oriyin o/ A'ciV (1731), with co-
pius notes; Inquiry i)ilu the Jilea^ of Space and Time
(1735) ; CuiisiJeriilionx on the Theory of Religion (1745;
edited, with a Life, bv Paley 1820); and 'Reflections on the
Lifr and Cliaraclrr of Chrint (1749); M'orks of John Locke
(1777). with a biograpiiy of that philosopher. His sons were
EuwARii. first Lord Kr.LF.NnoRoitiU ((/. v.). Geokuk Henry
(17t)l-l><45i. Bishop of Chester in 1S12 and of Bath and
Wells in ly24, and a third, Bishop of Elphin.
Itevised by J. Mark Baldwin.
Low. .lonx: financier and speculator; b. in Edinburgh,
Scotland, A|ir. 21. 1071; eldest son of a goldsmith and
money-changer who accumulated a fortune and bought the
large estate of Lauriston, which John inherited. At the
age of twenty Law settled in London, and soon became
Croininent in financial circles, though adilicted to gam-
ling anil dissipation. Having killed an antagonist in a
duel (16!);)). he was condemned to death, but escaped from
prison and tocik refuge in France, traveling thence into
Italy and Holland, and was for some time connected with
a lianking-house in .\msterdam. Hetuniing to .Scotland in
17IKJ he published a pamphlet advocating a state bank, but
as the project met with no favor at home, he presented it to
the French Government, with the same result. He held
that a i>aper currency based on land insteail of the precious
metals would supply a medium of exchange far better than
that actually in use. "Wealth depends upon commerce,"
he wrote, "and commerce <lepends npon circulation." By
his device of a land bank an<l paper currency an amount
sunicient for all the nee<ls of circulation could at any time
be readily obtained. He did not, in his Proposals fur iSitp-
plying a Xalion with Money and other earlier writings, ad-
vocate mere fiat money, but maiiflaiiU'd that the currency
must l)e based cm values. His plan, if adopted, however,
would have led to a serious inflation. Another paiuphUt
was issued on the same subject in 1705. For several years
Imvi led a wandering life in European capitals, gaining
large smns at the gaming-table, until the ilcath of Louis
XIV. in 1715 opened a field for his grand scheme. The
kingdom was burdened with an enormous debt, and the re-
gent caught at a plan which prondsed uidimited gain to
the state. A privale general bank, with a capital of 6.000,-
000 livres, was chartered under letters patent of May 2,
1716, and was mamiged with such prudence as to gain the
public confidence. Law's course seems at first to have been
judicious anil conservative. The bank supplied a currency
at once safe and convenient, and in Ai>r., 1717, the Govern-
ment decreed that Law's notes should be accepted in ])ay-
inent of imposts. Another feature was added to the sclieiiie
in Aug., 1717, by the formalion of the celebrated Missis-
sippi or West India Company, with a eajiilal of 100,000,-
_ (XtO livres, a monoiioly of trade with Canada, and sovereign
rights over the lerritorv of Louisiana, which was to be
colonized upon a vast scale. By royal edict of Dec. 4, 1718,
(he general Itank was transformed into a royal bank, with
Law a.s director and the king as security. Another edict
of .May, 171!t, conferred a monopoly of Eiist Indian and
African trade upon the favored orgaruzation, whiiOi now
ab.sorbcd the EasL India Companv. took the name of Com-
pany of (he Indies, augmented its caiiilid, and undirtook
to pay the national debt, agreeing to lend the king 1,.500,-
000,000 livres at It per cen(. An unexampled fever of specu-
hidiin now carried (he shares to thirty or forty times their
original value, and a vast iimount in notes was issued. I)n
•Ian. 5, 1720. Law received the aiipoiiit incnt of ciintroUiT-
general of the linttiices, and in -March he united the royal
bank to the Companv of the Indies. It was in the conver-
sion of paper demanded by this eolos.sal operation that the
utter bankruptcy of the company was first perceived. The
Government, becoming alarmed, issued an edict deposing
Law from the controllership, abolishing the bank, and de-
priving the company of its home monopolies and its connec-
tion with the state revenues. As a connncixial corporation
the comjiany struggled for existence during several months,
and disappeared in November. In Deceinlier Law i)uitted
France, carrying with him only a few hundred louis-d'or,
ami hiaded with the jmblic execration. A friend in France,
the Marquis tie Lassjiy. gave him for some years a pension
of 20,000 livres. He gradually fell into obscurity, and died
in tun-erty at Venice. .Mar. 21. 1720. The complete works
of .John Law were translated for the first time into French
in 17110. They were reprinted in 1842, and have since been
inserted in the great collection of the writings of the prin-
ci]ml economists and financiers of the eighteenth century,
published by M. (iuillaumin. See John P. Wood's Memoirs
of the Life of John Laie (1824): Maekay's J/cwo/;-* of Ex-
traordinary J'opular Delusions (1850): Thicrs's Histoire de
Law (1858) ; and Perkins's France under the Reaency (1892).
See Mississii'Pi Sche.me. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Law. RiniARn. LL. D. : jurist ; b. at Jlilford, Coim., Mar.
17, 1733; son of .Imiathau Law. colonial Governor of Con-
necticut from 1741 to 17.50: graduated at Vale College in
1751 ; studied law, and practiced at New London, where he
became chief judge; was delegate to Continental Congress
1777-78 and 1781-84 ; mayor of New London for more than
twenty years; justice and chief justice of Su|ireme Court of
State, and district judge by appointment of Washington.
He aided Roger Sheniiaii in revising the Connecticut code
of statute law. 1). at New London, Jan. 26, 1806.
Law, William: controversialist; b. at Kind's Cliffe,
Nortlmm))tonshire, England, in 1686; was admitted into
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1705: became a fellow of
lluit college 1711 : graduated as M. A. 1712; took orders in
the Church of England, and preached for a time in Lon-
don, but on the accession of Hie house of Brunswick to the
throne (1714) forfeited his fellowship and his prospects of
advancement in the Church by refusing, as a Jacobite, to
take the oaths of allegiance. He never again ofiiciated in
public as a clergyman. In 1717 the liishop of Bangor, Rev.
l)r. Benjamin lloadly, having in a sermon before the king
given rise to the famous Baugorian controversy by attack-
ing the non-jurors. Law wrote in rciilv Three Letters to
Bishop Ihiuilly, remarkable for their close reasoning and
coiniiiand of language, which placed him at once in the front
rank of the defenders of authority both in Church and
state. In 1724 he wrote one of the best of the numerous
replies to Miiiuleville's Fable of the Bees (republished with
introduction by Rev. F. I). Maurice. 1844) ; 'J'he Absolute
L'niatcfubiess of the Stage Enlertainment Fully Demon-
strated (ll'ili); and in 17"28 published his mast criiicce, the
Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life — a work to which
Dr. Johnson attributed his conversion, which had great in-
lluence upon the brothers Wesley, and which elicited the
warmest ]iraise even from Hie pens of the historians (Jibbon
and Macaulay. Shortly before this time Law became tutor
to I'Alward (iibbon, father of the historian, accompanied his
pujiil to Oxford, and was for several years a lucmlier of his
family at Putney. Between the yeai-s 1733 and 1736 he be-
came acquainted with the writings of the German inv.stic
.Jakob Biihme, and adopted in a measure his teachings,
which influenced the treatises on the .Saeraiuent (1737),
Christian Regeneration (1739), and his numerous other
tracts. In 1740 a wealtliy widow, Mrs. lluteheson. and
Miss Hester Gibbon, sister of his pupil, resolved to sjiend
their lives in a quasi-conventual manner, devoting their
fortunes to charity, and engaged the .services of 1-aw as
chaplain and almoner. After 1744 t!ie three resided at
King's ClilTe. Their indis<Timinalc giving caused the par-
ish to swarm with lieggars, and they were denounced from
the pulpit, liut in vain. Law prepared a scries of works ex-
pounding the doctrines of liiilinie; these were 7'he M'ay to
Divine Knowledge (1746). The Spirit of Prayer, awd The
Spirit of Love (\~K). He also wrote soine illustrative ma-
terials for a translation of the works of Biilime executed by
the ladies above named, but published after his death under
the name of Law (4 vols.. 1764-Wl). He died at King's
ClifTe, Apr. 9. 1761. In the following year his collected
works were publislieil in 9 vols. His Jyif'e was pulilished by
II. Tighe (1813). and a volume of yules and Materials for
LAWES
LAW-MAKING, METHODS OP.
135
liis biography was printed for tiie Theosophian Library (1856).
In 1881 Canon J. H. Overton published a biograpliieal slteteh
of his life, character, and opinions.
Revised by W. S. Perry.
LaTves, IIenby: conijioser; b. about 1600 at Salisbury,
Eusland, where his father, Thomas Lawcs, was vicar-choral
ill the cathedral. Educated as a classical musician under
the instructions of John Cooper, he became about 1625 one
of the gcntleuien of the royal chapel to Charles L, and ac-
quired celebrity as a composer of music for masques and
songs. Jlilton's 31<itifjue of Comiis was set to music and
brought out under his personal direction at Ludlow Castle
in 1634. and the great poet, probalily a pupil of Lawes in
music, bestowed ujjon him extraordinary eulogies in several
of his poems. Waller. Ilerrick, and Phillips wrote of him
in a similar strain, aiul Vv'ere indebted to him for the popu-
larization of many of their songs. The music of Lawes was
of the Italian style, and was of very unequal merit. He was
a royalist; remained in the service of the king as clerk of
the "cheque until 1649. and composed the anthem for the
coronation of Charles II. He iiulilisheil in 1653 Ayres and
Dialogues, for One, Two. and Three Voices, comprising 150
pieces. He died in London in Oct., 1662, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey. — His elder brother, William Lawes,
also a gentleman of the chapel, was associated with Henry
in several of his musical undertakings, and composed the
music for Sandys's version of the Psalms (1648) and for
many songs of that period. He was killed at the siege of
Chester.
Lawes, Sir Johx Benttett : chemist ; b. at Rothamsted,
Hertfordshire, England, Dec. 28, 1814; succeeded to the es-
tate in 1822. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and
after leaving the university he spent some time in London
■it inlying chemistry in a practical way. On his coming of
atje and taking possession of his estate he began regular ex-
periments in agricultural chemistry for practical agriculture,
and in 1843 he engaged Dr. Gilbert as director of the Roth-
amsted farm undertaking in connection with him a sys-
tematic series of investigatiimsin the field, the feeding-shed,
and the laboratory, one result of which was the introduction
of superphosphate of lime as a manure. Accounts of the
results of the Rothamsted investigations are to be found in
Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science. Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society
of London, Journal of the Horticultural Society of London,
and other ])ublications. In 1882 Lawes was created a baron-
et. D. in Jan., 1892.
Law-making', Methods of: the practical methods em-
ployed in the enactment of laws. In treating the subject of
law-making one needs to consider not only the nature of the
legislative body concerned, its size, method of appointment,
character of members, etc., but also the methods by which the
work is done. Bad men are often so held in check by rules
which they are compelled to follow that they can do little
harm, while good men. for like reason, find themselves at
times prevented from giving effect to their best plans. Again,
the rules of parliamentary practice, important as they are,
are often found in use to give results quite different from
those intended when the rules were passed. Only from the
stuily of the legislators at work can a just estimate be made
of the excellence or weakness of any constitution.
Primitire Law-making. — The simplest form of legisla-
tion is of course that of the aijsolute ruler, who can impose
his will u])on his subjects. However, even in the rudest
tribes, where the chief by virtue of his prowess is autocrat,
the laws made by him must be far from arbitrary. As an-
thropological studies have shown, savages are so dominated
by custom and superstition that little room i-enuiins for in-
dividual initiative : and if a chief with suflieient intelligence
to devise laws much belter than the old customs should at-
tempt ra<iically to change the ways of his tribe, he would
lose his power.
Very early in the development of government we find by
the side of the chief a body of councilors, either representa-
tive, as among the Germanic peoples, or otherwise, and this
body, although the king may nominally make the laws, be-
comes really the legislature.' When, as among the ancient
Greeks and Germans, questions to be settled are discussed
by the council, or by the chiefs, before the people, whose ap-
proval or disapproval is freely expressed, the popular o])inion
has great weight, and indeed it is often decisive. In the
broadest political sense of the word, whatever the form of
government, the sovereignty lies ultimately with the people,
as the fact and success of revolutions show.
Modern Law-making. — Of chief importance, however, are
the methods of making laws followed in the leading civil-
ized states. While in many respects the methods of the
U. S., Great Britain, France, Germany, and Switzerland are
alike, in other respects they are so radically different that
they may be said to be almost of different types. In all
the states under consideration before bills can become law
they must be passed by both houses of the legislature, and
practically — though not formally in Switzerland and Ger-
many— they must receive also the assent of the head of the
government. The general details of business also, as re-
gards keeping order in the houses, reading of bills, etc.,
though differing somewhat, need no special treatment, as
they all tend to the same result. The organic differences
are of much more importance.
The United States. — 1. The Executive in Legislation. —
To those unfamiliar with the U. S. system probably the most
striking peculiarity is the relation existing between the ex-
ecutive and Congress. The President may make recommen-
dations to Congress, but only in exceptional cases are they
of great influence. He or his cabinet may prepare a bill on
an important question, but it can not even be introduced
into Congress without the friendly act of some Senator or
Representative, and, when introduced, can not be advocated
on the floor by any one officially connected with the execu-
tive. An influential private citizen can do as much as can
the President in this regard, though the President's personal
influence is often great, and he sometimes doubtless influ-
ences votes by the promise of office. On the other hand, in
none of the other countries mentioned has the executive
head so great a direct influence in defeating legislation that
he deems unwise. In France the President may force the
reconsideration of a measure; in Great Britain, indirectly
through his majority in the House of Commons, the Prime
Minister can smother one; in Germany the Imperial Chan-
cellor, through his Prussian colleagues in the Bundesrath,
could defeat any undesirable one ; but in all the cases the
individuals directly control only their own votes. Inas-
much, however, as a bill can be passed over the President's
veto only by a two-thirds vote in both houses, he has a nega-
tive voting power equal to that of one-sixth of the members
of both houses, to say nothing of the effect of a veto upon
the opinions of members. When one thinks of the very im-
portant measures that Presidents have stopped by their
vetoes that in any of the other countries would certainly
have become laws, if the legislators had thought as did the
U. S. Congress, the tremendous anti-legislative force of the
veto appears. The fact, too (owing in some States to consti-
tutional limitation of time of the sessions of the legislature,
and in all of them to the committee system for all classes of
bills), that much of the legislation in "the U. S. is ill-digested
and crude in form, as well as, at times, injurious in content,
compels the executives to make more use of the veto power
than would otherwise be the case.
2. Comni illee Legislation. — The legislation in Great Britain
and France, and practically also in Germany, is maiidy con-
trolled and directed by the executive that acts in the houses
as the leading committee to prepare and to manage all im-
portant measures. In the U. S. substantially every bill
goes into the hands of a small permanent committee, which
amends it at will, recommends its passage or its defeat, or
smothers it without action. Though the houses must take
final action on all bills, they are in great measure dependent
upon the committees for advice: and thus the committees
practically make nearly all the laws. As each committee is
independent, there is naturally little harmony in the laws,
no general scheme, and no definite responsibility. Even the
two committees that provide for the revenues and for their
expenditure are composed of different men, and do their
work separately, though they work from the same estimates,
and each doubtless with more or less reference to what the
other is doing. In other leading countries the finance tjucs-
tion, so far as it concerns revenues and expenditures, is
treated as a unit and handled by one committee. The in-
dependence of the committees in the F. s.. and the natural
desire of each to advance its own work, lead often to the
delay of important measures, while those of trifling conse-
quence are pushed forward by some skillfid tactician. This
clashing of interests often gives undue inqiortance to ques-
tions of order. Rules of order should serve to facilitate busi-
ness in the main, but according to Spofford's estimate nearly
one-third of the time of Congress and nearly one-third of
13G
LAV\'-MAK1XG, MKTIIODS OP
til.' -i.:i.i' nf The ConqrfMtinnal Hfcord are taken up with
,| ; ottler. 'flic sizi- of tlio coiiiiiiittocs, tlii' grrat
., I.. th»'in. and llio lack of time wIul-Ii (pri'vonts
tur, ;,, "f tlii'ir work by the whole house,
«iil, I k of res[)onsiliility, alTonl niuny op-
.„ loliliyiiij,'. whiK' ihe fact that liills
„ ' -IS ^'othrough the same channel ami
„: lie rules lus public bills rentiers the
l, 1,1 c<>rrii|>lion very great. (See Lomiv.) This
,.> II [iracticully slo|i|ii-J in Great Hritjiin bv chang-
ing ih, iiKthoJ of treatment of private bills, as will be ex-
|,lai I later. In Great Britain the public is generally uil-
nuiii-l to meetings of committees on private bills in the
l|..ii>.' of Coinmons, though not in the House of Lorils; in
i'riii.e only those askeJ io come before the eoinn\ittee are
ailiiutleil; in the T. S. the matter is in the hands of the
commit tee, but usually any one is admitted who has any
sjiecial interest in the subject under eonsiileratiou.
3. The Speaker of the House of Kepresentatives of Con-
press, and the presi.liug ollieer in the State Legislatures as
well. iK'Cupies a position entirely dillerent from the man
holding a similar oUice in Europe. There the oHiee is prac-
tically a non-partisan one, anil the duties are strictly non-
partisan. In the L'. S. the office is distinctively partisan, as
the most important duties are of a political nature. The
Speaker appoints all the standing committees of the house,
and thus practically determines the legislation of the Con-
gress. In nuikiiig these appointments lie is entirely free, but
lie usually follows to a considerable e.\lent certain customs.
Men who have bi-en long in Congress are more likely to be
placeil upon the important committees; former members
of committees are generally retained. His most important
competitors for the position of Sjicaker are given chairman-
ships of important committees. They are, of course, promi-
nent men of long experience. Men whoso previous studies
have especially fitted them for certain work are put on com-
mittees where their training will be of advantage. Still, the
Speaker is expected to form the committees so that his party
will always control them, and so to form the leading ones
that his i>ers(mal views and those of his wing of the major-
ity party will prevail. He thus to a great extent takes the
place of the prime minister in Kurope, so far as legislation
IS concerneil. In the chair, while he is supposed to admin-
ister the rules impartially, it is generally expected that in
case of doubt he will favor his own party, and this he can
often do under the rules. Being himself a member of the
committee on rules, he sometimes sees to it that they are
shaped so as to enable his party to carry out its aims readily.
All things considered, he probably wields more power over
the country than any other olTicer, cx(-ept the President.
There are certain advantages in the U. S. system even
from the standpoint of law-making, though the ailvantages
are much greater from a ditferent point of view. In a i>ar-
liamentarv government with a res[)onsible ministry the in-
dividual members who are not in the cabinet have almost
nothing to ilo but to vote, and, if they show ability in that
line, to serve on private bill committees. With the great
public measures they have practically nothing to do, and
they have almost no hope of putting into etleet any good
ideas of their own. Their hope is in getting the ear of the
ministry, or in lighting it vigorously. In the system in
vogue in the U. .S., especially in the State Legislatures, the
able member can make his influence felt more directly and
Sooner. His bill has, technically, the same chance as any
other bill, and he is in a good position to press it forward iii
Conunillee or elsewhere. The committee system gives, to be
sure, an advantage to the chairmen of committees, as they
repri'sent the connnittce on the door, and in CVmgress prac-
tically determine often who shall speak on the pending bill ;
but on the whole the private member has much greater force
than under a parliamentary system, where all the important
measures are prepared by the government.
(iKKAT ItniTAlx. — I. The ejeriilire, i. e. Prime Minister
and calanel, are .selected from the legislature, and hold
ollicc only so long as they can control a majority in the
House of Commons. If defeated on an important bill the
cabinet resigns in a body, or it may, if it thinks that the
house does not really represent the "feeling of the peoj)le,
rlissolve the Hou-ie of Conunons and direct a new election.
If the new house also is opposed to the caliinet politically,
the latter ha.s no choice but to re-sign and to leave the gov-
ernment in the lianils of the new leaders of Ihe majority
party. The caliinet in Great Britain is thus, as exeiulive,
mainly a committee to carry out the will of the jpeople. In
law-making, however, it is also, and even more emphatically,
a connnittce of the House of Commons, whose duty it is to
prepare in detail all important bills, and to present and
advocate them in liolh houses until they are passed. The
majority of the House of Coninioiis having iiracljcally —
though the appointment is made formally by the yiieen —
ajipointed the I'rinie Minister and his colleagues, exfiect
them to take Ihe lead in all important matters of legisla-
tion, and arc in practice bound to follow this leadership,
unless they wish to bring the opposition pauty into power.
2. I'tirliiimentari/ C'linn/sel. — In order to insure harmony in
the provisions of all iiM|)ortaiit bills, and care and accuracy
in their forms, a lawyer was appointed as early as IS'-i"! to
aid the Home Secri'lary in preparing bills for I'arliament.
In 1S42 his work was exteiuieil to other (lepartmelits, and
in 186!t the office of jjarliainentary counsel was created, with
sufficient aid to make its work effective. The counsel is
esiiecially connected with the Treasury Depart ment. Ulher
ileiiartmeiits make use of his services in drafting bills; but
the counsel is bound to report to the I'rime Jlinister and to
the Chancellor of the Kxchequer all bills allecting ex|)endi-
tures, and those that are likely to create trouble of any kind
in the House of Commons. Ministers give directions to the
counsel, usually in general terms, for the preparation of bills,
which are then put into form in his oflice. So, too, while
government bills are under discussion in committee, the
parliamentary counsel or assistant counsel often attends, in
order to give advice an<l assistance to the minister in charge
of the bill, and to draft amendments that he may think it
wise to adopt. All government bills, after being put into
form, are circulated to all the members of the cabinet be-
fore being introduced, even if they are not the subject of
special discussion at a cabinet meeting. This consultation
of all members of the cabinet is of course made practically
necessary on account of their collective responsibility.
3. I'oiiimittees. — The cal)iiiet is the special permanent com-
mittee that originates all the important measures, and these
measures are discussed in detail by Ihe house in committee
of the whole. The jiressure of business, however, has led to
the appointment of two permanent grand conimiltee.s, of
from sixty to eighty members each, to act generally instead
of the committee of the wliole, their work being submitted
directly to Ihe house. One of these was inslituteil in 1882
to consider Ihe I'ankniptey Bill, Ihe other to consider Ste-
phen's Code Hill. The first did its work well ; the second
was not successful ; and such committees were dropped until
1888, when they were again instituted. One considers ques-
tions relating to law, courts of justice, and legal procedure;
the other considers those concerning trade, shiiiping. and
manufactures. The members of these grand committees
are appointed by a committee of selection, consisting of
eight members chosen by the house early in the session.
The cabinet may in good part direct this choice. The chair-
man of the committee of selection is the chairman of the
coininittee on standing orders with reference to private bills,
a committee which is also chosen by the house. In practice
these grand cominillees are intended to represent fairly the
political complexion of the whole house, in whose stead they
act. and the members are picked out usually by the whips
of the respective parlies. Besides Ihe permanent commit-
tees on public bills, the bills introduced by private mem-
bers are often referred to select cominittees for examination
and re|)ort before they are discussed in conimiltee of the
whole house, if they get that far at all. Such a select com-
mittee is usually named by the member making Ihe motion
for the reference of Ihe bill, and when its work on the one
bill is (inished the conimiltee dissolves: meanwhile other
bills covering the same subject may be referred toil for a
joint consideratiim and repiu-t.
It should be noted, however, that a private member has
little chance of getting a bill passed. In the first place,
such is the press of business that he has to Imllot for place
to obtain ]ieriiiission to bring in a bill: then the goveni-
menl, if opposed to his measure, or if hurried with its own
liills, can and is likely to take the time set for its discus-
sion; it runs the usual risks in committee; in short, the
government is expected to direct all business of conse-
?uenee, and private members as a rule only bring in bills
or the sake of securing discussion and consequent public
notice for them, or, with the approval of the government,
for the sake of forwarding some mi'asure that the govern-
ment favors, but does not care to stand sponsor for.
4. Priviitr Hillx. — In perhaps no other respect is Ihe Brit-
ish system of law-making to be so highly coiumended as in
LAW-MAKING, METHODS OF
13 r
its dealing with bills affecting private or looal interests. In
nearly all civilized countries private and local bills follow
the same course as do those of general public interest. In
nearly all states, however, the department of the govern-
ment wh(jse interests may be affected by the bill gives it
careful consideration, and the recommendations of a de-
partment have great weight with the legislatures. In the
U. S. the separation of the executive from the legislative de-
partment, and the treatment of private bills by small com-
mittees just as public bills are treated have at times given
rise to corruption. This has also happened in France: but
though bribery was not uncomuum foriuerly in Great Britain,
at present it is practically unknown. Every private or
local matter is now brought in by petition (a survival of the
old system of law-making by petition) of the parties inter-
ested, though later a member takes charge of the bill.
Parliament usually meets in the early days of February, and
the notice of such petition must have been widely advertised
in the papers in October and November, no publication be-
ing made later than Nov. 27. On or before Dec. 15, if any
lands are to be taken, as l)y a railway or tramway, or if
other particular interests are affected, notice must be served
on all persons concerned. In case of bills that provide for
making aqueducts, docks, drainage, railways, streets, and
like improvements, plans, books of reference, drawings, etc.,
must be deposited on or before Nov. 30 in the offices of
certain justices of the peace, of the Board of Trade, of the
sheriff, and in other public offices, for public inspection and
use. On or before Dec. 21 a copy of the bill or petition, with
a declaration signetl by the agent, the title of the bill, and
full description of its subject-matter, must be deposited at
the private bill office, with extra copies for the use of mem-
bers and others interested. Similar deposits must be made
at the office of the Treasury and at the General Post-Office,
and in special cases at the other departments interested.
"All estimates and declarations, and lists of owners, lessees,
and occu[)iers. which are required by the standing orders of
the house, shall be deposited in the private bill office on
or before Dec. 31."' Special forms are provided for the
statement, in detail, of estimates of the cost and specifica-
tions regarding the structure of railways and similar works.
In short, every effort is made to insure the fullest publicity
possible and the most exact information.
The house has, as officers, two examiners of private bills,
skilled lawyers, whose duty it is to see that the orders as to
notices, publication, etc., are duly observed. On Jan. 18,
after at least seven full days" notice for each bill or petition,
the examiners begin their work. Opponents of the bills or
petitions may come before them and oppose on the ground
of non-compliance with these standing orders. If they
have not been fully complied with, a special committee de-
cides whether or not they may be dispensed with in the
ease under consideration. The evidence given before the
examiners is of legal form under oath, or by affidavit.
The regular chairman of the committee of the whole
house for the discussion of the questions of supply and of
ways and means has special charge of private bills'. After
the questions regarding the standing orders have been set-
tled by the examiners as above, all private bills are thor-
oughly examined by this chairman of the committee of
ways and means and the counsel of the Speaker. These
men are experts, and are at liberty to make suggestions to
the committee or to the house regarding the" bill. They
must report to the house any provision that affects the gov-
ernment. Three or more special referees, appointed by the
Speaker, not necessarily members of the house, excepting the
chairman, form a court to consider the question of the locus
standi of petitioners against any private bill. They decide
whether such petitioners shall be heard or not.
A private bill, before final action in the committee of the
whole and in the house, after having passed the prelimi-
nary stages given, is considered carefully on its merits be-
fore a small committee, consisting usually of " a chairman
and three members and a referee, or a chairman an<l three
members not locally or otherwise interested therein.'' This
special committee is appointed by the committee of selec-
tion mentioned above, and each member is required before
sitting to sign the following declaration: " I ilo hereby de-
clare that my constituents have no local interest, and that I
have no personal interest. in such bill ; and that I will never
vote on any question which may arise without having duly
heard and atteniled to the evidence relating thereto." No
member of such committee can absent himself except in
case of sickness or by order of the house, and the commit-
tee can not proceed without special order of the house if
more than one member be absent. Before this committee
now come the agents of the promoters and o|iponenls of the
bill with all their evidence, ami the matter is fully con-
sidered in a semi-judicial manner. If any departments of
the government wish to be heard or to niake suggestions,
they are heard. Every vote in the committee is decided by
a majority, the vote of each mendicr being taken sejjaratelv,
made a matter of record, and handed in to the house with
the report of the committee. Tlie committee has power to
suggest amendments with or without the consent of the
parties concerned, and to make such recommendation to
the house as it sees fit in order to guide its action.
Promoters and opponents are taxed heavy fees by the
house, so that such bills are not brought in unless the'mat-
ter is important : and, if a bill is opposed, or if much evidence
is required, or if much property is concerned, the cost in-
creases very rapidly, and may amount to enormous sums.
The system has promoted wise, careful, honest legislation,
while it has effectually stifled bribery and jobbery. Bills are
passed on their merits only, and in the form best adapted to
accomphsh their intended purpose. The careful sifting of
the bills by trained experts at different stages of their prog-
ress, the careful attention to assure complete publicity and
fuU notice to all parties interested, the small size and the
composition of the special committee of men not interested — •
which, with the full responsibility of each member for every
vote, gives to the members of the committee much the func-
tion and feeling of judges in courts — all these are features
that might well be copied in other countries, especially in
the U. S.
The House of Lords often differs in its customs and rules
from the House of Commons. It is very useful as a house
of revision ; but it can hardly resist the House of Commons
when the sentiment of the people goes with the latter, and
its methods need no special treatment here.
The chief advantages of the British system as regards
public bills, as well as the disadvantages, are readily seen.
The responsibility for laws is definitely fixed ; the cabinet
can not shift its burden if it makes a mistake either in leg-
islation or in its executive work. Again, it secures the pre-
cedence of the most important measures ami a general unity
of legislation both in matter and form. The importance to
the party of every discussion holds public attention. An
adverse vote may easily mean the downfall of the govern-
ment. In consequence each party has a recognized official,
the whip, who sees to keeping members informed of pending
duties and opportunities, and who is tlie recognized agent of
the party leaders, not merely in guiding votes in the house,
but also in managing elections and in directing party affairs
generally. The chief disadvantages of the system are prob-
ably (1) the undue opportunity given to the ministry at the
expense of private members. An able new man naturally
prefers to belong to the opposition at first. (2) When so much
depends upon the holding of a firm majority in the house
on every important measure, the temptation io yield to the
desire of factions in the house and in the country is almost
overwhelming at times. That form of government also, to
be successful and stable, necessitates in great measure the
sinking of private judgment, and the welding of the voters
and members in the main into two great parties. Where this
is not done, as often in France and Italy, the lack of stability
in the government is a great fault. On the other hand,
where less depends upon an adverse vote, compromise be-
comes a necessary condition of passing the most important
measures, and this insures in numbers of instances the domi-
nance of the moderates of all parties rather than that of the
extremists.
France. — The form of government, so far as it concerns
law-making, is essentially the same in France as in Great
Britain. Only one or two distinctions need be pointed out.
The most common criticism upon the French Government
is the instability of the various ministries. They change
much oftener than in Great Britain, a fact that is due not
to the difference in the principles of govcrinuent, but rather
to the multiplicity of parties and factions. A majority is
made up of a combination of factions united often for merely
a temporary purpose, not of a single strong party, as is gen-
erally the case in England. Often a cabinet can not be said
to have a general policy. When it has passed the one or two
measures for which it was created it falls, and a new cabi-
net, often composed largely of the same men, is formed to
carry through the next measure that the Chamber of Depu-
ties wishes to deal with.
13S
/ LAW-MAKING, METHODS OF
CummitUrs and Bureaus.~-'V\\e fonn of organization of
the Krvnuli clmiiilxTs aiul tlu-ir pliin of solwtin;; their com-
mittees were in use iji Fnuiee U'fore the Revolution of 17^9
<in tlie Slates tienerul). anil have lu'en adopted with sli{;ht
mcHlitiralioiis in Cieriuany, Italy, lirl^fiuni. and Japan. As
tiimiMireil with the usjij^es of the I'. S. and lireat Hrilain. the
striking feature is the element of ehaitee in the selection of
the lueinlKTs of eoininittees. At the liej^inning of each ses-
sion, and every month thereafter, the houses are diviiled as
e<]ually as |Kissible by lot into bureaus, of which the Senate
has niiie and the I'hamber of Deputies eleven. Fri>in these
bureaus are chosen by ballot the special committees which
consiiler in detail the bills presented to the houses. Uesiiles
the sixi-ial committees that exist until they have disposed of
the subject given into their charge, there are four committees
named for a month each — those on parliamentary initiative,
on ])elilions, on leave of absence, and on departmental and
nmnici^ml allairs. The usual course of a bill is as follows:
It goes lirst to the committee on parliamentary initiative.
This committee consiilers the bill as a wliole, and decides
whether it will recommend that it be at once rejected with-
out cousidenition by the chamber, or whether tlie iliainber
shall take it up at once asa nnitterof urgency,or — the usual
course — s«'nil it to the bureaus for referenire in due time to a
spc^'ial committee. The committee on parliamentary initi-
ative is to make its report on each bill within ten days.
Practically it is indulgent, and always passes the bill, which
is then printed and distributed to the various bureaus. Here,
after di.scussion, according to the theorv, though in practice
the disiussion is at times omitted and is often perfunctory,
the bureaus elect by ballot, each from its own number, a dele-
gate, or in important cases two, and on the budget and, if
the house so instructs (a rare case), on other bills of first im-
[lortanee three delegates. Often only a few members of a bu-
reau are present, and the delegates are chosen witliout dis-
cussion. These delegates of the bureaus form a special
committee to consider the bill in detail, to make amend-
ments, gather information for the use of the house, etc., as
is customary in all legislative bodies. At the close of its
work the committee selects, also by ballot, a reporter, who
drafts a report and submits it to the committee for its ap-
proval, and who afterward makes the report to the chamber
and represents the committee before the chamber. There-
after the procedure is the same, practically, as in other
bodies of like character.
The bureaus aiul committees organize themselves by
electing from their own number by ballot each a president
and a secretary. In important committees thev may elect
vice-presidents and as many secretaries sis seem dcsirabl(>.
The advantages of this system in sccurnig, if the bureaus
will it, thorough discussion, in securing the best men for
each important committee, and in checking partisansliip in
the ap|Kjintment of committees, are readily seen ; but in
practice there are many faults of greater or less magnitude.
Party feeling is often strong in France, and no party wishes
to make another promnieiit. The bureaus being foi-med by
lot, it will happen at times that the best-informed man on
some sjiecial bill will belong to a bureau the majority of
whose members are of the opposite party. In that case he
may not be placed upon the committee. Again, the three
or four best men for the committee may belong to one
bureau. In that ca.se only one can be elected on an ordi-
nary committee. The German Keichslag (Imperial Diet,
House of Ueprescnlativ(s)and the .Tapanese House of Depu-
ties avoid tills dillii-ully by permitting each bureau to elect
any membi-r of the house for a coiinnittee. If a member is
chosen by more than one bureau he decides for which one
he will act, and the others make a new choice. Of coui-se,
the ministry and party leailers have often much influence
in the seleiaiim of the important committees. As has been
intimateil. the bureaus S4irnetinies defeat, in part, the pur-
pos<,. for which they were created, by selecting members of
committees without preliminary discussion. The commit-
tees, too, are at times sliariijy criticised for their slowness
in work, iLs they sometimes hold liills for month.s, even years,
without report. They have no right technically to smother
u bill, and the house may call for a report.
Gkkmanv. — The one matlt^r of prime importance in the
law-making of the (ierman emiiiri> is the fivcrwhelming in-
lluenceof the executive ;us personated by the Imperial Chan-
cellor representing the Kmpenir. Tliis"app<ars iti [uirt di-
rectly but especiallv indirectly through the pari that Prussia
plays in the Hnniiesrath (Federal Council). It would be
hardly too much to say that all the legislation of prime con-
sequence from the foundation of the empire, at any rate
until the resignation of Prince Bismarck, was inspired and
earned through by the Chancellor. The peculiar feature in
Germany is that the Chancellor is not responsible to the
legislature, except under general law, and in no .sense could
be said to re|ircsent the majority party, as does the jirime
minister in a parliamentary government.
In Prussia t lie King can always control a large majority in
the upper house, because the membei-s are either members
of the aristocracy or are his appointees, and he could make
a majority by new appointments if necessary. For differ-
ent reasons he, as Emperor, can geiierallv control a majority
in the Hundesralh. i'he German empire is not in fact a
confederation of states of ccjual impi>rtancc, but it is really
a confederation under the hegemony of Prussia. From the
fact that Prussia has control of the army in the main, that
it was Prussia's prowess that led to the formation of the em-
pire, from the prestige gaine<l by its later history, from the
consciousness that she could if need be dominate by force
of arms, Prussia can practically always control a majority
of votes in the Hundesralh. By the terms of the constitu-
tion, Prussia's negative alone is enough to prevent any
change in the constitution, but her vote is not enough to
carry through unaided any new project. Each state has an
equal right of initiative, but Prussia's position is such that
all measures of great importance are expected to originate
with her. The Cliancellor as president of the liiindcsrath,
and as head of Prussia's delegation, really coiitmls in this
regard, first, Pru.ssia, and then through Prussia the whole
Unndesrath. So long as he has the confidence of the King
of Prussia, he [iractically casts Prussia's seventeen votes, for
the members of each state must vote in unison. In [iraclice
the Chancellor has even defied the Bundesrath opposed to
his will. In ISW) Bismarck refused to send to the Keichstag
a bill passed by the Bundesrath, because an amendment had
been added contrary to his will. The Bundesrath protested :
he resigned ; the emjieror declined to accept his resignation ;
the Bundesrath yielded and withdrew its amendment.
The part that the Chancellor takes in forming and carry-
ing the Imdget shows fully his power. The budget is pre-
pared at first by the heads of the various departments, who
submit to the Chancellor a detailed estimate of needed ex-
penditures an<l receipts from the various sources. These
chiefs of departments are aiipoiiitees of the Chancellor, ami
hold office ijractically at his |ileasiire. From their reports
he draws all needed details, co-ordinates and unifies the
whole, and jiresents it to the Bundesrath. This body ex-
amines it carefully, may criticise it in detail, make valuable
suggestions, etc., but finally passes it in the form that the
Chancellor decides upon. It then goes to the Keichstag,
and here the Chancellor may have more trouble, for here
he has no direct control. He may, however, himself go be-
fore the Keichstag to defend it; he may send any of the
ministers or members of the Bundesrath, who are heard
in 0[)eii session or in the committees. The Keichstag is
limited in its opposition in another way, as are most leg-
islatures. It is recognized that it can not indirectly abro-
gate any law by refusing to vote the sujiplies necessary to
carry it out. In this way all regular expenditures are usu-
ally made safe by coming under some general law. The
Reichstag is practically limited to the rejection of some new
plan of raising revenue, or to preventing the creation of
some new object of exiiendilure. For example, in 1881 it
rejected the proposal for a monopoly t)f tobacco, and in 1886
likewise that f(U' a monopoly of alcohol. Even, however, in
these regards the Chancellor can make his power I'l'lt in the
Keichstag. Ills opportunities for favorable compromise are
many. No bill can become law without the consent of the
Bunilesrath, so that the Chancellor can threaten to defeat
anv measure that the Reichstag may wish to become law,
iiidcss it consents to pass his own bills. Or he may promise
his aid to different factions for different purposes in order
to get them to unite on his measure. Bismaick, as Chancel-
lor, never spoke as a ]iarty man. but dealt with parties as he
would to further the ])ollcy of himself and tlie Emperor.
Again, the Chancellor speaks with the antlnirilyof a man
who represents the [icrsoii of the Emperor, who has formally
in his iiands the control of the entire executive department
of the government, and who has also a tremendous social
and olTicial Influence. All this ad(le<l to a strong personal-
It v, such as Bismarck jiossessed, made him almost irresisti-
ble even in the Keichsliig, although at times he could not
carry through a niuch-deslred measure. As a matter of
fact, however, all the great reform measures of the empire
LAW-MAKING, METHODS OP
139
hare come from the executive, and the legislative body really
waits for the initiation of the executive in such matters.
Committees in the Keiclistag are appointed, in form, much
as in France, though the practice is very different, and the
general course of proceeding is about the same as in other
legislative bodies. The whole house at the beginning of the
session is tlivided by lot into seven sections for tlie whole
session, insteatl of for a month as in France. The business
of the sections, besides the verification of the credentials of
the members, is to appoint the members of the committees.
Nominally this choice is made by election ; practically the
sections do not meet at all. The leaders of the different
parties form an extra-legal committee, called, after the uni-
versity phrase, the senior convent. The members of the
senior convent apportion the membership of committees
among the parties in proportion to their relative strength in
the liouse. Tliey name the members of any committee.
This list of members is handed to the proper olficial, who
enters their names as if they had been really appointed by
the sections. The selection is not nuule necessarily for a
section from the section itself, as in France, but may fall
upon any member of the Reichstag. In case of a double
election, which under present practice will not happen, the
member decides, according to the rules, for which section
he will act; the other makes a new choice. There are six
standing committees : — on the order of business, petitions,
commerce and industry, finances and tariffs, justice, the
budget — and special committees are appointed as needed.
This is all in practice, however, really settled and directed
by the above-mentioned senior convent, with which the
speaker regularly consults, and which, though it has no legal
standing, is practically and wisely recognized as the direct-
ing force in all matters concerning the legislative business.
Switzerland. — .So far as the passage of the laws through
the legislature of either the confederation or of one of the
cantons is concerned, little need be said. The bills need to
pass both houses of the legislature of the confederation.
The ministry (Bundesrath) may prepare and submit bills,
and discuss them in the houses, though their tenure of office
does not depend upon their success in carrying their meas-
ures. The fact that they are elected by the houses in joint
session, however, practically makes it certain that they will
be politically in harmony with the houses.
1. The Referendum is one of the two or three peculiarities
of law-making in Switzerland that need special attention.
The referendum doubtless originated in the custom of re-
quiring representatives to get instructions from the home
government before deciding upon important questions.
The smaller cantons elected by popular vote their represen-
tatives to the federal assembly, and naturally settled all
questions submitted to them in the same way. At present
tlie usage varies in different cantons. In some, any law
passed by the legislatui'e must be submitted to the people
for ratification, if a certain number of voters (the number
dependmg upon the population of the canton) demand it ;
otlierwise the law stands (the " facultative referendum ").
Attempts to check this power of the pieople have been made
by securing the provision that if the law is urgent it need not
be submitted. That check has been weakened again by re-
quiring a two-thirds vote of the legislature to declare urgency.
The tendency in Switzerland is clearly toward the direct voice
of the people in law-making. In Zurich, which has perhaps
gone further in this direction than any other large canton,
with the possil)le exception of Berne, tlie people vote twice a
year on all the acts that have been passed in the meantime
by the cantonal council. The council can put no law into
force till the people have decided upon it; but in case of
urgency the council can summon the people sooner to a
special vote. The people vote only yes or no on each law
submitted, but the council may ask them to decide sepa-
rately on special points. The laws must be distributed at
least thirty days before the voting, so that the people may
discuss them. The absolute majority of those voting decides.
It is the duty of the council to consider and put into
form all bills that are to be submitted to the people, and
they have the power to decide finally on many matters of
minor importance, though many of these matters are large-
ly of an administrative nature, and are never of the nature
of new legislation.
2. The inifiative of the people in law-making is another
step that .Switzerland has taken in the direction of a real
democracy. In Zurich, for example, every voter has the
right to propose the passage or the repeal or the amend-
ment of any law or of any decree, except the few unimpor-
tant ones that are exclusively in tlie hands of (lie cantonal
council. The proposition may be put forward in the form
of a complete liill or of a mere summary of the subject-
matter of a bill which the cantonal council is to put into
final form. If one-third of the council vote in favor of the
proposition put forward by an individual or by a communal
council, the bill nivist be submitted to the people. If twentv-
five members of the council favor it, the proposer of tlie
law has the right to expound and defend his bill in person
before the council. So also if .5,000 voters declare in favor
of a measure, the council must see that it is put into proper
form and submitted to the people. If the council wishes to
do so, it may prepare another measure on the .same subject
as the one " initiated " by the people and present it as an
alternative. The people then decide between the two or
reject them both. Such propositions coming from the peo-
ple and properly supported must be put into form and sub-
mitted not later than at the second regular ballot of the
people a^ter its introduction.
3. Proportional Representation. — The cantons of Ticino,
Neuchatel, and Geneva have adopted a system of propor-
tional representation by which each party is given a repre-
sentation in the legislature in proportion to its voting
strength. (See Representation for details.) In this way
the need for the referendum is much lessened, while the ad-
vantage of having the laws thoroughly discussed by a small
body is secured. The system will doubtless soon be' adopted
in other cantons.
4. The federal government has also gone far in the direc-
tion of legislation by the people directly. According to arti-
cle 89 of the constitution, "the federal laws are submitted
for their adoption or rejection by the people, if the demand
for it is made by 30,000 active citizens or by eight cantons."
The same holds true of any federal decree of a general na-
ture which is not urgent in its character.
On July 29, 1891, a new chapter regarding the revision of
the constitution went into force. This recognizes the prin-
ciple of popular initiative. If one of the two houses wishes
a total revision of the constitution, or if 50,000 voters de-
mand it, the question must be submitted to the people. If
a majority favors it, there must be a new election of the two
houses, and they work out the revision. There may be a
partial revision also through popular initiative. " The popu-
lar initiative consists in a demand presented by 50.000 Swiss
voters for the adoption of a new article or the abrogation or
modification of specified articles of the constitution that is
now in force." 1 he demand may be in the form of a gen-
eral proposition, or the new article may be elaborated in de-
tail. In the first case, if the federal legislature approves, it
will put the request into the form of an amendment and
submit it to the people : if the legislature does not apjirove,
the general question is submitted to the people ; and if they
approve, the federal legislature must draft the amendment
in accordance with the |>opular will. If the amendment is
first presented in complete form, the legislature may propose
an alternative form if it wishes, so as to let the people
choose between the two. A majority of the people voting
and a majority of the cantons are required to amend the
constitution. The popular vote of a canton is held to ex-
press the will of that canton.
In the U. S. as well as in Switzerland there is a tendency
toward popular methods of legislation. Distrust of the leg-
islature appears in nearly every new constitution in the less-
ening the frequency of its meetings, in the shortening of
its sessions, and in the many provisions in the constitutions
themselves that are of the nature of ordinarj- laws. In brief,
the apparent result of the Swiss experience with this method
of law-making is as follows :
1. It is found that the people as a rule are conservative,
and are averee to any rash experiments in legislation. Out
of thirty-nine propositions to amend the constitution of the
confederation twenty-four have been rejected, only fifteen
accepted. This may at times delay wise legislation, but it
at any rate insures popular support for the laws that are
passed. Not long since a law providing for State ownership
and management of important railways was rejected by the
people by an immense majority (389,406 against, 130,729
for), though it had passed both houses by a large majority.
In a matter of that kind, involving very large expenditure,
it is certainly well to wait until the people approve before
undertaking such a scheme, even if the measure be wise.
2. No scheme can stand against the popular veto if there is
good reason for belief that there is jobbery in it. This fact
is likely to discourage corrupt lobbying, and to advance the
140
LAW-MAKING. MKTIIODS OF
j,„,.ii; .f tlio people bv forcing tlioso who favor any
i,„; isurc to supply valuable inforinalion for goii-
3!. Wlicii Uie peopli-'s voice is so reaililv heanl, tliero is
less n.-.'-l for fr.'<nuMit elei-ti.'iis. and the skill of the lejrisla-
tor- 'I bv loiijjer terms.
J ilial'ivein eoiilieetion with the referen-
duii, , ."•iiiv kiiuls of popular reform, espeeially
thosi. kiiuls lliat teml to lessen the p.iwer of the ])olitieuins
as a class. (Si-e Kkfrksent.\tio.n.) The |K>ople iiiav be sjnul
to be alwavs on the siile of lu>nesty and economy, though it
may l)e dilHcult to show them the best method of reaching
the-*' ends at times.
5 There is danger of popular preju.lice U-coming crystal-
lized into law liefore the public can be sunUieiitly inforined
or ma<K' tolerant, ihouch eX|H-rience shows that this danger
is less than might have been anticipated. Since the amend-
ment of 1891 to the Swiss federal constitution an anti-Se-
mitic feeling has manifested itself in the gui.se of au amend-
ment to prevent crueltv to animals. The federal council
sent to the cliamlK'rs in Sept., I»!t2. a popular demand sup-
ported by 6'J.OttO genuine signatures, for a law on the suliject
of the Israelitish method iif slaughtering animal-s. There
can be little doubt that [lopular prejudice rather than reason
was behind this demaiiii, but after ample opportunity for dis-
cussion the amendment was passed.
6. There can be no doubt that under a true theory of rep-
resentative government, where the representative is electe<l
for his worth and is ex|)ected to vote according to his own
judgment instead of according to po])ular desire, better
laws would be pa.s.sed by a legislature than by the people
acting directly ; but, as "a matter of fact, most representa-
tives trv to please their c<mstituencies by their votes. This
being the case, it is likely that the people, feeling their re-
sponsibilitv more if they have to vote directly on the laws,
will take more pains to inform themselves on political ques-
tioiis, and that consequently the laws passed by pojuilar
initiative, or by jiopular vole on the initiative of a legisla-
ture, will be as goiMl and as wise as those ordinarily passed
by a legislature. Thev will probably be more free from
suspicion of fraud, and tlicy will certainly have the public
support in execution.
7. The eduiative effect on the people of a direct voice in
law-making, both in the way of veto and of the popular
initiative, is not likely to \k overestimated,
8. Switzerland, by the adoption of the system of propor-
tional representation, is securing the advantages of both the
representative system and that of the referendum.
The alK>ve short sketch of the peculiar characteristics of
several of the leading civilized nations as regards law-mak-
ing seems to .show that though all have their weaknesses
that need to be strengthened, and though their methods
have much to do with the character of the laws passed, yet
that under all the ditferences in method there are strong re-
semblances, and that all can get some good results. It is
further true that there is clearly a strong drift toward a
more extreme democracv. even in (lerniany. I'liless, how-
ever, signs of the times deceive we may learii that the tend-
ency is not greatly to be feared, liut rather that as popular
government is slowly realized it seems itself to be working
out in its forms of manifestation protection against the
dangers which it has seemeil at times to threaten.
Altiiorities. — McKee, Manual of Cnngressinnnl Prac-
tice; Bryce, The American Commonirealth \ Wilson, The
Slate, Coiu/remitinal (timrnmeitt; (ioodnow. Comparative
Administrative Law, IJurge.ss, I'olitiral Srifncr and Com-
parative ('onstitnlional haw ; t{iili:i ami I'mrlire. of tlie
J/oiinr of ItepreHentntiven ; Marfpiardsen, Jliinillmch dex
Dffenllichen lirchtuder (Irgenirart; \(m Konne, T)a« Staal.t-
rt-cltt der J^muixiHchi-n Monarchic; I>ahaiiil, llandliiich di-a
dmiKclifn Staaturecht ; Meyer, hclirlmcli den deiitsrhen
Staalxrechtn; Ijocnin;;, TichrlruclrdeHdeiituchen Veriraltuiif/n-
rerhtn; (icHcht'lfts-Onhmnff for den Denlnclien Jieirhstitg ;
Sammlunij enlhiillrnd die /iiindrnverfaxxtini/ iind die Ktto-
tonxverfanxunijeit tier Srhiveiz; (iexrhdftx. reglemenlarixr/ie
Jiexlimmnngeu fi'ir die Eidi/enoiixixchen RSlhe (der Schwriz);
I>alor, Ci/clopinlia of Political .Scicnrc. articles on various
countries and on sulijeils connected with this article ; Bage-
hot, The Knglish Conxtilution; Anson, The Laiv and Cos
torn of the Constitiilion ; Dicey, The fjOii' of the Conxlitu-
tion : .^Iav, Parliainentart/ Practice ; Todd, Ihi Parliamen-
tary (iovernment in ICnglanil ; I'orritt, The ICnglinhman at
Jliime; Standing Orderx of the Lordx and ('ornmonn rein-
live to Private Billx, for m«si(jn of ltty;j ; liule», Orderx,
LAWN-TEXNIS
and Forms of Procedure relating to Public Buxinesx for
the T^rdx and Commons : I'oudra and I'ierre, Traiti
Pratique de Droit Parlemeulaire ; Dupriez, Lex Minixtreg
danx lex Princinaux Pagx d'Luro/ie el d'Amerique; Pierre,
tirganixalion ilex Pouvoirx jiutiticx; Jieglemenix dii Senat
el de la Chambre dex iJeputex (France). In adililion to the
aliovc-menlioned works all the well-known treatises on con-
stitutional law or parliamentary law contain much that is
useful. The actual methods of work and the significance of
the rules as found in practice can often be learned only from
members of lcgislatuR>s or fnun those thoroughly conversant
with the methods of pushing laws through.
■Ikkkmiah W'. Jknks.
Lann [M. Kng. laund, an open dear i>lace, from the Celt-
ic, cf. Ir. land, lann, Welsh llan, Fr. lande, Ilal. landa,
moor]: a name which originally meant an open space be-
tween woods, but is now mostly restricted to a space of
ground covered with grass for oriiamental purposes. In or-
der to produce a thick-turfed, dark-green, velvety lawn, the
soil.esjieciallv if light, should be well provided with manure,
and worked so dcejily as to allow the plant to extend its roots
below the stratum generally reached by a surface-drought.
The seed most popular in the U. S. is blue-grassor June-gra.ss
(Poa pratensis), although various good mixtures are sold by
seedsmen. Some like to sow a little white clover-seed for
the sake of the clover-flowers. Timothy or herd's-grass seed
(Phleum prntenxe) may be sown with the.Iune-grass In small
amount to afford an early cover for the ground. The June-
grass eventually overcomes the tiiuolliy. The .luiie-grass
should be applied at the rale of 2 or 'A bush, jicr acre. A
few quarts of timothy will sullice for this area. It is not
recommended to mix the grass-seed with that of some grain,
which is often done. The idea is to produce shade for the
young grass-plant, but the effect really is that it is starved.
A third and indispensable condition is freipicnt mowing —
once a week during the growing season, at least once every
two weeks, and each spring a little top-dressing, especially
on any poor sjiot. Kevised by L. II. iJailev.
La«n-feniils: a game of ball played by either two or
four persons, in a space called a court. It is a modilication
of the old game of tennis, designed to allow a game resem-
bling tennis to be played on any level piece of ground with-
out any expensive arrangements.
The court is marked out by lines on any level, hard sur-
face, grass being the most common, but gravel, asphalt,
cement, wood, etc., are also used. The court is ?(:< feel long
by 27 feet wide, for two yilayers. For four the court is of
tlie same length, but is ;i6 feet wide. It is divided by a net
stretched across the middle (A B in the diagram), 3 ft. 6 in.
high at the posts and 8 feet in the middle. The posts stand
3 feet outside the side-lines. The balls ai'e of hollow rubber,
78 FT.
B
G
N 1
L E
18 FT.
21 FT.
18 FT.
21 FT.
39
FT.
,
\
39
<, D
FT.
The court.
covered with smooth white cloth, cemented to the ball and
then .sewed. Each weighs 2 07.., and is about 2i inches in
diameter. The ball is struck with a racket, made of ash
and struns; with ciilgiil.
Tlie racket.
History. — The game is an adaptation of tennis for out-
ilonr purposes. The parent game was played in Franco
LAWN-TENNIS
LAWRENCE
141
and Italy as early as 1500. It existed in two forms, one
played in the fosses of castles, and in any sjiaoe bounded
i.iy walls, which formed part of the game, ami by degrees
buildings were erected especially for the game, which be-
gan to be called In roiirl pnume. The other form was called
la lotiyue pauinp, and played in tlie open gr(iiin<l. The
n&mv paufiic arose from tlie fact that the ball was struck by
the palm of the hand. 1m tongue paume must have to a
certain extent resembled lawn-tennis, but it has been extinct
for at least 1")() years, and lawn-tennis is derived from la
cour/ paume. which has been corrupted into court-tennis.
The modern game of lawn-tennis was originated by Maj.
Wingfield at a country-house in Wales in 1874. Many peo-
ple claim to have invented the game, and did, no doubt, bat
a ball of sonu- kind back and forth over a cord or net: but
Maj. W'inglield put the game into a condition where it could
be played by every one. In 1875 the Marylebone ('ricket
(.'lull, the ruling body on cricket in England, appointed a
committee to frame laws for the game. A year later the
All England Croquet Club, in combination witli the JI. C. C,
revised the laws and held the championship meeting for sin-
gles on its grounds at Wimbledon. The All England Lawn-
Tennis Club continued to rule the game until the formaticm
of the Lawn-Tennis Association in 1887, which is now the
governing body in Great Britain.
In the U. S. the game was first played at Nahant, Mass.,
by F. R. Sears and James Dwight in Aug., 1874. The laws
in force were those used in Great Britain, until in 1881 a
convention was called by the Young America Cricket Club
of Philadelphia, the .Staten Island Cricket Club of New York,
and the Longwood Cricket Club of Boston. This convention
fornu'd the U. .S. National Lawn-Tennis Association, which
has from that time made the laws of the game in the U. S.
The singles championship was played first at Newport,
R. I., in 18S1, and has been held at that place every succeed-
ing month of August. The winners are as follows: 1881-
87, R. I). Sears; 1888-89, H. W. Slocum; 1890-92, 0. S.
Campbell ; 1893, R. D. Wrenn.
The doubles championship was instituted in the same year
as the singles, and has been held at various places — Newport,
<Jrange, N. J.. Chicago, etc.
Expldnafion of the Game. — The game is begun by the
jilayers tossing for choice of sides and "service," i.e. the
right to make the first stroke of the game. The winner may
take either the side or the service, but if he chooses the side
liis opponent has the right to serve or not as he may prefer.
The player who is to serve throws the ball up into the air
with one hand and strikes it with his racket, trying to make
it fall in the fi-ont jiart of the court diagonally opposite to
him. Should he fail to do so, a fault is called, and the
jilayer must try again. Should he fail a second time, two
faults are called, and one point is scored for the striker-out.
Should the server, however, succeed in hitting the ball into
the proper court, his 0]iponent must return it after the first
bound. He can play the ball into any part of the server's
court, and the server in his turn must return the ball, but
he is no longer compelled to place it in any particular part
of the court. It is only the "service" or first stroke that is
restricted to this quadrangle. In like manner any stroke
except the service may be played before it touches the
ground, i. e. " volleyed," but the service must be allowed to
strike the ground. To serve, the player must stand directly
behind the base-line, first on the right of the control-line,
and for the next stroke on the left, and so on alternately.
The server wins a stroke whenever the striker-out fails to
return the ball into the server's court.
The striker-out wins a stroke when the server serves two
consecutive faults, or fails to return the ball into the striker-
out's court.
Either player loses a strike if the ball touches him or any-
thing that he wears or carries except his racket, or if the
liall touches his racket more than once.
When the first stroke is won the score is called " fifteen."
If tlie second stroke is won by the same player, the score is
f thirty," if the third "forty," and if thelast game. In
other worils, the game is made up of four strokes, each
called fifteen, except that for convenience forty is called in-
stead of forty-five. In France, in the jiarent game of tennis,
forty-five is still called.
Four strokes won by the same player make game, as stated,
but there is one exception. Should each jilayer have scored
three strokes the score is called "deuce,'' and an additional
stroke " vantage " is introduced. Thus to make game a player
must make two consecutive strokes after the call of deuce.
Should he make one stroke "vantage" and lose the next,
the score returns to deuce. In like manner a " set " is the
best of eleven games, i. e. the player who first wins six games
wins the set ; but should the score be five games all, a player
must win two consecutive games to win the set, or the score
returns to "games-all."
Malc'hes are usually the best of tliree sets, but in all
championships they should be the best of five advantage
sets. It should be stated that by agreement advantage sets
may be dispensed with, and the player who first scores six
games takes the set.
Umpires. — In all matches it is necessary to have umpires
to decide if the ball falls in the court or outside of the lines,
to keep the score, etc. This can be done by one or two per-
sons, but it is very much better, if possiljle. to have an um-
pire for every line, who shall give a decision on that line
only, and to have a special umpire to keep the score, etc.
It is liis duty to see if the ball touches a player, if it is
played before it has touched the ground twice, etc.
Odds. — As all players are by no means equal, it is often
necessary to give odds. This may be done in several ways.
The smallest; odds are a "bisque," i. e. the player who re-
ceives a bisque can add one point to his score once in a set
at any time he sees fit.
The next odds are half-fifteen, which is one stroke given
at the beginning of the second, fourth, and every following
alternate game of a set. Fifteen is one stroke in each game.
Half-thirty is one stroke the first game, two the second, and
so alternately. Thirty is two strokes each game. Half-
forty is two strokes the first game, and three the second, etc.
Forty is three strokes in each game. Sometimes the differ-
ence between two playei's is so great that odds like forty are
needed to make a game ; but when such odds are given there
is practically no game left to play, as one stroke may win a
game. In such cases "owed odds" are used — that is, the
better player must make one or more strokes before lie can
score. The table is exactly like that of given odds, except
that in the case of half-odds, as half-fifteen, half-thirty, etc.,
the larger odds are given in the odd-numbered games of the
set, while with given odds the same is the even-numbered
games.
With a view of promoting exactness in handicapping, a
system called the quarter system has been devised. In it
fifteen is divided into quarters. One quarter of fifteen is
one stroke given in the second, sixth, tenth, etc., games of
a set. Two quarters is one stroke given at the lieginning of
the second and every subsequent alternate game of a set.
Three quarters is one stroke in the second, third, and fourth
games, and in the last three of every subsequent four games
of a set. Fifteen is one stroke in each game. The rest of
the system is carried out in the same way. It is accurate
but complicated. A still newer but far more complicated
method is to divide fifteen into sixths. One other system
of scoring should be mentioned, called the " hundred-up"
game. It simply consists in playing till one player reaches
100. The service is changed after tour or six strokes. This
is a dull game and can not be recommended.
James Dwight.
Law of Nations : See International Law.
Lawrence : city (founded in 1854) ; capital of Douglas
CO., Kan. (for location of county, see map of Kansas, ref.
5-.I) ; on both sides of the Kansas river, and on the Atch.,
Top. and S. Fe, the Kan. City, Wyo. and N. W., and the
Union Pac. railways; 38 miles W. of Kansas City. It is
the seat of the State University and of Haskell Institute,
which, next to that at Carlisle, Pa., is the largest Indian
training-school in the V. S. Excellent water-power is ob-
tained from the river by means of a dam, and the city has
become noted for its manufactories, which include large
barb-wire, canning, and shirt factories, flour-mills, and a
straw-lumber plant. There are 20 churches, 3 national
banks with combined capital of f 350,000, 2 State banks with
capital of §60,000, public library, and 3 daily, 8 weekly, 2
monthly, and 2 quarterly periodicals. The city was founded
during the Free-soil and pro-slavery struggle for the admis-
sion of Kansas into the Union; was the headquarters of
John Brown and other noted Free-soil leaders; was burned
by Quantrell and his guerrillas on Aug. 21, 1803; and has
niade rapid progress since its rebuilding. Pop. (1880)8,510;
(1890)9.997; (1895)10.084. I-'.unoB ok "Journal."
LuHTcnce: city (founded by the Lawrence family; incor-
porated as a town 1847, as a city 1853); one of the capitals
of Essex CO., Mass. (for location of county, see map of Jlassa-
142
LAWRENCE
thusott.i. rt'f. 1-1); on Iwth sides of tlic Mcrriinap river, and
on (he \V. and S. Divisions uf tlie Host, uiiil Me. Kiiilroad;
26 miles N. \V. of Hoslon. The city lias uuriviiled water-
power for luiiimfaeturiiif;, nbluiiied from the river, wliieh
here has a deseent of iO feet in abmit half a mile. A granite
dam, UOO feet l.iiif; ami :«» feel hi'jh (hegun in 184.">), was
constnicle<l aeross the rapids at a eost of $-jr)(t.(lltO, and
a distributing canal, a mile long. 10 feet deep, UHI f.et wide
at the heail. and (Kl feet wiile at the month, costing with
loi'ks if2mMH.K», was completed in lime for the inauguration
of the manufacturing inilustries of the town by water-power,
on Feb. 24. 1H4S. Subse<iueiitly a second canal was built on
the op|»osite side of the river. ' The city has become widely
known for its manufacture of cotton and woolen giwds.
The census returns of 18110 showed that ."i21 maimfacturing
These
Were 21 textile manufactories, which reported _^24,:i83,100
capital; emiiloveil 12.1'.i:5 persons; paid ^4..')47.678 for
wages and iilO'.447,65D for nniterials: and had products
valued at $ 1 7.i);!2,388. The next largest industry was the
nmimfacture of foundry and machine-shop products, which
had 25 establislnnents' employed $ 1 ,2o:i,20:i capital and
776 |)ersons: paiil $4.'i4.!i4H for wages and $481,007 _ for
materials: ami had products valued at $l,221,9l;5. The
most important textile nnmufactories arc the Atlantic
cotton-mills, capital $l,0tMI.O()O. looms 2,109. operatives
1,200; Pacific mills, capital *2.r)()(MI0(), looms 0.900, print-
ing-machines 2.5, operatives 4.MU(): Washington mills, cap-
ital i;:!.Ol-").0O0. looms 1.400. operatives 2,100; Arlington
mills, cajiital S2.0OU.O0O. operatives ;{.000; Everett mills,
capital 480tl.OOO, looms 1,014, operatives 1,050; and the
Pembertoii mills, capital $4.")0,000, looms 870, operatives 850.
There are also three large paper-mills. The oily has an
area of 7 sq. miles; net debt (189:!) $1,258,571, and assessed
property valuation $:W.207,:^72 ; 3 daily and 8 weekly news-
papers; 5 national banks with combined capital of $925,000,
and 3 savings-banks; public library with 35,000 volumes;
and 3 public parks. Tliere are 26 churches, 63 graded pub-
lic schools, and numerous institutions of private and public
benevolence. Pop.(1880) 39,151 ; (1890)44,054; (1895)52.104.
Editor of "Amerra.n.''
Lawrence, Saint: See Laurentii's, Saint.
Lawrence. .Vbbott, LL. I). : philanthropist ; b. at Groton,
Mass.. Dee. 10, 1792; son of .Samuel Lawrence (1754-1827),
an otTicer during the Revolutionary war; studied in the
acjidemy at Groton. and became a successful dry-goods mer-
chant in Boston. lie was an early advocate of the protective
taritl. and one of the foremost men in building up .\mcrican
manufactures. He engaged largely in manufacturing, and
was one of the principal founders of the city of Lawrence,
Mass. lie was a member of Congress 18;}5-;i7and 1839—41 ;
was in 1842 a commissioner to settle the .-Vroostook boundary
question; U. S. minister to (ireat Britain 1849-52. In the
presidential canvasses of 1840, 1844, and 1848 he took an
active part, but declined the .seat in the cabinet which Presi-
dent Taylor offered him. He founded the Lawrence Scien-
tific School of Harvard University, to which he gave $100,-
000. established scholarships and prizes in public schools,
and was a liberal benefactor of the Groton Academy, now
known by his name. He was liberal in all philanthropic
and charitable causes. D. at Boston, -Aug. 18, 1855.
Lawrence, Gkoroe Newhold: ornithologist; b. in New
York city, (Jet. 20, 1806; was actively engaged in business
in New Vork from 1H20 to 1802, devoting his leisure time to
oridthology. He made a special study of the avifauna of
tropical and sub-tropical .\merica, and described over 300
new species. Besiilc more than 100 shorter paiiers, he was,
with Prof. Spencer F. Baird and .John Cassiii, editor of
The /iirJn of Xorl/i Ameriat, published first in 1858 as vol.
ix. of the Pacific Railway Reports, reissued separately, with
additions ami plates, in 1800. F. A. LrcAs.
Lawrence. Sir (iK.oRoK St. Patrick : soldier; b. at Trin-
comalee. (Cylon, in 1H05 ; was educated at Foyle College,
Lonilonderry, and Aildiscombe College, Surrey; became a
cornet in the Bengal Light Cavalry in 1821, and was aii-
IMiinted polilii'al agi'iit at Caliul in 1S39, at Peshasvar in
1848, at Mewar, Rajpulana, in ls.")0. and agent to the gov-
ernor-general for the Uiijpiilana stales in lH."i(). In 1807 he
retired on full pay and willi the rank of lieiitcnlanl-gcneral.
The stirring events of his life— he was present at the mur-
der of Sir William Maenaghten and in the Kata Pass with
Sir Charles Napier — he recorded in his Jirminiscences of
Fiirlii-lhree Years' Sen-ice in Jndia, edited by W. Edwards
in 1.874. D. Nov., 1884.
Lawrence. Sir Henkv Mo.ntoomkrv : statesman ami sol-
dier; b. at .Malura, Cevlon, ,lune 28, 1800: studied at the
.Military College at Addiscoinlie ; went to India in 1821 as a
cadet in the Bengal Artillery: took iiartiiithe Burmese war
of 1S2.8, in the first Afghaii war of 18;i8, and in the Sikh
wars of 1.845 and 1848 ; was resident at Lahore from 1846 to
1849 ; then chief of the board of administration in the Pun-
jaub, agent of the governor-general in Rajjnitana (1852), and
in 1857 commissioner in Oudh. He conducted the memora-
ble defense of the British residency at Luck'now against the
mutineers, until on .Inly 2 he was mortally wounded, and
died at Lucknow, .hily 4, 1857. He founded the Lawrence
inilitani' asylums at Saiiawan on the road to Simla, at Mnrree
in the Puiijaub. at Mt. .Vbu in the Hajpntana, and on the
Madras Nilgiri hills, ami to these institutions devoted a con-
siderable portion of ids large income. He was also the author
of tlie Advenliires of an Officer in the Serrice of Jiimjil
SitigJi (1845), and of'a series of articles in 77ie Calcutta J{e-
vieiv which attracted much attention on their first appear-
ance and afterward were collected and reprinted in London.
Lawrence, ,1amks: naval ollicer; b. at Burlington, N. J.,
Oct. 1,1781; entered the U.S. navy as a midshipman in
1798; became lieulenaiit in 1802; took part in the war with
Tripoli (1804-05); was appointed in 1810 to the command
of the Hornet (IM), with the rank of master-commandant;
cruised in Com. Bainbridge"s squadron on the South Amer-
ican coast at the close of 1812, and on Feb. 24, 1813, cap-
tured, near the mouth of the Demerara river, the British
sloop of war Peacock after an engagement of fifteen minutes.
Returning to New York with his ])risoners, Lawrence re-
ceived from Congress a gold medal, and Wiis jironioted to bo
captain and commander of the frigate Chesapeake. On June
1, 1813, he was mortally wounded in an engagement between
that vessel and the British frigate Shannon in Boston har-
bor. The Chesapeake was taken by assault and carried into
Halifax, where Lawrence died .July 5. His exclamation on
being carried below, "Don't give up the ship!" became a
household word in the U. S.
Lawrence, .loiiN- Laird Maik. D. C. L.. Baron: Viceroy
of India; b. at Richmond. Yorkshin'. England, JIar. 24,
1811; was educated at HiiiUybury College, where he be-
came proficient in Oriental languages and laws; went to
India in 1829 as a cadet in the lieiigal civil service ; filleu
various subordinate administrative and judicial posts, and
in 1846, after the fir.st Sikh war. was called to the responsi-
ble office of chief commissioner of the Punjaub, becoming
lieutenant-governor in 1849. In this jiost. which he retained
many years. Lawrence displayed rare talent in the govern-
ment of analuially turbulent race, and with such perfect
success that the Punjaub, far from joining the mutiny of
1857, as was anticipated, was able to send forces of Sikhs
and Punjaubis to the relief of Delhi. His co-operation
with Canning. Havelock. Ontram, and Clyde for the sup-
pression of the mutiny was of inestimable value, and gave him
popular fame as " the saviour of India." He succeeded in
disarming the Hindustani force (liS.ddO men) before they
could join the mutineers, he raised the Punjaubi force,
which remained loyal, from 12,000 to .59.000 men, and he in-
duced the non-combatant forces to subscribe to a 0-per-cent.
loan, which measures finally broke the backbone of the
mutiny. Having returned to England in 18.58 the last spe-
cial court of directors of the East India Company, on the
eve of its ab<ilition, conferred a pension of €2,(JO0 upon
Lawrence, who also received a baronetcy and was sworn of
the jirivy council. He was Viceroy of India from 1863 to
1808 — the first civilian not a peer who had filled that jiosilion
since the time of Warren Hastings — and was created a baron
in 1869. His cautious policy with respect to Afghanistan.
which by his friends was characterized as a " masterly in-
activity, ' >yas strongly censured by another party. Never-
theless the opposite polii-y led. nine years later, to the sec-
ond Afghan war. and was dcnounceil with as nnsparing
bitterness. I). June 27, 1^79. Sec the Life by Bosworth
Smith (188:i).
Lawrence, Sir Thomas: painter: b. in Bristol, England,
Apr. I'i, 1769. His father was a tavern-keeper. When a
mere child he made sketches in chalk; at ten he used the
crayons with skill; at seventeen he painted in oil ; he was
but thirteen when he received a silver palette and five guineas
LAWRENCE
LAW REPORTS
143
from the Society of Arts for a copy of The Transfiguratiun ;
at twenty he settled in London us a portrait-painter; at tlie
age of twenty-two he was made a supplementary associate
of the Royal Academy, throngli the special intervention of
George III., and painted portraits of the king and queen;
in 1794 he was elected an Academician; in 1815 he was
knighted; in 1820 he became president of the Academy.
Reynolds befriended him with counsel and influence, and
so diligent was he that during his first year in London lie
exhibited at Somerset House seven portraits of women. His
attempts at historical painting, such as the Satan Summon-
ing his LrijidHs, the subject taken from Milton, did not jus-
tify his abandonment of the department in which he ex-
celled. The iiMJSt distinguished men and women of the
time sat to him ; his prices were high, rising in 1810 to 100
guineas for heads and 400 for full-lengths — more than thrice
his earlier charges. In 1814 the prince regent commissioned
Lawrence to jiaint the sovereigns, generals, anil statesmen
who were in league against Xajjoleon. The famous Water-
hio Gallery at Windsor is the result. In Vienna he painted
the Emperor of Austria ; in London he painted Blucher and
Phitoff ; in Rome he painted Pius VII. and Cardinal Gon-
salvi. Honors were showered on him at home and abroad ;
foreign academies elected him to membership ; he was made
a chevalier of the Legion of Honor. The special cause of
his success was probably the skillful and not too gross flat-
tery of his sitters in their portraits; every one found him-
self looking his best in what seemed yet a faithful likeness.
D. in London, .Tan. T, 1S:10. See Memoirs and Corresjjond-
ence, by D. E. Williams (,3 vols., London, 1881).
Revised by Russell STtriiGis.
Lawrence, William Be.vch, LL. D. : jurist ; b. in New
York city, Oct. 23, 1800 ; graduated at Columbia College in
1818; studied law, and in 1821 went to Europe; admitted
to the New York bar on his return in 1823; secretary of
legation in London 1826-27; charge d'affaires ad interim
1827-28; then resided for some time in Paris, and returned
to the U. S. in 1832. He became eminent in his profession,
and was' influential in promoting the Erie Railway enter-
prise ; was vice-president of the New York HistoricalSociety
1836-4.5. In 1850 he removed to Rhode Island, where he
became Lieutenant-Governor and acting Governor in 1851,
and member of the constitutional convention in 1853. He
was a member of the Social Science Congress which met at
Bristol. England, in Oct., 1869, and lecturer on International
Law (1872-73) at the law school of Columbian College at
Washington, 1). C, in which city he gained distinction as an
advocate in ca-ses of international claims, especially those
arising from the Treaty of Washington of 1871. Besides
writing many articles "for the magazines, and publishing
shorter papers and brochures on various subjects, he trans-
lated from the French of Barbe Marbois a Hi'stonj of Louis-
iana (1830), and wrote a History of the Negotiations in Ref-
erence to the Eastern and yortlieastern Boundaries of the
United States (\Si\): The Law of Charitable fses (184.5) ;
Visitation and Search (1858) ; a Commentary on the Ele-
meyits of Liternational Law (in French, 3 vols., Leipzig.
1868-73) ; Disabilities of American Women Married Abroad
(1871); and Administration of Equity Jurisprudence (Bos-
ton, 1874). He edited (in French) WheaUm's Elenientsof
International Law, with a memoir of the author and copious
notes (1855). D. Mar. 26, 1881.
Revised by P. Sturqes Allex.
Lawrencebui-ff : city; capital of Dearborn co., Ind. (for
location of county, see maj) of Indiana, ref. 8-G) : on the
Ohio river, and the Cleve., ('in., Chi. and St. fj., and the Ohio
and Miss, railways: 25 miles W. of Cincinnati. It has
manufactories of beer, whisky, barrels, carriages, furniture,
eottins, flour, pumps, and [lianos, and two weeklv newspapers.
Pop. (1880) 4,608 ; (1890) 4,284. Editor ok " Press."
LawreilCtblirg ; town; capital of Anderson co., Ky. (for
location of cnunty, see map of Kentuckv. ref. 3-II) ; on the
Louisville S. Railroad: 10 miles S. of Prankfort. It has 6
churches, gradeil schools, 2 banks, flour-mill, barrel-factory,
and weekly newspaper, and is principallv engaged in to-
bacco-growing and whisky-<listilling. Pop." (1880) 638 ; (1800)
1,382. Editor of "Anderson- News."
Lawrence rniversity : an institution of learning, con-
nected with the Jlethod'ist Episcopal Church; situated at
Appleton. Wis. It was founded in 1847 and opened in
1849. The Hon. Amos A. Lawrence, of Boston, Mass., gave
?10,()00 for its establishment, which was increased to ^20,-
000 by a like sum raised bv the Jlethodist denomination.
The charter provides for full university work. The courses
of instruction in the college are three— the ancient classical,
scientific, and modern classical. Preparatory and English
courses are also provided, with departments in music, paint-
ing, and commercial training. The universitv has a library
of 13.000 volumes. The productive endowinent is about
§175,000. The value- of the propcrtv is .^150,000. There
are four buildings — University Iiall,"Ornisijv Hall (a ladies'
boarding-hall). Underwood Observatory, and the presidents
house. The observatory is thoroughly equijiped with the
finest instruments for astronomical work. The number of
students is nearly 400; of the faculty, fifteen. L. Wesley
Underwood, M.S., who is president, was elected to the posi-
tion in 1893. ('. W. Gallagher.
Law Reports: the published statements of opinions
given by courts in deciding cases brought before them for
adjudication, containing statements of the reasons which
influenced the court in the decision of the cases, together
with a liriet account of the pleadings and facts, sufficient to
make the decision intelligible, and generally an outline of
the argument of counsel. Here it may be" noted that the
rejmrt is distinct from the record, which latter is a collec-
tion or formal statement of all the papers essential to tlie
progress of the cause, such as the writ or summons calling
the defendant into court, the pleadings, order for trial, ver-
dict, and judgment, and may also contain a statement of
the grounds upon which the judgment is based. In conti-
nental Europe the superior tribunals are required not only
to put their judgments, but the reasons and grounds tlierecjf,
in writing, and to enter the same as a ]iart of the record.
In Great Britain the opinions of the superior courts nuiy
be given orally or in writing, but the statement of reasons
for the judgment forms no necessary part of the record.
Prior to the year 1863 the reports were published as private
enterprises only, with the exception of the year-books,
which are the earliest of English reports extending in an
unbroken series from the beginning of the reign of Ed- •
ward II. to the latter end of the reign of Henry VIIL,
with broken cases reaching back as far as the reign of
Henry III. They were taken by the prothonotaries or
chief scribes of the court at the expense of the crown, and
were published annually. They are composed in Norman-
French, with many abbreviations difficult to be deciphered.
A few only of them have been translated and published in
England with the original and the translation in parallel
columns. When the year-books ceased to be made, the mat-
ter of reporting was left open to all, and lawyers undertook
the business of reporting for their own use. or for publication
as a business enterprise. Under this system some good re-
ports were obtained, while others were incomplete and full
of errors. Since 1865 reporting has been regulated Ijv the
action of the bar, and the reports are well systematized", and
are of a high degree of excellence. In the U. S. it is the
univei-sal custom for appellate courts to give written opin-
ions, and the reporters are, in general, appointed by some
puWic authority, and in some States statutes and rules of
court prescribe \yhat decisions shall be rcportcil.
The vast multitude of books through which the laws anil
jurisprudence of the U. S. and Great Britain are scattered
is mainly due to the multiplication of the law reports,
which are made necessary by the authoritativeness of ad-
judged cases. It has been stated that in 1881 the judicial
reports of England numbered 2,944 volumes, and those of
the U. S. about 3,000. The numlier is now much larger,
and the number of volumes of reports atlded yearly is con-
stantly increasing, owing both to the increase iii the" number
of cases decided and the larger proportion rejiorted. For
example, there were twenty-three volumes for the court of
appeals of New York alone from 1886 to 1890 inclusive.
Various projects for codes ami authoritative digests have
been presented, but these meet as yet with but little favor
from the profession. The spirit of development of English
jurisprudence is to adopt case-law instead of the work of
jurists, and this course of development can not well bear-
rested. Digests, however, are of the highest value when well
prepared, as a means of consulting the reports, and are con-
stantly in the hands of the profession.
Owing to the fact that these reports contain thousands of
useless and even conflicting cases, and lliat multitudes of
cases have been questioned, limited, "distinguished," or
overruled, the ascertaining of the existing law upon a point
not provided for by an adeipiate and self-interpreting statute
becomes an increasingly arduous task, and the remedying of
U4
1,A\V KKrOKTS
LAYAKI)
this mi^'liii'f ami "f the other evils arisinp from the multi-
tude of llie re|>i>r > is uii iiiipurtaiit problem which hus iis
yet n-ceiveil im soliitioii.
I ... _ . r'< «re es|>eeiall_v neeessarv ami valualile in
Or iiikI the l'. S. b^•cau^e of tlie fart that it is a
w, ale ill lioth comilries that if a ease has been
,1, iljiuliiatetl bv a eourt of hi^'li authority aiiJ
hit .iate jiii-istliotioii, the priiieiple ileteriiiiiieil is
biiuliu^' jti a preeeileiit upon inferior courts when aimlher
case arises involving' the same facts; ami it will in {.'t''."'.™'
lie f.illuweil in the court itself which remlereil the (ie<isioii
unless St PMii; n'asons can be f;iveii to the contrary. The law
in this way consists in the main of a collection of iirineiples
cvolveti fioin the decisions of actual controversies disposed
of bv the courts, rather than theoretical propositions laid
dowii by jurists and iihilosopliers. It is, however, true, not-
withstaiidin-: the.so Ucx'trines, that many cases have been
overruled and dis<nrde<l ius not containinjr a correct view of
the law. In coiiiiiuntal Kuropc law npurts are of less im-
portance because, while prior decisions are valuable us aids,
they are not authoritative as precedents. See Jubispru-
UENCE.
The value or aulhoritativencss of reported cases depends
upon so many circumstances that much skill is freipieiilly
necessjiry to iietiTiiiine it correctly. A few of the leading
rules mav l>e stateil.
Jtitle I. — Decisions of the court of last resort arc to be
treated as technically aulftorilalice and binding on the in-
ferior courts.
Jiiile II. — Decisions of inferior courts may be referred to
as evidence of the law, ami will be bindinjr, if they are
api>ellate courts, upon those of a lower grade, from which
an apneal may be taken to them.
Hiile ///.—Decisions of courts of one State of the U. S.
are not biiidiu": as "authority" upon the courts of another
State. The same principle prevails as to the decisions of the
U. S. courts. Thus a State court is not bound to follow the
decisions of the Supreme Court of the U. S., except as to
matters involving the construction of the U. S. Constitution
and the laws and treaties made under it. A similar rule
prevails as to decisions in the Knglish courts, except so far
as they were made before the time fixed upon in any State
for the adoption of the English common law as the basis of
its jurisjirmlence. The decisions rendered in England before
that date have the as[)eet of authority, while those since
given arc to be regarded as arguments.
Hnte IV. — A special rule prevails in the U. S. courts as
to the weight to be attached to decisions in Stale courts
upon matters having in them a local element, such as the
construction of a Slate constitution or statute, or the ex-
position of the local law of real estate. In the first of these
cases the U. S. courts follow the interpretation of the State
constitution adopted by its own courts, if that has taken
place. Having once followed the view of the highest State
court. Federal tribunals will not be bound to change though
the Slate courts may adopt a new interprelalion. In com-
mercial matters this special rule does not prevail, and the
Federal court may consider a question on its merits, inde-
pendently of the action of any .State tribunal. The whole
rule gives way when it leads to any conflict with the U. S.
Constitution.
liute V. — Distinctions must be taken as to the value of
ciuses in the reports, depending upon the grade and .stand-
ing of the court, the thoroughness of the discussi(m, and
the ability of the reporter. (1) The reports of the opinions
of inferior courts may in special instances liav<> an excep-
tional Worth, owing to the pre-eminent ability of the pre-
siding judKc, as in the case of some of the fenglish nini-
prtun reports. In all courts respect is paid to the decisions
of particular judges whose capacity is superior to that of
their as.sociates in the same court. It is proper to urge in
argument that a commercial ipiestion was decideil by .Mans-
field, or a point in the law of evidence by Ellenboiough, or
a constitutional (picstion in the U. .S. by Marshall, or a rule
of etpiity law wil-- established by Ilardwicke or Kldon in
P^ngland, or by Kent or Slorv in the U. S. (2) The ability
of the re|)orler has much to do with the value of the rejiorts.
It is generally his olVue to prefix to the opinions of the
judges a siitlicipntly full slatement of the facts in the ciuse,
OS well as a ••head-note" containing an abstnict of the
points ilecideil. An inaccuracy in the statement of the
facts may make the ojiinion misleading. Error in the hcail-
note or /ty/aAiM, arising from failure to grasp or properly
stale the conclusions of law given in the ojanion, is espe-
cially likely to lie found, and inust be giiarded against by
verificatioii. The early English reports, which consisted of
notes taken without the aid of stenography from opinions
delivered orally, are frei|Uently obscure and unintelligible.
Points actually decidi'd as material to the issues of the case
are indicated by the word " Helil," those discussed and not
so deciiled by •■ II .seemn," or " .Semble."
For fuller information, see Kent's Cummenlaries (vol. i.);
Dillon's The Laws and JurixpruJince of ICiii/linid atid
Amtrica; Wallace On Itrparlerx: yiurvhi's Lei/al Hihliog-
rupliy: and Houvicr's Luw Dictionary (vil. lSC".i and later,
title lirports). Lists of reporters and the courts to which
they belong can usually be found in the catalogues of
leading law-booksellers. Revised by P. Stit«ges Allen.
Law .Schools: See Schools.
Liin'son. Sir Wilfrid: tem|)crance advocate: b. in Cum-
berland, England, Sept. 4. lH-2!»; succeeded to the title and
estate of Aspalrin on the death of his father in 1H6T; be-
came at an early age an enthusiastic advocate of the tem-
perance movement ; was elected to Parliament for Carlisle
in 18.5'J, ami introduced in Mar, 1864, the measure known as
the Permissive Hill, the main jirinciple of which is the giving
to two-thirds of the inhabitants of any parish or township
an absolute veto u])on all licenses for the sale of intoxicating
liipiois granted williin their district. Defeated at the elec-
tiiin of 1^I6>. he was returned at the head of the poll in lH(i8
as a supporter of (iladstone. and again elected in Feb., 1874,
He is the president of the United Kingdom Alliance for the
Suppression of the Liquor Traffic, and its spokesman in the
House of Commons, wliere he figured also as a fre(|uent op-
ponent of Disraeli upon other subjects, and where, on June
18, 1880, he succeedetl in carrying his local option resolution
by a nmjoiity of twenty-six. lie was defeated at thi> par-
liamentary election of 188.'>. but was returned for the Cock-
ermouth division of Cumberland as a (iladstonian Liberal
the following year and again in 1892.
Lawton, William Cranston, A. B. : classical teacher: b.
at New Hedford, Mass., Jlay 22, 18.59 ; graduated at Har-
vard in 1873; studied at Herlin Univei'sitv; was a classical
teacher in New Hedford and Boston, and was acting Pro-
fessor of Greek, Boston University, 18S)0-!)1 ; author of
T/trec Dramas of Euripides (188!)). and numerous papers
on classical archa'ologv, mainly published in The Allantit
Muntldy. ' ■ C, 11. T.
Lay, Henry Cuamplin, D. D.. LL. 1). : bishop ; b. at Kich-
inoiul, Va., Dec. 6, 1823; graduated at the University of
Virginia in 1843, and at the Theological Seminary of Vir-
ginia; ordained deacon .luly 10, 184G; \yas minister in
Lynnhaven i)arish, Va., until .June, 1847, when he removed
to Church of Nativity, Iluntsville, Ala.; ordained priest
1848; consecrated missionary bishoji of the Southwest Oct.
23, 185!), and translated to diocese of Easton Apr. 1. 186!).
During the civil war Bishoi) Lay was a.ssigned to the charge
of Arkansa.s, which was then made an episcopal see. To
Bishop Lay the revision of the Calendar of Lessons in the
present American Prayer-book is largely due; while his la-
bors ill the preparation of the Standard of 1892 were only
interrupted by his death, lie published several volumes, in-
cluding Studies in the Church (New York, 1872) and The
Church and the Nation (1885). D. at Easton, Md„ Sept. 17,
1885. Bevised by W. S. Perry.
Lay'amon : poet; a priest at Arley Regis on the Severn,
Worcestershire, England; wrote about 1200 the /yn//, a rhym-
ing chronicle of English history from the time of the fab-
ulous Brutus of Troy to the death of King Cadvvallader (()8!l
A.I).). His work is an amplified translation of the Brut
il'Anffleterre of the Aiiiilo-Noriiian |>oet Wace. the additions
being derived chiefiy from the writings of Bede and St. Au-
gustine of Canterbury, while Wace's work is itself little
more than a translation of (reofTrey of Monmouth's Latin
Ilistoria Brillonum. The value of Layamon's chronicle is
mainly phiKdogical. It contains 3'2,25f) lines, some allitera-
tive, but more imitating the imperfect rhyme of its Anglo-
Norman orii,'inal. The best edition is that of .Sir Frederic
Madden, with a literal translatiim, nofe.s, and a grammat-
ical glossary, published by the English Society of Anti-
quaries (3 vols., 1847). Revised by II. A. Beers.
Lay'ard, Sir Atsten Hknry, D. C. L. : traveler, exjilorer,
and diplomatist; b. of English parents in Paris. 1' ranee.
Mar. 5, 1817; spent several years of his youth in Flor-
ence, Italy, and began the study of law in England. In
LAYCOCK
LAZZAROXI
145
1839 he undertook a course of Kastern travel extending over
several years, chiefly within the Turkish empire; learned
Persian and Arabic; spent many months in 1843 in explor-
ing the antiquities of Susa and Southwestern Persia: and
passing through Mosul, became interested in the excava-
tions then being made by the French consul, M. Botta. at
Khorsabad, tlie su])])osed site of Nineveh. Kcturning to
Mosul in 1845, Layard, aided financially by Sir Stratford
Canning and others, began that series of wonderfully suc-
cessful researches which has made the British Museum the
richest Oriental museum in tlie world, and laid the founda-
tion for the reconstruction of ancient Oriental history by
means of the copious cuneiform inscriptions. Accounts of
these discoveries were given by Layard in ^'inereh and its
liemains (1840). The British Government in 1849 appoint-
ed him attaclte to its legation in Constantinople, and lie un-
dertook for the British Museum a second series of excava-
tions in Assyria and Chaldea, which resulted in another
work. Discoveries among the JRui/is of yineveh and Babylon
(18i)3). He also published two volumes of engravings of the
Monumenls of Nineveh (\SiS-5'i), ami a volume of inscrip-
tions (1851). In 1887 he published his Early Adventures in
Persia, Babylonia, and Susiana. In 1853 Layard was elected
to Parliament for Aylesbury, and for a few weeks was Under
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in Lord John Russell's
administration. He was again on duty in the legation at
Constantinople for a short time in 1853, and took an active
part in the House of Commons in the debates on Eastern
<piestions, advocating a vigorous policy against Russian ag-
gression. He visited the Crimea in 1854, witnessed the battle
of the Alma, and examined the condition of the army, con-
cerning which he soon afterward gave testimony before a
parliamentary committee, the appointment of which he was
instrumental in procuring. In 1855 he became one of the
leaders of the Administrative Reform Association; was
chosen lord rector of Aberdeen University in 1855 and
1856; was defeated at the election of Mar., 1857; spent
some months in India during the great rebelUon of 1857-
58; was elected to Parliament for Southwark in 1860, and
appointed by Lord Palmerston in July, 1861, Under Secre-
tary of State for Foreign Affairs, holding that post until the
fall of the Russell ministry in July, 1866. In that year he
became a trustee of the British Museum ; was chief commis-
sioner of works and privv councilor in Gladstone's adminis-
tration (Dec, 1868) until" in Xov., 1869, he accepted the post
of ambassador at Madrid, wliere he long remained, having
rendered important services, both to Gi-eat Britain and inci-
dentally to the U. S., during the troubled period of his diplo-
matic life in Spain. In 1877 he was sent as ambassador to
Constantinople, in 1878 received the order of the Bath, and in
1890 wiis elected a foreign member of the Institute of France.
J), in London, July 5, 1894. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Lay'coek. Thomas, M. D. : physiologist ; b. at Wetherby,
Yorkshire, England, Aug. 10. 1813; was educated at Lon-
don, Paris, and Gottingen. where he received degrees; was
the first to formulate, in 1844, the theory of the reflex action
of the brain; liccame Professor of the Practice of Physic
and of Clinical Medicine at Edinburgh 1855 ; was physician
to the Queen in Scotland 1869; wrote much upon sanitary
science, physiology, mesmerism, insanity, etc. Author of
Mind and Brain, or the Correlations of Conseionsness and
Organization (1860; 3d ed. 1869); Methods of Medical Ob-
servation, etc. D. Sept. 31, 1876.
Lay Days: See Demurrage and Shipping.
Layering, or Laylngr : the propagation of plants by bend-
ing down branches and covering the portion to be rooted
with earth. The covered part takes root, and as soon as the
^l^nts are well developed tlie layer may be cut off and plant-
ed as a new tree. A notch cut in the branch where it is
■covered with earth favors the early development of the new
roots. Layering may be done either in fall or spring in
outdoor plants. Revised by L. H. Bailey.
Layiiez', Diego: ecclesiastic; b. in Castile, Spain, in
1513; studied at Alcala and Paris; became the second of
the early adherents of Ignatius Loyola (1533), and general
of the .Jesuits on the death of Loyola in 1556, and died at
Rome, Jan. 19, 1565. He was a man of great natural gifts,
and still greater attainments; played a conspicuous part in
the debates of the Council of Trent and at the assemlily of
Poissy. His labor for tlie order was very successful, and
his influence on the members was decisive. It is generally
acknowledged that the peculiar spirit which characterized
the Jesuits issued from Laynez. He published little, and
236
his manuscripts .are well-nigh illegible. Hartm.ann Grisar
published selections from them (3 vols., Innsbruck, 1886).
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Lnz'arists: a body of Roman Catholic missionary priests,
founded by St. Vincent de Paul in 1634. The name is de-
rived from the College of St. Lazare at Paris, their oi-iginal
house given them in 1633, but their proper title is Priests of
the Mission. They are engaged in foreign and especially
in domest ic missions, and in the teaching of theology. They
are found in most civilized and in several barbarous coun-
tries, and have fourteen establishments in the U. S., includ-
ing three colleges. Revised by J. J. Keaxe.
Lazarns, Emma: poet; b. in Xew York, July 33,1849;
published her first volume {Poems and Translations) in 1867.
A second volume, entitled Admetus, and other Poems, was
issued in 1871 ; this had warm praise, especially from Eng-
lish critics. In 1874 was published a prose-w-ork entitled
Alide : an Episode of Goethe's Life ; in 1881 a volume of
translations, Poems and Ballads of Heine; in 1883, .Songs
of a Semite. Besides these volumes. Miss Lazarus contrib-
uted papers of importance to The Centnry and to Tlie
Attierican Hebrew. D. in New York, Nov. 19, 1887.
Lazarus, MoRiTZ : philosopher; b. in Filehne.Posen, Ger-
many, Sept. 15, 1834; educated at Brunswick and at Berlin
University ; was Professor of Psychology in Berne 1860-66,
and became teacher in the Military College in Berlin in 1868.
His principal works are Das Leben der Seele in, Mono-
graphien (1856-58); Ueber den Urspning der Sitten (1860);
Ueber die Ideen in der (feschichte {ISGo}; /Cur Lehre von der
Sinnestiiuscliungen (1867). J. Mark Baldwin.
Lazhecli'iiikov. Ivan Ivanotich: Russian writer of nov-
els in the style of Walter Scott, once very popular ;> b. Sept.
14, 1794 ; d. May 4, 1869. He served in the campaign of
1813 against Napoleon, but otherwise led an uneventful life,
part of the time in the service of the Government. Three
of his books were widely read — Posledni'i JS'ovi/c (The Last
Novice, 1833) : Ledianyl Dom (Tlic House of Ice. 1835) ; and
Basurman (The Mussulman, 1838). None of his later lit-
erary efforts attracted or deserved much attention. Com-
plete works, St. Petersburg, 1858 (8 vols.) A. C. C.
LaznUte, or Azurlte [lazulite is deriv. of lazuli, short for
Lapis Lazuli (q. v.)\ : a mineral composed of phospliate of alu-
mina, magnesia, and iron, and bearing some resemblance in
color to lapis lazuli.
Lazzari, la'ad-zaa're'e, Donato Bramante (generally called
Lazzari, thougli the correctness of this is disputed) : archi-
tect; b. in the duchy of Urbiuo in 1444. He is thought
to have designed tlie beautiful east end and dome of S.
Maria delle Grazie at Milan, and in the same city the resi-
dence of the canons adjoining the Church of S. Ambrogio,
of which only a part was finished, and the Church of Abbiate
Grasso, near Pavia. lu 1499 he settled in Rome, where he
built the beautiful palace of the Cancellaria and the Tem-
pietto on the hill, near S. Pietro in Montorio. Then era-
ployed by Pope Alexander VI.. he worked on the new build-
ings of the Vatican palace, such as the Belvedere court, and
then undertook the great task of St. Peter's church, already
begun by Alberti and Rossellino, but now undertaken on a
larger and more jierfect plan. He was in charge of this
work from 1506 until his death. The church, as he designed
it, was a Greek cross in plan, without the long nave added
at a later time, and he had designed a dome like that after-
ward added by Michelangelo. A few wall-paintings of his
still exist, and he is thought to have been the author of sev-
eral engravings of architectural subjects. I), at Rome in
1514. Russell Sturgis.
Lazzaro'iii [Ital. lazzaro. a leper] : formerly the popular
name for the lower classes of Naples; so called from the
Hos))ital of St. Lazarus, their customary place of refuge.
The lazzaroni of Najdes numbered at the close of the
eighteenth century nearly 40,000 persons, who had no fixed
employment or liome, but were by turns porters, boatmen,
or peddlers, besides their constant recourse to begging.
From the Jliddle Ages they derived tlie obligation to wear
a peculiar dress of the simplest description, were treated by
the government as a separate class, electing annually a chief
called capo lazzaro, anil often took part in political revolu-
tions. They uplield Masaniello in 1647. and fought bravely
during the siege of Naples by the French in 1799. During
the rei>ublican agitations of the ninetcentli century they
generally sided with the Bourbon monarchy. They have
lost their former character as a distinct class, and tlie term
14G
LEA
LEAD
as now used applies to tlio proletarian element in the j>opu-
lulioii, iiK'Uuliiifr iimny law-iibiilln^' umi industrious cituons.
Lea. Hknkv rii.\Kt.Ks, LL. 1).: Iiistoriciil writer; son of
l!«ac Lea, niitunilist ; l>. in I'hiladilpliia. I'a., S'pt. li). 1^25 ;
was edui-ated at home; entered the piil>lisliin;,'-house founded
liv his ;;randfather, Malliew I'arey. whiili still exists as Lea
Brothers & Co.. in lS4:t. and retired from business in 181S0.
lie wrote between l^'4lM50 many papers on chemistry and
eoneholoj^-. lie has Ixvome distinguished by his historieal
writiup*. the nK>st imp<irtant of whieli arc Superstition and
Force (Philadelphia. 18«« : 4lh etl. !«•:!) ; Jlislorieal Sketch
of Siicenlolal Celilmcij (IfOT: M ed. 18S6); Stnilirs in
Ctiiirrh lli.story (1S«7 ; 2d e<l. IHJvl) : History of the In-
quisition of the Middle Atjes (3 vols.. 18»tl) ; Cluipters from
the Jieliyivus History of Spain — Censorship of the J'resx,
Jli/sticti and llluminati. The Kndeinuniadas of (Jueretaro,
Kl Santo yino de la (ritardia, Brianda de Bardaxi (18it0);
Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the Thirteenth
Century (ifJKJ). He has published also numerous punii>ldets
on polilieal and social ipiestions. and has in preparation
(1>*<!)4) A History of Sacramental Confession and Indul-
gences in the Latin ( 'hurch. Revised by C 11. Tulrukk.
Lea, Is.\AC. LL. D. : naturalist; b. of l^uaker stock at
Wilinintrton, Del., Mar. 4, 1TI>2; was engaged in business in
his early youth, and devotcil his spare lime to the study of
natural historv, esiwciallv geology, making collections of
fossils, minerals, and shells in the vicinity of Philadelphia.
In 1815 he was elected a member of the Philadelphia Acad-
emy of Xatural Sciences, and began to contribute papers to
\l» Journal. From 1821 to 1851 he was a partner with his
father-in-law. Mathew (.'arey, in what was then the prin-
cipal piJ)lishing-house in the V. S., and in 1827 began a
series of memoirs upon frush-water and land moUusks,
which were continued for nearly fifty years, and form the
materials for a great work ui)on American I'nionida; on
which he was for a long time engaged. In 1828 ho was
elected a member of the American Philosophical Society,
was ch<isen president of the Academy in 1858. and was ct>n-
necti'il with the chief societies of natural history throughout
the world. His collection of Cnionidip, the richest in ex-
istence, and his collection of gems are deposited in the Na-
tiomtl Museum at Washington. His memoirs, read chiefly
before the Philadelphia societies, number more than 1.50.
Among the more important are Synopsis of the Family of
yaiails (18.52 : 4th ed., eidarged, 1870) and Observations on
the Genus L'nio (13 vols., 1827-73). I), in Pliiladelphia, Pa.,
Dec. 7, 1886. Revised by G. K. Gilbert.
Lead, led [M. Eng. hed < O. Eng. lead, lead : M. H.
Germ, lot > Jlod. Germ. loth, a plummet, a lead. Germ, blei ;
Vr.plomb; Lat. plum bum]: after iron, the most abundant
and widely distributed of the metals. It is bluish gray in
color, soft and ductile, but without elasticity. Its specific
gnivitv is 11-3.5. It fuses at 612' K., and when raised to a
white lieat in the open air it volatilizes, burning with a blue
flame and leaving an oxide known as litharge. Its uses in
the arts arc varied, such lu; for roofing, for lifting sinks, cis-
terns, etc., for shot and balls for firearms, and for the manu-
facture of pipe. This latter is formed by mechanical [ircs-
sure, the softness of the lead permitting of its being forced
out in tubes of indefinite length without welding. Prom
the facility with which leail pipes are marnifacturcd and
afterward l>ent, cut, anil united, they are almost universally
employed as conduits for the distriliution of water thriiugli
buililings in cities; and this employment of lead pijics lias
createil the plumlicr's trade, which takes its name from
plumbum, lead. Tyne-metal is formed of an allov of lead
and antimnny, and tllu alloys which go by the name of pew-
ter or solder are composed of lead and tin.
Lead has apparently been in use among civilized nations
from the dawn of the historic period. Among barbaric
races it seems to have been but little used, its softness mak-
ing it of little value to the savage man, whose onlv use for
metals was for the manufacture of offensive and defensive
wca|Hms, and for tools, purposes served much better by
bronze and inm. LcnuI is found in all the geological forma-
tions except the igneous nx'ks. and deposits of it arc known
to occur on every consideralile portion of the earth's sur-
faie. Ill (liina lead minis have been worked from remote
ages, the metal being llierechielly employcil for the piddiic-
lion of sheet Icail used to lini^ the chests in which tea
is stored and transported. Among the natiiuis of West-
ern Europe leml was apparenllv first brought into general
use by the lioman.s, who derived u large part of their sup-
ply from Spain, where the remains of their sraelting-works
are still to be seen. Lead occurs ns a component element in
many minerals, but the lead of commerce is almost exclu-
sively obtained from the sulphide or galena. This consists
of lead 86-55, and sulphur 13-45. Xearthe outcrops of lea<l-
deposits this ore is sometimes extensively decomposed by
oxidation, and the carbonate (ceriisite), the phosphate (pyro-
morphite), and the sulphate (anglesite) are formed in such
ipiantitics as to have an economic value. The other ores of
lead which deserve to be mentioned are bournonite, anti-
moninl lead ore ; mimetite. the arsenate; rrocoite, the chro-
mate; wnlfenite, the molybdale ; minium, the oxide, etc.,
vanadates, I ungstates, etc., which have interest only to the
mineralogist. Nearly or cpiite all galena contains .some sil-
ver, and often so much that it is called argentirerous galena,
and is one of the most im|ioitant ores of Silvkr {q. v.).
Lead occurs in three distinct classes of deposit.s, viz., what
are known as gash veins, chambers, and fissure veins. Of
these the first chi.ss is confined to the sediinenlary riK-ks, and
consists of fissures or crevices filled or lined with galena.
These are generally vertical, though sometimes horizimtal,
when the ore which they contain is said to form floors.
Gash veins are restricted to a single stratum of limestone,
and apparently have been produced from cracks and joints
enlarged by the .solvent power of atmospheric water, which
has flowed through them and filled or lined them with ga-
lena deposited from a solution issuing from the adjacent
rock. C'hambci-s are caves and galleries formed by solution
in limestone and filled, partially or completely, with ore de-
posited from a mineral solution flowing from a remote and
dee[)-seated source. In fissure veins lead occurs, associated
with copper, silver, zinc, antimony, and other minerals.
Thi-oui;hout the Allegheny belt and the metamorjiliic re-
gion of Xew England galena occurs in numerous loi-alities,
but all the workings have long since been abandoned. For
many years the most noted lead-producing districts of the
U. S. were those of the upper Mississi]ipi and the Slates of
Jlissouri and Kansa.s. Of these, the first covei-s the con-
tiguous angles of Wisconsin. Iowa, and Illinois, the larger
part of the district lying within the first-mentioned State.
liCad is here found in gash veins, contained in the Galena
limestone, a jiortion of the Lower .Silurian system, and the
eciuivalont in ]iart of the Trenton group of New York.
The production of lead in the (ialeiia. Mo., district was in
1825 604.530 lb. From this date it rapidly iiicrea-scd, and
in 1845 it was 54,494,850 lb. Since then it has gradually,
though somewhat irregularlv, dec-lined, until in the census
yearl890 it had fallen to only 2,000.000 lb. The lead mines
of Eastern Missouri are like in all essential ])arliculai-s to
those of Wisconsin, except that the formation which contains
them is older — the eipiivalent of the Calcifcrous sand-rock
of New York — and the fi.ssurcs which cimtain the lead are
somewhat more continuous, giving more system and cer-
tainty to mining oiierations. Among the Missouri lead
mines the Mine La Jlotte was first worked, 150 years ago,
and is still producing regular!) a moderate (iiuintity every
year. The St. ,Ioc. Doe Run, and Deslogc mines in St. Fran-
(,-ois t'ounty are large prodiu-ei-s, liaviiig made in 18!)0, with
the Mine La Jlotte, 21,456 tons of lead. In these mines the
ore is found in a system of inosculating veins, forming a
network of which the limits have not vet been reached. The
mines of Soulhwestern Jlissouri and Kansas, about Granby,
,lo])liii. etc., are worked in the Carboniferous limestone. The
lead ore is won as an incidental product of zinc-ore mining,
a part of it being converted into sublimed lend, a white
color, by the Lew-is and Bartlett process. All of the lead
ore mined in Wisconsin, Missouri, and Kansas is non-argen-
tiferous or soft lead.
Lead is abundant in the silver districts of Colorado,
Idaho. Montana, and Utah, many of the silver ores there
having the character of argent iferous galena, and their
mode of treatment being determined by the lead they con-
tain. The Working of such ores lias completely changed
the conditions and lu-ospects of the lead industry of the
L'. S., and has made this the greatest lead-producing coun-
try of the World. Denver, Pueblo, and Leadvillc, Col.,
Helena and Great Falls. Mont., and Salt Lake City, I'tah,
are important centers of lead-smelling. The once-impor-
tant ores of Eureka chiefly occur in chambers in lime-
stone of Cambrian age. and were originally dc|iosited as sul-
phides of lead and iron, now changed to carlionates and
oxides. At Leadville the ores are in irregular sheets, mainly
along the plane of contact between Carlionilerous limestone
and an overlying porphyry ; they are ferruginous soft and
LEAD
147
hard carbonates derived from sulphides and bodies of tlie
latter ore, undecomposed. In Utah tlie lead ores smelted at
Salt Lake are brought from many mines— viz., the great
lead and iron veins of Hingham, the chamber mines of
Alta. In Idaho the principal district is the Ca?ur d'Alene
producing large bodies of concentrating ores, while in Mon-
tana the Neihart and the Barker are the latest jiroducing
camps. On the Pacilie coast the Monte Cristo, Wash., dis-
trict is coming into prominence, and large bodies of argen-
tiferous galena have been developed in the past tew years
in the Kootenai region on the Canadian side of the bo'rder.
A good deal of Mexican ore is smelted in the U. S.,the prin-
cipal source lieing the Sierra Mojada.
The production of lead rose to some importance early in
the in.lustrial history of the U. S. It reached 10,000 tons
in 1832, rose to 30,500 short tons in la-il, and reached a
maximum of 30,000 tons in 1845. It declined again verv
rapidly, tluctuating between 14,000 and 18,000 tons unti'l
1871. Then the opening of the Rocky Mountain districts,
Nevada, Utah, and Colorado, in rapid succession carried the
product to 53,080 tons in 1874, to 117,085 tons in 1881, and
to 143,9.j7 tons m 1883. Since 1888 the production has been
as follows, in short tons :
YEAR.
1889...
1890. . .
1891 . . .
1892. . .
1893...
Non-
argentiferous.
89,090
89,2,58
31,3.51
31,397
31,678
31,4;«
Deailverlzed
lead (U. S.).
122,889
127,139
112,779
147,1.57
141.976
135,550
Lead co&tente,
Mexican ores.
28.636
26,570
18,134
21.1.52
26,7M
29,870
Total product.
180.555
182,967
161,754
199,706
200,388
193,852
Net tons.
New Mexico 4,704
.South Dakota '116
Utah 16,675
Total 130,903
The census report for the calendar vear 1889 shows the
lead contents of the ores mined in the Rocky Mountains to
have been as follows :
Net tons
Arizona 3,].'iH
California .53
Colorado 70 788
Idaho 23;i72
Montana 10.183
Nevada 1^994
The production of lead ore in Wisconsin was 1,678 net
tons, in Missouri 44,4)'!3 tons, and in Kansas 3,617 tons, from
which was obtained )!9,358 net tons of pig lead and 1 350
tons of sublimed lead. '
In the Rocky Mountain region, and at points on the Pa-
cihc coast, the Missouri river, Chicago, Pittsburg, St. Louis,
and tlie Atlantic coast, the argentiferous ores are smelted
and the base bullion produced is desilverized and refined'
Considerable quantities of Mexican base bullion are also re-
fined in bond at Newark, N. J. The following figures from
the census report refer to certain groups of works exclusively
employed in smelting :
GROUP.
Colorado
Montana
Utah
Mexican border.
Ore treated,
aet tons.
Base bullio]
produced,
net tons.
602,014
71,403
66,797
79,168
67,867
16,.335
12.908
13,733
Number of
employees.
1,9^
457
a54
565
Total disburse.
meQts, exclusive
of cost of ore.
$4,196,405 10
860,014 90
690,813 79
843.2.39 79
Besides these quantities, large amounts of ore are smelted by
I .Inc, •^'"' V^oluexum of Europe is estimated as follows
(m n^7 '^" ""^^"°^T%9'^''^ ^■•"^'"- •1^''''^5: Germany,
101,0.57; Prance, 6,700: Belgium, 9,000 ; Italy, 18,000 ; Aus-
i^'otJ-'"^'^'T' ^^'^°^' ^"^^'''' I'OOO; Greece, 11,490; Spain
l^'X'lai- *""! ""''^'' European countries. 1,000: a total of
d5t),Jb, metric tons. Australia produced about 54.000 tons
theV h" ^"'^^^ '''"^' ""-■'•^'^'"S? ^^^^ •««"i i» "res sent to
For information on lead-smelting proper, the reader is re-
ferred to Mktalluegv.
The salts and oxides; of lead arc quite numerous, and are
somewhat extensively emidoycd in manufactures and medi-
'"?i''",,- , ''''"^- ""'^ '^^ ^'"' '^'■*' '^"ow" 's the protoxide
called htliarge. used as a drier with oils and varnishes and
in the m.anufacture of glas.s. Red lead, or minium, is a
compound of the protoxide with the peroxide. It is verv
generally employed as a pigment, either in oil-paints or in
the ooloriiig of wall-papers, sealing-wax, etc. It is also em-
ployetl, like litharge, in the manufacture of glass. Perhaps
the most imiiortant preparation of lead is that of the car-
bonate of the protoxide. This is commonly known as
White Lead (5. v.). Some of the salts of lead are highly
poisonous, and, since the quantity of lead useil by every
civilized community is great, grave accidents are not un-
common from this cause. The carbonate, the oxide, and
the acetate of lead are the most active poisons. They are
introduced into the system both by the lungs and the
digestive organs. With those who work much in the prepa-
rations of lead, as painters, plumbers, and those employed in
glazing cards, earthenware, etc.. cases of lead-poisoning are
constantly met with. One of the mo.st striking symptoms
of the disease is what is called lead-colic, or co/ica picfonnm
It also produces local or general paraly.sis or other symptoms
which are always grave and dilliciilt of cure. Tiie use of
lead pipe must be regariled as the source of many cases of
Icad-poisoning. The danger may be avoided by lining lead
pipe with tin. It IS but little more expensive, and is certainly
tar safer, than that made from pure lead. See Lead-poison-
'•^"°; Revised by Charles Kirciihoff.
(OMPOUNDSOF Lead.— The most important of these are
white kail, litharge, minium, or red lead, the 7iitrafe chro-
male, and acetate. Litharge is the oxide of the formula
IbO. Another commercial variety of this oxide is called
massicot. The latter is obtained by heating molten lead at
a moderate temperature in the air. The product of this
action IS then ground and levigated. Litharge is formed
when the oxidation of the lead takes place at a temperature
high enough to melt the oxide, as in the process of cupel-
lation. Some of the litharge, that which cools quickly from
fusion, IS sent to market in scaly or flaky form ; but the more
compact, lumpy portionsareground between horizontal stones
in a stream of water. After separating from the water it is
dried at a low heat in a reverberatory furnace, packed and
sold as levigated litharge. Litharge is used in the m'anu-
tacture ot flint glass (see Glass), as a glaze for earthenware
tor the preparation of lead acetate, lead nitrate, lead plas-
ter, and for drying oils. Bed lead, minium, is an oxide of
the formula PbjO,. It is formed by continued heating of
molten lead in contact with the air, the action of the oxy-
gen being carried beyond the stage of the formation of
litharge. It is a red poNvdcr, the shade of which varies
somewhat, owing probably to the greater or less purity of
the lead used in its manufacture. It is used as a pigment
in the manufacture of flint glass (see Glass), as a cement
in making steam-joints, and in the manufacture of second-
ary batteries. White lead, cervse, is a basic carbon.ate of
lead of varying composition, according to the method of
preparation. The JDutch method of manufacture consists in
exposing sheets of lead wound in spirals to the action of
acetic acid, air, and carbon dioxide, from decaying organic
matter. The spirals of sheet lead are placed in earthen-
ware vessels, on the bottom of which, but not in contact with
the lead, is the dilute acetic acid. The vessels thus ar-
ranged are placed in beds of horse manure. In consequence
of the natural decomposition of the manure, carbon dioxide
IS slowly given off, and enough heat is generated to start
the action of the acetic acid upon the lead. The chemical
changes involved are mainly the formation of a basic ace-
tate of lead, and the subsequent decomposition of this by
carbon dioxide, a basic carbonate being found. The French
method of manufacturing white lead consists first in digest-
ing litharge with pyroligneous acid, which results in the for-
mation of a solution of basic lead acetate. Through this car-
bon dioxide is passed and the white lead precipitated. The
English method is like the Dutch method, except that, in-
stead of hor.se manure, spent tan in a state of fermentation
is used for the generation of the carbon dioxide, and pyro-
ligneous acid is used instead of vinegar. White lead is a
heav-y white powder, which ajipears to be a mixture in
varying proportions of the basic carbonate of the formula
Pb(OH)a.3PbC03 and the normal carbonate PbCOs. It is
extensively used as a pigment. An objection to white-lead
paint is that it turns dark under the influence of hydrogen
sulphide and other sulphur compounds. Further, the man-
ufacture of white lead necessitates special jirecautions to
prevent the poLsoning of the workmen. X Urate of Lead.—
This is used as a material for the preparation of the car-
bonate and chromates, and is therefore, in crystallized
form, a regular article of commerce. Acetate 'of Lead,
Sugar of Lead.— This familiar article has well-known uses
in medicine. It is manufactured by dissolving litharge in
wood-vinegar or other cheap fcjrm of acetic acid. It crys-
tallizes very beautifully ; but on exposure to the air acetic
acid is lost, with formation of a basic acetate. Hence sugar
of lead has an odor of acetic acid, and the transparent
14S
LEAD
LEAD-POISONING
crystals prailually fall down to a white powder, to dissolve
whifh in wrtter retjuircs an addition of acetic acid to rt'iilm'C
that which has Ix'en lost. It is from this circumstance that
the nilrtite. which undergoes no siicli spontaneous clianfje.
but remains clean and uniform, is lari;ely supplanlinjr the
acetate in commerce. Chromalen of Lend : C'/irume-i/elloH'
and Chruiiif-red. — These arc two brilliimt an<l valuul)le
pifTinents. clirome-yellow bein-; c.^^pceially so. The latter
occurs naturally as an elegant crystallized mineral called
crocoite, of which one locality is at t'ongonhns-ilo-Campo in
lira7.il. It was in crocoite that Vauquelin first discovered
the metal chromium in 1T94. Chrome-yellow is, however,
prepared artificiallv by precipilating a solution of the ni-
trate of lead with cliromate of potash. The brilliant yellow
precipitate that falls, after thorough washing and drying at
a low heat, is ready for griniling with oil for nigmcntary
purfxises. If the heat in drying much exceeds that of boil-
ing water, the color is liable to injury from reducing action
of traces of organic matter always present. In calico-print-
ing chrome-yellow is formed on the tissue itself by successive
application of the above specified compounds of lead and
chrome in appropriate wavs. This color, however, does not
attach itself so well to silken and woolen fabrics. Chrome-
yellow as a pigment is liable to be much adultei-ated with
cheaper substances. As most of these are insoluble in nitric
acid, they may generally be detected by heating a little of
the color with diluted nitric acid, which should dissolve it
wholly to a clear yellow liquid. Chrome-red is a chromate
containing twice as much lead as the yellow chromate :
Chrorae-vellow is PbO.CrOj.
Chrome-red " 2(PbO),CrO,.
The red pigment is produced from the yellow by several
diflcrent methods — either by boiling with lime or an alka-
line solution, which takes out half the acid ; or by digesting
with levigated litharge; or bv boiling it with neutral yel-
low chromate of potash, which forms bichronLitc of potash
with half its acid ; or by fusing it with saltpeter. Its color
is very fine, considered equal in tint to vermilion, but, like
all lead colors, it becomes dingy in the air in time, through
the action of sulphur, forming black lead-sulphide. Chrome-
green should strictly be the green oxide of chromium, but
most of what passes under that name commerfially is a
rai.\turc of chromate of lead with .some blue pigment — Prus-
sian blue or ultramarine. A dilute acid will quickly dis-
tinguish such mixtures from true chrome-green, which is
not affected bv acids.
Alloys OF Lead. — With Arsenic. — This is white, brittle,
crystalline, and very fusible. It is of practical importance
in connection with the manufacture of lead shot, which are
formed of a true alloy of lead with arsenic, containing about
2 per cent, of the latter, which is held by the manufacturers
to t)c absolutely essential to success in the manufacture.
With Antimony. — Type-metal is the chief of these. The
alloys of these two metals are harder and more fusible than
either metal, while endowed with peculiar qualities adaiiting
them for making fine and sharp castings. Common type-
metal contains 17 per cent, of antimony, the remainder be-
ing lead, sometimes with a little zinc. Common stereotype
metal varies from these proportions within small limits,
sometimes a little tin being luJdcd. (For other alloys con-
taining antimony and lead see Anti.mo.nv ; for alloys -con-
taining tin and lead see Fusible Metals.) With' Silver,
Gold, Platinum, etc. — Lead has a great alTinity for the noble
metals. In the process of assaying, when litharge is reiluced
to metallic lead in ailmixture with an ore of gold or silver
for subse(iuent ciipelhition, the lead takes up every trace of
the precious metals, the sucee-ss of assaying as an art being
dependent on the completeness of this combination.
Kevised bv Ika Remsen".
Medicixal Uses of Lead.— In this relation the local and
constitutional effects of lead compounds have to be con-
sidered. Loral ty, soluble frills of lend are astringent. Weak
solutions of leail-salls are positively .soothing. Taken in-
ternally in large dose, however, these salts are powerful irri-
tant poisons. Solutions of lead-salts are useil in meilicine
as liK'al applications in catarrhs of mucous membranes ami
in many inflammations of the skin, especially where attend-
ed' by much heat and pain. They shouUI not, however, tie
used in in (lam mat ions of the eye. except by phvsicians' pre-
scription. iLs if there be any ulceration of the cornea an in-
delible white opacity will be iiroiluced at the spot by chem-
ical decomposition of the lead-salt. The preparations useil
as lotions are solutions of lead acetate, nitrate, and subace-
latc. Two official solutions of the latter are directed by the
U. .S. Pharmacopceia, the stronger being commonly called
tioulanrs extract, and the latter lead-water. From the
former are also prepared a cerate (tioulard's cerate) and a
liniment. Internally, lead acetate is alone useil, its employ-
ment being as an astringent in diarrhu-as and in bleeding
from the stomach. Jnsolulile lead compounds, like the car-
bonate, are simjily soothing to moist surfaces, but as, if ap-
plied in quantity, they may be rendered soluble, and thus
irritant, or become absorbed, and thus induce lead-poison-
ing, other insoluble powders, like zinc-oxide or salts of bis-
muth, are safer. '1 he cotistitutional cfTects of lead are
wholly poisonous, and are brought on by a slow and steady
impregnation of the system with the metal. See the article
Leau-I'oisoxi.nu. Kevised by H. A. Hake.
Lead City: city: Lawrence co., S. I), (for location of
county, see map of South Dakota, ref. 6-A); on the Black
Hills and Ft. Pierre and Dead wood Cent, railways; adjoin-
ing Deadwood, the countv-seat. It has a daily newspaper
and is engaged in mining. Pop. (I«a0) 1,4^7; \WM) 2,581 ;
(l»yo) 4,124.
Leading Note: See Note.
Leading Question: in the law of evidence, a question
put to a witness which is so framed as to suggest or indicate
the answer desired. It is a general rule in regard to the
taking of testimony that leading (piestions are not allowable
in the direct examination of a witness — that is, in the ex-
amination by the party producing him ; but the whole sub-
ject is peculiarly wilhin the discretion of the judge, and his
decision is siil)ject to appeal only in a plain case of abuse.
The reason for the rule is that a witness is considered as
probably biased in favor of the party for whom he appears,
and is likely to be influenced by his bias to shape his an-
swers according to the testimony which he sees is desired,
either by varying from the truth or by giving only those
matters which arc favorable.
Leading (picstioiis are permitted, liowever, in the direct
examination: (a) When the witness appears to be ho.stile to
the party producing him or unwilling to give evidence; (ft)
where an omission in testimony is evidently caused by a
want of recollection, which a suggestion may assist ; as when
a particular specification of a matter of inquiry is necessary
in order that a witne.ss's attention may be directed to it ; (c)
when the subjects of iniiuiry are not material, but are merely
introductory to the principal jniinls in controversy.
fpon cross-examination, or examination by the opposing
party, leading questions may be used without restriction in
order to expose the inaccuracies in the witness's direct tes-
timony, as he appears in opjiosition to the counsel then ex-
amining him. See the article Evidence ; also Greenleal On
Evidence, vol. i., and Best On Evidence.
Revised by F. Sturges Allen.
Lead Plaster: Sec Fats.
Lead-poisoning: a diseased condition resulting from
the presence of a considerable amount of lead in the system.
This condition is imluccd in various ways: (1) By the use
of lead pipe for the conduc'tion of drinking-water. Hap-
pily, a large proportion of the waters useil for drinking and
cooking cause an insoluble dcpcusit upon the lead jiipes, and
hence have not the power to take up lead in this manner;
but a great number of cases of lead-|)oisoniiig are induced
in this way. (2) By the use of lead pipes in racking off
wines, cider, and beer; by the use of lead-lined chambers
in soda-water apparatus and the like. The use of leaden
siphons for drawing cider and vinegar from the cask is a
common practice among fanners and dealers in the U.S.,
and a senseless, even criminal, practice it undoubleilly is. (3)
By the use of lead-paints ; hence the name painter's colic ap-
plied to one symptom of lead-j)oisoning. (4) Viirious unusual
ways of introduction arc recorded. Thus cosmetics, hair-dyes,
and similar materials have sometimes caused lead-poisoning.
The symptoms of lead-iioisoning arc varied. The most
common form is lead or painter's colic, in which the pain,
constipation, and blue line on the gums arc charnci eristic.
In anuther and well-known class paralysis occurs, and is
most apt to affect the extensor muscles of the wrist, causing
wrist-drop. Various forms of rheumatoid or gouty svnio-
toms occasionally occur and may be very deceptive. In iiil
cases of chronic lead-poisoning there is progressive ana'inia
and loss of color. As rare manifestations various menial
disturbances, such as convulsion, di'liriuiii. coma, and the
like, or tremors and similar nervous troubles, may occur.
LEADVILLE
LEAP-ROLLERS
14»
Treatment. — Opium is the chief remedy in onlinarv lead-
poisoiiing. It relieves the pain, and at times tlic obstinate
constipation, of this disease. Cathartics are very useful, ex-
cept when there is much tenderness of the bowels. Then
their use should be deferred fora time. Iodide of potassium
is prescribed in chronic cases, and is believed to assist in the
elimination of the metal. Sulphuric aciil and the sulphates
arc K'^'cn with a view to precipitating lead in the intestines
and rendering it insoluble. Revised by William 1'kpper.
Leadvillo: city (settled 1839); capital of Lake co., Col.
(for location of county, see map of Colorado, ref. I^-C) ; on
the Col., Miilland, the Denver and Rio Gr., and the Union
Pacific railways: 114 miles S. W. of Denver. It is on the
north side of California Gulch, which was one of the first
containing free gold discovered in the State, and on the
JIos(iuito range of the Elk Mountains, 10.200 feet above sea-
level. From $I'2.ni)0,000 to §15,000,000 in placer gold was
taken from California Gulch in 1860-64, when the claims
became unprofitable to work ami the site was almost de-
serted till 1877, when the presence of carbonate silver ore
was accidentally discovered on Iron Hill. The news spread
rapidly and soon mining operations were in progress on
Carbonate, Fryer, Evans, Long, and Derry Hills. From
1879 till 1892 the various mines yielded precious metals to
the value of .f 1 70,000.000, principally silver, and one-third
of the lead consumeil in the U. S. The Government's seign-
iorage on the coinage of Leadville's silver in this period was
$14,000,000: its postal revenue over i!.500,000 ; laml-oflice
receipts §750.000 ; and internal revenue taxes over .$700,000.
More than $50,000,000 were paid for labor in mines and
smelters, and .f 7,500,000 for timber used in the mines. The
city has 9 churches, 11 public-school buildings, 3 hospitals,
2 national hanks with combined capital of $800,000, a U. .S.
fish-hatchery with capacity of 1.5,000,000 trout annually, 4
large smelters, 15 mills, and 3 daily and 2 weekly news-
papers. C. C. Davis, " Herald-Democrat."
Leaf [0. Eng. leaf: O. H. Germ, louh (> Mod. Germ.
laiib) : Goth, laufs. leaf] : one of the parts of the plant body,
especially in the higher plants. The leaf always stands in a
definite relation to the stem, the former being supported
by the latter. The stem and its leaves constitute the shoot,
which is morphologically equivalent to the thallome (thallus)
of lower plants. The leaf is essentially an expansion of chlo-
rophyll-bearing tissue, its framework, epidermis, stomates,
etc., being accessory structures. In the simpler cases there
is but one layer of cells, as in some seaweeds and many
mosses ; but in most cases there are at least several layers,
the outermost being especially modified, as an epidermis.
With the increase in size of the leaf (in aerial plants), there
is an increased development of supporting tissues, forming
more or less branched systems of ribs and veins (fibrovascu-
lar bundles). These grow with the leaf, consequently the
pattern which they present is dependent upon the mode of
growth of the leaf. Where the leaf-growth is lengthwise
only, as in many grasses and .sedges, the veins run parallel
from base to apex, but where the growth is in all directions,
as in the caljbage, grape, etc., the veins are crooked and ir-
regular. The leaf outline also is dependent upon its mode
of growth : where the growth is uniform the margin is en-
tire, but where some sections grow more than others, the
outline presents certain irregularities (serrations, dentations,
lobing, etc.), all of which have been very accurately defined
by descriptive botanists. These details, together with those
relating to very many leaf-shapes which have likewise re-
ceived much attention in descriptive botany, may well be
omitted here. PhiilMaxy. or the particular arrangement of
the leaves upon the stem, has received much attention, even
to the working out of mathematical formulas, l^ut here again
we find that the law is a very simple one: that in the bud
"new lateral members have their origin above the center of
the widest gaps between the insertions of the nearest older
members of the same kind at the circumference of the grow-
ing point." {flofmeitter.)
The chlorophyll-bearing cells of the leaf are commonly
arranged so that in one or more layers (palisade layers)
they stan<i with their longer axes perpendicular to ami
touching the upper epidermis (Fig. 1. A). The remaining
cells are loosely and irregidarly arranged, with many large
intercellular spaces. In leaves whose two surfaces are
equally exposed to the sunlight, there are palisade cells on
both sides, as in the compass-plant (Silpliinm Incintatum)
of the prairies of the U. S. (Fig. 1, B), llie cottonwooil, etc.
The epidermis of one or both surfaces contains many
breathing pores (stomates) which are formed by the division
and splitting of an original epidermis cell (Fig. 2). Each
Fig. 1.— a, section of wild-cucumber leaf ; B, compass-plant leaf.
pore thus lies between two cells, the guard-cells, which re-
tain their activity, and by contracting and expanding in-
FiG. 2.— A, epidermis and stomates of beet ; B, of oats.
crease and decrease the size of the opening. Leaves with a
marked difference between their palisade and loose paren-
chyma have few if any pores in the upper epidernus ; but
when this difference is less internally, the pores are more
nearly equal in number ; thus in the compa.ss-plant there are
in the upper surface 82 per sq. mm. (53,700 per sq. inch), and
in the lower 87 per sq. mm. (57,300 per sq. inch), while in
the apple there are none above, and 246 per sq. mm. (158,-
670 per sq. inch) below.
The function of the stomates is the ingre.ss and egress of
gases, and more particularly the ingress of carbon dioxide
and oxygen. It has long been known that moisture escapes
through them when open, and by many it has been supposed
that this was also one of their functions : but a better view is
that the escape of moisture is accidental, and not functional.
The whole leaf structure is designed to secure as much aera-
tion as possible with the least loss of moisture ; but in spite
of ciii<lermis, and the opening and closing stomates, some
moisture escapes. See Histology, VEGETiBLE; Bota.nv, and
Physiology, Vegetable. Charles E. Bessey".
Leaf-eutter Bees: solitary bees belonging to several
species of the genus 3Iegachile\ deriving their popular
name from their habit of constructing, or sonu'times merely
lining, their cells with bits of leaves cut out by their scis-
sor-like jaws. J/, centuncularis, the most common species
in tlie U. .S., is found also in Europe. It cuts out pieces of
rose-leaf for its cells, which are of a very neat and curious
structure. The cell it stuffs with pollen, in which it de-
posits an egg.
Leaf-insect, or Walking-leaf: a name applied to the
orthopterous insects of the genus F/ii/llium. family Phas-
midce, from the fact that their wings resemble leaves in
shape, color, and venation. A few species occur in tho
U. S., but they are mostly natives of the tropics. F. A. L.
Leaf-rollers: small, lepidoptcrous insects, belonging to
the important family TbWr/fiWfK : characterized by snort
beak-like palpi. They are mostly nocturnal, and take their
name fnjui the fact that many species make a rude tent by
rolling up the leaves of trees, often fastening them with
silken threads. The number of genera and species is great,
and as a rule the insects are great destroyers of useful vege-
tation. The genus Tortrix is the typical one.
150
1,KAK-SP0T
I^ear-spot : n ilis»'iisi' of plants wliicli |>r.«hices discolored
siKits ii|K>ii till- leaves, caiisi-d bv many ililliTi'iit si>orii'S of
iiiiiiilte funp. Olio of llu- most familiar is llif strawberrv
loaf-siKjt, wlufll is produi'i'd Ly Humulnrin lulitunei, oiio
I lie so-ealled imin'i
X
■v>>i
S»rawl>erry leaf-s|x>t.
the sn
\
..f
so-ealleil imiierfect fuii-
{;i. (S'e KiNiil.) The siiots
arc wliitisli or yellowish, Ijor-
ilered by rvA or purple. A
iiiieroscopiual examination of
these spots shows myriads of
short, protrmlinj; fuiifrus-
threads, upon whieli are borne
cylindrical, one - septaled
sJKires. Later in the season
black, e^;;- shaped sderotia
/-—~^3^\ y /I Vi may be formed; these remain
Z'%^'1/ It Vl over winter, and originate the
T^yjJ / /J/J Yl disease the next season. It
^^"Cnix/^ V is ijiiilc probable that S/j/((F-
'^'^ ^' reUa friujiirite is the asciger-
ous stage of this liamiiliii in.
I f so, the a.scospores also serve
to pro|iapite the species the next season. Plum and cherry
tret's arc attacked by a leaf-spot fungus (Sfptitria ceraxiiiii),
]>rcMlucing dark-purple s|)ots, which soon turn brown upon
the death of the tissue. "iSoinetimes this dead tissue drops
out from the leaf, leaving a clean-cut round hole, giving the
leaf the appearance of having been j)erforatud by shot-
holes" {Snibii' r): hence this malady is sometimes called
the shot-hole disease. The parasite is one of the imperfect
fungi, pri>ducing its spores in the cavities of minute black
fruits, which develop in the dead tissue of the spots. Its
whole round of life is not known, but it is supposed that its
further development takes place upon the fallen leaves.
IJeet leaf-spot, which often attacks garden and sugar
beets, iiroiliieing pale-yellowish or whitish spots of dead
tissue, IS prtHluced by Cercospora htticiila, another of the
imperfect fungi. It is also known as beet-rust.
Jiemi-ilieg. — Since the leaf-spot fungi are internal para-
sites, little is to be hoped from the use of fungicides, al-
though an application of ammonical carbonate of cojipcr is
sometimes recommended. Gathering and burning the
leaves has ppjved the most elTective. The strawberry-
leaves should be mown olf. and the field lightly covered
with straw, and then burned over. Consult, further, Will-
iain Trelease's Spol-iliseane of SIrnii'hfrnj-litnves, va report
of the Wisconsin agricultural experiment station (1884), and
K. L. Scribner's Fitnyus Diseases of the Grape and other
Plants (l!S!M)). ' Ciiarlks E. Besskv.
Leake, Sir John: admiral; b. at Hotherhithe, England,
ill 16.5ti; dislinguisheil himself in llio naval service during
the war of the Sjianish succession by taking Newfoundland
from the Krench (1702), for which he" was nnule vice-admiral
and_ knighted ; relieved (iiliraitar in Oct., 1701, and iMar.,
170.5, forcing the French and Spaniards to abandon the
siege; tiHjk part in the reiluetion of Barcelona the same
year; captureil Carthagena and Majorca in 1706; became
commander-in-chief of the fleet in 1707; took Sardinia and
Minorca in 170H; became rear-admiral of Great Britain and
lord of the admiralty in 170!>; represented Rochester in Par-
liament for s<ime years. I), at Greenwich, Aug. 21, 1720.
Leake. Wh.mam Martin: topographer and archa'ologist. ;
b.in London, England, .Ian. 14, 1777; educated at the Koyal
Military .Vcademy at Woolwich; ol)tained a commission in
the artill.ry in 17!l4; served in the West Indies; sent in
Kit'J to t/on>tantiniiple to inslriut the Turks in the use of
artillery; appointed in IHOO to advise the Turks in resisting
the Krench. and pro<ei'<led through Asia Minor and Sviia
to Egypt: and in 1801 was engaged with William Hamilton
in making a general survey of Upper Egvpt. In 1804 he
was njipointed to survey the coasts and fori resses of Euro-
i«-an I'lirkcy. and made a careful exploration of Greece.
For many years he was freiiueiillv emploved upon govern-
ment commissions in the Ea.sl. and gave' the result of his
researches in the l.^arned and si ill valuable works 7iV-
Kearchex in (irreee (1H14): Ti,/,o(/raphi/ of Athena (1821);
Journal of a Tour in Axia Minor (rM24); Trareln in the
Morra (I«:)(»); Tronic in Xorlhern (imrr (l,s;{.'i); J'elo-
JionneMiara (\H-U\): .\nmixniato llillniica {\K,i): IHnputed
(^iieKlionx of Ancient (ieotjrophii (lsri7), and lUMoricat
Outline nf the llreek Revolution (1H26) : aii<l other minor
piililical works. Killing jmporlant posts in the geographi-
cal and aniiipiiiriaii societies of London, he was a leiKling
LEATHER
authoritv upon Eastern questions. P. at Brighton, .Tan. G.
1860. See .1. H. Marsdeii, Brief Memoir of the Life and
Writings of W. M. Leake (London, 18(54); E. C'urtius,
Altherthuni u. Oegenwart, ii., 3(ri-;!23.
, Revised by Alkrku Gudeman.
Leiiniiiifr. leming, Jeremiah. D. D. : clergyman and au-
thor; b. at Middlelown. 0<inii., in 1719; graduated at Yale
in 1745; was ordained to the Episcopal ministry in 1748;
was pastor for eight years at Newport, H. I., twenty-one
years at Xorwalk, and eight years at Stratford. During the
kevolutionary war he was imprisoned as a Tory, and con-
tracted a disease of the hip wliich rendered him a crip|ile.
On account of inlirmity he declined in \~X'.\ to permil his
name to be used as a candidate for the bisliopric of Con-
necticut at the time Dr. Samuel Seabury was chosen to the
ejiiscopate. He wrote a Defense of the E/jiscopiil Govern-
ment of the Church (1766); a Second Defense (1770); £ti-
dences of the Truth of Christianity (1785); and Disserta-
tions on Various Subjects (1789). I), at New Haven. Conn.,
Sept. 15, 1804. Revised Ijy W. S. Perry.
Leamington.leming-t»ii. or Leamington Triors: town
of Englanil : 2 miles from Warwick, on tin' Lcnin ; celebrated
for its mineral springs, saline, sulphurous, mul clialybeate,
which attract a large number of fashionable guests during
the season from October to May (see iiiaj) of England, ref.
lO-II). It is whoUv of modern growth, and is one of the
handsomest places in England. Pop. (IS'JI) 26,930.
Lean'der : Sec Hero.
Leander, Richard : pseudonym for Richard von Volk-
MANX (ly. f.).
Leaning' Totvei'.s: towers which overhang their base on
one side, the deviation from the vertical having been caused
by settlement of the foundation, explosion, or the like, as
there is no evidence of any such effect being produced de-
liberately. The celebrated lower at Caerphilly Castle, in
Wales, is said by the guide-books to overhang 9 feet in a
total height of 80 feet, an extraordinary angle ; but it is
half ruined, and is merely an instance of a i)iece of solid
masonry nearly overthrown and slaved on the verge of fall-
ing. The tower at Saragossa, in Spain, built about 1500 in a
intidificd Moorish style, of brick, and octagonal in plan, is a
very interesting iiiece of architecture, and in excellent con-
dition. Its overhang is stated as 10 feet, but its height is
about 280 feet, so that the slope, though noticeable, is not
excessive. As it now stands, however, the visible inclination
is all in the middle two-thirds of its height, as the lofty base-
ment, either as originally or by restoration, stands seemingly
vertical, and the belfry at the top is also vertical or nearly
so. There are two surprising towers at Bologna, leaning to-
ward one another across a very narrow s|iace, so that they
seem almost to touch, the Torre Asinelli, about 300 feet
high, and overhanging 4 feet, and the Torre (iariscnda, not
more than 160 feet high, but 10 feet out of plumb. These
towers are ]ilaiii, sijuan' brick structures, without architec-
tural character, and their inclination is theiefore the more
noticeable. At Kste, in Venetia, is a Komaiies(|ue bell-tower,
overhanging about 12 feet. In Venice, the slender tower of
the Church of San (iiorgio dei (irechi slopes visibly out-
ward over its narrow canal. In I'isa, the Church of San
Niccolo has a slight but perceptible inclination. The bell-
tower of San Benedetto, at Ferrara, and the elock-tower of
the ancient palace of the Venetian governor at Padua, slope,
and a tower at Neviansk, in .Siberia, is mentioned as having
a decided inclination; but the most famous and most note-
worthy of all is the bell-tower of the (_alhedral of Pisa, a
Romanesque tower of very unusual design, having six stories
of open arcades forming balconies above a basement deco-
rated with a similar arcade in only slight relief, ami a belfry
story of much smaller diameter, without any roof whatever.
The center of this tower is a smooth, uuiliirm shaft like the
bore of a cannon. The staircases are iihiciil and the bells
are hung in the thicknesses of the walls tlicmselves. The
height of this strange tower is about 175 feet, and it over-
hangs its base 13 feet. Rissei.l Stl'ROIS.
Leap-year: See Calendar.
Lease : See Imnhlord and Tenant.
Lease and Release: See Bargain and Sale.
Leather [M.Eng. lelher < O. Eng. Ief>er : led. I,f>r : 0. II.
Germ. lidar> I\Iod. Germ, leder]: a material which is the
result of the half-chemical, half-mechanical combination of
the albuminous hide fiber and a sub.stance which preserves
LEATUEU
151
the hiile or skin, thereby making it useful in the arts and
luanufaetures. Leather lia;; playeii a very iniportaut part in
human history. Probably the first recordeJ instanee of its
use is in tlie passage in the Old Testament (Gen. xxi. 14) in
which Abraham is described as giving Hagar a leathern
water-bottle. This bottle must have been of a firm taniuige,
as a niineral-tauned or smoke-tanned leather would not hold
water, so that it is a reasonable inference that it was tanned
with bark. Specimens of leather have been discovered in
China in company with a number of relics which give abso-
lute proof of an age of at least 3,000 years, and the analysis
of these specimens proves them to be of an alum tannage.
When Columbus arrived in the New World he found the
copper-colored natives in possession of skins tanned with
buffalo dung, oil. and clay. This treatment is practically
the same as an alum tannage. The Indian also smoked skins
for the purpose of making them proof against vermin. Sir
Edwin Arnold when in India discovered a pair of slippers
in a sarcophagus containing nothing else but a small heap
of dust. In the British Museum there are among the Egyp-
tian relics tanned crocodile backs which were used as armor.
In the U. S., the oldest leather of which there is any record
is that which has been found in the huts of the rock-
dwellers of Arizona, in the shape of sandal-thongs. The
Romans also left articles of leather tanned with oil, alum,
and bark. Skins constituted the first clothing of man, and
have been more or less perfectly prepared from the earliest
times. Babylonian leather was long celebrated, and during
the first century of the Christian era the Russians and Hun-
garians were most skillful tanners. The method in general
use in those early periods, as a rule, was not a bark tannage,
but a sort of tanning with oil, clay, sour milk, smoke, and
dung. At a later period astringents, such as nutgalls and
leaves, began to be used. These methods were pursued in a
rather uncertain way initil about 1700, when the first great
change was made in the leather industry, viz., the use of
lime to loosen the hair-roots, making it feasible to remove
the hair with ease, and to plump the flesh and the hide-fiber,
thereby admitting of the removal of the superfluous flesh,
leaving nothing but the leather hide or coriiu.
Hide Structure.
It is a remarkable fact that, as scientists divide or class
living animals according to their nature, in the same way
we can class the same animals according to hide-fiber struc-
ture. The alligator, snake, and lizanl are classed among
reptiles on account of their subsisting by similar means
and bearing a general resemblance. They are even more
alike in their fiber structure, so much so that it is almost
impossible to distinguish any difference under the micro-
scope. Again, cowhide, horsehide, calfskin, deerskin, etc.,
may be classed together, their fiber being of a looser nature
than that of reptiles. In all hide structure we have the
same growth and trend as in that of the bark of trees. The
lower flesh structure always consists of loose bundles of fiber
interwoven. As these bundles enter the cutis or coriin, they
become more compact, the weaving becoming of a closer na-
ture, and as they near the grain, or papillar, the bundles dis-
appear, and the single fibers are woven into a mass that be-
comes more solid until it reaches the compactness of the
horny grain which withstands the wear the leather is sul)-
jeeted to. Just as the bark of trees is worked off and re-
placed by younger layers from the wood, so is the grain of
the living animal continually replaced by fiber from the
lower portion of the hide.
The Conversion of Hide into Leather.
This may be divided into three classes : (1), the conver-
sion of hide into leather by the use of astringents of differ-
ent kinds, such as bark, etc. (2), the conversion of tlie hide,
or, rather, the preservation of the hide-fiber by the use of
some mineral — alum, chrome, etc. — a process called tawing.
(3), by the use of oil. The last two ways are by no means
actual tanning jirocessi's : they are simply availed of as a
quick method of making hides and skins (usually skins) use-
ful Ijy preserving them against decomposition. The heavier
grades of leather made of hides are divided into two cla.sse,s,
sole and upper. We then of course have the skins, which
are always used for the upper parts of the shoe and slippers,
for fancy decorative purposes, book-binding, pocket-books,
etc. The preparation of these classes of hides for the actual
process of tanning is as follows :
Hides are bought by weight, and in two different con-
ditions, dry and green-salted, the latter term meaning the
hide freshly skinned from the animal, and then sailed down
to prevent decomposition. These hides in the tannery are
soaked in water, the dry hides always being soaked for a
greater length of time tliaii the green, so as to get the
hide-fiber as near the natural state as possible. This period,
which is called soaking, varies from four to eight or ten
days. There are two kinds of sole-leather made — first, that
which is known as sweated, an<l, second, that which is limed.
In sweated leather the hair has been removed by the hang-
ing of the hiile in a very moist an<l warm atmosphere in a
close<l compartment, thereby lodsciiing the roots, the hair
then being eiisily pushed off with a knife, or by machinery.
The former process is a little cheaper than the latter, and
produces greater weight of leather. Sweated leather is not
considered quite equal to that which is limed. The latter is
placed in a lime after the superfluous flesh, fat, and blood
on the flesh side have been removed with a knife. This lime
is made by slaking quicklime or calcium oxide in water,
making a milk-of-lime or calcium hydrate. The hides are
raised and plunged every day or two IVir four to six days.
After the hide is taken from the lime, the hair can be re-
moved easily with a knife or by a machine. After unhair-
ing, as this process is called, tlie flesh is green-shaved, i. e.
the flesh is removed with a shaving-knife ; then the hide is
well washed in water to remove the lime.
Batiiiff. — Dungs all contain quantities of jiepsin and pan-
creatin. which are formed in the system of the animal or
bird, and as there is generally an over-production, they pass
away with the excrements. Pepsin transforms allnimen to
peptones, which are jiartially soluble and insoluble in water.
The hide or skin, being an albuminous substance, undergoes
an actual digesting process, which may be prolonged or
shorteped, intensified or weakened, at the tanner's will.
The method in general use for regulating and governing
bate action is that of raising or lowering the temperature of
the bate. The higher the temperature the more rapidly do
pepsin and pancreatin solve and transform albumen. A
factor which has a material effect in bate action and results
is the bacteria ravages, and, in longer bating, the decaying
action. The temperature of bates in general use is from
95' to 100' P., and as this is the most favorable for the
propagation of bacteria, which increase with enormous ra-
pidity, it will be seen that they have a marked power. If it
were jjossible to kill or disable these bacteria, a great source
of danger would be removed from the bate, and it could be
controlled according to a fixed scale, both of quantity of
dung and temperature necessary.
The Process of Tanning.
The purpose of the art is to convert the green, albuminous
hide into an article which will not decay, which is tough in
filler, and which is useful for all purposes for which leather
is adapted. Taking the structure of the hide with its nu-
merous bundles of fiber, each bundle divided into smaller
fibers, we have an immense network, which, in its perfection,
can only be observed with the aid of a microscope. Every
fiber has its regular course, every bundle the same, and the
product is one of the most perfect creations of which art is
capable. When the hide is removed from the animal it is
soft and flabby. f]ach fiber moves against another fiber
with a small amount of friction, it Ijeing lubricated with
animal matter which passes through the fillers by means of
the infinitesimally small canals separating the bundles of
fiber. It is the object of the tanner in his beam-house work
to remove the interfibrous substance or fillar. thereby giv-
ing, when the hide is taken I'njiu the beam-house, a simple
network which is perfectly clean, the interfibrous substance
having been removed, first, through the soaks, the water
taking out the lymph substance, blood, etc.: second, by the
lime solving the interfibrous substance : and. third, by the
bate which digests the hide to such an extent that, as before
stated, when the hide is ready for the tanner it is a complete
clean network of fiber, just as a [liece of textile of clean
fiber woulil Ik-. When the hide is put into tan liquor, tan-
nin begins its work in the form of a molecule. The mole-
cule of tamiin enters the grain, attacks the first fiber of the
first bundle, and with the aid of a numiier of other mole-
cules part ly changes the albuminous fiber to chemically pure
leather, or surrounds it in such a way that the air does not
attack it nor in any way reach it, binding it by the power
called absorption, this being the dividing-line between a
chemical combination and a im'<'hanical combination. The
action is the same on the flesh side, the molecules also at-
tacking the first fiber ; the first fiber being tanned, the at-
i:
LEATHER
tnu-tiun for the soomul fiber ilraws the niolociilo awnv. In
ortlcr timt tho laiiiiitijc (iriKcss rimy priK-ocd and the iiioli'-
ciiles CO from tlif rir>t IHkt lo the seiond, it is necessary
that ihe iii.iUMuKs should Ih' resolved ill water. I'lissins
forward from the first fiber to the second, they surround the
latter, their |>lace beinf; taken bv other molecules from the
r. Fwu> the second they ^'o lo the third, from
e fourth, until they uU ineet. A method be-
ihrouj;h, and one \vhich tanners use for gnin-
ihat of not alone surnuinding each fiber with
ules, but als4i filling nii every cavity and every
.-,,... Uittitu the bundles of molecules this surplus not
being necessarv for the preservation of the hide, but simjily
to make a more solid and weightier piece nf leather. Of
the different tannins which the tanner finds in his barks—
galLs, leaves, extracts, etc.— we may make a scale, one ex-
tri-milv U-ing uso<l to indicate the' allinily that chemically
pure tannin has for hide-fiber, the other extremity to reiu-e-
sent the small alVinity of the article which has the least tan-
ning proiK'rties that we know of:
Sut>8tanL-«s wlilch liave tanning or preserring qualities.
I
tai.
th.
Vf :
I
111-
tai
I
Tannin.
<n) EiMily snluble.
(6) Plilobaphenes.
Metallic salts.
I
Aoilin.
Fedronl. AU Aluminium). Cr(C'hroniium),Zn (Zinc), Mg (Manganese).
When the barks. leaves, extracts, or galls are leached they
extract both tannin and coloring material, or phlobaphenes,
as they are called. These phlobaphenes, or coloring ma-
terials, are insoluble in cold water, and will not go further
than the first fitnT, whereas the pure tannin goes on. This
theory iscomplelely substantiated by the fact that the col-
oring materials alwavs conglomerate in the grain and nuike
discoliircil spot.s, and also fill u[) the grain of the hide to
such an extent that it breaks easily. The skins absorb the.
c<doring materials, ami they become brittle in the grain and
discolored. The tannin molecules (which were solved by
the aid of heat in the extractors), being in solution, attacked
the first fiber, and the tanning pro<'css, being conducted in
cohl water, lacks the power to resolve the molecules, origi-
nally s<jlved in hoi water, and consequently they do not lo<lgc
firiidy in the grain. Therefore the use of extracts poured
on leaches an<l solved and ivsolved in cold water gives much
better results in color and much quicker taniwige. All barks,
galls, etc., contain a certain amount of coloring material;
these materials have an afTinity for hi<lc-fiber, but not to
such an extent as pure tannin. The chief distinction, how-
ever, between the two is that one is eivsily soluble and the
other is only soluble with the aid of heat. '
Looking at the diagram again, and taking up metallic
sails, at one extremilv we have iron, at the other end man-
ganese. .So great is the allinily between hide-fiber and iron
salts that a piece of limed hide lying on a rusly wheelbarrow
will immediately absorb the iron and show a brown spot.
Iron i.s, however, not used lo any great extent. Alum has
the next greatest airinily, chronie the next, zinc the next,
and manganese ihc lasl. " These metallic sails must also be
used in a soluble way, all the salts in general use being re-
spectively sulphate of iron, or copperivs, sulphate of ahim,
bichromate ot jjotash, sulphate of zinc, and permanganate
of potash.
The method whereby hide-fiber is preserved, or tawed, by
metallic sails and by aiiilin is thai the molecules, having' no
chemical combination, do not alfect the fiber at all. but
simply surrouiiil I he fiber in such a <lo.se wav that it be-
comes linpervioiis lo the air and weather. .Some have added
oil, or oil surrounding the metallie molecules, so that they
become insoluble. ( liher manufacturers— and this is by far
the better melhod— have tawed the leather with a soluble
salt, and then precipitated the salt upon I he hide-fiber by
means of a ihemical priHcss. In the alum-tannage a great
many manufacturers give skins a balh of bicarl.r>nate of
siKla or carbonate of soda, thereby cliaiiging the sulphale of
alum to alumiiiiuin-hydrale. which is insoluble in water, and
which is therefore not at all alfeeted by weather. In the
chrome pror-iss. tanners using bichromate of potash rely
upon hyposulphate of a.id or siilphnrotis acid, wliich have ii
great allinily for oxygen, to rrMhice Ihe sails |.i a chrome-
oxide, which is insoluble in water. This all goes to show
that thi're is practically ho ihemical combination between
the inelallic molecules and the hide-filier, and that it is sim-
ply a surrounding of them, it being necessary to chango
them to an insolulile substance before the ^iroeess of tawing
iscomplcted. Aniliii hasa very small alliuity for hide-fiber,
and is not in practicid use at all.
Leather is preserved with Ihc aid of oil. The skins are
soaked in oil and laid in piles until they heat. Hy this
heating the oil is changed to a substance known as degras.
through the partial fcnnentation and partial oxidation of
the oil. In the development of degras a peculiar substance
known as degras former is created in exact proportion as
the time of heating is continued. The oftcncr the skins are
replied and allowed to heat, the greater becomes the [ler-
pei'centagc of degras lornier created. This degras former
has a peculiar property of preserving hide-fiber in a more
substantial way than metallic salts, and is almost as strong
as tannin. Aiding this degras former are the small mole-
cules of oil surrounding the fiber, and Ihe result is the
chamois of coinmerce, an extraordinarily flexible kind of
leather, on account of the lubricating power of the oil mole-
cules, and a leather perfectly imlifTereiit to water.
In the tannage of goatskin by what is known as the, Pon-
gola process, which is of modern origin, there is combined
the solidity of tannin, the toughness of metallic salts, and
the flexibility of the oil and degras former.
Electrical TAN^^^•G.
This process has received considerable attention within a
few years. It is still an open (|uesliiin whether it posses.ses
suOicienl merit to a.ssure it of pcrinaiience. As yet no one
has claimed to be able to tan with Ihe aid of eleclricily only.
The elec'trical current has been used to hasten the ordinary
process of tanning. The passing of an electrical current
through water decompo.ses the latter, and consequently re-
leases oxygen. The presence of oxygen in a tan liquor or
any coloring-balh hasa tendency to intensify the colors and
again to precipitate, thereby making the coloring matters
insoluble, rpon this may Ije based the slight increase in
Ihc speed in launiiig leather by the u.se of clectricily. Tho
tannin molecules left are of Ihe most easily soluble kind, and
consequently the tanning process proceeds quicker. As the
poles used in [lassing the current through Ihe waterdiffer, so
does the color of I he leather vary. Zinc |ioles give one result,
tin another, platinum another, silver another, etc. The
electrical current, howcyer, does not affect Ihe hide-fiber in
any way. Ex)ierimenls arc still being conducted on a large
scale in Europe and South America.
Tanning Materials in General Use.
The tanning materials vary greatly ; they are divided into
two great classes, viz., physiological and jiathological. The
first consists of those which are of perfectly natural or of
animal growth ; for instance, bark, sumach, etc. ; whereas
the second class contains tho.se which arc the result of ab-
normal growth, caused by diseases, slings of insects, etc. An
example of the latter class is the gali. Materials of both
of these classes are used to a great extent in Europe, while
only those of Hie first division are in general use in the U.S.
The Physiological Tannins.
OnA- Baric. — This material is and will be for .some time to
come the main tanning malerial in use throughout the
world. The advantages of oak tannage are recognized in
all countries. The kinds of bark in use in the U. S. are
chestnut oak, white oak, black oak (or quercitron), red and
rock oak, and a few other sorts which are not of great impor-
tance. In Europe, however, the species vary to a greater
extiMit. Hpivifil liiiidc (mirror bark) is well distributed
throughoul Europe, and is peeled when the tree has attained
a growlh of from twelve to twcniy-foiir years, its peculiarity
being that it is very highly polislied by" n.'iliire and retlects
objects, from whence comes ils tianic. lit-ild Riiidr is ob-
tained from the same tree as the spiegcl rinde. but after the
tree has attained a growth of twenty lo twenty-five years.
Ohl oak is obtained from the aged tree, but is not as valuablo
as the younger bark. Hosnia has line oak-trees. Ihc bark
containing 10 to 11 per cent, of laiinin ; Hoheniia iiroiluces
the grape oak; Sonlhern France and Norlliern .M'rica Iho
Kirmess oak. The bark is used in two gindes, root and
trunk. Tyrol has the evergreen oak, yielding from Vi to IS
percent, tannin: Sardinia produces a "cork oak which yields
i;i to 14 percent.; white oak is found throughout Europe,
yielding 10 [ler cenl.
llemliick and I'ijie /?(Jt^-.— Besides oak-bark tannage,
hemlock tannage is used in the U.S. ; a corresponding tan-
LKATIIEH
15c
naRc is tliiif of pine bark in Europe. Ilemlnck-trcps arc well
(lislributeil lhroup:hout the U. S. The Ijurk is cheaper than
oak, imparts a reddish color, and makes as strong and du-
rable leal her as any material used. Europe has a number of
species of pine. The countries that consume the greatest
amount of bark are Austria, Germany, Russia, and Italy.
The tannin contained varies from 7 to 12 per cent., as is also
the case with hcndock. The use of both these barks is to a
(Treat extent confined to the handlers — that is, their first
stages of tanning all leather before the laying away. Pine
bark gives poorer weight results — that is, given an equal
amount of green hide, a less amount of leather in weight
will be obtained by using pine bark than by using oak, and
a larger weight by using hemlock than oak.
Birchhark is mainly used in Russia, Norway, and Sweden
for upper-leather and sole-leather, but seldom alone. The
bark is usually peeled from the full-grown tree, and contains
6 to 10 per cent, tannin.
Willow bark is also used In the above-mentioned countries
and ill Germany. This material contains 6 to 9 per cent.
tannin.
Mimosa hark is obtained from the acacia of Australia and
a similar sort of vegetation in Brazil. It is a favorite in Eng-
land, and the varieties are as follows: Gold wattle, silver
wattle (black wood, light wood), black wattle, green wattle.
The gold wattle is a native of Victoria; its cultivation was
tried as an experiment in Algeria, and met with some suc-
cess. The trees .are always grown from seeds, which are
laid in warm water for a few hours before sowing. The
acacia may be peeled at eight years' growth, and at that age
carries seeds. The Tasmania bark is very good, and that
from Adelaide likewise good. Sydney does not produce so
good an article, but (Queensland produces a better. The
bark is marketed in the stick, ground, or chopped. Madagas-
car and the Reunion islands also produce a mimosa bark.
The mimosa barks give a reddish-colored leather and plump
well, containing a high percentage of tannin, averaging from
10 to 3.5.
Gamhie.r is used in very large proportion in the U. S. It
is an excellent tanning material ; it comes from Singapore,
where the natives derive it from the leaves of a large bush.
The method of producing and packing is as follows: The
leaves are boiled in a tub or large pot until they become a
thick, pasty substance, the steins having l)een previously re-
moved from the leaves. This is allowed to cool, when it be-
comes hard and mastic. It is then formed into blocks of
about 220 lb., enveloped with a straw matting, and again
wrajiped in bagging. It is a general favorite on account of
its good color results, its quick quality of tanning, and the
softness of the leather. It is adulterated by admixture
of camels' and elephants' dung during the boiling-down
process.
Sumac is also used in large quantities, and gives the
lightest color of any tanning material. There are two kinds
of sumac, Sicilian and American, the former generally con-
sidered of better quality and bringing a higher price. The
leaves of the sumac-bush are ground to a powder between
mill-stones, and then packed in bags of about 200 lb. and
shipped. The tanning- material contained varies from 1-5 to
25 per cent. The American brand contains very nearly the
same amount of tanning material, but is darker in color and
does not give the beautiful color results that are obtained
by the Sicilian.
(hitch is also used in the U. S. ; the article is somewhat
similar to gambler, but comes from India instead of Indo-
China. Its use is limited.
Fruit tantiing materials may be found in great variety.
The best known is valonia, one of the materials most gen-
erally used in Europe. All countries consume it. Valonia
was first used in England about, the beginning of the nine-
teenth century ; a few years later Germany began using it,
and still laterAustria. " It is the fruit of the oak-tree, anil is
obtainable in Asia Minor and adjacent islands; in form it
resembles the fruit of an American oak, but in size nearly
trebles it.
Patholooical Tannins, or those of AnxoRMAL Growth.
(jails, at one time used quite extensively, are not now
consumed to any great extent. They arc found upon the
leaves of the oak, sumac, and other trees. (See Galls.)
The different varieties include Aleppo, found upon the same
tree as the valonia. and containing 60 to 7.5 per cent, tannin ;
Istrian, 32 per cent, tannin ; Persian, 28 to 29 per cent, tan-
nin ; Chinese (the result of the sting of a louse) giving 80 to
82 per cent, tannin, and making a very light colored leather.
Dyers also use this material for coloring.
Knoppcrn belong to the family of galls, and are a most
iniiiortant factor of commerce in Austria. The knopper is
generally found on the acorn or leaf of the oak-tree, espe-
cially the steel oak of Hungary. The tannin contained
varies from 27 to 33 per cent. Their main use is in com-
bination with valonia. Valonia gives better weight results
than knoppern and is replacing them more and more every
year. The combination of knopper, valonia, and rayrobolans
is also quite popular, and gives good results.
Bark and wood extracts are becoming general favorites
throughout Piurope and the U. S., partly because of their
weight-giving qualities and partly because the transporta-
tion costs little. They are used to strengthen weak bark
liquors. Oak extracts are obtained both from wood and
bark, and are used extensively. Slavonia furnishes the
greater part of the supply. C/iestnut-oak-wood extract is
manufactured in quantities, and easily finds purchasers.
Pine-bark extract is also consumed in goodly amounts.
Quebracho-wood Extract. — The wood is shipped from Brazil
to Hamburg and other ports, and the tannin extracted there.
Hamburg furnishes quantities of this extract. Hemlock ex-
tract is used in Russia, and is so popular that imitations of
it in color are made. The hemlock that is consumed is im-
ported from Xorth America. As most leather is sold by
weight in Europe, the leather manufacturers aim to obtain
as good weight results as possible, and often, to gain this
point, adulteration is resorted to. Both upper and sole
leather are commonly adulterated. Sole-leather is nine
times out of ten given false weight by forcing entirely for-
eign substances into the leather, such as glucose, barium
chloride, magnesium chloride, resins, etc. Glucose and resin
are also used for weighting upper-leather. Leather is also
weighted with extracts by over-tanning. Leather-buyers
have become wary, and do not purchase large quantities be-
fore an analysis is made of a fair sample.
Weight Results.
Sole-leather tanned with these materials gives for every
100 lb. gre^n hide the following quantities of finished
leather :
Oak bark 48 to
extract .55 to
Pine bark 44 to
ext ract 48 to
Willow 45 to
Birch-bark and oak extract 4!) to
Quebracho wood and extract 48 to
Valonia 52 to
Knoppern \. . . 51 to
Myrobolans 50
Knopiieru, myrobolans, and valonia. . . 52 to
Hemlock 55
54 lb.
.56 '•
46 "
50 "
46 "
51 "
49 "
56 "
53 "
53 "
Specification of Taxxixo Materials Used in Different
Countries.
United States.
Oak bark.
Hemlock bark.
Sumac.
Gambler.
Cutch.
Oak-bark extract.
Oak-wood extract.
Hemlock-bark extract.
France.
Oak bark (kirmess).
Sumac.
Chestnut-wood extract.
Quebracho-wood extract.
Some gambler.
Itabj.
Oak bark.
Pine.
.Sumac.
Valonia.
Norway and Sweden.
Birch bark.
Willow liark.
Oak bark.
Great Britain.
Oak bark.
Divi-divi.
Myrobolans.
Valonia.
Mimosa.
T-. . , ( Oak bark and wood
Extracts - , , ,
j hemlock.
Gambler.
Cutch.
Oermany and Austria.
Oak bark.
Pine bark.
Willow bark.
Valonia.
Knoppern.
Myrobolans.
■r,\ ( Oak bark and wood.
l<,xts. ^ pjijj, y^^J.^. m,j ^^^l_
liussia.
Birch bark.
Willow bark.
Oak l)ark.
Pine bark.
Hemlock extract.
154
LE.VTUKK-UUAKb
TiiK FiNisiiixo OF Leather.
The iiK'tlicKls viirv trreatlv. For shoo-leatlier the stretch
is takfii out of the sliius, which are then stuffed with greases
of .iilTereiit kiiiils aiul cohir^-.l. usually black, llie black
«)lor is ol'tainwl bv the use of logwixxl as a first coat and
an ir^m salt, usuallv acetate of iron, as a precipitant.
W'itjr calf is use'.l for shoes only, ami is limshed on I lie
flesh side 'in contradisliiiction to other kinds of leather,
which are. with a few exceptions, linished on the hair side.
(iloiy </r<ii« consists of calf or kip skins (the latter meaning
skins of calves over one year old) finished on the grain and
M-iKiUv ironeil. Oil qrain is made of cowhide leather. The
hid.- is split in half after taniiiiij;, and is blackened, pebbled
bv niaehinc. oiled, and given a luster on the face.
■ Wax Splili.—'The parts of leather which have been re-
moved from the original tanne.l hide or skin by the splitting-
machine, ill onler to level them, are finished in the same
finish as wax calf fi>r inferior shws.
Oldieil kiJ. as the name implies, is niaile from goatskins.
The skins are usuallv tanned in a combination of alum salt
and gambier. l.^irge ijuantities are tanned by bichromate
of potash and hviK)Sulphiile of soda, sulphurous acid, etc.—
a process of recent origin. The skins are then treated in fat-
liouor. which is a kind of saponified oil soluble in water.
The skins are revolved in a drum or tumbhng-wheel with
the fal-liquor until the latter is absorbed. The skins are
then colored black. They are then softened by the stakiiig-
machine, and a hard face is imparted to them by the use
of albuminous substances which are applied to the grain
with a s|«onge. and they are allowed to dry. They are now-
glazed, and usually atii'ither coat is applied on the face and
polished again by machine.
Kangnnio leiillur is also used for shoes. Horsehide
leather is very tough and durabh'. Harness leather is made
from steer and cow hiiles. which are tanned in bark and
stuffed with hot tallow after blacking. Calf kid consists of
calfskins tanned in alum, colored black and finished with-
out laster.
Russia leather is an article that formerly was in use for
the choicest kinds of leather fabrics, pocket-books, satchels,
and the like. Bookbinders preferred it for the binding of
their most costly volumes. The leather had a peculiar odor.
Small quantities of it were imported into the U. S., and
more could have been sold if it had been imported. In 1HT3
the U. S. minister to Russia, Marshall .Jewell, |iimself a
tanner, discovered the process by which it wils made, and
the result wils that " Russia" leather became a commodity
of extensive manufacture and sale in the U. .S., and it is of
<juitc as eo(xl quality as the imported. The process of manu-
fai'ture is to take the leather which is to be Russianized,
steep it in a sidiition of .")0 lb. each of oak and hemlock bark
anil sumac, 1 lb. of willow bark, and !)(X) gal. of water;
heat by steam and immerse the sides till struck through, and
while the material is still ilamp to smear on the outer side a
solution of oil of birch bark ilissolved in a little alcohol and
ether. This imparts the odor and the pliability.
Alligators' leather is made from the skins of alligators,
and is us<!d for satchels, bags, and shoe-leather; also from
the skins of lizards, snakes, and seals. Walrus-hides are
tanned, and the leather used for pi)lisliitig knives and tools.
It takes two years to tan a walrus-hide. Sheeps/tins are
used for all pur[>oses, and are inanufacUired in all tannages.
The wool is always removed, and the skins are limed and
painted with sulphide of sodium and limc^ mixed.
Patent, Japanned, or Enameleil Leather. — .Vlmost all kinds
of hides or skins are, or have been, japanned. The general
consumption, however, is confined to cowhide, horsehide,
and calf. The usual procedure is li> fill the surface, cither
flesh or grain side of the leather, with a daub called sweet-
meats, consisting mainly of boiled linseed oil and a filling
substance, ami Ihi'ii, after a sinofith surface has been ob-
tained, to give the liich's or skins a covering of varnish or
japan, ami then bake nntil the varnish is hanlened. Fancy
colors are aUo made. Waltuk J. Sauimon.
Lcathor-bouril : an article much used inihe manufacture
of boots and sIhk's. It is made of old Manilla rope, hemp
rope, jute or linen I'anvas, ancl leiilher scraps, to which are
added certain chemieals and a cement wliicli makes it more
impervious to wati-r lliaii h-allier. The ni|)e or canvas and
leather scraps arc first ground to a pulp, llie same as in lliu
manufacture of paper. The pulp is then run olT by a wet-
<'Vliiiiler machine and cut into sheets, usually 'H by !i feet ;
tdese sheets are then drieil either in the sun abuiit ten hours
LEAVEXWOKTU
or by steam two hours, and arc run through calenderiiig-
macliines to smooth them, and are afterward pressed by still
heavier machines to give an even surface and still greater
soliditv. It is also pressed into different forms convenient
for use, among which are counters or stiffenings for boots
and shoes, which by a [latent process are made perfectly
water-proof. These forms, being pressed by machines into
a perfect fit for the various sizes, are considered superior to
leather, as they hold their form better. The larger the per-
centage of Manilla rope or jute and linen waste, the better
will be the quality of the board. This will be appan-nt
when it is considered that Manilla retains its fiber, while
leather does not. Although much used in the manufacture
of boots and shoes it is not confined to this industry alone,
but is used considerably in the manufacture of toys, chair-
bottoms, etc. It was first manufactured in the U. S. in Ex-
eter, X. II. Large quantities are mamifaclured, especially
in Xew England, and are exported, princijially from IJoston.
to Great Hritain, (lennany, France, and elsewhere. There
are also a few small factories in Canada.
Leather-carp : See Carp.
Lcafhcr-turtle: a name given to the trunk turtle {Der-
muchi'li/s (■ori((ce(i), on account <if the leathery appearance of
the carapace; also ajiplied to the fiesli-watcr turtles of the
family jyionychidu. whk-h have a flattened carapace with
a wide, flexible, cartilaginous margin. F. A. L.
Leather- wood. Moose-wood, or Wic'opy : a shrub
(Dirca pahislris) of the family T/ii/mehicea\ 'x\nmda.ul in
the northern parts of X'orth America, lis tough bark was
used by the Indians for thongs or cordage. The bark has
irritant cathartic properties, and its decoction in small doses
is recommended for the cure of sick headache. Its wood is
very white, soft, and brittle.
Leathes. leethz. Stanley. P. D. : divine and author; b.
at Ellesborough, Buckinghamshiie. England, Jlar. 21. 1830;
was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge : ordained in
1858 ; served as curate in several churches in London ; be-
came in 1863 Professor of Hebrew, in King's College, Lon-
don, and prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral in 1876. He
was lioyle lecturer from 1868 to 1870, Ilulsean lecturer at
Cambridge in 1873, and Bampton lecturer at Oxford in 1874 ;
was a member of the British Old Testament company in
the Anglo-Ainericaii Bible revision committee, and was one
of the delegates to the Evangelical Alliance in the session of
1873 in Xew York. His Boyle Lectures were published as
follows: The Witness of the'Old Testament to Christ (\mS);
The Witness of St. Paul to Christ (1869); The Witness of
St. John to C/irisI (1870). He has also published Tlie Struc
ture of the Old Testament (1873) ; Tlie Gospel its Own Wit-
ness (Ilulsean Lectures, 1874); Tlie Religion of the Christ:
its Historic and Literary Development Considered as an
JCridence of its Origin (Bampton Lectures, 1874; 2d. ed.
1876); The Grounds of Chri.-itian IIope(\8':7): The Chris-
tian Creed: its Theory atid Practice (\H77); Old Testament
Prophecy : its M'itness as a Record of Dirine Foreknowledge
(Warbuiton Lectures, 1880) ; Studies in Genesis(\8m}; The
Foundations of Morality, being Discour.teson the Ten Com-
mandments (1882); Characteristics of Chri.il ianity (\SH'i);
Christ and the Bible (188,0) ; The Law in the Prophets (1891).
Revised by W. S. Pkrry.
Leaveinvortli, leven-wTtrth : city ; capital of Leavenworth
CO., Kan. (for location of county, see ma|i of Kansas, ref. .5-J) ;
on the Missouri river, and the Atch., Toj). and S. Fe.. the
Chi., Cit. West., the Chic, Hock Is. and Pac, the Kan. City,
St. .lo. and Council B., the Kan. City, VVyo. and X. W., the
Mo. Pac., and the Uni.m Pac. railways; 312miles X. W. of .St.
Louis. Excepting its water-front, the city is surrounded by
bluffs300feet high. It is built on sloping ground, has excel-
lent natural drainage, is lighted by gas and electricity, and
has large manufacturing and commercial interests. The
river is here stianned bv an iron railway bridge that cost
*1.000,000 ancl a steel (")ne (opened .Ian! 2, 18114) that cost
$670,000. .Manufacturing is promoted by several coal mines
in the city and vicinity. There are 27 churches, 0 public-
school buildings, several private academies and seminaries.
2 orphan asylums, 3 national lianks with coiiibined capital of
!i!000,000, a State bank with capital of P0,000, and 3 ilaily,
,5 weekly, and 3 monthly periodicals. Tlie assessed pro|icrly
valualiiin in 1892 was li;5.488.4.")0. and the tot.il delit in 1893
was $714,7o3. Fort Leaveiiwurth, a U. S. inililary reserva-
tion, on which is a regular military post, a military |irison,
and a widely kncjwn military school, is 2 miles N. of llie city.
LEAVES
LEBANON
155
and the. State pcnitcntiaiT is 4 miles S. The iiiamifactures
iiK-Iiule carpets, fiiniitiire, earriat,'es aiul wa^ioiis. lioots and
shoes, boilers, engines, mining niaehinerv, iron bridges, ci-
gars, and jewelry.' Pop. (1880) l(i,o4() ; (1890) 1U,7«8; (1890)
20,822. Editor ov " Times."
Leaves : See Leak.
Leavitt, lev'it, Erasmus Darwin: mechanical engineer;
b. at Lowell, Mass., Oct. 27, 1836 ; was educated in the pub-
lic schools of Lowell, and supplemented his studies there and
later by extensive study and reading in the mathematical
and physical sciences, especially as applied in engineering.
During 1859-61 he was the chief draughtsman fur Thurs-
ton. .Gardner & Co., steam-engine builders at Providence,
R. L, and designed some of the most efficient and advanced
types of steam-engine of that time, embodying in them the
Green valve-gear, a now well-known form of expansion-
gear, and many novel and economical devices of his own.
In some cases lie adopted a pressure for stationary engines
and boilers exceeding 100 lb. persquare inch, then an impor-
tant advance upon contemporary practice, and (.lesigned
special forms of boiler for such pressures. Li the summer of
1861 he entered the U. S. navy engineer corps, and served
throughout the civil war, and until 1867, when he resigned to
again take up the practice of his profession. He was an in-
structor at the U. S. Naval Academy during the latter part
of his service in the navy, in the department of steam en-
gineering. Resuming his practice in civil life, he made a
specialty of mining machinery and steam pui'iping-engines.
He built the engines supplying the cities of Lawrence and
Lynn with water, and the engines of the Boston sewerage
station. In 1874 he became the consulting engineer of the
Calumet and Heela Copper Mining Company the most ex-
tensive mining company in the world. Since 1878 he has
completed all the designs and plans for their enormous steam
and other machinery outfits. He is a member of many sci-
entific and technical associations. R. H. Thurston.
Leb'aiion [from Heb. Lebhanon, liter., white (mountain).
Cf. Syr. Lehhndii : Arab. Jebel (mountain) Liilmdii, and Gr.
AiPcwSs] : a celebrated range of mountains in Syria, extend-
ing al)out 110 miles along the seacoast from the Xahr-el-
Kibir (Eleutherus) river on the N. to the Nahr-el-Litany
(Leontes) on the S. ; i. e. from the great pass opening into
the valley of Hamah (Hamath), lat. 84' 40', to tlie vicinity
■of Tyre, in lat. 33' 20', and separated by the elevated val-
ley of Kl-Bukaa (Coele-Syria), 10 to 20 miles wide, from the
parallel range of Anti-Libanus (g. v.), similarly extending
from near Homs (Emesa) on the N. to the peak of Jebel-esh-
Sheikh (Hermon), a few miles S. of Damascus. In the cen-
ter of the valley of El-Bnkaa are the majestic ruins of Baal-
BEC (q. v.), the ancient Heliopolis, near which rise the Aasy
{Orontes) and Litany rivers. Lebanon was at the earliest
recorded period the chief geographical feature and eastern
limit of Phcenicia (c/. v.) ; it was alternately subject to As-
syria and Egypt, whose monarchs often employed the cele-
brated cedars to supply timber for their edifices, and was
included within the boundaries of the Hebrew land of prom-
ise (Num. xxxiv. ; Deut. xi. 24; Josh. i. 4), though it never
came into their possession unless in a very limited sense for
a brief period, and may properly be considered as the north-
ern boundary of the Holy Land. The books, prophetic, po-
etic, and historical, of the Old Testament abound in refer-
ences to Lebanon, which supplied the timber for Solomon's
magnificent temple and palaces ; and the term usually,
though not uniformly, includes both ranges. Lebanon proper
was called by the early Arabian geographers .lebel-Libnan,
and by later writers Jebel-el-Ghurby, the west mountain, in
distinction from Anti-Lebanon, called Jebel-esh-Shurky, the
east mountain. Between the mountains and the sea the plain
of Phcenicia is of varying breadth, but never more than 10
or 15 miles, while spurs are several times thrown off which
jut precipitously into the sea. The base of the range has an
average breadth of 20 miles; the peak of Jebe! Timarun at-
tains a height of 10,533 feet, that of Dahar-el-Kudib 10,051,
and Sunnin 8,.500 feet. The elevation decreases toward the
S., and falls rapidly from the twin-peaks of Tomat-Niha
(6,500 feet) to the wild, abrupt ravine of the Litany, whose
banks sometimes rise perpendicularly 1,000 feet. The mass
of Lebanon is a hard, partially crystallized Jurassic lime-
stone, surmounted in many places by a grayish-wliitc creta-
ceous dejiosit, whence the name, more usually derived from
the snows wliich cover the main ridge from December to
March. The southern section exhibits traces of violent vol-
canic action, and earthquakes are still frecpient, that of 1837
having buried thousands of [lersons in Safed beneath the
ruins of their homes. The inhaliitanls are chiefiy Maroniles,
a Christian sect in the N., and Druses, professing a corrupt-
ed Mohammedanism in the S. These races are rivals, and
have for centuries been at feud ; a terrible massacre of
Christians in 1860 resulted in ICuropean intervention. The
district is subject to a Maronite governor, depending upon
the pashalic of Damascus. There are more than thirtv
ruins of ancient temjiles within this region, wliich has still a
considerable population. Capital, Nahr-ed-Dammur, for-
merly called Deir-el-Kamr. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Lebanon : city; St. Clair co., 111. (for location of county,
see map of Illinois, ref. 9-D) ; on the Ohio and Miss. Rail-
way ; 24 miles E. of St. Louis. It is in an agricultural and
coal-mining region, and is a summer resort for citizens of
St. Louis. It is the seat of McKendree College (Methodist
Episcopal, chartered 1834), which in 1890 had 10 instructors,
186 students, |10,000 invested in scientitic apparatus and
$60,000 in grounds and buildings, and !i!24,000 in productive
funds. Pop. (1880) 1,924 : (1890) 1,636.
Lebanon : city ; capital of Boone co., Ind. (for location of
county, see map of Indiana, ref. 6-D) ; on the Chi. and S. E.,
and the Cleve.,Cin.,Chi. and St. L. railways; 26 miles N. W.
of Indianapolis. It is in the natural-gas region, and has
grain elevators, saw-mills, barrel and stave factories and
other industries, and a dailv and two weekly newspapers.
Pop. (1880) 2,625 ; (1890) 3,676.
Lebanon: city; cajiital of Jlarion co.. Ky. (for location
of county, see map of Kentucky, ref. 4-G) ; on the Louisv.
and Nashv. Railroad ; 67 miles S. E. of Louisville. It is in
an agricultural and horse-breeding region, and has ice and
furniture factories, several wliiskv-distilleries, and weekly
and monthly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 2,054 : (1890) 2,816.
Lebanon : town ; capital of Laclede co., Mo. (for location
of county, see map of Missouri, ref. 6-G) ; on the St. L. and
San Fran. Railway ; 185 miles S. W. of St. Loui.s. It is in
an agricultural and magnetic-spring region ; is a popular
health resort; and has manufactories, large trade with the
surrounding countrv, a seminarv, and three weekly news-
papers. Pop. (1880)' 1,419 ; (1890) 2,718.
Lebanon : town (incorporated in 1761) ; Grafton co.,
N. II. (for location of county, see map of New Hampshire,
ref. 6-E) ; on tlie Connecticut river, and the Boston and
Maine Railroad ; 65 miles N. W. of Concord. 'Water-power
for manufacturing is afforded by the Mascoma river, which
falls 400 feet in 9 miles. The town has a public library, cir-
culating library, and weekly newspaper, and manufactures
flannels, cloakings, shirts, overalls, underwear, machinery,
scythes, watch-keys, and wood-pulp. Pop. (1880) 3,354 ;
(1890) 3,763. Editor of " Granite State Free Press."
Lebanon: village; capital of Warren co., 0. (for location
of county, see map of Ohio, ref. 6-C) ; on the Cin., Leb. and
N. Railway ; 30 miles N. E. of Cincinnati. It contains the
National }>Iormal University, a widely known private insti-
tution, an opium-cure sanitarium, a county infirmary, an
orphans" home, and a community of Shakers. It is in an
agricultural and stock-raising region, and the Poland-China
variety of hogs was originallv bred in this localitv. Pop.
(1880)"2,';'03 ; (1890) 3,050. Editor of " Western Star."
Lebanon : city (Moravian and Mennonite churches erected
1740, town laid out 1750, incorporated 1821); capital of Leb-
anon CO., Pa. (for location of county, see map of Pennsyl-
vania, ref. 5-H) ; on Swatara creek and Union Canal, and
the Phila. and Reading and the Cornwall and Leb. rail-
ways ; 25 miles E. of Harrisburg, 86 miles N. W. of Phila-
delphia. It is in an agricultural, limestone, brownstone, an-
thracite coal, and brick-clay region. 5 miles N. of the great
Cornwall iron hills, and is principally engaged in iron-
manufacturing. There are 6 iron-furnaces, 5 rolling-mills,
3 machine-shops, 2 stove- works, and boiler, nut and bolt, and
chain works ; electric street-railway, gas and electric lights,
public library, hospital, widows" home, 25 churches, and jnib-
lic-school propertv valued at over $2.50,000; and 3 national
banks with combined ca]iital of $350,000, 2 State banks with
capital of $150,000. an assessed propertv valnatinn of over
$8,000,000. and 3 dailv. a monthlv, and 8 weeklv i>eriodicals.
Pop. (1880) 8,778 ; (1890) 14,664. "
Lebanon : town : capital of Wilson co., Tenn. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Tennessee, ref. 6-F) ; on the
Nash.. Chat, aiid St. L., and the Nash, and Knox, railways;
30 miles K. of Nashville. It is in a rich wheat and corn
region ; has large hog and mule breeding interests ; and
156
LEBANON Sl'UlNliS
manufacturos Hour, (l.nir bftrrvls. woolen gooils, ami otiicr
artick-* It is tlu' soiit of C>iii>l)orlaii.l I iiivorsity (( iimber-
lunl I'n-lM.nun. clmrtoro.l 1S42). whit-li in 1W»2 lia.l prc-
,„,r ^^ If,. 'i.al. miuli'Miif. iinii law ilcpartments, T-
,' ' -s S(>OU volumos ill its library, about
V unils and liiiililinus, ami sfdO.dOU in
;,^;_.,,_. . ,. Pop. UJ^O) -.■-'!»»> ; U^!W) 1,«K1.
Lpl>aiion SpriiiiTS: Sco New Lebanon.
Lebanon Vulley College : an institution under tlio au-
spic's of tlie Unili'il lirithron: l.K-aliHl at Annvillc Lrh-
h'i..iic.. Pa.: on the Phila.lfl|.liia ami Reading Railroad,
•,'1 iiiilos'K. of Ilarrisbur^'. It was orjianized in 1800 and
. h:.rtere<l bv the ."^tate Lejrislature in ISO". There are two
.-..iir^i-* of studv leailing to des,'rees— t he classical, to the dc-
L-r. e bachelor of arts, and the scientific, to the degree bache-
lor of science. The institution has also departments of
music and the fine arts. Young women are admitted to the
privileges of the i-ollege on equal terms with young men,
and are allowed to pursue the same courses of study. Its
presi.ieiiLs have been Rev. T. R. Vickroy, Ph. D., L. II.
llanimond, A. >!., Rev. U. 1). De Long, D. D., and E. Henja-
min Biernian, A. M.
Le Bas, le-baa', Philippe : antiquarian and iihilologist ;
b. in Paris, June 18, 1794; served hrst in the navy, then in
the armv, later in the oflice of the prefect of the Seine, and
wiis appointed by yueen llortense tutor to Prince Louis
Na|«ileon in 1820. In 1827 he returned to Paris ; was ap-
|...iiited Professor in Greek at the Lyceum in 1S'») ; anil
made a scientific journey in Greece and Asia Minor in 1842
at the expense of the Government. His principal writings
are Explication drs Inncrip/ionn grecqites ef taftnes recueil-
lies en Grhe (18;^5) and I oijage arclieologique en Grece et
en Asie Mineiire (1847). I>. in Paris in 1861.
Lebcan', .Ieax Louis Joseph : statesman ; b. Jan. 2. 17!)4,
at lliiy. in the province of Liege, Belgium; studied law,
practiced as an advwate with great success: and founded
in 1824 the Juiirniil Politique de Liijie, which contributed
to that alliance between the clerical and liberal parties
which made it possible for the Belgian [irovinces to dissolve
the union with the Netherlands, lie became a member of
the committee of safety of Liege in 18:iO, and was sent to
Brussels to appeal to the Prince of Orange for the separa-
tion of Belgium from Holland. The revolution broke out
soon afterward. .Vs member of the congress of 18:i0 and
Minister of Foreign Affairs 18:11 he opposed the annexation
to France and the election of the Duke of Nemours as king.
He adv(K'ateil the election of Leopold, and .served under
him as Minister of Justice to 18;!4: was called once more in
1840 to the ministry of Foreign Affairs, but retired before
the violent opposition of the clerical party. 1). Mar. 19,
186.5, lie wrote Oliserratioiis »ar le I'liiivoir Roijnl dans
lex KtatK Conxtitntionnels (IWJO). Sec Les Fondateurs de la
Monarchie Beige, by Juste, 18fl5.
Revised by F. M. Colby.
Leber, la ber, TnEoofm, M. 1). : ophthalmologist ; b. in
Carlsrulie, Germany, Feb. 29, 1840 ; was educated at the
University of Heiilelberg : was Professor of O[)hthalmology,
University of (iottingen, 1871-90; since then has been Pro-
fessor of (Iphthalmology in the University of Heidelberg.
He is author of Die Entxte/iiinf/ der Enlziinditng, etc. (4ili
cil. 1891 1; several articles in Gracfe's Ifandlnirh, and a large
nunilK-r of professional I'ssjiys; has been co-editor of Graefe's
Arrliiv fiir (J//litli<itmnlogie since 1871. C. 11. T.
Le Rwiif, If-bilf , EnMONEi : marshal ; b. in Paris, Dec. 6,
1809; received his military education in Ihc fcole Polv-
techniriue; entered the artillery in 1822, and distinguished
himself as ofliecr in the staff during the expedition against
Constantine. He served in .\lgeria 18;i7-40: returned then
to France; became scconil commander of the ftcole Polv-
techni(|ue in 1H48, ami went in 18.")4 to Crimea as colonel
anil chief of the stall of the artillery. Here he distinguished
himself greatly, both in the battle "of Alma and at the ar-
tillery attack on Sebastopol, which he partly led; in Nov.,
18.')4. he was made a brigadier-general. After the close of
the Crimean campaign he was sent to Kinburn as com-
mander-in-chief, and remained there until ln."i(>. He then
received Ihc coininaml of the artillery of the guard; was
mii'le a general of divi>ioii in \>*'>~. and look an impor-
tant and brilliant part in the Italian war of IS."(9. In I8(i9
he wuscommunderof the Sixth Corps, slut ioiieil at Toulouse.
Unfortunately for him Xiel dinl .\ug. 14. 1809. and he was
ualled upon to succeed him as Minister of War. for, although
LEBRUN
an excellent ofTiccr. he was unable to master an administra-
tion of such dimensions. On Mar. 24, 1870. he was created
a marshal, and four months afterward the war with Ger-
many began. He received the eminent position of chief of
the staff of the emperor — that is, of actual commander of the
armv, as the emperor, even bodily, was unable to coiiiinaml
in person; but this task was too heavy for the iiiarslial.
The dispositions of the French army at the end of July,
1870, and the first strategical measures against the invading
German armv, showed the greatest lack of preparation and
a fatal weakness in the command. A short time after
(Aug. 12, 1870) Bazaine was made commander-in-chief, and
Le Banif received the command of the Third Corps. In this
position he took an active and brilliant part in the battles
of Vionville and Gravelotte (Aug. 10 and 18). and fought
at Noisseville (Aug. 31 and Sept. 1) with furious stubborn-
ness. At the surrender of Metz he became a prisoner of
war. Before the commission on the capitulation he testified
against Bazaine. D. June 7, 1888.
Lebrnn, le-brUiV, Charles : painter; b. in Paris in 1619.
He displayed early so decided a talent for art that the Chan-
cellor Seg'iiier took him under his protection and placed him
with Vouet, and then sent him to Rome, where he remained
six yeai's. At Lyons, on his return, lie met Poussin, with
who'm he later a'cijuired his style. In 1648 he was recalled
to France, where his work was much appreciated. .His jl/or-
ti/rdom of SI. Andrew and that of SI. Stephen in Notre
Dame led' to his being admitted to the Academy that year,
and other great works of decoration were intrusted to him.
His popularity soon exceeded that of Lesueur, then so much
in vogue, that Cardinal Mazarin commissioned him to make
a design for a painting representing the defeat of Jlaxentius,
and was so well pleased with the result that he presented
him to Louis XIV. From this moment Lebrun became
omnipotent in all art matters, and carried out in a satis-
factory manner all the gigantic schemes of the great king
and his jirime minister Colbert. Lebrun jiainted the bat-
tles of -Mexandcr, engraved by G. Auilran, in a series which
included the Family of Darius, considered his masterpiece.
He decorated the Palace of Fontainebleau, the great gallery
of Versailles, the chapel and [lavilion of Aurora in Col-
bert's palace of Sceaus. He was chancellor and director of
the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture in Paris, and
president of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. Through
his influence the French Academy was established in Rome
in 1600. At the death of Colbert", Louvois. his successor, re-
moved Lelirun from his all-important position, giving it to
his rival Jlignard. Grief and disappointment at this treat-
ment caused his death. The Louvre possesses many works
of this artist, who has shown himself both by his paintings
and his treatises on physiognomy, character, and the passions
to have been one of the most cultured painters of France.
D. in Paris, 1690. W. J. Stillmax.
Lebrun, Charles Francois, Duke of Piacenza: states-
man; b. at St.-Sauveur-Lendelin, Normandy, France, Mar.
19, 1739; was for several years secretary to Maupeou, and,
when the latter became chancellor, Lebrun was his most in-
fluential adviser. After the accession of Louis .\V1. and the
downfall of Maupeou he lived in retirement, and applied
himself to the study of literature, publishing translations of
Jerumlem Delivered and the Iliad which were highly praised.
In 1789 his pamphlet. La voix du citoyen, attracted consid-
erable attention. He was elected a deputy to the States-
General, and as a member to the Constituent Assembly he
aciniiri'il both influence and authority by his moderation
and by his insight in financial matters. Having been im-
prisoned during the Reign of Terror, he entered, under the
government of the Directory, the Council of Five Hundred,
and was chosen its president Feb. 20, 1790. He allied him-
self very closely to Gen. Bonaparte, and was made third
consul by him Nov. 9, 1799, with the supreme direction of
the finances and of the internal administration. He becaino
Minister of Finances, or arch-treasurer, of the empire, was
created Duke of Piacenza. and as Governor of Liguria gained
the good will of the Genoe.se for France. In 1810, on the
abdication of King Louis, he was apjiointed governor of
Holland, whence he was driven by the allies in 1814. After
the first restoration he was made a peer of France by Louis
.Will., but having during the Hundred Days received the
title of grand master of the universitv from Naiioleon, ho
was exi-luded from the Chamber of Peers on the second
restoration. In 1819. however, he was allowed to take his
scat, and in the debates he sided with the constitutional op-
LEBRUN
LECLERC
157
position. D. at St.-Mesme. near Dourdan, June 16, 1834.
llis Miinoires were published in 1829 by his son.
Revised by F. M. Coldy.
Lebruii, Marie Anne Elisabeth Vigee. called JIa<iame
Vigee-Lebrun : ])ainter : b. in Paris, Apr. 16, 17.55. Slic was
the daughter of Louis Vigee, a painter of some ability, and
was married young to J. B. P. Lebrun, a dealer in works of
art and a writer. Her facility as a portrait-painter was
shown at an early age. She painted many portraits of the
Queen, Marie Antoinette, and was popular with the court
nobles. She was made a member of the Academy in 1783.
In 1783 she left Prance and resided at Rome, Naples. Vienna,
and other cities, always busy. Portraits of Lady Hamilton,
Lord Byron, and tlie Prince of Wales, afterward George IV.,
date from this time. In Paris, under Bonaparte's influence,
she painted his sister, Caroline Murat, and otlier i)ersons of
the imperial court. Her favor continued uniler the Restora-
tion, and few portrait-painters can boast of so long and un-
disturbed a popularity. Her work has, even to modern
eyes, much grace, agreeable though not forcible color, and
a certain simple intensity and directness, even in the sym-
bolic and allegorical pictures which she painted sometimes.
Undoul>tedly she is the most famous artist among women,
and deservedly so. The best opportunity to study her work
is in the Louvre, where are seven or eight important pictures.
D. Mar. 30, 1842. Russell Stl-rgis.
Lebrun, Pierre Antoine : poet and dramatist ; b. in Paris,
France, Dec. 29, 1785. He won reputation by patriotic odes
under the empire. His greatest success was the drama Marie
Stuart (1820), after Schiller; in 1825 he wrote also Le Cid
d'Andalousie. In 1828 he published the poem Voi/nge en
(frece, and was chosen to the Academy. D. Jlay 27, 1873.
There is an edition of his Q^uvres completes, 5 vols. (2 vols.,
1844 ; 3 vols., 1863). A. G. Canfield.
Lebrun, Po.vce Denis Ecouchard, sometimes called Le-
brun-Pindare : lyric poet ; b. in Paris. France. Aug. 11, 1729.
He stuilied at the College Mazarin, where he developed a de-
cided taste for writing verses. He was secretary to the Prince
of Conti. He cultivated especially the ode and the epigram.
He addressed odes to Voltaire and Buffon ; celebrated in
turn Louis XVI., the Revolution, and Xapolcon, from whom
he received a pension of 6,000 francs ; pointed epigrams
against almost all the contemporary men of letters ; and
planned a long Lucretian poem. La Nature, which was not
finished. D. in Paris, Sept. 2. 1807. Ginguene edited his
CEuvres completes (4 vols., 1811). A. G. Canfield.
Le Cap, le-kalip' : See Cape Haytien.
Lecce, let'cha : the former Terra di Otranto, a province
of Italy, belonging to the division of Apulia. Area, 3,293
sq. miles. It is traversed by the Apennines, and produces
corn, tobacco, wine, olives, and in some places cotton, but
often suffers from severe droughts. Pop. (1890) 613,565.
Lecce : the ancient Lycia or Lupia, one of the most
beautiful towns in Southern Italy (see map of Italy, ref. 7-H).
It is situated in tlie province of Lecce, lat. 40° 42' X. and
Ion. 36' 40 E., on a plain between the Adriatic on the X"".,
the Gulf of Taranto on the W., and the Ionian .Sea on the
S. The town is regularly built of a remarkably fine white
stone, and has many interesting edifices, especially churches
and convents, some of which contain admirable works of
art. At the gate of St. Biagio is a triumphal arch erected
in commemoration of the entrance of Charles V. The royal
matuifaclory of tobacco is an old establishment, but has
been jjrovided with the best modern machinery, and the
first quality of Leccese tobacco is said to be equal to that
of Seville. There is a public liljrary and there are well-es-
tablished day and evening schools, and numerous charitable
institutions. Lecce (probably of Cretan origin) was very
flourishing during the Roman period, escaped the barbarians,
and in 1000 a. d. was governed by its own counts, among
whom were Tancred and Bohemond. Pop. 23,000.
Lecco, lekko : town ; in the province of Cotno, Xorthern
Italy (see map of Italy, ref. 2-C). It is delightfully situate<l
on the Adda, near the point where it flows out from the
southeast arm of Lake Como. at the foot of the Rcsegone.
Lecco existed under the Romans, and continued a town of
considerable importance through all the vicissitudes of the
Middle Ages. It is now one of the most industrious and
prosperous of the small towns, of Lorabardy. Its iron and
silk mainif.actories are extensive. A picturesque road on
the east bank of the lake connects Lecco with Colico, while it
has direct railway communication with Bergamo. Pop. 7,000.
Lech, lech : a river of Southern Germany which rises in
the Vorarlberg, runs N. through 'J'yrol and Bavaria, and
joins the Danube after a course of about 140 miles. A little
below Fiissen it becomes navigable for small boats, and for
larger from Augsburg, but it has no great commercial im-
portance on account of the irregularity of its course, bottom,
banks, etc. Many mills are worked by its waters.
Lecliaeum : the port of Cori.nth (q. v.).
Lechevalier, le-she-vaa'li-a', .Jean Baptiste : traveler and
arehjEologist ; b. at Trelly, Xormandy, France, Julv 1, 1752;
studied theology at the Seminary of St. Louis in taris, but
did not take orders; accompanied in 1784 the Count of
Choiseul-GoufEer as secretary to Constantinople, and par-
ticipated with great energy in his explorations of the plain
of Troy ; traveled much in Spain, England, Germanv, and
Scandinavia, and was ajipointed director of the library of
Ste.-Genevieve in Paris in 1805, which position he held to
his death, July 2, 1836. His Voyage dans la Troade (1794)
and Voyage de la PropontUle e't du Punt-Euxin (1800), in
w'hieh he pretended to have made many great discoveries
concerning the geography of the Homeric eiiics, made a great
sensation at their first appearance. He located the site of
Troy at Bunarbaschi, alleging that he had found the two
warm springs mentioned in Homer, but Schlieniann's discov-
eries have forever settled this question in favor of Ilissjirlik.
He is also the author of a work entitled Ulysse-Homere
(1829), in which he attempts to j)rove that Ulysses wrote
the Iliad and the Odyssey. See Xoel, Jean Baptiste Leche-
valier (Paris, 1840). Revised by Alfred Gudeman.
Lech'ford, Tuo.mas : a lawyer from London who settled
in Boston, Mass.. in 1638, the first of his profession to jirac-
tice in Xew England. He returned to England in 1641, much
dissatisfied with his experience ; published in 1642 Plaine
Dealing, or Xeu'es from Sew England's Present Govern-
tnent, etc., and m 1644 Sew Engluitd's Advice to Old Eng-
land. He is said to have died soon after. A new edition
of the Plaine Dealing, with introduction and notes by J.
Hammond Trumbull, was published in 1867. Though hos-
tile to Xew England, Lechford's work contains valuable in-
formation.
Lccltlline, lek'i-thin [from Gr. \4ki9os, yolk of an egg] :
the matiere visgueuse of Gobley, a name given to phosjjhu-
retted fatty bodies, found in the yolk of eggs, the brain,
bile, blood, the roe of fish, yeast, corn, wheat, peas, etc.
Every lecithine is a fat (glyceride) in which one of the three
fatty acid radicals is replaced by the radical of phosphoric
acid in combination with neurine. Brain and nerve sub-
stance contains the palmitic oleic lecithine.
Lccky, William Edward Hartpole : historian ; b. near
Dublin, Ireland. Mar. 26, 1838; studied at Trinity College,
Dublin, and graduated in 1859; published anonymously in
1861 Tlie Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland (new ed. 1872) ;
traveled extensively on the Continent; settled in London,
devoting himself to historical and philosophical researches,
and surprised the learned world in 1865 by the History of
the Pise and Influence of the Spirit of Hationalism in Eu-
rope (5th ed. 1872), a work which united to an elegant style a
judicial impartiality and a more than German erudition. It
was speedily republished in the U. .S., as were also his next
works, A History of European Morals from Augustus to
Charlemagne (2 vols., 1869 ; 3d ed. 1877) and A Ilistori/ of
England in the Eighteenth Century (8 vols.. 1878-90), wjiich
displayed the characteristics of its predecessors in a still
highf'r liegree. All these works were translated into German
by Dr. H. Jolowicz, and the History of Morals has become a
text-book in more than one German university. Lecky pub-
lished a lecture delivered before the Royal Institution on the
Influeyice of the Imagination in History. He has been an
occasional contributor to periodicals, and since the division
in the Liberal party has spoken in public in favor of Liberal-
Unionism. He married about 1870 a maid of honor of the
Queen of Holland.
Leclerc, Ic-klar, Joseph Victor: classical scholar: b. in
Paris. Dec. 2. 1789: was teacher at various lycees and the
Faculte des Lettrcs. and a member of the Academic des In-
scriptions. I), in Paris, Xov. ]2, 186.5. He published Soh-
velle rhetorique fran(;aise (Vii2\ 11th ed. 1850); Desjournaux
ches les Romains (18^)8): a translation of Cicero (30 vols.,
1821-25 ; 2d ed. 35 vols.. 1823-27) ; and an editor of the His-
toire litle.raire de la France (vols, xx.-xxiii., 1842-56). See
E. Renan. Joseph Victor Leclerc (Pevue des Deux Mondes,
Mar., 1868). Alfred Gudeman.
15S
LECLERC
Let'lerc, Vktob Emmani-el: general; b. at Pontoise,
n.ar I'l.ri.-, Fraiue, Mar. 17. 1773. lie joined the reimbli-
lau anuv in I7!»l. foufjlit at Toulon, in the .Vrdennes, anil
ill Itidv:' WHS eoniniandaiit at Mai^eilk-s in K'Jo; and, hav-
1 the rank of liripidier, married in 17U7 I'auline,
f t;in. IJi'iiapane. Later he aeeoniiiaiiied liis
;„ . . .,, ,aw to Kj,'V|)t, and after his return was proini-
I,. h- 111 the overthrow- of the A.^seinbly. The First Consul
ma i. him niajor-tfeneral, and intrusted him with important
eommnnils. In 1801 he was at the head of an army sent
au'ainst Portujjal. and forc-ed the treaty of Badajoz. In
dIh'.. 1801. he wivs j;iveil eommand of S-i.OOO men (subse-
iiueiitly re-enfonrd bv H.tKMIl. destined to subdue the Kreneh
IKirtion of the islainl of Santo Uoniinf,'o. then in revolt, and
to eomiuiT the S|ijinish portion. With this force he sailed
from Brest in a lleet of fortv-three ships of war and trans-
p..rts. eommanded by Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse. The e.\-
pedilion reaehed t'lipe Samana Feb. 1. 1802, and was there
divided. The Spanish eolony was eiusily redueed. but the
blacks of the western portion', under their leader, Toussaint
Louvfrture, made a desperate resislanee. and the French
ha<l lost .5.0t)0 men before Toussaint finally capitulated.
He WHS allowed to retire to his estate, but on suspicion that
another uorisint; was intemied he was arrested anil sent to
France (May. 1H02). Sum after tlie blacks revolted under
Dessalines and Christophe, and an epidemic of yellow fever
caused terrible devastation in the army. Gen. Lcclerc him-
self was at leiijrth stricken with the disease and died at ('a))e
Fnini;ais. Dee. 2. 1802. His wife, who had established a
kind of court in the island, accompanied her husband's
botly to France; she wtus subsequently prominent in Eu-
ropean politics. The French, after los'ing nearly all their
army, abandoned the island. Hkrbert ll. Smith.
Lpclercq, Miciiri, Tiikodore: dramatist; b. in Paris,
France, Apr. 1. 1777. He held from 1810 to 1819 a subordi-
nate place in the civil service, but was not dependent upon
it. He was a man of the world rather than a professional
author. He wrote several short stories and the novel Le
Chalettii (ie Ihincan, but is chiefly known for his Prunrlies
dramiilii/ueti, a slight dramatic form invented by Carmon-
telle. adapted rather for private theatricals than the stage.
In these he shows a keen observation of the intimate and
familiar pha.ses of social and domestic life, and in some.
particularly Ijetween 1824 anil 18;jl, colors thoui with polit-
ical significance ami apiiroaches re^nlar coiiudy. .\iiioiij;
these are Le lirtiiiir ilit tiitron, Le Ptre Jusep/i, L' Intriyunt
vtalenronlrrux. 1). Feb. 1.5. 18.51. The Piorerbes driima-
tiifiiex a|)ix'ared in 182;i (7 vols.) ; Nuuveaux prnverhes dra-
mulitjut^is in 18;t6 (2 vols.). A. G. Ca.nkield.
Lecocq. If-kok , Alexa.vdre Charles: composer; b. .June
.3, 18;J2, in Paris: educated in the Conservatory there. He is
best known as the composer of numerous w/j(';-n.s-4oH_;r'-.', of
which Lfs Cent Vieryex (1872), La Filh de Maddine Angut
(1873), (rirnjle-dinijht (1874), La Marjulaine (1877), and Le
Petit Due (187X) are the best known. His works have had a re-
markable popularity in Paris, London, and New York, almost
entirely displacing those of OtTenbach, 1). E. Hervkv.
Leromte, Ic-kwiif, Loi-|s: priest and author; b, at Bor-
deaux, France, about lO.i.5; was one of the six .Jesuits se-
lected for their mathematical attainments to undertake a
semi-seientific mission in China. They embarked at Brest
Mar. 3, 1685, with the Chevalier de Channiont, ambassador
to Siam, where they arrived in September, and were de-
tained two years by I he reigning monarch, I'lira Narai, who
prilled himself upon liis knowledge of mat hematics. Ar-
riveil at Peking in Feb., l(iH8, they made sustronomical obser-
vations in various parts of the em|)irc for several years, and
became well aciiuainted with the condition of the country
and people, and had eonsideralile success in making nroselvtcs
to Komiiii Catholicism— a success much facililaleil by tlieir
tolerance of many pagan ceremonies which the missionaries
of other orders condemned as idolatrous. Lecomtc was sent
to Home in l(iU2. beeaiiie soon afterward confessor to the
Duchess of Burgundy, ami wrote a work, N<iiiveaux Me-
moirefi sur I'Klat preu'eiit de la ( '/line (3 vols., 10ilO-!»7-1701),
coinJiining much infoniialion with an exaggerated imne-
gyric upon the Chinese, who were represented as having al-
ways retained a kiiowlerlge of the true God. This work,
together with .S'lir lex Cen'monieit de la Chine (1700), was
censured by the faculty of theology at Paris and by the
Congregation at Home. Lecomle died at Bordeaux in 172!t.
Lp C(»ntp. Ii'e-konf, .Ions, M. I)., LL.D. : physicist ; son of
Lewis Le Conte (1783-1838), naturalist ; b. in Liberty co., Ga.,
LECONTE IJE LISLE
Dee. 4, 1818 : prepared for college under Alexander H. Ste-
iiliens : graduated in 1838 with high honors at Franklin Col-
lege. Athens (now University of Georgia) ; studied medicine,
taking his degree in 1841 from the Xew York College of Phy-
sicians and Surgeons ; in 1842 began practice at Savannah,
Ga.. and from that time forward contributed largely to the
prominent medical journals of the U. S. : was elected in
1846 to the chair of Natural Philosophy and Chemistry in
Franklin College, and resigned in 18.5.5 to become lecturer
on Chemistry in the College of Physicians and .Surgeons,
New York ; accepted in 18.56 the new professorship of Natu-
ral and Mechanical Philosophy in the .South Carolina College,
Columbia : in 1860 became Professor of Physics and Indus-
trial Mechanics in the new University of California at Oak-
land, and was president after the resignation of President
1). C. Gilman in Apr., 187.5, till Aug.. 1881, when he resumed
the chair of Physics. He was a member of the leading sci-
entific soi-ietiesof the U. S. Published Pliilusophij of Medi-
cine (1840) : Study of the Physical Sciences (18,58) : con-
tributed The yehular Jfy/wthesis to The Popular Scietice
Munthlij for Apr., 1873, and many other articles to period-
icals, including Sound Shadou-s in Water (Am. Journal of
Science, 1882) ; Apparent Attractions and Repulsions of
Small Floating Bodies (Am. Journal of Science, 1882);
Physical Studies of Lake Tahoe (3 paf)ers. 1883-84); Vital
Statistics and the True Coefficient of Mortality, Illustrated
III/ Cancer (1888). In 18.57 lie delivered a cimrso of lectures
on Physics of Meteorology at the Sii'iitlisonian Institution,
Washington, and in 1867 one of four lectures on the Stellar
Universe at the Peabody Institute in Baltimore. By the
burning of Columbia, S. C, in Feb., 186.5. he lost the nearly
completed manuscripts of a treatise on General Physics.. D.
at Berkeley, Cal., Apr. 29, 1891.
Revised by W. Le Coste Stevens.
Le Coilte. .lonx Eaton : naturalist : brother of Lewis Le
Contc ; b. near Shrew.sbury, N. .J.. Feb. 22. 1784; entered
the engineer corps of the U. S. army in 1813 ; was long em-
ployed in surveys and fortifications; retired with the rank
of major in 1831; devoted himself to the study of botany
and zoology, making a specialty of coleoptera. He pub-
lished Monographs of the North American Species of Vtri-
cularia, Gratiola, and Pnellia ; Observations of the North
American Species of Viola-, Descriptions of the Species of
Xorth American Tortoises in the Annals of the i\eH' York
Lyceuin of Natural Ili.itory. vols, i., ii., iii. ; and ^4 3Iono-
yrapli of North American IJisteroides in the Boston t/o»r-
tial of Natural History, vol. v. D. in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Nov. 21, 1860.
Le Coiite. Joseph. M. D. : geologist ; son of Lewis Le
Conte. naturalist; b. in Liberty Co., Ga., Feb. 26, 1823;
graduated with distinction at Franklin College, Georgia, in
1841. and in medicine in New York in 184.5 ; settled in 1848
as a physician in Macon, Ga, ; studied natural history under
Agassiz at Cambridge in 1850; became Professor of Natural
History at Franklin College in 18.53. and was Professor of
Chemistry and Geology in the University of South Carolina
from 1856 to 1869. accompanying his brother John in 1869
to California, where he took the chair of Geology in the Uni-
vei-sity of California. He was vice-president of the inter-
national congress of geologists in 1891. and president of the
American As,sociation for the Advancement of Science in
1892. He is most widely known through his Elements of
Geology {Wiii),\mt has written also on optics. ai'Touautics,
biology, art. education, philosophy, and the relations of re-
ligion and science. Revised by G. K. Gilbert.
Le Conte, Lewis, M. D. : naturalist ; b. near Shrewsbury,
Monmouth co., N. J., Aug. 4, 1782; descended from one of
the Huguenot settlers of New Rochelle, N. Y. ; graduated in
1799 at Columliia College; studied medicine in the oflice of
Dr. David llosack. but never practiced, and soon settled in
Lilierty co., Ga., taking charge of his father's estate and es-
tablishing a botanical ganlen especially rich in bulbous
plants from the Cape of Good Hope. By his observations
tic enriched the monographs of his brother. Major John IjC
Conte, and aided other botanists. Dr. J^e Conte devoted ■
much attention also to ornithology, chemistry, and mathe-
matics, but his manuscripts were lost by the burning of Co-
lumbia, S. C, in Feb., 186.5. I), in Liberty co.. Ga., Jan. 9,
1838. Revised by Charles E. Bkssey.
Leeonte de Lisle. Ic-kont de-lee!'. Charles .Marie: poet ;
b. at St.-Paul. Islanil of Hi'union, Oct. 23. 1818. He made
several journeys to France during his youth, and settled in
Paris in 1847. For a time he took sonie part in politics, but
LKCOUVREUR
LEDUM PALUSTRE
159
soon turned to poetry. His first volume was Poemes an-
tiques (1853). Tile vohnue was accompanied by a jireface
of importance. It distinctly expressed the ideas of the so-
called neo-pagan movement. It arraigned romanticism and
modern art altogether for its abandonment to the personal
and emotional element. In inner sympathy with the grow-
ing positivism of the century, it demanded" the elimination
from art of the dis|)lay of the personal feeling of the artist,
laid emphasis on the material object and fact, sought beauty
in perfection of form, and in general asserted the imperson-
ality and impassibility of art. The i)lastie charm and splen-
did serenity of the poems of this volume exemplified the
doctrine and visibly influenced the young generation of
poets. A group of writers followed his lead and were called
Impassibles. Pohnes et poesies followed in 1855, Poemes
burbares in 1862, and Poemes trayiqites in 1883. The poems
usually take their subjects from the sacred traditions and
mytlis of various peoples, and attempt to penetrate and ex-
hibit the essential spirit of the great historic phases of hu-
manity. Their philosophy is a somber pessimism. He has
also published excellent transhitions of the Greek poets —
Theocritus and Anaereon (1861), Homer (1866-67), Hesiod
(1809), ^Eschylus (1872), Sophocles (1877). He was received
into the Academy in 1887, succeeding Victor Hugo. D. at
Louveciennes, July 17, 1894. A. G. Caxfield.
Lecouvrenr. l(>-ktiov rlir', Adrienxe: actress *b. at Da-
mery, near Eiiernay, France, Apr. 5, 1692. In 17U2 her
parents settled at Paris, and after receiving some instruc-
tion from the actor Legrand she went on the stage at Strass-
burg in 1716. In the following year (May 14, 1717) she
made her debut at the Theatre Frani;ais in Paris, where she
very soon attained the first place both in comedy antl trag-
edy. Her acting was touching rather than impressive, and
her principal power was a most wonderful mimicry. Mau-
rice of Saxony was her lover, and when he was made Duke
of Courland she solil her diamonds and jewels in order to
lend him the money necessary to take possession of the
country. It was alleged that another of his mistiesses, the
Duchess of Bouillon, poisoned her from jealousy. She died
3Iar. 20, 1730. Her remains were not allowed to rest in
consecrated ground, but were buried secretly in a iirivate
place. Roused by indignation, Voltaire wrote an ode on her
death, but public opinion was so fixed on this point that he
hail to leave the city. Revised by B. B. Vallentixe.
Le Creusot : a town of Prance. See Creusot, Le.
Le'da (in Gr. A^S?;) : in Greek mythology, daughter of
Thestios, King of ^Etolia, and wife of Tyndareos, King of
Sparta, to whom she bore Timandra, Philonoe, and Cly-
ta-mnestra. Her beauty enthralled Zeus, who assumed the
shape of a swan and surprised her in the bath. Though she
was already pregnant by her husband with Clyta^mnestra
and Castor, yet by her divine lover she conceived Pollux
and Helen, and was delivered of all four at the same time.
Leda and the swan were favorite subjects among the ancient
artists, who depicted the visit of Zeus to Leda in a great
variety of ways. J. R. S. Sterkett.
Lederer, Jonx : German surgeon ; known only as an
early explorer of the mountain region of Virginia; wrote in
Latin an account of his travels, which was translated and
printed in 1672 l)y Sir William Talbot, under the title The
Discoveries of John Lederer in Tliree Several Marches
from Virginia to the West of Carolina and other parts of
the Continent, begun in March, 16G0, and ended in Septem-
ber, 1670 (quarto, 27 pp., with a map). Sir William states
in the preface that Lederer was driven out of Virginia by
ill-treatment from the populace — that he made his acquaint-
ance in Maryland, and induced him to write this treatise as
a vindication.
Ledesma BuitragfO, la-des'maVbwee-traa'go. Alonso, de :
poet; b. in .Segovia, Spain, in 1.5.52; d. in 1623. Writing
chiefly religious verse, of a peculiar mystical kind, he is
noteworthy as the first important representative of the
school known as Conceptistas, of which later Quevedo (q.v.)
was the best exponent. Affecting to preserve the poetical
manner of the previous period, in antagonism to the grow-
ing Italian influence, Ledesma and his followers indulgetl
in all the quaintnesses and perversities of the decaying
Middle Ages. Allegory is carried by them to an absurd
point, and true poetry disappears in the midst of mere
quibbles. Still the influence of the school long survived,
and is plainly to l)e seen in Lope de Vega and several of his
contemporaries. The first and best of Ledesma's works is
the Conceptos espirituales (1600; an additional volume in
1612). Besides this we have Jueyos de. la JS'oche Jiuenic
(Barcelona, 1611 ; put in the Index Expurgatorius of 1667);
El Monstruo imaginado (lUlii) : Epiyramas y Geroyliticos
d la Vida de Crista, etc. (1625). The best of Le(ie.s"ma"s
poems are printed in vol. xxxv. of Rivadeneyra's Bildioteca
de Autores Espailoles (.Madrid, 1872). A. R. Mak.sh.
Ledoc'liowski, led-«-Ahor ske'e, Miecislas Halka, de.
Count: cardinal; b. at Ledochow, Galicia, Oct. 29, 1822;
studied theology at Warsaw, Vieinia. and Rome; became
domestic prelate and jirothonotary apostolic to Pope Pius
IX. ; and entering the papal diplomatic service was audi-
tor of the nunciature successively at JIadrid, Lisbon, Rio
de Janeiro, and Santiago de Chili, innicio at Brussels, and
Archbishop of Thebes in partibus intidelium in 1861 ; and-
at the request of the King of Prussia was appointed in
Jan., 1866, Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen, becoming
thereby ex officio primate of Poland. On Jlay 26, 1873, he
headed the protest signed by the clergy against the new-
Prussian ecclesiastical laws which placedthe choice of bish-
ops and priests in the hanils of the people of tlie diocese or
parish. Persistently refusing to appear before the courts to
justify his action, his property was taken in jiayment of fines,
and he was imprisoned at Ostrowa 1874-76, after which he
took up his abode in R<jme. though continuing his opposi-
tion to the Prussian Government. While in prison he was
exhorted to constancy by a papal brief of Nov. 3, 1873, and
in the secret consistory of JIar. 15. 1875, was made a car-
dinal. In 1892 he was appointed prefect of the Propaganda.
D. in Switzerland, July 28, 1894.
Ledrii-Rollin. 1« drii ro laiV. Alexandre Auguste : rev-
olutionist ; b. in Paris, Feb. 2, 1807 ; began to be known soon
after the revolution of July, 1830, as an advocate in im-
portant political cases, as aii editor of republican newspa-
pers, and as the author of pamphlets and memoirs in which he
opposed the repressive measures ordered against individuals
or public liberties. He was at the same time a favorite and
celebrated lawyer in ordinary lawsuits, and published liog-
matic works and periodical reviews on jurisprudence. In 1841
he was elected member of the Chamber of Deputies, and up-
held openly the doctrines of republicanism in the chamber.
Too radical even for a considerable jjortion of his own
party, and ridiculed in the chamber as a general without
soldiers, he nevertheless became the leading representative
of republicanism with the masses. With Lamartinc and
Louis Blanc he addressed the people at the workingmen's
banquets, asserting the doctrine of the right of labor (droit
pour travailler) and advocating universal suffrage. For a
short time he was the most conspicuous figure in the revolu-
tion of 1848. He checked the plans of the monarchists and
as Minister of the Interior, one of the jirovisional govern-
ment of the republic, he ]iut in practice his theory of uni-
versal suffrage. He was a candidate for the presidency, but
received only a small vote. On June 13, 1849, he headed a
demonstration against the Roman policy of the government,
and though he protested his peaceful intentions, the movement
was regarded as an actual insurrection, and he was forced
to flee. He took refuge in England, where he co-operated
with Mazzini. Kossuth, and other revolutionary leaders in
propagating democratic principles. While there he wrote
a work on tlie Decadence d'Angleterre. Returned to France
in 1870, he did not wish to re-enter the political arena; but
the republicans elected him deputy in 1873, and he was one
of the members of the extreme Left in the Versailles As-
sembly, where he made an eloquent speech on behalf of
universal suffrage. D. Dec. 31, 1874.
Revised by F. M. Colbv.
Le'diiiii. Oil of [ledum is Mod. Lat., from Gr. \^Sov, a
kind of cistus (kIcttos) or running ground-plant]: an essen-
tial oil obtained by distilling tlie leaves of marsh tea. Le-
dum palustre. It is reddish yellow, lias an acid reaction,
smells like the plant, and consists of a hydrocarbon iso-
meric with oil of tur|>entine, and an oxygenated oil having
the composition of cricinol. CioILeO.
Le'dliiii Paliis'trc [Mod. Lat.. liter., swamp ledum; le-
dum + Lat. pnlustris, swampy, marshy, deriv. of pa I us,
swamp, marsh] ; a small evergreen shrub growing in
swamps and other wet places in the northern parts of Eu-
rope, Asia, and America, and in ninuntainous regions of
more southern latitudes. It bears the popular name of
marsh tea. The leaves have a balsamic odor and an aro-
matic, camphorous. bitter taste, and contain, among other
ingredients, a volatile oil and tannin. They are thought to
100
LKDYAKl)
possess imrcotio i.r..|Krti.-.sinia Imvo boi^n employed to nlliiy
IrriUlioii ill «I..H.i.in-cout,'h. aysontery. leiiR-.-^y. ami ?.a-
!.:.„ //• V l^,:.t,^ 'I'liov lire saiil to i.rolei-l clotlies from
bies. (C ^- i*'"!'-^ ''"''"'*' '"''' *"''' '" l"^'>^^"l *--lutlies froi
moths, are soiiioiiiiios iin-.l iis h substitute for liops ill bee
and an- oini.lov.si in Kussia to tun j;oat, calf. unU slieep
Kkiu-i into u rej.lisli leatlior of an agreeable smell, as also in
the pn'Panili.'u of oil of biri'li, for making what is generally
called Russia leather.
Lcdjard, Joun : traveler. See E.sglisii Literature.
Lee: town (settled in 1760, incorporated in 1777); Berk-
shire i-o., Mass. (for location of county, see inai) of Massii-
chusetts. ref. 2-C): on the llousatonie river, and the ^J. v.,
N il. and Hart. Itailroad ; 10 miles S. of Pittsfield. It is
noted for its fine marble ipiarries. which supjilied the si one
for the extension of the National Capitol in W ashingtcm
and the erection of St. Patrick's Cathedral in Xcw i oi k,
and for the extent of its manufactories, which include Lo
paper-mills. 3 machine-shops, 2 iron-foundries, and several
woolen-mills. The first paper-mill was erected here in 1806.
The town has a trotting-park, public library (opened in
1874), and weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 3.939: (1890)
3,780; (1895) 4,066. EuiTOR of " Valley Gleaner.
Lee, Alfred, D. D.. LL. I). : bishop; b. at Cambridge,
Mas.s., Sept. 9, 1807; graduated at Harvard in 1827; was
admitted to the bar in I8:!0; practiced law at Norwich,
Conn., 1831-33: graduated at the GenenilTlieological Semi-
nary. New York, 1KJ7 ; was ordained a deacon of P. E.
Chiirch in 18;i7. and a priest in 1838; rector of Calvary
church, Hockdale, Del.. 18;i8-41 ; consecrated Bisliop of
Delaware in 1841. and lx;cume also rector of .St. .Vndrew's.
Wilmington. Del. On the death of Bishop Benjamin Bos-
worth Smith, of Kenluckv, Bisliop Lee became piesi<ling
bishop of the .American Episcopal Church, and held the
office till his death. He was author of Life of SI. Peter
(New York. 18.52); Life uf SI. John (1854); Treatise on
B'l pf i s m {IH-'A); Memnir of Siismi Alliboiie (Philadelphia,
18.56); Ilarbimjer o/ C'/iri«/ (New York, 1857); Co-operative
Revixion of the Sew Testament (1881) ; and Eventful Xights
in Bible History (1886). D. in Wilmington. Del., Apr. 12,
1887. Revised by VV. S. Perry.
Lee. Ann: religious leader; b. at Manchester, England,
Feb. 29, 1736; worked in a cotton-mill, and afterward bo-
oame a C(X>k ; was married to a man named Stanley, and
soon began to take part in tlie conventicles of James and
Jane Wardley, the original ".Shaking Quakers," whom slie
succeeded as the leader of the sect in 1771. soon after wliich
she was for a time confined in a jail, and then in a mad-
house. After her releiuse she was acknowledged as a
"mother in Christ," and assumed the title of '• Ann, the
Word." In 1774 she went with a few followers to New
York, and in 1776 settled at Watervliet, near Albany. Here
she was charged with high tresison and wildicraft, and im-
prisoned at .VIbany and Poughkeepsie. This imprisonment,
regarded as a persecution, brought her manv followers. (See
Shakers.) D. at Watervliet, JJ. Y., Sept, 8, 1784
Lee, Arthi'r: diplomat; son of Thomas Lee, colonial
Governor of Virginia; b. at Stratford, Westmoreland co.,
Va., Dec. 20, 1740; wa.s educated at Eton and at Edinburgh
University, where he received the degree of M. D. and a
diploma approving him a "general scholar"; returned to
Virginia and practiced medicine at Williamsburg, but liav-
ing a strong taste for political lite. an<l desiring to aid the
colonies in tlieir constitutional struggle with Great Britain,
returned to England about 1780. studied law in the Temple,
Londi>n, and was uilniitted to the bar in 1770. While carry-
ing on a successful practice ho devoted much time to politics
in their relation to the North .\mcrican colonies; i)nblislu>d
letters, signed Monitor and Junius Americanus, in defense
of the colonies, and a ]>amphlel entitled An Appeal to the
Enylish yalion; and furtlier aided the colonies as a mem-
ber of a society called Supporters of the Bill of Rights. In
1770 he was ai)poinled by I ho Assembly of Massachusetts
agent of that colony at Lomlon, in association with Frank-
lin, and in 1774 presented the addresses of ('(ingress to the
king ami to the people of England. In .N'ov.i 1775, Con-
gress a;ipoiiited a CDinmittee of secret correspondence with
the friends of the colonics in Knglaiid and oilier enunlries,
and Lee acted as their agent in LoikIoii. In 1776 he re-
moved to Paris, where, in connection with Franklin and
•Silas Deane, he secured a treaty of alliance wiih France.
In 1777 he visited Madrid ami Berlin as a eommi.ssioncr
from the U. S., and iliiring 1778-79 was sole coiumissiuncr
LEE
to Spain and acting commissioner to Prussia. His sus-
picious and irritable disposition involved him in ipiarrcls
with his fellow commissioners, and led him to attack Frank-
lin and Deane with great bitterness; consequently he was
recalled in 1779 by Congress, which, however, did not cen-
sure him. In 1781 he was elected to the State Assembly of
Virginia, and in 1782 to Congress, in which he served till
1785. In 1784-^5 he traveled through New York and Penn-
svlvania on a commission appointed to treat witli Indian
tribes; from 1784 to 1789 served on the Board of Treasury
of the confederated States. He then retired to his estate at
Urbana, Middlesex co., Va., where he die<l Dec. 12, 1792. See
Richard H. Lee, Life of Arthur Lee, tcith his Political and
Literary Correspondence (2 vols.. Boston. 1829) ; Parton, Life
and Times of Benjamin Franklin (vol. ii., 1864).
Lee, Charles: soldier; b. at Dernhall, Cheshire, Eng-
land, in 1731 ; was the son of a colonel in the British army.
When eleven years old he is said to have entered the serv-
ice; was in Braddock's expedition as lieutenant <if the
Forty-fourth Regiment of British reguliirs. and whs wounded
at Ticonderoga in 1758; distinguished himself in Portugal,
but never rose higher in the British service than a half-|)ay
lieutenant-colonel, his meddlesome disposition, quarrelsome
temper, and sarcastic speeches about his superiors interfer-
ing with his promotion. He became later a soldier of for-
tune; aide-de-camp to the King of Poland and a major-
general; entered the Russian service against the Turks, anil
became notorious as a duelist. In 1773 he went to North
America, purchased an estate in Berkeley co., Va., and be-
came an ardent Whig. In 1775 he was chosen major-gen-
eral of the Continental army; took part in the defense of
Charleston ; and in 1776 was taken prisoner at Bnsking-
ridge, N. J. It is now considered certain that while in
prison Lee made treasonable projiositions to the enemy. In
1778 he was exchanged, and at the battle of Monmouth his
insubordination nearly lost the <lay. He was courl-mar-
tialed, and suspended for one year from comniaiid, and
soon after was wounded in a duel by Col. John Laurens,
who challenged him in consequence of disrespectful lan-
guage used to Gen. Washington. He then retired to Vir-
ginia, where he led the life of a hermit, and a disrespectful
letter sent by him to Congress caused his dismissal from the
service. D.'while on a visit to Philadelphia, Oct. 2. 1782.
His Life has been written by Sir H. Bunbury, by Edward
Langworthv. and bv J. S]iarks. See also Treason of Charles
Lee, by G. 11. Jloore (1858).
Lee. Francis Lightfoot: statesman: son of Thomas
Ludwell Lee. statesman; b. at Stratford. Westmoreland co.,
Va., Oct. 14. 1734; received a careful classical and English
education from a private tutor; inherited a large estate:
served in the House of Burgesses from 1765 to 1772. and four
terms as delegate in the Continental Congress from 1775 to
1779; was a signer of the Declaration of Independence;
member of important committees, and frequently chairman
of the committee of the whole. He rendered important
services iu framing the old Articles of Confederation, in.>^ist-
ing, as conditions of peace with England, upon the right to
the navigation of the Mississippi, and to the Newfoundland
fisheries, thereby justly earning the gratitude of New Eng-
land. He seldom spoke in Congress, but exercised great in-
fluence, and was a consistent friend and supporter of Wa.sh-
ington in the most critical times. Retiring from Congress
in 1779. he resumed the life of a country gentleman, distin-
guished for geniality and wit, but averse to politics, in
which he did not again figure except by a brief service in
the Virginian Senate. D. at Richmond, Va., Apr. 3, 1797.
Lee, Fkedebick George, D.D., D. C. L., F. S. A. : cler-
gyman and author ; b. at Thane Vicarage, Oxfordshire,
England, Jan. 6, 1832; graduated at Oxford with high
honors in 18.54; was ordained deacon in 1854. and priest in
1856; became successively curate of Sunniiigwell. assistant
minister of Berkeley chapel, incumbent of .St. JIary's, Aber-
deen, and vicar of All Saints', Lambelh. His honorary de-
gree of D.I), is from Washington and Lee Universilv. Vir-
ginia (1879); his I). C. L. from Oxford (1804). Dr. Lee was
from 1857 to 1869 a secretary of the Association for the Pro-
motion of the Union of Christendom, founded The Union
lieview in 1803 and condu<ted it until 1S09. and has been a
frequent contributor to Tlie Church Mripazinv; has written
several volumes of poems and many tlu'ological essays, of
which (llimpses of the Sufternatural and Lyrics of Lif/ht and
Life, both published in 1874, attained coiisideraiile popular-
ity. Dr. Lee is one of the originators and ollicers of the
LEE
161
Order of Corporate Reunions established in 1877 and is sup-
posed to have receive<l episcopal consecration under tlie
auspices of this organization. His most important worljs
are The Validitij of Hit Holij Orders of the Church of Eng-
land 3[aiiitiiineil and Vindirated (1870); The Christian
Doctrine of Frai/er for the Departed (1874; 2d ed. 1875);
Historical Slietrhes of the Reformation (1878) ; 7'he Church
under Queen Elizaljeth (3 vols., 1880); King Edward VI.,
Supreme Head (188()) ; Reginald Pole (1887). Dr. Lee's
Glimpses of the Supernatural (2 vols., 1875) and More
Glimpses of the Unseen (1878) are dee])ly interesting.
Revised by W. 8. Perry.
Lee, Harriet: author; b. in London, England, in 1756 ;
published in 1786 a novel in five volumes, Tlie Errors of
Innocence, smd in 1787 a drama. The New Peerage; followed
at later dates by two other dramas and another novel. She
is best known as associated with her sister Sophia in the au-
thorship of the Canterbury Tales (5 vols., 1797-1805), once
extremely popular, and reprinted in New York in 1857.
Eight of the ten tales were from her pen, the most remark-
able being The German's Tale; and Kruitzner, which sup-
plied Byron with the plot, the machinery, and some of the
language of Werner. V). at Clifton, Aug. 1, 1851.
Lee, Henry: soldier; the father of Robert E. Lee, soldier,
and a distant relation of Richard IL Lee, statesman ; b. in
Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 20, 1756 ; graduated at Prince-
ton in 1773; in 1775, at the beginning of the Revolutionary
war, was appointed captain of a company of Virginia cav-
alry, and served afterward both in the Xorth and South in
comuiand (as major and afterward as lieutenant-colonel) of
a partisan corps known as Lee's Legion, while Lee himself
was familiarly known as Light-horse Harry. He became
renowned for boldness, activity, and efficiency, and in the
opinion of Gen. Greene did more than any other man to ac-
complish the defeat of the British in the Southern States.
He returned from the army soon after the battle of Eutaw,
in which he distinguished himself greatly. He was in Con-
gress in 1786; was a member of the Virginia convention of
1788 that ratified the Federal Constitution; was Governor
of Virginia 1792-95; commander-in-chief of the expedition
against the whisky insurgents 1794; and again a member of
■Congress in 1799. In his celebrated eulogy on Washington,
prepared by direction of Congress, occur the words, " First;
in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his country-
men." In 1809 he was confined for debt in Spottsylvania
■CO., Va., and wrote his Memoirs of the War in the Southern
Department (1809). In 1814 he was in Baltimore, the guest
■of Mr. Alexander C. Hanson, a Federalist, at the time when
the house of that gentleman was attacked by a mob. Gen.
Lee took part in the defense of the house, and was after-
■ward put into the city jail for safety, but the mob entered
the jail, and killed or cruelly maimed the whole party. Gen.
Lee never recovered from his injuries. He went for his
health to the West Indies, and died on the return journey,
on Cumberland island, Ga., where he was the guest of Mrs.
Shaw, a daughter of Gen. Greene, Mar. 25, 1818.
Lee, Henry Washington : bishop ; b. at Hamden, Conn.,
July 26, 1815 ; received deacon's orders in 1838 ; in 1840 be-
came rector of a church at' Springfield, Mass. ; in 1848 as-
sumed charge of St. Luke's church at Rochester, N. Y.,
where he remained till 1854, when he was chosen Bishop of
Iowa, which position he held at his death in Davenport, la.,
Sept. 26,. 1874. Bishop Lee published several episcopal
•charges, sermons, and addresses. He compiled a Manual
of Family Prayers, and wrote several books for the young.
He was the founder of Griswold College at Davenport, and
by his exertions the episcopate fund of the diocese was en-
dowed and the cathedral and bisliop's house erected.
Revised by W. S. Perry.
Lee, Luther, D. D. : b. at Schoharie, N. Y., Xov. .30,
1800; joined the Genesee conference of the Methodist Epis-
■copal Church in 1827; lectured in favor of temperance and
the abolition of slavery, being mobbed several times ; be-
came agent of the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society in
1839 : seceded on account of slavery from the Methodist Epis-
copal Church in 1842; joined the new body of Wesleyan
Methodists; became pastor in Syracuse 1843; was president
of the first Wesleyan Methodist general confex-ence in 1844,
and editor in Xew York of 77/p True Wesleyan. In 1856 he
■was chosen president of Michigan Union College at Leoni,
Mich. ; resigned and spent several years in Ohio ; became in
1864 professor at Adrian College, Mich. ; returned to the
Detroit conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in
237
1867, of which he remained a member until his death at
Flint, Mich.. Dec. 13, 1889. He wrote Universalism Exam-
ined (Sevr York, 1836): Systematic Theology; Immortality
of the Soul (1846); Slavery Examined in the Light of the
Scriptures (1855), etc. Revised by J. F. Hurst.
Lee. Richard Henry : signer of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence ; son of Tliomas Lee, colonial Governor of Vir-
ginia ; 1). at Stratford, the family-seat of the Lees, in West-
moreland CO., Va., Jan. 20, 1732. lie was educated in
England, and after his return inarched with a company to
join Braddock, who rejected his services with an ill-judged
expression of contempt fur the provincials. He was early
chosen to the House of Burgesses, where he at once took a
commanding position on the side of popular rights. He was
in Congress 1774-79, 1784-85, and 1787. He was the author
of the famous motion of June 7, 1776, " That these United
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent
States," etc., and advocated tlie Declaration of Independence
in a bold and brilliant speech. During 1780 he was for a
portion of the time in the field at the head of the militia of
Westmoreland County. He was a Senator from Virginia
1789-92, and, though not a F'ederalist, supported the admin-
istration of Washington with zeal. D. at Chantilly, Va.,
June 19, 1794. He was a man of amiable and noble char-
acter, of commanding presence, excellent abilities, and
self-sacrificing patriotism. See his Life and Correspondence
(1825), by R. H. Lee, his great-grandson.
Lee, Robert, D. D. : preacher and author ; b. at Tweed-
mouth, North Durham, England, Nov. 11, 1804; entered
the LTniversity of St. Andrews in 1824 ; was ordained in
the Church of Scotland in 1832 ; was minister at Arbroath
(1833) and at Campsie (1836), and in 1843, on the disruption
of the Scottish Church, was appointed by the town council
of Edinburgh to the pastorate of the Old Grey Friars'
church. In 1844 he published a translation, with a preface,
of The Theses of Eraslus touching Excommmiication, as a
reply to the writers of the Secession Church, who charged
the adherents of the establishment with Erastianism. In
1847 he became Regius Professor of Biblical Criticism in the
University of Edinburgh, and in 1854 published the great
work of his life. The Holy Bible, with about 00,000 Marginal
References and Various Readings, rei'ised and improved.
In 1857 he published a volume of Prayers for Public Wor-
ship, and in 1864 The Reform of the Church of Scotland in
Worship, Government, ajid Doctrine, in which he discussed
liturgy, postures in worship, instrumental music, and the
propriety of observing certain festivals and fasts, with a
tendency toward bringing the Church of Scotland into
greater harmony with the age. The General Assembly of
1863-64 reported favorably upon these views, and on
Apr. 22, 1864, an organ was first opened in his church
of Grey Friars — an event which marked an era in the na-
tional Church. The action of 1864 was, however, reversed
by the General Assembly of 1865, and Dr. Lee was prepar-
ing to contest his favorite views Viefore the civil courts when
he was attacked with paralysis, and died at Torquay, Mar. 14,
1868. Dr. Lee was tlie acknowledged leader of the liberal
party in the Scottish Church. See his Life and Remains,
by Rev. R. H. Story (2 vols., London, 1870).
Lee, Robert Edward : general ; son of Gen. Henry Lee,
of the Revolutionary army (Light-horse Harry); b. at
Stratford House, Westmoreland co., Va., Jan. 19, 1807;
graduated from the U. S. Military Academy at West Point
1829 ; entered the U. S. army as lieutenant of engineers ; was
employed in the most important duties of his corps, in the
improvement of harbors and navigation ; was promoted
captain of engineers in 1838 ; was in the ^Mexican war as
first chief engineer on the staff of Gen. Scott ; won high
distinction, and was regarded at the close of that war as tlie
one officer best fitted to succeed Scott as commander-in-
chief. From Sept., 1852, to Mar., 1855, he was superin-
tendent at West Point Jlilitary Academy; was promoted
lieutenant-colonel of cavalry 1855; had command of the de-
partment of Texas during 1860: and was promoted colonel
in 1861. He was oflEered the command of the Federal army
by President Lincoln. He resigned Apr. 25, when Virginia
.seceded from the Union, and became by acclamation com-
mander of its forces, with the rank of major-general. His
letters at the time show that while he regretted secession,
his sincere belief in the rights and authority of his State
drew him to her side when war was threatened. Entering
upon the duties of his new position in Apr., 1861, he organ-
ized the forces of Virginia, and directed the occupation of
162
LKE
tho iii.portaiit stiategic jK-sition of Maimssiis Juncti.m.
MeaiiwIiiK-. Virginia liaviiin ioinud tlie ( ..nfe.leracv. KuH-
111011.1 U-eauK- ll.o capital, and Uh- was muuIl- lliiril ni rank
of thf livi' Li-iiiTiils apiKiiiito.1 uii.ler the ail ot llu- I oiirf. -
erate Cii'Trs*. lie rvtiiaiiioil in Kicluiioiul as military ad-
viser ti> I'rvsi«U-iit Davis until the autumn, wli.-n ho was as-
si'Miod to the command of the forces confronlinjr the l-ed-
eral armies in Western Virsinia. In this campai^'n with
the great dilliculties to l)e encountered in the iinpiussability
of the mountain roads, and in the want of harmony anion;;
his subonlinate commanders, it was impossible to acconi-
nlish nuK'h. At its close he wils sent to (.'harleston, h. «_., to
Mfrfect the defenses of the city and establish a line of de-
fens.- of the coast. This work he accomplished with jin-at
wis,lom and skill, lie was next calle.l to Kichmoiid by
President Davis, and investe.1 with the ollice of comiiiander-
in-chief. Gen. .loseph K. .lohnston having: been severely
wounded at the battle of Seven Pines (or l-'air Oaks), near
Richin..nd, on .Mav :51. lH6-,>, L.u- was appointed to succeed
him in the commaiid of the Army of Xortliern Virginia. 1 e
drew his troops back nearer to the city, and stood (piietly
uiion the defensive while patheriiig all {wssible re-enforce-
ments from the southward. By June 35, 186-2, he had
drawn to him some 25.0tX) men, including Jacksuii"s forces
from the vallev. On the next day, Lee leaving Magnider
on the south side with some 'i'y.Om men, crossed the Cliicka-
hominv, anil b.-gan his attack on McCIcllaii's right, forced
Fit/. .Ii>hn Porter's corps to retreat fmiii Heaver Dam, and
defeated him at Cold Harbor ((iains's Mill) on 37tli, with
heavy loss. MeClellan retreated to Harrison's Landing on
the .James river, having been again severely defeated at
Frazier's farm, but having repulsed the Confederate assaults
at Malvern Hill with the aid of the Federal gunboats. Lee
at on.-e detached Jackson to meet the Federal army under
Gen. Pope, which threatened an advance on llichmond from
the nortli side. Jackson defeated a portion f)f Pope's forces
in the battle of Cedar .Mountain, near Culpeper Court-house.
Ten davs later Lee moved with his main army to attack
Poiie — a movement of signal audacity in execution, which
ended in the complete discomfiture of the Federal army in
the notable battles of Manassas on Aug. '28, 39, and :iO, 1862.
lie crossed the Potomac and advanced to Freiierick City,
Md.. and bv a detached operali.m under Jackson captured
lIar|H'r's l-Vrry, with numerous prisoners and many guns.
However, a copy of Lee's orders in detail, sent to his gen-
erals of corps and divisions, giving the points for the de-
tache.l operation and of rcconcenlralion of his divisions,
wius found by the Federals near Frederick City. JlcClellan,
having thus full information as to Lee's jilaiis, moved for-
ward with a rapiilily most unusual for liiiii. and gained
possession of the li.)oiiesboro (iap, which was held by a Con-
federate division. In the battle of Sliarpsbiirg, or Antietam,
on .Sept. 17, Lee repulsed McClellan's attack, and lay in his
front awaiting a renewal of it the next day. On the night
of the 18th Lee recrossed the Potomac, MeClellan slowly fol-
lowing. MeClellan was removed from his comiuaiid Nov.
7. His successor. Gen. Burnside, made Actinia Creek his
base, and on the 17th took position on the N. of the Kap-
Eahunnock. Then came the bloody battle of Fredericks-
urg, in which Burnside attacke.l and was defeated, with
great loss to the Federals anil small loss to J^ec's army. On
May 2, 186.3, Hooker, who had succeeded Burnside, moved
across the Rappahannock above Fredericksburg, At Cl.an-
cellorsville Lee gaiiii il another signal victory. In this battle
Gen. .Stonewall Jacksi>n was killed. Lee made a movement
northward to forage upon the foe, and if opportunity ofTered
to give another crushing defeat to the Federal army, having
but little doubt that such would secure recognition of the
Confederacy abroad. His plan was submitted to President
Davis and approved by him. He threw a corps forward and
defeated Milruy at Winchester, moved rapidly north, crossing
the Potomac at different points, and moved on to Chambers-
bnrg. Pa. The unforeseen delay of (iin. Stuart's arrival with
the cavalry gave him serious troulile, but, ascertaining from
a scout the movement of the Federal army, now under Meade,
he pushed on to Gettysliurg with Kwell's and Hill's corps in
front, and engaged the Federal forces which had come up.
Lee defeated Kcynolils's corps heavily on the first day;
also on the second in Loiigslieet's attack on the Federal
left. The third day lie ordered an assault by Pickett's and
Pettigrew's divisions, supported by other divisions. These
divisions were not .siipporled as planned by Lee, and failed
in the assault, ami he r.'treat.'d ipiietly to the Potomac near
Williainsport, with 6,000 prisoners.
%
Summing up, it may be said that the Gettysburg cam-
paign was executed by Lee with a masterly knowledge of
the theater of operations, unsurpassed celerity and secrecy
of movement, with all possible care of his communications,
and though it failed he withdrew and recrossed the Potomac
with consuiiimatc method and skill.
With the exception of Meade's fruitless advance in Dec,
18(53, no attempt was made to attack Lee's army resting on
the Kapiilaii for ten months. In the sjiriiig of 1864 (ien.
Grant, with 140,000 men, who had wintered N. of that
stream, moved across it. and was attacked by Lee in a wood-
ed region called the Wilderness. Lee's infantry iiunibered
."lO.OOO, yet he took the initiative in attack, and defeated the
Federal forces, inflicting heavy loss. Foiled in the Wilder-
ness, Grant moved on the right flank of the Confederate
army, only to find Lee on his front at Siiottsylvania Court-
house, where after several bloody battles he learned that
Lee's position was impregnable. In the aggregate, in the
third week, his losses were more than 40,000 men. Waking
another flank movement, he found Lee in his front again
at the North Anna. May 21. Re-enforced by Smith's corps,
and moving to turn the Confederate right. Grant met his
foe at Cold Harbor, the scene of McClellan's defeat in 1862.
June 3 he attacked the Confederate lines, and wjis repulsed
Willi great loss. Lee's cavalry also did brilliant service in
this campaign.
After Grant's defeat Lee detached Early to meet and de-
feat Grant's second column under Hunter at Lynchburg — a
work which he accomplished, and was soon on his march
across the Potomac to threaten Washington.
Lee pushed on to Petersburg, and on June 18 repulsed
Grant's forces, which Beauregard was holding at bay against
heavy odds.
On that day a new campaign of 300 days' siege was-opened.
During this period were fought the battles of Jerusalem Plank
Hoad, Burgess's Mill, Keams's Station, Sappony Church,
Dinwiddle Court-house, the Crater, and others. Lee's lines
of 40 miles long were heUl by less than 40,000 men. They
were broken on Apr. 1, 1865. After a serious disaster to the
forces under Pickett on his right at Five Forks, Lee with-
drew from Petersburg in the direction of Lynchburg, but
missing his supplies en route, after several bloody encoun-
ters, his infantry having dwindled to some 8,000 muskets,
he surrendered at Appomattox Court-house Apr. 9, 1865,
He advised his men to accept the situation, to go home,
and to be good citizens.
A short time after the war Lee accepted the presidency of
Washington College at Lexington, Va., and died there Oct.
13, 1870, aged sixty-three. A beautiful mausoleum has been
erected over his tomb in Lexington, and there is a splendid
bronze equestrian statue of him in Kichmoiid, Va.
Charles S. Venable.
Lee, Samuel, D. D. : Hebrew scholar ; b. at Longnor,
Shropshire, England, May 14, 1783; ri^ceived his first in-
struction at a charity school, and was at the age of twelve
a[)i)renticed to a carpenter. While laboring at this trade he
acquired the chief classical, Oriental, and modern languages,
and at the age of thirty was enabled to enter Queen's College,
Cambridge, as a student, graduating in due course, taking
orders in the Church, becoming in 1819 University Professor
of Araliie, and Regius Professor of Hebrew in 1831. He
published a Hebrew Grammar, wliicli had a wide circula-
tion in England and America (1H30) ; translations of the
TrareU of Jim Batuta (1833) ; and of the liool; of Job (1837) ;
and a Hebrew and EngH,ih Lexicon (1840). D. at Barley,
Hertfordshire, Dec. 16, 1853.
Lee, Thomas Ludwell: colonial Governor of Virginia;
b. in .Stafford, Va., about 1730; was third son of Richard
Lee, a member of the council and grandson of Richard Lee,
the founder of the family in America, who as a cavalier
played a distinguished part in Virginia along with Berkeley
in securing the allegiance of that colony to the .Sluarls.
Thomas Lee succeeded to the ancestral estate at Stratford,
W'estinoreland County, on the Northern Neck ; became presi-
dent of the council ; and his conimi.ssion as governor had
just been made out when he died in 1759. He had married
llaiinah, daughter of Col. Philip Ludwell, a member of the
council, and by her had six sons, all of whi>iii were distin-
giilshed for their i)ublic services during the Revolution:
Philip Ludwell. a member of the council ; Thomas Ludwell,
b. about 1730, member of the House of Burgesses, of the
conventions of 1775 and 1776, of the comniiltee of safety,
and one of the judges of the Sujireme Court, died soon after,
LEECH
LEEDS
163
aged forty-seven ; Richard Henry, Francis Lightfoot, and
Arthur (qq. v.) ; and William, the fifth son, b. at Stratford,
Va., in 17;^7; was agent of Virginia in England; elected
sheriff of London in 1773 and alderman in 1775. When the
Revolutionary war broke out he retired to France ; was ap-
pointed by Congress commercial agent at Nantes in 1777,
and was afterward diplomatic agent of the L''. S. at The
Hague, Vienna, and Berlin, but was recalled in 177!). D. at
Greenspring, Va., June 37, 1795.
Leech [M. Eng. leche, physician < 0. Eng. liece : O. H.
Germ. Idltlti : Goth, lekeis; cf. 0. Eng. Idcnian, heal : Goth.
lekinon] : any one of the members of the order llirudinei.
Leeches have an elongate flattened body {nearly cylindrical
in a few), terminated at either end by a sucking disk. The
body is ringed externally, but except at the anterior and
posterior ends these annuLations are more numerous than
the internal segments. The mouth is in the center of the
anterior sucker, and in the jawed leeches {OnathobdeUidcF)
it is surrounded by three radiating jaws, each of which is
double, the halves each resembling a segment of a circular
saw. By means of these the leech makes the incisions
through the skin which were so familiar in the days when
blood-letting was regarded as a panacea for every ill. The
alimentary canal is sacculated, the sacs corresponding to the
segments of the body, and the vent is placed above the pos-
terior sucker. Paired excretory organs occur in each seg-
ment, alternating with the digestive pouches, but the body
cavity (coelom) is greatly reduced. The nervous system is
much like that of the Annelids. Two kinds of sense organs
occur ; eyes varying in number, upon the anterior segments,
and corresponding to these other organs, possibly for taste
or smell, upon the rest of the body. The sexes are united
in the same individual. The order nirudinei is subdivided
into Onathobdellidw and Rhynchobdellidce, accordingly as
jaws are present or absent.
Section of medicinal leech
Leeches are parasites, living upon blood or upon the mu-
cus which covers the surface of fishes or other aquatic ani-
mals. In France they were for a long time bred in ponds
to supply the market. The medicinal leeches (Ilirudo offici-
nalis, II. medicinalis) will dra%v five or six times their weight
of blood, and when gorged can only be used again by remov-
ing the blood by the use of salt or by pressure. A few
leeches live in the sea; most are inhabitants of fresh water,
and a few live on the land. These land-leeches form an in-
tolerable pest in the warmer regions of Asia, and their
habits have been described in a graphic manner by Tennent
and Haeckel. They are active and alert, ready" to fasten
themselves to any man or beast which may pass through
the damp forests where they abound.
The Hirudinei have formed the basis of many investi-
fations, and the reader is referred to Lcuckarfs Human
'arasites, Moquin-Tandon"s Monographie des Ilirudinees,
and the papers by Prof. C. 0. Whitman upon their structure
and development.^ Despite several descriptive papers, the
American species are scarcely known. The Hirudinei (Lat.
Hirudo, a leech) are often called Discophori, in allusion to
their sucking disks; Sanguiaugaria, on account of their
blood-sucking habits; or Bdellodea (Gr. BSf'XAo. a leech).
J. S. KiNUSLEV.
Leech, John : illustrator and draughtsman ; b. in Lon-
don, Aug. 29, 1817. lie studied medicine, but had to sup-
port himself from the age of eighteen or nineteen, and be-
gan to do so by lithographic drawings, illustrating Bell's
Iiife in London, and in 18.'?7 Theodore Hook's story Jack
Brag. In 1840 he began to publish full-page etchings in
Benthy's Miscellany, and this he continued for several
years, illustrating Barham's Ingoldshy Legends, Albert
Smith's Adventures of Mr. Ledhury, etc. These were as
good etchings as he ever published, though afterward he
illustrated Douglas Jerrold's Shilling Magazine with the
serials .S7. Giles and St. James and the Story of a Feath-
er, and later still many etchings appeared in Punch's Pock-
et-book and Surtees's various sporting novels. He worked
for Punch for twenty years, and laid down his pencil for
the last time beside a drawing which came out in Punch
on Nov. 5, 1864. He illustrated with wood-cuts also some
volumes of Hood's Comic Annual, Dickens's Christmas
Carol and in part The Chimes, The Cricket on. tlie Hearth,
and The Haunted Man; Gilbert A'Beckefs Comic History
of England (in which were also some etchings), Pcnnell's
Puck upon Pegasus, and esijecially the periodical (Mce a
Week, begun in 1859. He published also several series of de-
signs in lithography, of which the best is The C/fildren of
the Mobility (1841). an adnurable set of studies of the poor
little children of London. L(!ech's power is not in carica-
ture, nor in very laughable design, except in a few cases,
such as the pictures of Divorce a Vinculo in Once a Week.
It is rather as a shrewd and yet very kindly and optimistic
observer that he appears in his studies from English life.
He has far less tragic power and a far more limited scope
than Cruikshank, nor was he so great an artist in black and
white as Charles Keene. His merit is peculiarly that of the
close student of human nature, preferring its more kindly
and pleasant sides, but capable of indignation and con-
tempt, as in his Fox-hunters of the Old School in Tlie Illus-
trated Londo7i News {WoU), and in the Bull Fight . . . with
a little of the Tinsel Off. in Punch, about 1860 or 1861. He
enjoyed landscape, and many of his designs show a remark-
able faculty for landscape art. D. in London. Oct. 29, 1864.
See the paper by his intimate friend Thackeray in Tlie Quar-
terhj Review, Dec, 1854: Dr. John Brown's John Leech
(1882) : Everitt's English Caricaturists (1886) ; and the Life,
by Frith (2 vols., 1891). Russell Sturgis.
Leechburg: borough (incorporated in 1851); Armstrong
CO., Pa. (for location of county, see map of Pennsylvania,
ref. 4-B) ; on the Kiskimmetas river, and the Pen'n. Rail-
road ; 35 miles N. E. of Pittsburg. It is in a coal and natu-
ral-gas region, and has 2 rolling-mills, 2 flour-mills, foun-
dry and machine-shop, tin-factory, and carriage and wagon
factory, all using
natural-gas fuel ob-
tained from a well
1.200 feet deep.
There are 9 church-
es, school building
that cost 120,000,3
weekly newspapers,
and 9 coal mines.
Pop. (1880) 1,123 ; (1890) 1,921 ; (1893) estimated with sub-
urbs, 2,800. Editor of " Advance."
Leech Lake : a body of water in the northern part of Cass
CO., Minn. It is about 20 miles long, 16 miles wide, and dis-
charges its waters into the Mississippi by the Leech Lake
river. Elevation, 1,330 feet. It is situated in a well-tim-
bered region which is inhabited by the Leech Lake Indians,
a band of Chippewas.
Leeds : town in the West Riding of Yorkshire. England ;
the chief seat of the woolen trade of the United Kingdom ;
on both banks of the river Aire; 185 miles N. of London,
and 55A miles W'. of Hull (see map of England, ref. 6-H).;
It is a parliamentary and municipal borough, and a county
in itself, and is, as regards population and industry, the
principal town in Yorkshire. It is the assize town for the
West Riding division of the Northeastern circuit.
Area and General Plan. — The area of the administrative
county of Leeds is 21,572 acres. For municipal purposes it
is divided into sixteen wards, and for parliamentary into
five divisions, each of which returns one member to the
House of Commons. The river Aire is crossed by six bridges.
The older parts of the town lie S. of the Aire, and include
the populous mainifacturiug suburbs of Hunslet and IIol-
beck, the principal pul)lic buildings, shops, and residences
of the well-to-do being on the north side of the river.
Among the public recreation-grounds is Woodhouse Moor,
an open space to the N. W., an<l Roundhay Park, one of the
most picturesque public parks in Englan<l.
Public Buildings and In.ftitutions. — The general archi-
tecture of the newer parts of the town is unpretending, and
of the older parts nu>an ; but the modern warehouses and
banks are often handsome, and there are several fine public
buildings. The chief of these is the town-hail, in the Roman
Corinthian style, forming a rectangle 2.500 feet in length
and 200 feet iii breadth. The municipal buildings form an
imposing pile in the Palladian style. The Royal Hxchange
is in the Perpendicular (iothic style. The Corn Exchange
was erected bv the corporation at a cost of about £60,000.
The Municipal Art Gallery and Museum, with free public li-
mouth ; b, pouches of alimentary canal ; c, vent ; d, posterior sucker ; e, brain ;
/, ventral nerve cord ; g, excrementary organs (after Leuckart).
104
LEEDS
brurv Imvc (or their fiivailc lliat of tlie miinicipftl bmiainps.
Tliu'frw publio library cuiilaiiis aboul 40,IHK) volum.s. 1 he
wulral library lniseoi\iie«te<iwith it eij;h(een braiuli librnru'S,
as well a-s iiiiieleeu others for juvenile readers. The Coliseum
eoversau area of more than U,(X)0 sq. feet, anil iiiclmles a
lart^i hall for eoiieerts aiul pulilie meeting's. The tiranil
theater ami opera-house will scat -J.GOO persons. The General
Inlirinarv.eslalilisheJ in 1707. is in tireat George Street. It
was i-reet'eil at a eost of more than i' 100.000. The general ar-
rangement is on the pavilion principle, each wanl forming a
seiwraU' anil isolatt'il buililing. It is one of the lines! and
most complete .si ructures of the kind in Europe. The institu-
tion is supported by volunUirv oontriliutions. It can accom-
inodale more than 400 in-palieiits, besides ministering to many
out-|iatienls. The medical school is near the inlinmiry, with
which it is inliinatelv associated. The Horough Fever Hos-
pital, Hurmantoft.s. for the isolation and trealmenl of infec-
tious diseases arising within the borough, has twenty-two
wanls. calculated to hold 100 patients. Her Majesty's prison,
formerly the Bonnigh Gaol, is in Armley, on the south side
of the Aire. The chief educational institution is the York-
shire (.'ollege, constituted in 1874, and occupying handsome
buildings erected in 1SS-"). The specialty of the institution is
science, and technical training above all. During the ses-
sion of 18!>l-y2 there were 1.050 students, of whom about
GOO were day students. The title of associate is conferred
for proficiency, and the college is aililiated to Victoria Uni-
versity, Manchester. The Grammar School, founded in \55'i,
and now situated on the south side of Woodhouse Moor, in-
cludes a science department, and educates 200 boys. The
school board controls fifty-six board schools, which have an
average attendance of about 40.000. The Philosophical and
Literary Society has a lecture hall, a library of over 16,000
volumes, and two museums. The Mechanics' Institution
has a lecture hall, science school, a boys' school, a reading-
room, and a library of 20,000 volumes.
Chitrc/tcs and Chapels. — The i)arish church, St. Peter's,
probably the fifth erected on the same site, was completely
rebuilt in WSft—Il. St. John's church was built by a rich
merchant in 1634. In 1870 it was completely restored.
Nonconformity is strong in Leeds, especially Methodism,
and several of the Xonconformists' places of worship have
considerable arclsilectural pretensions. At Kirkstall, 3^
miles from Leeds, are the remains of the Cistercian Abbey
of .St. Mary (1152). which since 1880 have been the properly
of the corporation of Leeds.
(fovernmeni and Adminintralion. — The borough, which in
1891 had a ratable value of .t'1.207,408, is diviiied into six-
teen municipal wards, and governed by a town council — a
mayor, sixteen aldermen, and forty-eight councilors. The
ga8-works. the water-works, and the cattle, produce, and
other chief markets are the property of the corporation.
Manufarlitres and Induslrits. — Leeds still continues to
bo, as of old, the chief center of the woolen-manufacture,
though certain branches of this are more productive in other
Yorkshire towns. The staple woolen industry is cloth of
every description. Tweed cloths, woven by power now form
a large part of its manufacture. Felt carpeting and drug-
gets are a most important item of the woolen industry. In
1891 the woolcn-clolli manufacture employed 12,304 per-
sons, and dyeing and printing 1.028. 'rhe' stuff trade has
mainly migrated to Hradford, for which town, however,
Ijeeds does much in dyeing and finishing, while in 1891
there were still 2,600 persons employed there in the manu-
facture of worsted stufTs. A decrease in the industry of
Leeds has been in the manufacture of flax into yarn. The
vicinity of coal and iron minis— in the borough alone 2,520
persons were registered in IMH as employed in coal mines —
tias contributed to the greatness of its in'aiiufaiturc of iron,
which in that year in engine and machine making alone em-
ploycil 9,033 persons. The Airedale foundry turns out loco-
motives, engines, and boilers, and covers 4 acres of ground.
The Wellington foundry manufactures niill-maehincry of all
kinds, and the Fowler works makes steam-plows. Tlii're are
several cxtcn-ijvc furges where the best iron is manufactured,
and liiass-founding is a considerable industry. In 1891 the
tanneries employed 13,204 persons, the proiliiction of boots
and shiHS 7,662 more, the product iim of clothing 15,689 per-
sons. Leeds is the chief seat of the cap trade. There is an
extensive tobacco-manufattturi', and the chemical works turn
out a great variety of products. .\ fieid of fine clay at Bur-
manlofLs has uiusimI the establishment of terra-cotta and
faience works; coal for baking the clay is on the .sjjot.
Leeds has railway communication with all parts of Eng-
h;
LEEl'WAKDKN
land, Wales, and Scotland, while by the Leeds and Liver-
pool Canal on the one side and the Aire and Calder Naviga-
tion on the other there is easy access by water to Liverpool
and Hull.
llistur;/. — The etymology of the name Leeds is uncertain.
Rede, who first ineiitioned it, calls it Loidio-en-Elmcto. The
town received a charier from Edward 1., and then began to
thrive. During the <'ivil war of the seventeenth century it
declared for the Parliament, and was garrisoned by the Roy-
alists, whom Fairfax besieged and drove from it. It first
sent a member to the House of Commons under the Com-
monwealth, when the town was already noted for its cloth-
trade. It made great iirogress during the eighteenth cen-
tury, and during the nineteenth became the fifth city in size
in England.
Population. — The population of the bonmgh was, at the
census of 1891. 367.506, an increase of 58,387 since 1881, and
of 108,306 since 1871. In 1801 the population of the area
now covered by the borough was only 53,162. See Baines,
Yorkshire Past and /Vcsf?;/ (1871-77) ; Kelly's Z>(>ff/w;-^ of
the M'e.'it Riding of Yorkshire (1893); local guide-books, par-
liamentary papers, etc. F. Espinasse.
Leek : town ; in the county of Stafford, England ; on
the Chuniet ; 24 miles N. N. E.'of Stafford (see map of Eng-
land, ref. 9-G). It has manufactures of silk and agricultu-
ral im))lemenls, and many good educational institutions.
Its church, dedicated to St. Edward the Confessor, dates
from the latter jjarl of the twelfth century, but has under-
gone much remodeling. In the neighborhood are the ruins
of the Cistercian monastery I)e la Croix (Dieulacres), built
by Ranulf de Blondeville in 1241. Pop. (1891) 14,128.
Leer, lar: town in the province of Hanover, Prussia, on
the Leda ; 32 miles X. W. of Oldenburg (see map of German
Empire, ref. 3-D) ; has manufactures, and is important for
ship-building and commerce. Pop. (1890) 11,075.
Leesburg : town ; capital of Loudoun co., Va. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Virginia, ref. 4-11) ; on the Rich,
and Danville'Hailroad ; 2 miles W. of the Potomac, 38 miles
N. W. of Washington. It is in an agricultural region, has
an abundant supply of water, and contains a school for
girls, a graded public school, electric-light plant, steam saw
and planing mill, and two weekly newspapers. Near the
town is the battle-field of Ball's IBluflf. Pop. (1880) 1,726;
(1890) 1,650. Editor of " Washingto.nian."
Leeser, la'zer, Isaac : Hebrew scholar ; b. in Neukirch,
Westphalia, Dec. 12, 1806; removed to Richmond, Va., in
1824; was at first engaged in commerce, but in 1829 be-
came rabbi of the principal synagogue in Philadelphia, and
wrote several works relating to Jew'ish history and doctrine,
among which are The Jews and the Mosaic Law (Philadel-
phia. 1833); Discourses, Argurnentatii'e and Devotional, on
the Subject of the Jewish Religion (1836); Portuguese Form
of Prayers (1837) ; Descriptive (ieography of Palestine, from
the Hebrew of Rabbi Joseph Schwartz (i850), and a Trans-
lation of the Holy Scriptures from the Original Hebrew
(1845-53). In 1843 he established a monthly magazine. The
Occident and American Jeit'ish Advocate; retired from the
ministry in 1850. D. in Philadelphia, Feb. 1, 1868.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Leeto'nia: village (incorporated in 1865); Columbiana co.,
0. (for location of county, see map of Ohio, ref. 3-J); on
the Eric and the Penn. railways; 65 miles N. W. of Pitts-
burg. It is in ^n agricultural ami coal-mining region, has
4 blast furnaces, rfilling and jilaning mills, extensive coal
mines, coke-ovens, boiler-works, foundry, and lumber-yards,
and contains 5 churches, graded public school, and a weekly
newspaper. Pop. (1880) 2,552 ; (1890) 2,826 ; (1893) estimated
with suburbs, 3,200. Editor of " Reportf.r."
Leeii'narden : town ; in the province of Friesland,
Netherlands (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. 2-G).
It is 10 miles from the sea. but in the fo\irteenth century it
lay on the shore of a deep inht. which by degrees has been
filled with banks of sand and mud and become solid ground.
It has, however, easy conununication by rail and by canal
with the surrounding country and with Amsterdam. The
canal to Ilarlingen, iniilt in 1507, even opens up a channel
for tra<le with the United Kingdom. The city is intersected
by canals, and is neatly built, with many elegant houses.
The beautiful town-hall contains a valuable library rich in
MS.S., and a gallery of paintings. Its trade in cattle, swine,
butter, flax, ami spirits, and its manufaclnrcs of linen and
paper, are considerable. Pop. (1890) 30,433.
LEEUWENHOECK
LEGACY
165
Leenwenhoeck, liiwen-hook, Antonius, von: microsco-
pist; b. at l)elft, Netherlands, Oct. 24, 1632 ; went in his six-
teenth year to Anisterdain, and entered a mercliant's office,
but returned after tlie lapse of a few years to his native
city, and devoted himself exclusively to the study of natural
science. He manufactured optical instruments, especially
microscopes, and these he applied with the_ most brilliant
success to his researches in physiology. His principal dis-
coveries were that of the red globules of the blood in 1673,
that of the infusorial animalcules in 1675, that of the sjierm-
atozoa in 1677, and that of the capillary circulation of the
blood in 16!(0. The last discovery filled a gap in the the-
ory of Harvey by showing that the blood passes from the
arteries into the veins through a network of extremely mi-
nute vessels, the thin walls of which allow the fluid to tran-
sude into the tissues it traverses, and thus to furnish them
with the necessary nutrition. Another of his great dis-
coveries was that of the Rotifers. He was the first to rec-
ognize their peculiar power of resuscitation, even from a
state of being completely dried up, whenever the water
necessary to the maintenance of their vitality was furnished
to them. By these discoveries he attracted general atten-
tion, and established connections with all learned men and
learned societies of his age, such as Leibnitz, the Royal So-
ciety of Loudon, and others. His writings were published
partly in book-form at Leyden, partly as communications
to scientific journals, Acta Erudita, Philosophical Trans-
actions, etc., and collected in 1724 in 4 vols, under the title
Opera omnia, sive arcana naturie ope exactissimormn mi-
croscopiorum detecta. D. at Delft, Aug. 26, 1723.
Leeward Islands: a colony of Great Britain; in the
West Indies, N. of the Windward islands colony. The col-
ony was created in 1871, and embraces the islands of An-
tigua, St. Kitts, Dominica, Jloutserrat, and the British por-
tion of the Virgin islands, with their dependencies (Barbuda,
Redonda, Nevis, Anguilla. etc.; see under these names).
The entire area is 701 sq. miles. Pop. (1891) 127,723. An-
tigua is the seat of the central government and the resi-
dence of the governor-general. There are five presidencies,
corresponding to the principal islands. The legislative coun-
cil (of ten elected members and ten nominated bv the crown)
meets once a year. Herbert H. Smith.
Lef6bnre-W61y, le-fa'bur'va'lee', Louis Jacques Alfred :
organist and composer; b. in Paris, Nov. 13, 1817, and en-
tirely educated there. He was one of the greatest organ-
players of the French school. Held several positions as or-
ganist, but is best remembered as organist of St. Sulpice,
1863 to 1869. He was a member of the Legion of Honor,
and a Knight of the Order of Charles III. of Spain. His
compositions include an opera, a cantata, three masses, three
symphonies for orchestra, upward of 200 pieces for the
pianoforte, and numerous organ pieces in all styles. D.
Jan. 1, 1870. D. E. Hervey.
Lefebvre, le-favr', Prax?ots Joseph : Duke of Dantzic,
marshal of France; b. at Ruffach, Alsace, Oct. 25, 1755; en-
listed in the French guard Sept. 10, 1773, and distinguished
himself by courage and valor on several occasions dur-
ing the Revolution. In 1792 he was matie captain of the
Thirteenth Infantry regiment, and his talents now devel-
oped very rapidly ; in 1794 he was made a brigadier-general.
Having been appointed commander of the Seventeenth Mili-
tary division, to which Paris belonged, he supported Napo-
leon on Nov. 9, 1799, and was made a marshal of France at
the establishment of the empire. In the war against Prussia
he also distinguished himself, especially by the siege and
capture of Dantzic (May 26, 1807), whence he derived his
title of duke. His most brilliant exploit was his campaign
in Spain in 1808. He took Bilbao, and defeated the British
under Blake on Nov. 7. In 1814 he commanded the left
wing of the army opposing the invasion of the allies, but
after the abdication of Napoleon he submitted to the Bour-
bons, and was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII. June
4, 1814. D. in Paris, Sept. 14, 1820.
Lefebvre, Jules Joseph: figure and portrait painter;
b.at Tournan, France, Mar. 14, 1834; became a j)upil of
Leon Cogniet; was awarded the Grand Prix de Rome in
1861 ; medals. Salons 1865, 1868, and 1870 ; first-class medal
at the Paris Exposition 1878; medals of honor. Salon 1878
and Paris Exposition 1889 ; became officer of the Legion of
Honor in 1878. He is one of the leading artists of the
French school, and his work is distinguished by fine draw-
ing and good composition. Kymph and Bacchus (1866) and
Truth (1870) are in the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris. One of
his most important compositions is Diana Surprised (1879).
Studio in Paris. William A. Coffin.
Lefebvre'-Desnouettes', Charles, Count: general; b.
in Paris, France, Sept. 14, 1773; served in the French army
in Belgium under Dumouriez in 1792; was aide-de-camp to
Napoleon at Marengo; distinguished himself at Austerlitz;
became brigadier in 1806, and general of division in 1808;
began the siege of Saragossa in Spain ; was taken prisoner
by the British ; escaped from f^ngland ; took a prominent
part in the Austrian (1809), Russian (1812), and German
(1813) campaigns, and in the defense of France from inva-
sion (1814); was made a peer by Napoleon in 1815; fought
at Fleurus and at Waterloo; was condemned to death by
the royalists, but escaped to the U. S. ; joined with Baron
Lallemand in the attempt to found a colony of French refu-
gees in Alabama; was in correspondence with Napoleon for
the purpose of effecting his rescue from St. Helena; re-
ceived 150,000 francs by the will of that monarch, and while
returning to Europe was lost at sea near Kinsale, Ireland,
Apr. 22, 1822.
Lefevre, Tannegui (commonly known as Tanaquil Pa-
ber, from the Latinized form of liis name) : classical scholar;
b. at Caen, Prance, in 1615; was educated at the Jesuit Col-
lege at La Fleche, where he devoted himself especially to
philosophy and classical literature. Cardiruil Richelieu ap-
pointed him inspector of the press of the Louvre. After the
death of Richelieu his salary was irregularly paid, and he
was obliged to sell his>library. Having resigned his posi-
tion, he retired to Langres, afterward to Preuilly, where he
embraced Protestantism; was soon after appointed professor
in the Reformed Academy of Saumur. His works were
chiefly annotated editions of the classic authors — e. g. of
Longinus, ^Elian, Lucretius, Horace, Phicdrus, Terence,
Anacreon, Sappho, and several others. He translated also
into Latin iambics the Fables of Lokman (Saumur, 1673),
and wrote Vies des Poetes grecs and Met hod e pour com-
mencer les Humanites grecqties et latins. D. at Saunmr,
Sept. 12, 1672. He left one son and two daughters, one of
whom was Madame Dacier. His Life was written by F.
Graverol (Paris, 1686). Revised by S. M. Jacksojj.
Lefkosi'a [=Mod. Gr. AeuKoo-Zo. The anc. (Lat.) Leuco-
sia = Gr. AeuKoo-(o] : capital of Cyprus, now called Nicosia
(q. v.).
Lefort', Francois : soldier and statesman ; b. at Geneva
in 1656, of Scottish descent; enlisted at an early age in the
Swiss guard in the French service ; in 1674 entered the
service of the Netherlands, and distinguished himself at the
siege of Oudcnarde, and went in 1675 through Archangel to
Moscow, where he first held a position as secretary to the
Danish ambassadors, and then became a captain in the Rus-
sian army. In 1682 he became acquainted with the czar,
Peter the Great, at that time only ten years old. ,He be-
came his teacher, soon also his friend, and after the revolu-
tion of 1689, which made Peter the Great sole ruler of Rus-
sia, and in which Lefort had done the czar great service, he
was the chief minister. To his influence may be ascribed
some of the most important and beneficial measures of
Peter's reign. He reorganized the army on the model of
the armies of the great powers. He directed the formation
of a navy, which with the new army proved its utility at
the taking of Azov in 1696. He promoted the religious tol-
eration of foreigners, thus opening Russia to emigrants from
more enlightened states, and he encouraged the policy of
inducing the Russians to visit other countries in the interest
of their own education. D. at Moscow, Mar. 12, 1699.
Revised by F. M. Colby.
Lefuel, le-fu'el', Hector Martin: architect; b. at Ver-
sailles, France, Nov. 13. 1810. He was a student at the
licole des Beaux-Arts and received the great [irize of Rome,
and lived at Rome till 1845. He was architect of the
buildings of the national porcelain-factory at Sevres, of the
palace of Meudon, and in charge of the chateau at Pon-
tainebleau, where he built the theater. On the death of
Visconti he was employed upon the new buildings connect-
ing the Louvre with the 'luileries, ami he was busy with
these from 1854 until their practical completion and until
the fall of the empire in 1870. so that the most prominent
and admired buildings of that group were his work. He
was commander of the Legiim of Honor and a member of
the Institute. D. Dec. 23, 1880. Russell Sturois.
I-eg'aoy [from Ijat. lega're, depute, appoint, appoint by
will ; cf. Legates] : a bequest or gift of persi)nal property
lOG
LEGACY
l.y will or testament, as .listinfniislipd from a devise, which
is a ciit or eonvi'vanoe l>v will of roiil osliitc.
Legat-ies, with'resi>eet'to tlu- iimiiiier in which the sub-
jcct-nialtor of the gift is (lesisiiiiti'*!. arx- of four kinds—
sarao kind. A sped tic lofracy. on the contrary, is a bequest
of siMxifii'd proiwrtV, which is iiarlionlarly dcsifjnatcd or
dcscrilxHl, so as to be definitely (lislin<:uislied from tlie rest
of the testator's estate. Thus a bequest of a sum of money,
the amount of which is mimed,.is a general legacy, while a
iHHiuest of all the money in a imrticular receptacle is spe-
cific. A iM-quest of a horse, of silver plate of a certain named
value, or of anv article described in this indeliiiite way,
would 1)0 a general legacy ; but a beouest of the horse in tlie
testator's stable, or of all'the plate wliicli sliould be in a cer-
tain house, etc.. would be a specific legacy. A general legacy
of a chattel, as of a horse, is valid, even though the testator
had no property of the sort, and the executor is obliged, if
there be sutlicient assets, to procure an article of the kind
mentiimed, to meet the bequest. Wlien a legacy is spe-
cific, onlv the |>articular property designated is to be given
to the legatee, lind if the testator owned no such property
the legacy fails. (Tencral legacies are sometimes termed
|)ceuniary legacies, but the designation is inaccurate, as spe-
cific legacies may also be pecuniary, as the examples already
given indicate. ' A demonslrath-e legacy is a bequest of a
certain amount of money to be paid out of a particular
fund ; as, for example, a b'e<jucst of f.lOO ii.tyable out of the
proceeds of the sale of certain property. This form of legacy
IS intermediate between a general and a stJeeific legacy, and
partakes of the legal characteristics of both. UemonsI rat ivc
legacies resemble specific legacies by not being subject to
abatement with the general bequests, while they are distin-
guished from them by not being subject to ademption. A
rexiduary legacy is a gift or allotment by the will to a des-
ignated person of all the personal assets remaining after
i)aying or satisfying all general, specific, and demonstrative
legacies.
Abatement and Ademption. — The importance of distin-
guishing between these various kinds of legacies is princi-
I«illy with reference to the doctrines of abatement and
ademption which are applicable to the subject of legacies.
Abatement is a proportional reduction of the bequests to
. various legatees when there are not sullicienl assets to make
full payment. It is the duty of an executor under a will,
after discharging all the testator's lawful debts from the
jicrsonal assets, to apply the residue to the ])ayrnent or satis-
faction first of the specific legacies, then of the demon-
strative legacies, and finally of the general legacies, and then
to turn over to the residuary legatee any residue that may
still remain, or, if no residuary legatee be named, to the next
of kin. (.See Kix, Next of). 1 f there be insullicicnt assets so
to satisfy the legacies in either of these three classes succes-
sively, those in the same class will be reduced proportionally
by the law of abatement. The specific legacies are to be
paid, even though other legatees are entirely or partly de-
prived of a share in the assets. Neither specific nor demon-
strative legacies will abate with general legacies, unless the
testator particularly directs that certain general legficies
.shall have precedence of those which are specific. In some
cases general legacies of a particular character will be pre-
ferrerl to other general legacies. Thus if there be any valu-
able consideration for the testamentary gift, as wlieie a gen-
eral h'gacy is given in consideration of a debt owing to the
legatee, or of the relinquishment of her dower by a widow,
such legacy will be entitled to a preference of payment over
the other general legacies.
Ademption is an extinguishment or destruction of a legacy
as a residt of the loss of the property bequeathed, or of some
change in it so that it does not answer the description of
the art ii'le specifically be(|Ueathed, or of its non-existence, or
of the sub.stilulion of some otln^r provision for the person
named a.s legatee which is deemed a satisfaction of the
lega<'y. The first part of this definition applies more ap-
propriately to si>ecific, the latter to gitieral legacies. Thus
if the subject-matter of a spe<ilic legacy is not owned by the
testator at the time of his death. I he legacy fails entirely,
and the legatee has no claim against the testator's estate. A
legiwy of this kind is also adeemeil when the specific prop-
erty dexignated. though it formecl a part of the testator's
estate at the time of making the will, wils subseijuentlv so
generally held not to occasion an ademption. In regard to
the rule of ademption, deinonslnitive legacies differ from
altered by him in form as to change its identity, as if it were
a gold cup, and tin' testator should have it made into jewelry.
So if a debt specially becpieathed lie received by the testator,
the legacy is adeemed because the subject of it is extin-
guished. Ademption may also occur asa result of a removal
by the testator of the articles b<'(ineathcil from one place to
another. Thus if the testator should bequeath all his furni-
ture as being situated in a particular house, and afterward
remove it to another house, the legacy would fail. This
would not l>e the case, however, if the goods were removed
by reason of a sudden emergency, as to save them from fire,
or if the removal were eflecte<l by fraud or without the
knowledge or consent of the testator. An ademption may
be partial, as where a portion of the property beijneathed is
found among the assets of the deceased, but not the whole.
tV pledge or mortgage of the property by the testator is
adenipf
rative le
those which are specific. If the fund out of which a demon-
strative legacy is to be paiil is not in existence at the testa-
tor's death, tlie legatee will have a valid claim for satisfac-
tion out of the general fund of assets, and the bequest to
him will rank among the general legacies.
The doctrine of ademption is a|)plicd in courts of equity
to general legacies when a parent or other person in loco
parentis (i. e. standing in the place of a parent) bequeaths a
legacy to a child or grandchild, and afterward in his life-
time gives a portion to or makes a provision for the same
child or grandchild, without expressing it to be in lieu of
the legacy. If this portion or provision be equal to or ex-
ceed the amount of the legacy, be certain and not merely
contingent, and be a gift of the same general nature as the
legacy, it will be deemed a satisfaction or extinguishment of
the legacy. This is on the ground of the presumed inten-
tion on the part of the testator to substitute one portion for
another which he has already made.
Legacies are distinguished with reference to the acquire-
ment by the legatee of his right of enjoyment into vested
and contingent. A legacy is vested at the time of the testa-
tor's death, when the legatee acquires an absolute present
right of present or future enjoyment. It \s contingent when
the right of enjoyment depends upon the happening of some
contingency. Tiius a legacy given to a man;'/ he reaches
the age of twenty-one will not vest until he attains that age ;
but if it be given to be payable when he becomes twenty-one,
it vests at the testator's death, the right being absolute,
though the time of enjoyment is deferred. A conditional
legacy is a bequest whose existence depends upon the hap-
pening or not haiipcning of some uncertain event by which
it is cither to take place or be defeated. (See CoxorrioN.) A
contingent legacy is a form of cimditional legacy in which
the vesting of the estate is dependent upon a condition prec-
edent. A cumulative legacy is one additional to a iircvious
legacy given in the same will. The general rule of construc-
tion which is followed in determining whether it was the in-
tent of a testator that a second legacy should be cumula-
tive (so that the legatee is entitled to both) instead of merely
a repetition of a previous bc(iucst. so that only a single gift
is bequeathed, is that when the testator has not plaiidy de-
clared a different intention : (ri) two or more legacies of the
same article or the same amount of money given to the same
person in the same instrument amount to but a single gift;
(b) bequests of different articles or of different amounts of
money, or of the same amount in different instruments, will
be generally considered cumulative legacies. Other distinc-
ti<ms iietween legacies are not (if enough import.Miiee, or are
too technical in their nature, to be given specific mention.
As a general rule, all classes of persons may be made lega-
tees. In (ireat Uritain and also m many of the U. S. it has
been provided by statute that a legacy given to any sub-
scribing witness to a will shall be void. This emietment has
been made on account of the danger of permitting a will
to be supported by persons who are lieneficially interested in
its contents. In .some eases, however, this ride is modified
by the ]>rovision that if the witness would have been en-
titled to a share in the estate in case the will was not estab-
lished, he shall receive so much of this share as does not ex-
ceed the value of the legacy. Alien enemies also, at com-
mon law, are incapable of taking legacies. In ICngland be-
quests to uses declared by statute to be superstitious are
void: as. for example, to maintain a chantry ]iriest or to
pay for the saying of masses for the testator's soul, etc. For
the law governing bei|uesls to '• charitable uses " in Eng-
land, see Uses. In the U. S. the right to make bequests for
LEGACY
LEGENDS
167
charitable uses in general exists, unless controlled by statute.
(See Trusts.) In this way legacies may be given to trustees,
thougli not incorporated for charitable uses. Corporations
may take property by bequest, so far as is consistent with
the general purposes for which they were formed and the
provisions of their charters. The right of a corporation to
take personal property by bequest must not be confounded
with the power to take land by will. (See Will and Cor-
poration.) In regard to capacity to make a will and con-
vey legacies, see Will.
Payment and its Incidents. — («) When paycMe. — At (Jom-
mon law, legacies are not payable until the expiration of a
year from the time of the testator's death. This perit)d is
allowed to the executor to ascertain the nature and value of
the property, to collect the assets, to determine the extent
of the testator's indebtedness, to satisfy charges against the
estate, etc. In the L^. S., where the subject is frecjuent ly reg-
ulated by statute, the same limit is generally ado]ited. It
is a general principle applicable to all legacies that the Lega-
tee does not become fully entitled to the bequest, so as to
obtain a right of action in a court of law. until the assent of
the executor is obtained. He can not, accordingly, take
possession of the legacy without such assent, and if he does,
may be sued by the executor, who may recover the value of
the property. The assent of the executor may be express or
it may be implied ; as, e. g., where he acquiesces in the tak-
ing of the property by the legatee. This rule, however, does
not atfect the right of a legatee to proceed to recover his
legacy before a court of equity or a probate court, (i) When
interest runs. — As a general rule, interest is to be reckoned
ujion the amount of the legacy, for the benefit of the legatee,
from the end of the year when the legacy becomes payable ;
hut where the legacy is given in payment of a debt due, it
will bear interest from the death of the testator. So when
a bequest is given by a parent to his child by way of main-
tenance, or by a husband to his wife in lieu of dower, inter-
est will run from the time of death, (c) To ivhom paid. —
If a legacy.be given to an infant, the executor will not be
justified, by the rules of common law, in paying it to the in-
fant, or to the father or to any other relative of the infant,
without the sanction of a court of equity. If payment
should be made without such sanction to the father or rela-
tive, the executor might be compelled to pay the legacy
again to the infant wlien he became of age. This subject
is now largely regulated by statute, as in England, where
it is provided that the executor may in such a case pay the
legacy into the Bank of England. A legacy given to a
married woman must at common law be paid to the hus-
band, unless it be given for the wife's separate use. This is
true, even though the husband and wife are divorced a
■mensa et thuro ; but courts of equity may compel a hus-
band, on receiving a legacy given to his wife, to make a suit-
able provision for her support. Until such support is pro-
vided the executor may decline to pay him the legacy. In
a number of the U. .S. it is provided by statute that married
women may take property by bequest in the same way as if
they were single. Legacies given to one person in trust for
another sliould regularly be paid to the trustee. When a
legacy is bequeathed by a testator to his creditor, it is a
general rule in equity tliat it is to be deemed as given with a
view to the satisfaction of the debt, if the bequest be equal
to or greater than the amount of the debt. This rule, how-
ever, is not favored, and will not be applied except under
these special circumstances, and when the legacy is of the
same general nature as the debt.
Lialiilitij of Paid Legatees in Case of Deficiency of Assets.
— It after the legacies are paid by the executors debts are sub-
sequently proved of which the executor had no knowledge,
and if there are no assets remaining to discharge them, he
may bring a suit in equity to compel the legatees to refund
to an amount equal to this indebtedness, if he acted pru-
dently in {)aying the legacies. The residuary legatee would
first be coiuijelled to refund, and next the general legatees
proportionally, so far as is necessary to satisfy the debt. So
it one legatee received full payment of his share, and it after-
ward appeared that there was an original deficiency of assets
to pay all the legacies in full, the other legatees may com-
pel him to refund, so that all in the same class may receive
proportional amounts upon their respective shares. This
would not be the case, however, if the insufficiency of assets
were attributable to the negligence, default, or misconduct
of the executor, and the executor would himself be solelv
liable to make up the deficiency. If there be a contingent
claim against the testator's estate, the executor may retain
the assets from the legatees, if necessary, to meet the de-
mand when the contingency occurs. If, however, the lega-
tee offers to indemnify the executor against the future
claim, the indemnity must be accepted and the legacy paid
over. If payment be made without requiring a bond of in-
demnity, the executor will be liable for the satisfaction of
the demand, when it becomes due, out of his own estate;
but it is frequently provided by .statute that claims against
the estate of a deceased person must be presented within a
short period after the issue of letters testamentary, if the
executor give due notice of his appointment.
Jurisdiction in regard to legacies is vested in general
either in probate courts or ;n courts of equit.v. The juris-
diction in equity, independent of statute, is exclusive where
the bequest involves the execution of trusts charged upon
land, or where remedies of a pecuharly equitable nature are
sought. No suit will be maintainable in a court of law to re-
cover a legacy unless it has been assented to by the executor ;
but in all cases where actions at law may be brought upon
legacies the jurisdiction of equity is concurrent. For the
rules of law regulating different specific questions regard-
ing legacies, see the articles Lapse, Interpretation, Ex-
ecutor, etc. See also for a full treatment of the subject the
following treatises: Williams On Executors; Jarman On
Wilts ; Redfield On Wills ; Roper On Legacies ; Redfield
On the Late and Practice of Surrogates' Courts.
Revised by P. Sturges Allen.
Leg'ates and Lega'tion [from Lat. hga're, depute, dele-
gate, aijpoint. The Latin word legatus was used of persons
commissioned or acting as delegates, and especially of am-
bassador, of adjutants or deputy commandei-s of an army
usually appointed by the senate, occasionally by commanders
themselves, and of the emperor's provincial governors] : in
international law, embassy, the right of legation, the right
to send an ambassador, or the whole subject of the nature
and powers of public envoys; and legate, the envoy or min-
ister himself. The popes, borrowing the word from the old
Roman state, called their principal envoys to the Roman
Catholic nations legates a or de latere. These were cardi-
nals, and represented the pope in spiritual matters chiefly,
but nuncios (from nuntius. a messenger, an envoy) were not,
and thus were a lower grade of papal envoys, doing business
of any sort. Revised by T. S. Woolset.
Leg'azpe, or Legraspi, la-gaazjx'e, JIiouel Lopez, de:
conqueror of the Philippine islands; b. at Zumarraga,
Guipiizcoa, Spain, about 1.510. He went to Mexico, where
for several years he was chief secretary of the city govern-
ment. In 1564 he was given command of the expedition
fitted out by the viceroy. Velaseo, for the con(|uest of the
Philippines.' The fleet of four vessels left La Xavidad, Mex-
ico, Nov. 21. 1.564, and reached the islands in Feb., 1565. The
first Spanish settlement, called San Miguel, was founded in
Zebi'i soon after, and various expeditions were made to the
other islands. The conquest of Luzon was begun in 1570,
and in Mav. 1571, Legazpe founded Jlanilla, where he died
Aug. 20, 1.572. Herbert II. Smith.
Leg'eiids [from O. Fr. legende > Fr. legende < Late Lat.
legendn, liter., things to be read, neut. plur. of legeti'dus, to
be read, deriv. of le gere. read] : a term which appears to
have been originally applied in the ecclesia-stical dialect to
portions of Scripture, and at a later period ahso to other
writings of religious instruction or edification, appointed to
be read, not chanted, intoned. or rfcited, in church services;
and it therefore nearly corresponded in signification to the
modern lessoji. However, while considering legend in this
narrower sense, one must bear in mind that the term is also
applied to that form of tradition which the Germans call
mige (W. Grimm's Heldensage) and the Scandinavians saga
(P. E. Midler's Sagahibliothek), as well as to similar tales
preserved from the childhood of other races ; whence, by
reason of the predominance of myth or fabulous adventure,
the word is further stretched to include any account which
is based upon tradition, or even upon poetic fancy, and
which inclines to the wonderful. '1 his article will be con-
fined to the legend of the Christian Church, which came to
signify any religious narrative not taken directly from the
Old or Xew Testament, whether composed in prose or in
poetry, and whether meant for the ear of the public or for
the eve of the monkish scholar.
The legend evidently acquired its place in the church les-
son (lectio) through a desire to celebrate the life, sufferings,
and death of post -apostolic saints and martyrs; but the be-
ginning and growth of the movement are by no means
16S
LEGENDS
clear. From earliest times rea<linR of the Scriptures (Uciio)
formoa jwrt i>f llio services of the church, at first only in
the nift.<s.l>iit later in the presirilied worshinof the (iitleient
canonical hours, such (u-; matins, for example. At first, as is
leanictl from certain ilecrccs. only the Holy Scriiptiires were
reail, lest accounts of even the most meritorious characters,
vet I'la-scj U(x>n mere anonvmous records, should he incorpo-
rated in the service. This" strictness, however, wiis soiui re-
laxed. Davs were set ajmrt in commemoration of the saints
and rnartvrs: and since it wiu; fitlin;; that the lives of these
illustrious men .should Ik- kept in vivid remembrance, a
short account, a legend of the sjiint in question, came to he
read duriiif; divine serviee— fjenerally before the epi.stlc—
and was afterwanl recalled or explained in the sermon, by
preference in the form of an eietnplnm.&n illustration of
virtues or martyrdom. Still more natural would be the
reailing of these' lej;ends before the members of a relijrioiis
IkhIv; and such readings became universjil. It is within
the monasteries therefore that one must look for the most
Ktent forces which worked upon the development of the
jend. For elerfrv and laity the Scriptures, together with
a moderate use of' the Acta Sanctornm, might well have
sufficed : but there sprung up a new literature, designed
primarilv for the instruction of persons severed from the
general bodv of the faithful, and devoted to a religious life,
anci this literature, chiefly concerned with monks and her-
mits as its heroes, eviilenlly was stimulated to greater ac-
tivity by the separate institutions and orders recognized by
the 'Church as permanent bodies corporate. It is in the
shape of literature that these lcgen<ls come down to us. but
the b<»:inning of them was undoubtedly a short, informal
account ftad aloud during service, thence, by reason of in-
creasing length, only begun in service and finished else-
where— in the refectory, probably, while the brothers ate their
meal. From this to wider scope, to formal literary compo-
sition, is a very easy step. We may thus assume a regular
cult of the legend within the limitsof these religious bodies;
anil from the eighth century it is found assuming a more
and more dominant attitude in regard to letters in general.
It is unquestionably the chief element in mediicval litera-
ture. The legen<l began in the shape of mere calendars or
lists of martyrs — the so-called maityrologies — with brief ac-
counts of their deeds and death ; but it rapidly became much
more than this as soon as the great C'h\irch writers recog-
nize<l its cajiabilities. Thus we are told that Alcuin was
asked to write a legend concerning the life and miracles
of a certain abbot, an<l that he wrote it in double form —
in prose, that it might be read in church before the as-
sembled monks and peo|)Ie, and again in verse — that the
learned of the clergy should have congenial reading. This
was in the eighth century; but as a matter of literature,
legends were certainly composed as early as the time of
Ilieronymus (about a. d. 374), who — significant fact — was
one of the earliest to organize the monastery in the interests
of clerical culture. From the eighth century the legend
kept pace with the rapidly increasing worship of saints, and
by the thirteenth century had thus lost nearly all hislniical
value. Xcw saints, new martyrs, new festivals demanded
new legends ; truth, ami even the respect for a semblance of
truth, yielded to an emotional and artistic necessity which
sought by any means to impress the festival upon popular
fancy. Hence the enormous growth of the miraculcms ele-
ments in the legend. So far legends have been regarded as
proiicrty of the Church alone ; but they could not remain a
purely clerical affair, nor be confined, even as literature, to
the Latin tongue. In the homily or sermon, as we have
Minted out, an ej-empliim, the life of a given saint, was re-
hearsed to the people ; and in time this story was taken alto-
gether out of the sermon and tolil for its' own sake, lis
value as a narrative temjpted to eanful composition in the
vcniacular, and in this way it iiiriilied every literature of
Eurone. Inasmuch, however, as the prevailing form of
popular narrative was in verse, a large numberof the legends
which were composed in the vernacular took a poetic form.
A.s early as the fifth century it had been a favorite iia.stime
with Churchmen to turn fives of saints into I^atin hexam-
eters : but this later and popniar legend adopted a meter as
well as a language familiar to the people.
.Such, in nulc outline, was the development of the legend.
Like the drama, it began in the Church and for the Church ;
meeting a genuine need of the (ie<iple at large, it S[>reiul among
them as a substitute for their ohler popular epic. It be-
came the sjicreil cruinterpart of their secular ballad; but
this was no immediate process. As distinctly sacred litera-
ture the legend is divided by Ebert into two classes: First,
those panegyrical accounts — half sermon, half glorificatiim
of the .saint or martyr in question — which are so largely
ellorts of clerical rhetoric ; and second, a simple story of the
miraculous deeds of such a saint, and of the power of his
relics — popular narrative. .Similar to the legend, and in
some sense a base of it, is the \'it<i, or formal life of a saint.
The early I'asaioiialiii — brief accounts of the primitive mar-
tyrs— are lost ; but they were succeeded by more formal
efforts, which included confe.ssors and founders, bishojis,
missionaries, and benefactors of every sort. An early ex-
ample is the widely read V7/(( .S'. Martini, by Severus, writ-
ten about 400 A. u. Some of the most valualile material for
the history of medianal Europe is contained in the earlier
yit(e — e.g. Bedas lives of certain abbots of his own mon-
astery who had been his teachers and friends. Here the
miraculous element — what we call legendary — is easily kept
in the background ; but as the liking for such literature
iiu-reased, lives of half-forgotten saints were^comjioscd in
such a way that the ])overty of authentic biography was out-
weighed by the wealth of miraculous details. The more ob-
scure its hero, the more a Vita needed astonishing and over-
whelming credentials. It is therefore evident that a general
verdict in regard to the credibility and historical value of
the legend is not only difiicult, but impossible. No one test
of truth can be a|)plied to this enormous mass of literature
from every time and clime of inediu'val Europe. It is a
matter of historical criticism, of minute investigation and
sifting of details. History and biograiihy of undoubted
truth, misunderstood tradition, factsdislorled but not utter-
ly false, forgery, falsehood ordinary, monstrous, or |ial]iablo
—with all these degrees of truth and error must the critic
reckon. The only practical modern interest involved in this
criticism is connected with the occasional <'anonizatioii of a
saint by the Church of Rome, when the evidence of miracles
wrought on the intercession of the candidate is submitted
to a board of cardinals specially named for the occasion,
and reported on to the pontiff, who finally adjudges upon
its sufiiciency, and in the affirmative case pronounces the
alleged facts established, and decrees, first the beatification,
anil later the enrollment of a new saint upon the calendar.
It is sometimes hard to distinguish the line between sacred
and .secular legends, as in those of the Holy Grail, where le-
gend and romance are closely interwoven ; nor can we for-
get the heathen divinities and demigods who crept into medi-
icval literature, and often appear in the most absurd dis-
guises. Finally, we have to reckon with many sliort stories,
parables, and even longer narratives which abound in our
sacred legend, but which have been proved to be im|iorta-
tions from the ancient literature of the East, In some cases,
too — so far as a model is concerned, Ilieronymus was under
this obligation — Western Christianity has borrowed from
the Christian literature of the Eastern Church.
The literature of the legend is of vast extent. Conspicu-
ous among the collections are the Vita; Patrum.de Vita ef
\'rr!>i.i Sc/iionim, sen llisttiria Ereinitica {\>cst edition, that
of Uosweyde. 1 vol. fol., Antwerp, 1628); the widely circu-
lated Legenda Aiirea, or Jlistoria Lnnihardica, one of the
most important books in all the Middle Ages, compiled by
Jacobus de Voragiiie in the thirteenth century, and first
printed in Paris in 1474 (by l.^OO .seventy-one editions had
appeared); the Ftot: Sanctorum of the .Jesuit Kibadineira,
commonly known as the (icneral Leqcnd (first published in
Spanish in 3 vols. fol.. Madrid, 159i»-I610) : this has been
augmented by suiiplemcnts, and iirinted in many languages
and in hundreds of cililions. and is the source from which
most smaller collections of legends have been drawn ; and
the Acta Sanctorum, edited by a Jesuit association known as
the Hollandists, from the name of its fcuinder. Of this vast
collection, begun in 1(14:1, there had ajipcared in 1887 as
many as sixty-one folio volumes. Jloreover, there is much
mat<Tial in the histories of si-parate organizations such lus
the Henedictines. In the English language there is a
goodly number of legends in prose and verse. To the former
category belong ^-fllfric's collections, dating from the end of
the tenth century, and a number of legends and legendary
sermons, down through the fifteenth century. An English
translation of the Lcriendn Aurca v;nfi niaile in 14:i8, and
printed, with addition's, by Caxtcm, 1484 and 1487 (f). Po-
etical legends begin with those attributed to Cynewulf in
the eighth century (e. g. his Elene. or Tlie Finding of the
Crosn), and make their way into modern English litera-
ture. Sec Horslmann, Altengliache Legenden (Heilbronn,
1878), and especially the A'cue Folge (1881), which contains
LEGENDA AUREA
LEGISLATIVE BODIES
169
an aiimirable essay on the legend itself (pp. iii.-xxxix.), and
an exact account of the different English and Scottisli leg-
ends (pp. xl.-cxxxviii). For the general literature of Euro-
pean legends, see Ebert, AUgemeine Geschichte der Literii-
■ turtles Jliflelalfers im Abendlande (3 vols., Leipzig, 1874-
87, and since issued in a second edition), and Miliniin, His-
tory of Latin Chrisiinnili/. For a discussion of the legends
from a philosophical point of view, see Lecky, History of
Rationalism in Europe. Many legends have grouped about
the Virgin Mary, and there is a collection of these in 10
vols., the Portuguese Santuario Mariano, 1709-23, which
gives account of more than 3,000 miraculous images of the
Virgin in the Peninsular possessions of Portugal alone. It
would lead too far to attempt to trace the legend in later
literature; a good example of such anarrative, treated lioth
by the poet and by the ballad-making public, is found in the
Prioresses Tale of Chaucer and the popular ballad of Sir
Hugh. F. B. Gu.MMERE.
Lejirenda Aiirea: See Jacobus de Voragine.
Legendre, le-zha~andr', Adrien Marie: mathematician;
b. in Paris in 1752. He early distinguished himself as a
successful teacher of mathematics in the military school at
Paris, and before attaining the age of thirty made his debut
in the world of science by one of his finest memoirs — that
on The Attraction of Spheroids — by which he gained ad-
mission to the Academy of Sciences (1783). His equally
important investigations of the Figure of the Playlets, con-
sidered as made of spheroidal strata whether homogeneous
or otherwise, soon followed, and in 1805 his Xeu> Method
for Determining the Orbits of Comets. His Elements of
Oeometry has been translated into all languages, and has
become a classic in that species of- literature. He assisted
de Prony in the calculation of his great logarithmic tables ;
invented the rule of the least square of errors ; was author
of a work, the Exercices sur le Calcul integral, and of re-
searches on the Eulerian integrals; both of which were
developed into the great work of his life — the Traite des
Fonctions elliptigues. D. at Auteuil, Jan. 9, 1833. Le-
gendre, though inferior in range and power of intellect to
all of his three great contemporaries — Laplace. Lagrange,
and Euler — was nevertheless inferior only to them ; and
was one of that age who most powerfully contributed to
the advancement of mathematical science. According to
Prof. Forbes, he was the first to imagine and employ those
artifices of calculation known usually by the name of La-
place's functions. When toward the close of his life the dis-
coveries by Abel and Jacobi of the really distinctive char-
acteristic of elliptic functions — their periodicity — gave an
unlooked-for extension and generalization to the applica-
tions of these functions, he welcomed them with a liber-
ality (says Prof. Forbes) "worthy of all commendation."
Legendre's life, spent in privacy and strenuous devotion to
science, was uneventful. Consult Verhulst, Des Fonctions
elliptiques, and Briot and Bouquet, Theorie des Fonctions
doublement periodiques.
Legrer, Paul Louis : writer ; b. in Toulouse, France, Jan.
13, 1843. He early turned his attention to the history and
philology of the Slav peoples, subjects then little studied in
France, but which he has done much to make known. In
1864 he made the first of his many visits to foreign coun-
tries, where he has been intimate with men like Palaeky,
and he has learned nearly every language in Europe. In
1869 he gave a supplementary course at the Sorbonne ; in
1871 he began to teach at the Ecole Speeiale des Langues
Orientales, where six years later he was made full professor ;
and in 1885 he was appointed Professor of the Slav Lan-
guages and Literatures at the College de France. He teaches
also at the Ecole de Guerre and the ficole des Sciences Po-
litiques. Besides many contributions to magazines and pa-
pers, he is the author of Etudes Slaves (1875); La Russie et
VExposition de 1S7S (1878); Xouvelles Etudes Slaves (1880;
2d series 1886); Contes Slaves (1882); Chroniqne Russe dite
de Nestor (1884) ; La Save, le Danube, et le Balkan (1884);
La Bulgarie (1885) ; Grammaire Russe (1878 ; 2d ed. 1886. a
much revised and improved edition of the grammar of KeifT,
by whose name it still goes) : Histoire de I'Aulriche-Hongrie
(1878 ; 3d ed. 1889, an excellent short history which has
iDeen translated into English); Russes et Slai^es (lSi)0) ; La
Litterature Russe (1892). A. G. Canfield.
Legrgre, James, D. D., LL. D. : Sinologist ; b. at Huntley,
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, Dec. 20, 1815 ; educated at King's
College and University. Aberdeen, and at the Highbury Theo-
logical College in London ; went as a missionary to China in
1839 and settled in Hongkong: returned to Great Britain in
1873, and in 1875 was made Professor of the Chinese Lan-
guage and Literature at Oxford. He has published The
Chinese Classics, with a translation, critical and exegetieal
notes, prolegomena, etc. (8 vols., London and Hongkong,
1861-71) ; The Texts of Confucianism (vols, iii., xvi., xxvii.,
and xxviii. of the Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, 1876-
90) ; TJie Religions of China (London and New York, 1880) ;
Records of Buddhistic Kingdoms (the travels of the Chinese
monk Fa-'hien, Oxford, 1886) ; The Texts of Taoism (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1891) ; and some minor works.
Legfgett. William: journalist; b. in Xew York city in
1802 : graduated at Georgetown College in 1822 ; was mid-
shipman in the U. S. navy from 1822 to 1826; published in
1825 a volume of poems. Leisure Hours at Sea; wrote for
The Mirror his Tales by a Country Schoolmaster, and estab-
lished The Critic, a weekly newspaper, in 1828; was associ-
ated with William CuUen Bryant in tlie editorship of T7ie
Evening Post from 1829 to 1835 ; edited The Plain Dealer
in 1836 ; was appointed in 1839 diplomatic agent to Guate-
mala, but died suddenly at New Rochelle, N. Y., Jlay 29,
1839. Two volumes of his political essays were published
by Theodore Sedgwick, Jr., in 1840.
Leg^'liorn (Ital. Livorno) ; a large maritime town in the
province of Leghorn, Italy ; lat. 43° 32' N., Ion. 10° 18' E.
(see map of Italy, ref. 4-C). It stands on a tongue of land
between the mouth of the Calambrone on the N. and the
lowest spur of the Tuscan Apennines on the S. ; 62 miles
W. S. W. of Florence and 12 miles S. S. W. of Pisa. A navi-
gable canal connects it with the Arno, which enters the sea
7 miles N. of the town, and smaller canals intersect it in
various directions. There are two harbors, the old and the
new, the latter — S. of the former and overlooked by the
large lighthouse — being capable of receiving vessels of heavy
tonnage, and even ships of war. The first notices of Leg-
horn are of the ninth century, and relate to the building of
a church there, but it had little importance for a long time.
At the close of the fourteenth century it was under the
protection of the French king, who in 1407 sold it and its
territory to Genoa for 26,000 gold ducats. Genoa ceded it
in 1421 to Florence for 100,000 gold florins, and this repub-
lic, aware of the value of her new possession, spared no pains
to increase its prosperity. Under the Medici the harbor was
improved, the fortifications were strengthened, and excep-
tional privileges and immunities granted to the inhabitants;
religious toleration was also established, so that merchants
of all nations flocked thither. Toward the end of the eigh-
teenth century Leghorn fell into the hands of the French,
who impoverished it by forced contributions and forced
loans, from which it recovered but slowly. The port was
for a long time free, except for government monopolies, but
since 1867 it no longer enjoys special privileges. Notwith-
standing this change the port is one of the most frequented
in the Mediterranean, and the commerce and general pros-
perity of the town are constantly increasing; fine public and
private buildings are being erected ; facilities for communi-
cation between its different quarters are multiplying; its
suburbs are being extended and embellished ; and it is every
year more and more resorted to as a fashionable bathing-
iilace. It has a beautiful cathedral and a costly synagogue.
The import trade embraces cotton, wool, cutlery, hardware,
etc., and colonial products generally. The export trade is
in silks, straw hats, borax, coral, and many of its own manu-
factures, which consist chiefly of oil,' soap, tobacco, salt, etc.
In 1890 the exports amounted to 38,800,000 lire, and the im-
ports to 74,400,000 lire. Pop. (1890; 78,998; with suburbs,
89,980.
Legion'[Lat. legio. from legere. to gather, collect] : a mili-
tary organization of the ancient Romans, combining all the
constituent elements of an army, and numbering from about
3,000 to about 6,000 men. See Lsfaxtry.
Legion of Honor, Order of the : a French order of
merit instituted May 19, 1802 (19 floreal, an 10), by the First
Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. The order has received sev-
eral modifications since then. It consists of several ranks,
viz., grand officers, grand crosses, connnanders, and knights.
Its distinctions are conferred for civil, but more especially
for military achievements. The order possesses considerable
wealth, of which the proceeds are paid out in pensions to
wounded and disabled members and others. Its house at
Paris was burned by the Communists May 24, 1871.
Legislative Bodies. See Legislatures.
170
LEGISLATURES
Loir i slut II res [ileriv. of Lat. legi*, gcnit. of lejr h\\f +
hilu^. UM-l lis p. p. of ferrf. to bear]: law-inakiiif: boilios
111 in.«lirii i-oiistilutioiiul stalos there prevails a threefolil
division of the fuiutioiis of Kovernineiil : (1) Iho lefrislative
(lepartiiient or legishiture, which makes the laws and exer-
oisos more or U'sseomnlete control over their adminisl ration,
espeoiallv with n^nanl to pnl>liu liiianee. ('-') the judioiarv de-
iwrtineni, or the eoiirts, which expound and apply the laws.
and (3) the administrativo department, or the executive,
whieli enfon-os them. „ , . . ,
Orgaiiiziilion of the Legislature.— The chief purpose of
the legislature is (see Law-makinu) to determine what of
right should lie: not to iuscerlain the popular will, but to
dis<-over the courst- appropriate to the necessities of the oc-
casion. IVtause it has proved best suited to accomplish
this purfiosi'. the bicameral system— in other words, the or-
pmiziilion iif the legislature in two houses— has been adopted
111 all save the smallest states, and has met with nearly uni-
form approval from i>olitical theorists. Independent delil)-
eration upon proposed measures in each of two more or less
dissimilar Inidies affords a safeguard against hasty iaw-
niakini:. It also checks legislative encroachments upon the
executive, iiiiusmuch as the resolutions of one house alone
iiave not the force of law. These are not, however, the con-
siderations which called the bicameral system into exist-
ence. In Great Britain, where it originated, it was, on the
contrarv. rather an historical product than a political de-
vice. It was subsi'(iuentlyadopted,on account of its merits,
first bv the l'. S. and later by almost all the nations of Eu-
riipe, where it often supplanted previous legislatures com-
posi'if of tlyee or more bodies (estates).
Although the two houses of the legislature have, as a rule,
substantial parity of powers, the more popular branch, be-
cause it is considered the direct representative of tli.'i people,
has in some countries (e. g. France, Great Britain) superior
h
;K)wer in voting taxes and expenditures. It should be noted,
owever. that, in spite of this apparent concession to the idea
that representatives are simply delegates, bound by the will
of the electors, tlie positive law of all constitutional states
in Europe and America conforms to the best political theory
in regarding the franchise not as a private right of the voter,
but as a political function whose exercise is conferred upon
certain individuals for the public good. The power of the
legislature to vote taxes as well as to make laws is derived
therefore not from its constituents, but from the state. The
election is not the source but the consequence of its exist-
ence. The state through the constitution creates the legis-
lature and defines its powers. The electorate simply de-
cides Tvho shall from time to time exercise those powers.
When a so-called representative has been chosen, he is under
no legal obligation whatever to respect the wishes of his con-
stituents. His dutv is to the constitution and the laws — to
the whole state and to that alone.
Composition. — The desiri'd dissimilarity between the two
houses of the legislature may be achieved in various ways:
by basing the membership in one — the so-called upper and
generally the less numerous — house wholly or [jartly upon
birth or odice, or Ixjth, wherejis the lower house is commonly
elected ; or else by providing an indirect and more elaborate
metho<l of electing the upficr hou.sc or the elected members
of it. Further, the term of membership in the upper house
is generally longer, and the house is commonly renewed by
parts, whereas the renewal of the lower house at each elec-
tion is as a rule total. In the U. S. the upper house, the
Senate, is composed of two members elected from each State
by the [legislatures thereof for a term of six years. One-
third of the .Senators retire every two years." The lower
chainbir, the House of Hepresenta'tives, is now (1894) com-
posed of ;)")« niembers, elected for a two vears' term by cim-
gressioiial districts within each Slate. an(i in the same way
as the more numerous branch of the .State Legislature
that is to say, by secret ballot and direct plurality vote.
.Si'nators are freipiently re-elected, but to Representatives
the principle of " rotation in ollice." sometimes after one,
sometimes after two terms, is generallv ap|ilieil.
The upper house of the British Parliament, the House of
Lords, is composed, in addition to the here<litary peers of
the realm (numbering 4!t5 in IHDU), of 1(> representative
Scottish peers, chosen for the session by the body of Scottish
peers; 28 representative Irish peers, chosen for life bv
the body of Irish peers ; 2 archl)ishojis and 24 bishops; and
2 lords of appeal in ordinary, appointed by the crown for
life. The (ITO members of the House of Commonsarceli'cted
for seven years by direct secret ballot. In general, i.ne mem-
ber is chosen by each district. The eight universities elect
nine members, and a few towns retain historic riglils to bo
represented by one member, in some cases by two. although
their po|iulation falls below that reiiuiivd for one or two
regular districts. (See Paki.iamknt.) British custom does
not confine a canilidate to his home constituency. Any
candi<late may be put in nomination before any constituency
in the land. ' The result is the almost uninterrupted re-
election of the more able members of the House of Commons.
The members of tlie French lower house, the Chamber of
Deputies, are chosen for four years by direct secret ballot,
one member f'-r each of the .")S4 arrondissemeiits or dis-
tricts into which France and its colonies are divided. The
French .Senate consists of 300 members, of whom 7.5 were
originally to have been life senators. In 1884 the law was
changed, and va<-aneies in life senatorships are now filled,
like other vacancies, by senators electeil for nine years. In
1893 there still survived 23 life senators. The eighty-seven
departnients return from 1 to 10 senators each, according
to their ]iopulation. Senators arc chosen by an electoral col-
lege composed of the deputies from the ilepartmeiit. its
general council, i. e. the departmental legislature, the gen-
eral councils of the arrondissements within the department,
and special delegates chosen by the municipal eoiiniion coun-
cils. One-third of the .senators retire each three years.
The Prussian National Diet (Landtag) comprises a House
of Lords (llerrenliaus) of about 310 members and a House
of I)eimties(,\ligeordnelenhaus) of 433 niembers. The com-
position of the Ilerrenhaus is com]>lex. It includes as
hereditary members such adult royal princes as the King
may summon and 98 heads of families of the higher no-
bility, and further, as life members, those whom the King
names as a mark of confidence and others presented by t he
minor nobility, by the cities (44 members), by the provinces,
the universities, etc., and especially by the large landlords
possessing old estates, the landed gentry. The latter nominate
about 90 niembei'.s. Election to the House of I)e]iuties is
indirect. The voters (L'rwahler) of each district are divided
into three classes according to the amount of taxes they pay,
the gross tax paid by each class being equal. Each c!a.ss
selects by open ballot an equal number of electors (IV'oA/-
mtntner). who choose the dejiuty. The effect of this arrange-
ment is that many voters of the third or most numerousclass
do not take tlie trouble to vote.
The Federal Council (Bundcsrath) of the German eni|iire
consists of 58 members, appointed and removed at will by
the sovereigns of the several states, subject of course to (he
provisions of their respective state constitution.s. Of these
members Prussia names 17, Bavaria 6, Saxony and Wiir-
temberg each 4. Baden and Hesse each 3, Brunswick and
jMecklcnburg-Schwerin each 2. the other states and the three
free cities each 1. The Imperial Diet (Reichstag) consists of
.397 nu'mbcrs, elected for five years by direct district vote
and secret tiallot.
The Spanish legislature (Cortes) is composed of a Senate
and a Congress. There are some 80 "senators in HuMr own
right," i. e. adult royal jirinces, grandees of large income's,
and ccrtainjiigh officials of Church and state. KM) life sena-
tors nominated by the crown, and 180 elected senators, chosen
some by the city councils, some by the provincial legisla-
tures, some by the tlhurch, some by the univer.sities, some by
the heaviest taxpayers, etc., for a term of ten years. The
congress consists of 431 deputies, partly chosen by a system
of minority rejiresentation. .See Rei-resentation.
The I'ortuguese Cortes comprises a House of Peers and a
House of Deputies. The law of July 24, 188.'), abolislies
hereditary [leerages by a gradual jirocess, ujion the comple-
tion of wliich llrerc will be in the upjier lious", in addition
to princes of the rcpyal blood and 12 bishops. 100 \\\v \)vi'YS
appointed by the king, and M elective peers, <'lioseii 5 by the
University of Coimbra and 45 indirectly by different admin-
istrative districts. There are 149 tlepiitie's elected for four
yeai-s bv direct district vote.
The legislature of republican Switzerland consists of a
Council of Estates composed of 2 members chosen at will by
each of the twenty-two cantons, and a National Council of 147
elected bydirecl secret ballot on a<listrii-t ticket in forty-nine
districts. The legal term is three years, but a member once
chosen is commonly re-elected until he resigns or dies.
The Legislatures of the States of the U. S. are without
exception bicameral. Tlu' upper house is commonlv called
the Senate, the lower the House of Representatives, although
in six .States its name is .V.ssembly and in three House of
Delegates. Both houses are as a rule selected in the .same
LEGISLATURES
171
manner by direct secret ballot and plurality rote. Senators
serve four years in thirty States, two years in eleven States,
threi' years in two States, and one year in one State. Kepre-
sentat ives are generally elected for iiut one session. Kolat ion
in offtce is well-nigh universal. The number of Senators
varies from 9 in Delaware to 51 in Illinois, and the number
of Representatives from 21 in Delaware to 321 in New
Hampshire. In Xew York the members of the Senate and
the Assembly number respectively 32 and 128 ; in Massachu-
setts 40 and 240, and in Pennsylvania ."iO and 201.
Appnrtitinment. — In order to secure a legislature capable
of correctly estimating the common interest, membership
might be apportioned among social or industrial groups —
e. g. farmers, manufacturers, traders, laborers, etc. — and
there are historical instances of such apportionment. Rep-
resentation in the lower house of the legislature is generally
proportioned to population, some regard being paid inci-
dentally to geographical or administrative divisions. In
the U. S. there is one Representative to about 173.!)U0 in-
habitants ; in the German empire, one to 124,500 ; in Prus-
sia, one to 69,180 ; in France, one to 65,700 ; in Great Britain
and Ireland, one to 56,500 ; in Spain, one to 50,000 ; in
Switzerland, one to 20,000 : in Xew York, one member of
Assembly to 46,700 ; in Illinois, one to 25,200 ; in Califor-
nia, one to 15,000 ; in Georgia, one to 10,400 ; in Xew Hamp-
shire, one to 1.140.
Eltctiun. — The voter must be as a rule a male citizen re-
siding in the country and generally in the district which the
member is to represent. He must be of mature age, com-
monly twenty-one years ; in the German empire, in Prussia,
and in Spain twenty-five, in Switzerland but twenty. In all
countries criminals and pereons of defective intellect, and
in most cases paupers, persons in bankruptcy, and members
of the active military force, are excluded from the exercise
of the franchise. In Great Britain there is a complicated
system, or rather want of system, of property qualifications,
details of which must be sought in various statutes ranging
from 1429 to 1891. These qualifications may be roughly
summarized as follows : Only males over twenty-one years
of age are permitted to vote. In counties and boroughs the
voter must own or occupy either lands or tenements of not
less than £5 clear yearly value, or occupy an independent
dwelling-house, or a lodging of the clear yearly value, if let
nufurni.shed. of £10. In county constituencies other per-
sons in addition are qualified to vote by a freehold of inher-
itance of 40.S. clear yearly value, a copyhold, as well as free-
hold for life only, of £5 annual value, and a leasehold, if
created for a term of over twenty and less than sixty years,
of £50, or, if created for over sixty years, of £5 value. The
qiuisi-property qualification of the Prussian system has been
described above.
Eliyibilily. — Citizenship, male sex, and residence within
the country are generally required. Frequently the legis-
lator must have attained a certain age. L^. S. Senators must
be at least thirty years of age and nine years citizens. Rep-
resentatives at least twenty-five and seven years citizens.
In France senators must be forty, deputies twenty-five ; in
Prussia deputies must be thirty. Certain disqualifications
are connected with the holding of office. Xo man can be a
member of both houses. In the U. S. a member of Con-
gress can not hold a Federal office. The British and French
systems disqualify officials who are in a position unduly to in-
fluence their own elections, and officials whose duties would
interfere with the exercise of legislative functions. In (Jreat
Britain and on the Continent generally appointment to oilice
unseats an elected member, who may subsequently be re-
electeil. For the lower houses of all the German legislatures
the provisions for the Imperial Diet are fairly typical. All
sorts of officials may be elected, but any member who after
his election accepts office under the empire or a separate state
loses his seat. He may, however, regain it by re-election.
Privileges of Members. — In all cases the members enjoy
full liberty in debate. For anything said or any vote given
in either house they can not, except in case of the German
Federal Council, be called in question in any other place.
As a rule, they are exempt from arrest during the session,
and for some time before and after it, save in case of
flagrant otfenses.
Remuneration. — In favor of paying the members of the
legislature, it is urged that the salaiy enables capable men
to serve, whether wealthy or poor, and that payment re-
moves, or at least diminishes, the temptation to steal. On
the other hand, payment is held to excite the cupidity of in-
capable persons, and it is asserted that non-payment secures
a more intelligent and independent legislature by confining
membership to the well-to-do. Members of the British Par-
liament, of the German Imperial Diet, and of the Spani.sh
Cortes receive no pay. U. S. Congressmen receive $5,000
per year and traveling expenses (mileage) ; French senatoi-s,
15,000 francs per year ; members of the Swiss X'ational
Council, 20 francs for each day of actual attendance. In
the U. S. the members of all the Legislatures are paid by
the respective .States.
Privileges of the Houses. — The general rule that each
house is the sole judge of the election of its own members
was first established by the House of Commons, and was
once an indispensable defense against the encroachments of
the crown. The necessity for such defense has everywhere
largely disappeared, and the rule ha-s not always worked
well under the conditions of modern partisanship. In 1868
the House of Commons transferred the decision of its con-
tested election cases to the courts. The extension of this
practice, as frequently urged, to other countries might per-
haps be fraught with danger to the courts themselves, espe-
cially in cases where, as in many of the States of the U. S.,
the judiciary is elective.
Each house, as a rule, elects its own officers, exercises its
own discipline, and establishes its own rules of procedure.
(See Parliamentary Law.) There are exceptions. The
Vice-President of the U. .S. is ex officio presiding officer of
the Senate, and a two-thirds vote of either house is neces-
sary to expel a member of it in the way of discipline. The
presiding officer of the House of Lords, the Lord Chancel-
lor, is a member of the cabinet, and may be a Commoner.
The House of Commons elects its own Speaker, but the
other officers of Parliament are permanent, and appointed
by the crown. The French chambers likewise arrange
their own procedure. Their sessions must, as a rule, be pub-
lic, and cabinet ministers must be given the floor when
they demand it. The case of the German Diet is similar,
save that its sessions must in all cases be public, and mem-
bers of the Federal Council, as well as representatives of
the imperial Government, can obtain the floor upon demand.
The Federal Council itself is under the presidency of the
Chancellor of the empire, who is appointed at pleasure by
the Emperor, and the constitution virtually appoints several
of its more important committees also. In the several
States of the L. S. the Lieutenant-Governor, elected on a
general ticket by the State at large, is commonly the pre-
sidhig officer ex officio of the State Senate.
Qnorutn. — The general principle is that, a majority of
the members being present, a majority of those who choo.se
to vote is sufficient to pass a law. The U. S. and French
Senates, and the Legislatures of many of the States of the
U. S., however, require that a majority be present and also
vote, and the U. S. House of Representatives has followed
both methods. In the House of Lords three are a quorum,
in the House of Commons forty. Business is so entirely in
the hands of the responsible cabinet, which must summon
all its forces to escape defeat on any important measure,
that no danger arises from this rule.
Sessions (their frequency and length, the method of con-
voking the house, of opening the session, of adjourning —
i. e. of interrupting or postponing the session — of proroguing
or adjourning without day — i. e. of ending the session —
and of dissolution — i. e. of ending the legislature — thereby
calling for a new election) : In the U. S. the Constitution
requires the assembling of both houses on the first Monday
in December. The houses separately arrange all ceremonies
of opening and closing, and adjourn from time to time. In
agreement they adjourn without day — i. e. prorogue them-
selves. If they are unable to agree the President has con-
stitutional power to prorogue them, but it never has become
necessary for him to do so. They sit as long as they please,
save that the second regular session of each Congress is pro-
rogued on Mar. 3 by the expiration of the term of the Rep-
resentatives. The President can call an extra session of
both houses, or of the Senate alone, whenever he sees fit.
A dissolution can occur only by the expiration of the terms
of the members, and the term's of all Senators can not ex-
pire at any one time.
According to law the Parliament of Great Britain must
meet once in three years, but virtually it must meet annually,
as many appropriations are made for one year only. The
statutory limitation of its <hiration is seven years. It is
summoned, oiiened. and prorogued by the crown, and dis-
solved by the crown, or by the expiration of the term of
the Commons. In fact, however, the crown exercises its
172
LEGNANO
ricbts onlv uiHin the aavice of a prime minister actually, or
priviouslv lo tlio la^il vote, rfpreseiiling the majority of the
house In the latter oa^e be expects that the election will
eive bim a majority apiiii. So that the House of Commons
inav be saiil to prorogue, and, since the average life of a
Parliament is less than live years, in most cases to dissolve
The French chamlicrs must sit for not less than five
months, iH-iiuiiiif: in January of each year. The President
can prorogue them, but for one month only, and not more
than twice in one session. They are also dissolvetl liy the
Pre-iident, but not without the consent of the Senate, and
onlv upon the advice of a minister responsible as a matter of
law to bolh chambers. As a mailer of fact the vote of the
deputies usuallv decides the course of the ministry.
Fi.r the laws' regarding the tierinan imperial legislature
the Prussian svstein served as a model. The Emperor con-
vokes, opens, adjourns, prorogues, and dissolves both houses.
He can call a session of the Federal Council alone, or of bolh
bodies together, whenever he sees fit. He must call the
Federal Council u[ion demand by one-third of the members.
The Diet must be called at least 'once a year, and can not be
adjourne<l more than once in a session, nor for more than a
month, without its own consent. The consent of the Fed-
eral Council is necessary for the dissolution of the Diet, and
in case of dissolution the election must be held within sixty
days, and the new Diet convoked within ninety days there-
after.
In the U. .S. the State Legislatures have all, like Congress,
powers of self-asscnil)ly, self-adjourniiieiit, and self-proro-
gation, but in some States the length of the regular session
has l)een limited — c. g. in Oregon and Georgia to forty days,
California to sixty davs, Virginia to ninety days, etc. They
are all dissolved only by the expiration of the terms of their
memljers. In all th'e States save live the sessions are bien-
nial, but ailjourned sessions are often held in the interven-
ing years. The tiovernor can, upon occasion, call an extra
session of the Legislature.
Executive Veto.— In the U. S. the President has a veto
which can be overcome only by a two-thirds vote in each
house. The arrangement in the several States is as a rule
similar, but in s(jme of them the veto of the Governor is
siinplv sus[)ensive. not absolute. Likewise in France the
President has no real veto, but at his deiiiand the two cham-
bers must reconsider aii}' measure. If a majority in each
house still favors it, it becomes a law. The German Em-
peror has, as Emperor, no direct veto; but if ho should de-
clare a bill which in his opinion encroached upon his pre-
rogative to be an amendment to the constitution, and then
defeat it by means of the voices which he, as King of Prus-
sia, controls in the Federal Council, there is apparently no
way provided by law to secure the passage of such a bill.
The direct veto of the British crown has not been exercised
since 1707.
Authorities. — Story, Commentariesonthe Conxtitution of
the United States, notes by Cooley (1873) ; Bryce, The Amer-
ican Commonwealth (181I1), chaps, ix.-xxi. and xl. ; Anson,
Law and Custom of the Constitution (1886), part i. ; Batbie,
Droit public (2d ed. 1880), vols. iii. and viii. ; Meyer, Deutuclies
Staaturicht (:!d ed. 1891); Moses, Federal Government of
Switzerland (1889); Burgess, Political Science and Com-
parative Cunnlitutional Law (vol. ii., 1891) ; Statesman's
year-book (1894) ; Mar(|uardsen, llandbuch des uffentlichen
Rteltts der Oegenwarl (a vols., 1883-94).
Charles II. IIlt.l.
Lp^nn'no : town in Xort hern Italy, in the province of
Milan; aliout 17 miles N. \V. of the city of Milan (see map
of Italy, ref. 3-C). It contains some interesting churches,
and, among other fine pictures, an invaluable one by Luini.
The town is famous lor the victory wim by the Lombard
League over the Emperor Frederick I. in May, 1176. So
complete was the suc<ess of the League that Frederick con-
cluded the Peace of Venice in the following year, and sub-
sequently the Treaty of Constance (1183), substantially
guaranteeing the independence of the cities. Pop. QfiK).
LciTomY'. lc-g(X)'va', Gaiiriei, Ernkst Wilfriu: author;
son of (iabricd Marie Legouve (1764-1812), author; b. at
Paris, Feb. l.'i, 1807; made his debut in literature with a
poem, Decouverte de I'Jmprimrrie (1829), f<ir whicli he re-
ceived a prize from the Academy; wrote, in cnnipnny with
.Scribe, till- plays yldn>finc AiroKerci/r (1M49) ; Lrs Cimtesde
la Heine de Xavarre (18.50); Hataille des Domes (1851) ; and
Le» Uoigtt de Fee (with Scribe, IS.^). His tragedy, Medee,
LEGUMIN
in which Mile. Rachel refused to play, though the refusal
cost her a fine of .5,000 francs, was translated into Italian,
and performed with great success by Mine. Kislori. Among
other works are the comedies Beatrix (1801) and Miss Su-
zanne (1867); the drama in verse Les Deux lii'ines de
France (\^~'i)\ and the one-act drama Anna de Kerviller
(1879). A conuilete edition of his dramatic works appeared
in 1887-90. lie is also the author of a large luuiiljcr of nm-
ccllaneous works, including llistoire morale des Femmes
(1848): Les peres et les infnits au XJX" siecle (2 vols.,
1867-69); LArt de la Lecture (1877; 2d ed. 1881); La
Question de Femmes (1881); Soixante ans de Souvenirs (2
vols., 1885-87; new ed. 4 vols., 1888); and Vne Kleve de seize
ans (1890). Legouve became a member of the French Acad-
emy in 1855, has held the position of inspector-general of
public instruction in the normal school for young women at
Sevres, and in 1887 was made a commander of the Legion '
of Honor. Revised by A. K. JIarsu.
Legrrand dil SaiiUe, If-gralindu-sol', Henri, M. D. : alien-
ist ; b. at Dijon, France, Apr. 16, 1H;!0 ; studied at Dijon lyce-
um, and later studied medicine with Dumenil at Dijon, Morel
at Rouen, and Calmeil at Clmrcnton. He gave his entire at-
tention to nervous and mental diseases, his graduation the-
sis at Paris in 1856 being on Jlonomnnie incendiaire.
From 1854 to 1862 he was associate editor of the Gazette
des Ildpitaux. He was for eight years a resident physician
at Contrexcville, and in 1865 publ'ished a monograph on the
effects of these waters. In 1866 he became an associate of
Lasegue at the prefecture of police in Paris; in 1867 he was
nominated as one of the alienists to Bicetrc, and after that
time he devoted himself exclusively to mental and legal
medicine. For nine years he was editor of the Annates
medico-psychologiques. He was one of the originators of
the Soeiete de medecine legale. He was president of the
medico-psychological society, and an officer of the Legion of
Honor. In 1879 he was appointed {ihysician to Salpetricre,
and in 1883 was made chief physician of the special infirm-
ary for the insane in the prefecture of police. He was the
author of many valuable papers on mental derangements.
His principal work, Traile de medecine legale, etc. (Paris,
1886), was crowned by the Institute. D. Jlay 5, 1886.
S. T. Armstrono.
Legii'min [from Lat. legu'men, pulse, deriv. of le'gere,
gather] : one of the vegetable proteids, or, as they are some-
times called, albuminoids. (See Albuminoius.) It is very
similar in its chemical properties and composition to ani-
mal casein, the substance of cheese — that is, of curd of milk.
Legumin occurs extensively throughout the vegetable king-
dom, but is more especially found in various kinds of seeds
and nuts. It derives its name from the fact that, with
starch, it makes up almost the whole substance of the seeds
of leguminous plants, such as peas and beans. Hence the
])owerfully nutritious character of these as food — that is. for
those possessed of powerful digestion, for vegetable casein
is far from being so readily soluble in tlie gastric liquids as
animal casein or curd of milk. Peas and beans contain
about one-quarter of their weight of this ]ilant-eurd, and
are comjiarable, therefore, so far as richness in nitrogen is
concerned, to eggs or to condensed milk. Ordinary cow's
milk, acc<jrding to the highest determinations on record,
contains not more than 5 J per cent, of dry casein by weight;
woman's milk contains less than 4 i)er cent.
Voelcker found in legumin precijiitated from its solu-
tions by acetic acid, and thus freed from all mineral mat-
ters, from P38 to 2'18 per cent, of phosphorus.
Legumin was prepared in jiure state by Dumas and Ca-
hours from milk of sweet almonds. The kernels are bruised,
soaked in warm water for three hours, crushed to pulp, and
an equal weight of cold water added. In an hour the mass
is pressed through a cloth. The liquid deposits its starch,
and is then filtered. Acetic acid (avoiding excess) now pre-
ciiiitates or curdles the legumin as a white coagulum or curd,
which is washed on a filter with water, then with alcohol,
dried, pulverized, and treated with ether to remove fatty
substances. It is more diUlcuIt to obtain the vegetable curd
pure from beans, as these ccmtain mucilaginous nuitters
which render the filtration troublesome. The li>gumin thus
prepared is stated by other chemists still to retain in admix-
ture some albumen, to separate which requires re-sohition in
ammonia and reprecipitation with acetic acid. Avenin, ob-
tained from oats, appears to be identical with legumin. Ac-
cording to Hillhausen, plant casein is of three kinds, viz.,
legumin, conglutin, and gluten-casein. II. Wurtz.
LEGUMINOS^
LEIBNITZ
173
Le^nmino'sae [Mod. Lat., from Jjat. legu'men, pod, pulse] :
a family of dicotyledonous flowering plants, with alternate,
stipulate leaves, separate and mostly irregular petals, a
single simple ovary (rarely 2-15 ovaries), in fruit producing
a legume (i. e. a bean-like pod). The many species (7,000)
present numerous exceptions to these characters. Three sub-
families are generally recognized, but it is probable that they
are entitled to full rank as families, viz. : 1. ^¥;7reo»«cefe, with
regular flowers and valvale petals (including about one-
seventh of the species, mostly of warm climates). 2. Ccesal-
pinidcecr, with mostly regular flowers, and imbricated petals
(including about one-fifth of the species, mostly of warm
climates). 3. Papilionacete, with bean or pea like papilion-
aceous flowers (including fully two-thirds of the species,
with wide distribution). The species range from tiny herbs
a few millimeters in height (some Astragali) to enormous
trees a meter or more in diameter (Robinia, Oymnodadus,
Gleditsia, etc.). Many species are of great economic im-
portance, yielding food for man (beans, peas, vetches, soy,
lupines, peanuts, etc.) or for domestic animals (clover, alfalfa,
vetches, sanfoin, etc.), wood for fuel or construction (locust,
rosewood, mora, wattles, etc.), dyes (indigo, red sandalwood,
camwood. Brazil-wood, logwood, etc.), gums (tragacanth,
kino, tolu, copal, copaiva, acacia, etc.), medicines (species of
Acacia, Cassia, Astragalus, Tamarindus, Olycyrrhtza, etc.),
ornamental plants (species of Lupinus, Lathyrus, Wistaria,
Robinia, Phaseolus, Acacia, Mimosa, etc.).
Charles E. Bessey.
Leh : capital of Ladak, Kashmir, Northwestern India ;
the principal market of the region, and the rendezvous of the
merchants of India and Turkestan ; 1.55 miles E. of Srina-
gar and 3 miles from the right bank of the Indus (see map
of N. India, ref. 3-E). It is surrounded by walls and con-
tains a celebrated Buddhist monastery. The land about it
is sterile, but there are occasional rich agricultural valleys.
Pop. about 5,000.
Lehigh River: a stream in Pennsylvania; rises in Pike
County, and traverses a region remarkable for its beauty and
famous for its great produc^tion of anthracite coal". It
passes the Blue Ridge at Jlauch Chunk, and at Easton
unites with the Delaware. It is nearly 100 miles long, and
for 70 miles has been fitted for slack-water navigation.
Leilightoii : borough (site settled by Moravian missiona-
ries in 1746, laid out as a borough in 1794, incorporated in
1866) ; Carbon co.. Pa. (for location of county, see map of
Pennsylvania, ref. 4-1) ; on the Lehigh river, and the Central
of N. J. and the Lehigh Val. railways : 4 miles S. by E. of
Mauch Chunk, 87 miles N. by W. of Philadelphia. There
are 6 churches, 13 public schools, electric lights, exhibition-
grounds of the Carbon County Indu.strial Society, and 2
weekly newspapers. The manufactures include stoves and
furnaces, car-springs, carriages, bricks, and tanned leather.
Pop. (1880) 1,937; (1890) 2.959; (1893) estimated, 3,.500.
Editor of " Carbon Advocate."
Lehigh UniTcrsity : an institution founded and en-
dowed by Asa Packer, of Mauch Chunk, Pa. ; located at
South Bethlehem, in the midst of the great engineering,
metallurgical, and mining industries of Pennsylvania. It
was incorporated by the Legislature of Pennsylvania in
1866 and the first class was graduated in 1869. It comprises
a school of literature, having three courses of study, the
classical, the Latin scientific, and the course in science and
letters; and a school of technology, which has six distinct
courses, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, mining
and metallurgy, electrical engineering, chemistry, and archi-
tecture. There are five buildings devoted to the general
purpose's of instruction, and also a chapel, a library building,
an astronom'ical observatory, and a gymnasium. The library
contained 93,000 volumes in 1894. The museums have a
fine collection of the birds of North America and the Roep-
per collection of minerals. During the collegiate year
1893-94 there were 35 professors and instructors, and 527
students, of which .505 were in technical courses of study.
The founder of the university, in addition to the gifts of
buildings and money during his lifetirne, secured to it bv
his last'will an endowment of |2.0()(),000, of which .f .500,000
was specially set apart for the library. The presidents have
been Henry Coppee, LL. D., from 1866 to 1875, who was
also acting president during 1H93-94; John M. Leavitt,
D. D., from 1875 to 1880 ; and Robert A. Lamberton, LL. D.,
1880 to 1893. The number of graduates up to .Ian., 1894,
was 584. No honorary degrees have ever been conferred.
Manskield Merriman.
Lehmann, la'maan, Charles Ernest Rodolphb Henri :
painter; b. at Kiel, in Ilolstein, Apr. 14, 1814, and received
his first instruction in the art of painting by his father;
but settled early in Paris, where lie studied under Ingres,
and began to exhibit in 183.5. He painted many pictures
of religious and poetical subjects, of which Tlie Oceanides
in the Luxembourg is a good example. He decorated the
great ball-room of the Hotel de Ville of Paris (burned in
1871) and the throne-room of the Luxembourg. He has
also ]iainted many excellent |)ortraits, such as those of Liszt,
Alphonse Karr, Arsene Houssave, and Baron Haussmann.
D. in Paris, Mar. 30. 1882.
Lehmann, Rouolphe: painter; a brother of Charles Leh-
mann, painter; b. at Ottensen, in Hulstein, Aug. 19, 1819;
studied under his father and brother until 1866, when he
took up his residence in London ; resi<ied for the most part
in Rome, and painted mostly scenes of Italian life and na-
ture. Le pape Sixte-Quint benissant les Marais Poniins,
in the Museum of Lille, is one of his most celebrated pieces.
Lehrs. lars, Karl : classical philologist ; b. in Kcinigsberg,
Prussia, Jan. 14, 1802: became privat docent in 1831, pro-
fessor extraordinary. 1835, professor ordinary 1845. D. June
9, 1878. His distinction rests upon his epoch-making work
De Aristarchi studiis Uomericis (1833; 3d ed. 1882), which
was the first scientific and exhaustive treatment of our
sources of knowledge concerning the Homeric researches of
Aristarchus and his school, and of the principles which he
followed in the recension and exegesis of the text. In his
edition of the Heroides of Ovid and particularly of the Odes
of Horace, Lehrs marks the climax of that hypercritical
method of interpretation inaugurated by Hofman-Peerl-
kamp, which, starting with an ideal of poetic perfection,
regards everything not in conformity with this subjective
conception of poetic propriety as an interpolation. Of other
w^orks we may mention the following : Pindarscholien, an
investigation into the sources of the extant scholia ; Popu-
Idre Avfsdtze aus dem Alterthum, vorzugsweise zur Religion
der Griechen (1856) ; and translations of Plato's Pha-drus
and Symposion. perhaps the best version of these dialogues
in German. See E. Kammer, Biographisclies Jahrbuch
(1879), pp. 15-28. Alfred Gl'deman.
Leib'nitz. Gottfried Wilhelm : b. June 21, o. s., 1646, in
Leipzig, where his father was notary luiblic and actuary of
the university. The father died when Gottfried was six
years old. His mother sent him to school, where he evinced
a remarkable love of study and unusual talent. He learned
Latin without the aid of a grammar at eight years of age,
simjily by reading and re-reading Livy and the Chronologi-
cal Thesaurus of Calvisius. At the age of fifteen Leibnitz
entered the Leipzig University to prepare himself for active
life by the study of law. He read in 1663 his dissertation
De Principio Individui, and in 1606 published his work Z)e
Arte Comhinatoria. In the same year he loft Leipzig, be-
cause his age was urged as a barrier to his obtaining the
degree of doctor Juris, and went to the university at Altorf,
where he obtained it by his dissertation De Casibus Per-
plexis, and was offered a professorship at the university,
which he refused. During the winter he remained at
Nuremberg, studying the works of Kepler, Galileo, Bacon,
Gassendi, and Descartes, also continuing his law studies.
Here he made the acquaintance of the celebrated statesman
Baron Boineburg, the former Prime Minister of the Elector
of Mentz (Mayence), and acconii)anied him to P'rankfort,
where he began to prepare himself for a political life. He
there published his famous essay, Kova Methodus discendm
docendceque Jurisprudentiw (1668), which he sent to the
pjlector of Mentz, accompanied by the sketch of a chart
"which would enable any .iudge or lawyer to decide im-
mediately any given case of law according to the fixed prin-
ciples of jurisprudence." This pleased the elector and he
appointed Leibnitz as.sistant to Dr. Lasscr in the elaboration
of a reformed code of Roman law. He was at the age of
twenty-four appointed by the elector a member of the court
of appeals, the highest judicial triliunal of the electorate.
He was specially interested at that time in effecting a recon-
ciliation between Protestants and Roman Catholics, and
kei)t up an extensive correspondence with prominent mem-
bers of both Churches (with Bossuet among others), having
discovered, as he thought, a basis on which the theories of
both Churches on the subject of transubstantiation. their
main point of dispute, could be harmimizod. The prepara-
tions made by Louis XIV. for a war against Germany at the
same time led him to enter deeply into politics. To the
174
LEIBNITZ
(KTiimn plectors he subiiiitloJ a memorial, counseling a
Irieiullv feeliii:; towaril Franw anil the establishment of a
uuilwl liermaiiT, whieh. he said, would alone give peace to
Kuroiie. To Louis XIV. he sulimitltil a memorial, through
Boiiioburg. which eouns<'led an exm-dition of France against
K •> pt, which was so well received by the French king that
I." ii*"xiV. expresseil his desire for a personal interview
with the author. Acconlingly. Leibnitz left .Mentz in Mar..
1672, for i'aris, where he sulpinitled a memorial to the king.
lie ivointed out the coni|Uest of Kgvpt as the key to India and
the humiliation of Holland. Xa|ioleon afterward carried
out the scheme in order to threaten Great Britain's power in
the 1-jist. I-cibiiitz's main object was to divert the king's
miud from a war with (iermany by a foreign enterprise.
He visited I.,ondon and made the acnuaintance of Newton,
IJoyle, and others, and wius chosen fellow of the Kovid So-
ciety. On his return to I'aris he formed an extensive ac-
quaintance, became intimate with Ca.s.-iini and lliiyghens,
who initiated him into deeper mathematical studies that rc-
sulte<i in the discovery of the ditTerential calculus (in 1676,
published in 16«<4). In 1676 he accejited the third olTer
niaile him bv the Duke of Hrunswick-Luneburg of a posi-
tion at his ciiurt. In 167S the duke conferred the rank of
counselor ujion him, which made him a member of the
supreme court. When, some years later, the Princess Sophia
Charlotte of Hanover, Leilin'itz's impil. married the Prince
of Brandenburg, future King of Prussia, it was deemed ad-
visable in 1687 to send Leibnitz to Italy on a political e.K-
iM'<lilion, but chiefly with a view to collect materials for a
history of the Ilouse of Brunswick (the Guelph family) from
the earliest times. Leibnitz miule this the great literary
work of his life. After his return to the Hanoverian court.
Leibnitz was appointed custoilian of the WolfeiibiUtel
Library. His patron, Krnst August, who in 1092 had be-
come filector of Hanover, (lied in 1698, and he accepted a
call to Berlin from his former pupil, the Princess .Sophia
Charlotte, and there established the scientific society which
has since grown into the Berlin University. In 1700 he was
sent on a political expedilion to Vienna, and made another
attempt to unite the Protestant and Catholic Churches. On
his ri'turn to Berlin he found that the skepticism of Boyle
had made its way there, and at the solicitation of Soiihia
Charlotte, now yueen of Prussia, wrote his celebrated Thio-
diVf'e to combat it. When in 1711 he met Peter the Great
at Torgau. he induced him to found libraries, observatories,
etc., and so interested that monarch that he was invited to
another personal conference at Carlsbad. In 171-1 Leibnitz
visitiil V ienna for the last time, and there wrote for Prince
Eugi^ne his Munadology, the work by which he is most
widely known as a philosophical writer. Leibnitz returned,
finishiKl his history of the House of Brunswick, and plungcii
into other scientific labors, in the midst of which death over-
took hiin, Nov. 14. 1716. Only one person, his secretary,
Eckhart, followed him to his grave.
I^oibnitz's writings are astonishing for their number and
variety. His unpublished manus<^ripts fill the whole side of
one of the rooms of the Hanoverian library, and range over
the subjects of law, history, theology, speculative philos-
ophy, mathematics, and all the natural sciences. There is
scarcely a branch of human knowledge which his wonderful
mind has not eX|j|oreil and enriched. With all his devotion
to science he wa.s never forgetful of practical affairs. A;i
accomplished statesman and politician, he was an untiring
correspondent, and in society brilliant and interesting as
few men even of his time, when .society made great de-
mands. The chief points of his philosophical system are
three in numl)er : (1) The Principle ofl/ie Sufficietil Reason.
—In human knowledge, says Leibnitz substantially in e.\-'
planation of this principle, we meet with two difTerent
chusses of knowle<lgc— one which is based on the formula
A = A. and which is self-evident, needing, therefore, no
further explanation ; and one which says of a thing (.\) that
it is not only this (i. c. A), but also som'elhing else. Now, of
this latter class, adils Leibnitz, it will not do to assert merely
that they are true, but a siillicient ground must be shown
why tlii'y must bo true ; and if we can not show the ground,
they are not proved true. By strictly separating this class
of prr>posilicins from lhos<> that are merely analytical or
identical, and applying to all synthetical lussertions'thc cru-
cial lest of the sullicicnt reasoii, Leibnitz contends that the
higher s<iences of physics, metaphysics, etc., can be as con-
clusively estalilished ILS those sciences that rest merely upon
the analytical principle. (•,') T/ir l)octrine of MunniU.—
Leibnitz founded his doctrine of true substaucca or Aris-
LEICESTER
totle's doctrine of cntolechies or self-determined beings, and
in his Jfonadolo;/;/ proposes his theory of spiritual atoms in
place of the popular doctrine of material atoms. "Suppos-
ing," savs he in substance, "that we look upon this universe
as an infinite number of spiritual adivilies. each again con-
taining within itself an infinite number of adivilies. and
each thus limiting the other: then every such monadic ac-
tivity must be limited or influenced in a more or less degree
by all the others, so that even the smallest moiuul. if it could
become conscious of all the impressions directed ujion it,
would become conscious of the whole infinile world. This
limitation appears to each monad as something foreign to
itself, and where this limitation ceases there is itself in its
own body. Each monad having clearest consciousness of
what passes within itself, and increasing that consciousness
only as it learns to unravel the impressions [iroduced upon
it by the other monads, it is simply by the grade of con-
sciousness attained that the monads are distinguished from
each other." (3) Pre-entablisliad Harmony. — There re-
mained, however, to explain how one monad can influence
another one, wliii'h also involves the question how com-
munication between body and soul is possible. He had al-
ready implied its answer: "The soul." says he, " or every
other real unity must have been created in such a manner as
to have everything arise in it from its own proper nature,
with a perfect xpuntaneily in relation to itself, and yet at the
same time with perfect conformity to the outside things.
Thus it is that each of these substances — each rcjircsenting
precisely the whole universe in its own way and according
to a certain point of view, and the perceptions or expressions
of the external things reaching the soul in this point by
virtue of its own laws, as of a world in itself, and as if noth-
ing existed but God and itself — must be in perfect accord
with all others. It is this mutual rapport, regulated in ad-
vance in each substance of the universe, which pi'oduces
what we call their communication, and which alone con-
stitutes the union of body and soul." Tlie chief character-
istic of LeiVmitz's mind is his tendency to study everything
in its evolution ; if not the originator he is the chief inciter
to the "comparative method" that has come to prevail.
See Kuno Fischer, Leibnitz und seine Schule, in vol. ii. of
his Oesch. der nenern Phil.; also Erdmann's ed. of his
works, 2 vols. (Berlin. 1840); Foucher de Careil's ed., 6 vols.
(Paris, 18.59): G. II. Pertz's ed. (with Grotefend and Ger-
hardt), 12 vols. (Hanover, Berlin, and Halle. 1843-63 ) : Onno
Klopp's ed., 10 vols. (Hanover. 1864-77). contain the his-
torical and political writings; Guhraucr's ^r. W. F. Leib-
nitz (2 vols., and ed. of Leibnitz's German writings,
Breslau, 1837^6); C. J. Gerhardt's edition o£ the i)hilo-
sophical -works, vol. i. in 1875, vol. vii. in 1890, is the com-
pletest ; G. M. Duncan's English translation of the most
important of Leibnitz's philosophical works (New Haven,
1890) ; ,J. Dewey's analysis of the JS'ew E.$says (Chicago,
1888) ; A. G. Langley's complete translation of the same
work (London and New York, 1894). The Journal of
Speculative Philosophy contains translations of the Mo7i-
adology and many of the minor writings, together with a
large portion of the Sew Essays.
Revised by W. T. Harris.
Leicester : county-town of Leicestershire, England ; on
the navigable river Soar; 97 miles N. N. W. of London and
27 miles S. of Nottingham (see map of England, ref. 9-1).
The Soar was called the Leire in Anglo-Saxon times, and
from Leire ecastre, the fortress of the Leire, Leicester prob-
ably derived its present name, Leicester is a parliamentary
ami municipal borough, and a county in itself. It returns
two mcmbei'S to the House of Commons.
General Features. — The town is well built, and contains
many wide and regular streets. It is lighted with gas. and
has an ample supply of excellent water. S. E. of the town
is the New Walk, a line promenade with an avenue of trees.
At its southern extremity is Victoria Park, of about 90 acres.
N. W, of the town is the Alibey Park, of about 68 acres.
The new race-course is at Oadby, ,'U miles from the town,
and race meetings are held several times yearly.
Public Jiuildings and Institiilion.'<. — The old town-hall
is supposed to occupy the site of a hall which belonged to a
guild of Corpus Christ i, and contains, with some old carv-
ings, stained glass supposed to be of Heiuv VII.'s time.
The new town-hall (1874-75) is an extensive 'edifice in the
Queen Anne style, and cost £51,000. The principal front
is 200 feet in length. The tower is 130 feet high, and the
council chamber, with its vaulted roof, is in the style of the
LEICESTER
LEICnHARDT
175
sixteenth century. Among the chief remains of Leicester
Castle, which existed before the Conquest, is a portion of
the Great Xorman Hall in which several parliaiiiciits were
hclil in the fifteenth century, and now converted into assize
and session courts. The town museum is the meeting- place
of the Literary and Philosophical Society. The town library
contains SOO volumes, chietly old theological works. The
free library contains .some 27,000 volumes, and has two
branch libraries. The School of Art and Lecture Hall (1874)
occupies a portion of the site of the museum. A news-room,
with a [)crmauent library, occupies an edifice, in the classic
style, erected in 1840. The market house and corn exchange
are in the market place, an open area of 4 acres. The opera-
house (1877) will seat .5,000 persons, the Theatre Koyal 1,.500,
and the Prince of Wales's Theatre of Varieties 1,260 persons.
At the center of the town is a clock-tower erected by public
subscription as a memorial of four benefactors of Leicester,
foremost among them being the famous Simon de Jlontfort,
Earl of Leicester, who established churches and religious
houses in the town. There is an infirmary, opened in 1771,
and several times enlarged. A borough lunatic asylum was
erected 1869-90, at a cost of £60.000, and a children's hos-
pital in 1889. On the north side of the Newark (Xew Wark),
an area added to the castle by Henry, Earl of Lancaster,
Leicester, and Derby, father-in-law of .John of Gaunt, is
Trinity Hospital, founded by him in 1330, for fifty old men
and five women as their nurses. Wyggeston's Hospital for
twelve men and twelve women and three chaplains was
founded in 1513 by William Wyggeston, a Leicester mer-
chant, and rebuilt on a new site. There are many other old
and minor charities.
Churches, Chapels, etc. — There are at least twenty chui-ches
and more than forty chapels of diflferent denoininations,
some of which are large and elegant. To the X. of the bor-
ough and on the north bank of the Soar are the remains of
Leicester Abbey, founded in 1143, where in 1530 Cardinal
Wolsey came to ask " a little earth for charity," and, dying,
was bui-ied in the precinct. St. Mary's church, restored in
1875, is an ancient building in the Xorman and early Eng-
lish styles. St.' Martin's church, cruciform and of great
width, restored at a cost of £20,000, is chiefly early English.
St. X'icholas, the oldest of the churches, dedicated about
1224, is an example of very rude early Xorman. St. Mar-
garet's, a beautiful stone edifice erected in 1444, is Early
English and Perpendicular.
Schools. — The bequest of William Wyggeston having
reached in value £5,000 a year, the charity commissioners
founded with it the Wyggeston schools, with which Queen
Elizabeth's Grammar School was incorporated. The old
Greencoat School, founded by Alderman X'ewton with a
yearly income of £1,100, has Ijecn converted into a public
elementary school, with scholarships attached. The school
board has erected more than fifteen public elementary schools,
with accommodations for nearly 14,000 children.
Government and Administration. — The town is governed
by a mayor and corporation, acting also as the urban sani-
tary authority. The town owns the water-works and gas-
works, and has spent large sums in widening the .Soar and
diverting the Union Canal, and in constructing new weirs,
locks, bridges, and flood-channels. There are also public
baths.
Maniifnctures and TnrlHsfri/. — The manufacture of wool-
en cloth was attempted here in the middle of the sixteenth
century. At its close, the hand-knitting of hose was begun
and was extensive toward the close of the seventeenth cen-
tury. Early in the nineteenth century woolen and cotton
socks and woolen shirts were made, and gloves and other
articles have since been added. In 1891 12.371 per.sons were
employed in the production of hosiery. In the manufacture
of boots and shoes the town takes rank after Xorthampton,
and in 1891 gave employment to 24,159 persons. An impetus
was given to this industry by the introduction of the elastic
web in boot-making. There is a large production of elastic
fabrics, to be used by hosiers and glove-makers as well as in
the boot -trade. The other chief industries are the woolen
and worsted manufactures, which in 1891 employed 1,398
persons, and iron-working, including engine and machine
making. The trade owes much to the facilities for commu-
nication tln-ough the various imi)ortant lines of railway con-
verging here, as well as by the Soar and the Union Canal.
History. — Leicester was a Roman station, and numy re-
mains of the Roman occu|)ation have been discovered in it.
The castle, said to have been founded in 914, and to have
been rebuilt after the Conquest, had fallen into such dilapi-
dation that when Richard III. passed through the town on
the eve of the battle of Bosworth, he preferred slee|)ing at
the Blue Boar, a hostelry long since destroyed. After the
battle his corpse was brought to Leicester, aiid having been
buried in the Church of the Grey Friars, it was taken thence
at the dissolution of the monasteries and thrown into the
Soar. In the civil war Leicester held for the Parliament,
was taken by the Royalists, and retaken by Fairfax. Its
modern history presents few features of interest.
Population.— The population, which in 1801 was 17,005,
had increased in 1871 to 95,220, in 1881 to 122,351, and in
1891 to 174,624.
See Thompson, History of Leicester (1849-71) ; Read,
Modern Leicester (18N1): Hosiery and Lace, by W. Feliiin,
in Bevan's Britisit Jlaniifacturiiig InJuslries'(lS"7} ; local
guide-books; Kelly's Directory of Derhysliire, Leicester-
shire, Rutland, and Nottinghamshire ; parliamentary pa-
pers, etc. p. ESPINASSE.
Leicester : See Montfort.
Leicester, Robert Didlev, Earl of: courtier; a son of
the Duke of Xorthumberland who was executed for trying
to make Lady Jane Grey queen in 1553 ; b. in England,
June 24, 1533; married Amy Robsart 1.550; was condemned
as a traitor, but pardoned" 1.554 ; became the favorite of
Queen Elizabeth, who made him K. G. and master of the
horse 1558. The sudden death of his wife in 1560 aroused
strong suspicions that he was aspiring to the hand of the
queen. He was created Earl of Leicester in 1564; in 1566
Elizabeth proposed his marriage with the Queen of Scots,
and somewhat later his secret marriage with the widow of
Essex aroused the anger of the queen. He was sent to the
Low Countries as captain-general in 1585 and 1587, but dis-
played no capacity; was in 1.588 generalissimo of the troops
raised against the Spaniards. I), in Oxfordshire, Sept. 4,
1588. His character presents a rather perplexing problem.
He was tall and handsome, with ingratiating manners, but
vain, presuming, and without ability corresponding to his
ambition.
Leicestershire : a county nearly in the center of Eng-
land ; bounded on the X. by Xottinghamshire, on the X. W.
by Derbyshire, on the X. E. by Lincolnshire, on the E. by
Rutland, on the S. E. by Xorthamptonshire. on the S. W. by
Warwickshire, and for a mile or two on the W. by StaflFord-
shire. Area, 824 sq. miles. It has a lord-lieutenant and a
county council. It returns four members to the House of
Commons, one for each of its four divisions. It contains no
parliamentary borough but Leicester, and lias only five
towns besides Leicester with a population above 5,000 —
Loughborough, Hinckley, Ashby-de-la-Zouch (the scene of
the tournament in Ivanhoe), MeltoiL-Mowbray, and Market
Harborough. The chief seat of the staple manufacture of
the county, hosiery, is Leicester, but it is carried on to some
extent at Loughborough and Hinckley, and there are coal
mines at Ashby-de-la-Zouch. Otherwise Leicestersliire is a
great grazing countrv. According to the agricultural re-
turns for 1893, of 473.399 acres of cultivated land 350,359
were in permanent pasture. Tlie breed of sheep known as
Xew Leicester is not of such repute as it was, but the wool
of the Leicestershire sheep is in great demand for the ho-
siery-manufacture. There are many dairy farms wliere are
made both flat cheeses, which are in great demand, and the
famous Stilton cheeses, the latter coming from the Melton-
Mowbray district, which has given a name to the also weU-
known Mclton-Mowbray pies. Leicestei'shire is a great
htniting county, and Melton-Mowbray and Market Harbor-
ough are the headquarters of hunters during the season.
Belvoir Castle, the seat of the Dukes of Rutland, is 12 miles
from Melton-Mowbray. At Lutterworth, 13 miles S. of
Leicester, the great reformer John Wycliff was rector dur-
ing the last ten years of his life, 1375-84. Pop. of the
county, 200,468. F. Eswnasse.
Leiclihardt, llchhaart, Lrnwio : explorer; b. in Tre-
batsch, Prussia, Oct. 23, 1813: was educated in Giiltingen
L^niversity. He spent many months after 1841 in geological
investigations and travels in New South Wales. Australia, the
results of which he embodied in his Contributions to the
Geology of Australia. He started (1844), with seven com-
rades, and traveled X. from Jloreton Bay. >:ear the present
city of Brisbane, through the heart of Queensland to Port
Essington. one of the most northern points of the continent.
From beginning to end tlie journey. 2..500 miles long, and
occupying sixteen months, was a revelation of the unknown.
He wrote an account of this expedition (Journal of an Over-
176
LEIDEN
l„H,l Kxfxdition in Auxiralia from Morelon Bay to Port
t:^inylu„. L..ml..n. lt*47). He started from Morelon Hay
(IfHT) with a siiiiiU party to cross the coiitiiient, tlinuigh its
centnil iH.rtioii, from H'to W. Four months lalur the last
tiilinci ever hi-ard of him camo from Kitzrov Downs, m in-
ner Uiiefnshin.1. Ho wa-s then journeyinj,' \V. Two years
later began the scries of scareh expeditions, stimulated l)y
offers of lar^e rewanls to tliose who should relieve Leich-
hanlt or learn his fate. Many false reports about him were
invcnte<l, the latest in 18f<!l, but no authentic information
has eyer'beon obtained. The lar^e region from which he
st>nt Irnek his last cheerful messjige is Itnown as the Leich-
hanlt district, and a river in Northern (Queensland licars his
name. C. C. Adams.
I.riden: See Levdex.
Leidy, lidi,JosEfii. M. D. : naturalist; b. in Philadelphia,
Sept. 9, 18-23 ; graduated in medicine at the University of
Pennsylvania in ISU; devoted himself to biological re-
sean'h'es. esjH-ciallv comparative anatomy and vertebrate
pala-ontologv, on which papers were published in Proc. of
Afiul. Xat. Sciences of Philailelphia, ?'ra;i«. of Am. P/nlos.
Sof. anil Smil/imnian Coiilribs. to Knowledge; in 1853 was
chosen I*rofessor of .Anatomy in the medical department of
the I'niversitv of Pennsylvania, and in 1871 I'rofessor of
Natural History in Swart hmorc College, both which jmsi-
tions he long filled. During the civil war Prof. Leidy ren-
dered important service as surgeon at Satterlee Hospital,
Philailelphia. His contributions to scientific pcrioilicals
numl)er more than 5(10. Among his more important works
are Memoir on an Kxlinci Species of American Ox (1852) ;
Flora and Fauna within Living Animals {18^)3); Ancient
Fauna of yrhrasha (1853); Memoir on the Extinct Sloth
Tribe of Xorth America (1855); Cretaceous lieptiles of the
United States (1805)— all published by tlic Smithsonian In-
stitution; and Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate
Fauna of the Western Territories (1873), and Fresh-water
Rhizopods of Sorth America (1879), published by U. S.
Gcol. Survey of the Territories. D. in Philadelphia, Apr.
30, 1891. Kevised by G. K. Giliikht.
Ix'ir Erikson, or Ericsson; the son of Erik the Red
(o. r.); the discoverer and colonizer of Greenland. Leif
Erikson was born in Iceland about the year 970, and in the
year a. v. 10(K) he became the discoverer of North America
(V'inland). The American coast had been sighted fourteen
years before by another Icelander, lijarne Herjulfson, but
as he was on his way to Greenland, and the season was far
advanced, he did not go ashore. Hjarne"s father, Ilerjulf,
hail accompanied Erik the Ked when the latter went to
settle in Greenland. IJjarne was in Norway that year, and
when, on his return to Iceland, he learned of his father's
departure with Erik he and his crew resolved to spend the
winter with his father. The saga relates that after three
days' sailing they lost sight of Iceland. Then a north wind
and fog set in for several days, and they knew not where
they were. Finally the sun appeared, so that they could
determine the (juarters of the sky, and they saw in the
horizon the outlines of an unknown land. On approaching
it they sjiw that it was without mountains and that its hills
were well wooded, but, as it did not correspond to the dc-
scripliiin of (Jreenland, Bjarne would not go ashore. He
knew he was much too far south, and so he sailed on north-
ward, and licforc reaching Greenland he twice again sighted
land on his left. There are no means of determining with
certainty what part of the American coast IJjarne sjiw, but
taking into account all the details as given in the saga (the
celebrated Flateijnrbok). the circumstances of the voyage,
the course of the wind, the direction of the current, the char-
acter of the lands seen, and the presumed distance between
each sight of land, it may be confidently assumed that the
first land mentioned was some part of New England, the
second Nova Scotia, and the third Newfoundland. When
Hjarne Herjulfion several years later visited Norway and
gave an accciiint of his discoveries, a desire was aroused in
the mind of l,eif Erikson to find out more definilelv what
lands Hjarne had seen. The story of the Norse discovery of
America is told with slight disiT'enancies in two sagas, 'one
lieing found in the Ftnl,ynrb;,k and the other in the so-called
Hauksbiik. The llaukslx'ik saga do(!S not mention Bjarne
Herjulfson at all, but tells that Leif stumbleil on America
(Vinlanil)on his way to (ireenhind, whither he had been sent
by King (thif Trygvasmi to inlroiluce Christianity. The
best method in such a lasif would seem to be to accept so
far us they can be reconciled llie stuteiiienls of both sagas,
LEIGUTON
thus neither annihilating Bjarne on the one hand nor dis-
puting Leif's mission to Greenland on the other.
The natural inference is that Ijeif left Norway in the j'ear
1(MK) with two purposes, one of which was to explore the
lands seen by lijarne and the other to ])roceeil thence to
(ireenhind and |ireach the Christian religion to tlie colo-
nists there, lie bought Hjarne's ship, sailed witli a crew of
thirty-five men, and found the lands seen by Hjarne far to
the S. of Greenland. He first landed in Newfoundland,
\vhich he named Ilellulaiid (land of flat stones), then in Nova
Scotia, which he called JIaiklund (Woodland), and finally in
New England, which he called Vinland (Wineland) on ac-
count of tlie abundance of wild grapes growing tliere. He
spent the winter (1(XI0-01) in N'inlaiul, and sailed for (ireen-
laiid in the .s])ring. On his way to (iivcnland he saved fifteen
men from a shii)wreck, and for this he was called Leif the
Lucky. He remained in Greenland, and after the death of
his father he became the chief of (he colony. He died about
the year 1021. The .saga account of the Norse discovery of
America is fully confirmed by the distinguished canon and
historian, Auam of Uke.mk.n ((/. v.). The question whether
Columbus possessed any knowledge of the Norse discovery or
not can not be answered with certainty. There is no direct
proof either way, and the assertion that he did know of
Norse visits to lands in the far West is based wholly upon
circumstantial evidence. It is claimed that he may have
seen a copy of the book written by Adam of Bremen. It is
recorded in the life of Columbus, written by his son Ferdi-
nand, that Columbus visited Iceland in Feb., 1477, and it is
reasonable to sujipose that he obtained information of the
lands visited by the immediate ancestors of the Icelanders.
Gudrid, the widow of Tliorfin Karlsefne, one of the chief ex-
plorers of Vinland, made a pilgrimage to Koine, where she
was well received, and she doubtless there told about her
three years' residence in V'inland. Finally, the altitude of
Columbus on many occasions would seem to favor the pre-
sumption that he knew there was land in the west. 'I hus
he stated the breadth of the ocean correctly, and spoke of
the lands beyond the sea with as much firmness and cer-
tainty as if he had already seen them. Down to the time
of t'olumlnis the other peoples of Europe were limited in
their nautical knowledge to coast navigation. The Norse-
men, and foremost among them Erik the Red and his son
Leif, taught the world pelagic navigation. They demon-
strated the possibility of venturing out of sight of land with
nothing but the sun, moon, ami stars to guide them, and in
this sense at least it may be said with perfect propriety that
the Norsemen prepared the way for the great Christopher
Columbus. See K. B. Anderson's Avieriea not Discovered
by Columbus; A. INI. Reeves's The Finding of Wineland the
Good; John Fiske's The Discovery of America; and C. C.
Kafn's Antiquitates Americanm. See Vixland.
Rasmus B. Andersok.
Leigh, lee ; town of England ; in the county of Lancaster,
16 miles W. of Manchester (see map of England, ref. 7-G).
It has large manufactures of cambrics, muslins, silk and
cotton goods, and glass. (Pop. 1891) 28,702.
Leightou, lii'tMn, Alexander, M. D. : religious controver-
sialist ; b. in Scotland in 1568; was educated at the University
of St. Andrews, in which he was Professor of Jloral Philosophy
from 1603 to 1613, when he became a Presbyterian preacher
in London, where he also practiced medicine; wrote Specu-
lum Belli Sacri ; or the Looking-glass of the Holy War (1624)
and an Appeal to the Parliament ; or Sio?i's I'lea against
the Prelacie (1628). For the latter ]iublication, deemed
libelous with respect to the king, ciueen, and bishops, Leigh-
ton was sentenced by the Star (I'humbcr to be twice publicly
whipped, to lose botti ears, to stand twice in the pillory, to
be branded on the check with the letters S. S. (sower of
sedition), to i)ay a fine of £10,000, and to suffer perpetual
imprisonment in the Fleet. After eleven years' imprisim-
ment he was released by order of the Long Parliament in
1640, received ])ecuniary indemnity, and in 1642 was made
keeper of Lambeth Palace as a slate prison, where he died
in 1649. He gave an account of his sulTeriiigs in his Epitome
(1046). Revised by S. M. .Iaikson.
Leigllton, Sir Frederick: historical, genre, and portrait
painter; b. at Searborongh, England, Dec. 3, 1830. He began
the study of drawing in Rome when eleven years of age;
studied in Berlin. Florence, Frankfort, Brussels, and Paris,
and exhibited The Procession of Cimabue's Madonna at the
Royal Academy, London, in 1855. It was bought by the
t^ueen, and after that he studied in Paris four years under
LEIGHTON
LEISLEB
177
Ary SchefFer. He became a Royal Academician in 1869, and
was kiiighted in 187H when he was elected president; was
created baronet in 1H85; was awarded a second-class medal,
Paris Salon, 1859; first-class medal. Paris Exposition, 1889 ;
was made an officer o%the Lefjion of Honor 1878 ; was corre-
sponding member of the Institute of Franco; member of the
Academy of St. Luke, Rome, and Academy of B^lorence ; and
was awarded medal of honor, Antwerp E.xposition, 1885. He
was a distinguished sculptor, and received a medal of honor
for his works in that branch of art at the Paris Exposition
of 1889. A triptych, Musir. is in the ceiling of the house of
Henry G. Jfarquand, New York, and the liec<mriliaiinn of
Mnntnqve and Cripiili't is owned bv Jlrs. Josejih Harrison,
Philadelphia. Was Muide a peer Jan.'l, 1896. 1). Jan. 25, 1896.
Leighton, Robert, D. D. : archbishop; son of Alexamler
Leighton, controversialist; b. probably in London in 1611 ;
graduated at the University of Edinburgh (1631), of which
he became principal in 1653; was appointed Bishop of Dun-
blane in 1661, in pursuit of the plan of Charles II., Sharpe,
and Lauderdale to Anglicize the Church of Scotland ; ac-
cepted it with reluctance; appealed twice to the king to
adopt milder measures in the attempted reform (1665 and
1669) ; accepted the archbishopric of Glasgow in 1670, but
resigned in 1673 and retired to Broadhurst, Sussex. D. in
London at an inn, just where he wished to die, June 26,
1684. His works, all posthumous, are highly esteemed for
their broad and lil)eral views and saintly piety ; they include
Sermons {16'J2) ; Prelecliones Theologicie {IGQ'i); Commentary
on the First Epistle of Peter (\%\>'A) ; and Posthumous Tracts
(1703), and have been often reprinted. See his Life by J. N.
Pearson, accompanying the Works, best in West's edition
(London, 1875, 7 vols.).
Leinster, lin'ster, or leen'ster: province of Ireland, com-
prising the southeastern portion of the island, bordering on
the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel. Area, 7,622 sq. miles.
Before the English invasion this province formed two king-
doms, those of Leinster and Meath ; now it is divided into
twelve counties, namely: Dublin, Meath, Louth. Kildare,
Carlow, Kilkenny, King's, Longford, Queen's, Westmeath,
Wicklow, and Westford. Pop. (1891) 1,187,760.
Leipo'a ocella'ta [Mod. Lat.] : scientific name of the
native pheasant of Australia, a gallinaceous bird of the
family Megapodidcf, somewhat smaller than the turkey.
Its flesh is good and its eggs are excellent. The nest is a
mass of leaves, dirt, and sticks, the heat of which, produced
by fermentation, hatches the eggs. The leipoa is a swift
runner, but is very stupid, and often tries to escape the
hunter by hiding her head in a bush.
Leipzig', or Leipsic: the largest city of the kingdom of
Saxony and one of the most important cities of Europe ;
situated at the junction of the Pleisse, Parthe, and Elstcr
(see map of German Empire, rcf. 4-P). Pop. (with the sub-
urbs, which were included in the city in 1891) 354,899, of
which eight-ninths are of the Lutheran faith. The city is
divided into three tolerably distinct sections — first, the old
inner town, the center of the industry and wealth of the city ;
second, the beautiful promenades, which, surrounding the
inner city, occupy the place of the old fortifications and join
the most important public square of the city ; third, sulnirbs
of modern origin and appearance. In its three sections the
city offers sharp contrasts in plan and in architecture. The
inner town contains the market-place, with a town-hall
erected in the sixteenth century, and other fine old buildings.
Among the most interesting buildings of the city are the new
theater, built from 1864 to 1867, after plans by Langhaus, in
Renaissance style, with a porch on Corinthian columns in
the front and a magnificent veranda in the rear; the muse-
um, opposite the theater, finished in 1858 after plans by
Lange, and containing on the ground floor a not very im-
portant collection of plaster casts, on the middle floor a
large collection of pictures, among which are four celebrated
landscapes by Calame, and on the upper story a large collec-
tion of engravings ; the Augusteum, the main building of
the university, built by Geutebrilck in 1836 after plans by
Schinckel; the new university library building, completed
in 1891 at a cost of over .|500,"000, without the site ; and the
Pleissenburg, the scene of Luther's famous disputatiim with
Dr. Eck in 1519. The most remarkable among the churches
are the Nicolaikirche, built in Gothic style in the twelfth
century, and the Thomaskirche, built in the fifteenth cen-
tury, and containing a beautiful marble altar. In several
lines of commerce Leipzig is the most important city in
Germany. It is the center of the book-trade, over 500 firms
238
being engaged in this business, publishing more than 2,600
works annually. Since the twelfth century it has been the
site of the mo.st important Messe, or fair, of Germany.
There are three of these annually, and, th(jugh they have
lost something of their old consideration, they still attract
from 25,000 to 30,000 foreign merchants each year. During
the time the 3Iesse is in progress the asjiect of the city is
much changed, both by the multitude of booths and shops
that fill the market-place, the Augustus Platz, and all sur-
rounding portions of the city, and on account of the great
bustle in the streets. The chief articles sold at the Messe
are furs, leather, cloth, wool, linen, and glass. Leipzig is
also a center for music an<l art. An academy for plastic
arts, an art industrial school, and the (Conservatory of
Music (founded in 1843), have a high reputation, the latter
being one of the most famous schools of music in Europe.
The Gewandhaus, built in 1481, contains the municipal
library. A new Gewandhaus has been erected, where the
world-celebrated Gewandhaus concerts are continued, and
a new building fur the Conservatory of Music adjoins it.
These concerts were conducted by Mendelssohn 1835-41.
The University of Leipzig was founded in 1409, and is the
second largest in the German empire. Attendance (1894),
3,518 students. The university has a strong faculty, and is
one of the two or three recognized centers of scholarship in
the world. Its library contains 500,000 volumes. In addi-
tion to the university the city has a number of schools ol
the highest character. Leipzig appears as a town for the
first time in history in 1015. Before that time it was an in-
significant village, in which Henry I. built a castle in 922.
During the Middle Ages the fortifications of the city pro-
tected its commerce, and Charles V. increased the privi-
leges of its Messe, In the time of the Reformation it sup-
ported the new doctrine, but suffered much from the war,
and afterward felt more severely the Thirty Years' war.
Tilly took it in 1631 ; later the Swedes and the imperials
held it alternatelv. Its prosperity was entirely destroyed.
The Seven Years' war destroyed its enterprise once more,
but its favorable location enabled it to recover rapidly.
During the wars of Najxileon new calamities came over it.
From Oct. 16 to 18, 1813, the great battle in which Napoleon
was defeated raged in and around it, and all great move-
ments in Germany have affected it more or less on account
of its central position. C. H. Thubbeb.
Leishman, leeshmaTin, William : obstetrician ; b. in Go-
van, Scotland, in 1833 ; was educated at Glasgow University,
where he graduated M. 1)., with honors, in 1855; began to
practice in Glasgow, devoting special attention to midwifery
and gyn<x>cology, and was appointed to that chair in the
professorial staff of Anderson's College ; was elected to the
chair of Midwifery in the university in 1868, and he occu-
pied it with distinguished honor until 1893, when, on his
retirement, he was made emeritus professor. He was a li-
centiate of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh and
vice-president of the Obstetrical Society of England. In
1873heiiulilished his System of Midwifery, a work that has
passed through several editions. D. Feb. 18, 1894.
S. T. Armstrong.
Leisler, iTs'ltr, Jacob : colonial insurrectionist ; b. at
Frankfort, Germany ; went to Korth America in 1660 as a
soldier in the service of the Dutch West India Company ;
was some time stationed at Albany, wheie he engaged in
trade with the Mohawk Indians, and acquired some wealth.
While on a voyage to Europe in 1678 he was taken prisoner
by Moorish corsairs, obtained liberty by paying a ransom,
returned to New York, and in 1683 became one of the com-
missioners of the court of admiralty. On May 31, 1689,
Leisler headed an insurrection for the preservation of the
Protestant religion, took the fort, declared for the Prince
of Orange, and planted within the fort a battery of six guns,
which gave origin to that name as still apnlied to the public
park at the lower end of Manhattan Islanii. A committee of
safety was formed and Leisler was invested with the powers
of a governor. In December he dissolved the committee of
safety, appointed a council, and assumed the style of a royal
governor, on the strength of a dispatch addressed "to such
(person) as for the time being takes care for preserving the
peace and administering the laws in His Majesty's province
of New York." Early in 1690 he sent a small fleet against
the French at Quebec. On the appointment of Sloughter as
governor. Leisler refused to surrender the fort and the gov-
ernment (Mar. 1691) until convinced of the former's identity
and authority. For this constructive treason Leisler was
178
LEITII
soon after imprisoned, with his son-in-Iaw and secretary
Jatob Millwrue. and both were condeninod and executed
Slav 16 lOyi The meniorv of Leislcr was rehuliilitJitcil oy
kn "act of I'arliament (16115), an indemnity was given to his
heini (169SK and his hones and those of Milborne were lion-
orablv buried in the Duteli church. Leisler. dunng his brief
autli.irity 06vH!l). purcliase<l Uinils at New Kochelle usa place
of refuge for persecuted Huguenots.
l.eith leeth: town: in the countv of Kdinburgh. Scotland,
on the Kirth of Forth : 2 miles from Kdinburgh. whose port
it is and with which it is connected by continuous rows of
houks (see map of .«<cot land. ref. 1 l-II). Its streets are nar-
row tortuous, and filthy, but its harbor is e.\cellcnf. is ia
feet"deep, has a breakwater, and contains two wet and three
dry docks Its ship-buihling. both in wt)od and iron. and its
manufactures of rope, sailcloth, soap, etc., are considerable,
and it imports laru'e quantities of grain, wine, hemp, timber,
and tobacco. Pop. (18'J:{) 70,927.
Leitha, litaa: a river which rises in Lower Austria, forms
for some distance the lioundary between the two divisions
of the Austro-IIuiurarian empire, calle<l. after the river,
Cisleithania and Transleithania. breaks through tlie Lcitha
Mountains, which rise from l.nOO to 3,000 feet, into Hun-
gary, and joins the Danube at Altenburg.
Leitner, Gottlieb Wiluelm, Ph.D.: Oricnfnlist: b. at
Pest. Hungary, Oct. 17. 1830. His father, a German phy-
sician, left Hungary in consequence of the revolution of 1849,
and sett led in Turkey, where Gottlieb, already acquainte<l with
•the divssical languages, became proficient in Turkish, Arabic,
and Modern Greek. He became interpreter to the English
commissariat during the Crimean war. after which he went
to London, was naturalized asa British subject, and became
Professor of Oriental Languages and Mohammedan Law in
Kings College. In 1864 he was apnninted director of a col-
lese^at Lahore, in the Punjaub. From 1866 to 1868 he was
engageii in an exploration of Tibet and other countries N.
of the Himalayas, and was the first to make known the re-
markable country of Dardistan, with its interesting group of
languages. At li later date he extended his philological re-
searches to the languages of Cabul. Kashmir, and Badakh-
shan, excavated an important series of Gr.Tco-Buddhist
sculptures, and exhibited at the Vienna Exposition of 1873
an extensive collection of Central Asiatic antiquities. lie
has published a Philosophical Grammur of Arabic in the
English. Urdu, and Arabic languages; The Races of Tur-
kei/: a Cnmparalive (irammar of the Dardu Languages;
Ilis/onj. Songs, and Legends of Dardistan; and Grwco-
Buddhist Discoveries. lievised by Benj. Ide Wheeler.
Leitrilll, lee trim : county of Ireland: in the province of
Connaught; Iwrdering N. on Donegal Bay. Area. 619 sq.
miles. There arc numerous lakes, of which Lough Allen,
traversed by the Shannon, is the largest. The ground is
hilly, very irregular, and rugged; coal, iron, and lead arc
found, the soil is cold, stiff, and retentive, except in the
yalleys, where it is very fertile. Rye, potatoes, and oats are
the common crops; some cattle are reared. Pop. (1891) 78,-
618. The principal town is Carrick-on-Shannon. Pop. 1,568.
lieixner. Otto, von : b. at Saar. Germany, Apr. 24, 1847;
studied at Graz and Munich, and lives in Berlin. lie made
himself known especially as a literary critic and as the au-
thor of an illustrated history of German literature. Among
his writings may also be mentiimed Gedichte (1877); Dum-
merungen (188(i); Deutsche Worte (1887); Sociale Briefe
aus litrlin (1891); Laienpredigten fir das deutsche Ila'us
(1891). JuLirs GOEBEL.
Loland. Charle-s Godfrey: author and educationist; b.
in Philadelphia, .\ug. 15. 1824; graduated at Princeton
College in 1846. after which lie spent two years traveling in
Europe, and stuilyingat Heidelberg, Munich, and Paris, de-
voting himself esfn-cially to n-sthetics and the philosophy of
modern civilizatiim. Keturning to Philadelphia in 1848, he
studied law. but abandoned its practice in order to devote
hlmsilf to literature; edited in New York The lUustrated
Xeirs. and siibs<>qiicntly was connected with The Erening
JiulUtin in Philadelphia; almut 1861 established in Boston
The Continental Mai/azine ; returned to Philadelphia in 1863
anil for several years edited 27ie Press ; from 1869 to 1880
lived in Europe. He has since deyote<l many years to the
iiitriKluction of industrial teaching in the PhilaueliOiia pub-
lic schools, and published, in furtherance of this object.
Practical Education (1888), a Manual of Wood-carving
fl891), and Leather-work (1892). Mr. Leland achieved lii's
LELAXD STANFORD .JUNIOR UNIVERSITY
greatest popularity by productions of a liumorous or bur-
lesque character. Among his works are The Poetrij and
Mystery of Dreams (1855) ; Meisler Karl's Sketch-liooh
(1S55); Sunshine in Thought (1862); Legends of Birds
(1HG4); llatis Breitmann's Ballads (5 parts. 1867-7U) ; a
volume of poems (1871); Egyptian Sketch-book (IHZi): Eng-
lish Gypsies and their Language (1873); Fu-Sang (1X14);
Algonkm Legends of Xew England (1HH4) ; Etruscan- lioman
Remains in Popular Tradition (1892); besides translations
from Heine and Scheffel. In 1875 he published a volume
of English Gypsy Poetry, assisted by >Iiss Janet Tuckey
and Prof. Edward H. Palmer, in 1882 The Gypsies, and in
1S!)1 Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune-telling. As a writer of
dialect poetry Mr. Leland has.a considerable mastery of the
quaint speech of the "Pennsylvania Dutch." Sec his Mem-
oirs (New York, 1893). Revised by H. A. Beers.
Lolaiid, or Laylonde, .Tonx: antiquary; b. in London,
England, about 1500; was etlucated at St. Paul's School
and at Oxfoni ; took holy orders, and devoted himself to the
stuiiy of English antiquities. He was appointed by Henry
VIIL one of his chaplains, rector of Po])eliiig near Calais,
and royal anti(iuary (1533). In the latter capacity he was
comiuissioncd to make a survey of England, a task which
occupied him six years, and was so thoroughly performed
that the mass of materials gathered was more than he could
arrange. After eight years' solitary labors of classification
he became insane in 1550, and died in London, Apr. 18,
1552. His account of British authors, entitled Commentarii
de Scrijitoriljus Britannicis. was published in 1709 by Dr.
Anthony Hall. His Itinerary of England (9 vols.) was pub-
lisheil in 1710-12, and his De Rebus Britaitnicis ( 'ullecianea
(6 vols.) in 1715, both works being eiiited by an eminent
scholar. Thomas Hearne. Leland's manuscripts ^vere de-
posited in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and were largely
used by Stowe, Camden, andDugdale in their respective
antiquarian works.
Leland^THOMAS, D. D. : classical scholar ; b. in Dublin,
Ireland, in 1722; was educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
where he became fellow in 1746. His translation of the
Orations of Demosthenes (1756-70) was long a standard
work : he also published a History of the Life and Reign
of Philip. King of Macedon (1758): a Dissertation on the
Principles of Human Eloquence (1764), a controversial work
against Bishop Warburton ; a History of Ireland (3 vols.,
1773) ; Sermons (1769), etc. D. in Dublin in Aug., 1785.
Leland Stanford Junior University : an institution of
learning in California ; founded by the Hon. Leland .Stan-
ford and Mi-s. Jane Lathrop Stanford in memory of their
only child, who died in 1884. A grant of endowment was
maile by tlie State Legislature. Nov. 14. 1885. The corner-
stone was laid May 14, 1887, and the university formally
opened to students Oct. 1, 1891, under the presidency of
David Starr Jordan. LL. D.
The site chosen for the location of the university is at
Palo Alto in the Santa Clara valley, 33 miles S. E. of San
Francisco. The grounds consist of over 8,000 acres, partly
lowland and partly rising into the foot-hills of the Sierra
Morina. In addition to this estate, the grant of endow-
ment conveys to the university an estate at Vina in Tchema
County, of 55.000 acres, and"another at (iriJley. in Butte
Countv, of 22,000 acres. It is expected that the future en-
dowment of the university will be not less than $20,000,000.
The buildings reproduce on a large scale the architecture
of the old Spanish missions of California. The main de-
partments of the university will be included in two large
quadrangles, one entirely .surrounding the other. The twelve
one-story buildings of the inner quadrangle are connected by
a continuous open arcade, and inclose an area 586 feet long
by 246 feet wide, containing 3J acres. The buildings of the
outer quadrangle will be similar in construction, but will be
two stories high and will have the open arcade on the out-
side. At the main opening there will be a memorial arch 80
feet wide by 85 feet high, the open archway having a span
of 46 feet. In addition there are two large dormitories, a
large museum, boiler-house, shops, and foundry, two gym-
nasiums, ami numerous cottages.
The general management and control of tlie institution \$
ycsted in a board of twenty-four trusjees chosen for life. The
charter provides t hat I he founders during their li fe shall " per-
form all the duties and exercise all the powers and privileges
enjoined upon and vested in the trustees." To the president,
appointed and removable at will by the trustees, is intrust-
ed the selection of the faculty and the determination of the
LELEWEL
LEMBCKE
179
educational policy of tlie. university. The president has an
absolute veto upon all legislation by the faculty or council,
and the ordinary routine business is done by coniinitlees re-
sponsible jirimarily to him. Each professor is regarded as
supreme in liis own department, and in all the details of his
work is responsible only to the president.
The general scope of the institution as stated in the char-
ter is "that of a university, with such seminaries of learn-
ing as shall make it of the highest grade, including mechan-
ical institutes, museums, galleries of art, laboratories, and
conservatories, together with all things necessary for the
study of agriculture in all its branches and for mechanical
training, and for the studies and exercises directed to the
cultivation and enlargement flf the mind." The general
biological departments of the university are supplemented
by the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory at Pacific Grove.
The conditions of entrance are the same for all courses
and students. Twenty-six subjects are offered, each re-
duced to the unit of a high-school year. All students must
present ten subjects for entrance, including English. Stu-
dents with not more than two conditions are admitted to
partial standing. There are no prescribed courses of study
in the ordinary acceptation of the term. One two-hour
course in English composition is required of all students be-
fore graduation. With certain limitations all the remaining
work is elective. For graduation the equivalent of the usual
four years' work is required. There is no time limit, how-
ever, and the division into freshmen, sophomore, junior, and
senior classes is not recognized. Every student who com-
pletes satisfactorily his major subject and the full 120 hours
required for graduation is granted the degree of bachelor of
arts. One year of satisfactory graduate work in residence
at the university is required of candidates for master of arts.
The professional degrees of mechanical engineer (M. E.) and
civil engineer (C. E.) are granted to bachelors of arts in en-
gineering on the completion of an additional year in resi-
dence and the presentation of a satisfactory thesis. The
degree of Ph. D. is given only on the ground of advanced
scholarship and the ability to do independent work in some
special line. No honorary degrees are given.
The faculty at the beginning of the second year numbered
71. The first graduating class, June 1.5, 1893, numbered 38,
of whom 29 took the degree of bachelor of arts and 9 the de-
gree of master of arts. The immber of students at the open-
ing of the second year was 710, classified as follows : 55 grad-
uates, 483 undergraduates, 173 special students. Of these,
506 were men, 204 women. In 1894 the faculty numbered
90 ; students, 975 (678 .men, 397 women). 0. L. Elliott.
Lelewel, l«-la'vel, Joachim : historian ; b. at Warsaw, Po-
land, Mar. 31, 1786; studied in his native city and at Vilna,
and became Professor of History at the Lyceum at Kreme-
nets in Volhynia in 1809, and at the University of Vilna in
1814, but was dismissed in 1834, being suspected of partici-
pating in secret I'evolutionary associations. He was elected
a member of the Polish diet in 1825, and became one of the
most energetic and influential agitators, and one of the most
prominent leaders of the Polish rising of 1830. After the
failui-e of the revolution he fled to France, and lived partly
in Paris, partly at Lagrange, the villa of La Fayette ; but
in 1833 lie was banished from France on account of his par-
ticipation in different Polish conspiracies. He went to
Brussels, where he resided for the rest of his life, wholly
devoted to science. D. May 39, 1861. His writings are
very numerous, but they are all of the highest order. His
knowledge is always ample, and his style is pure and very
impressive. Besides his jSlumismatique du Moyen Age
(Paris, 1835), I'l/lheas de Marseille et le Cfeographie de non
l^e.mpa (Paris, 1.S36), Gengraphie des Arabes (3 vols., Paris,
1851), and (leographie du Iloyen Age (4 vols., Breslau, 1853-
57), he wrote several works relating to the history of his na-
tive country. The principal of these are History of Poland
(Warsaw, 1829), with a continuation (Brussels, 1843); Con-
tiderations sur VEtat politique de rancienne Pologne. et sur
Vllistoire de son Peuple (2 vols., Paris, 1844) ; La Pologne
au Moyen Age (3 vols., Posen, 1846-51).
Leloir. le-lwaar', Alexandre Louis : genre-painter ; b. in
Paris, Mar. 15, 1843. He was a pupil of his father, J. B.
Auguste Leloir. historical painter: was awarded medals in
the Salons of 1864, 1868, and 1870 ; second-class medal, Paris
Exposition, 1878 ; chevalier of the Legion of Honor 1879. I),
in Paris, Jan. 28, 1884. He was a painter of charming talent
in both oil and water-color, whose pictures are valued for their
beauty of color and fine technical qualities. W. A. C.
Lelongr, le-lori', Jacques: cataloguer; b. in Paris, Apr.
19, 1665. He was destined for the order of St. John, and
received his first education at Malta. Later he studied in
Paris, and in 1699 was ap)>ointed lilirarian at the oratorium
of St. Honore in Paris, where he died Aug. 13, 1721. His
liibliotheca Sacra, a catalogue of all editions and transla-
tions of Holy Scripture (3 vols., 1709; 2d ed. 1723), and his
Bib/iotheijue histurique de la France (1719), a catalogue of
all French historians and their works, are regarded as model
works of bibliography. See his Memoir by Desmolets in
the second edition of his Bibliotheca Sacra.
Le'ly, Peter van der Faes (known as Sir Peter Lely) :
painter; b. at Soest, in Westphalia, in 1618. He studied
painting with Grebber, of Haarlem. He was already very
successful at the age of twenty-five when the Prince of
Orange (William III.) took him to England to paint the
royal family on the occasion of his marriage with the daugh-
ter of Charles I. In England he immediately received in-
numerable commissions, great wealth, and the a])pointment
of painter to the king. After the death of Charles I. Crom-
well employed him, and Cliarles II., on his accession to the
tlirone, knighted him and gave him a j)ension of 4,000 florins,
and the post of gentleman of the bedchamber. He made
good use of his fortune and zealously pursued his art, but
when Kneller came to England and supplanted him in the
royal favor he fell ill and died of disappointment and mel-
ancholia in London, 1680. W. J. Stillman.
Lemaire, le-mar', Nicolas 6loi: classical scholar; b. at
Triancourt, France, Dec. 1, 1767; was appointed Professor
of Latin Poetry in the College of France, afterward in the
same department in the Faculty of Letters in Paris (1811) ; in
1810 Murat named Lemaire as head of his projected Univer-
sity of Naples, but Napoleon was not willing to let him leave
France, and settled a pension upon him. After the Restor-
ation, Louis XVIII. favored the publication of a complete
series of the Latin authors, of which Lemaire was consti-
tuted chief editor. From the list of w'riters, made by Louis
himself, Lucretius was omitted for jiolitical considerations.
The series was completed in 143 volumes, to which Lucre-
tius was subsequently added by P. A. Lemaire, nephew and
assistant of the editor. The value of tliese variorum edi-
tions at the present day consists only in the often exhaustive
indexes added to each author. I). Oct. 3, 1832. See Notice
sur iV. E. Lemaire par J. Ij. h'illon, in ai)iiendix to the
Bibliotheca Latiiia. Revised by Alfreh Guueman.
Lemaitre, le-matr', Frederic : actor ; b. at Havre, France,
in July, 1798; studied at the Conservatoire of Paris, and ac-
quired some popularity upon his appearance in Trenle A71S,
ou la Vie d'unjouetir at the Porte Saint-Martin, but won
his first great success in 1832 as the joint author of Robert
Macaire and the actor in its title role. Victor Hugo and
Alexandre Dumas intrusted to him imi>ortant roles in their
plays, and in Hugo's Buy Bias Lemaitre won another tri-
umph. His versatility was remarkable. He acted with suc-
cess in both tragedy and comedy, but it was especially in the
romantic drama and the rendering of strong cnaractcr parts
that he excelled. His last appearance was in 1868 at the age
of seventy. D. in Paris, Jan. 26, 1876.
Le Mans, If-ma'aiV : capital of the department of Sarthe,
France; situated on the river Sarthe, which is here crossed
by four bridges (see map of France, ref. 4^D). It has a
beautiful cathedral begun in 1217, a town-hall built in 1757,
and vestiges of Roman buildings dating from the second
century. Le Mans has a theological seminary, a lyceum, a
normal school, a library of 56,000 volumes, a nmseum of
antiquities, and several learned societies. Its chief manu-
factures are linen fabrics, bells, machinery, leather, and
stained glass. Pop. (1886) 3:3,283. In 1793 the republican
army won an important victory near Le Mans, and in Jan.,
1871, the Germans defeated the French in a decisive battle.
Le Mars : town ; capital of Plymouth co., la. (for location
of county, see map of Iowa, ref. 3-C); on the III. Cent, and
the Chi., St. P., Minn, and Omaha railways; 35 miles N. E.
of Sioux City. It is in an agricultural and stock-raising
region; is an important grain, live-stock, and lumber mar-
ket ; and has flour and planing mills, gas and electric lights,
4 banks, private normal school, business school, and a week-
Iv and 2 semi-weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1.895 ; (1890)
4.036; (1895)5.046. Editor ok "Sentinel."
Lemhoke, Christian LuDvio Edvard: poet; b. in Copen-
hagen, Denmark, June 15. 1815. From 18.50 to 1864 he was
rector of a Latin school in Sehleswig. from which he wa-s
180
LEMUERG
eioelled for his svmiiathv with the Dunes. His host-known
poem is \\,rl moJer^maal er deili^l (Our Mother-tonjiue is
fovelv) His translation of Shuksi>eiire is the best in Dan-
ish lii'iviiiL' taken the plHco of the earlier renderings of the
Bu'yal theater. It has been critieiseil for the too inoilerii and
refined character of its language. He also translated many
of Byrons (kx-ius. 1»- 1^- l>"U(iE.
Lem'lM'rtr : the capital of Galicia. Austria; situated on
the Peltov in a narrow valley surrounded by forest-clad hiUs
(see man of Austria-llungaVy, ref. 3-K). It is the seat of
the (iovernment, and of Koinaii Catholio, Armenian, and
(in^ek arehbishopries. It has a cathedral, built m i;i70 bv
Ca-simir the (ireat. two beautiful synagogues, many splendid
palaces, and other magnificent buildings. Its universUy is
attended by about 1,2(K) students, and has 35 professoi-s. Its
manufactures are not important, but its trade, though to a
great extent mer>>lv transit, is very extensive; it is mostly
in the han.ls of Jews, who number about 40,000. Three lan-
guages are spoken in the city, Polish, German, and Kuthenian,
and^thus three sets of schools arc made necessary. Top.
(1890) r.'T,U4:!.
Lpni'nia [= I.at. = Gr. Anw««- 'iter., a thing received or
taken for granted, deriv. of Ao^/3<i«ii', pf. ei\7)<f>eW, receive] :
an auxiliary proposition demonstrated out of its regular
order to facilitate the demonstration of some other propo-
sition. The conclusion of the lemma is needed in the dem-
onstration of the main i)roposition ; and rather than en-
uuinl>er that proposition, a separate demonstration is intro-
duced. The eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth propositions
of book viii., Davies's Legendre,aTe lemmas.
Lemming: a name given to the small rodents of the
genus Myodes. found in the northern regions of both hemi-
spheres. They have rounded heads, obtuse muzzles, round,
stumpy tails. an<l five toes on each foot. They are vegetable
feeders and live in burrows. The Norway lemming, Mijoihs
lemnuK, is about 5 inches long, clothed in soft yellowish-
brown fur, marked with dark brown and black. It is abun-
dant in the highlands of the interior of Norway and .Sweden,
and is remarkable for the migrations which it makes at in-
tervals of from ten to twenty years. The impelling cause
of these migrations seems to be great increase in nuiiiliers.
coupled with lack of fuud. The lemmings move gradually
from the highlands toward the sea in countless multitudes.
traveling mostly by night. Once started nothing stops
them ; they swim lakes and rivers, climb hills and struggle
through marshes, many perishing on the way. Although
preyed upon by all manner of rapacious animals, bears,
wwuscls, hawks, and owls, the numlx-rs of the killed arc-
largely ri'placed by others born as the host moves on. When
the sea or the (iulf of liothnia is reached the lemmings
plunge in, and here all ultimately perish. P. A. Lucas.
Lemnls'catn [from Lat. Iimniscalux. deriv. of lemniscus
= Or. Ki)iuilaKot, a ribbon hanging down] : a curve of tlic
fourth order, shaped somewhat
like the figure 8, as? shown in
I he diagram. It is the locus of
llie points of intersection ob-
tained by drawing perpendicu-
lars from the center of a hypcr-
. bnla to the tangents drawn to
that curve. If the ecpialion of the hyperbola is
« V - '''•^' = - a.V,\
the equation of the corresponding lemnLscato is
(j:« + !/')» = o»i« - ft»y«.
LEMON
If the hyperbola is equilateral, that is, if o = 6, this equa-
tion becomes
(a;> + y^f = a»(x» - !/').
The curve is quadrible ; in the latter case the entire area in-
cluded within the two branches C A and C B is equal to tho
square of the semi-transverse axis, that is, to a*. In the
figure A and 1$ are the vertices of the hyperbola, and C is
its center. At A and B tangents to the curve are perpen-
dicular to A B ; the point C is a multiple point, at which
tangents to the curve coincide with the asymptotes of the
given hyperbola.
Lpiu'hos [= (ir. Afi^tvos (the modern Limni or Slalimni)] :
an island in the ^Egean .Sea, S. of Thrace, witfran area of
li)0 sq. miles. It is of volcanic formation, and hence was
sacred to Ilepha'stus; it was the home of the Sintian men
who cared lor Ilcpha-stus after his fall from heaven. For
nine years it was the abode of the lame Philoetetes after his
abandonment by the Greek host. The Argonauts found the
island inhabited only by women, with whom they begat the
Jlinyans, who were expelled by the Pelasgians. The island
submitted in turn to the Persians. Athenians. Macedonians,
Komans, and after varying fortunes to the Turks, who hold
it to-day. It had two cities, Myrina and Hcplucstia. The
capital is Castro, with 3,000 inhabitants. It was famous for
the leninian earth (,iil\Tos. terra sigillata). highly i)rize(l even
down to the nineteenth century as a dyestuff and as an
antidote for poison, snake-bites, etc. The island contains
liO.OOO inhabitants, of whom .5,000 are Turks. See Couze,
Jiriae auf den Inseln des Tlirakischen Metres (Hanover,
1860) ; Tozer, Islands of the ^gean (Oxford, 1890, pp. 231-
274). J. K. S. Sterrett.
Le Molne : See Le Moyne.
Lp Moinc, le-moin', James MacPiierson : historian and
naturalist; b. in Qucl)ec, P. Q., Canada, Jan. 24, 1825; was
educated at Le Petit Seminaire de Quebec, was admitted to
the bar in 18.50, and since 1868 has held an important office
in the inland revenue department. He has devoted more
than thirty years to researches and works on early Canadian
history, and is an enthusiastic student of natural history
and ornithology. He is a descendant of the Le Moyne fam-
ily, so distinguished in the early history of North America.
Among his works are L'Drniihologie ctu Cuniula (2 vols.,
i^ini'lier, 1860); Legendary Lore of (he Lower »S7. Latn-ence
( istj'j) ; Les Pecheries du Canada (1863) ; Maple Xeo/Series
(1803-73) ; Chronicles of the St. Lawrence (1878) ; Ilislorical
.Xoles on Quebec (1879) : Picturesque Quebec (1882) ; Mono-
graphies et Esqnisses (1885); Chasse el peche (1887); Ex-
plorations in Eastern Latitudes (1889) : Conferences et M6-
moires: Ilistoire, Archeologie (1882-90).
Neil Macdonau).
Lemon [: Fr. limon (from Ital. limone), from Pers. limu,
whence Aral), laiinitn. Cf. Lime]: the fruit of Citrus li-
iiionum. The Citrus genus, of which the orange and lemon
are the familiar representatives, constituted a natural family,
Aurantiaceo; which of late is merged by some in the large
family Rulaceie. The leaves of these trees have translucent
dots which appear like jmnctures when held between the
eye and the liglit, these dots being oil-glands which give the
line aroma characterizing the genus: the joint below the
blade sliows the leaf to be a compound reduced to the
terminal leaflet ; and the petiole below is usually more or
less winged with leafy borders. The lemon-tree does not
form the close head of deep-green foliage which is so strik-
ing in the orange-tree, but is of irregular growth, with |)aler
and sparser leaves. The young shoots are dull jmrple; the
corolla externally purplish and internally white; the deli-
cate aroma distinct from that of the orange-blossom. The
fruit is pale yellow, ovoid or oblong, usiudly crowned by a
nipple; the rind linn and adherent to the pulii; the juice
sharply acid, but in some varieties sweetish. Tlie rough-
ness of the surface of the lemon is owing to the imbolded
oil-cells. These furnish the oil and essence of lenum, ob-
tained cither by expression <ir di.stillation. Lemon-peel is a
Well-known flavoring ingredient. Lemon-juice is not only
largely used for acidulated drinks and for elTervescing
draughts, but also for the |ireparation of citric acid, its im-
portant ingredient. This is used in medicine for febrile
and rheumatic diseases, and in the arts for certain proc-
esses of c«lico-printing, to discharge colors and deepen the
white parts of fabrics dyed with ferric salts. Concentrated
lemon-juice is largely employed cm slii]>board for the pre-
vention of scurvy in long voyages. The commercial article
LEMON, OIL OP
LEMUR
181
is derived from tlie lime and bergaraot, as well as from
lemons. The lemon is of Indian origin ; the tree, which
perhaps represents the wild state of both the lemon and
the citron, is a native of the forests of Northern India. It
is now generally understood by botanists that the lemon
should be regarded, systematically, as a variety of the citron.
Citrus medica, var. Union. The introduction of the tree to
Europe is due to the Arabians. Its cultivation is an indus-
try on the Mediterranean coast between Nice and Genoa,
in t'alabria, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, etc. It endures less
cold than the orange, and wherever it succeeds well is
likely to be a more profitable culture. It is grown in
Florida and Southern California.
Revised by L. II. Bailey.
Lemon, Oil of: the volatile oil of lemon-peel (Oleum
citri). extracted from the grated rind by pressure or by dis-
tillation with water. It may also be obtained by jnitting
the grated peel in hot water and skimming off the oil which
rises to the surface. That obtained by pressure has more of
the peculiar flavor of the fruit, but contains mucilage, etc.,
whi(th make it more liable to change on keeping than that
which is prepared by distillation. Oil of lemon is a volatile
liquid, generally yellow, having the odor of the fruit and a
pungent, aromatic taste. Its specific gravity is 0-8596. It
is sparingly soluble in water ; dissolves in 7-14 parts alcohol
of specific gravity 0'8317; in 10 parts alcohol of specific
gravity 0'85 ; in any quantity in absolute alcohol ; mixes
with both fixed and volatile oils. It dissolves sulphur, phos-
phorus, resins, and fats. Exposed to air and light, it ab-
sorbs oxygen, with the formatitjn of ozone, becomes darker
and more viscid, and evolves a little carbonic acid. It con-
tains a hydrocarbon, CjoHu, or an oxygen compound.
Oil of lemon is largely used in perfumery and as a flavor-
ing for ice-cream and sirups, and has the stimulant properties
of the aromatics, though in pharmacy it is chiefly used to
impart flavor to other medicines. It should not be dark-
colored or viscid, and should not leave a permanent stain on
paper. It is often adulterated with oil of turpentine, lav-
ender, alcohol, etc. The presence of cheaper oils may gen-
erally be recognized by the odor. Turpentine may be de-
tected by noting the behavior of the oil with regard to
polarized light Vjefore and after heating. With pure oil
little or no change will be noticed, but when turpentine is
present the dextro-rotary power will be considerably in-
creased by heating.
Le Moyiie, or Le Moine : a Canadian family of eleven
brothers, seven of whom acted prominent parts in advancing
French explorations, conquests, and settlements in Amer-
ica.— Their fatljer, Charles i.e Movne, b. in Normandy,
Prance, in 1626, went to Canada in 1641 ; lived some years
among the Ilurons ; obtained extensive land-grants ; was
distinguished in wars against the Iroquois under Courcelles
and Tracy ; was held a prisoner by those Indians sevel-al
months in 1665, and was created in 1668 Seigneur de Lon-
gueuil, to which title that of Chateauguay was afterward
added. lie was for some time military commander of Mon-
treal, where he died in 1683. — Of his sons, Pierre and .Jean
Baptiste were distinguished in Louisiana, gaining the titles
of Sieurs de Bienville and d'iBERviLLE (qq. v.). — The eldest
brother, Charles, Baron de Longueuil, b. in Jlontreal,
Dec. 10, 1656 ; served in his youth in the French army in
Flanders ; promoted colonization to Canada ; built a stone
fort on his estate at Longueuil ; was wounded in the repulse
of Sir William Phipps's assault upon Quebec in 1690 ; was
made governor of Montreal and baron in 1700 ; was com-
mander-in-chief of the colonial forces ; fought against the
English expedition of Walker and Nicholson in 1711 ; was
in command at Three Rivers in 1720, and at Montreal from
1724 to 1726; rebuilt Fort Niagara in the latter year ; was
made chevalier of the order of St. Louis, and died at Mon-
treal, June 8, 1729. — Jacques, Sieur de Sainte-Helene, b.
at Montreal in Apr., 1659; was sent in Mar., 1686, with his
younger brothers, Pierre and Paul (afterward d'lberville and
de Maricourt), in an expedition under the command of Cheva-
lier de Troyes against the English on Hudson's Bay, where
they had built Forts Monsipi, Rupert, and Kichichouanne.
These three forts were captured, as well as a vessel of war
having on board the English governor-general of Hudson's
Bay, .Sainte-Helene having borne a leading part in each
action. He was second in command of the expedition
which took Fort Corlear (Schenectady) Feb. 9, 1690, and in
the same year commanded the batteries which repelled the
English squadron at Quebec, on which occasion he was mor-
tally wounded. — Paul, Sieur de Maricourt, b. at Montreal,
Dec. 15, 1663 ; participated, as above mentioned, in Troyes's
expedition agamst Hudson's Bay, being wounded before
Fort Monsipi (June 20, 1686) ; remained with his brother
d'lberville in command of that district up to 1690, when he
aided in the defense of QucIjcc ; took ]iart in Frontenac's
expedition against the Iroquois, with whom he negotiated
[leace in 1701. and in Apr., 1704, hjst his life, with forty
others, in a stockade burned by those Indians. — Joseph,
Sieur de Serigny, b. at Montreal, July 22, 1668; became an
officer in the French navy, and in 1694 and 1697 com-
manded vessels in Hudson's Bay in co-operation with the
fand ojierations of his brother d'lberville. Subsequently
he commanded a squadron : took to Louisiana some of its
earliest settlers, and in 1718-19 surveyed the coast of that
colony. He was engaged in the capture of Pensacola from
the Spaniards (May 14), and repulsed them from Dauphin
island, near Mobile (Aug. 19, 1719) ; after a .siege of a month ;
was made captain of a ship of the line in 1720, and in 1723
rear-admiral and governor of Rochefort, France, where he
died in 1734. — Antoine, Sieur de Chateauguay, b. at Mon-
treal, July 7, 1683; became an ofTieer of the French army;
took a body of colonists to Louisiana in 1704 ; served under
d'lberville against the English in 1705 and 1706 ; was royal
lieutenant in Louisiana in 1718 ; was engaged in the Florida
campaign against the Spaniards in 1719 ; taken prisoner at
Pensacola Aug. 7, and commanded at Mobile from 1720 to
1726, when he was removed from office and recalled to
France; was sent as governor to Martinique in 1727, and after-
ward to Cayenne ; returned to France in 1744 ; was made
governor of Cape Breton in 1745: successfully defended
Louishurg against the New England forces under Pepperell,
and died at Rochefort, France, Mar. 21, 1747. He inherited
the title of Sieur de Chiiteauguay from his brother Louis, b.
in Jan., 1676, who was mortally wounded in the attack on
Fort Nelson, Hudson's Bay, and died Nov. 4, 1694. — An-
other brother, Francois, b. Mar. 10, 1666, killed in battle
with the Iroquois at Repentigny June 7, 1691, was the first
Sieur de Bienville, the title passing on his death to his
brother. Jean Baptiste. Sauvolle, the first colonial Gov-
ernor of Louisiana, has often been incorrectly included as
one of the brothers Le Moyne. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Leinpa (river) : See Salvador.
Lempriere, la'ahpri-ar', John, D. D. : educator and clas-
sical scholar ; b. in the island of Jersey about 1765 ; studied
at Westminster School and at Oxford; B. A. 1790; took
orders in the Church of England ; was head master of
classical schools at Abingdon and Exeter ; became rector of
Meeth in 1811, and Newton-Petrock, Devonshire, in 1823,
and died in London. Feb. 1, 1824. He published in 1788, ia
Reading, a small Bibliotheca Classica, or classical diction-
ary, much enlarged in the 2d ed. of 1792, which has since
been many times reprinted in Great Britain and the U. S.
It was based upon Sabbatier's Dictionnaire des Auteurs
classiques. published at Chalons-sur-Marne in thirty-six vol-
umes (1766-90), and was in turn the basis of Anthon's well-
known classical dictionary. Dr. Lempriere published also
a volume of Sermons (1791); the first volume of a transla-
tion of Herodotus (1792); and a Dictionary of Universal
Biography (1808) in a single volume, reprinted in New York
in 1825 (2 vols.), with additions by Eleazar Lord.
Lemur [from Lat. lemur, ghost, specter, so called from
its nocturnal habits] : a general name for the members of
the sub-order Prosimi.e (q. v.). a division of the order Pri-
mates, containing what Mivart terms the half-apes. The
name lemur was applied to these animals by Cuvier on ac-
count of their nocturnal habits and spectral appearance.
They differ from the monkeys in many important anatom-
ical details, but while they also differ from them external-
ly, it is by no means easy to describe the distinctions. The
head of the lemurs is usually long and fox-like, the fur is
soft, thick, and woolly, quite different in texture from that
of any monkey, and the coloration is frequently soft and
delicate. They never have prehensile tails (although this
organ mav be long, short, or absent), cheek-pouches, or is-
chial callosities. 'The great majority of the species are con-,
fined to Madagascar, but a few inhabit Africa and a lew
India and the larger adjoining islands as f,".r P'. as Celebes.
The ruffed lemur (Lemur varia) is sometimes black and
white, and sometimes of an almost uniform reddish-brown.
It is about as large as a cat, as is also the ring-tailed lemur
(//. varia). which is of a delicate gray, the tail marked with
alternate rings of black and white. I'hc slow lemur (Nydice-
182
LEMURES
bus tardigradu*) is a small, browiiisli-gray, tailless species
found ill Miiliioca. Suiimtni, uuil Hornuo. During the day
it sleeps curled up in a hall, and at nij;ht moves noiselessly
al)Out the branches in search of fo.xl. It captures small
binls by approacliini: slowly until within rcachuif; distance,
and then, with a single (juick move, the prey is secured.
F. A. Lucas.
Lem'ures [= I-at. plur. of lemur, ghost, specter]: in
Roman mythology, the designation of the sjiirits of the
dead, which, either U'cause of their own guilt or the neglect
of projier obsi-rvances on the part of their friends, could not
find rest in the lower wi>rld and so still haunted the scenes
of life. Their influence was believed to be harmful, and to
propitiate them an annual festival called Lemnria was cele-
brated with expiatory rites on the nights of May !), 11, and
13. In accordance with a common confusion of the liquids
I and r, the designation of this celebration was connected
with the name of Kemus (iis if */{rmuria), to appease whose
restless spirit, wronged by death at a brother's hand, the
festival was thought to have been instituted. A description
of its ceremonies is found in the lifth biM>k of Ovid's Fasti
(vs. 41!) (T.), who adds that on these days the temples were
closed and that marriages or other events requiring auspi-
cious beginning were avoided. G. L. Henurickson.
Lemu'ria: a tract of land supposed to have formerly ex-
tended from Africa and Madagascar toSouthernnu)st India.
The Seychelles and Maldive islands and the Chagos Hanks
aro considered to be portions of this subujcrged Lcmuria,
the former existence of which is believed by many authori-
ties necessary to account for the peculiar distribution of the
lemurs and other Afro-Asiatic animals. F. A. L.
Lemur'idie [Mod. Lat., liter., belonging to the lemur
family; Lemih (o. v.) + Gr. patronymic ending -<5ai, plur.
of tSrjt, descendeil from] : a family of the sub-order I'nisi-
mi(B and order Primates. The incisors of the upper jaw are
small (sometimes deciduous), and separated into two groups
by an interspace. The lower canines resemble the incisors,
are contiguous to them, and like them project outwanl and
not upward; hind foot with the second toe armed with a
claw, and the other toes provided with flattened nails. This
family includes the lemurs, or, us they are sometimes called,
half-monkeys, and is confined to the island of Madagascar,
the equatorial parts of Africa, and India. A considerable
range of variation is exhibited by its several constituents in
the general form and proportions, the shape of the head, the
development of a tail (which in some is very large and in
others wanting), the size of the ears, and the length of the
tarsus. For the peculiar relations of the family, see Pro-
siMi.K. Revised by F. A. Lucas.
Lemuroi'dca: a name applied by some to the sub-order
Prosimi.k (I/, v.).
Lona : one of the principal rivers of Siberia. It rises near
Irkutsk, in the mountains N. of Lake Haikal, and enters the
Arctic Ocean through several branches between Ion. 125°
and VW E. It receives the Vitim, Olekma, and Ald.an
from the right, and the Viliui from the left, pa.sses by Olek-
minsk and Yakutsk, and is open from Mav to November.
Its length is 2,880 miles, of which 3,680 (f rora'Yigalova down)
are navigable. There were six steamers on the Lena in 1890.
Lenartowicz, len-a'iir-tovich, Teokii, : poet ; b. at War-
saw, Poland, Feb. 27, 1822, of jKior parents; earned his liv-
ing as a lawyer's clerk 1826-:J7, and later became clerk of
the Supreme Court. His meager education he completed by
private stuilies. lie l>elonged to a group of young poets
who nublished their poems in the NadwiUanin, and was
noted for his religious fervor. In 1848 he visited Cracow,
Ureslau, and Poseii, an<l finally went to Paris, and thence
(18.')4) to Italy, where he settled in Rome. In 1801 he mar-
ried, and in 1871, on the death of his wife, removed to Flor-
ence. He is both a iH>et and a sculptor. He is a popular poet,
and his po«ms breathe the spirit of the f(.lksong. Patriotism'
and religious fervor pervade his first works: Szopka (Bres-
lau, 1849); Lirenka (Posen, 1851); A'owa lirenka (same,
18.57). The short poems .^nc/iM'j^ce;i I/! (Kcstacv) and Blogo-
Mlawiona (The Hlessed One) are unequalcd in ('olish poetry.
The following also deserve mention : I'olska ziemia w obr'a-
JarA (Poland in Pictures); Sirivln Znlia, Fraqmcnt o Apo-
ttolacli, liranka, liitwa Haclnwicka Criie Hatlle of Raclaw),
which forms a part of the epic h'mrinsko ; Nitmcy i Vltro-
f/nty (The fJermans and the Croalians); C'ielec ZIoty, a
drama; a translation of Dante's Dii-ine Comedy, etc. His
I^ezye (Poems) were published at Warsaw (1858) and Posen
LENKORAN
(1863). Jagoda z maiowieckich lasbw (A Strawberry from
the Forests of Mazow, Warsaw, 1880) is a delightful idyl.
J. J. Kral.
Lpiian, NicoLAis (pseudonym for Nicolais Fkanz
XiKMBscii Edler von Stkehlenai) : b. at C'satad, Hungary,
Aug. 13, 1802; studied philosophy, jurisprudence, and medi-
cine at Vienna, and having inherited a niodeiatc fortune
devoted himself entirely to literature. In 1831 lie went to
Stuttgart for the purpose of publishing the first volume of
his poeiils. Here he met I'liluiiil Kerner and the rest of
the Suabian school, and here he also conceived the idea of
emigrating to America. He bought 1,000 acres of land in
Ohio, and removed to the U. S. in 1832, but soon returned,
disgusted and disillusioned. He resided at various places in
(lennany and Austria, diligently working at his larger poetic
productions. Soon after his return from America he met
Sophie von Lowenllml, a niMrried womuii of great beauty and
exce|>tional talents. They fell desperately in love with each
other, but .Sophie would not get a divorce from her husband,
and neither she nor Leiuiu had enough moral strength to
break olT their hopeless relations. This unhappy love affair
doubtless jirccipitated the catastrophe in the life of the poet,
who had always been subject to severe attacks of despond-
ency and melancholy, and who doubtlessly was also physic-
ally inclined to insanity. In 1844 he became violently in-
sane, and never recovered his senses. D. Aug. 22, 1850, in a
lunatic asylum at Oberdobling, near Vienna. Lenau is one
of the greatest German lyric poets of the nineteenth century,
but his genius was not counterbalanced by sufficient strength
and firmness of character. He never could bring into har-
mony the idealism of his imaginary world with the reality
of his surroundings, and he willingly gave himself over to
'■ the gravitation toward unhappiness," as he calls the mel-
ancholic propensity of his mind. Besides, he lived in a lime
in which the coidlict between belief and knowledge occu-
pieii the best minds and demanded many victims. With
liira pessimism and Welt.'irlnnerz were genuine, and not a
mere theatrical pose, as in the case of Heine. Thus he be-
came the greatest elegist of Germany, his poetry abounding
with beauty of metaphor and melody of language. His
principal publications, beside his poems, are Faust (1836),
Sarimarola (1837). Die Atbigenser (1842), Don Juan, all of
which show the heavy conflicts in the poet's mind. See
Opitz, Xicolaus Lenau (1850) ; Bertholil Auerbach, A'iVo/nua
Lenau (1876); Emma Niendorf, i/fjiaw in Schwaben (1853);
Scluirz, Lenaus Leben (1855) ; Karpeles, JVicolaus Lenau
(1873) ; Lenaus Briefe an einen Freund (1853) ; Ludwig Au-
gust Frankl, Lenau und Sophie von Lowenthal (1891).
Julius Goebel.
L'Enclos, luaii'klo', Anne, de (called Ninon) : b. in Paris,
May 15, 1615. She was beautiful and spirited; Scarron,
Saint-Evremond, Molicre, Fontenelle. Larochefoucaulil, and
others read their works ill her salon; it soon became indis-
pensable for all young men of birth, wealth, and elegant am-
bitions to be introduced to her. One lover followed the
other in rapid succession, and this life went on uninterrupt-
edly for more than half a century. In her old age ladies,
even of the highest posit icm and of the finest education,
crowded her salon, and for many years her social i>osition
was brilliant. For the student her character -lias little in-
terest, but her life is exceedingly characteristic of the age
in which she lived. D. in Paris, Oct. 17, 1705.
Le Neve, Ic-neev', JonN : clergyman and biographical
writer; b. in Hloomsbury, London, England, Dec. 27, 1079;
was e<lucatcd ut Trinity College, Cambridge, although he
left the university without taking a degree, and became rec-
tor of Thornton-le-Jloor, Lincolnshire. D. about 1741. He
\v!us a zealous collector of biographical materials; wrote
Fasti Fcrlesiip Any/icana- (1710); Munumenta Anglicana
(9 vols.. 1700-19); Lives of the J'rotr.ttant Bishops (1720);
Lives of tite Arvhhis/iops (1723); and other niiiioi' works. A
new editiim of the Fa.'iti was published in 1854 (3 vols.) by
T. Duflus Hardy, assistant keeper of the public records, with
a continuation down to that year. While the original edi-
tion contained only 11,051 entries, Hardy's edition contained
data respecting more than 30,000 clergymen of the Church
of England holding positions of jiidininence, and in the
preparation of this eililion upwanl of (!.(I00 rolls and other
records were consulted, besides |)rintcd books.
Revised by W. S. Perry.
Lenkoran : a fortified town in the government of Baku,
Russia; on the Caspian Sea, at the mouth of the Lenkoran
river (sec map of Russia, rcf. ll-I). It is not far from the
I
LENNEP
LE NOTRE
183
Persian boundary, and previous to 1813, when Russia ac-
quired it, it was a Persian town. The harbor is poor. Pop.
about (i,000, mostly Persians and Armenians.
Revised by C. C. Adams.
Len'nep, David Jacob, van: classical scholar; b. at Am-
sterdam, July 1.5, 1774; studied there and in Leyden ; was
professor at the Athen;eum of his native city till his death,
Feb. 10, 18.53. He wrote a learned and highly valuable
commentary to Ovid's Ileroides (2d ed. 1812) ; edited Trren-
tianus JIaurus (1825); Ilesiod (3 vols., 1854); and translated
into Latin Bentley's Dissertation on the Epistles of Plia-
laris. Alfred Gudeman.
Lennep. Jacob, van : poet and novelist ; b. at Amster-
dam, Holland, Mar. 24, 1803 ; d. Aug. 26, 1868. The son of
a highly cultivated scholar, Prof. David Jacob van Lennep,
his youth was passed in an eminently literary atmosphere.
He was destined for the legal profession, however, and in
1824 he received the degree of doctor in law from the Uni-
versity of Leyden. He practiced his profession with great
success all his lite, and held many positions of public trust
and responsibility. His leisure, however, was devoted to
letters, and the mass of his productions was very great. He
felt to the full the Romantic influences of his time, was a
friend of Bilderdijk and da Costa, and labored with them
for the imaginative reconstitution of the past of Holland.
His literary models were primarily Byron and Sir Walter
Scott, but the period he most studied and wrote about was
the seventeenth century. His literary career began with a
rendering of Schiller's Fiesco (1825) and of Byron's Marino
Faliero (first published in 1829). In 1826 appeared Acade-
mische Idylhn, and these were followed in 1827 by the first
collection of CfedicJiten (subsequently reprinted with later
volumes in Oedichten zoo oude als nieuwe, 3d ed. Amster-
dam, 1865). In 1828 was published the first volume of Ne-
derlandsche Leyenden in rijm gebracfit, modeled upon
Scott's poetical tales. The revolutionary years 1830 and
1831 moved him to eager production, and his play Het dorp
aan de grenzen (1830 ; reprinted in his Dramatische Werken.
3 vols, 1852-54) met with great praise. In 1833 his first
historical romance, De Pleegzoon (The Adopted Son ; Eng-
lish trans, by Huskin, New York, 1847), was received with
enthusiasm. This was followed by De Roos van Dekama
(The Rose of Dekama; English trans, by Woodley, London,
1847); De Lotgevallen van Ferdinand lluyck (1840); Eliza-
beth JIusch (1850); De Vrouwe van Waardenburg (a drama,
1859); De Lotgevallen van Klaasje Zevenster (1865); and
many other works in prose and verse of a similar character.
Extremely popular also were Onze voorouders in verschil-
lende tafereelen geschetst (5 vols., 1838-44) and De voor-
naamste gescliiedenissen van yourdSederland aan zijne
kinderen verhaald (4 vols., 1845-49). Besides these numer-
ous works, he collaborated upon about fifty different jour-
nals and periodicals. See his Life and a bibliography of his
works in J. ten Brink, Geschiedenis der JVoord-Xederl. Let-
teren (vol. i., Amsterdam, 1888). A. R. Marsh.
Lenni-Lenape : See Algoxqulan Indians.
Lennox, Charlotte Ramsay: author; b. in New York in
1720, her father. Col. James Ramsay, being lieutenant-gov-
ernor of the province ; went to London at the age of fifteen,
and married ; on becoming a widow devoted herself to lit-
erature, and wrote novels which obtained great popularity.
She enjoyed the friendship of Richardson and Dr. Johnson.
Among her works were a volume of Poems (17.52) ; Tlie Fe-
male Quixote (1753); Shakspeare Illuslrated (1753-54), a
collection of tales used bv Shakspeare in his plots ; Henri-
etta, a Novel (1758); Philander, a Dramatic Pastoral
(17.58); Sopltia (1763); Father Brumoy's Greek Theater;
and a translation of the Duke of Sully's Memoirs (1761). D.
in London, Jan. 4, 1804. Revised by H. A. Beers.
Lennox, Earls of : See Stewart, Esme, and Mat-
thew.
Lennox, Lord George Henbt : general ; b. in England,
Nov. 29, 1737; was second son to Charles Lennox, second
Duke of Richmond ; entered the army in 1751 ; distinguished
himself in the German campaigns as aide-de-camp to the
Duke of Cumberland (1757) and'to the king (1762); entered
Parliament in 1761 ; attended his brother, the third Duke
of Richmond, in his embassy to France in 1765; became
major-general in 1772 ; constable of the Tower of London
and governor of Plvmouth in 1783; general and member
of the privy council in 1793. D. at Stoke Park, Mar. 22,
1805.
Lennox, Lord William Pitt: soldier and author; b. in
England. Sept. 20, 1799; was the fourtli son of the fourth
Dukeof Richmond, and godson of William Pitt; was educated
at Westminster; entered the army ; was for some years at-
tached to the staff of the Uuke of Wellington ; was a volu-
minous contributor to The Sporting Review and to several
magazines and newspapers. Among his works are Compton
Audley (1841); Tlie Tuft-hunter (1843) ; Percy IlamiUon
(1852); Philip Courtney (1857); Merrie England (1857);
Recreations of a Sportsman (1862); Fifty Years' Biograph-
ical Reminiscences (1863); Adventures of a Man of Fami-
ly (1864); and Drafts on my Memory (1865). D. Feb. 17,
1881.
LennoxTille: town and railway station of County Sher-
brooke, Quebec ; 3 miles from Sherbrooke (see map of Que-
bec, ref. 6-C). It is the seat of the Bishop's College and
Bishop's College School. Pop. 800.
Lenormant, le-nor'maah'. Charles: art critic and archae-
ologist; b. in Paris, France, June 1, 1802; studied law;
traveled in Italy, where he gave special attention to archae-
ology ; became in 1825 inspector of fine arts ; accompanied
ChampoUion the younger to Egypt in 1828; took an active
part as a member of the commission for exploring the
Morea ; became after the revolution of 1830 chief of the sec-
tion of fine arts at the ministry of the interior, keeper of
books and antiquities at the Royal Library, professor at the
Sorbonne (1835), and Professor of Egyptian Archipology at
the College of France and conservator of the Royal Li-
brary. Omitting his numerous treatises on art, numismat-
ics, ceramics, the religion and history of Egypt, we may
mention his Tresor de numismatique el de glyptique (20
vols., Paris, 1851) ; Litroduction a I'histoire orientale (1838);
Musee des antiquites egyptiennes (1835—42) ; Elite des monu-
ments ceramographiques (4 vols., 1861); Questions his-
toriques (2 vols. ; 2d ed. 1854). D. at Athens, Nov. 24, 1859.
— His wife, Amelie, who was a niece of Madame Recamier,
edited the correspondence of that celebrated lady (1859),
besides writing works on Madame de Stael (1862) and the
Vi'omen of the Revolution (1865).
Revised by Alfred Gudeman.
Lenormant, Francois: archaeologist; son of Charles Le-
normant; b. in Paris, Jan. 17, 1837; was educated by his
father. He was especially prominent for his important re-
searches in the Accadian language ; and after traveling in
Egypt, Turkey, and Greece became in 1874 Professor of
Archieology at the Bibliotheque. Among his very numer-
ous works are Manual of the Ancient History of the East
(3 vols. ; 9th ed. in 1881 by Babelon, who also continued
the work) ; Lettres assyriologiques et epigraphiques (5 vols.,
1871-79); Chefs d'ceuvre de fart antique (3 vols., 1869);
Etudes accadiennes (1873-74) ; La Magie cliez les Assyri-
ens (1874); and Les premieres Civilisations (1874); Essai
sttr la propagation de Talphahet phenicien dans I'ancien
monde (2d ed. 1875 ; this otherwise able work is discredited
by the fact that Lenormant forged inscriptions for the pur-
pose of proving a pet hypothesis); La monnaie de I'anti-
quite (1879, 3 vols.), one of the best works on the subject ;
La Grande-Grece (1881-83), the account of an archaeological
tour in the little-known extreme south of Italy, a supple-
^ment to which is A Ti-avers VApulie et la Lucanie (1883) ;
Les origines de I'histoire d'apres la Bible (3 vols., 1884).
He also edited, from a manuscript of his father, Memoires
sur les peintures de Polygnole. dans la Lesche de Delphes
(Brussels. 1864). D. in Paris, Dec. 10, 1883. See Babelon,
Biograph. Jahrbuch YIL (1884. pp. 151 ff.).
Revised by Alfred Gudeman.
Le Notre, k-notr', Andre: landscape-gardener; b. in
Paris, Mar. 12, 1613; studied painting uniler Simon Vouet
together with Lebrun ; laid out the gardens of Vaux-le-
Vicomte, Fouquet's famous chateau, and afterward suc-
ceeded his father as director of the gardens belonging to
the royal residences. He laid out the gardens of Versailles,
Trianon, St.-Germain, and Fontaineblcau ; also St.-Cloud.
belonging to the Duke of Orleans, Chantilly, belonging to
the Prince of Conde, Villers-Cottorets, Meudon, Chaillot,
Livrv, etc., and established thereby the formal and stately
style" of landscape-gardening which spread over the whole
of Europe and maintained itself for nearly a century. In
1664 he first arranged the gardens of the Tuileries. He re-
ceived many honors and distinctions, and in 1675 was made
a noble and' a Knight of the Order of St. Michael. He vis-
ited England and laid out the parks of Greenwich and St.
James. D. in Paris, Sept. 15, 1700.
184
LENS
Klu
Fio. a.
Lens [from Lat. Ifn», lentil. So called from a double
c.uv.x li-iis n'st-nibliiis a K'litil-secd in shape] : a transparent
IhhIv bound by curved sur-
1 2 3 _!. ? ^ faces, neurl)' always by
siilierical, sometimes by cy-
lindrical, elliptical, or para-
Ix.lio faces. The typical
forms of spherical lenses are
shown in Fif?. 1. Three of
them (1, 2. and 5)
are thicker along
the axis than at the edges (converging lenses),
while three (3, 4, and C) are thickest at the edge
(diverging lenses). , . .u *i.
Lenses are sometimes used merely to gather the
ravs from a source of light into a parallel or con-
vergent Iwam. For this purpose no great delicacy
of configuration is necessary. Where a large
amount of light is to lie concentrated in this way,
a-s in the cas«> of lighthouse lanterns, a series of
iirisms is used instead of a condensing lens. See
LllillTIIOlJSE.
Another and far more important function of
the lens is the formation of an image. To confine our attention
to the formation of undistorled images it may be stated as the
condition of the image-forming lens that it must be bounded
by surfaces such
that all the rays
falling upon one
of its faces from
a point,/, will be
refracted, and
will converge to
(or appear to di-
verge from, another point (/. Fig. 2). When one of the
points is at an iiifinilc distance the surface fulfilling this
condition is ellipsoidal ; when /and / are conjugate foci it
is the surface produced by the revolution of a Cartesian
oval. Owing to the comparative ease of construction, how-
ever, lenses are almost always ground with spherical faces.
Nodal points in a lens (so
named by Prof. Listing, of
Giittingen) are points located
as follows :
In any lens (Fig. 3) let A A'
H B be rays passing I hrough
the optical center 0. If their
paths in air be extended with-
out deviation througli the ma-
terial of the lens, tlipv will cut
the principal axis in ^fi and Nc
respectively. These arc called the nodal points of incidence
and of emergence.
The relation of the points/ and /. already referred to, as
regards position are defined by the equation
1_1_1
d d' D
where d and d' are the distances from the nodal points Ni
and N. to /and /, the conjugate foci, and I) is the distance
to the point al which [laraliel rays come together (see Fig. 4),
which is called
the principal
focns. When /
and / are ujion
opposite siiles
of the lens the
latter will form
an inverted
image of any object placed at either / or /. When / and /
arc upon the .same side of the lens, which will occur when-
ever llie rays (after trausmis>iiin under tin- law of refraction,
for the medium of which the lens is composed) diverge
the image will be virtual and erect. '
For further information upon the geometry of the lens,
the reader should consult (ilazebrook. Physical' Optics ; Wal-
lon, L'Objeclif I'hotiiijrdphique; or any other good treatise.
All lenses with spheriial faces produce what is known as
spherical alxrration. This phenomenon arises from the fact
tiiut in such lenses a given iMiiiit on the principal axis, for
example, possesses not one, iiut an iulinile series of contigu-
ous foci conjugate to it, each corresponding to a particular
portion of the len.s.
The lens may be regarded as made up of concentric, ring-
shaped elements, each with its own focus, these elemental
foci approaching the lens along the axis continuously as the
diameter of the rings increases. The result is that the fo-
cus of the lens taken as a whole is not a point, but an eUm-
gated region lying along the axis, at no point in which is
there complete definition.
That each element of a lens is really capable of forming a
complete image, and that these images in case of spherical
lenses are not quite coincident, may be shown by means of
Fio. 8.
Flo. 4.
Fio. 6.
Fio. 5.
the following experiment, which also serves for determining
the existence and character of the aberration in a lens to be
tested. This is shown in Fig. T), in which rays A A', B B',
C C are seen to come to focus at difTerent distances from
the lens — in accordance with the principle just stated.
If in front of a lens of large aperture an opaque screen
be held as close to the surface of the glass as possible, it
will be found that with a sin-
gle small aperture (a) through
the screen, so placed that rays
from a light-source (C) reach
any portion of the face of the
lens, a well-defined image will
be formed at C (Fig. 6). Upon
moving the screen perceptible
motion of C" will be noticed,
and it will be found that when
a is in the axis of the lens, C
will be in ]icrfeet focus at a
greater distance than when a
allows light to reach some ele-
ment of the lens near the edge
of the latter.
If two or more openings be
made througli the screen permitting light to pass through
small portions of the lens not situated in the same aiimilar
element, each hole will be found to afford a distinct image
of the source of light, the various images overlapping, but
not, in general, quite coincident.
If the number of openings be increased indefinitely until
the entire aperture of the lens is utilized, then these images
will be merged in a single one, which, however, will not be
nearly so well defined as the elementary images of which it
is composed.
The amount of siiherical aberration varies with the ratio
lietween the radii of curvature of the surfaces of a lens, with
the thickness of the .same, and with the direction of incident
rays. It is possible by the proper balancing of these factors
to eliminate it almost entirely, an end more easily reached,
however, by using a combination of two or three properly
proportionetl lenses. A system of lenses free from spherical
aberration is said to be aplanatic.
C/inimalic aberration offers a more serious difficulty in
the construction of the lens. This defect arises from the
fact that lenses are used for the transmission of composite
light varying in wave-length from 0'7(i>' in the extreme red
to 0-40i* or even less in tlie violet. The index of refraction
for the latter wave-length will be much higher than for the
red — l-5y in-
stead of 1-51
perhaps — and
such rays, even
in the case of
lenses free from
spherical aber-
ration, will bo
brought to fo-
cus much near-
er the lens, as
Fia.
shown in Fig. 7, where V is the focal point for violet and R
for red light. Between V and K lie tlie foci of all intervcn-
lenstrOm
LENTULUS
185
ing tints of the visible spectrum, while still nearer to the
lens than V the short waves of the ultra violet come to
focus.
Fortunately glass is a mixture of variable composition,
and is capable of being made with a wide range of optical
properties. The indices of refraction of two extreme varie-
ties of glass are given for illustration in the following table :
INDICES OP REFRACTION.
Crown-glui.
Duiie flm^gIu■.
A
Lin...
(nl
1-509
1-511
1-512
1-515
1-518
1-521
1-527
1-532
1-697
B
rroi
C
1-703
D
1-710
E
1-719
F
1-727
O
1-7J3
H
1-757
Thus it is possible to select glass of high or of low dis-
persive power. The ratio of the indices of refraction for
red (C) and blue-green (F) light in the case of crown-glass,
1-521
for example, may be == 1-0059, while for heavy flint-
l-ol2
1-707
glass the same rays may give a ratio -^^7 = 1-0141. The
dispersive power of these specimens of glass, computed for
the range of B ... II by means of the usual formula
1 =
jv;-i
Crown
Flint
Fio. 8.
is '0408 (cro-wn) and 'OTTO (flint). By making- a dispersive
lens of the latter and a properly proportioned convex lens
of shorter focal length of the former glass, and using the
two together (see Fig. 8), it is possible
to obtain a combination which will
bring red and blue to the same focal
point. Such an arrangement is termed
an achromatic system or combination,
or sometimes simply an achromatic
lens.
The size of the imaqe produced by
a lens depends upon the focal length
of the latter, and is independent of
the aiperture, the law being that the
linear dimensions of the image are
directly proportional to its distance
from the lens. The brightness of the
image is directly proportional to the area of the aperture
and inversely proportional to the square of the linear di-
mensions of the image itself. T/ie definition of the image
depends upon the accuracy of configuration, the complete-
ness with which the corrections for spherical and chromatic
aberration are made, and upon judicious reduction of the
aperture by means of suitable diaphragms.
Owing to the supreme importance which optical instru-
ments possess in the advancement of science, great atten-
tion has been given to lens-making. The present very high
state of the art, as exhibited in the best telescopes and mi-
croscopes, has been reached (1) by the development of the
process of grinding to a degree of extraordinary precision ;
(2) by improvements of glass-making, which make it possible
to secure great uniformity and homogeneity with freedom
from stri:e and of other optical imperfections due to inter-
nal strains; (8) by the introduction of new varieties of glass
possessing the optical properties demanded for the construc-
tion of achromatic and aplanatic systems of lenses.
E. L. Nichols.
Len'strom, Carl Julius, Ph.D., D. D. : poet and critic;
b. at Gefle, Sweden, May 7, 1811 ; studied at Ujisala; gradu-
ated as a doctor of philosophy 1833. studied divinity, and
entered the priesthood 1834: was created a doctor of divin-
ity 1860; was appointed Assistant Professor of Literature in
1836, and rector at tlie bishop's see of Upsala in 184.'): Jjcn-
striiin's writings comprise subjects of the most varied
nature — religious science, philosophy, ■'esthetics, history of
literature and art. linguistics, literature. We ni.ay mention
among his numerous writings Lrirolioli i allntanna och
svenska K>/rkoh i.itorian (Compen<lium of General and Swe-
dish Church History, 1842); BiMisk thenlngi etler liilietns
tros-och sedelara i system (Bil)lical Theology, ]8.'50-62);
Bidrag till den svenslca Ssthetiliens historia (Contributions
to the History of Swedish ^Esthetics, 1840) ; isvetisk-a poesiens
historia (History of Swedish Poetry, 1839-40) ; Sveriges lite-
ratur-och konst historia (History of Swedish Literature and
Art, 1841); Vrdbok Ofver helsing dialecten (Dictionary of the
lielsing Dialect, 1841) ; Gullbrollopet (The Golden Wedding,
an idyl, 1S37); Fahliijuvelen, a novel dealing with Swedish
village life (1838); Cromwell, an historical poem (1860); (ius-
iaf II. Adolf, historical songs (1860); De fyra stiaiden, tailor
ur sve7iskt sedelif {The Four Classes, sketches from Swedish
social life, 1865). Besides, he has published sermons, trans-
lations, etc. From 1839-40 he edited the literary journal
Eos. D. Apr. 6, 1893. P. "G roth.
Lent [M. Eng. lenten < 0. Eng. lengten. spring, lent ; cf.
0. H. Germ, lenzin, langiz >Mod. Germ, lenz, spring]: the
fast of forty days (not counting Sundays) which begins with
Ash Wednesday and ends with Easter Sunday. It is ob-
served by the Eastern, Roman, Anglican, Lutheran, and
some other churches. It commemorates the forty days'
fast of our Lord in the wilderness. The Greek Church
lengthens it to forty-eight days. Revised by W. S. Perry.
Leiitau'do [Ita!., liter., slowing, pres. partie. of lenta're,
make slow, from Lat. leti tiis, slow] : in music, a term which,
when applied to a series of notes, signifies a gradual and
regular decrease of rapidity. It frequently occurs m con-
nection with final cadences, and in passages marked as ex-
pressive, where it has the effect of a gradual dWng out or
melting away of the sound into comparative stillness.
Lentil [from 0. Fr. lentille < Lat. lenticula, dimin. of
lens, lentis, lentil. Cf. Lens] : an annual leguminous herb
of the Old World, the Ervum lens, resembling the vetch or
pea, and extensively cultivated as food. The seed is the
part employed. It is smaller, more nutritive, and more di-
gestible than the pea. There are many varieties. It grows
well on the poorest lands. Lentil flour is used for invalids.
The vine is small, but affords excellent fodder for sheep,
horses, and cattle. Fresenius found in 100 parts of air-dried
seed — starch 35-5, gum 7, sugar 1'5. Icgumine 25, fat 2-5, cel-
lulose, pectine, etc., 12, ash 2-3, and water 14.
Lentlni, len-tee'ne'e [Ital. < Lat. Leonti'ni, the ancient
name] : town in the province of Syracuse, Sicily : about 23
miles N. W. of the city of Syracuse (see map of Italy, ref.
10-F). Interesting vestiges of the ancient city, such as re-
mains of aqueducts, cisterns, tombs, etc., exist, and vases,
coins, and inscriptions are found. In its neighborhood are
the ruins of tiie castle of Bricinia, mentioned by Thucydides.
In 426 B. c. Lentini sent to Athens for help against Syra-
cuse. In 214 B. c. it fell into the hands of the Romans.
The present town is composed of respectable buildings, and
the streets are commodious. Its trade and industry are
considerable. Pop. 12.800.
Lentino, .Tacopo, da, commonly known as II Notajo da
Le.vtino : early Italian poet ; flourished in the first half of
the thirteenth century. Dante (Purg.. xsiv., 56) speaks of
him as one of the leaders of the so-called Sicilian school of
poets. Almost nothing is known of his life. He alludes in
one of his poems to events of 1237; and Monaci (Da Bologna
a Palermo, in Morandi, Antol. delta critira moderna. 9th
ed. 1894) thinks he studied at Bologna and lived for some
time in Tuscany. We have from him lyrics in the conven-
tional trouliadour style of the earliest Italian poets, and a
tenzone in sonnets with Pier della Vigna and Jacopo Mo-
stacci da Pisa. See Gasi)arv, Uie sicitianische Diehter-
sehiile (IH'S). ' A. R. Marsu.
Len'tnlns : the name of a celebrated patrician family of
ancient Rome, belonging to the gens Cornelia. One of the
most conspicuous members of this family was Publius Cor-
nelius Lentulus Sura. He was consul in 71 B. c, but in the
following year he was ejected from the senate, together with
sixty-three others, on account of the open scandals of his
private life. Cherishing the superstitious hope, or belief,
that he was the third Cornelius, prophesied by the Sibylline
oracle, who sliould rule Rome (('inna and Sulla had gone
before him"), he united himself with Catiline's band, and
after the departure of the leader from the city assumed
charge of the pitms of the conspirators at Rome. Through
his irresolution and weakness, the plan of burning the city
and of murdering the consul and other patriots was frus-
trated, while his imprudence in dividging the plans of the
conspirators to the ambassadors of the .Allobroges made it
possible for Cicero to procure evidence sufTicieut for the
arrest of the leaders of the conspiracy. With them he was
condemned without trial, and put to denlh in the public
prison (63 B. c). G. L. Hendrick.son.
1S6
LENZ
l.enz l.nls. Jacob Michael Reinholo: poet; b. at Sess-
weiren Li%oiiia, Jan. Vi. 1T51 ; studied theuloffv at Konifrs-
ber' ami went in 1771 us tutor fur two youuR iioblenieii to
Stra^burK. where he met (ioethe, Salxiiiaiin, and other mem-
bers of the liteniry eircle. He also met Fnderike Bnon
with whom he fell desperately in love after Goethe had left
her In 1776 he followed Uoethe to Weimar, but was soon
expelle.1 from there on account of btui behavior toward one
of the ladies of the court. Ue roved around from place to
i)lac-e finallv became insane, and died in utter misery at
MosiMW May 24, 1792. Xext to Herder and Uoethe Lenz
was the 'most gitloiX of the poets of the Storm and Stress pe-
riod. Formerlv some of his poems were considered Goethe s
proiicrtv. and 'even some of his dramas and farces were
tbouv'lit bv his contemporaries to be Goethe's. Though lack-
ing the grace of Goethes style, all his productions show
originality, passionate feeling, and force of language. In his
desire to Lc realistic he does not shrink back from represent-
ing even the repulsive. Uis great ambition was to equal
Goethe, an.l in lliis tragic competition with a genius far su-
perior to his he finally succumbed. See Tieck, Gemmmelte
ikhriften von Lrnz (Wi>i) : K. Weinhold, GedUhte run Lenz
(18U1): K. Schmidt, Lenz und Klinger (1878): Froitzheim,
Lenz und Goethe (18'Jl). Julius Goebel.
Lenz, OsKAR, Ph.D.: explorer; b. at Leipzig, Germany,
Apr. 13, 1848: studied at the university there, and made
mineralogy and geology his scientific specialities. After
geological researches in' Hungary, Slavonia. Bohemia, and
the Western .\lps, he went to Africa (1874) as a member of
the scientific expedition of the (Jerman African Company
of Berlin. He sj^nt three years studying the regions adja-
cent to the coast between (iaboon and the Congo. The
journey that made him famous was carried out (1879-80) at
the expense of the sjime company. In the disguise of a Mo-
hammedan merchant he crossed the Western Sahara, spent
several weeks in Tiinbuctoo, which had not been visited by
a white man for many years, and crossed the Western Su-
dan by an unexplored route to the mouth of the Senegal
river. ' He corrected some erroneous notions with regard to
the Sahara. (See Sahara.) His most important works are
Skizzen aiis Westafrika (Berlin, 1878) and Timbuktu (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1884). C. C. Adams.
Le'o [= Lat., liter., lion] : a sign of the zodiac, which the
sun enters about July 22 and leaves about Aug. 23. The
constellation of the same name, one of the finest in the
heavens, occupies the zodiacal region corresponding to the
sign Virgo, and contains many remarkable nebulae.
Leo [= Lat., at once Latinization and translation of Gr.
\4ay, liter., lion] : the name of six emperors of the Byzantine
empire : Lko I., Tin-; Tiiraiian (4.")7-474), b. in Thracia about
4(K1, was only a military tribune when the Emperor Mareian
died in 4.57. Aspar, the commander-in-chief of the army,
aiming at power, but despairing of the crown himself on ac-
count of his foreign birth and Arian creed, raised Leo to
the throne, in the hope of using him as a tool. Leo, however,
soon emancipated himself from the influence of Aspar, and
even seized the very first opportunity of getting entirely rid
of him. A magnificent expedition was undertaken in connec-
tion with .Vntheinius, Emperor of the West, against Genseric,
King of the Vandals in Africa. The expedition failed ut-
terly, and the odium of the failurewas thrown on Aspar. The
Vandals being Arians like the Byzantine minister, a rumor
of trea.son arose, and during the riots which ensued Leo had
Aspar killed in the interior of the palace. In the beginning
of liis reign several successful campaigns had been made
against the Huns, but' in the latter part military calamities
were added to inundations, cart luiuakes, and conflagrations.
Leo I. was the Hrst Christian king who at the ceremony of
coronation received his crown from the hands of a bishop;
he favored the clergy much, and is generally called The
Great by the orthodox party ; the .\rians called him Macella,
the butcher. — Lko II. (from Jan. to Nov., 474) was a grand-
son of Leo I., and only four years old at the death of his
grandfather. — Lko III., The Isauri an (717-741), b. in Isauria
about (180 of piKir parent,s, enlisted in the army, where he
rose rapiilly, and was commander-in-chief of the Eastern
army against the Saracens in 710, when Theodosius III. de-
posed and exiled Anaslasius II. Leo chose not to acknowl-
edge Theodosius III., man^heil his army againsl him in the
name of Anaslasins II., defeat oil him. and seized the crown
for himself. The Saracens followed him, and besieged Con-
stantinople for two years, but having been routed several
times, they were at last repelled with great^'loss. In 726 he
LEO L
issued an edict ordering all images to be removed from the
churches of tlie emijire, and thus began the memorable con-
test known as iconoclasni, which disturbed the cmpiie for
more than a century. (See Iconoclast.) The immediate
result of the edict was a general commotion, especially in
the western provinces, and in 728 the exarchate became lost
to the Byzantine crown. — Leo IV. (775-780), b. in 750, a son
of Constantino V., whom he succeeded. He was mild and
tolerant, but weak ; his generals, however, were very suc-
cessful against the Bulgarians and Arabs. — Leo V., The
Ar.menian (813-820), became commander-in-chief of the
army and gained the throne by a long series of treasonable
acts'; but having once established himself firmly on the
throne by his brilliant victories over the Bulgarians and
Arabs, he showed himself an administrator of uncommon
ability. Keforms were introduced, and the whole adminis-
trative system placed on a footing of honesty and justice.
lie was violent, however, and utterly intolerant. He perse-
cuted the worshipers of images with great severity. At
last a conspiracy was formed, and he was murdered on
Christinas Day in a church, before the altar. — Leo VI., The
PuiLosoi-iiER "(886-912), b. in 865, a son of Basil I., whom ho
succeeded. As a ruler he was unsuccessful, and he is chiefly
known for his writings. His Oracula is a ])oem in iambic
verses, prophesying the fate of the Byzantine empire ; there
are several eilitions of it. His OraliotwK. numbering thirty-
three, are composed mostly on theological subjects; there is
no collected edition of them, but some are found in Baro-
nius's Aiinales, others in Billiotlieca patrum, etc. More
important was his treatise on military affairs, mostly con-
sisting of extracts from other writers. There exist many
editions of this work, as well as an English translation by
John Cheke (1554), and a French by Joly de Mezeray (1771).
Leo I., Saint : pope ; regarded by many Protestants as
the first real pope, and surnamed The Great; b. about 390,
probably in Rome ; in early life displayed uncommon zeal,
knowledge, and capacity, and was often eni])loyed by the
popes upon important ecclesiastical and political duties;
was chosen pope in 440, though only a deacon. Leo opposed
the Pelagian, Manichican.Priscillian, and Eutychian heresies;
labored with great ability for the extension of the Roman
primacy; visited Attila in person (452) and induced him to
spare Rome, and in 455, when the city was sacked by Gen-
seric, he succeeded in moderating the ferocity of the attack.
He was the first pope to hold the monarchical theory of the
papacy. Leo died Nov. 10, 4G1. Of the many editions of
his writings, the best is that of the Ballcrini (V'enice, 753-
757). See English translation of his tii-lect ii^nsttes and
Sermons in vol. xii. of the 2d series of the edition of the
J\'ice/ie and Paitl-Xicene Futlters (New York). See his
Life by F]. Perthel (Jena, 1843). — Leo II., Sai.nt, became
pope in 682, and died in 683. — Leo III., a Roman, became
pojie in 795; crowned Charlemagne F^mperor of the West,
and freed Rome from Byzantine domination. D. June 11,
816. — Leo IV., a Roman, became pope in 847; built the
Leimine wall about the Vatican suburb, which is hence
called the Leonine City; restored the town of Porto, which
he colonized with (Jorsicans, and founded Lcopolis (now de-
serted), 12 miles from Civita Vecchia. D. July 17, 855. —
Leo v., a Benedictine and cardinal, became pope Oct. 28,
and died in prison Dec. 6, 903. — Leo VI., a Roman, became
pope July 6, 928, and died Feb. 3, 929.— Leo \'ll.. a Roman,
became po])e in 936. and died in 939. — Leo VI II., a Roman. was
made pope by Otho I. in 963. in place of the infamous John
XII. Bcnedi'ct V. was his rival. I). 965.— Leo 1.\. (Hruno),
an Alsatian, cousin-german to Conrad the Salic, b. ,!une 21,
1002; became Bishop of Toul in 1026; was celebrated for
learning; was nominated pope at Worms in 1048, and recog-
nized at Rome in 1049; was largely under the influence of
llildebrand, afterward Gregory VII. The great events of
his pontificate were the Berengarian controversy and the
great exertions he and Ilildelnaiid made for the extension
of disciidine. I). Apr. 19. 1051. — Leo X. (Giovanni de'
Medici), son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, b. at F'lorence,
Dec. 11, 1475; received the tonsure and was made abbot of
Fontcdolce and of Passignano when but seven years old;
became cardinal in petto whvn thirteen, and full cardinal-
deacon when .seventeen (1492): was exiled with the other
Medici in 1494: serveil under Julius II. against the French
as legale and field-marshal, but was taken prisoner at Ra-
veiuuv 1512; by the aid of the emperor, the pojic. Venice,
and Spain restored the Medici lo l<^lorence 1512; succeeded
Julius 11. as pope 1513. His pontificate is memorable for the
LEO
LEON
187
splendor of the papal court; his extensive patronage of
learning and art; the reorganization of the University of
Rome, and the establishment of a committee under the
presidency of Lascaris for the publication of Greek manu-
scripts; the scandalous and open sale of indulgences in
order to ])rooure the necessary means of building St. Peter's
church; the origination of the Keformation under the in-
fluence of Luther, at which he at first laughed as a ludicrous
monkish quarrel ; the confirmation and extension of the
Spanish power in Italy; and tlie final suppression of the
Florentine republic. As a prince, Leo had illustrious
qualities ; as an ecclesiastic, he certainly failed, as nuich
from a lack of the ecclesiastical spirit as from a want of
knowledge of the tendencies of the critical times in which
he lived. See W. Roscoe, Life and Pontificate of Leo X.
(London, Bohn's Library); M. Creighton, History of the
Papacy during the Period of the Reformation (vols, iii.-
V.). — Leo XL (Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici), a grand-
nephew of Leo X., b. at Florence 1535 ; became Bishop of
Pistoia 1073; Archbishop of Florence 1574; cardinal 1583;
pope 1605; died A|)r. 37, 1605, after a pontificate of twenty-
six days. — Leo XII. (Annibale delta Genya), b. Aug. 22,
1760; became Archbishop of Tyre 1793; cardinal in 1816;
pope in 1823 ; extended papal authority, and reformed some
pomts of the temporal and spiritual administration. D.
Feb. 10, 1839. — Leo XIII. (Oiovacchino Vincenzo Pecci), b.
at Carpineto, Mar. 2, 1810, in the diocese of Anagni ; became
a titular archbishop 1843 ; a cardinal in 1853; chamberlain
of the Sacred College in 1877, and pope in 1878, having been
elected Feb. 20 and crowned Mar. 3. See his Life, by B.
O'Reilly (New York, 1887). Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Leo, la 0, Heijjrich : historian ; b. at Rudolstadt, Mar. 19,
1799. Having settled in 1838 as Professor in History at the
University of Halle, he developed a great productivity, fol-
lowing more or less closely the tracks of Hegel's ideas in his
Handbuch der Oeschichte des Mittelalters (1830) • Geschichte
der itatienischen Staaten (5 vols., 1829) ; Zwotf Bucher nie-
derldtidischerGischichte7i{2vo\s.,l832-35). Having changed
in favor of ultra-reactionary tendencies, he wrote Lehrhuch
der Universalyeschichte (6 vols., 1835-44), and Leitfaden fiir
den Unterricht in der U7iiversalyeschichte'{4: vols., 1838-40),
and a number of articles in the Evangel ische Kirchenzeitung.
He was long editor of the Hallesche CochenMatt. D. Apr.
24, 1878. His autobiogr&phy up to 1823, Aus meiner Ju-
gendzeit, was published in 1880.
Le'o Africa'niLS [Lat., liter., Leo the African], Joannes.
originally named Al Hassan Ibn Moham.med : geographer ;
b. at Granada, Spain, about 1485, of Moorish parents, who
emigrated to Fez in Morocco after the capture of Granada
by the Spaniards. At sixteen he accompanied an uncle on
an embassy to Timbuctoo, and afterward traveled through
several countries of Northern and Central Africa, penetrat-
ing Bornu to Nubia, descending the Nile, and extending his
explorations into Persia. Returning from Constantinople
by sea in 1517, he was captured by corsairs and taken to
Rome, where he became a Christian, was patronized by Pope
Leo X., whose name he took, learned Italian and Latin, and
taught Aral)ic. D. at Tunis in 1526 (f). His great work,
the Description of Africa, was written in Arabic, published
in Italian by Raniusio (1550), and in Latin by Elzevir (1632).
Leo AUatiiis : See Allatius.
Leoch'ares [in 6r. Acrnx'^pis] •' an Athenian sculptor (350
B. c), who co-operated with Scopas, Bryaxis, and Timotheus
in the sculptures on the sides of the Mausoleum al Halicar-
nassus. Besides statues of the gods (Zeus, Apollo, Ares,
etc.), he made portrait-statues also (Isocrates, Alexander the
Great, etc.) ; he assisted Lysippus in his group representing
Alexander in the lion-chase. He made in bronze a group
representing the rape of Ganymede by the eagle of Zeus, a
marble copv of which is in the Vatican. Pliny (34-79) speaks
of the group with enthusiasm. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Leo Diac'oiius [Gr., liter., Leo the Deacon] : Byzantine
historian ; b. al)out 9.50 ; d. about 995. He saw the deposi-
tion of Nicephorus II. Phocas (969), and accompanied Basil
II. in the war against the Bulgarians (981). His history of
the events which took place from 959 to 975 is badly writ-
teli, but contains valuable information. This work was first
published by Hase (Paris, 1819). and reissued in the Corpus
IlistoricE Byzant incB (Bonn, 1838). E. A. G.
LeomiiLster, lemster : town ; in the county of Hereford,
England, on the Lugg, 13 miles N. of Hereford (see map
of England, ref. 10-Fj. It is the center of the most cele-
brated cattle-breeding district of England, and has some
manufactures of leather and woolens, of iron and brass ware,
of gloves and hats, and a trade in hops and cider. Pop.
(1891) 5,675.
Leominster : town ; Worcester co., Mass. (for location of
county, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-F) ; on the Nashua
river, and the Fitchburg and the Old Colony railwavs ; 18
miles N. of Worcester. 40 miles N. W. of Boston. It has
water-works which cost $150.000,gasand electric light plants,
electric street-railway, |iul)lic library (1853) containing over
13,000 volumes, and a weekly newspaper, and manufactures
of horn jewelry, and other goods, furniture, pianos, paper,
woolen goods, tanned and curried leather, cliildren's car-
riages, and leather-board. Pop. (1880) 5.772 ; (1890) 7,269;
(1895) 9,211. EuiTOR of " Enterprise."
Le'on, Span. pron. la-on' : province of Northern Spain,
comprising an area of 6,167 s{i. miles. It is covered with
mountain ranges, which, especially in the northern part, in-
close beautiful, well-watered, and" fertile valleys, while the
eastern parts are more level and afford excellent pasturage.
Large flocks of merino sheep are reared ; flax, hemp, maize,
and fruits are raised, and many medicinal herbs gathered.
Together with the provinces of Salamanca and Zamora it
formed the former kingdom of Leon, founded about 750
by Alfonzo the Catholic, who conquered it from the Sara-
cens, and was united to Castile by Ferdinand III. in 1230.
Pop. (1887) 380,229.
Leon : the capital of the province of Leon. Spain ; at the
confluence of the Bernesga and the Torio, 256 miles by rail
N. W. of Madrid (see map of jSpain, ref. 13-D). Since the
annexation of the old kingdom of Leon to Castile the city
has lost its importance, and is, in general, in a state of de-
cay. Its cathedral, built in the fourteenth century, and re-
stored 1878-92, is one of the most elegant .specimens of
Gothic architecture extant. Pop. (1887) 13,446.
Leon (sometimes called Latacunga. from the capital) : a
central province of Ecuador, immediately S. of Quito, and
almost entirely in the Andean plateau. Area, 2,595 sq.
miles ; estimated population (1890) 109,000. Cotopaxi lies
on the northern boundary; the streams flow eastward, form-
ing the Pastaza, an affluent of the Napo. Agriculture and
grazing are the only industries. H. H. S.
Leon, or Leon de los Aldanias: a city in the western
part of the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, near the western
extremity of the alluvial plain or bajio of Guanajuato ;
5,862 feet above the sea (see map of Mexico, ref. 6-G). The
Mexican Central Railway runs close to the town, the dis-
tance from Mexico city being 258 miles. The plain men-
tioned is one of the richest cereal belts in the rejjublic. and
to it Leon owes most of its importance ; but it is subject to
destructive floods from the overflowing of streams ; one of
these floods in 1889 overwhelmed the city, and more than
3.000 persons were drowned. Leon is noted for its manu-
factures of saddlery and leather-work, said to be the finest
produced in Mexico ; it also makes coarse woolen and cot-
ton goods, soap, and cutlery. There is a fine square, with
several large public buildings and a cathedral. The place
was founded in 1576, but its importance dates from 1836,
when it was raised to the rank of a city. Pop. (according to
Cubas, 1889) 50,000. In %vealth and importance it is much
behind Guadalajara and Puebla. Herbert H. Smith.
Leon : a city in the western part of Nicaragua ; 50 miles
W. N. W. of Lake Managua, and about the same distance
from the Pacific coast at Corinto; on the railway from
Corinto to Managua and Granada (see map of Central Ameri-
ca, ref. 6-G). The city is built on a fine plain, about 200
feet above sea-level. The most notalile building is the cathe-
dral, an immense ugly structure, built 1746-74 at an expense
of 15,000,000. Connected with it is the college of San Ro-
man, founded in 1678, and long one of the most celebrated
institutions of learning in America. The bishop's palace and
the Government buildings are also worthy of note ; several
former monasteries are used for schools, a hospital, etc.
Leon was originally founded (1523) by Francisco Hernandez
de Cordoba, on tlie western side of Lake JIanagua, and
changed to the present site in 1610. It was the capital of
the colonial province and of the republic until 1870, and
was formerly much more populous. It is still the largest
city of Nicaragua, and the seat of the liishnpric ; but it has
suffered greatlv in the civil wars. Estimated population
(1891) 31,000. 'This includes the Indian suburb of Subtiaha,
which is really the original town, having existed before the
188 '^KON
con.iiu-st : wfortlin^' to early accounts, it had 100,000 in-
habilai.w wlioM tlio whit.-s arrivoa, aiul was the site of a re-
nowne.1 temple. Leoi, is the capital of a Ji'I""t';';;'" f "'^'
same imme. having a.l3« si. miles of area aiul b.) (J0») inhabi-
j^m^ IIkkuekt U. .smith.
Leon: town (lai.l out in IS-W); capital of Decatur co.,
Ia.(f.T l.Kalion of county, si-e map of Iowa, ref. <-(j); on
the fhi Hurl, and t^uinev ami the Des >I. and Kan. tity
railways : ti.". miles S. ..f Des Moines. It is in an agricultu-
ral ri'Kion, and is a shipping-point for cattle, hogs, horses,
mnd sheep. l'"P- *1«*U) 1.36' : (!««) L-t" : (l«*i) ^'*^^- „
EuiTOR OK " Decatur Coi.sty Journal.
Leon. Juan Ponce de : See 1'once de Leon.
Leon. Maestro Frav Luis I'once, de : theologian and poet ;
b at lielmonte. Xew'Castilc, Spain, in 1527: d. at Madrigal,
Old Castile, Aug. 23. l.V.tl. and was buried in the Augustin-
ian mona-sterv at Sidanianca. His boyhood was passed in
Madrid ; at the age i>f fourteen he went to the university at
.Salamanca, where after foUr or five years he took his degree
in thiH)logv. anil became an Augustinian friar. His great
atUiiiiinents gave him at once a place as teacher, and in 1561
he obtained bv competition the university chair known as
that of St. Thomas Aquinas; to this he later added in the
same way that in the Sacrinl Scriptures. His successes and
learning'madc him enemies in the university, and in Dec,
15T1, he was charged l)efore the Inquisition with having cir-
culated a Spanish translation of the Song of Solomon, and
with having criticised the Vulgate ivs an imperfect rendering
of the text of the Uible. Though he was able to explain
away the first of these charges, and to deny the imputation
of heresy contained in the second, he could not clear himself
from the calumnies of his rivals, and in Mar., 15T2, he was
arrested, an<l his case carried before the tribunal of the In-
quisition at Vallmlolid. For nearly five years he was kept
in confinement, his health breaking under the strain ; and
all the ingenuity of his enemies was exerted to prove him
guilty. In 15t6 judgment was pronounced in doubtful
terms, but essentially against him, by a majority of the tri-
bunal. When the case came to be reviewed by the supreme
council of the Inquisition at Madrid, however, the finding
of the tribunal was entirely set aside, and the accused was
set free Dec. 7, 1576. The complete documents in this fa-
mous case have been published by Salva and Sainz de Bar-
anda in their Colecciun de Documentos inedifospara la his-
loria de Es/xiiln, vols. x. and xi^(Ma<lrid, 1847— IS) ; also co-
pious extracts in Kivadeneyra's B(6/io^ecn de Aulores Eiipa-
ilolex, vol. xxxvii. (.Madrid. 1H72). Immediately upon his re-
leiLse, Luis de Leon returned to his work as teacher in the
University of .Salamanca, which had remained true to him
through all his sufferings. Here, in si)ite of his physical
weakness, he exerciseil a profound influence, by reason of
his learning and character. In truth, no Spaniard of his
time approached him in scholarship. He knew Hebrew and
Greek, as well as Latin: and his studies in the text of the
Bible were almost those of a modern scholar. Ho was,
however, a devoted Roman (.'atholic, and it is a mistake to
see in him a Spanish reformer and Protestant. Most of the
works we have from him were written before or during his
imprisonment. These are : 1. His Poems, sacred and pro-
fane, written mainly in his youth, and often singularly fresh
and charming. 2. The prose treatise De los nomhres de
CriMo, written in prison, but never finished — an eloquent
work of Spanish devoutness. 3. La perfecta Canada (Per-
fect Wife), inldressed to a newly married lady, and written
in the form of a commentary on portions of the book of
Proverbs. 4. A Latin exiM)si'tion of the Song of Solomon,
published after the author's release from prison. A beau-
tiful .Spanish version of the Song in octaves, which was in-
tended for publication with a Spanish commentary diil not
seethe light until 1806 (the I'oiiiinentary, however, ajipcar-
ing in 17!»H). 5. Eximnicidn del libro de Job. The comidete
works of Fray Luis de Leon were published in six volumes
in Madrid 1.804-1(5. The most important are to be found in
vol. xxxvii. of \i\\a.>!iKnc\T&s Bibliiilecade Autore.t Espailoles
(Mmirid, 1872). ' A. R. Marsh.
liOonnrd, Daniel: juri.st ; b. at Norton, Mass., May 29,
174(1; graduated at Harvard College in 1760; became a
proMiiricnt lawyer; was freiiu.iitly chosen to the legislature,
and at first supported the \V liigcaiLse with great energy and
elocpience, but at the outbreak of hostilities adhered to the
royal cause, losing thereby a consideralile estate, lie under-
took U\ reply to John Adams's aruuiiients against the colo-
nial measures of Lord North, and his letters, signed Magsa-
LEONARDO DA VINCI
chuseitensis. have been pronounced the best defense of the
British Government that appeared in America. Leonard
left Boston witli I lie British forces (1776) ; resided for a lime
in London; was many years chief justice of Beriiuida. D.
at London, June 27, 18211. The polemic against Adams was
reprinted in 181!), with a preface by the former, who em-
ployed the pseudonym of ^ovanghis.
Looiinrdo da I'isn. Id-S-naardo-daa-iwe'sa'a, Leonardo
Bonavci, -bo-naat clie'e. often Fibonucei (filius Bonacei):
matlieinatician ; b. at Pisa, about 1173. He traveled exten-
sively in the Ea.st in order to study different arithmetical
systems, and was the first to introduce algebra into Europe,
where he made the Arabic system of arithmetic better un-
derstood. He wrote J'ractica Oeomitriie (1220) and a trea-
tise on the squares of numbers which is lost. In 1202 he
composed his great work. Liber Abbaci; the latter word
originally denoted an in.strumeiit of calculation, and is em-
ployed by him as a general designation of arithmetics. This
work is (loubtlcss based upon the Arabic algebra of Moham-
med ben Musa, written toward the middle of the ninth cen-
tury. It goes as far as eipiations of the secon<l degree, and
shows how algebra may be applied to geometry. It was
published in a splendid edition by Bonconipagni (Rome,
1857). Edwin A. Grosvenor.
Leonardo da Vinci, veenehe'e: painter, sculptor, archi-
tect, engineer, inventor, and man of- .science ; h. at Vinci,
near Enipoli, in the Val d'Ariio, in 14.52. He was the nat-
ural son of one Picro, an obscure notary of Florence, and a
woman named Catarina. His father took him home, and
gave him a good education. The boy showed such an apti-
tude for the arts that Piero placed him with Verrocchio. a
distinguished Florentine painter and sculiitor. with whom
he remained from his fourteenth to his twentieth year. In
1480 or 148:i he went to Milan, having offered his services to
the Duke Lodovico il Moro in a remarkable letter, of which
an autograph copy exists in the Ambrosian Library at Milan.
In this letter Leonardo appears less as an artist than as a
military engineer; he declares himself prepared to under-
take any work that may be required for military offense or
defense— to make bridges, scaling-ladders, cannon, batteries ;
and after long detail of his skill in such matters, only at the
end of his letter refers to his accomplishments as a sculptor,
architect, and painter. In the service of Lodovico he exe-
cuted several important works — the model for the equestrian
statue of Lodovico Sforza, the duke's father, the plans for
the Martesana Canal, and the famous Last Supper, a fresco
in oils painted on the wall of the refectory of the convent of
Sta. Maria delle Grazie. The model for the statue has dis-
appeared ; il was probably destroyed in the course of the war
between France and Milan. The fresco, owing partly to ill
treatment and partly to the process by which it was painted,
is so damaged tliat it can not be said to exist. In 1499 Leo-
nardo returned to Florence, but after a short stay he entered
the service of Ca\sar Borgia, who made him his chief engineer
and employed him in studying various plans for the improve-
ment of the territory of the Romagna and I'rbino. At this
time he was invited by the seigniory of Florence to paint the
wallsof the council-hall of the Palazzo Vecchio in conjunction
with Michelangelo. He began the work, but wearied of it,
and abandoned it on the invitation of Charles d'Aniboise,
who called him to Milan, where he governed as the lieuten-
ant of Louis .\ 11. of France. Leonardo remained in Milan
till it was abandoned by the French, when he went to Rome
in the company of Giiilian de' Medici, who was to assist in
the consecration of his brother, Leo X., as pope. He found
no employment under Leo, and hearing that Francis I. had
entereil Lombardy, he hastened to join that monarch, who
had already in \h07 desired to attach him to his service,
and had named him his court iiainler. He was welcomed
by the king, whom he accompanied to France in 1516. and
who gave him a house at Cloux, near his chateau of Aiij-
boise, with a jiensioii of 700 gold crowns. Leonardo's
health failed after his arrival in France, and beyond some
engineering projects lie accomplished nothing during the
three years and a half that elapsed between his coming and
his death in 1519 (May 2). The authentic existing paintings
of Leonardo are few in number, and of these the Louvre
possesses the finest. These are the Virgin of the Jiocks, the
Portrait of Madonna Lisadel (liorond'o (called Monna Lisa
or La doconde), the Virgin on the Knees of Saint Amia, and
the John the liaptist. It is impossible in the space at com-
mand to give an account of Leonardo's scientific labors.
He made perhaps no distinct discovery, but his curiosity
LEONIDAS
LEOPARD
189
and his ingenuity led him to investigate in every direction,
and had he not lieen of so unstable and dispursive a mind
his spefulations niiglit have produced some fruit. No doubt
much more would have come of thera it they had been made
common property by being printed, but they were only com-
mitted to writing, and remain to this day in manuscript.
See Vasari, Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects;
Charles Clement, Michel-Ange, Leonard de Vinci, Raphael
(Paris, 1866); Arsene Houssaye, Histoire de Lkmard de
Vinci; de Stendhal, Histoire de la Peinture en Italie;
Leonardo da Vinci and his Works, consisting of the Life,
by Mrs. Charles Heaton, and an Essay on his Scientific and
Literary lV'orA«, by C. C. Black, illustrated by twenty per-
manent photographs (London, 1875). Valuable aids in the
study of da Vinci's drawings will be found in several works.
The'Saggio delle opere di Leonardo da \'inci (Milan. 187:2),
published in commemoration of Leonardo's second centen-
ary, contains specimens copied by photo-lithography from
the largest of the thirteen volumes of manuscript left by
Leonardo, called, from its size, the Codice Atlantico, which
is preserved in the Arabrosian Library at Milan. More ex-
tensive and valuable publications are Les Jlaniiscrits de
Leonard de ^'inci, Le MS. A., by M. Cliarles Kavaisson-
Mollieu (Paris, 1881), the iirst part of a contemplated re-
Eublication of the manuscripts of Leonardo in the Xational
library of France, and The Literary Works of Jjeonardo da
Vinci, edited from the original manuscripts by S. P. Kich-
ter (London, 188:!).
Leon'idas (in Or. \ea>vldas): King of Sparta; succeeded
his half-brother, Cleomenes, about 490 B.C.. and was sent in
tlie spring of 480, when the Persians had conquered Mace-
donia, to defend the defiles of Thermopyhe, between Mt.
CEtH, and the Maliac Gulf. With the co-operation of a fleet
in the gulf, the defiles could be defended by a comparatively
small army, but the Greek fleet was unfit for battle at the
moment the Persian attack began, and, what was slill worse,
the Greeks had forgotten to occupy a practicable pathway
which led across j\lt. CEta, and which was shown to the
Persians by a traitor, Ephialtes. For two days the Greeks
resisted the barbarian host with great valor ; the Persian
losses were enormous. At daybreak on the third day Leoni-
das learned that the Persians had found tlie pathway and
were coming in masses across the mountain. There was
still time to retreat; but, having sent away his auxiliary
troops, Leonidas with his 300 Spartans remained in the ile-
files, and, occupying a small hill in the center of the posi-
tion, they fought to the last man.
Leonidas: the name of two poets whose remains are pre-
served in the Greek Anthology. The former, a native of
Tarentum, flourished about B. c. 276. He was a poverty-
stricken wanderer, who composed dedicatory epigrams for
the plain people. His poems, many of them in the Doric
dialect, occupy 100 numbers in the Greek Anthology, and
are interesting by reason of the humble sphere in which
they move, their rich vocabulary, and the skillful manage-
ment of the verse. — The other, of Alexandria, lived in the
reign of Nero at Rome. In the Anthology there are forty-
three epigrams ascribed to him. He was a Jejune verse-
wright and manufactured distichs in which the letters of
certain wurds or lines taken together have equal numerical
values. The poems of both are edited by Jacobs in tlie
Anthologia Oraca, and by Meineke (Leipzig, 1701).
B. L. GlLDERSLEEVE.
Le'onine Verse [named from Leo, Benedictine canon of
St. Victor, Paris, in the twelfth century, who wrote largely in
this measure] : the rhyming hexameter, pentameter, or ele-
giac verse, especially' in Latin. Traces of this rhyming
practice appear in Ovid, and even in earlier poets, but the
custom prevailed extensively in the Middle Ages, the rhyme
being often barbarously imperfect, and the meter not much
better. A familiar example is —
Diemiin lan^iiebat, monachus tunc esse volebat
Ast ubi couvaluit. mansit ut ante fuit.
Leon', Isla de : an island on the south coast of Spain,
in the Atlantic, 10 miles long by 3 broad, on which is the
city and jiort of Isla de Leon (also called San Fernando).
The city was in 1810 the capital of Spain under the regency,
and was the scene of the first constitutional movement of
1820. It is strongly fortified, has two hospitals, several con-
vents, and an excellent observatory. Pop. 10,000.
Leonna'tus (in t;r. Add/^aros): Macedonian general; b. at
Pella, of princelv stock : became one of the body-guard of
Philip, and pursued and slew Philip's murderer. Afterward
he became one of Alexander's generals and helped to save
his life, besides distinguishing himself in India, both as gen-
eral and civil governor. After his return from India, Alex-
ander rewarded him with a golden crown. Along with
Perdiccas lie was ai)|iointed one of the guardians of the child
with which Koxana was pregnant. On the division of the
empire he received Phrygia Parva as his share. During the
La>ii.\x War (g. v.) he niarclied fmm I'hrygia to the aid of
Autipater, and was killed in the battle near Lamia.
J. K. S. Stereett.
Leon Pinelo, Antonio, de : See Pinelo.
Leontiui : See Lentixi.
Leonzio Pilato, la-ontsi-o-pe'i>-laa'to (Leo Pilatus) :
classical scholar : a native of .Saloniki, according to Hody, but
llallam makes him (on the authority of Petrarch's letters) a
Calabrian ; went to Florence about 1360 A. D., and was em-
ployed by the republic at the request of Boccaccio to teach
his native language. He was the first who publicly lectured
on Homer in Western Europe, and the first modern to trans-
late that poet into Latin. This version was. like that of
Livius Andronieus, uncouth to an extreme and almost ver-
batim {Irani cane Dea PelidcE Achillis, Corruptibilem quce
innumeratiiles Orcscis dolores posuit. — Virum mihi pande,
JIusa, multimoduni qui valde multum Erravit posiqnam
sacrani civitatem Truice deprcedatus fuit). Leaving Flor-
ence, he visited Venice, where he met Petrarch, who had
studied Greek under Barlaam. Thence he went to Con-
stantinople. Returning to Italy soon after, he was killed by
lightning within sight of the Adriatic (i:i66). Gibbon de-
scribes his appearance and manners as repulsive. (Decline
and Fcdl, vol. viii., p. 148.) From him Boccaccio unfor-
tunately collected the materials for his treatise on the gene-
alogy of the heathen gods. See Gibbon, /. c. ; Hody, De
Greeds illustribus, pp. 1-11 ; Voigt, Wiederbelebung des
class. Alterthums, ii., pp. 110-11.3.
Revised by Alfred Gudeman.
Leopard [via 0. Pr. from Lat. leopar'dus = Gr. \e6irapios,
litei-., lion-panther; \4a>v, lion + vapSos, pantlier, pard. The
name?eo/)f(rrf!(S was originally a] iplied to the cheetah, from the
belief that it was the offspring of the lion and panther.
The name has been transferred from the cheetah (CyncB-
lurus jubatus) to the animal now bearing it, while pard has
become obsolete] : a large, spotted member of thi! cat family,
the Felis pardus of Linnanis, found throughout the greater
part of Africa, Southern Asia, and the islands of Ceylon,
.Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. The color varies, according to
the nature of the region, from pale fawn to deep buff, fad-
ing into white on the under side of the body and inner por-
tions of the limbs. The coat is thickly marked with spots
4l
Leopard.
of black, or deep brown, arranged on tlic back and sides in
rosettes. These rosettes have no central spot, such as is
found in the jaguar. Totally black individuals, cases of
melanism, sometimes occur in Soutliern Asia. The Iwdy of
the leopard is about 4 feet long, the tail 3. It is exceeded
in size by the lion and tiger of the Old World, and by the
jaguar and largest specimens of the puma in the New. The
leopard inhabits wooded districts, and is a good climber.
While preying principally on small animals, the leopard is
very destructive to cattle in some localities, and also to
man, 800 men and 1.5,000 cattle having been destroyed
in India in a single year. F. A. Lucas.
190
LEOPARDI
Leopardl. Oiacomo: poet; b. June 29, 1798, at Kecanati,
in th.' »i«rk of Ani-.-na. Italv, of a noble but not rich familv.
Bv Lis twi'iitietli ve«r. oliiotly by his own efforts, lie had,
uimi.U-.l. Karne.1 VreiRh, Spanish, English Hebrew, and
Givek had read all the classics and Church tathers within
his reach and had iKiome complete master of his own lan-
euace In aci-omplisliint: this lie, however, hopelessly shat-
tered a constitution never robust, and so seriously impaired
his cvesight that for the rest of his life he was almost blind.
To this iwriixi of his life beloiif: a great number of works of
a philological character, translations, essays in Italian and
l.atin an.l annotations, of wlii:h part long remained unpub-
lishe.1 while others appeared in learned periodicals (the es-
sav on Mosc'hus and the translation of the Idyls as early as
lis'l.'i). Buiisen, the Prussian minister to Komc, offered in
1(«2 to find him a place in a German university, an offer
which Lctipardi was obliged to decline ou the ground of
delicate health.
The faith in which Leopardi had been brought up did not
satisfy him. and he gradually came to look on man as but a
part— and an inconsiderable' part— in the great scheme of
creation— a view that carried with it the denial that human
happiness is any part of that scheme, disbelief in the immor-
tality of the soul and the direct action of a pei-sonal God,
and contempt for the vain efforts and childish illusions of
man. His belief is i)erhaps best expressed in his poem La
Ginextra, but it api^ars constantly in his other poems and
in his dialogues.
In 1818. at the ago of twenty, Leopardi published at Roifte
the two poems Siill' Italia and Sul monitmento di Dante,
followed in 1820 by the poem toAngelo Mai, which revealed
to Italv a new genius, ami gave Leopardi a place among the
greatest of Italian poets. In these poems and those that
follow them he shows an amazing mastery of the language,
and breaking with all Italian traditions turns to the Greeks
for his motlels, but it is the true Hellenic spirit that breathes
in his poems the love of absolute purity of form, and not
mere imitation or petiantic recollection. By the use of
harmonious rhythms and a most intricate system of rhymes,
the Italian language is made to show a vigor and mascu-
line strength unknown in its literature since the days of
Uante. In 1824 the Canzoni appeared at Bologna, contain-
ing the three jwems before mentioned and seven others.
More were added from time to time, so that in the edition
published soon after his death there are found forty-two
poems that the poet thought worthy of publication.
Encouraged by the favor which liis early works met from
men of letters, Leopardi went in 1822 to Rome. Here he
found Work for a time in a library; but all efforts to secure
a [Kwition failed, as, in spite of the entreaties of family and
friends, he could not take holy orders, which were an almost
necessary prcreipiisitc for any place which he could fill. He
returned home, but in 182.J again ventured into the world,
and for si.\ years in Milan, Bologna, and especially in Flor-
ence he trie<l to win an independent place for himself, now
and then being obliged to return to Recanati. In Florence
he wrote for Vieusseiix's Aniologin. published two selections
of Italian writers and his admirable commentary on Pe-
trarcli (his most lasting philological work), and in 1827 ap-
|)eared the Operette moruli. These are i)hilosophical essays,
chiefly in the form of dialogues. The climate of Northern
Italy, however, was too severe for his failing health. In 18^1
he went to Komc, and thence to Naples, where he died .June
U. 18:{7.
After his death apjieared the Paralipomeni delta Britra-
comiomacliia, a sjitirical i)oeni in ottava rima (Paris. 1842);
an edition of his collected works by his friend Rainicii
(Florence. 184.")). which, lus the N'aples edition of 1836 wa.s
suppressed by the Government, is accepted as the poet's final
revision; the Studii Jilotoijici, edited bv Pellegrini and
Giordano (lH4.'i); the essay on the popular errors of the
ancients, and the Epinlotariu, edited by P. Viani (184!));
and the Opere inedite (mainly youthful productions), edited
by Ciignoni (Halle. 1H7«). llis works, especially the poems,
have Im'cii frequently reiiriiited. A very full bibliography
of I^Mjpardi ami of works about him was compiled by L.
CapiM'llctli, hihtimirajiti Lc(ip<irdiana (Parma. 1882). The
most coinplele biography is by A. Bouchc-Ijeelercq (Paris,
1874); other lives or biographical articles are bv Moiilanari
(I8;J8); C. Rosa (1880); Piergili (1HH2); in French by Sainte-
Beuve. I'nrtrnilii contemjmrains (vol. iv., 1844); Marc-Mon-
nier in f/Itnlie, ext-elle In trrre den viorlsf (1860), and K.
Roil (IMMK); in German by G. Brandes (1869); in English by
W. E. (ilailstone, Quarterly Ueviete (Mar., 1850), and H. T.
LEOPOLD L
Tuckerman in his Esmys. His works have been translated
in whole or in part into French and German; there is a
translation of the essays and dialogues into English by C.
Edwardes (London, 1882). Georuk Bendelaki.
Leopold I.: Prince of Anhalt-Dessau. generally known
as the Oi.u Dessai'Er; b. at Dessau, June 3, 1676. He
evinced even as a boy a strong passion for military affairs.
In 1688 the Emperor Leopold I. made him a colonel and
chief of a regiment of horse, but in lOilli, at the death of his
father, who wius a Prussian gcneral-fidd-marshal, he en-
tered the Prussian service and received his father's regiment.
He was at once passionate and shrewd, domineering and
kind, rough in his nmnners, but lofty in his feelings. In his
youth lie fell in love with Anna Luise Fiise, the daughter of
a druggist, and, in spite of all remonstrances, as soon as he
was of age (in 1698) lie married her. induced Hie emperor to
raise her to princely rank, and led a hajipy married life with
her. He served from 1698 to ITKJ with great distinction
and in high and responsible positions under Eugene and
Marlborough in the Netherlands, on the Rhine, and in Italy,
and on the accession of Frederick William I. to the Prussian
throne he became the head of the Prussian army. He was
a master in military training. He invented the equal step,
as well as the iron ramrod, and formed the armies with
which Frederick 11. founded the political power of Prussia.
He was at once despotic and inspiring, and that spirit — a
spirit of discipline — before which the Austrians broke down
at Sadowa and the French at Sedan, descends from the Old
Dessauer. He was. however, not simply a drill-sergeant,
like his royal friend, Frederick William I. ; he was also a
general. His conquest of Rijgen and the capture of Stral-
sund in 171.") in the war against the Swedes were brilliant
exploits. Frederick IL. who disliked him because of some
of his antiquated peculiarities, valued his capacities as a
commaiuiei-. In the first Silesian war he placed him in
command of the army on the Hanoverian frontier, and in
the second he sent him to invade .Saxony, where he won the
brilliant victory at Kesselsdorf which ended the war. After
the death of his wife, in 174.5, he retired from all participa-
tion in pulilic life, and died on his estate at Dessau, Apr. 7.
1747. In Carlylc's Life of Frederick the Great the de-
scriptions of the '• Old Dessauer " are among the most pic-
turesque passages. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Leopold \. : King of Belgium (1831-65); b. Dec. 16. 1790;
the youngest son of Duke Francis of Saxe-Coburg ; received
a very careful education ; was made a general in the Rus-
sian "army after the marriage of his sister to the Grand
Duke Coiistantine; accompanied Alexander I. to Vienna
and Paris in 1814; and was married in 1816 to the Princess
Charlotte Augusta, heir-apparent of Great Britain. After
her death in 1817 he lived in retirement in London or trav-
eling. In 1830 he refused the crown of Greece, but in 1831
he accepted that of Belgium, and married in 1832 a daugh-
ter of Louis Philippe, who bore him three children. His
reign was calm and undisturbed. He was firm, discrimi-
nating, and jjrogressive in his interior policy, and he repre-
sented his people with tact and dignity among other sover-
eigns. I), at Lackeii. Dec. 10, 1865.
Leopold H. : King of Belgium : b. Apr. 9, 1835 ; a son of
King Leopold I. and Queen Louisa, a daughter of Louis
Philipiie of France: was married (Aug. 22, 18.'53) to Marie
Hcnrictte, a daughter of the Archduke Joseph of Austria,
and ascended (he throne Dec. 10. 1865. He became sover-
eign of the Irule|)endent State of the Congo in 1885.
Leopold L: Emperor of Germany (1658-1705); b. in
Vienna. June 9, 1640; the second son of Fcnliiiand III. and
Maria Anna of Spain. He was educated for the Church,
but at the death of his elder brother in 1655 he became
King of Hungary, and in 16.58 he succeeded his father as
King of Bohemiii and Emperor of (u'rmany. Of his three
wars with France, the two first, which ended by the Peace
of Nymwegen in 1678 and of Ryswick in 1697. are described
in the articles on Loiis XIV. and Wiu.iam of Oranoe. and
the last one. the Spanish war of succession, in a separate ar-
liele. (See .SfccEssioN Wars.) The point at issue between
Austria and Turkey was Transylvania. The Turks held it,
and the Hungarians demanded it. In 1662 the war began,
and the Turks broke into Hungary. In l(;(i3 Leopold re-
ceived troops from the German empire, Sweden, and France,
and money from the pope and the Italian states, and Aug.
1, 1664, Montecuccoh succeeded in routing the Turkisli
aimy at St. Gothard. on the Raab. On Aug. 10 an armis-
tice of ten years was eoncludeil, in which, however, the
LEOPOLD IL
LEPIDOPTERA
191
Turks retained Transylvania, to the great indignation of the
Hungarians. Soon after disturbances arose in Hungary
from the contest between the national Protestant and the
Austrian Catholic parties. Leopold treated his political ad-
versaries with the utmost harshness, and the residt was a
formidable insurrection under the leadership of Tiikolyi in
1683. The Hungarians solicited Turkish aid, and on .July
14, 1683, an army of 200,000 men laid siege to Vienna. Leo-
pold had fled, and in spite of the valorous resistance of the
citizens and the garrison the city would have fallen, and
with it the power of the house of Hajjsburg, if the Polish
king, John Sobieski, had not arrived before its walls (Sept.
12), and completely routed tlie besieging army. The Hun-
garians submitted, and at tlie Diet of Pressburg (1687) the
Hungarian crown was declared hereditary in tlie family of
Hapsburg. Leopold died in Vienna, May 5, 1705.
Leopold II.: Emperor of Germany (1790-92); b. at
Vienna, May 5, 1747: the second son of Francis L and Ma-
ria Theresa. In 176.5 he succeeded his father as Grand
Duke of Tuscany, and proved himself a liberal and en-
lightened ruler ; but, like his brother, Joseph IL, and like
Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark, he was a
despotic reformer, and his reforms caused great annoyances
and disturbances. In 1790 he succeeded his brother in Aus-
tria and Germany, and found on his ascension to the throne
the vast empire in a critical state. With great tact, how-
ever, he managed the difficult situation. He pacified Hun-
gary, quelled the insurrection in Belgium, concluded peace
with Turkey at Sistovaiin 1791, and re-established the
friendly relations with Prtissia by the congress at Reiehen-
bach in 1790. Just as he had confederated with Prussia and
Saxony for the support of Louis XV^I. against his rebellious
subjects, he died suddenly in Vienna, Mar. 1, 1793.
Leopold II. : Grand Duke of Tuscany (1834-59) ; b. Oct.
3, 1797 ; a son of the Grand Duke Ferdinand III. He ruled
in the same spirit as his grandfather, Leopold I., Emperor
of Germany, under the name of Leopold II. In 1847 he
granted a free constitution, and although in 1849 he had to
flee to Naples, he was recalled shortly after by his own sub-
jects. Thus he weathered the liberal storm, but the natitm-
al, which soon followeil, was too powerful for him. In 1859
he fled with his family to Vienna. No regard was paid to
his abdication in favor of his son. His dominions were in-
corporated with tlie kingdom of Italy in consequence of a
popular vote, and he died an exile at Brandeis, in Bohemia,
Jan. 29, 1870. He edited Upere di Lorenzo de Medici (4
vols., 1835). See the Life by Baldasseroni (1871).
Leopold, Christian Gerhard, JI. D. : obstetrician ; b. at
Meeraiie, Saxony, Feb. 24, 1846 ; studied medicine at the
University of Leipzig, graduating M. D. in 1870; estab-
lished himself in Leipzig in 1874; was instructor in the
Leipzig Obstetrical Institute in 1881 : in 1883 became pro-
fessor extraordinary and director of the Dresden Obstetric-
al Institute. He has made special investigations in the his-
tology and pathology of the uterus and ovaries. His most
important work is Das akoliotiscli- und ki/phoschol iot isch-
rachif isclie Becken (Leipzig, 1879). S. T. Armstrong.
Leopoldville : the chief station of the Congo Free State
on the upiier Congo. It was founded by Henry M. Stanley
(Dec, 1881) on the left bank of the river, just above the first
of the 235 miles of cataracts in the lower Congo, and near
the outlet of the wide ex])ansion of the river known as Stanley
Pool (see map of Africa, ref. 6-E). About-thirty steamboats
have been transported overland to Leopohlville, where the
sections were put together and the boats launched on the
upper Congo with 8,0(10 miles of navigable waters before
them. Until the railway is completed to Stanley Pool Leo-
poldville will continue to be the starting-point of the caravan
trade to tlie coast, and is likely always to be the western ter-
minus of the steamboat service on the upper Congo.
C. 0. Adams.
Leos'tlienes [= Gr. AeoKrflfVTjs ; Ktds. people -)- o-fltVoj,
.strength] : an Athenian general of whose earlier life noth-
ing is known. In 324, when Alexander the Great ordered
all the Greek states to recall those citizens who had been
exiled for political reasons, several of the states rose in re-
bellion. Alexander having died sh(jrtly after, a league was
formed for the purpose of driving the iMacedonians out of
Greece, and Leosthenes was placed at the head of the con-
federate army. His career was short but brilliant. He routed
the Boeotians, who sided with the Macedonians, and then de-
feated Antipater, the Macedonian general, and shut him up
in Lamia (323 B. c). While besieging this city he was
wounded by a stone thrown from tlie ramparts, and died
two days after, 323 B. c.
Leotycliides. -tik- (in Gr. AfoiTux'Sijs) : a prince of the
Eurypontidai (EupmrwrrfSoi), one of the reigning houses of
Sparta. At the instigation of Cleomenes he conspired
against his hated kinsman, the King Demaratus, whose title
to legitimacy was disputed, and in 491 B.C. became king in
his stead. In 479 B. c. he commanded the Greek navy
which won the battle off Mycale. In 470 b. c. he was sent
to reduce the Aleuadie, who by Persian influence had once
more become masters of Thessaly, but he was bribed to re-
turn home, and fearing condemnation to a traitor's death he
fled to Tegea, %vhere he died. He was succeeded by his
grandson Archidamus. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lepan'to, Gulf of, also called the Gulf of Corinth: an
inlet of the Mediterranean ; 75 miles long and about 16
miles wide; between Peloponnesus and the mainland of
Greece. It terminates to the K. in the Gulf of Patras, con-
nected with it by the Strait of Lepanto, not more than a
mile wide. In this gulf was fought (Oct. 7, 1571) the cele-
brated battle between Don John of Austria, commanding
the allied Spanish, Venetian, and papal fleet, and All Pasha,
commander of the Turkish fleet. From that battle may be
dated the decline of the Turkish power in Europe. See the
elaborate and very impressive description in Prescott's His-
tory of Philip II. of Spain.
Lep'idine [from Gr. Keirls, \eniSos. scale, bark]: CioH»N,
a volatile, oily base, homologous with quinoline, obtained
with that and other bases on distilling cinchonine with oxide
of lead. Its sp. gr. is P073, boiling-point 264° C. The iso-
meric liase iridoline, formerly supposed to be identical with
lepidine, is found in the oil of coal-tar.
Lepidoden'droii [Mod. Lat., liter., scale-tree; Or. \eirls,
\firlSo5, scale + SevSpou. tree]: a genus of fossil cryptogamic
trees, usually referred to the Lycopodiace(p. Their remains
are found in the Devonian rocks and throughout the Car-
boniferous, and are believed to have contributed largely to
the production of coal. The surface of their trunks is cov-
ered with rhomboidal meshes, within which are scale-shaped
spaces, which are the scars of fallen leaves. Many of them
were of great size — 40 to 80 feet high and 3 to 6 feet through.
Remains of many species are known, partly American, part-
ly European, and partly common to both continents. See
Plants, Fossil. Revised by G. K. Gilbert.
Lepidop'f era [Gr. A.€ir(s, \enlSos, scale + irrepSy. wing] : a
group or order of insects (see Ento.mologv) embracing the
butterflies and moths. The scientific name of the group is
in allusion to the fact that the wings are covered with mi-
nute scales, which in reality are flattened hairs. This, how-
ever, is a point of secondary importance, the Lepidoptera
being marked off from all other insects by many other fea-
tures. Thus the Lepidoptera pass, in their life-history,
through a complete metamorphosis, the three stages of
growth being sharply marked off from each other. Prom
Caterpillar, chrysali.s. and butterfly, male and feujcile, ol" the gypsy
moth (Ocuena dispar).
the egg there hatches out a larva (frequently called a cater-
pillar)!^ which is voracious, feeding, in the different species,
either on animal or vegetalilc matter. The larva; have bit-
ing mouth-parts, the mandibles being especially strongly de-
193
LEPIDOITERA
Tclopeil. llirec pairs of true foi-t iii«on the Hireo (thoracic)
sck'iueiits just iM'liind thc"tu'a.l, whilo on the abdominal sog-
luenls there an- from two to five pairs of lUshv false feet.
Espi-eiallv iharaclerislic of the larvip is a pair of silk-glands
which oiien ufKin the under lip. the secri'tion of which hard-
ens to silk uiMjn contact with the air. When the [UTioil of
active growlli is past the larva begins to make preparation
for the next stage— the pupal slage. In most forms a case or
coc-wM is formeil by spinning silk from the silk-glands, and
inside this protective covering' the larva sheds its skin and
takes the pupal condition. Now the body is shorter and in
ifc walls can be trace*! eyes, tongue, legs, and wings of the
adult, all lirmlv joined together. In many of the butterflies
the ciK-oon is not formed, and the pupal condition is assumed
without such protection. In these cases the pupa is known
asachrvsalis, the name being given from the fad that many
chrysalides are ornamented with golden spots (fir. xP""^^-
golil). Tlie pupal stage is one of apparent rest ; in nmiiy
cases it lasts through the winter. At last the pupal skin
splits, and through the opening the butterfly or niolli comes
out. At first its legs are weak, its wings small and limp.
Soon the wings e.\|)and to their nornuil size, and they dry
in the air until thev become (irrn organs of fliglit.
The iierfect buliertly or moth is almost totally different
from the larva and pupa. Kspccially markeil are the
changes in the mouth nart^. The mandibles are rudimenta-
ry and can not \>o useil for biting, while the accessory jaws
(maxillic) are converted into a long sucking tube (the so-
called tongue), which is of use only to suck the nectar of
flowers, and which when not in use is coiled beneath the
hca<l like a watch-s|)ring. The wings are large and strong,
and are supiwrtcd by stiffening ril)S or veins, and on their
surfaces are the scales so characteristic of these forms. It
is only in the perfect state (imago) that the sexual organs
are devclojied, and hence it is that only butterflies and
moths lay eggs. .Most species live but a short time as per-
fect insects, although there arc some which pass the winter
in this c(jndition.
Formerly the Lepidoptcra were divided into two great
groups — the Ihterocera (see IIetkrocera) and the lihnpalo-
eera^mljracing the motlis and the butterflies respectively.
Later views make more divisions, as follows:
Sub-order I. Microlepidopfera. — Small inconspicuous
moths, which when at rest carry the wings folded in a hori-
zontal [Mjsit ion. and which have a small tongue. Here be-
long the Tineidte, which include among other pests that
terror of the housewife, the clolhes-motli ; and the Titrtri-
eidie, vegetable-feeding forms which form their cocoons by
rolling leaves together.
Sul>-order II. (reometrina. — Larger moths with more con-
spicuously marked wings, which, however, are carried hori-
zontally. The larvie are especially noticeable from their
mcthotl of progression. They have the normal thor.'icic
feet and. I)eside», two or three false feet at the tip of the
body. When they move it is by arching the body, so that
the hinder feet arc enabled to grasp the support near the
thoracic feet. Then the body is extended, the thoracic feet
obtain a new hold, and then the same operation is repeateil
as before. This process hfis given rise to the common name
span-worms for these larvjc; the scientific name of the
group is similar in origin, and means earth-measurer.
Sul>or<ler III. yucluinci. — Moths with the fore wings,
with usually a gray ground color, nnirked with two spots
and zigzag lines. In many ca-ses the hinder wings, which
are hidden when at rest, are brightly colored. There are
numerous species of this group.
Sub-order I\'. Jiumbycina.—Thh group contains the va-
rious types of silk-worms, all of its members spinning a
strong silken cocoon. They have large bodies and preltily
marked, often brightly colored wings, our most beautiful
moths l)el.mging to this sub-order. All of the larva- are
vegetable-feeders, most living upim trees, and sometimes
so abundant as to form pest.s. 'Hie silk-worm of commerce
(Bombijx mori) is a native of China, but there are several
American forms which furnish an c-ven stronger textile fiber.
There are, however, numero'us obstacles to their use upon a
commercial S(-ale.
Sub-order V. Sphingidm.— In the.se moths the body is
large and stout, tlie wings long and narrow, the liirider
wings being short. They have a long tongue, and in most
ca.s<-s the larva- are furnislu-d with a strong spine on the f)OS-
terior eiul of the body. Familiar examnles of these larva)
may be found in the large green "worms which feed upon
potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco. Here, too, belong the deli-
LEPIDUS
catc " humming-bird moths." with delicate gauzy wings,
and the peach-tree liorers. which in their general appear-
ance and mode of flight recall the wasps and hornets.
Sub-order VI. Rlmpnlocera. — Here are ineluded the but-
terfiies, day-flying forms with slender bodies and usually
brightly colored wings, the latter when at rest being fnldeii
above the back. The name of the sub-order is derived from
the fact that the antenna- or feelers terminate in a club, a
conilition which occurs in none of the moths.
From their number, their beauty, and the many interest-
ing facts of structure and life-history, the Lepido]itera are
favorites with entomologists, and the literature concerning
them is enormous. Some 30,(100 to 40.000 species are sup-
poseil to exist in th(- world. All of the larger groups occur
in rocks of Tertiiiry age, while Sphingids occur in the beds
of Solenliofen, Uavaria. In the fossil leaves of the Cretace-
ous of Nebraska occur mines which are attributed to the
larva? of Tineid moths.
Principal Litkrati-re. — Stainton, Katural History of
Tineina (London, 18.55-73); Chambers, /hA-j of Tineina
of Xorth America. Hullctin Haydeii's .Survey (1877); Fcr-
iiald, Catnlijgue of Tortricidiv of yurth America, Transac-
tions American Entomol. Soc, x. (1882) ; (irote, numerous pa-
pers on yoctuidir, especially Nocluidm of Xorth America
(London, 188'2); J. B. Smith, papers on Xocluids, Hulletin
L'. S. National JIuseum; Packard, Monograph of Oeome-
tridie. lieport of llayden's Survey, vol. x. (1876); Packard,
Sgtiopxin of Bomhycidte, Proceedings Entomol. Soc, Phila-
delphia (1864) : W. II. Edwards, Biitterfiies of America
(Philadelphia. 1868; yet incomplete); Sciulder, BnllerfHea
of Eastern United Slates and Canada (Boston, 1888^9);
Scudder, Butterflies, their Structure, Cluinges, and Life-
histories (New York, 1881); French, Butterflies of the East-
ern United States (Philadelphia, 1886). I" or more general
works, consult the lists of literature given in the principal
entomological text-books. J. S. Ki.N(isLEY.
Lepidosi'ren [Gr. Atirfs. Aeir/Sos, scale -i- (rtip^i/, siren]: a
genus of lung-fishes (Dii-.noi, q. r.) containing but the single
species from the Amazon and its triliiilanC^. ( M' this but
six specimens have ever come
into the hands of naturalists.
The term is often extended to
include the Protopterus of
West Africa, a form which is
iiiu(-li better known. The dif-
ferences between Prolojiterus
and Lepidosiren are slight. In
each the scaly body is ccl-shaped, the body behind having a
fin in which no distinction can be drawn between dorsal,
anal, and caudal. The limbs are long and slender, and ])os-
sess but a single series of bones. The mouth is armed with
a few large teeth, and the double air-bladder serves, at least
in the .African form, as a lung. J. S. Kinusley.
Lopidostp'idii? [Mod. Lat., liter., belonging to the Lepi-
dostous family; Lepidosteus, the typical genus (from dr.
Afirls. X€7r(5os, scale -I- i<n(ov. bone) -(- Or. patronymic ending
-fSai. plur. of -fSTjs. descended from]: the only existing fam-
ily of the order likomlmganiiidea, distinguished by I he elon-
gated and sub-cylindrical body covered with rlioinboidal
scales; the head elongated, and terminating forward in a
long benk-like snout; the upper jaw projecting beyond the
lower, an<l with the nostrils near the end of the snout ; the
fins are provided with fulcra; the short dorsal situated far
behind, and just above the anal fin; the stomach is simple
in form, but with iiumerons pyloric apnendages; the intes-
tine has a rudimentary sjiiral valve. Tliis family, although
the only living type of the order to which it belongs, had
numerous relations in the Mesozoic and Pahcozoic epochs.
The skeleton has many peculiarities, among which is the
composite structure of tlu- upper jaw. as well as the char-
acter of the vertebra\ which are convex in front and con-
cave behind. There are but few representatives, all belong-
ing to the genus Lepidosteus, or rather Lepisosteus. that
being the original orthography of the word. Tin- species
are found chiefiy in the waters of Northern Anu-rica, but
representatives descrend as far southward as Central Amer-
ica and Cuba; a sjiecies has also been n-cetitly discovered
in China. In the Tertiary epoch I he family was represented
by forms closely related to the living .American species in
Europe. Hevised by I). S. JoRUAN.
Lep'idiis: the name of an ancient patrician family of
Rome belonging to the gens /Emilia. The most conspicu-
ous member of the family was Marcus ..Emilius Lepidus,
Lepidosiren.
LEPORID.E
LEPSIUS
193
the triumvir. At the brcakin;; out of the civil war in 49
li. c. lie joined the |)arty of Cji'sar. who, as dietator, made
him his iiiiiyi.ster ''</iii/iim, nml in the year 4G i)rocureil hi.s
election to the consulship. At the time of ('a'»ar"s assassina-
tion he was on the point of going to his province (Gallia
Narbonensis), and thus was in possession of a proconsular
army, the oidy armed force in the city at the time. lie ac-
quired in this way a prominence in the events of the period
to which neither his aliility nor influence could have other-
wise raised him. lie shareil in the reconciliation which fol-
lowed between Antony and the senate, but did not remain
loyal to the latter longer than Antony himself, whom he re-
ceived in Gaul after the defeat at Mutina. In the following
summer (43 B. c.) Octavian, who had hitherto been the
stanchest supporter of the senatorial party, abandoned it,
and entered into negotiations with Antony, to which Lepi-
dus, as a useful but sulxirdinate third, was admitted. This
coalition was the famous second triumvirate. In the year
42 Lepidus was left to guard Italy, while Octavian and An-
tony proceeded against Brutus and t'assius. In the division
of provinces after Philippi Lepidus was not consulted, but
in the year 40 he finally received the province of Africa,
which had at first been withheld. He continued to play
this insignifieant 7-o/e until the year 36, in spite of the fact
that he had been included in the renewal of the triumvirate
in the px"eceding year. At this time he maile an clfort to
assert his ecpuility of position, but being deserted in a crit-
ical moment l)y the soldiers on whom he had depended, he
was compelled to throw himself upon the mercy of Octavian.
lie was deprived of his province, but was allowed to retain
his fortune and the otBce of pontifix maximus to which he
had been elected in the year 44. He died in 13 B. c. at
C'irceii. G. L. He.vdricksox.
Lepor'ida? [Mod. Lat.. liter., belonging to the hare family ;
Lat. le pus, /e ports, hare -t- (Jr. patronymic ending -(Joi,
plnr. of -iSris, descended from] : a family of rodent mam-
mals including the hares and rabbits: characterized ex-
ternally by long ears, long hind legs, short upturned tail,
rounded muzzle, and nostrils converging toward the median
slit which divides the u[>per lip, and has given rise to the
familiar term liare-lip. The skull is high and compressed,
and the upper incisors are arranged in a ]iecidiar manner —
two smaller incisors lying back of the two usually present
in rodents. Tlie grindei-sare wider than long, and nearly all
deeply groved on the inner and outer sides. Some forty
species are recognized, most of them inhabitants of the
north temperate zone.
There is a remarkable difference in habits between the
hares and rabbits. The hares never burrow, but simply com-
pose a form or nest, in which they rest and bring forth their
young, which are Ijorn covere<l with hair and with the eyes
open. The rabbits, on the contrary, burrow in the ground,
and often make extensive tunnels, and in these burrows they
live and bring forth their broods; the young are brought
into the world naked and blind. Notwithstanding such
differences, however, there are no corresponding struetin-al
characters, and the different animals are closely related.
All the American species are hares in the sense tlius under-
stood. Revised by F. A. Lucas.
Lepo'rius : a native of Gaul, probably of Treves ; en-
tered in the beginning of the fifth century a monastery in
the vicinity of .Alarseilles, and acquired a great reputation
for learning anil holiness. He afterward fell into the
heresy of Pelagius, and maintained that num has no need
of the grace of God, and that Christ was born with a huuum
nature only. He went to Africa under ecclesiastical cen-
sure, and there met with St. Augustine, who convinced
him of his errors, so that he retracted, and was ordained
a presbyter by Augustine about 435. His retraction was
addressed to Proculus. Bishop of Marseilles, and Cyllinnius.
Bishop of .\ix, and was first published in 1630 under the
title Libellus tmendnt iimis sire sa/isfitctiottia ncl epixcopos
Galliie (ef. Migne, xxxi.). It was much appreciated by the
old Church. Revised by S. M. .Iackso.s.
Lepra : .See Leprosy.
Leprosy [deriv. of leprous, deriv. of leper, from Lat.
lepra, leprosy] : a disease which is endemic in certain coun-
tries and met with occasionally in nearly every large seaport
city. In India. China. Syria,'Egypt, Norway, West Indies,
and the Sandwich islands the disease abounds. In New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia. .Minnesota and Louisiana small
colonies of lepers are to be found, and in the city of New
York there are usuallv a few cases, occurring chiefly among
239
those who have contracted the disease in countries where it
prevails.
The modern leprosy is the same in character in whatever
region or climate it occurs, and corresponds with the de-
scription of the ilisease given by early Greek medical writers.
There is no doubt that lejirosy existed In Egypt in the time
of Moses, but the description found in the book of Leviticus
is quite unintelligible to the physician of the present day,
and doubtless included with leprosy many contagious affec-
tions having no relation to this disease. The cases of lep-
rosy reported in the New 'J'estament as lieing cured were
not cases of genuine leprosy (which was called elephant ianis
by the Greek writei-s), but according to St. Mark they were
cases of Kt-irpa or pnoria-fix. a very common disease of the
present day, ami characterized now as then by the forma-
tion of white scaly patches upon the skin.
Leprosy spread throughout Europe after the crusades, but
was by no means as |irevalent as has been imagined, since it
was doubtless confoundeil with syphilis and numerous other
(iiseases which were indistinguishable from leprosy by the
physicians of that period.
The symptoms of leprosy are nodules and brownish spots
which appear upon the face and other portions of the body.
The eyebrows, ears, and air-passages are especially apt to be-
come affected, and the victim of the disease usually pre-
sents a peculiar and characteristic expression. Loss of .sen-
sation in the hands and feet usually occurs, and as the dis-
ease progresses ulcers are frequently formed and occasion
loss of the fingers and toes. Acconling to the predomi-
nance of certain of the above-mentioned symptoms, three
forms of leprosy are described in medical works, viz. : the
macular, tubercular, and ana'stlietic forms.
Leprosy is contagious, but in a much slightei»degree than
is commonly believed — often the husband or wife of a
leper remains perfectly free. The disease is doubtless he-
reditary, and the children of lepers, though not necessarily
affected, often manifest symptoms of the disease at an
early age.
The cause of leprosy has given rise to nmch discussion,
some eminent authorities laying great stress upon a fish
diet as an a-tiological factor. The microsco|3e has revealed
a bacillus which can be found in all cases of the tubercular
form, and the disease is undoubtedly spread by the inocu-
lation or transmission of this germ.
Although the disease usually proves fatal (the tubercular
form running the most rapid couree), there are eases in
which a cure has apparently been effected. A change of
climate appears to have been more beneficial in these cases
than the remedies employed. Many have urged the enac-
tion of laws by the L'. S. and other governments for the
purpose of segregating all lepers, in order to prevent the
spread of the disease. ( tthers claim that leprosy is no more
contagious than tuberculosis of the lungs, a far more com-
mon and equally fatal disease, and that, owing to this very
slight contagiousness of the disease, there is no danger what-
ever of leprosy spreading in any intelligent comnmnity.
Certainly the widespread dread of the disease is based U|iou
ignorance of its nature. George Henry Fox.
Lep'sins. Karl Richard, Ph. D. : philologist; b. at
Naumburg. Prussian Saxony, Dec. 23. 1813 ; the son of K.
P. Lepsius (177.5-18.53), an able arclueologist ; studied at
Leipzig and (TOttingen, and at Berlin uniler Bopp's instruc-
tion; graduating at Berlin with a thesis on the Eugubian
Tables; went to Paris in 1833, where under the infiuence of
Buusen his attention was first directed toward Egyptology;
in 183.5 made researches in the libraries of Italy : devoted
his attention to languages, especially to Egyptology, and
wrote Letter to M. Jiu.ietlini on the Hieroglyphic Alphabet
in 1837; went to England in 1838; projected an expedition
to Egjpt, which left England in 1842, and with success re-
turned to Germany in 1.S4U; became professor at Berlin in
1846: visited Egypt ag:iin in 1866; was appointed chief
lil)rarian of the lioval Lilirary at Berlin in 1873. where he
remained till his death, July' 10, 1884. All his work was
animated by the most serious scientific purpose. He was
the founder of scientific Egyptology. He also interested
himself in the problem of uniform transliteration for all
languages, and his Standard Alphabet (18.55 and 186;!) has
been of great practical as well as scientific advantage.
.\inong his works are Das Todtenhiirh der Aerjyplcr (1842);
Die Chroiwloffie der Aiyi/pler (184tl): Denkmdler niw
Aegypten und Aethiopien (i)^4i)-59); Veber den erslen dgyp-
tischen Gotterkreis (1851) ; Die altdgypt incite Elle und ihre
104
LKPTAXnUA
IjERIDA
KiHtheihing (1865); I'thrr tinige Sgyplisclie Kuit»tfurmen
(1871): Dit Langenmaise der Allen (1884).
* Kcvisid by Besj. IDE Whkbler.
I.pittan'drn (M<xl. Livt., litiT. Imvins line sliiiiioiis; (ir.
\frrL. Ililii, liiu- + iyiip. irtpis, iimii, miile (in m««l. liDtimy),
SI, ' rmiici'Utuiil imiiu' of the I'uIvit's |ili_vsic-
i I .. iirilir Si-roiihularinceir). a lull |ii'ivmiiul
1,,,,.. :a r. S. whicli liiis (K'fiilcil 111! hart ii- |H)\v-
ers. Us iiiipiire i\-sinoiil is extrHi'lod ami soM a.s li-plamlnn.
Lep'tis [=Ijil. = (ir. A«rTiT. from I'liu-ii. immi'. lilor.,
naval sUlioii. I'f. llic iiukI. iiuiik' Ubiiln] : tli« name of two
cities ill Afrieu Imtli foiimleil l>y the I'lia>niciaiis. (1)
lirtttter Upti». sitimteil on the coast of Tripoli midway be-
twwn the (inhaler and the Lesser Syrtis. It had a line
nMid^leail and arlitieial harbor, loii^ since choked with sand.
The site is still called Uhidii (a corruption of l.eptis). The
ruins are extensive, but are in ^■arl covered with sand.
U'ptis once had a lar^'e trade, but is now almost without' iii-
habilants. It was one of the three cities which gave the
name of TriiHili to this region. (2) Lesstr Leplin, iii_ tiie
(.'ttrtliaginiaii province Byzacium, on the coast .S. E. of
Ilmlnimelum. Its ruins are now called Lenipla (also a cor-
ruption of U'ptis). J. K. S. Stebhett.
Loptm-ar'tlii [Mod. Lat. : Gr. Aeirrdr, slender + xopSfo.
hearl I : a class of animals, containiiig two genera, but of
the gieatesl inlerest to naturalists on account of the many
primitive fealiin's which they [lossess. Formcily they were
coiisiilered as the lowest vertebrates, but from the fact that
they possess no backbone (vertebral column) they must be
regiirdeil as distinct. To accommodate these and other
forms as well as the vertebrates i)roper a group. C'iioroata
(?. r.), has been established. The Leplocnrdii are small
transparent lish-like forms occurring in the wanner scius
of the globe, where they live buried, except the anterior end
of the Ixxly, in the sand. The body is tlatteneil, and pos-
teriorly is provided with a fin varying in shape in the dif-
feri'Ht species. The mouth, an oval slit, is surrounded by
a cartilaginous ring from which extend a number of .stiff
pro<esses fringed with tentacles, the whole forming a funnel
to convey water ami food to the mouth. The water passes
to a pharynx the sicles of which are perforated by mimliers
of complicated gill-slit.s, and after passing through these it
enters an "atrial chamber," formed by a down-growth of
the sides of the body, from which it passes to the exterior
thrtmgh a single posterior "at riopore." The pharynx be-
hind ojK-ns into the alimentary canal proper, which almost
iinmetliately rei-eives the duct of a blind sac. fre(iuently re-
ganled as a liver. The vent is below, near tlie end of llie
tail, but it is remarkable in that it is always to one side of
the median line. The nervous system consists of a spinal
conl which t»|K'rs toward either end. Its anterior extrem-
ity or brain is less in iliameter than the cord farther back.
Closely ctmnected with this brain are an extremely riiili-
inentary eye-s|Hit and a ciliated olfactory groove. The
spinal nerves, unlike those of the true vertebrates, are given
off alternatelv to right and left. The skeleton is repre-
sented, a-sitle from the cartilages siippi^rting the mouth, etc.,
by a slender rwl, the notiK'hord, which extends from one
end of the biKly to the other. In spite of the name Lepto-
airdii a true heart is lacking, but several of the larger blood-
vessi'ls, notably I hose of tlii' gills, pulsate. The arrangeiiHUit
of the vessels (arteries and veins) reuiin<ls one stronglv of those
of the anneliils. The IiIimmI lacks colorecl corpuscles. The
reproductive organs project into tlie atrium, ami 'lie eggs
Biid^ milt are carried thence by the water from the gills.
Naturally the ilevelopmeiil' of the Leptucardii has been
carefully studied, and it reveals some very interesting primi-
tive features, for details of which reference must be ma<le
to the embryological texl-bixiks. A jieculiar feature is the
lack of symmetry po.vsessiil by the young, exhibited by the
mouth, gill-slits, v<-iil, olfactory organ, and the like.
Forms like Ainphioxiis niusi have occurred in abundance
in past limes, but owing to the total aljseiice of all hard
|«art.s they have left no traces in the rocks. To-dav but half
a dozen s|H,'cies are known from the whole globe.' aii<l they
occur in all the warmer parts of both oceans. The.se are di-
vided among l»d genera, Anipliiuxiis {liranehiiiKluiiin of
sysli'inatic purists) and Ani/mmdnm. The latter genus (dis-
covered since the article ('iiokdata wils writli'n)iH-curs in
the West Indi&s, and is n>markable for having the repro-
rbictivo organs deyelo|K'i| u|m>ii but one side of tiie body.
The s|M>cies of l)olh geiieni are .small, the largest hardly ex-
ceeding :i inchi'S in length.
Literature. — Ilatschek, Development. Arbeilen. zool. In-
sli/iif, Vienna, iv., 1881 • Lankester. Structure, Quarterly
JdiiriKil J/irnin. tiriiiice (1H7.J and 188'J) ; .Vndri'ws, .Ix^ni-
melron, Hiitdies Jiiid. Lahij., Ju/iiis JJajikiiis (Baltimore,
18'j:i). " J. S. Kl.NOSLEY.
Leplos'traca [Hr. \firr6s. slender + 6(npaKov. shell of a
testaceaii]: an order of Crustacea characterized by the pos-
scssiim of a two-valved carapax, provided in front with a
movable rostrum. The thoracic and abdominal regions have
each eight segments, and the body is terminated either by a
camlal spine (telson) or two furcal processes. The thoracic
limbs are leallike, there arc but three jjairs of inuiitli-parl-,
and the eyes arc stalked. Formerly these forms were in-
cluded among the Phyllopods, but they are rather a con-
nectint; link between these primitive Crustacea and th(s
more highly organized Decapoda. The principal living ge-
nus is N'ebalia. which is found in all .seas. The fossil mem-
bei-s of the nvi\vr (Ceratiocaris. Ilymenociiris. etc.) flourished
in the Cambrian and Silurian seas, some of them attaining
a considerable size. J. S. Ki.voslev.
Leqiiesiie, le-ken, EucixE Louis : sculptor; b. in Pari.s,
Feb. 1."), 1815; studied law. and was admitted to the bar in
18:!!t. but entcreil in 1841 the School of Fine .\rls : became a
pupil of I'radier at Home, and began to exhibit in 184."). His
most prominent works are the iJinivhiy Faun in the garden
of the Luxembourg, the Victor;/ on the tomb of Napoleon,
and the J'cffasus on the front of the new opera hou.se ; he
idso made a nunibcr of excellent busts. I). June 4, 1887.
Lordo de Ti'jada y Correal. lardo-da-t(7-liaailaa-ec-
ki'ir-rii-iial , Skhastiax : statesman; b. at .lalapa. Mexico,
Apr. 25. Ib'iH. He studied law at the College of San lldc-
fonso, Jlexico, was admitted to the bar in 18.")l,aiid in the
following year was elected rector of his college ; in 18.55 he
became ajudge of the Supreme Court. Adhering to the
liberal party, he was Comonfort's Minister of Foreign Af-
fairs, June, 1857, to Jan.. 1858 ; and from 181)1 was promi-
nent in Congress, strongly upholding Juarez in his resist-
ance to the French invasion. When Juarez was driven
from tlie capital (June, 18t):!). Lcrdo accompanied him, and
from Se|it.. ISfi:!. was his Minister of Foreign .MTairs. re-
iiiaining faithful even when the empire of Maximilian
seemed triumphant and the re|)ul)lican government was
driven over the frontier into the I'. S. In the subseipient
advance wliicli resulted in the downfall and death of Maxi-
milian. Lerdo was one of the most active political leadei's.
In 18()7. after the reoccupation of Mexico, he was elected
president of the Supreme Court. At the same time he re-
taineil the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (until Jan. 17, 1871).
anil has lieen credited with many important measures of the
Juarez administration. In 1871 lie was a candidate for the
liresidcncy, but Juarez was re-elected; on the death of the
latter (July 18. 1872), Lerdo succeeded him by virtue of his
presidency of the Supreme Court, which made him the con-
stitutional successor; and new elections being held, he was
n'gularly chosen president of the rc|iul)lic for four years.
He liegiiii his term under very favoralJe auspices, but
gradually lost support. <iwiiig to his iiifriiigements of the
rights of the states, and ids evident desiic to centralize the
govenimeiit. In Oct., 1871), he was a candidate for re-elec-
tion, and Congress pronounced the partial and irregular
vote cast to be in his favor, llis ojipoiieiits declared that
the election was fraudulent and void : and Iglesias. presi-
dent of the Supreme Court, assumeil the presidency of the
republic in (iuanajuato. Diaz, who had long been in_ revolt,
advanced on Mexico: Lcrdo's army was defeated, Nov. 15,
and on Nov. 20 Tjcrdo lied to ,\caiiulco. and thence to the
I". .S. Sulise(|ueiitlv lie resided in New York city, where ho
died Apr. 21, 188!).— His elder brother, MuuKl.", b. in Vera
Cruz in 1814, was a ])romiiienl liberal politician, Minister
of the Treasury under Comonfort 185(5. and Juarez 18.5il;
candidate for I he presidency 1858 and 1801 ; and judge of the
Supreme Court ; he was the author of .\piiiiles /iislorirus de
\'ern Cruz (:i vols., 18.50-58) and various other works. D.
in Mexico, Mar. 22. 1861. Hi;I!1>i;kt 11. Smith.
Lorida. la n^'-dali : province of Spain, bounded N. by the
Pyrenees and K. by Barcelona : area, 4,775 so. miles. The
northern portion is covered with spurs of the I'yieiiees, and
rich in iron, copper, lead, zinc, marble, jasper, and gypsum.
The southern portion is an extensive plain, which produces
wheat, fruits, and vegetables. Pop. (1887) 285,417.
Lorida: capital of the province of Lerida, .Spain ; on the
.Segre, 84 miles \V. N. W. of Barcelona (see map of Spain, ref.
LERINS
LEROUX
195
14-.I). Itissurroundod by wallsandstrongly fortified, as it is
tlie key of Aragon and Catalonia, and consequently a point
of jjivat military iniportanc-e. Il lias two reniarUahle witlie-
Uruls, one of the thirteenth, the other of the eij,'hteeiith cen-
tury; a lyceum, and several other educational institutions;
its university, foundeii in 1300, was suppressed by Philip V.
Pop. (1H8T) iufiar,.
Lfirilis, Id ran, The: several small islands off An'til)es. and
in the department of Var, France. The largest, Ste.-Mur-
fjiierite, was the place of imprisonment of the " JIan in the
Iron Mask" from 1686 to 1698. Its fortress, ■ilonterey, is
now a prison for military convicts and Alfrerines. and lia-
zaine was lierc conlined (1874). It was the Leron of the ati-
cicnts. The next smaller island, St.-Honorat (Planuria Li-
rina), is named from St. Ilonoratus, Archbishop of Aries,
who founded hero in the fourth century the convent of Lc-
rins, which became a famous school of theology, and passed
into the Benedictine order. After 1650 the monastery lost
its importance, and is now in ruins. There are some smaller
uninhabited islands in the vicinity.
Ler'ma, h'R.iNcisco de Roxas de Sandoval, Duke of : ad-
ministratiir ; b. in .Spain about 1550; was made a duke and
Prime ^Alinistcr of Spain immediately on the accession of
Philip III. in 1598, and governed the empire till 1618, during
which period the exhausted and distracted state of the coun-
try became more and more apparent. His foreign policy was
marked by defeats, his internal by cruelty and vacillation. In
spite of extraordinary exertions, he was compelled to conclude
peace with England in 1604 and with the United Provinces
in 1609, practically acknowledging their independence. In
1609 he issued the decree of proscription by wliich several
thousand Moorish families, forming one of the richest and
most industrious .elements of the .Spanish population, were
driven out of .Spain, and their property, in many cases, con-
fiscated. In 1618 he was appointed cardinal, but soon after-
ward lost the royal favor. Under Philip IV. tlie animosity
against the fallen minister became so strong that an exami-
nation was made of his administration, and he was comiielled
to return a large sum of money to the treasury. D. sliortly
after, in 16'25.
Ler'iiiontov, Mikhail Iubevich : poet ; b. in Moscow,
Russia, Oct. 3, 1814 ; the .son of an obscure officer of Scotch
descent (Learmont). He sjient his childhood on the estate
of his grandmother, and in his eleventh year made his first
j(5urney to the Caucasus, the grand scenery of which left an
indelible impression on his mind. In 1826 he was sent to
school at Moscow, where he grew up plain, clumsy, shy, and
addicted to biting remarks that made him generally dis-
liked. In 1832, with others, he was dismissed from the Uni-
versity of Moscow for some student disorders, and went to
St, Petersburg to i)repare for the army. He soon became
known merely as the writer of clever but indecent verse,
for though he hail already composed several important
poems, he kept them studiously secret. Only one of them,
Hadzhi Abrek, was published, and that without the knowl-
edge of the author. In 1837, excited by the circumstances
attending the death of Pushkin, he wrote a powerful and
violent piece on the subject, in punishment for which he
was sent to serve in the Caucasus. A few months later he
was reinstated in the guard, and now his reputation in-
creased ra[)idly, as each new poem that he gave out was
hailed with increasing delight by the public. His triumph,
however, was soon cut short by a duel with the son of the
French ambassador and historian de Barante. For tliis ho
was again sent to the Caucasus, and only made one more
short visit to .St. Petersburg before his death. He was killed
in a duel .July 15, 1841, by a comrade who fancied himself
caricatured in one of Lermontov's works. Russians usually
regard him as their greatest poet after Puslikin, by whose
style he was much influenced, but he is less objective and
serene, more passionate, more truly unhappy, and in rebellion
against society. If he had had a longer life instead of being
cut off before he was twenty-seven yeai-s old. he would jirob-
ably have outgrown his intense Byronism, and might have
left one of the great names in the history of literature. As
it was, the precocity of his genius was extraordinary. lie
was fifteen when he began, and only twenty when he finished
his most famous poem. The Demon (Knglish translation by
A. Condie-Stephen, 18S6). Hadzhi Ahrek. Mtsiri (Y\\q
Novice), Izmall lici/.iind The Song of the T-vir Iviin ViiMle-
vieh are also fine longer pieces, while some of his shorter
lyrics are gems. He was too indolent and wayward to be a
prolific writer, and he has left but one prose work, almost
his last production, Oerol Xaahefio Vremeni (A Hero of our
Time), a story notable for its strong characterization, tlic
author often depicting himself iji the principal character,
and for its fine description of the scenery and life of the
Caucasus (there have been three Knglish translations, the
last in 1883.) Many of Lermontov's works have been ren-
dered into other languages, and he has been written about
by foreigners as well as by Belinskii and other Russian
critics. In English, see Sfudirx in JiuK.tian Literature, by
C. E. Turner (1882), and, for iioetical translations of some of
his lyrics. Rlnjmes from the A'lissian. by John Pollen (1891)
and Blackwood's Jtlayazine, Aug., 1884. A. C. Coolidge.
Ler'iia (in Gr. Aipimj) : in Greek mythology, the swamp
S. of Argos, where Heracles killed the Lerna'an Hydra. See
HVURA.
Lerua^ans : a group of Copcpod crustaceans (see Cope-
poDA), in which degeneration trom parasitism has reached a
great extreme, especially in the females. The
nudes retain much of the ajipearance of nor-
mal crustaceans, but the females have lo.st the
eyes, jointed feet, etc., and have become con-
verted into mere organs of feeding and repro-
duction. The mouth is convci-led into a suck-
ing-tube which is inserted in tlie llesh of fishes,
from which they suck mucus and blood, while
the rest of the body is largely composed of egg-
sacs. The young, when they hatch from the
egg, are normally formed, with eyes, swimming
feet, and the like, but after beconnng attached
to the host retrogression sets in, until in the
adult not a crustacean feature can be traced,
J. S. Kr.NusLEV.
Lernaeoi'dea [Mod. Lat., from LerncF a. one
of the genera, liter., fern, of Lernce us. pertain-
ing to Lerxa, q. v.] : an order, or, according to
other authorities, only a family (Lenupidw), of
parasitic crustaceans, belonging to the order
Siphonostoma. They are assigned to the sub-
class Entomostraca. The mouth is for suction,
the thorax not jointed, the organs very small.
The males are totally unlike the females. All
are parasites of very degraded type. They are
often much more completely ori^anized when
young than when mature. In the latter stage
they lose the power and organs of loc<imotion
and of sight. There are many diverse and
strange forms referred to this order, nuist of
which would never be recognized as crusta-
ceans but for their larval forms. They are
found attached to fishes and other aquatic ani-
nuils. Revised by F. A. Lt cas.
Lerolle, le-rSl', Henri : figure and landscape
painter; b. in Paris in 1848; was a pupil of
Lamothe ; received a first-class medal in the
.Salon of 1880 ; decoration of the Legion of
Honor in'l889. A painter whose work is principally valued
for its subtle interpretation of nature in evening cfi'ccls.
At tlie Organ (1885) is in the Metropolitan Museum, New
York ; In the Country (1880) in the Luxembourg Gallerv,
Paris, W-, A. C. '
Le'ros (in Gr. Ae'pos) : one of the Ionian islands of Asia
Jlinor, lying .S. of .Samos and sejiarated from the northern
end of Calymna by a narrow strait (Diajiori). It is 6 miles
long and '4 miles wi<le, is very fertile, and has many good
harbors, of which the one on the eastern side is the best.
Here are the ruins of the old town of Leros. The island was
colonized by Miletus, which held thosuzeraintyover it down
to Roman limes. Its inhabitants had the reputatiim of be-
ing ill-natured. The temple of .\rtemis (ruins at Parllieni)
was known in connection with the story of the sisters of
Meleager. .1. R. S. Sterrett.
Lerot : a name for Eliomijs nitela. See Dormoise.
LeroHX, I<'-roo', Pierre : journalist and philosopher ; b. in
Paris. Apr. 17, 1797; studied at the lyyceum Charlemagne;
founded the (/lohe newspaper in 1824, as organ of the phi-
loso])hcrs: adhered to the .'>aint-Sinu)nians in 1831. converting
his paper into the organ of their socialistic policy; with-
drew after the promulgation of the new iloctrines of En-
fantin. lie became in 1832 editor of the lievue Enei/clope-
dii/iii'. and, in connection with Jean Reynaud, established in
1838 the h'nri/rlopedie noiivelle, wliich was a continuation of
the Kneyclopedie of the eighteenth century. His capital
//
Chondracan-
thus, a Ler-
nsan.
ivh;
l,K KOY
IM
Si
tl'
.j( -
III Iwiti^r
• Til llli'l
1.. ■
*I
i.
A
<1-
w..rk />'- nrumnfiiff. if' «>» Prinrip* rt d* son Jiwnir, up-
i.f man iiml iiiiliire
,,, ...ais. llo foilliilod ill
. with Viiirilt'l niul (.ieorfje
i » ri'|iro!ieiiliitive i>f the Na-
;iii ultra rn.tiiiil. After the foi(/> d'eliit
i 111 the i>hiiul of .Ior*y, anil aflerwani
1. I'ierreLeroux wnsukiiiiliif inoil-
i, ;. the representative nf pure ami
.1.. |i-. .. .:.<.. ■.!-.) l)ii chrisli-
Mdllhuml Ifs
rt de iiumarti. a pliilosophie |)i)ein
.f ou till yoiiveniemenl des riches
(Ih+Ni ,ic. lie r.iiirm.l to KniiK-e after the amnesty of Aug.
V>, 15*9. and ilicU in I'aris. Apr. 12. IMTl.
Iteviseii by A. G. C.txFiKLD.
Le Rot : village; Genesee co., X. Y. (for loeat ion of eounly,
s.-em«pofXew York. ref. 4-1)): on Oatka creek, and the Kne,
theX S'.t'ent.aml Ilud.Kiver. and Muffalo. Kooh. and 1 itts.
railways; i't milei S. \V. of K.K^'hester; 46 miles K. of Buf-
falo. 'It is in a sail and limestone region, derive.s good
water-power from the creek, and has salt-works, lime-kilns,
stone quarries, and Hour. I'laning. gypsum, plaster, ami saw
mills. It was the si'at of Ingham rmversity (Presbyterian),
first opened in l><:iO as Le Itoy Female Seiniimry, closed
1!<U4 : »u.- for many yeai-s one of the most noted institutions
for the liii;her inst'niclion of women in the U. S. The vil-
lage ha--, a union school, art conservatory, public library,
8tate bank with capital of $100,000, and three weekly news-
j.apers. Top. ( IS'JO) 2,74;3. l-.unoR of " Times."
LiToy-Beaulleu. le-rwaa boli-iV, PiERiii: Paul: writer
on ecoiromics: b. at Sauinur, Maine-et-Loire, France, Dec.
It. 1^4:) : studied at the Lycee Bonaparte in Paris and at the
Ecolc do l)roit in the same city; also at I lie universities of
Bonn anil Berlin; on his return to Paris, did journalistic
Work on several newspapers and reviews; published in 18G8
JJe rftat moral el intellectnel des populalionsouvrieres et de
juin inrtnriice sur le taax del -tnlaires, for which he was
orriwnetl bv the Academy of Moral Science ; in 1870 was
awanled three prizes by the same body for papers en-
titled Di' la rolimixalion chez lexpeuples modfnies: De C Ad-
minUtriiliiin loaile en Kranre el en Aiii/leterre; and I)e
rimpijl fancier el de ses consequenrex ecDnuniiqiies. In 1872
he was apjiointed Professor of Finance in the Free School of
Political .Seieuce at Paris, of which he was a founder ; in 1873
he founded L' Eriimimi.ile FfdiifniX and still edits that jour-
nal : in 1878 he was elected a member of the Academy of
Moral and Political Science; in 1880 he succeeded his
father-in-law. Michel Chevalier, as Professor of Political
Kconmny in the College of France, lie has made several
attempts to enter jiolitical life. Among his numerous works,
besides tlmsc already mentioned, are Les Oiierres con-
lemporainex (2 series. 18.l:i-66 ; 1868-611) ; La Queslion ou-
vriereau X IX' xiecle (IH~1) ; Triiile de la science des finances
(1877: 5th ed. IHOI); Exsiii sur In liepnrlilinn des richesses
Omi : ;ld cd. 1.HS7) ; LWhjerif el la Tnnisie (1888) ; Pra-is
d'economie p<ililii/ite (1888; :M ed. 181)1) ; L'elat muderne et
He* fond ions {WM; 2d ed. 18!»1).
Leroy dp Saint-.Vriiaiul. Ic-rw.-iii' d»'-sSii'ta'ar no'. .Iacqves
A>iiiLl.E: soldier; b. in Pari-. Aii^'. 20. INOl ; enlisted in
1S16 in the body-^'iiard of Louis .Will., but left the mili-
tary service in 1820. and led for several years a rather ad-
veiitiirims life in France and Kugland. In 1831 he again
cnteriil the army; served at Blaye, where the Duchess of
Ik-rry was detained ; became in 18:17 captain in the foreign
legion in .\lgeria, and greatly distinguished himself during
the following years at the taking of Coustantine, by the
capture of Boii-.Ma:!a, as eommander of the province of Con-
stiintine, and by his campaign against the Kabyles. In 1851
he was made a general and commander of one of the mili-
tary divisions of Paris. In the same year he became Minis-
ter of War. and in this position he rendered great services
to Na|Hileon in the roup d'rlnl of Dec. 2, IH.")!, aiid received
the title of marshal in the following year. In 18.54 he com-
inaniled the French army in the Crimean war. and won the
battle of .\lma, .Sept. 20, but he had to give up his com-
mand on account of sickness, and died on board the Ber-
Ihollel, Svpl. 21», 1M.54.
I*roy cl'^tlollcH, -d(i ti-r/l, Jean JACtjrEs .Tosei'H, M.I).:
jiurgiHin; b. at Paris, .\pr. .5. 171IH: studied medicine, and
look his degree in 1824. In 1822 he pri-sented to the Aciul-
LESAGE
eniv of Surgery a set of instruments which he had invented
forthe operation of lilhotrity. The invention was disputed
bv Civiale and .\iiuissal, who also claimed it, but after ch)se
examination of the case the prize was awarded to d'Ktiolles.
He also invented a nuinbcr of other surgical instruments
to perform very delicate and coniplicaled operaliiilis. The
most prominent of his writings are: De In Lilliolripsie {I'nvis,
is:!6); Sur la ri/xluloniie epiimlilinnf (Paris. 18:i7); Ilisloire
lie la Lilliulrilie (18:311) ; Conxideralions unalumitjiies el chi-
ruryicales sur le Froslale (Paris, 1840); Urologie (Paris,
184.5), etc. D. in Paris, Aug. 25, 1860.
Revised by S. T. Armstrong.
L^ry. Id ree , .Ieax, de : Protestant missionary and author ;
b. at La MargcUc. Burgundy. 1.534. He early embraced the
reformed religion, studied under Calvin at Geneva, and in
1.555 went with other (ienevois to join the French Protestant
colony of Durand dc Villegaignon in Brazil. This colony
had been established on the island still called Ilha de Ville-
gaignon. in the harbor of Kio de .laiieiro, though the terri-
torv had long been claimed by the Portuguese. It does not
appear that Lery at this time was an ordained niini.ster,
and he e.\pressly stales that the pastors who accompanied
the Geuevois were named Richier and Chart ier. Villegai-
gnon, a strange and headstrong character, brought about
(juarrels in the little community ; some of Jjcry's companions
were executed, and with the lemaiiider he returned to
Europe in 1558. He was soon after ordained jiastor at
(iciieva, and subsequently \va.s settled at Pxlleville. near
Lyons (15()0-62), where, in the civil wars, he labored vainly
to check tlie excesses of the Protestants. Later he lived at
various places in the south of France, and in 1572 was set-
tled at La Charitc. In the massacre of St. Bartholomew
twentv-twoof his flock were killed. and he himself narrowly
escaped, taking refuge in Sancerre. where the Protestants
were closely besieged, and finally capitulated. After 1573 he
resided in ("icneva and Berne. Lcry published Uisluire d'un
roi/(iye faicl en la lerre du Bresil (La Rochelle, 1578; various
later editions and translations); Jfelalion du iHiege de .SV(»-
cerre (1574), etc. D. in Berne in 1611. Herbert II. Smith.
Lesage, le-sa'azh'. Alain Rene: novelist and dramatist ;
b. at Sarzeau. department of Morbihan. France, May 8. 1668.
At the age of fourteen he was left an orphan, and the prop-
erty of his father, who had been a well-to-do notary, was
appropriated by two uncles, his guarilir.iis. He was sent to
the College of Vannes. and about HjWOwcnt to Paris to study
law. There he remained. He married in KilH. and soon
abandniied the ]iractice of law for letters. He fortunately
gained the support of the Abbe de Lyoime, who gave him a
pension of 600 livres. His first \yoik was mainly transla-
tion from Spanish authors, and had no jiarticular success:
Tkedire espagnol (1700): Les 2^'ourelles Avenlures de don
Quirliolle, of Avcllaneda (1704); and the plays //« Traiire
puni, Ihm Felix de Mendoce, Le PoinI d'Honneur, and Don
(exnr i'rsin. His marked success began with the comedy
Crispin rirnl de son nniitre (1707), and the novel Le Diable
boili'Uj- ( 1 707), founded upon L'l Diahulo aijuclu ( 104 1 ) of (iue-
vara. and borrowing also soniewhai from other .sources. Even
greater \vas the success of Turcaret (1700), a comedy directed
against the financiers, full of realistic .satiric iiortrailure.
Troubles about the production of this work involved him in
a feud with the actors of the Theatre Fraiii;ais. and all his
litter dramatic work was for tlie Theatre de la Foire, fur
which he wrote a vast number of farces and comic operas.
His great work is Gil Lias, after the model of the Span-
ish picaroon novel, in which the adventures are allied to
a depth and accuracy of observation and a sanity of view
that give to its pictures of the life of all cla.sses a striking
realism. This realism makes it an important date in the
history of the novel, and its influence was especially great
in England. Two volumes (books i.-vi.) appeared in 17b'>.
the third volume (books vii.-ix.) in 1724. and the fourth
(books x.-xii.) in 173.5. A revi.-cd edition came out in 1747.
It passed at one time for the translation of a lost Spanish
work, but Lesage's essential originality can not be disputed,
though he borrowed from the Jlnrcosde Obriyon of Vicente
Kspinel. and other sources. J/IIisloire de (luzman d'Alfa-
rache (1732) and Kslabanille (ronz<tl!'s (1734) follow Spanish
originals more or less closely. The Arenlures du lliliuslier
lieauclienei\T-\'i)nTe founded on contemporary memoirs; in
Le liaclielier de Snlanianijue (1736) he has drawn u)ion his
own ail Bias. I). Nov. 17. 1747. His iKurris cnmpleles
(12 vols.) were |)ublislied in Paris in 1828. Cf. E. liinlilhac,
Lesaye (Paris, 181)3). A. G. Cankielh.
LESBIC DIALECT
LESLEY
i9r
Lcsbic Dialect : a dialect of the Greek lanfcuasre fpokcti
in tlie island of Lesbos in the Northeastern ^Egean, and on
the adjacent coast of Asia Minor. It is known to us through
frajjnicnts of the lyric poets Sappho and Alcajus, the inscrip-
tions, the reports of grammarians, and the scattered {^losses
of the lexicographers. It is closely related to the ilialect of
Northern Thessaly, and more remotely to that of Bojotia.
The name .Eolic is sometimes applied to the whole {croup,
and in anti(|uity had an even wider application, but it is
also used in a limited sense of the Lesbic. The substratum
of the Homeric dialect was ajiparently an .ilolic idiom
closely akin to, if not identical with, prehistoric Lcsbic. It
is probaljle that some of the earlier parts of the Iliad were
actually composed first in ^Eolic, and afterward readapted,
so far as the meter allowed, to the Ionic form, but, however
that may be, it must now be regarded as proven beyond
doubt that those earliest productions of the rhapsodizing
bards, which gave the first impulse to the development of
the conventional epic idiom were composed in an ^feilic dia-
lect. yT]olic forms, especially such as had no metrical equiva-
lents in Ionic, remained inextricably fastened in the epic ;
thus Hiiiif. iiifi-f, fnfuv. fvyrjfiap, apyemis. Striking features of
the Lesbic dialect are the absence of rough breathing; the
retraction of accent ; the change of -ays, -ovs final, or medial
with secondaVy sigma, to -ais. -ois, as ^eA.ais (.\ttic /le'^ds),
fioTtra (Attic fioHcra) ; the development of double liquid or
nasal from the combinations -si-, -Is-, -sn-, -iis-, -ni-, -nu-.
etc. ; the transfer of verbs in -aoi. -taj, -va to the ^i- verbs, as
ytXaiiJLt ; the change of digamma before rho to beta, as $plaia
(Attic ^(fo). See Hoffmann, Griechische Diahkfe (vol. ii.,
1893); Meister, Griechische Dialekte (vol. i., 1882). See
Greek Language. Bexj. Ide Wheeler.
Lesbo'nax (in Gr. ^ea^vai,) : a native of Mitylene, in
Lesbos, who lived in the time of Augustus; wrote a number
of orations in imitation of the Attic orators, of which two
have come down to ns, an exhortation of the Athenians to
fight the Thebans, and a rhetorical exercise in the form of
a speech on bravery. See Orafores GrcFci, ed. Ahrens (Paris,
1868). Revised by Alfred Gi'heman.
Les'bos [= Gr. AeVjSoj], or Mityle'ne [=Gr. Mitua^it;,
orig. restricted to name of a town on the island], now Myti-
lini: the largest of the islands of the ^Egean Sea; now
belonging to Turkey. After the Trojan war it became the
chief seat of the .Asiatic ^Eolians. Its five cities (Pentapolis).
Mytilene, Methymna, Antissa, Cressus, and Pyrrha, produced
a number of philosophers and poets distinguished through-
out Greece and the world ; Pittaeus, Alca>us, .Sappho, Hellan-
icus, Arion, Theophrastus, Phanias, Terpander. and Erin-
na. The island is mountainous, and in places very fertile,
producing excellent olive oil, figs, grapes, and pine timber;
its wine, famous in antiquity, is now inferior. Its chief
town is Mytilene. See Tozer, Islands of the JEgean (Oxford,
1890); Couze, Reise auf der Insel Lesbos: Cichorius, Horn
und Mjitihne (Leipzig. 1888); Koldewev, Die antiken Bau-
resfe der Insfl Lesbos (Berlin. WW)); Kiei)ert and Koldewey,
Jtinerare auf der Insel Lesbos (Berlin, 1890).
J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lesearbot, la kaarbo', ]Marc, Seigneur de St.-Audebert :
explorer ; b. at Vervins, Prance, about 1570 ; became a law-
yer; was associated with de IMonts in the colonization of
Acadia (Nova Scotia) in 1605, and was engaged with Pou-
trincourt in the settlement of Port Royal (now Annapolis)
until its abandonment in 1C07. when he returned to France.
He puljlished in 160!) a Ilistoire de la Nouvelle France,
giving an account of Cartier's voyages to Canada, of Lau-
donniere's failures in Florida, and of the enterprise with
which he was personally connected, the first attempt at
settlement having been made on what is now Boon island
on the coast of Maine. The description of the country and
the accounts of the Indians are spirited, and prot)al)ly faith-
ful. The volume attracted the attention of Hakluyt, and
under his auspices an English translation of the greater part
was published the same year, under the title Xova Franria.
or the Description of that Part of Xew France ichich is (Me
Continent with Virginia (1609). A second edition, enlarged,
of the original work appeared in 1611, and a third in 1618.
wii;n the addition of two smaller treatises, ha Coni-ersion
des Sanvagps and Relation derniere de ce qui c'est passe au
voyage du Sienr de Pontrinrniirt, the former having been
first printed in 1610 and the latter aViout 1612. An account
is given therein of the disputes between Poutrincourt and
the .lesuits, in which Le.scarbot sided with the former. He
also published in 1613 a poetical description of Switzerland,
Le Tableau de la Suisse, atid in 1629 an account of tho
repulse of the English from the Isle of Khe. D. about 1630.
Les Cayes, lii-ka', or Aiix Cayes, o-ka' : a town and port
on the southern coast of Haiti ; about 80 miles W. of .lacmel
(see map of West Indies, ref. 6-F). Pop. about 8.000. It is
situated on a bay which forms the finest harbor of the
southern coast, is poorly Ijuilt, ba<lly drained, and unhealth-
ful, and is subject to disastrous Hoods from a mountain tor-
rent which empties into the bay. Les Cayes is the ca[iital
of the Departemeut du Sud, and" in colonial times was much
more populous. H. II. S.
Les'ches, leskeez (in Gr. Atirxv') : poet ; b. at Pyirha,
in Lesbos, about 660 B. c. He was the author of the'Miicpa
'lAios (Little Iliatl). one of the Cyclic poems, whose order is
this: (1) the Ci/pria (by Stasinus), or the events preceding
the Iliad; (2) the Jliad (Ijy Homer), ending with the burial
of Hector; (3) the ^i,7///o/Hs (Ijy Arctinus), or the tale of
the Amazons, of Memnon, and' the death of Achilles; (4>
the Little Iliad (by Lesches), or the story of the ftiadness
and death of Ajas, of Philoctetes"s coming from Lemnos,
of the Palladium of Troy, and of the wooden horse; (.5)
the Sack of Troy {'IKiov hepais) (by Arctinus); (6) the ra-
Tious Returns {Nia-Toi) of the heroes from Troy, including
the Oresteia (by Hagias); (7) the Odysseia (by Homer);
and lastly the Telegunia (Uy hngamnion).
J. R. S. Sterrett.
Les'grhians: a people of the Caucasus, Asiatic Russia,
numbering, according to various estimates, from 460,000 to
680,000, and speaking many languages. Under the influ-
ence of Shamyl they united into a single political body,
and for many years carried on a brave resistance to Rus-
sia. Since 1839 they have been peaceable. Their religion,
called Muradism, is a form of Mohammedanism taught by
a native prophet, who began his religious career about 183(5.
They inhabit the mountains of Western Haghestan, where
each village is a fortress.
Lesley, John : prelate and historian ; b. in Scotland,
Sept. 29, 1527; graduated at King's College. Aberdeen;
studied at several continental universities, and in 15.54 was
appointed Professor of Canon Law at Aberdeen. He at-
tached himself to the fortunes of Mary t^ueen of Scots, by
whom he was made Bishop of Ross ; became her diplo-
matic agent; interceded for her with Elizabeth in 1.568;
was implicated in the project for her marriage to the Duke
of Norfolk, and the consequent reliellion in the north of Eng-
land, and was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower, where
he wrote Piw Consolationes for the .Scottish ()ueen in her
cafitivity. Released in 1573. he went to the Netherlands,
and for several years tried to rouse the Roman Catholic
princes of Europe to take some action in Mary's behalf.
He afterward lived chiefly in France, where, in sfiite of oc-
casional persecutions, he received ecclesiastical appoint-
ments, becoming in 1593 Bishop of Coulances in Normandy.
He afterward retired to a monastery near Brussels, where lie
died May 31, 1596. He wrote much in defense of his royal
mistress, and published at Rome a history of Scotland, De
Origine, Moribus el Rebus Gesfis Scotorum (1578) in 10
books, seven in Latin and the last three in the Scottish dia-
lect. See Anderson's Collectiojis relating to the History of
Queen Mary, and Jebb, De Vila Maries iieg. Scotorum.
Lesley, Peter, .Jr.: geologist; b. in Philadelphia, Sept.
17,1819; graduated at the University of I'cnnsylvaida in
1838. and at Princeton Theological Seminary in 1844; was
assistant geologist on the first survey of Pennsylvania in
1839-41, and prepared the maps and illustrations for the
final report in 1842; after traveling on foot arounil France,
heard lectures in the University of Halle through the win-
ter of 1844; returned home in 1845. and was authorized by
the American Tract Society to establish its eolportage sys-
tem in the northern ami middle counties of Pennsylvania;
became [lastor of the Congregational church at Milton.
Mass.. in 1847, but left the ministry in 18.50 to settle at
Philadelphia as a professional geologist; was appointed
secretary of the American Iron Association in 185.5. secre-
tary and librarian of the American Philosnphical Society
in 1858, Professor of Geology and .Mining Engineering in
the scientific department of the University of Pennsylva-
nia in 1873, and State geologist of Pennsylvania in 1874;
examined the Bessemer iron-works of Euro(>e in 1863; was
U. .S. .Senate commissioner to the Paris Exposition of 1867,
and spent the following winter in Egypt; was chosen one of
the corporate members of the National Academy of Sciences
198
Lb>;LIK
hESSEPS
in lM«i4; was president of the Amerk-an Association for the
AilvHiuonii'iit of Si-iciU'c in 18H4; ptililislied u Maitiuil o/
I'uiil and its Tu/miirajili>/ (ISoti). a (hiide tu /lit Jriiii-ifur/iti
of the I'. S. (l!^l<). n Dictiunary of I lie /'«.•«(/■« uf J'tiinfi/I-
1(1/11(1 (ISyy), and a Summary uf Final Jir/iurls of tliesei-oiid
Kiol'iiiiial survey of Peiinsylvunia (ly.fJ), besides many
>liurter works. His usual signature is J. P. Ia'sK-v.
Hevised by G. K. Gilbekt.
Lrslie : villajie ; Infiliam eo.. Mieli. (for loriilioii of C(]un-
ty, s<-e map of >iiilii^aii, rif. 7-1); on the Mieli. Cent. Rail-
road ; 1(> miles N. of .luekson, 23 miles S. of l^ansinj;. ll
is in an ai;ricultnral re;;ioii, and Inis electric lifi'its, 5
eliurelies, union publie seliiMil, 14 majjrietie artesian wells,
iron-foundrv, stave and barad factorv, and 2 weekly news-
paiiers. Pop. (1880) 1.113; (1890) I,0.5'8.
Editor ok " Local."
Leslie. Charles: controversial writer; b. in Dublin,
Ireland, July 17. IdoO. His father, Kev. Dr. John Leslie,
was suaeessively Hishop of the Orkneys, of Haphoe, and of
t'lo^her for more than fifty years, and died in 1671, at the
ajre Of UK) years. Charles was educated at Trinity CoUejfe.
Dublin; stiidied law at the Temple, London, for several
vcars subse(pient to 1(571 ; took orders in the Church of
Knjrland in 1080, and was chancellor of the Cathedral of
Connor in 1087. but by refusing to lake the oath of allegi-
ance to William and Mary cut off all prospect of ecclesias-
tical preferment. He then devoted himself to relifrious and
political controversy, for both (if which he was well litled
iiy extensive studies in English history and law and in theo-
logical literature. For thirty-three years he was the lead-
ing literary champion of the Jacobites. His works against
Jews, Socinians, Presbyterians, (Quakers, and Hoinan (.'atlio-
lies once enjoyed great fame, but the otdy work of Leslie
which has exercised any influence in the ninetecntli century
is the Sliurl Method with the IJeixtf: (161)4), the argument of
which rests principally upon the Christian miracles. Though
still esteemed by evangelical theologians, it is regarded as
inadecpnite to modern wants, and is now little read. The
publication of an edition of this tractate in Hoston in 1723
by John Clicckley. to which was atlded A Discourse coneern-
ing Episcopacy, assailing the validity of the ministerial or-
ders of the Congregationalists, occasioned a bitter contro-
versy in New England, and led to the persecut ion of Chcckley
in the courts. He was condemned for liliel and fined by tlie
court. Leslie was f(jr some years at tlie court of the Pre-
tender on the Continent, then resided in Italy, returned to
England in 1721, and died at Gla.slough, Ireland, Apr. 13,
1722. Revised by W. S. Perry.
Leslie. Cmakles Robert: painter; b. at Clerkenwell.
London, Oct. lit, 1794; son of a watchmaker, a native of
Philadel|ihia. The boy returned with his parents to Phila-
delphia in 1800; in 1811 went to England; studied with
West and .Miston; was elected as.sociate of the Academy in
1821, and member in 1826. His first attempts at ]iainting
were of historical subjects on a large scale, but he soon
aliandoned this style for another, in which he became fa-
mous. In 1833 he was appoinled Professor of Drawing at
West Point, but held the position for five months oidy. In
1 x4-"> appeared his Life of < 'onslulAe. 1 n 1847 he was chosen
Professor of Painting at the Royal Academy, held the ollice
four years, and delivered lectures which were published un-
der the title of A Ilundbook for Young Painters. His
pictures found great favor in England, partly from the
character of his subjects, which were taken chiefly from
EiiL'lish literature, aiul partly from the artist's syinjiathy
with English scenery and manners. His best known pic-
lures are in the South Kensington Museum, as tlie Widow
Wadman and Uncle Toby (of which suliject another [liclure
is in the Nat ioiuil Gallery), The Dinner at Mr. I'nge's House.
Antolyrus, niu\ other pictures taken from Shakspeare; Le
liourgeois (ientilhomme, and other subjects from Moliere.
He died in London, May 5, 18.'>0.
Revised by Rkssell Sturois.
LeHlio. Eliza: author; b. in Philadelphia. Pa., Nov. l."),
1787, sister of Charles R. Leslie; accompanied her parents
to England in 17!t3, returning in 18()ll: nuide her first ap-
pearance ILS an aulJiorcss in 1827 with her Svrenty-fiee He-
CI- i pis for Pastry, Cakes, and Sireetmrats. \\w iiopuliirity of
which led to otiier successful works of the same class. In
1831 slie published the Amirican dirts' lioolc. and having
won a prize offered by Mr. (iodey of the Lady's liotdc by
her story Mrs. Washini/ton I'idts, she thereafter devoted
lierself chiefly to writing works for the young, acipiiring
great popularity. Iler Domestic Cookery Book, published in
Wil, went thniugh fifty or sixtv editions, while the House
Hook (1840) and Lady's Receipt tioiik (1846) were also widelv
circulated. Her onlv novel was Annlia.or a Youni/ Lady's
Vicissiliideg (1848). " D. at (iloucester, X. .1., Jan. 'i, 1858.
Revised by II. A. Beers.
Leslie, Georce DcxloI': jiaintcr; b. in London, Eng-
land, Julv 2, 183.5. son of Charles R. Leslie; was educated
at the Mercers' School, received artistic training from his
father and at a school of art at Uloomslmry. and was in
18ri4 admitted as a student of the Royal .Xcademy. He be-
gan to exhibit pictures at the .Vcademy in 18.J7. was elected
an associate of that institution in 1868, and has attained
considerable popularity as an artist.
LesHe, Henry David: composer and conductor; b. in
London. June 18, 1822; studied music entirely there. In
1855 formed the celebrated Henrv Leslie's choir, which he
conducted till 1880. It was brolvcn up, but reorganized
under Alberto Randegger. Leslie resumed the direction
in 1885, and in 1887 it was again and finally disbanded.
He conducted the llerefordsliire Philharmonic Society in
1863. and in 1874 was the director and conductor of the
Guild of Amateur Musicians. I). Feb. 4, 1806. Hiseompo-
.sitions are numerous, including a Te Deum and Jubilate in
B (1846); Jmmanuel, oratorio (1854); Bold Dick Turpin,
operetta (1857); Judith, oratorio (1858); Holyrood, cantata
(1860); Daughter of the Liles, cantata (1861); Jda, opera
(1864); much instrumental music, many songs, jiart-songs,
anthems, and other church music. 1). E. Hervey.
Leslie, Sir John; natural philosopher; b. at Largo, Fife-
shire, Scotland, Apr. 16, 1766; was educated at the Univer-
sities of St. .\ndrcws and F.dinburgli ; spent two years
(1788-89) in Virginia as tutor in one of the Randolph fami-
lies; settled in London in 1700. and applied himself to
science. He translated Buffon's ^'atural History of Birds
(9 vols., 1793), traveled on the Continent as tutor, and was
an unsuccessful candidate for professorships at St. An-
drews and Glasgow. In 1805 he was elected by the town
council of Edinburgh Professor of Malheiuatics in the uni-
versities of that city, after a vigorous opposition by the
clergy on the score of dangerously liberal opinions both in
politics and religion. In 1819 he succeeded Prof. Play fair
in the chair of Natural Philosophy, which he held through
life. He was knighted a few months before his death,
which occurred Nov. 3, 1832. He early took high rank as
a scientific investigator and discoverer. Ilia Kj'jxrimental
Inquiry into the J^'ature and I'mpagation of Jleat (1804)
gained the Rumford me(lal of the Royal Society. From
1809 to 1822 he published a series of text-books in geome-
try and the higher mathematics, and from 1822 to his death
a similar series on natural philosopliy. In 1810 he dis-
covered the process of artificial congelation. He was the
author of a large number of scientific articles in the En-
cyclopwdia Britannica.
Les(|uereux. iH'kp-ru, L?;o: palaeontologist; b. at Fleu-
rier, Neuchatel, Switzerland. Nov. 18, 1806 ; wius educated
at the Academy of Xeuclmtcl, and at Weimar and the
University of Berlin; was principal of the academy at
Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland (1829-34), resigning on ac-
count of deafness; in 1844 was awarded a gold medal by
the government of Neuchatel for a memoir entitled Di-
rections for the E.rploration of Peat Boys; emigrated to
the U. .S. in 1848, and after assisting Agassiz at Cambridge
removed to Colunil)US, O.. to assist William T. Sullivant in
the study of American bryology; made special studies of
the coal formations of the U.S.; in 18(i4 was elected a
member of the National Academy of Sciences. Among his
numerous publications are Catalogue of the Mosses oj
Switzerland and Mennirs (Neuchatel. 1840); with Sulli-
vant, Musci Americani Ejcsiccati (1856; 3d ed. 1865) ; and
Icones Musc.arum (Cambiidge. 1864); Catalogue of Ine
Fossil Plants which have been Named or Described from
the Coal Mea.iures of North America, in reports of Henry
D. Rogers (1858); On Land I'lants in the Lower Silurian
(1874); The Tertiary Flora (1877); for the second Penn-
sylvania geological survey. The Coal Flora, 3 vols, with
atlas (1880-84); with Tlioinas P. Jame.s, Manual of the
aMosscs of North America (Boston, 1884). D. at Columbus,
O., Oct. 25, 1889.
Lesseps, Fr. pron. lii sen', Ferdinand, dc.Vicomte. LTj. D. :
dijiUimat ; promoter of the ship-canals of Suez, of Corinth,
and of Panama; b. at Versailles, France, Nov. 19, 1805;
LESSING
199
entered public life as consular atfnche at Lisbon in 1828.
ami held various consular offices. When vice-consul at
Alexaiidriii his conduct duriii;; the cholera, which carried
off one-third of tlie. iiO|iiilation, won for hiin the cross of
the Lefjiori of Honor, lie was consul al Barcelona in 1842.
and during the boinbanhuent of that jilace his wise meas-
ures for the protection of the foreign residents obtaineil for
him promotion to officer of the Legion of Honor. lie was
made consul-general, and received felicitations and decora-
tions from nuuiy foreign governments. He visited Egypt
in 1854 by invitation of the viceroy, conceived the project
of the Suez Canal, and in 18.56 published a report upon it.
The project was ajiproved by Said Pacha, but the distrust
of the Porte and the opposition of the English Government
suspended its execution. (See fitiez Canal in Ship-canals.)
In 1882, by his firmness and his vigorous action to secure
the neutrality of the canal, he excited the hostility of ITie
Times and part of the English press, which demanded that
vigorous measures be taken against liim.
He also promoted the construction of the Corinth Canal.
At the height of his reputation and glory he undertook the
construction of the Panama Canal. Believing himself master
of pulilic o|iini(m. and better informed than others, he decided
upon insufficient plans that the canal should be at sea-level.
The cost of such a canal had been estimated at .§300,000,000,
but confiding in Ids own good fortune he reduced the esti-
mate to .*I20.00().()00. A total of !^280,000,000 was ex-
pended, and but a trifling portion of the work had been
done when, in 188!*, the company was dissolved. In Nov.,
1892, the French Government determined to prosecute de
Lesseps and the other otlicials of the company on the
charges of fraudulent dealing and bribery, especially of
members of the legislature. A sentence of imprisonment
was passed, but in the case of de Lesseps it was not carried
into effect. He was made mendjer of the Academy of Sci-
ences in 187.5. and of the French .\cadeniy in 1884: in 186!)
was promoted Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor without
passing through the grade of grand officer. D. Dec. 7, 1894.
His chief ]Hiblications are JIa Mission a Rome (1849) ;
Memoire a V Academie des Sciences sur le yH Blanc et le
Soudan : Principmix fails de. I'histoire d' Abyssinie ; Let-
Ires, journal et documents pour servir d I'histoire de
VIsthme de Suez (1875-81), which was crowned by the
French Academy ; Origines du Canal de Suez (1890) ;' Soti-
venirs de i/uorante ans (1887). See the Life by I?arnett
Smith (London, 1893), William K, Hl'ttox.
Lessing', GoTTHOLD Ephraim : poet and dramatist: b. at
Camenz, Silesia, Jan. 22, 1729 : was educated at the Fiirsten-
schule of Meissen, where he devoted himself especially to
the ancient languages and to mathematics, and where he
planned his first comedy, Der junge Oelehrte. In 1746 he
went to Leipzig for the purpose of studying theology ac-
cording to the wishes of his father, an orthodox clergyman.
Though he increased his theological and philological knowl-
edge, he turned his attention chiefly to the theater, and soon
after the performance of his first comedy on the Leipzig
stage chose the literary career. In 1748 he went to Berlin,
attracted liy the cultured atmosphere that surrounded the
capital of Prussia's young king, Frederick II. Here Lessing
had tc) do the drudgery work of a poor young journalist, but
he also developed the independence of character and the
many-sided knowledge of men and affairs which are among
his chief characteristics. He wrote several comedies, and
also pnxluced a number of reviews which already showed
the fearless and witty critic. In order to complete his
acadeniic studies he went in 1752 to Wittenberg, but re-
turned to Berlin in the following year, resuming his occupa-
tion as a journalist and critic. Again he wrote several
dramas, of which Miss Sara Sampson (1755) met with un-
usual success on the German .stage. After a sojourn at
Leipzig of two years we find Lessing again in Berlin (1758),
where he publisheil with Xicolai, the bookseller, the liriefe,
die neucste Literatur t>etreffend.. These letters, in which
Lessing mercilessly demolislies the literary idols of his time,
and in opposition to dull French classicism points to
Shakspeare as a poetic model, nuiy lie considered as the
beginning of a new literary era in Gernnuiy. In 1760 Less-
ing became secretary to Gen. von Tanenzien, who resided in
Breslau. While here, in the midst of the .Seven Years' war,
Lessing wrote his Minna von Barntielm. the first natioind
drama of Germany, a masterly comedy in regard to the de-
velopment of the plot as well as in regard to the delineation
of the characters and the handling of the dialogue with its
pure classic language. While this drama was creating a
sensation throughout Germany, Lessing was again busy at
another work which was also destined to revolutionize lit-
erature— his Jjuokoon. He had already touched the main
thought of this book in his famous treatise I'elierdas Wesen
der Fabel (1760). Attempting now in the Laokoon to de-
fine the distinction between the plastic arts and poetry he
arrives at the conelusicm that .\rt represents bodies in space,
while Poetry represents actions in time. Form and color
are the meaiis of re|)resentation in Art, while sound is the
means of re])resentation in Poetry. The effect of I^essing's
investigations upon the poetic productions of Germany, es-
pecially in the field of the epos and of lyric poetry, was' very
great; but he was to extend his positive criticism also on
the domain of the drama. In 1767 he liecame official play-
wright and artistic director of the llandjurg theater, aiid
while there he wrote his famous JIamburgisclie Dramaturgie,
a series of theatrical reviews in which he freed the German
drama from the ascendency of French classicism, and gave
an analysis of the essence of the tragedy and comedy which
remains unsurpassed to the present day. The Hamburg
theater being a failure. Lessing accepted in 1770 an ap-
pointment as librarian of the ducal library at Wolfenbiittel,
a position which he occupied the rest of his life. D. in
Brunswick, Feb. 15. 1781. In Wolfenbiittel. a quiet, remote
town, he found time to finish Emilia Galotti, his best- trag-
edy from a technical point of view. Being a perfect prac-
tical example of the dramatic principles which Lessing had
laid down in his critical writings, this tragedy, by its relent-
less exposure of the wickedness of the small courts of the
eighteenth century, also had great influence upon the social
and political ideas of the time. Like 3Iiss Sara Sampson
and 3Iinna von Barnhelm, it was a drama of ordinary life
•such as had been introduced in Englaiul by Lillo in hisj/er-
chant of London (1731). With the publication of the Wolf-
f^ifi/Z/i-ci^ra^wf^ifc, a number of treatises concerning the ori-
gin of Christianity by H. .Samuel Keimarns, Lessing aroused
the wrath of the orthodox clergy, and the rest of his life was
more or less filled with unpleasant controversies. Again he
proved himself a critic far superior to his opponents, and also
in the field of theology he was to become a pathfinder for
future generations, JIany of the principles of the later crit-
ical school in theology were anticipated by Lessing in his
writings of this period, his. famous treatise Ueher die Erzieh-
ung des Mensc/iengesclilechts being the embodiment of the
final results of his theological and philosophical studies. To
these theological controversies we also owe the last and most
celebrated of Lessing's dramas — Xallian der W'eise (1778).
This drama culnunates in the story of the three rings, as told
by Boccaccio, demonstrating the truth that true religion is
tested by deeds of love and not by creeds an<l dogmas.
The ]irincipal characteristic of Lessing's mind was his
pure and passionate love for truth. By his heroic struggle
for the possession of truth he became the greatest critic of
modern times, the reformer in literature, one of the fore-
most liberatoi's of the human mind not only for the eigh-
teenth century, but for all times. The stamp of a strong,
fearless manliness is impressed upon all of his writings, and
he well deserved the ))raise of Goethe, who said of him,
'• There may be as shrewd and intelligent men, but where is
such a character?"
BinLiotiRAPHV. — K, G. Lessing, G. E. Lessings Leben
(1793); Fr. .Schlegel, Lessings (feist aus seine7i iSchriflen
(1804) ; Danzel and Guhrauer, Cf. E. Lessing. sein Leben
und seine llVrAe (18.50-54) ; Erich .Schmidt, J.essing (\Si)2);
Schwarz, Lessing als Theologe (1854) ; D, F. Strauss, II. S.
Reimarns (1862). H. Bliimner. Lessings Lao/coon (1880);
Schriiter and Thiele, Lessings Hamburgisrhe Dramaturgie
(1877); 1). F. Strauss. Lessings Xathdn der ^Veise (1864);
Pabst. Vorlexungen iiber Satlian der \\'eise (1881); J. Goe-
bel, Veber tragische Schuld und Suhne (1884).
JCLIUS GOEBEL.
LessiiiCT, Karl FRiEDRini : artist ; b. at Wartenberg,
Silesia, Feb. 15, 1808; received his first artistic instruction
at the school of architecture at Berlin: studied then for sev-
eral years at Dusseldorf under Schadow. and was appointed
director of the gallery of paintings at Carlsruhe in 1858.
His paintings are partly landscapes, partly historical, and
among the latter his Hussites (1830), Jiiiss'before the Coun-
cil (1842), The Martyrdom of IIuss (1850). and others, ex-
cited great admiration by the strength and richness of their
characterization. A pupil of the school of Diis-seldorf, and
laboring in many points under its unfortunate influence, he
200
LESTER
1 vcrtholpss coiitriliiilfil iiuicli to elevate and ennoble it. D.
at Carlsrulie, June ti, 1!*<0.
Lester. t'liARLKs EowAROs: antlior : li. at OriswoM, Conn.,
Jiilv l.j. 1S1.J. lie wa-x a ilesceiijant i>f .liMiatlian KchvanU:
rf^i'.le.i for a time in tlie .S..uth and W.st : lanie t» tlie bar
in Mississippi, and was afterwnnl ordained lo the l'r<\*t>v-
terian ministry : was l'. S. eonsnl at tienoa. Italy. lS4i— 47,
anil attained "distinction lu* a journalist and political lec-
tin-, r Vni.nr,- other works ho pnldished Tin' (llniji ami
,S,, ,, ..•' i: :',inii [S^-\v York. 1841): Condition nml Fate
,. ; i-l.'i; Lifr uf \'':ipitriiis(\H46): The yapulfon
[^ife of Cliiirlex Siiiniirr (\>^~4): thir Firxl
/ lKt4-7.'>): and several translatiims of sland-
ur.l llaii.iii aulliors. D. at Detroit, Mich., Jan. 21t, IHSK).
Lo.^tOfu'. J'^A'-' Hf.rman: French !u1 venturer; b. at (Vile,
Hanover, Apr. 20. 16»2. His father, a Kreiiih enuu'raiit,
was a surfreon, and the son chose the same i)rofe.ssion. In
17i:i he went to .St. Petershnrp, and was appointed suifieon
in the service of Peter tlie tireat, but was banished to Kazjin
in 171S on account of his dissolute habits. In 1725 Catha-
rine 1. recalleil and appointed him surj;eon in the service of
the Princess Elixabeth. lie -soon acquired complete control
over the mind of tlie princess, and it was by his instjjiation
and by his aid that she undertook the revolution of Xov. 25,
1741, which made her Kinpre.ss of Russia. The King of
Poland now made Lestocij a count, the empress gave him a
pension of 7.(XM) roubles annually, and for several years his
influence in Russian polities was very great; but in 174^
the vice-chancellor, Bestoozhef. succeeded in rousing the
empress's suspicion against him. He was arrested, put to
the torture, and banisheil to Ooglitch. In 1701 Peter 111.
recalled him to the court, and (.'atharine II. gave him an
estate in Livonia, where he died June 12, 1767.
L'Estransre'. Sir Roiskr : journalist; b. at ITunstanton
Hall. Norfolk, England, in 1616: was probal)ly edncaled at
Cambridge; accompanied King Charles I. in 16:5!t in his
expedition against the Scots, and being a zealous royalist
during the civil war, was captured in an attack on Lynn
(1644). and condemned lo death by the Rouudheails. He
wits, however, reprieved, and kept captive several years, un-
til in 164S he escaped and unsuccessfully tried to stir up a
rclH'llion in Kent, after which he fled to the Continent, lie
returned to England on the dissolutiim of llie Long Parlia-
ment in 165:i. and made terms with Croiiiwell. At the Res-
toration he was ajipointed censor or licenser of the press;
established Tlif Inlilliyntcer newspaper in 166:i, and The
Oliteri-alor in lOSL in both of which sheets and in a mul-
titude of pamphlets he showed him.self a most energetic sup-
pfirter of the crown. He made translations of Josephus,
Cicero's Offirps. -Esop's Falilm. Erasmus's Colloi/iiifx. l^ue-
vedo's Visionx. and other works, ancient and modern, some
of which possesseil considerable merit, though unfaithful
and distignred by flippant phrases. He was knighted on the
accession of Jaiiies 11.. elected to the Parliament of 168.5,
and dismissed from his oflice of censor at the revolution of
IG.'iS. D. in London, Dee. U, 1704.
Le Sneiir, If-soor' : city (settled in 18.52): TiC Sueur co.,
Jlinn. (for hxration of county, see maj) of Jliiinesota, ref.
10-E) ; on the Minnesota river, and the Chi.. St. P., Minn.
and Umaha Railway; 60 miles .S. W. of St, Paul. It is in
an agricultural and stock-raising region, producing corn,
wheal, cattle, pork, and sheep, and has 10 churches. 2
public-school buildings, Roman Catholic school, 'ti grist-
mills, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1H,S0) 1,414; (1800)
l,76;i ; (1««5) 2,007.' Euitor of " News."
LesiiPiir. If-sU'er', EtrsTAciiK : painter; b. in Paris in 1617.
He was called the Krench Itajiiiael, because of the sua, ity and
grai'C of his style, lie stmlied in the school of .Simon Voiiel
at the same time as Lebrun. He was elected member of the
Academy of St. Luke, for which he painled a picture of St,
Paul lajlng hands mi the sick, which was much admired by
Poussiii, who eounseli-d him as to his studies. Commissions
failing, he ilesigned frontispieces for bonks, and medallions
of .Madonnas fur the nuns — anything that came to hand.
The (|iieeii-motlier chose him for her (lainter. He paintetl
at her order Iwenly-two pictures for the cloister of the
Chartreiisr in Paris, from the history of St. Hruno. In
1618, when the Acailemy of Painting was fouiidid. Ijcsneiu"
was ainoni; the twelve original members. His works are in
the principal churches oif Paris, and arc ilisliiigiii>hed by
their rellgiiiiis sentiment, while his treulineiit of mytlui-
lugiukl subjects in the Hotel Lambert is masterly. He also
LETRONNE
produced many easel-pictures. Notwithstanding his great
talent, the envy and jealousy of courtiers brought him into
discredit with Louis .\1V., and when he l>ecame a widower
he went and lived with the monks of the Cliati reuse, and
dieil among them at the age of thirty-eight, in 16.5.5. The
Louvre contains many of his pictures. W. J. Stu-Lman.
Lrsiieiir, Jkax Fraxi,-ois: b. Jan. 15, 176o, at Drucat-
Plessiel. near ,\ljbeville, France; was appointed director of
music at the Cathoflral of Secz in 177!t, and in 1786 at the
Church of Notre Dame in Paris. The innovations which
his compositions introduced into the style of sacred mnsiu
attrai'ted the public, but were not approved of by connois-
seurs and the clergy, and in 1788 he gave up his position,
anil lived for some years in retirement in the country. In
179.3 his opera L<i < 'nrenie made .a great success. From 1 7!t5
to 1802 he was [irofessor at the conservatory of music in
Paris. Losing this |)osition on account of dissensions with
his colleagues. Napoleon made him director of the imperial
orchestra in 1804. The mass and Te Deum which he com-
posed for the comnation of the em[)eror were received with
great praise, and his opera Le.s Barcleseven excited enthusi-
asm. Jjfi Miirl d'Ailiun. however, was more coldly received
in 1809, and his later works failed to make much impression.
In 1817 he again became professor at the conservatory, and
had among his pupils Berlioz, Ambroise 'I'homas, tiounod,
and Dielsch. D. in Paris, Oct. 6, 18:37.
Leszczyiiski, Stanislaus: See Stasisl.\s Leszczvxski.
Lcthbridge : town of Southern Alberta, Canada ; on the
Belly river, near the mouth of the St. Mary's, and on a
branch railway from Medicine Hat to Crow's Nest Pass,
110 miles W. of the former (see map of Canada, ref. O-F).
A railway also runs southward to (ireat Falls, Mon. Ex-
cellent coal-beds (lignite) are worked in the vicinity. The
region is i)icturesijue. suitable for fanuing and grazing, and
abounds in wild animals and fish. M. \V. H.
Le'tlie [= Lat. = Gr. AtjAtj. liter., forgetfulness, oblivion]:
in tireck mythology, 1, a daughter of Kris, and the personih-
cation of flirgetfulness. 2. A river in the lower world, of
which the departed souls drank before entering the Elysian
Fields, thereby entirely forget ting all alxmt their life on earth.
The shadows wiio had crossed its waters seemed to the Greeks
the most miserable creatures imaginable.
Lc'to [in (ir. Atttw = Lat. Laiona\ : in Greek m)-thologv,
a Titan, the daughter of Cneus and Pha>be. She was a god-
dess of great anticpiity and dignity, the wife of Zeus before
his marriage to Hera, and after severe labor Ijjire to the god
of heaven ApoJIo and Artemis, both light-gods. According
to the Homeric hymn to the Delian Apollo. Leto was the
mistress of Zeus, and was therefore hateil by the jealous
Hera, who pursued her over the whole earth, \yhich. in com-
pliance with an oath exacted by Hera, and in fear of the
great god whom Leto was to bear, everywhere repulsed her.
Finally tlie floating island of Delos, not being bound by the
oath of Earth, offered Leto a place of refuge, on condition
that her glorious son should never remove his worship from
the island. She was always intimately associated with her
children, in whose temples she was worshiped.
J. R. S. Sterkett.
L'Eloile, la'twa'al', Claude, de. Seigneur de Saussay:
jioet and draimitist; son of the memoir-writer Pierre de
rfltoile; b. in France in 1.597. He was one of the five
writers whom Richelieu drew around him and charged with
working his dniiniitic plans into proper form. So he had a
share in the comedy L(i Comklie dfx 7'h/7('(/c>i (1635) and in
the tragi-coniedv 'L'AretiijIc de Smynie (16;i8). His own
independent dramas L« helle Exrlare (IGV.i). tragi-comedy,
and La (Unnkhe des Jilnus (1647) are insignificant. He
wrote some lyrical jioetry, most of which, not |)ul>lished
during his life-time, was destroyed by a niirilanical literary
exeiutor. He was nne of the first mcmliers of the French
Academy. D. in 16.52. A. (i. Canfield.
Lctroiine, Ip-tron, Jean Antoixe : historian and archa>-
ologist ; b. at Paris, Jan. 2, 1787; studied the art of paint-
ing under David, but felt himself more strongly drawn to-
ward .science; worked for several years under Meiitelle, pro-
fessor in geography; traveled from 1810 to 1812 through
France, Italy, and Switzerland ; wrote in 1814 his ToMr*
t'tr/ni-ntfttre de (t't'of/rfipfiie, anrieytne et vmdenie. which was
often republished; became in 18:il direitor of the Royal
Library, Professor in History and Archa'ology at the Col-
lege do France, ami in 1840 keeper of the archives of
LETTERS
LETTIC LANGUAGE AXD LITERATURE 201
the kinijclom. D. in Paris, Deo. 14, 1848. llis principal
works are Becherc/iex pour strrir d I'llixtoire. de VlCgypte
(1823); Sur Vemploie de la peinture murule che.z les (irecH
etles Romains {Viil); Jiecueit t/cc Itixcripliuns grecques et
latines de VEgypti' (1842-4^); and Diplomes el Cliarlres de
I'epoque JIerovingi?>ine sur papyrus et sur relin (1844).
Noteworthy among his minor works is liis La l^itatue vocals
de Memnon (1833). llis collected works in six volumes
have been publislied (Paris, 1885). See Egger, Sur la vie et
les travaux de Letrunne (Journal d'lnstruction puhlnjue,
1848). Revised by Alkhed Gudema.v.
Letters: See P.\L.E0GRAi'nv.
Letters of Credit: wrilti^n instruments requesting a
person to sustain a detriment, usually to part with proji-
erty or to incur an obligation, on the credit of the writer.
The following was held not to be such an instrument, be-
cause it contained only a promise by the writer to do an ac-t.
and did not pledge his credit : " A. P. Kenyon wants a little
money. If you want any one on the note, I will fix it when
I come in." (Scribner v.s. Rutherford. 65 Iowa 551.) A special
letter of credit is addressed to a specified person or persons.
If addressed to the world at large, it is a general letter of cred-
it. In either form it is a mere offer, so far as the addressee
is concerned, and the latter by accepting the offer concludes
a contract to which the writer of the letter and he are imme-
diate parties. It follows that he is not affected by any equi-
ties between the writer and the holder of the letter. Jn re
Agra and JJaslerman's Bank, 2 Chancery Appeals (Eng.) 391.
The law does not require any prescribed form for let-
ters of credit, and their i)rovisions vary greatly in fact.
It is not-strange, therefore, that courts experience difficulty
in interpreting these instruments. Sometimes they require
the existence of specified facts or the performance of pre-
scribed acts as conditions of the writer's becoming bound
to the addressee : as where the writer agrees to accept
drafts drawn upon him for the invoice price of described
goods, to be shipped by a named vessel. In such eases the
person drawing must show that the specified facts existed
or the prescribed acts had been performed. (Bank of Mon-
treal vs. Becknagel, 10!) N. Y. 482.) Sometimes the letter
of credit takes the form of a circular note largely used by
travelers, by which the writer requests any of his corre-
spondents in specified places to pay money to a named per-
son upon his complying with certain requirements, such as
identifying himself. In many jurisdictions one who prom-
ises to accept a bill incurs the liability of an acceptor of
such bill. Under this doctrine the writer of a letter of
credit may. by virtue of the letter, become a party to a bill
of exchange drawn in accordance with its provisions
(Birckhead vs. Brnvn. 5 Hill (X. Y.) QH): but the letter
itself is not a negotiable instrument. In case the writer au-
thorizes another to draw upon a third person, and the third
person refuses to accept a draft so drawn, the writer is liable
on the letter of credit to an action by the person whose draft
has been dishonored. (La Porgue vs. Harrison, 70 Califor-
nia 380.) This liability, however, is not that of a drawer of
a bill, for the writer of the letter of credit is not entitled to
prompt notice of the refusal to accept. See Story On Bills.
SS 450-463 : Daniels On JS'egotiaOle Instrume/its (ed. 18'J1),
§.§ 1790-1799. Francis M. Burdick.
Letters of Maniue : See Marque, Privateering, and
War.
Letters Patent : See Patents.
Letters Rogatory: a writ or instrument is.sued in the
name and by the authority of a judge or court to another in
a different country or state, requesting that the deposition
of a witness be taken who is within the jurisdiction of the
foreign tribunal, to be used as testimony in a cause pend-
ing before the judge or court from which the letters are
sent. This instrument informs tlie court aljroad of the pend-
ency of the action, the names of the foreign witnesses, and
is ordinarily accompanied by written interrogatories, pre-
pared by the litigating parties, upon whicli the witness is
to be examined. It also contains an offer on the part of the
court issuing tlie letters to perform a similar service for the
foreign trilninal whenever required. The witness is ex-
amined either before the judge receiving the letters or be-
fore a commissioner appointed for the purpose, and the
answers, signed anil sworn to by the deponent, and duly au-
thenticated, are then returned to the court from which the
letters issued. See Deposition- and Witness.
Revised by F. Stubges Allen.
Letters Testamentary : an instrument in writing grunt-
ed by a surrogate or i.l her jmlicial officer having jurisdiction
of the probate of wills to an executor as evidence of his
authority, and empowering him to administer the estate
of the decea.-;ed. When a person dies intestate, letters of
a similar character, termed letters of administration, are
granted to the person who is appointed administrator.
Under comni(m-law rules executors can perform most of
the acts pertaining to their office, except engaging in suits
in relation to the e^-:late, before obtaining letters testamen-
tary, since an executor's authority and title is deemed at
common law to be derived from "tlie will, and only to be
evidenced by the letters granted. In the U. S. this rule ha-s
generally been changed by statute, and it is usuallv required
that letters testamentary must ))e obtained before an ex-
ecutor will be authorized to perform any of his usual duties
in the settlement of the estate except those of minor im-
portance, but his appoint?nent will be held to relate back
so as to absolve him for liability for acts committed with-
olit strict authority. An administrator, however, even
under common-law rules, has no authority to act until let-
ters of administration arc granted to hiui", though after the
grant is made his title and authority will, by fiction of law,
relate back to the death of the intestate. Letters granted
are valid only within the limits of the State in which they
are issued. If there are assets of the deceasecl within a for-
eign state or country, lettei's must be issued there to a sub-
ordinate or ancillary administrator, or ancillary letters must
be issued to the principal executor or administrator, who
otherwise will have no authority to administer sucli a.ssels,
unless they are remitted to him from the foreign jurisdic-
tion. See Will, Admixistk.\tiox, Executor, and Surro-
gate. Revised by F. Sturges Allen.
Letter-wood, or Snake-wood : a rare and costly orna-
mental Wood used for inlaying and veneering; the. product
of Brosimvm aublefii: an artocarpaceous tree of .South
America. It is so hard that axes of extraordinary temper
are required to fell the tree. Its rich brown wood lias some-
what letter-shaped marks, which are nearly black. It is one
of the most beautiful kinds of wood.
Lettic. or Lettish, Language and Literature : the folk-
speech and the written and printed productions of the peo-
ple inhabiting Courland. of Livland from the northern boun-
dary of the district of Wolmar toward the S., of tlie western
district of the province of Witcpsk (the so-called Polish
Livland), of the village's situated directly by the sea between
Polangen and Memel, and in general of the Kurische Neh-
rung, where, however, the language is rapidly yielding to
the German and Lithuanian. Lettic is a younger sister of
the Lithuanian, and is distinguished from the latter es])e-
cially by the greater departure of its phonology from the
Indo-European standard, and also by its accent, which has
become fixed upon the first syllable of the word. Like the
Lithuanian, it presents a rich dialectal development. It is
divided into the following chief dialects: (1) The East Let-
tic ; (2) the dialect of the standard literary language spoken
in the neighborhood of Mitau ; (3) the North Lettic, spoken
in Northwestern and Northern Courland and in the Livland
districts bordering the Gulf of Riga.
Until recently the Lettic received attention almost exclu-
sively from the German clergy, and some of these have ren-
dered great service in investigating and descritiing the lan-
guage, notably G. F. Stender (died 1796), who prejiared a
grammar as well as a compendious dictionary of this lan-
guage, and August Bielenstein. whose work Die lettische
Sprache nach ihren Laufen und Formen erklurend und
rerghichend darge.itellt (Berlin, 1863) is ju.stly regarded as
a ela.ssic. Among others who have rendered service to the
philology of the language are to be especially mentioiu'd II.
Adolphi, the author of the first grannnar of practical value
(Mitau. 1685), and C. Ulniann. from whom we have the best
Lettic dictionary (Riga. 1872). Another dictionary was
published by Kurschat (Halle, 1870. 1883), and grammars
were edited bv Schleicher (Prague, 1856) and Kurschat
(Halle, 1876).
It is only quite recently that the Lettic people have
turned their own attention to their language, and it is no-
ticeable that the lettic literature a-s a consequence has ac-
quireil a certain degree of vigor. There may now be found
an al)undance of Lettic poems, novels, romances, etc.,
whereas the older Lettic productions were almost exclu-
sively religious or didactic in chanicter, and in part mere
translations from the German. An enumeration of these
202
LETTIC RACK, TIIK
LEUCTKA
down to the yoar l^KtO is piven liy Xn^iiorsky in llie Magazin
der letlUch-lillerarixrheH (resellsrhdjl. iii. (piirts ii. iiiiil iii.).
The olilost Li'ltic text iliites fmm ilio year 15S6, ami is a
trausliitioii of Liitlu-r's Knchiriitiun (|iriiitL-(l in Koiiiffs-
bori:). 'l"li'> folk-SiPMjr^ of tlie Letts are iiiiinenms. an<l often
of extraiinlinary lieauty, though mostly nf limited eomiiiiss.
A eom|ilete enlleetion of tliem (An/i/'ffw/iH ttmldx (tfrrsma.1,
l^eipzis;. 1H74, ISTo) has unfortunately {tone no further tlinii
a Ix'ftiniiin^. A eolleetion of tales, proverlis, unci riddles
\V!is published at Weiiuur in 1857 by Schleieher.
A. HtaZKNBERGER.
liPHic Race. The : a sutMiivision of the HaKoSlavic group,
beliinfjin;; In the Indo-Kuropean family, and itself divided
into three iiranehes — the Lithuanians, the liells, and the
Old Prussians. The OM Prussians inhaliiled the repion be-
tween the Deime. the .\ lie, and the Vistula, but were com-
pletely Ciermanized in the seventeenth eenturv. The few
remains of their laiij;ua';e were colleeted by Nesselniann,
and published at Uerlin (184«). The Letts, numbering
more than 1,(K)0,000. inhabit Courlaiid, Southern Livonia,
and the atljaeent distriets of the governments of Vitebsk,
Kiivno, and Pskov. Their language was not reduced to
writing until the sixteenth century, on the introduction of
the Keformation ; the first book printed in Lettish was the
greater catechism by Luther, which appeared in l.WC. Since
that time the language hius been cultivated with steadily in-
creasing care. Keligious books, and Uioks of fiction, were
translated: lyrical poetry, and even plays, were produced
by native authors; and at present Lettish newspapers and
jieriodicals are issued. The Lithuanians coiM])rise the Rus-
sian Lithuanians proper, nundiering aliout 800.000. and in-
habiting the governments of Vilna, Kovno, Suwalsi, and
Grodno; the Sainogitians or Shamaites, numbering about
500,000. and ocr^upying the northwestern part of the gov-
ernment of Kovno; and the Lithvianians ni Prussia, num-
bering about 100.000. The Lithuanian language is spoken
in several dialects. Like the Lettish, it was not reduce<l to
writing until the time of the introductiun of the Hefor-
mation, but it is much more antiqiuirian than the Lettish,
for which reason it is of peculiar interest to the student of
the Indo-Ciermanic languages. The relation between Let-
tish and Lithuanian is aliout the same as that between Rus-
sian anil I'olnish. The New Testament has been translated
into both languages. A. Bkzzknberoek.
Lt'ttrcs »lc Cachet : See Cachet, Lettres ue.
Lettuce [from Lat. Inctu ca, lettuce]: an important salad-
plant, Lartiicd aafira: a composite herb, the native coun-
try of which is not known. There are many varieties,
some of which form heiids of leaves and others do not. It
is easy of tligeslion. rather laxative, and gently soporific.
From its juice the narcotic Lactucakiim {(/. v.) is prepared.
There are several Asiatic. European, and American sjieeies
of wild lettuce (Ltictuca), most of which have an acrid-nar-
cotic c|uality. About 120 varieties of lettuce are sold by
seed-dealers in the U. S. Lettuce is esusy of culture in the
oi>en air. The so-called Cos lettuces are noted for summer
Hsc. although they are much less popular in the C S. than
in Europe. Lettuce-forcing in greenhouses is an important
industry. Keviseil by L. II. IUiley.
Leiiciidia: See Santa Maira.
Lencailiaii I'romontor}' : See Cai'e Dltato.
Lcnca'niia [M'hI. Lat.; Gr. \tuK6i. white -h ol^ia. blood],
or Lencocytliu-iuiu [(ir. KeuKit, white -i- kiW-os. a liollow ves-
s<;l, cell -t- dim. blood] : one of the blood diseases, de]iendent
upon some dislurbance in tlie process of blood-making. It
receives its name from the character of the blood, which
contains a renuirkable increase in the number of while cor-
puscles or leucocytes. These are present in normal blood
in the proiMirtiun of one to about :M) or ."iOO of the red cor-
puscles, wliile ill leiKii'inia the proportion becomes 1 : 10 or
even 1 : 1. The red corpuscdes are icmIucciI somewhat in
actual nnmlper, but the altered proportion is mainly iliie to
the ennrmoiis increase of leucocytes. The disease is charac-
lerizeil by enlargement of the spleen and often of the lym-
phatic glanils of the neck, axilla, or other region.s. There is
great pallor and weakness, as in other ana-mic conditions,
and the disease tends to a fatal terminalion in from six
iiionlhs to three vears. Arscnii- has snine power to arrest
the progress of tiie disease, liut this piiwer is slight anil in-
conslant. William Pkim'ER.
Leucaii'ilinc [from Gr. XtmiSt. while -l- Eng. nniliui}:
' '.aliiiNi, a base produced by the action of reducing agents
on ro.«aniline, and related to it in the same manner as indi-
go-white to indigo-blue:
Rosaiijliue. I.eueniiiline.
CoIli.N'.O -H 1I, = C,„1U,N, + 11,0.
Leu'cine [from (ir. \(vk6s. white] : a crystalline substance
which is among the products of incipient putrefaction of
the albuminoid or proteid bodies. Proust was the discov-
erer of it in cheese, and IJraconnot obtained it by treating
animal .substances with suliihuric acid. It occurs diffused
widelv throughout living animal tissues. Its composition
is CBniiNOj. lis .scientific name is amijocdjimic acid, and
its constitution is represented thus: CjIlnlNlljjOj ; as de-
rived from caproic acid, C«IIij()j, bv replacement of Hj by
Nil,, amiilogen. It was called by its earlier investigators
ojide of ciixfiiie or cnxeoiiis ojide. Aiii>lher crystalline sub-
stance, called /i/cos/hc. which is CellnNOs. always accora-
panies leucine in nature. Leucine is prepared by boiling
norn-shaviiigs with dilute sulphuric acid, removing the lat-
ter by chalk, evaporating, dissolving in alcohol, decolorizing
with animal charcoal, and crystallizing. There are several
other iiu'lliods. however. Leucine may be sublimed like
camphor. It dissolves in warm, not in cold, water.
The .study of these immediate products of metamorpho.ses
of the nitrogenous substances that form animal tissues is of
the utmost importance in connection with physiology and
the learning of the chemical laws of life and death, of health
and disease. In this view, leucine and tyrosine, and their
associates and congeners, are bodies of high iin]iortance.
Revised by liiA Kemsex.
Lcuciscus: See (iRAZZixi.
Leuckart. loi ka'ail. Karl (iEouo Priedrrh Ridolf:
zoologist and educator: b. at Ilelmsledt, in Brunswick, Oct.
7, 1833: studied medicine and natural science at Gtittingen
under Wagner, and was appointed Professor of Zoology and
C"oinparative Anatomy at the University of Giessen in 1850.
Wis Jif it nil/I'll ziir Kmnftiixs wirbi-Unmr I'lticre (1848) and
i'elier dm J'lilytnorp/iismus der Indiridiien (IKA) attracted
much attention. but it was more especially his helmintholog-
ical researches. Hie Ji/iixexbiiiidu'riniier (1K")6) and Trichi-
na spiralis (18(il), which made his name celebrated. lie
also wrote Die I'arasiten des Menschen (2 vols.. 1861-06; 2d
ed.. 1 vol., 1889). For many years he compiled the record
of invcrtel)rate literature intlie Arcliir fUrjS^aturgeschichte.
It is more as a teacher that Leuckart is celebrated, more
naturalists of celebrity having received their education from
liim than from any other teacher in Europe. For many
vears he has been Professor of Zui'ilngy at Leijizig, and his
laboratories are constantly thronged.
Leiieooyte [from Gr. \€vk6s, while + kiJtos, cell]: a col-
lective name given to colorless migralnry cells found in va-
rious parts of the body. They aiijiarenlly arise in the
lvmph:iti(^ glands and other adenoid structures, and thence
tliey find their way to all parts of the body. In the lym-
phatic vessels they are called lymph-corpuscles, in the blood
while corpuscles, and when outside these vessels, if few in
number, wandering cells, or if collected at some point of
injury, piis-cells. Their function seems to be largely that
of eating foreign matters in the body, and they engulf bac-
teria, etc., after the manner of an anueba. It was formerly
thought that, losing the nucleus, they gave rise to the red
blood-corpuscles, but this is not the case. They apparently
break down, and it is supposed that the blood jilaipies (see
Blooii) arise from their disintegration. .1. S. Kixoslev.
Leucocythie'iiiia : Sec Lei"c.i:.mia.
Leuc(>rrh(i''a [Mod. Lat.; (ir. \fuK6i. wliile -t- ^frv, flow
(cf. ^o7). a lluwing. fur (iolri\: the whiles, a calarrlial flow
from llie vaginal or uterine niueinis membranes. This dis-
ease is an exaggeration of the normal mucuns secretion, and
is often conseipienl upon a somewhat inilammalory condi-
tion of the mucous membranes. Kest, the use of iron and
other tonics, and aslringeiil washes are often highly bene-
fi<ial. Sometimes the catamenia a.ssuine a leucorrhieal
character, especially toward the close. The cervix uteri is
often involved ii a sub-acute or chronica infiammalinn,
which mil iinfrequently is best treated by local caustic or
oilier apiilicalions.
Lciicothea: See I.vo.
Leiic'tra (in Gr. t4 AtDxpro): village' of Ba>olia. between
Plata'a' and Thespju'; became famous as the place where
the Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the .Spartans un-
der Cleombrotus in 371 b. c, thereby checking forever the
LEURET
LEVEES
203
influence wliit-h Sjiavta had exercised over Greece for sev-
eral centuries.
■ Lenret, lorii', FKANf;ois: physician: b. at Xancy, France,
Dec. 3, 1707; .studied medicine, and took his degree in 1820.
Having applied himself with special interest to the study of
mental disea.ses, and developed original ideas of the treat-
ment of the insane, he was a|)poinled physician of the in-
.sane section of the liicetre, then dire<'tor of a lunatic asy-
lum in Paris, and at last director of the Bicetre. His most
jirominent writings are Fragments pnyrhnlnijiqiies sur la
Fdlie (1834); Traitemeni moral de. la Fulie (1840); and
Dfs Indicntiuns a suii-re dans le Traitement moral de la
Folia (1846). D. at Nancy, Jan. 6, 1851.
Levaillaiit, le-vayalin', Frax^ois : traveler and onii-
tliolngist ; Ij. in 1753 at Paramaribo, in Dutch Guiana, of
French parents; removed to P^urope in 1763; was educated
at different j)laces in Germany, and in 1777 studied natural
science in Paris; in 1780 proceeded to the Cape of Good
Hope, whence he made two journeys to the interior of
Africa, which he described on his return to Paris in 1785 in
his Voyage dans VInterieur de I'Afrique (1790) and Second
Voyage (1795). These books were read with great interest
and ran through several editions, though they were much
criticised by scientific authorities. Of unquestionable value
were his collections, sold partly in France, partly in Hol-
land, anil his ornithological works, llistoire naturelle des
Oiseaux d'Afrigue (6 vols., 1798-1812); Histoire naturelle
des Perroquets (3 vols., 1801-05). D. at Sezanne in Cham-
pagne, Nov. 23, 1824.
Levant, The [Levant is from Ital. levatiie, liter., rising,
east, deriv. of lera're, rise. (Cf. orient, from Lat. oriens,
rising)] : the countries bordering on the eastern part of the
Mediterranean — Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The term
was brought into use in the early MidiUe Ages, when the
Italian repuljlics controlled the commerce of Europe.
Lev'ees [ = Fr., liter., a raising, deriv. of lever, lift, raise] :
embankments on the margin of a river to prevent inun-
dation. Levees, embankments, dikes, dams, were used by
the ancients during the earliest historical periods. Prob-
ably the first to use them were the Egyptians in the Nile
valiey. The Assyrians and Babylonians also reclaimed by
this means portions of the valley of the Euphrates and
Tigris. The Chinese leveed their great rivers, the Yang-tse-
kiang and the Hwang-ho. Egypt being a rainless country,
or nearly so, except near the seacoast, the alluvial valley-
lands of the Nile could not be cultivated without irrigation.
During the flood season of the Kile — the greatest height
being reached about the time of the autumnal equinox —
water is drawn off through sluices in the levees, and con-
veyed through canals to where it is needed; it is there re-
tained within leveed areas or basins as long as required.
Variations of a few feet in the annual rise of the Nile are
therefore of the utmost im|)ortance to the Egyptians, for
low inundations cause dearths or famines, and excessive in-
undations destruction of property, disease, and loss of life.
The Nile system is one of leveeing and irrigation, but the ir-
rigation includes the inundation of the valley-lands through-
out, leaving dry only the mounds on which the cities, towns,
and villages are built, or the leveed areas from which the
water is excludetl. Near Cairo the river levees are from
i2 to 15 feet in height, and but very little higher than the
river flood-line. The annual overflow of the Nile lands
through sluices— or gradiuited outlets — for many centuries
hiis caused the gradual elevation of these lands — about 4 to
4\ inches in a century — and also the elevation of the river
flood-line. Below Cairo, at the head of the Delta proper,
there has been constructed since 1846 a masonry dam, or
barrage, provided with numerous sluice-gates, across (he
branches of the Nile, for I he purpose of facilitating irriga-
tion during low water in the river. Navigation is provided
for by means of a lock at the end of the barrage.
In Hindustan embankments, or bunds, are used to con-
struct reservoirs for the purpose of irrigating the sterile
hills and plains, which were barren only for want of irriga-
tion during the protracted seasons of drought. In the
Madras provinces alone, Capt. Smith informs us, there exist
no less than 43,000 reservoir-tajiks in repair, and 10,000 out
of repair — all of native origin. He estimates the length of
the levees or embankments which form these reservoirs at
30,000 miles.
In Italy the levee system has been in use for many cen-
turies— for reclamation as well as to facilitate irrigation —
and the old Italian engineers announced some truths which,
though manifest and plain, are not even yet fullv recognized
among modern engine<TS, or those of to-day. They learned
that the lower or alluvial portions of turbid or sedimentary
rivers can be leveed safely, without elevation of their beds
or surface as the result of the increased quantity of water
confined within the channel by levees; that derivations, or
outlets, will not permanently "lower the tlood-line in such
portions of a sedimentary river ; and that a division of the
waters of such a river into more than one channel results in
the elevation of the beds and high-water lines of the divided
channels.
The levees of Holland, whereby immense areas of land,
submerged from 5 to 15 feet below nuian tide in the North
Sea, have been reclaimed, drained, and cultivated, are the
most wonderful of any. The levees and hvdraulic 'works of
Holland have cost fully §1,500,000,000. The whole country
is an intricate network of rivers, water-channels, and canals
bordered by levees, and the unconquerable perseverance
and industry of the Dutch people have converted a deso-
late marsh and lakes into the richest farms and gardens in
Europe. Bv means of steam machinery and windmills these
lands are kept dry. To prevent their being overwhelmed
again, the levees are placed under a careful svstem of in-
spection. One of the most st ujiendous undertakings of mod-
ern times in land reclamation by means of dikes or levees is
the reclaiming of a large part of the ZuyderZee in Holland.
This body of water was formed in 1219 "and 1282 by terrible
storms, during which 10,000 people perished. A dam is now
(1894) being built for the purpose of shutting out the North
Sea from a large part of this area. The amount of land to
be reclaimed is about 1,000,000 acres. The estimate<i cost of
building the main dam and the interior dikes and pumping
out the water is $95,000,000. The estimated value of the
lands to be reclaimed is about $300,000,000. It will add
about 10 per cent, to the area of Holland.
Levees as Applied to the Mississippi Biver. — The levee-
ing of the Mississippi river was begun at New Orleans in
about tlie year 1720, the engineer Dumont de la Tour hav-
ing, after locating the future city in 1717, ordered a front
levee of 5,400 feet in length by" 4 feet in height and 18
feet wide at top, as necessary to protect the city. In 1717
de la Tour's observations showed that the rive"r flood-line
was 3 feet higher than the river-bank in the bend where lie
located the proposed city, and he allowed for a levee a foot
above the high-water line at that time. Little progress was
made in levee construction from 1763. when France ceded
Louisiana to Sjjain, until 1803. when it passed to the U. S.
In 1805 the settlements and levees began about 40 miles be-
low and extended nearly 120 miles above New Orleans ; and
the Pointe Coupee settlement above had a front of 24 miles
on the river. In 1812 Louisiana was admitted into the Fed-
eral Union, and, according to .Stodilard. the levees were con-
tinuous on "both sides of the river from the lowest settle-
ments " to Baton Rouge, and on the right bank to Puinte
Coupee. In 1861 levees extended almost continuously from
Cape Girardeau in Missouri, with about 40 miles of openings
in the aggregate above the Arkansas river, right bank, ac-
cording to Prof. Forshey, down to near the forts below New
Orleans.
As has already been stated, the process of levee construc-
tion on the Mississippi began at New Orleans. The portion
below the last affluent, Red river — was first leveed ; there-
fore the enlargement of the lower river by the closure of ils
outlets and the confinement of all the water to the channel,
took place before the leveeing of the upper river. It was
well that it so happened, for had the upjier river been first
leveed, before the enlargement of the lower river, the flood-
height below would have been much increased and the in-
undations made more frequent and disa-strous. In about
150 years' time the levee system hiul been extended, from
New Orleans, aliout 70 miles below and about 1,000 miles
above. Plvery bend, before levees weie built around it. was
a continuous outlet, for the river flo<«l-line was several feet
higher than the l)anks in the bends. Even the banks around
the points were overflowed before they were leveed, for they
were formed by alluvial deposits, while inundated, and were
leveed because subject to overflow. The lower river was first
acconnnodated to the leveeing up of outlets. The building
of levees is nothing else than the closing up of outlets, ana
the retention between the river-banks and the levees of the
waters which previously passed out laterally over the banks.
No evidence exists that the flood-line of the lower Mississippi
river is the fraction of an inch higher now than it was be-
fore the building of the first levee in front of New Orleans,
2u4
LKVEKS
but the area of the river's fhannol hius l>eon increaseil un-
duul)U->llv. Kvcry millet, except the Hayou liafouivhe— the
hijrli-watiT eai>aoi'ty of whieh is uiily al'iuit 12.0(H) culiie feet
persee<>iiil.>'rles,-i than the (iiie-hiiiiilreillh part iif the Missis-
sippi— lias been closet! below Keil river without aiMiiifr to
the heiirht of the river llooil-line in the lower river. Had
tl,, ■ •.•111 IxH'ii lifsiiii aUive ami exteiuletl ilowiiwanl,
li ; wouKl have been ililTerent.
K :i clainicil (by U. .S. ensiiieers lluin|ilireys ami
AblKit) that the blui'-clay'l>eil of the Mississippi river " re-
sists the action of the strong; current like inarl>lc."_aiul that
then-fore " the bed of the Missis-ippi can not yielil " ami ac-
commodate its«Of to the inctx'a.seil (piaiitily of water con-
finctl to the channel by levees. It was then-fore a.-<suiiic<i by
them that no eiilar;,'emenl of waterway occurs, ami no al-
lowance for it was iiiaile in ealciilatin-,' the ellVcl ot addinj;
to the iiuaiitily of water by extending levees. It is well
known that the action of fuiining water slowly wears away
even the haniest primitive and volcanic rocks — as, for in-
stance, throufih the immense cations of the t'olorailo river,
and elsewhere all over the world — and that it dissolves aiid
wears away clay, no inatlcr how firm, can not lie {jainsiiid
with truth'. Wiu-nevcr a " cul-olf " occurs in the Missis-
sippi river, the clay bed of the river is rapidly excavated,
ami the cut-<UT soon becomes lus larfie in section lus the river
elsewhere. Every liend of the river below a cut-oil is ex-
cavated rapidly and lengthened, and the dce|)est water is
always found nearest to the baidc in the bend where the blue-
clay bed lias just been washed out. In 1874, for instance,
the maximum horizontal ranje or extent of cavin;; at Mor-
ganzia. below Ued river, duriiiir tliat year was 550 feet; at
Point .Manoir, opiiosite I'-irt Hudson, it was 1,100 feet ; at
Lobilell's, above Baton Kou-re, it was 4(50 feet ; near Hayou
Goula it was ;i50 feet ; at Landry's, in Ascension parisli, it was
420 feet ; in two places in St. Charles parish it was :!00 feet ;
op|M)site Xew Orleans it was 200 feet in one place and 220
feet in another, while cavings of 220 feet, 160 feet, and 80
feet occurreil between Xew (jrleans and the forts below ; all
ot which show that the clay bed of the Jlississippi does
yield and wear away from year to year, and far more nijiidly
than is necessary for the very slow, and in fact inappreciable,
yearly increase due to Icvce extension. A comparison of
river' cross-sect ions opposite .lackson and St. Anne Streets,
Xew Orleans, made aliout 1880 by Prof. Forshey, furnishes
another proof that the area of the channel-way is enlarging
bv yielding of theilaybed. ."sections were taken opposite
the abnve-iiauied streets in 1850 and in 1HT2. and the areas
of section in 1872 were 54.1W0 and 5(5,000 sq. feet, respec-
tively, greater than in 185(J. Opposite .Jackson Street the
deptii had increased 13 feet, and opposite St. Anne Street
15 feet. Opposite the lower portion of Xew Orleans a like
increase of section and depth was manifest.
When the river was first leveed below Kod river, embank-
ments of from 4 to 5 feel high, with a crown of 4 feet ami
slo|)es of 3 to 1, were found sullicient around the bends,
where now levees from 15 to 20 feet high, with a crown of
10 feet or more and slopes of -i to 1, are needed, and are
now built and maintained. A levee 15 feet high, of the
crown anil slopes last named, contains nearly twelve times
ivs much earth, for a given length, as was rcrpiired for tho
old levees; hence the largely increased cost of Icvce con-
struction and maintenance now, with the river Uood-litie no
higher than at first notwithstamling tliecllccts of cut-olTs.
Outlets temporarily lower the (lood-line of a sedimentary
river, but their final clfect always must be an increase<l ele-
vation of the bed and surface of such a river, and the con-
traction of its channel-way ; for the law is that the less the
quantity of water flowing, as the normal miiximum, tlie
grcater must be Iheslnpus of l>ed and surface. Outlets, there-
fore, can not be depi-nded upon for lowering the flood-line of
the lower .Mississippi permanently, and they are not needed,
because the extension and perfection of the liivco system
never has caiLsed, and will not clause, any elevation of the
river Hood-line.
As an example of the action of an nutlet or crevosso in
causing a deposit in, and a eontractinn of, the channel be-
low It, tin- fidlowing is given: In 1H74, Apr. 11, a crevasse
Tici-urred in a large levee at Konnet Carre, left bank of Ihe
Mississippi, 40 miles aiiove Xew Orleans. It l)eiame l.:t70
feet wide, wit h an area of ilischarge of about ;i2,()00 sc). fi-el,
or nearly a sixth that of the river opposite. The range of
the river here from high to low water is aliout 21 feet, and
the level of the land a fourth of a mile back of the line of
levee which had given way was 15 fcol below the river llood-
linc. On July 15, when the river had fallen 15 feet, the
water ceased to run through the crevasse outlet o|xining.
In the latter part of September, when the river had fallen '20
feet, sections of the river were carefully taken aliovc and be-
low this outlet. The results, liriefly summed up, were as
follows; Maximum depths above crevasse, 110 and 7!) feet
on two sections ; niaxiuium depths of sections below crevasse,
(52 and (54 feel. Firm clay bottom above, soft, sillv ooze bot-
tom, indicating recent deposit, below crevas.sp Low-water
widths above, 2,880 and 3,014 feet; below, 2.406 and 2.453
feet, showing a reduction in mean width below of .521 feet.
Ijow-walcr areas of upjier sections, 184,6.53 and 164,167 sq.
feet : of lower sections, 96,640 and 100,150 sq. feet, a reiluc-
lioii of channel section, means of upper and lower, of 73,015
sq. feet. The widths on the high-water lines averaged 3.165
feet for the upper sections, and 3,365 feet bdow ; the width
below being 200 feet, the greatest at high water. The mean
high-water areas of sections were 75.000 sq. feet less below
than above. It was estimated that this outlet or crevasse of
the full dimensions measured would discharge at high water
about a tenth of the river at flood. Below this crevasse!
tlu-rc were, in the next bend as well as o|iposil(-, extensive
deposits of sand and earth, reaching several feet above the
low- water line, which were known to be now. All of these
meiusurcments and observations demonstrate nnniistakably
that the Bonnet Carre crevasse outlet of 1874 did can.se
a jiartial filling up and contraction of the river-channel
below it. •>
In calculating the effects of adding to the quantity of
water in the Mississippi river by closing outlets, or in per-
fecting the levee sy.stem.or of reducing the quantity by out-
lets, it will not do to assume that the sectional area of
channel-way will be neither enlarged nor cimtracted. That
certain determinate and determinabk- relati<ins exist between
the quantity of water flowing, the mean velocity of current,
the sectional area of channel-way. and the slopes of bed
and surface, can not be ignored or disregarded. I'hey must
be admitted to insure a reliable result. It is evident, there-
lore, that levees alone can be relied ujion for the permanent
reclamation of the Mississippi valley lands. Cut-olfs should
be prevented as long as possible. Oulh-ts are worse than
useless, even if it were possible to provide a separate and
leveed channel to the .sea for the water so drawn off; they
overflow land when reclamation is the end in view. Arti-
ficial reservoirs are impracticable, and what natural swamp-
reservoirs there are above Red river only add to the river-
floods, anil thereby increase the danger of inundation, by
feeding the rise below them. As to the divcreiim of tribu-
taries, it would be useless even if practicable. By means of
levees, and afterward of interior drainage, every acre of land
in theMi.ssissip|)i valley, exclusive of drainage channels, may
be reclaimed and cultivated.
The total lengths of levees required to protect the Missis-
sippi front maybe stated as follows: In Louisiana, below
Red river, .500 miles; above Red river, 280 miles. In Mis-
sissippi, 380 miles. In Arkansas, 545 miles. In Missouri,
80 miles. Total, 1,785 miles. In Louisiana, the interior
rivers, bayous, and old river lakes wouhl require about 925
miles more.
In 187!) the Government appointed a mixed commission,
composeii of military engineers and civil engineers and sci-
entists, to look into the iin|U'ovoment of the Jlississippi
river between St. Louis and Xew Orleans. The commission,
fully e()iii])ped with funds, made a thorough and nearly
exhaustive survey of the lower Jlississippi river, and for
several years carried on a series of observations at various
points to ascertain the most important factors in the great
problem before them. As a result of these surveys and ex-
aminations the commission agneed in recommending the
confinement and concentration of discharge by restraining
and contracting works, instead of its dilTusion and waste
through lateral channels and ouilets. as the nndi-rlving prin-
<iples of any correct system of improvement of tlie Missis-
sippi river. They also stated that the standard elcvatiim for
levees should be sutlicienl to confine flooils. with the inten-
tion of pidducing the maximum eirecl of channel im|)rove-
ment ; ami in order nnl to disturb the regimen of the river
too greatly, but gradually to lend it to form a dcijier chan-
nel, it was considered best in the process of levee-building
to work from below upward, as it would by this process be
less likely to |)rodiice a temporary increa.sc of flood-height
in th(- upper parts of the river below Cairo. During the ex-
aminations of the conditions and history of the river, the
outlet system was thoroughly considered and studied, and
LEVELEUS
LEVELS AXD 1>EVELIXG
205
was fonilomiicii by the cummission. and also rejected by
several congressional conimittces, as a system wholly wrong
in princijjle wliere the ileepenin<^ of a channel is to be
sought. I>ne of the most important principles, established
clearly by abundant facts, is that the slope of the river is
found to be invariably increased as the volume is dimin-
ished. This increase of slope, caused by the loss of ilood-
wateis through ontlets, must naturally increase the flood-
height of the river.
The Mississippi river commission, with the funds placed
at its disposal by the U. S. Government, is carrying on a sys-
tematic improvement of the lower Mississippi river, based
on the |iriu^jiples above stated. On the upper Mississippi
leveeing, or embanking, against the floud-walers of the river
has been carried on to a considerable e.\lent, with the
purpose, particularly, of reclaiming extensive tracts of bot-
tom-lands. The most notable instance is the 8ny-island
levee, abo\it 50 nnles in length, along the l)anks of the Mis-
sissippi river in Illinois, ojiposite the cities of Hannibal,
Louisiana, and t'larksville, reclaiming from the overflow of
the river about 100.000 acres of extremely fertih^ lam Is. The
incidental but very imjiortant effect of this work upon the
<'hann>;-l of the river hxs been one of great benelit. Through
the Sny-Cartee slough or bayou, which traverses nearly the
whole length of this tract parallel with the river, there was
abstracted at the Hood-season about one-sixteenth of the
whole voluiTie of the river. Before the construction of the
levee there ♦ere several bars forming serious obstructions to
navigation, the principal one lying just below the head or the
inlet of this slough. ( >thei-s nearly as difficult of navigation
at low water of the river were located at intervals along the
front of the tract. The navigation of the river was always a
very difficult undertaking, but since the construction of the
levee the channel has generally been deepened and naviga-
tion made comparatively safe, easy, and unobstructed.
The work on the lower Mississippi has been carried on by
the Mississippi river commissitm and the States generally on
systematic plans laid down liv the commis.sion. Tlie alluvi-
al lands affected cover 2Si7!t6 S([. miles— 10,Ot).),(iOO acres of
fertile soil as rich as any in the world. Only about one-
sixth of this area is under cultivation. There has been ex-
)ien<lecl since the close of the civil war — 1.S6G — about $40,-
(100,000 by the V. S.. the States, and districts. The jiresent
nntuial amount available from these sources is about $4,-
100,000, of which ^l..-)OO.II00 is furnished bv the V. S. Gov-
ernment and *2,(i00.000 by the States and districts. There
is now a contniuous line of levees on the east bank of the
river from Memphis to near the mouth of the river. The
west bank had in 1892 one break in Louisiana and several
in Arkansas, but these are now closed. The total length of
crevasses on both banks in the flood of 1892 was less tlian 2
miles, as against 4 miles in 1890, 106 miles in 1884, and
589 miles in 1882. The flood of 1882 caused <lamage to the
amount of !j;2T,000,000 : the total loss since 186.5 is ^84,000,-
000— that of the flood of 1892 was $7,000,000. Wherever
the levees were of the standard dimensions they withstood
the flood of that year. Where the breaks occurred they were
generally weakened by crawfish, anil were of inadequate di-
mensions. E. L. CORTHKLL.
Lerelers : the name of an ultra-democratic political
party in England during the period of the civil war. Dis-
satisfied with the form of government estalilished after the
triumph of the I'arliamentarians, they clamored for a re-
piublic based on the absolute equality of all citizens before
the law. They were a strong element in the parliamentary
army, and in 1640 broke out into actual mutiny, but the
movement was suppressed with severity. Throughout the
earlier years of the Commonwealth their views were ad-
vanced in scores of political pamphlets, of wliich the most
notewortliy are those of the fanatical JoHX Limr'RXE (</. v.),
whose violent language several times caused his arrest.
From these pamphlets it appears that in political matters
they recognized the supreme legislative authority of Parlia-
ment, and demanded the leveling of all ranks and the im-
l)artial administration of the law ; while in religious matters
they claimed complete freedom of conscience. F. M. C.
LpvcIs and Leveliiigr: instruments and operations for de-
termining the difference in height between two points, or for
ascertaining whether a surface is level. A level surface is
one parallel with the surface of still water, and any line
<lrawn in such a surface is a line of true level. A line of
apparent level is a line contained in a jilane tangent to a
surface of true level.
Lerels. — Levels are constructed on one of three principles:
1. a line of apparent level is perpendicular to a jilumb-line
freely susjiended ; 2, a line of apparent level is tangent to
the free surfjice of a liipiid in equilibrium ; and 3, a ray of
light which is perjiendicular to a vertical mirror is a line of
api)arent level.
The level formerly much used by masons and brick-layers
affords an example of the method of applying the first prin-
ciple. In its simplest form, this kind of level consists of a
T-shaped frame, the line corresponding to the top of the T
being perfectly straight and at right angles to a second line
drawn through the middle of the stem of the T. A plumb-
line IS attached at some point of the second line; and when
the instrument is held so that the i>lumb-line corresponds
to this second line, the first line is a line of apjiarent level.
The cro.ss line of tlie T may be turned downward, as is
usually the case when used by mechaincs.
The ordinary Y level is an example of the insfromcnts
constructed on the second principle. It consists essentially
of a telescope mounted on two vertical supports, which from
their shape are called Vs. The Y"s themselves are attached
to a solid bar, which turns about an axis at right angles to
it. This bar and its axis are connected with a supporting
tripod so arranged that the axis may be made vertical by
the aid of leveling-screws. .Suspended from the telescope is
a delicate sjiirit-level, which, when in adjustment, is parallel
to the line of colliniation of the telescope. The line of col-
limation of the telescope is indicated by two cross hairs
placed in the common focus of the field-lens and eye-piece.
When the instiiimcnt is adjusted the attached level is paral-
lel to the line of colliniation of the telescope, and both are
perpendicular to the axis. To use the instrument the tripod
is set firndy in the ground, and by means of the leveling-screws
the level-bubble is brought in such a position that it will re-
main in the middle of the tube iluring an entire revolution
around the axis. The axis of the limb is then vertical, and
consequently the line of collimalion of the telescope in all
its jiositions is a line of apparent level.
Levels constructed on the third principle are called reflect-
ing levels. One form of this class of levels consists of a plate
of glass suspendetl from a ring, and weighted so that the
plane of the glass shall always be vertical. One half of the
glass is sUvered and the other half unsilvered, the line of
division Viet ween the two portions being vertical. A line is
ruled across the middle of the [date perpen<iicular to the
one last mentioned, and is consequently horizontal. To use
the instrument it is held by the ring, and raised or lowered
until the observer sees the image of his eye reflected from
the ruled horizontal line on the silvered portion; the plane
through the eye in that position and the line on the unsil-
vered portiim is a planeof apparent level. Instruments of this
kind have been used for making reconnoissances, and also
for contouring in topographical surveys, but they are not
very accurate. See IItpsometrv.
Lere/iiig-rodx are graduate<i rods of wood having the 0 of
the scale at the bottom of the rod. One of the best consists
of a staff of hard wood, cajiped with metal, usually about
12 feet in length. A sliding target can be moved up and
down upon it. This rod is graduated to hundredths of a
foot, and on one edge of the rectangular opening in the tar-
get is a vernier, by means of which the rod may be rea<l to
thousandths of a foot. A second fijrm of leveling-rod is
similar to that just described, except that the rod is con-
structed in two sections, one of which slides in a groove of
the other. The arrangement of the graduation is modified
to conform to the peculiar character of the sliding-joint.
A third form of rod consists of a simple rod without a tar-
get, the divisions and numbers being so distinct that the
readings may be read by the observer at the level.
The difference of level between two neighlx)ring points
may be determined by means of the Y^ievel and a leveling-
rod as follows: Let the level be set up at some convenient
place, and so arranged as to indicate a surface of apparent
level ; place a leveling-rod at the first point and note tha
height at which it is intersected by the level surface ; in
like manner place a rod at the secon<i point and note the
height at which it is cut by the level surface; subtract the
first of these heights from the second, and the remainder
will be the difference of level of the two points. If the re-
maincler is -i-, the second point is higher than the first; if
the remainder is — , the second point is lower than the first.
In the same manner we may determine the difference of
level between the second point and a third point, between
the third point and a fourth, and so on, as far as may be de-
206
Lfivftyi'K
LEVIUATE MARRIAGE
siralile. Tlic total ilifTen-nce of li-vel between the first point
ami llie last is tlicu equal to the ulyebraie sum of all the
jiartial liilTerences of level.
Trii/uiiumrlric Irfeliitg is the o|)cration of determining
differi-iiees of level by the help of vertieal anfjles. For this
purpi'se the horizontal ilistanec between the points must be
known, and this is usually found by trianfiulalion. Then
the an^le of elevation of one point beiiif; observed at the
other, the differenee in heij,'ht can be eompuled by the rules
of trigonomelrv. This method is liable to error from the
ellei-t of the refraction of the atmosphere, whieli may often
increase the true angle of elevation, and for the best work
simultaneous anfjles are observed at both points, or correc-
tions are applied to eliminate the ellect of the refraction.
Other methods of leveling are by the barometer, and by
notiuf; tlie temperatures at which water boils at the two sta-
tions. These are far less accurate than the method of trig-
onometrical levelins;, and are ojdy used for rough rcconnois-
sance. The highest precision in leveling is attained by the
spirit-level instrument and leveling-rod, of which special
forms are made for accurate work. The deviation in results
of two lines of levels conducted in the same manner is found
to increase as the square root of the distance. The limit of
discrepancy allowal)le between two such lines varies with
the character of the work. In the precise levels of tlic
Mississippi river survey it was taken as 0-021 feet mul-
tiplied by the square root of the distance in miles; thus
two duplicate lilies of levels between points a mile ajiart
were not allowed to ililTer more than 0021 feet, between
points 4 miles apart not more than 0042 feet, and between
points 1(X) miles apart not more than 0-21 feet. See the
articles B.vkometek, Coast a.vu tiEouETic Sirvev, Sir-
VEYiso, and Topoubaphy.
Revised by Mansfield Merrimax.
L#vef|ne, Id'vek', .Iean Cuarles : professor of philoso-
phy; b. at Bordeaux, France, Aug, 7, 1818; made exten-
sive studies of the Greek and .Mexandrian philosophers;
resided in 1847-48 at Athens. After his return to France
held professorships at Toulouse, BesanciiU, and Nancy; be-
came Professor in I'hilosuphy at the I'ollcge de France in
18.)(j ; in 18ti5 member, ancl in 18T;i vice-president, of the
Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, lie received the
decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1860 and was made an
oflicer in 1885. Hesides articles in the liciue din Deux
Jlotides, remarkable for erudition, he published in 1860 La
Science du Bean (2 vols., 2d ed. 1871), a work which re-
ceived prizes from several French academies. His I/tii-
moitiex prucidenlielles (1872) passed to a tliird edition in
1877.
Lever : See Mechanical Powers.
Le'ver. Charles .Iames: novelist ; b. in Dublin, Ireland,
Aug. .31, 1806; took the degree of M. B. at Dublin Tniver-
sity 18>il, and of M. D. at (iiittingcn ; was medical super-
intendent in Londonderry during the cholera season of
lH;i2 ; phvsician to the legation at Brussels: etlitor of T/ie
Dublin Lnicernili/ Mac/mine 1842—45; vice-consul at Spezia
1858-67, and afterward consul at Trieste ; attained great
success as a writer of humorous novels, chielly descriptive
of Irish life and character, among which are l/arn/ Ltirre-
qiier (1840); Charles (fMalley (1841); Arthur (fLeary
(1844); The 0'Don<,gliHe(lS4'>): Horace Temple/on (1849);
Con Cregan (1857); The Bramteii/hs nf liishnp's Folli/
(1868); Lord Kilyobbin (1872), ani'l nuiiiy others. D. at
Trieste, .luno 1, 1872. Revised by II. .V. Beers.
Leverrier, Ic-vd'ri-a', Ukbalv .Iean .Ioseimi: astrono-
mer; b. at St.-Lo, France, JIar. 11. IKU; studied at the
ficole Polytechnique, Paris; aflcrward turiK'd his attention
to chemistry. It was not until 18:i8 or 18;j<j that he com-
menced the investigations in celestial mechanics that made
him famous. His first researches were on the .secular varia-
tions of the planetafy orbits, and in 1841! he published an
extended work on the orbit of Mercury. In 184.5-46 he
maile his famous discovery that the observed ilevialions in
the motion of I'ranns iould Ih' explained by the attraction
of an unknown planet, anil as the residt of his calculations
he was able to direct the attention of astronomers to the
latter's place in the heavens, where, a few days afterward,
the planet N'KiTf.SE U/. i:) was actually discovered by Galle
at Berlin in Sept., 1846. This honor he shares with tlie Kng-
IJsli astronomer .\dams. (See Adams, .Iomn Coicii.) In
1854 hi' succeeded .\rago as director of the observatory of
Paris, an oflice which, except for an interval of three years
(1870-oJ), he held till his death ; became a senator, an
.\cademician, and a grand officer of the Legion of Honor.
.\s director of the observatory he investigated the orbits of
the eight major jilanets in u series of researches, forming the
greater part of volumes i, to xiv. of the Aiinalm de rohger-
catoire de Paris — Meinuires, 1), in Paris, Sept. 23, 1877.
Revised by S. Xewcomh.
Le Vert, Ic-vert', Octavia (^Yultu)l)•. author; b. at Belle-
vue, near Augusta, Ga., about 1810 : granddaughter of
Col. (ieorge Walton, a signer of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence. She married in 1K:!6 Dr. Henry S. Le Vert, a
phvsician of Mobile, and pa-ssed several winters in Wajshing-
toii, where she enjoyed the friend>liip of Clay, Webster, Cal-
houn, and Washington Irving, and acquired distinction for
the precision of the reports she wrote of the fanunis congres-
sional debates on the removal of the dejiosits from the U. S.
bank. In 18.53-.54, an<l again in 1855, Mrs. Le Vert traveled
in Kurope. and recorded her observatiims in the interesting
volumes called Siiurenirs of Trarel (2 vols., 1857). She ren-
dered good service in behalf of the Mt. Vernon Association,
and was noted for offices of charity during the civil war.
She also prepared for publication Souvenirs of Dix/in-
yui.ihed People and Souvenirs of the ^^'ar, and enjoyed a
great reputation as a linguist and as a leader of society. D.
near Augusta, Ga., Mar. 13, 18T7. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Lp'vi [lleb.. wreathed]: in biblical history the third son
of Jacob and Leah ; b. in Padan-aram about B.«\ 1017, and
the ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of IsriM-l, called by
his name. (See Levites.) Of his personal hisforv the only
trait which has been recorded is the massacre wliich, with
his brother Simeon, he perpetrated upon the iidiiibitants of
Shechem to avenge the wrong done his sister Dinah (Gen.
xsxiv.). Levi went into Egypt with his father and broth-
ers after the elevation of Joseph, and died there. Moses
and Aaron were his descendants, apparently in the fourth
generation (b. about 1749 B. c, Ussher).
Levi, la'vn', Leone: economist; b. at Ancona. Italy, of
Jewish parents, July 6. 1821 ; removed in 1844 to Liver-
pool ; was naturalized in 1847; was one of the founders
of the Liverpool chamber of commerce 1849; became in
18.52 Professor of Commercial Law, etc.. in Univei-sity Col-
lege, London: became a barrister in 18.59; received the doc-
torate from Tiibingen 1861. He did much for the reform
of commercial law and [iractice. the utilization of statistics,
etc. He was the author of Commercial Law (4 vols., 1850-
.52); Mercantile Law (l»b4): On Taxation (mW) : Interna-
tional Commercial Law (1864), and other works, besides
nuiuv valuabfe papers on statistical and commercial science.
D. ii"i Loudon. .May 9, 18.88.
Levi'atliau [from Ileb. Jiwyathdn, wreathed monster,
liter., a wrealheil sonu'thiiig]: a name which in the Old
Testament usually designates the crocodile, but Talinudical
writers apply it to the whale, the fabulous dragon, and other
creatures of monstrous size. The name is also used ligur-
atively for gigantic animals as well as other objects.
Levigatioii [from Lat. lei-iga'tio, a smoothing, deriv, of
leriya're. make smooth, deriv. of leris. smooth] : a special
manipulation of the laboratory, devised for the purjiose of
Converting substances to a smooth, uniform iiowdcr. A Hat
surfa<'e, called the slab, is used to place the substance upon,
compose<I of stone, glass, or metal : and a mnller, having a
flat surface below, is propelled ronml and round with an ec-
centric motion over the mass. A liijuid is always added, ns-
uiilly oil or \l'aler, to assist the operation. Tlie jirocess of
levigation jiassed, pnjbalily hundreds of years ago, from the
laboratory into tlic arts, and paints, printiug-iiiks, and
often drugs, are coinmunicated by a process of levigation,
on the manufacturing scale, in so-called eccentric mills.
I'orphyrization is another name formerly apjilied, from
slabs of porphyry being employed. A spatula is an esMui-
tial adjunct in the small laboratory operation to collect
together readily and heap up the mass when spread by the
inuUer.
Lev'irale Marriage [levirale is from Lat. le'vir, a hn.s-
bnnd's brother] : the marriage of a widow by the brother of
the deceased husband. This custom (common among the
ancient Hebrews) was perpetuated by the Mosaic law (Deul.
XXV. 5-10). It is, however, practically obsolete among the
Jews. The canon law expressly forbids such marriage, and
ill Great Britain it i-s still unlawful. In the V. S. it is gen-
erally permitted to marry the brotherof a deceased husband.
The true levirate marriage was compulsory, or at least obli-
gatory (except on certain conditions), but only in case the
LEVIS
LEWIN
207
I
deceased husband left no mule issue. The first-l)orn son of
the new marriage succeeded to the deceased brother's name,
property, and privileges. In Abyssinia and parts of Asia
the levirate law is still in force. It seems to have prevailed
in ancient Italy also. Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Levis, Id'vee', or lev'is (formerly Point Levi): an impor-
tant suburb of Quebec, Canada, in Levis Countv : ojiposite
the city, on the soutli bank of the St. Lawrence (Iiere a mile
■wide), and on the Grand Trunk Railway (see map of Que-
bee, rcf. 4-U). It has a larger trade than any town in
Canada e.xcept Quebec and Montreal. It is the" seat of a
convent, and has a board of trade. The river is crossed by
a ferry. Pop. (1891) 7,301.
Le'vitc: one of the tribe of Levi, a descendant of Levi,
one of the sons of Jacob, but in a more limited sense one
of those members of tluit trilje who did not belong to the
priestly families of the ancient Hebrews. The Levites con-
stituted a kind of inferior priesthood. They liad no in-
heritance except certain cities on either side of the river
Jordan ; in which, however, they were not compelled to re-
side. There are at the present day some Jewish families
who claim a lineage, more or less pure, from the Levitical
stock. Revised by S. j\I. Jackson.
Levlt'icns [— Lat. = Or. AeviriK6s, liter., pertaining to
Levites, deriv. of AeuiTTjs, Levitc See Levite; so named in
the Vulgate because it is largely occupied with directions
for the Ijcvitical service] : the tliird book of the Pentateuch
and of the Old Testament. It contains the Mosaic law of
sacrifices, the laws regarding ceremonial uncleanness, the
laws with regard to intercourse between Israelites and for-
eigners, together with brief historical accounts, admonitions,
and the like. Its direct Mosaic origin has usually been
taken for granted, but several recent German, Dutch, and
English commentators refer it to the period of Ezra. See
Hexateuch.
Levilka : a town of the Fiji islands ; on the northeast
end of the small island of Uvalao; lat. 17° 41' S., Ion. 178°
51' E. It was the capital of the archipel.ago. but lost this
title in 1881 when the capital was transferred to Suva on
Viti Leva, though its climate is much more healtliful than
that of Suva ami it is more centrally placed. It is now in
decadence. ' M. \V. II.
Lev'nlose : See Sugar.
Levy. Id'vee', Maurice : civil engineer, member of the In-
stitute ; b. at Ribeauville, France, Feb. 28, 1838 ; was edu-
cated at the Polytechnic School and at the fieole de Ponts
et Chaussees, where he graduateil in 1861 : became engineer-
in-chief in 1880. He was at Hrst attached to tlie works of
Paris, afterward became director of the navigation of the
Marne, member of the commission on the general levels of
France, and Professor of Applied Mechanics at tlie ^cole
Centrale and the College de France, and in 1885 of Mecanique
Celeste. In 1883 he was elected a member of the Academy
in place of Bresse. He is an officer of the Legion of Honor.
He has published many memoirs in the Comp/es Boulus on
hydraulics, hydrodynamics, elasticity, heat, etc. His most
important work is La Staiiquf Ompliiqiie et si's app/iaitinns
aux constructiiins. Levy invented a system of overliead cable
towage for canals. This method, although original with him,
had been proposed in a crude form in 1870 by a boatman on
the Chesapeake and Ohio' Canal (U. S.). The canal company
was without means to apply the somewhat primitive inven-
tion, and the matter was forgotten. W. R. Huttox.
Leivald, la'caalt, Fanny: novelist; b. at Ktinigsberg,
Prussia, JNlar. 24, 1811, of Jewish pai-ents, but became in her
childhood a convert to Christianity. After several years of
travel she began to write for the public about 1840, and from
that time lived chiefly in Berlin. In 18.5.5 she nuirried
Adolf Stahr, the literary critic. She was a leader in the
movement for the advancement of women, and favoreil the
opening to them of new fields of employment. D. in Dres-
den, Aug. 5, 1889. Among her writings are Diogeiia (1847),
in which she burlesqued the siMitimentalisin of the Countess
von Hahn-llahn's books; M'ttudlungen (18.53); Die Kam-
inerjnnfifer (1H.56) ; 2\'eue liotnane (18.58); Von Gexclihclii
zu Genclilecht (1864), whicli is regarded liv some as her best
work ; Benedikt (1874) ; Stella (1883), translated into Eng-
lish, and many others. .She published a sketch of the earlier
years of her life in 1861, under the title of Meine Lebenge-
sehichte. F. M. Colby.
Levv-Cheiv: an archipelago belonging to Japan. See
Loo-CHoo.
Lew'es : town : in the county of Sussex, England : pic-
turesejuely situated on the Onse, on a declivity of llie South
Downs, .50 miles S. of London (see map of England, ref.
13^1) It has a school of science and art, and a free library,
anil carries on a considerable trade in grain, malt, coal, and
lime. Hi-re was arranged the subnussiun of Henry HI. to
Simon of Montfort, May 14, 1264. Pop. (1891) 10,997.
' Lewes : town ; Sussex co., Del. (for location of countv,
see nuip of Delaware, ref. (>-0) ; on Delaware Bav, and the
Phila., Wil. and Balto. Railroad ; 3 miles S. \V. of Cajie Hen-
lojien, 12 miles S. \V. of Cape May, N J. It has a notable
artificial harbor of refuge formed by a breakwater con-
structed by the U. S. Government on the plans of the break-
waters at Cherbourg, France, and Plymouth, England. The
work was begun in lS2i) and completed in 1869, and cost
$2,123,000. About 892,.528 tons of stone were used in con-
striK'tion. The town is very old, is a stopping-place of
the Old Dominion line of steamships, and has a large trade
in peaches and early vegetables. Pop. (1893) estimated,
2,500.
Lewes, George Henry : b. in London, England, Apr. 18,
1817; was in youth a clerk in a connnercial house; be-
gan the study of medicine, but abandoned it for that of
philosophy and psychology, to which he devoted two years
in (iermany ; returned to London in 1840: devoted himself
to literature, and speedily became known as a deep thinker
and a writer of uncouimon attainments, especially bv his
articles in the magazines and quarterly reviews. His earli-
est important work was the Jiiographicat History of I'll i-
losojihii from Thales to Comle, published in 1847, which
treated philosophy as an ever-renewed attempt to solve
problems that are by their nature beyond the reach of hu-
man faculties. This work became popular, and has been
eidarged from time to time as new editions were called for.
From 1849 to 1854 Lewes was literary editor of The Leader.
wrote a compendium of Comle'n Philoiioplnj of the Sciences
(1853), Life of Robespierre (1850), Life of Goethe (1855),
Seaside Studies (1858), Physiology of Common Life (1859),
Studies in Animal Life (1862), and Aristotle, a Chapter
from the History of Science (1864), besides one or two nov-
els and dramas of minor importance. His History of Phi-
losophy and his Life of Goethe have been more extensively
read than any other books on those topics. Through the
former he has exercised a wide influence on the thinking of
scientific men, turning them off from earnest study of the
systems of speculative philo-sophy as fruitless labor. From
1854 he was extensively engaged in physiological and anjl-
tomical researches, some of the results of which were em-
bodied in papers comnuinicaled to the British Association
for the Advancement of Science — On the Spinal Cord as a
Center of Sensation and Voliti(;n (18.58) and On the ^'erv-
ons System (1859). He was the first editor of The Fort-
nightly Pcvieti; but in Dec, 1866, was compelled by ill-
health to retire. His most ambitious work, that in which
he purposed -to embody his whole system of philosophy,
bears the title Prohlems of Life and SIfind. Vol. i.. The
Foundation of a Creed, was i)ublished in 1873; vol. ii. in
1875. I). Nov. 30, 1878. Revised by W. T. Harris.
Lew'ill, TnoMAS, F. .S. .\. : author; b. at Ifield. Sussex,
England, Apr. 19. 1805: educated at the Jlerdiant Tayloi-s'
School, London, and at Trinity College. Oxford, taking high
honors in classics ; was called to the bar in 1833, and in
18.53 became conveyancing counsel to the court of cliancery.
He wrote a treatise on The Law of Trusts and Trustees
(London. 1842 ; 9th ed. 1891) ; The Life and Epistles of St.
Paul (1851) : an Essay on the Chronology of the yew Testa-
ment (1854); Jerusalem, a Sl>'etch of the City aud Temple
from the Earliest limes to the Siege by 7Y/H,'! (1861) ; Cw-
sar's Inrasion of Britain (1862); Siege of Jerusalem hy
Titus (1863); and Fasti Sarri, or a Key to the Chronology
of the yew Testament (1865). For over twenty years after
the publication of his early work on St. Paul. Mr. Lewin
was engaged in the study of the apostle's mi.-^sionary jour-
neys, visiting nearly every filace named in the New Testa-
ment in connection with Paul, collecting the geographical
data of antiquity, and illustrating his nuiterials by accurate
modern plans of the localities in (|uestion. As the result, a
thiril and revised edition of his work on St. Paul appeared
in 1874 in two large volumes, splendidly illustrated. Mr.
Lewin's views upon the sacred localities in Jerusalem have
given rise to much controversy in connection with the rival
theories of Robinson, Williams, and Fergusson. D. in Lon-
don, Jan. 5, 1877. Revised by S. M. Jackson.
20S
LEWIS
Lewis, or Lenisson [saiJ to Imve luvii invented l>.v Luuis
XIV.. ili.jiitfli known long Iwfore his time): a simple iinil
effective claiii|) by wliicli lo raise lilm-ks of stone. Three
iron kevs, Mis^neiiiliHl from n cross-bolt, an' let into a tisli-
tail-slmix'd hole in the stone. The tlin* keys top-ther till
this hole, anil the stone can lie liftl^^ bv means of the cit)!is-
bi.lt, which is attuehe.1 to a crane. \Vlien the stone is in
place tlio bolt is willulniwn. the miildle key. which is
straight, is slipped out. and the lateral wedge-shai>ed keys
arc then reailily removed. There is also au apparatus called
the lewis used for shearing doth.
Leiris. Uen. Andrew: soUlier; Y>. in Ulster. Ireland,
about iraO: was taken to Virginia in 17:!2 by his father,
who settled at Hellefonte. Augusta co., and was the first
white resilient i>f that county, .\ndrew was a volunteer in
the campaign to the Ohio in 1754; was a major in Hpad-
dock's expedition, and aceoniing to some autliorities was
present at the great defeat on the .Monongahela : com-
manded the Sandy Creek ex|K-(lition in 17.")t); wjus taken
prisoner by the French in 17.VS near l-"ort Dmiuesiie, and
taken to Montreal ; was the Virginian commissioner iii^tlie
treaty inmle with the Iroquois at Fort Stanwix in 1708;
was made brigadier-general in 1774, and commanded the
Virginia troops in the victory over the Shawnee confederacy
at Point Pleasant at the moiithof the Cireat Kanawha river,
Oct. 10, 1774. probably the severest engagement with the
Indians in American annals up to that lime, lie was for
several years a member of the House of Unrgesses, took part
in the convention of 177.">, was appointed a brigadier-general
by Congress at Washington's reipiest in 177G, and was en-
gaged in military operations again.st Lord Dunmore. lie
resigned on account of ill-health in 1777. aiul died in Bed-
ford CO., Va., in 1780. tien. Lewis wius distinguished for
athletic i)Owers and an imixising presence, and was liighly
esteemed by Wiusliington. His statue occupies one of the
pedestals of the Washington monument at Richmond.
Lewis. Dio. M. D. : phvsician and author: b. at .Vuburn.
N. Y., Mar. -i, lS-i:i ; studied at the Harvard .Medical School
in Boston, and pracliceil for a time at Port Byron, N. Y..
and at Buffalo. In 181)3 he founded in Hi«ton an institu-
tion for training teachei-s, and established in the following
year at Lexington. Ma.ss., an academy for young ladies. He
published T/ie Xew Gi/mnnxlics (ISO'i); Weak Lunt/a, and
How to Make them Strong (1863); Talkx about I'eop/e'g
Stomachs {ItilO); Our Uirln (XH'l): and Chats with Young
Women (1874). He removed to Yonkers, N. Y., in 1882 ;
died there May 21, 1880. Revised by S. T. Armstro.ng.
Lewis, Francis : one of the signers of the Declaration of
Independence; b. at Llandaff, Wales, in Mar., 1713; was
educated at Westminster; l)ecamea merchant of Xew York,
and in the French and Indian war was captured at Oswego
anil sent to France; received a grant of 5,000 acres from
the British; was 1775-79 a menilHjr of Congress, and was
afterward exceedingly useful to the countrv, especially jis an
importer of military stores. His wife and tiimsclf were long
iin|)risoned by the enemy, and the greater part of his estates
Wiis destroyed. D. in New York in Dec, 1803.
Lewis, Sir George Corxewali, : statesman and author;
b. In iiadiiorsliire, Wales, Oct. 21, 1800; graduale<l at Ox-
ford in 1828; was called to the bar in 1831 at tlie iMiildle
Temple ; entered Parliament in 1847 ; Wiis an Under Secre-
tary of Slate 1848 ; Secretary of the Treasury 1850-52 ; Chan-
cellor of the Kxclie(|\ior 18.55-58 ; Secretary of Slate for the
Home Department 1850: lor War IMOl ; and was one of tlie
transliilors of .Miiller's Ilislurij and A)iliquilie.i of the Doric
]{a€e (1830) : author of Origin of Koninnce Languages (W.iH);
Influence i>f Aulhurily in Matters of Opinion {IH4\)) ; Meth-
ods of Obseri'ulion and Reasoning in Politics (18.52); In-
quiry into tlie Credihiliti/ of Early Roman History (1855) ;
editor of the Kdinljurgh Reriew (1854-55); wrote -1 .■</;•«;(-
omy of the Anriints (IS(il); ,4 Dialogue on the Rest Form
of frorernmtnt (l'^B3). He also translated a part of Miiller's
J/istury of the hiternture of Ancient Oreece. D. in Here-
fordshire, Apr. 13, 18(53.
Lewis, Joiix I'RK.nKRirK, U. A. : painter; b. in London.
F.nglanil, .July 14, 1805; first attracted altcntum by a series
of studies from wild animals which were engnived by him-
self: was next engaged in making sketches of nmnners and
costumes in Spain, of which lithographic co[)les were pub-
lished in 18;i:t-;i4 In 2 vols.; resided on the Continent,
chiefly in Italy, from 1838 to 1851, nukking long visits to
tircece, Turkey, and Kgypt ; exhibite<l in 1853 a series of
sixty-four conies in water-colors of the most famous pict-
un-s of the Venetian and Soanish schools, which wa.s pur-
chased bv the Scottish Academy ; was presiilent of the So-
ciety of Water-colors from 18.55 to 18.58: electetl a.s,s(x-iate
in l'85!», and member of the Koyal Acailemy in 18(55. D. in
Aug., 1870.
Lewis, John Travkrs, D. D., LL. D: archbishop; b. in
tiarrvgloyne Castle. Cork, Ireland, .Ian. 20. 1825; was edu-
cated at "Trinity College, Dublin: wa-s gold medallist in
184(5 ; was ordained a deacon of the Church of Kngland in
1847. He was curate of Newton Butler 1847-10 ; mission-
ary at Ilawksbury, Ontario, 184y-.54 ; rector of Bn>ckville
from 1854 to 1801, when he was elected the (irst Bishop of
Ontario. He became Metropolitan Bishop of Canada Jan.
2.5, 18U3, and Archbishop of Ontario. Se|it. 19, 1803, being
the lirsl lo hold that rank in the Church of Kngland in
Camida. Archbishop Lewis was the author and promoter
of the Lambeth Conference of all bishops of the Church of
Kngland at home and abroad with those of the Protestant
Kpiscopal Church of the U. S., and was mainly instrumental
in inducing the British Association for the Advancement
of Science to meet in Montreal in 1884. As au expression
of a|ipreciation of his imporlaiil services in the cause of lit-
eraluiv and science, tlie archbishop was presented willi the
bronze medal of Cout'ederatiou in 1885. He is the author
of many published sermons, lectures, and articles.
Neii. Macdoxali>.
Lewis, Meriwether: explorer; b. near Charlottesville,
Va., Aug. 18, 1774: the son of W. F. Lewis, a wealthy citi-
zen ; volunteered in the Whisky Insurrection of 1794 ; be-
came an ensign in the regular army 170.5, and captain iu
1800. Soon afterward he was Jefferson's private secretary,
and in 1803-0(5 he, with Capt. William Clarke, was sent
upim a famous expedition to the Paclllc Ocean. In 1807
Lewis wius made Governor of Louisiana Territory. He was
subject to depression of spirits, and took his own life near
Nashville. Tenn.. Oct. 8, 1809. His memoir was written by
Mr. Jefferson, and published with Biddle and Allen's JS'ar-
ralire of the Lewis and Clarke Expedition (1814).
Lewis. JloRUAN : jurist and soldier; b. in New York city,
Oct. 1(5, 17.54. son of Francis Lewis, signer of the Declara-
tion of lnde|iendence ; graduated at Princeton in 1773;
studied law in the ollice of John Jay; joined Washington's
arm v at Cambridge in June, 1775: was iiuide cai.tain of a
rifle company in August, major of Second New York Kegi-
iiienl in November, colonel and chief of staff to Gen. Gates
in June, 177(5; was at the battle of Saratoga, and was dis-
tinguished in Gen. Clinton's campaign against .Sir John
Johnson in the Mohawk valley, especially at the battle of
Stone Arabia. After the war lie was admitted to the bar in
Dutchess County, became a judge in common pleas, was
elected attornev-general in 1791. made judge of the Supreme
Court of the State in 1792. and chief justice in 1801. He
was Governor of New York 180.5-00 ; member of the Legis-
lature 1808-11 ; quartermaster-general, with the rank of
brigadier-general, in 1812; promoted to major-general in
1813: was cngiiged in the operations on the N'iagara fron-
tier in .\pr.. 1813. and was in command (>f the defenses of
New York cily in 1814. Subseipiently he devoted himself
to literature anil agriculture: delivered an address before
the authorities of New York city on the centenary anniver-
sary of Washington's birth. Feb. 22, 1832 ; was president of
the" New York Historical Society in 1835. I), in New York,
Apr. 7, 1844.
Lewis. William Bevax. L. S. A.: physician and author;
h. at Cardigan, South Wales, May 21. 1847. He was educated
at Guy's Hospital, London, and is a licentiate of I he Hoyal Col-
lege lif Physlilans of London. He has lieen connected with
the West Hiding .\syhim at Wakelield. of which he is medi-
cal superintendent and director, in various capacities since
1871 : is lecturer on Mental Disea.ses at the Yorkshire Col-
lege and Leeds School of Medicine, and examiner in Mental
Diseases lo the Victoria University. His principal woi^ks
are: Catori metric Obsen-ations on the Effect of Alkaloids
on the (leneration of Animal I/ent (West Hiding Asylum
Heports) : Student's Manual of Kramination of the Human
Rrain (1882) ; .1 Tej-t-book ofMenlal Diseases (\^>i\)) ; Ilis-
lolony of the (/real Sciatic S'erre in General Paralysis (W.
R. A. Reports, vol. v.); Relationships of yerve-cells of Cor-
tex to Ijymphntic System of Rrain ( /Vorcri/i'n^.'i Royal Soci-
ety, 1877); Cortical Lamination of Motor Area of Rrain
( Proceedings Royal Society, 1878) : Comparative Structure of
the Cortex t 'erebri ( Transactions Ht)yal .Society, 1879) ; Com-
LEWISI5URG
LEXICOGRAPUY
209
paradve Structure of Brain in Rodents (Tmiisactiuns Roy-
al Society, 188i) ; Jieaction Time in Insdnil;/ and P.si/rh'o-
metric Jleasuremenl/i (Take's Dictiunary of J'xyc/i. jledi-
cine, 18!)S) ; -1 Xew Reaction Time Instrument (Journal of
Mental Science, 181(8) ; .-1 Xew Freeiiny Microtome for
Sections of Brain- and Spinal Cord (Journal of Anatomy
and Pliysioloyy,\ii\. xi.) ; I'liysioloyicat Action of Alcohol
(Journal of Mental Science, 1880); Thermal Changes in
Epilepsy and the Epileptic Status (Medical Times and
Oazette, 1876) ; The Sphygmoyraph in Insanity (Journal of
Mental Science); The Origins of Crime (The Fortnightly
Reriew, Sept., 1803). J. Mark Baldwin.
Lewisbur^ : Ijorough ; capital of ITnion cc, Pa. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 4-F) ; on tlie
Susquehanna river, and the Penn. and the Phila. and Read-
ing railways: f)8 miles N. of llarrisburg. It contains 7
churches, 3 public scliools, 3 banks, H hotels, gas and elec-
tric, water, and tire services, and 8 newspapers ; and manu-
factures woolen goods, hosiery, nails, furniture, boats, bed-
springs, foundry products, flour, and carriages. It is the
seat of Bucknell L niversity (non-sectijrian, organized 1846),
for both se.xes, wliich in 18b2 had 20 professors and instruct-
ors, 2'J4 students, 20 scholarships of .f 1,000 each, scientific
apparatus valueil at .'J7.5,O00, grounds and buildfngs valued
at $300,000, productive funds aggregating !j!35d,000, vol-
umes in library 12.000, a college for young men and young
women, an academy for boys, an institute for young women,
music and art schools, gymnasium, natural history museum,
chemical and physical laboratories, and an observatory with
a Clark equatorial telescope. Pop. (1880) 3,080 ; (1890)
3,248. Editor of " Chronicle."
Lewisburg': town (incorporated in 1783); capital of
Greenbrier co., W. Va. (for location of county, see map of
West Virginia, ref. 10-H) ; 4 miles X. of the Chesapeake and
Ohio Railway, 9 miles X. W. of Greenbrier White Sulpliur
Springs. It "is on the site of ttie fort where the army of
Gen. Lewis was stationed previous to its battle with" the
Indians at Point Pleasant in 1774, and has a stone church
erected in 1795. It contains five churches, boys' school, pub-
lic high school, public school for colored youth, and a weekly
newspaper. The industries are agriculture, stock-raising,
and manufacturing. Pop. (1880) 98.5 ; (1890) 1,016.
Editor of •• Greenbrier Independent."
Lewis'ia: a plant of the Portulaca family, named from
its discoverer, Capt. Jleriwether Lewis, wlio found it in the
mountains about the sources of the Columbia river. It
grows as far S. as Arizona. The root is called racine amere
by the Canadian voyageurs. and is used for food by the Ore-
gon Indians, who call it spaflum. It yields much" starch.
Lewiston : city (laid out 1770, incorporated 1795, made a
city 1863) ; Androscoggin co.. Me. (for location of countv,
see map of .Maine, ref. 9-B) ; on the Androscoggin river,
and the Grand Trunk and the Me. Central railwavs ; 33A
miles N. of Portland. It derives exceptional power for
manufacturing from the river by means of a dam and a
distributing canal constructed at 'a cost of |1.000,000. The
census returns of 1890 showed that 210 manufacturing es-
tablishments (representing 50 industries) reported. These
had a combined capital of $8,316,781, emploved 7,348 persons,
paid $2,681,442 for wages and .|4,779,137 for materials, and
had products valued at ■?9,062,190. The city is the seat of
Bates College (Free Baptist, organized as a s"eminary 1854,
changed to a college 1863) for both sexes, which in 1892 had
15 professoi-s and instructors, 234 students, 16,000 volumes in
library, 6 buildings, 50-acre campus, and $300,000 in endow-
ments. There are 2 national banks with combined capital of
.$600,000, 2 savings-banks with surplus of $240,000, public
library, large public hall, public park containing a soldiers'
monument, and
21,701.
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 19^083; (1890)
Editor of " Evening Journal."
Lewistowii : town ; capital of Fulton co.. 111. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Illinois, ref. 5-C) ; on the Chi.
Burl, and Or. and the Fulton Co. Xar. Gauge railwavs ; 50
miles S. W. of Peoria, 60 miles X. W. of Springfieid. It
contains flour and saw mills, can-making, carriage and
wagon, duplex-scales, and evener factories, 6 churches, and
3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,771 ; (1890) 2,166.
Editor of " Fulton Democrat."
Ldvistown : borough ; capital of Mifflin co.. Pa. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-K) ; on the
Juniata river, and the Pennsylvani"a Railroad; 61 miles W.
of Ilarrisburg. It is in au agricultural region, has a num-
240
ber of important manufactories, and does a large business
in shipping grain, iron, and coal. The beauty of the sur-
rounding mountain scenery has made the borough a popu-
lar summer resort. There are an academy, a library found-
ed in 1870. and three weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880)
3,222; (1890)3,373. i v ;
Lpwis-«ith-Harris: the largest and northernmost of
the Outer llelirides, separated from tlie mainland by the
Mineh Cluuniel ; area, 770 sq. miles. The coasts, espe'cially
of (he southern part, Harris, are wild aiul rugged ; in the
interior tracts of swamj) and |ieat-moor occur. Barley and
potatoes are cultivated, but fishing is the principal occupa-
tion. The iidiabitants speak the Gaelic language, though
in the northern part there is a colony of purely Scandi-
nayian descent. Stornoway, situated on the eastern coast,
is the only town on the islaiid. Remains of Druidical struc-
tures are very frequent, and remnants of forests wliich for-
merly covered the surface arc met with. Pop. (1881) 30,301.
Lex Domicilii : See International Private Law.
Lex Fori [Lat., the law of the forum] : the law of the
place or state where a, remedy is sought or an action in-
stituted. See International Private Law.
Lexicography : the art of making a lexicon, or Diction-
ary (q. v.). The words lexicon and dictionary are synony-
mous, the first being derived from Greek \(^ik6i', an adjec-
tive with which $i$\ioy. book, is understood, anil the second
from Low Latin did ionarium. Besides these the terms vo-
cabulary, glossary, index, thesaurus, cornucopia, are some-
times similarly used, and differ mainly in degree from the
terms above. The first tliree are usually limited to the words
in a single volume or author, sometimes to the more difficult
words only. Thesatiriis and cornucopia belong to the class
of descriptiye titles sometimes used, as do also bibliotheca
and catholicon. An early Latin-English dictionary was
called Promptorium, cellar, storehouse, and an English dic-
tionary of Elizabethan times was named the Xew World of
^yords. For a polyglot dictionary the French use the term
calepin, from the name of an Italian, Calejiino, who prepared
an early polyglot. Other descriptive titles for English dic-
tionaries in early times are ahecedarium, alvearie. Ijeehive,
glossographia, gazopliylacium, treasury, all of which have
gone out of use. Xearly allied to the dictionary is the con-
cordance, an alphabetical list of words with reference to the
places in which they are used by a single author. More re-
mote is the cyclopaedia, an alphabetical list of subjects ex-
plained and illustrated.
The lexicon, or dictionary, doubtless originated in the
marginal gloss explaining some difficult jiassage. These
were no doubt first added to works in a foreign language or
to those composed at a much earlier date. As such works
became less known, explanatory references became more
necessary and the marginal glosses more numerous. One
intermediate step betw'een the gloss and the dictionary is
exemplified by the interlinear version of early times, each
word of one text being explained by anolhcr word written
immediately below. Finally the explanatory glosses were
gathered from various texis and arranged more or less sys-
tematically, so that they could be used with all books in the
language glossed. The elaborate dictionary of modern
times has thus been gradually evolved out of the marginal
ex|ilanation of a single word.
In (he history of culture the dictionary oi-dinarily belongs
to the later periods of a nation's deyelopment ; for, as
foreign languages were not usually studied in early times,
the early gloss would be limited to periods in which an
older literature and an older culture were studied, or, in
other words, to the critical rather (han to the creative age.
Exceptionally, however, as in England, the adoption of
Latin Christianity led fii-st to the study of a foreign lan-
guage and the making of the bilingual gloss. .\s we
should expect under normal conditions, the lexicographer
flourished especially at such tinu's as the founding of the
schools of Alexandria, at the revival of learning, and dur-
ing the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when antiqua-
rian and philological research has reyi>ed the study of
older literatures. \Vi(h the growth of international rela-
tions, as between Rome and Greece, witli the Middle Age
reverence for the classics, and with the development of in-
tercourse among modern nalions, the bilingual dictionary
became a necessity, as it had not been in the earlier periods
of culture. Later, the systematic study of origins in lan-
guage led to the preparation of the etymological dictionary,
the establishment of meters based on rliyme led to the
210
LEXICOGRAPHY
rhviiiiiig dirtionnry, Hrraii{jiiig words noconliiip to fiiinl svl-
iahlcs; ami the f;fowlh of tlie diseiiiiiinatinj; st'iisc in rWa-
tion to laiifjua^'e made the dictiomiry ol syiioiiynis a iiooessity.
Wc have no knowledge of the 'U'tfiiiiiinf; of early lexi-
cography except as we have a record of certain early dic-
tionaries. The earliest of which we have an account is oije
found in a palace at Xinevch, written in cuneiform letters
on a scries of clay tal)lets. The king's seal iuiprinted upon
these shows they were made in the time of Assliurlmnipal,
who reigned in the seventh century before Christ. The
earliest lexicography of which we have considerable knowl-
e<ige is that which "relates to the classic tongues, especially
Greek. Greek lexicography began at Alexandria. This
great center of early learning was founded jnsl as Greece
was losing her intelfeclual sui)renuicy while gaining politi-
cal supremacy under Alexander. I'tolemy Sotor. who re-
ceived Kgvpt in the dismcmbeniicnt of the .Macedonian
empire, drew to Alexandria Greek scholars in literature and
philosophy, and gave them every opportunity to prosecute
their studies. At the suggestion of his friend Demetrius
I'halerius, it is said, he founded the great library and built
the Museum, or Academy of Science. Alexandrian scholar-
ship flourished from the" fourth century K.c. to the seventh
century of our era, or from the founding of the Macedonian
kingdom to the rise of the Mohannnedan power. It tended
especially to research, was critical rather than creative, and
it originated the sciences of grammar, prosody, lexicog-
raphy, mythology, and archa?ology.
The study of Greek learning 'at Alexandria early pro-
duced glossaries and dictionaries. According to .\th.Tncus.
Zenoiiolns, the first librarian of the famous Alexamlrian li-
brary and a noted Homer scholar, wrote a glossary to
I loiiier and a dictionary of foreign phrases. His successor
a-; librarian, .Vristophanes of Hyzantium, wrote several
works, the titles of which seem ,to indicate that they were
dictionaries of more or less limited scope. One of his pu-
pils, Artemidorus, wrote about 340 B. r. a <lictionary of terms
used in cookery. Among others, Nicander (second century
n. r.) wrote a glossary in three books; I'arthenius, a pupil of
iJionysius (first century n.f.), wrote on choice words used by
historians; and Didymus in the same century wrote dic-
tionaries of the tragic and comic poets, of ambiguous words
and corrupt expressions. The works of nil these and of
many others have been lost, but the record of tliem shows
how early and how extensively the making of dictionaries
was carried on. The earliest (ireek lexicon extant is one by
Apollonius, who lived in Alexandria in the time of .\ugus-
tus. He prepared a Homeric lexicon which is so valuable
that it has been printed in France, Holland, and Germany
since 1773. Other Alexandrian lexicographers are ..Elius
Mceris, the Atticist, who wrote an Attic lexicon in the sec-
ond century A. u. ; Ilarpocration (fourth century), whose
lexicon of the ten Attic orators was printed in loOo, and in
the nineteenth century at Oxford ; llesychius, wiio lived in
the same century, wrote a dictionary based on an earlier one
by Pamphilus and Zopyrion. This C(mtains dialectal and
local expressions, and was reprinted in 1867. When the
heathen temples at Alexandria were destroyed about 35(0,
Helladius escaped to Constantinople, where he wrote a large
and important lexicon mainly of prose. A fellow priest
who accompanied him, Ammonius, wrote the first dictionary
of homonyms, often reprinted in modern times. Orion, an
Kgyplian grammarian of Thebes, wrote what is probably
the fir-t etymological dictionary, an edition of which was
printed at Leipzig in 1830.
(ireek leanung was easily transplanted from Alexandria
to Kome, although the first Ronnm contact with the lilera-
ture of Greece was due to the conipiest of the latter couMlry
by the Unmans in the second century n.c. The spciial in-
fluence of .Mexandrian scholarship upon Rome may be
dated fnjin the time of Augustus. Among Roman lexicog-
raphers should be mentioned Erotian, or Herodian, physi-
cian to Nero, who prepared an alphabetical dictionary to
Hippocrates. Slill more imi>orlant is .Inlius Pollux, a na-
tive of Naucral is Kgypt, who was nuidc Professor of Rhet-
oric at .\thens by the Empi-ror Commodus. He wrote an
Onoma^Ucon, a dictionary in which the words of best usage
were classified aci-cjrding to sul«ject. (ireek learning also
flourished at Hyzantium, especially from the death of Justi-
nian to the capture of Constantinople by the Turks. Among
Hyzantine lexicographers is Pholius, a patriarch of Constan-
tinople in the last half of the ninth century, who compiled
a lexicon, part of which is slill preserved. The greatest of
lU'zantinc lexicographers, however, is buidas, who i)robably
lived in the tenth century. He wrote a dictionary includ-
ing personal and place names, together with extracts from
many Greek writers and critics of an earlier time, so that
although carelessly arranged it is slill of great value. It wius
fii-st printed at Milan in 14!)!), aflerwanl at Halle in 185;!. In
the eleventh century was compiled by an unknown author
an Etyinulogicon, which has been frequently printed in mod-
ern times. Its value consists larg<'ly in its (juotations of
earlier authorities, and in its historical and mythological
references. In the same century Eudocia Augusta, wife of
the Emperors Constantino XI. an<i Romanus IV., compiled
perhajis the first dictionary of history and mylhology, to
which she gave the fanciful title Bed of Violets. Zenoras,
a Byzantine historian and tlieolof;ian. also wrote a lexicon
in the twelfth century. The tliirlccntli century is repre-
sented by a lexicon of Attic words, the author of which was
Thomas, or Thcodulus as he was called when lie became a
monk. This was printed in 1476, and at Rome in 1817.
So far we have dealt with Greek lexicography because of
the great importance of Greek in the history of early cul-
ture. Latin lexicography was itself inspired by the Greek
scholarship of Alexandria. Marcus Varro. a Ronum scholar
and friend of Cicero, wrote l)e Lingua Lalina. but this is
rather a treatise on etymolofiy and peculiar uses of words
than a dictionary in the strict .sense. In the time of Augus-
tus, Verrius Flaccus wrote a treatise De Sijinificaliont; Ver-
borum. This we have, except for a few fragments, only in
an epitome by Pompeius Festus (probably second century),
aphabetized with regard to the first letter, a common order
in early lexicons. Pestus also wrote a treatise on obsolete
Latin words, but this has not been preserved. The epitome
by Festus was again abridged by Paulus Diaconns, an
Italian historian of the eighth century. About the middle
of the eleventh century Papias, a Lombard, conijiiled a Vora-
hularium from glosses of the sixth and seventh centuries.
Giovanni Unlbi, of Genoa, finished about 1286 his Ctitlioli-
con, or Su/nma, a Latin dictionary partly based on Pa|iias,
but interesting now because printed by Faust in 14!l(). The
European nations using Latin as the language of learning
and the Church often needed the help of the lexicograjiher.
In England, for example, the E/iinal and Erfurl Glosses
were prepared, the former probably as early as the first part
of the eighth century. Glosses or glossed texts are also fre-
quent, while just before the modern period more elaborate
dictionaries were compiled. Of these the Medulla (iram-
matice, an early English-Latin dictionary, is worthy of spe-
cial notice. It was writtei\ about the middle of the fifteenth
century, and on it was based the Orlns [Ilorfiis) \'ocabzi-
loruiii. t>r Garden of ^Yords, first printed by VVynkyn de
Worde in 1500.
The next si)ecial era in which lexicography flourished
was that of the Renaissance, when the .study of the ancient
languages became the evidence of a renewed culture. We
have already mentioned tlie printing of many ancient Greek
dictionaries in the last jiart of the fifteenth century. The
first fruits of Greek lexicography at the revival of learn-
ing was a dictionary compiled by Crastoni, an Italian monk
of Piacenza. This was printed in 1478, and in it Greek
words were for the first time explained by Latin words,
sometimes by Italian. Guarino (born about 1450) iiublisluMl
a Thesaurus in 1504. About the .same time the polyglot
had its origin, the first being jirepared by an A\igustine
monk, Calepino, who died in 1511. Calepino's work, pub-
lished in 1502, was a Latin dictionary with Greek cijuiva-
lents, and therefore simply bilingual. Later the Italian,
French, and Spanish equivalents were added, and in 15i)0
an edition printed at Hasel contained no less than eleven
languages. The sixteenth century was jiarticularly imilific
of dictionaries among the Rouuince nations, as well as in
Fnglanil and Gernumy. An epoch-nuiking volume was
Robert Estienne's T/iesaurns Litignii' Latinir (Paris, 151(2),
which was edited as late as 1734. The first Latin-English
lexicon was pre[)ared a few years later (l.'>38) by .SirThouuis
Elyot. In 1562 Robert Constantine published at liasel a
Thesaurus of the (ireek language alphabetically arranged.
This was superseded by the mori' scholarly Thesaurus (t'rep-
ca- l,iuyu(P (Paris. 1572) of Henri Eslienne. son of the
Robert mentioned above. Estienne's dictionary cxhiliits the
most careful scholarship for its time, and it has not only
been made the basis of nniny later editions, but has been
twi<'e reprinteil in the niiu'teenth century. The most noted
Latin-English ilictionary since the sixteenth cenlnry is that
of Robert Ainsworth, which was liased on the Thesaurus of
Faberand wius published in 1736. This has been often reprint-
LEXICOGRAPHY
211
ed, but is now svipplanteil by various dictionaries based on
the works of German scliolars, as liiddie (Oxford, 1885) and
Andrews (Xew York, 1850). For many yeai-s Greek was
studied througli Latin, and it is interestinf^ to know tliat
the first Greek-English lexicon was planned in America and
Eartly executed by John Pickering in 1814. Its puhlication,
owever, was delayed until 1826, so that it was anteihited by
the English work of John Jones, 1823. The Liddell and
Scott Greek dictinnary was not published until 1845.
It was not until Greek and Latin hail long been subjects
of study that the modern peoples turned to their own lan-
guages, the vulgar tongues, as they were called in the medi-
aeval exaltation of the classics. The first significant plea for
the use of a modern language in literature was Dante's
treatise L)e Volgari Eloguio, in which he favors the use by
Italian writers of living Italian rather than dead Latin,
advice which he was the first to follow. About a century
later Bembo championed Italian against the classics. As a
result of the efforts of Bembo and others, the first Italian
lexicons were written in the sixteenth century, the earliest
of the language as a whole, a Vocabularin, by Acarisi in
1543. Others were published in the sixteenth century. Fi-
nally the literary academies which had been founded for
studying the classics turned their attention to the mother-
tongue. The most famous of these was the Academia Delia
Crusea, a body of Italian purists, whose device was the sieve.
The great dictionary prepared under the auspices of this
learned body, the Vocaholario Delia Crusea. was published in
1612, and gave an impulse to the study of the modern lan-
guages which can not be overestimated. It was enlarged
in 1729-38, and still remains of the highest importance for
the language of Italy. In .Spain the dictionaries of Lebrixa
(1492) and Cavarrubias (1611) preceded tliat of the Acade-
mia Espanola, 1726-39. In France the Tliesor of Kanconet
(1564), edited by Nicot (1606), was the foundation of all
French dictionaries up to that of the French Academy. The
■>^ latter was begun in 1639, hut not published until 1694. This
1 \ has been frequently revised, the last supplement appearing
^ in 1854. The first great dictionary of modern German was
one called Die Teutsch Sprach, by JIaaler, Zurich, 1561.
Early English dictionaries will be treated by themselves.
With the new philological activity, and the birth of the
science of comparative philology in the last of the eight-
^ eenth century, began a new era for the lexicographer. He
^(^ was now to follow for the first time a careful philological
method, and give up entirely the haphazard guessing of his
predecessors in the fields of phonology and etymology. The
new philology produced in this century, outside of England,
two masterpieces of lexicography by eminent scholars of
Germany ami France, the Grimm brothers and Littre. The
Deutsches Worlerbuch of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm was
begun upcm a new and hitherto unattempted scale of com-
pleteness and thoroughness. It was to include every word
from Luther to Goethe with a history of its changes in form
and meaning, these illustrated by quotations from the lit-
erature of all periods. The undertaking was so vast that
neither of the brothers saw its completion, although before
Jacob's death the work had reached the letter S. 'I'he first
volume was issued at Leipzig in 1854, and the dictionary
has been continued under the direction of Wiegand, Ililde-
brand, Ileyne, and Lexer. As evidence of the herculean
labors of the Grimms, it is said that the vast collections left
by the brothers were sufficient to complete the original plan
in all its essential features. The last (1894) complete volume
(to Schiefe) was issued in 1893, the remaining volumes be-
ing complete only in parts. The French dictionary of Lit-
U6 has been called the best dictionary of any living lan-
guage. Its compilation is the work of some thirty years of
his life, but, more fortunate than his German predecessors,
he lived to see its completion and recognition by the natimi.
The dictionary was printed lietween 1863 and 1873. In
method Littre follows Grimm, giving examples from classic
authors, the etymology of words, and the classification of
meanings in the order of primitive, derived, and figurative
significations. In all these respects Lit I re's dictionary,
while conforming to modern scholarship, diders from the
dictionary of the French Academy. The latter has followed
the custom first established of making its own examples,
and arranging meanings of words on a logical rather than a
historical basis. Besides these famous exemplars of lexi-
cography, it would be impossible to enumerate the dictiona-
ries produced during the nineteenth century, owing to the
phenomenal progress in pliilological science. Of works es-
pecially important outside of England may be mentioned
the great Sanskrit-German dictionary of Bolitlingk and
Roth (St. Petersburg, 1853), the Italian dictionary of To-
masseo and Bellini (1861). tlie Spanish dictionary of Cabal-
lero (1849), the Dutch dictionary of dc Vries and te Winkel
(1864). Dictionaries of the older periods of all the modern
languages have also been prepared, thus opening to study
the older literatures.
In connection with the history of Latin and Greek lexi-
cograjihy attention has alreadv been called to dictionaries
of these languages prepared in iMigland. We are more con-
cerned, however, with the history of English lexicography.
The earliest works that can be called dictionaries of English
in any sense are bilingual, usually English-Latin. The same
was true of other modern languages, and was due to the
fact that Latin was still the language of learning. Tlie
earliest of these English-Latin dictionaries is \\w Promptn-
riiim I'arvulorum, written by Galfridus (irammatlcus about
the middle of the fifteenth century, and i]y>t printed in
1499. Another, compiled somewhat later in the same cen-
tury, is the Catlmlicun Anglicum, by an unknown author.
The sixteenth century saw numerous dictionaries of Eng-
lish and one or more foreign languages. It is said that
Caxton's successor, Wynkyn de \\'orde, printed a "dic-
tionarie for yonge beginners," but there is no certain copy
of this till 1554. This, too, was an arrangement of words
in classes rather than a true dictionary. In 1530 John Pals-
grave, tutor of JIary, sister of Henry VIII., puldished a
grammar of French with an English-French vocabulary.
In 1.552 Richard Huloet, or Howlet. published his Abeceda-
rium, English-Latin, with some curious definitions in Eng-
lish. Other bilingual or polyglot dictionaries 0i the six-
teenth century are a 3Iunipulus Vocabiiloriim. an Enplish-
Latin rhyming dictionary, by Peter Levins (1570), and the
Alvearie, an English-Latin-French dictionary, by John Baret
(1573). In 1.580 was published Sijnon\jmorum Silra, a dic-
tionary of English synonyms with many Latin and some
Greek equivalents. As an indication of tlie study of moil-
ern languages in England may be mentioneit the Spanish,
French, and Italian dictionaries of Percivale, IloUyhard,
and Florio in the last decade of the sixteenth century.
The first attempt to explain English words in the same
language is the English Expositor of John Bullokar (1616),
which was very popular in its time. In the next year was
published the great polyglot. Guide into the 'Tongues, by
Jlinshew, a work with words from ten different languages
illustrating and explaining English. Other dictionaries of
the seventeenth century are by Henry Cockeram (1623), a
rival of ^\\\\o\i.iiT's Exjiositor \ the Glossographia of Thomas
Blount (1656), intended especially "for the more knowing
women and less learned men " ; the JS'ew World of ^^'ord1
(1656), by Edward Phillips, nephew of Milton. The earliest
etymological dictionary in the strict .sense is the Etymologi-
con of Dr. Stephen Skinner (1671), although some attempts
at etymology' had been made in preceding dictionaries.
About the same time the learned Junius was employed upon
a similar work which was not published until the next cen-
tury. We may note, also, the English Dictionary of Elisba
Coles (1672), and the Gazophylacium, published anony-
mously in 1689.
The eighteenth century produced some very important,
many unimportant, lexicographical works. The earliest of
note is the Universal EtymoUigical English Dictionary of
Nathan Bailey (1721). This passed through twenty-four
editions before the end of the century, and it was recog-
nized as the great standard before that of Johnson. In
1827 Bailey published a second volume with many new
words, and made for the first time an attempt to show by
the use of accents the correct pronunciation of words. In
1743 Edward Lye edited, with many additions, he says, an
Etymolngicum Anglicanum from the manuscript collec-
tions of Junius, already mentioned. We now come to what
has been regarded as one of the most important English
dictionaries ever published, that of Dr. Samuel Johnson,
which appeared after seven years of labor in 1755. Johnson's
dictionary was really insi)ired by the same critical purpose
which in Italy and France had established the academies,
the purpose of improving and permanently establishing the
modern language. An academy had never been established
in Englaml. although Swift at the beginning of the eight-
eenth century had [>roposed the founding of one similar to
that in France. Nothing was done, however, and Dr. John-
son, in his dictatorial way, scorned this restriction on " Iho
spirit of English liberty," as he called it. Yet he himself,
as shown by his prospectus of the dictionary addressed to
212
LEXICOGUAPUY
Lord C'hestcrfielJ, attempted all that an at-ademy was sup-
}K)Si>d to Ik' able to do, "to fix the Kii<;IUh lunpruufic." It
is true that by the time he had liiiished the dictionary he
liail reaehi'd some truer views of laiisuiif^'. !i^ we see from
the preface to his great work. Johnson's dictionary had,
liowcver, a great inllnenee. lis s|K>eial merits were in estab-
lishing the orthography, in discriminating definition, and
in illustrating the use of words by quotations from the best
authors, in this respi'ct anlieiiiating the practice of Grimm.
In etymology. .Johnson relieil on the Inst sources availiilile
at his time, using for the Teutonic element the works of
l^ye and Skinner, but these are far behind nresent knowl-
edge. So far as pronunciation is concerned, Johnson did
Jittle more than indicate accent, as Bailey had done beft)re
iiun. Johnson's dictionary and the abridgment he made
passed through many ediiions in the cigliteenth century,
and was last edited by Latham (1806-74).
Of the remaining dictionaries comi>iled in the eighteenth
century may be mentioned that of William Kenrick (17~}),
which is the first to pay special attention to pronunciation
Ijcyond the matter of accents; the Royal Standard Knylish
Dictionary. h\- William Perry (1775); and a General Dic-
tionary, by Tiiomas Shcridan'(1780). Both the hist had as
a main object "to fix a stamlarti for the pronunciation of
the Knglisn language." a special feature of all dictionaries
succeeding Johnson's. This new attention to orthoepy, or
correct pronunciation, culminated in a Critical Pronounc-
ing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language, by
John Walker (1791). Walker was an elocutionist, and he
distinctly makes pronunciation the importiuit thing in the
jireface t<i his dictionary. Much of Walker's theory is un-
doulAeiUy correct, but much is wholly wrong, especially in
connection with the iloctrinc of analogy he sets up.
Among nineteenth-century dictionaries may be men-
ti<med the Walker liemodeled, by Smart, and a Xiir Dic-
tionary, by Richardson, both published in 18;i6: the Imperial
lUclionar'y, by John Ogilvie (18.J0), a later edition of which,
liy Annandale, is still quoted ; and the Encyclopiedic Dic-
tionary of Robert Hunter (1879-^). The gi-eatest achieve-
ment of English lexicography in the nineteenth century was
the result of the new |)hilology. This is the Xew Engli.sh
J)ictionary. bc'^un and partially completed under the aus-
pices of the I'hilological .Society and the editorship of
J. A. H. Murray. It is on the model of Grimm's monu-
mental undertaking, and aims to give, besides pronunci-
ation and etymology, the history of each word in its changes
of meaning and use, with ilbustnitive examples from all
periods. Xo more important work has ever been under-
taken by Englishmen, and when completed it will be of
priceless value to the scholar. With English dictionaries
niavbe classed Jamieson's Etymological Dictionary of Low-
land Scotch (1808), edited by Liongmuir (1879). "Of no
slight importance also are the etymological dictionaries of
the nineteenth century, the one by Wedgwood (1859) and
the other by the eminent English scholv. W'. W. Skeat
(1881). The latter has fully superseded all others in Eng-
lish, but even this is not characterized bv the exact scholar-
ship of Kluge's Elymologisches Worterbuch der Deutschen
Sprache. Many special dictionaries have been prepared, a.s
that of Obsolete and I'rovincial Words, by 'Phomas Wright
(1857); a (flossary of Anglo-Itulian Words, by 11. Yale
(1886); a Dictionary of Anglicized Words and Phra.'ies (IS^'i) ;
Slang and its Analogues, by John S. Fanner (A-E. 1890).
Lexicography in the U. S. began with Noah Webster's
Comprehensive Dictionary in 1806. The noteworthy feat-
ure of this was the recognition bv Webster of the consid-
• rable element of words distinctly American, and of an
American as distinct from a British prominciation. Web-
ster also propos<'d changes in the orthography of certain
clas-xes of words, all in the direction of simplicity and uni-
formity. In 18i8 Webster jiublished his great work, which
lie called an American Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage. Besides the features alreadv mcntioneil, Webster
gave etymologies, but these were full of blunders owing to
the slight scholarship of the author. In 1830 Joseph E.
Worcester pulilished his Comprehensive Pronouncing and
Explanatory Dictionary. Worcester was more conserva-
tive than Webster as to recognizing an .\merican prontm-
ciation of English, nor does lie accept all the hitler's ortho-
graphic changes. Various eilitions of both the* works
have appeared, the last e<lilion of Weiister's dictionary
<lisregarding entirely the original aim by its name i>f an
International Dictionary. The latest and most consiiler-
able work is the Century Dictionary, an Encyclopindic
Lexicon, under the cilitorship of Prof. W. D. Whitney, of
Yale (1891). This is aii elabonite work in six quarto volumes,
is especially complete in scientific and technical term.s, and
iiartakes, as its name indicates, of the encvclopiedic character,
t leans rather toward Weljster than W'orcester in spelling
and pronunciation. One s])i'cial feature of the Century Dic-
tionary is its attenqit to include all words belonging to the
lan'Tuage since the union of the English and the Normans.
'I he difTcrences in vocabulary between the English used
in Great Britain and the l'. S. have led to the preparation
of sjiecial dictionaries, as that of Americanisms, by John
R. Bartlett (1848, last edition 1877); Americanisnis, Old
and yew, by John S. Farmer (1889).
The study of the oldest periods of the modern languages
has originated in various ways. In England this study
began in an antiquarian and theological interest. The first
Old English text was |irinted to show the belief of the an-
cient English Church. The first Old English dictionary
was the Diclionarium Saxonico-Latino-Angticum of Will-
iam Somner (1659). About a century later, in 1772, Ed-
ward Lye published his Diclionarium Saxonico et Gothico
Latinum. A renewed interest in the study of the older
language began in the nineteenth century, and a Diction-
ary of the Anglo-Saxon Language, by Joseph Bosworth, ap-
l)eared in 1888. A new edition of this, edited and enlarged
by T. Northeote Tollar, was begun in 1882. Old English
dictionaries have also been [irepared by E. II. Mliller, Grein,
and Leo in Germany. Dictionaries of the middle period of
English (1100-1.500) have also been compiled by German
scholars, as that by Stratraann (last edition, 1878), and by
Maetzner, begun in 1878 and continued to the letter M.
The former has been revised by Henry Bradley (1891), and
this is now the most serviceable edition. \ Concise Jil id-
die English Dictionary has also been prepared by A. L.
Mayhew and W. W. Skeat. With these may be mentionwl
a scholarly and useful work for a somewhat later period,
the Shakspeare Lexicon of Alexander .Schmidt (1874).
The form and arrangement of the dictionary is of the
highest importance. Pearly dictionaries differed consider-
ably in these respects from those of modern times. Some-
times words were arranged according to subject, as names
of animals, occupations, trades. Later the alphabetical
order came to be used, but it was at first very imjierfect,
the first letter onlv being considered. In the Greek dic-
tionary of Henri Estienne words were arranged acc<.)rding
to roots. This plan was also used by German scholars in
the early part of the nineteenth century; but it does not
commend itself, even to scholars, for convenience or utility.
In Sanskrit lexicons words are usually arranged according
to the phonetic relations of the letters. It may be laid
down as a fundamental principle of lexicography that the
strictest alphabetic arrangement is always best. Scarcely
less important is the arrangement of meanings on some
systematic basis. Early iliclionarics are lacking in anv sys-
tem in this respect. I'he French Academy, sis did John-
son, follows a logical basis, giving first the present mean-
ings of words. The new philology, however, has emphasized
the importance of an historical arrangement, ami this has
been followed in the dicticmaries of Gnmm, Littre, and in
the New English dictionary.
There has been a gradual development also as to that
which shall be included in a clictionary. In England, for
example, the simplest explanation of words was alone given
at first. Etymology was next altcmpled. Accent signs
were not added until the early eighleentli century, and a
system of signs for more exact pronunciation not until about
half a century later. A later addition was the expres.sion of
opinion by the lexicographer as to words, by the use of such
terms as rare, obsolete, low, ttilgar, terms that are at best
but very general and of slight value. Modern dictionaries
have also shown a tendency to claim excellence in [iropor-
tion as they have surpassed in the numberof words included.
The lists have thus been swelled by large additions of tech-
nical terms used in some one department of thought or ac-
tivity. Notwithstanding this lendency, one important class
of words, belonging peculiarly to English as a Teutonic
speech, has been too often omitted. These are compounds —
both those so marked by union in writing, and true com-
pounds not so marked. Some improvement has been made
an this respect in recent dictionaries, but much might still
be done to advantage both as representing the actual fact of
English usage, and as showing the extent to which the Teu-
tonic custom of fonoing compounds still prevails in Eng-
lish. Olivek Fakkau Emi:rso.v.
LEXICON
LEY DEN
213
' Lexicon : See Dictionary and LEXicoGRAPnv.
Lexington : town ; McLean oo., 111. (for location of coun-
ty, see nuip of Illinois, rcf. 5-E) ; on the Chi. and .Mtun
Railroad; Ki miles X. E. of Bloomington, 111) miles S. of
Chicago. It is in an agricidtural and stock-raising region,
and has a large trade in horses and live stock. It also
raaniifactiires tile. Poj). (1880) 1,334; (1890) 1,187; (1893)
estimated, 1,500. Editor of " Unit."
Lexington : city (founded 1775, incorporated 1782); capi-
tal of Fayette co., Ky. (lor location of county, see map
of K<'nlucky, ref. ii-ll) ; on the Chcs. and ()., the Ky. C'cjit.,
the Ky. Union, tlie Loiiisv. and Nash., the Louisv.'S., and
the Queen and Crescent railways ; 80 miles S. of Cincinnati,
85 miles S, E. of Louisville, It is the commercial and tiuaii-
cial center of the famous Blue Grass region, and the princi-
pal market for its three great products, blooded horses and
cattle, hemp, and tobacco. The census returns of 1890
showed that 174 manufacturing establishments (representing
46 industries) reporte{l. Tliese had a combined capital of
$1,411,580; employed 1,427 persons; paid .$744,256 for
wages, and |1.224,105 for nuilcrials; and had products val-
ued at $2,524,041. The priiu-i|ial products are 15ourbon
whisk.v, tol)acco, hemp, stoves, Hour, building supplies, canned
vegetables, saddlery, harness, carriages and wagons. It is
the seat of Kentucky University (Christian, chartered 1858),
of Hamilton Female College, Sayre Female Institute, and St.
Catharine's Academy (Roman Catholic). It has Holly water-
works, gas anil electric lights, electric street-railways, 2 full-
mile racing-tracks, public liln'ary, 7 national banks with
combined capital of .f 1.400,000, 2 State banks with capital
of $2,0l;i,l)00, 2 other banks, ami 3 daily, 12 weekly, and 6
monthly periodicals. Po|).(1880) 16,656; (1890)21,567; (1894)
estimated, 25,000. Editor of " Kentucky Leader."
Lexington : town (settled in 1642) ; Middlesex co., Mass.
(for location of county, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-II) ;
on the Bost. and Me. Railroad ; 11 miles N. \V. of Boston.
There are no manufactures, the principal businesses being
farming, clairying, and market-gardening. The town was
settled uniler the name of Camliridge Farms, and probably
received its name from Lexington (Laxington or Laxton),
Nottinghamshire, England, of which place Francis Whit-
more, an early settler, was a native. Jlemoi-able as the spot
where the first blood was shed in the Revolutionary struggle,
this historic town possesses numy mementoes of that period.
A modest granite monument ujion the village green tells its
story of life sacrificed for principle, while a memorial-hall
contains tablets and statues of John Hancock and Samuel
Adams ; of tlie min>ite-nuui of 1773 and the soldier of 1861.
Pop. (1880) 2,460; (1890) 3,197; (1895) 3,498,
Battle of Lexington. — ()n the evening of Apr. 18, 1775,
the British general Gage dispatched a force of 800 men under
Lieut. -Col. Smith to Concord, for the purpose of destroying
the mill tr.ry stores there collected, and in anticipalion luid
picketed the roads leading from Boston to prevent the news
of the intended expedition from spreading. The capture of
the colonials Hancock and Adams, who were at Lexington,
was also contemplated. The first movement of the British
regulars w.as at once made known by preconcerted signals,
and Paul Revere, rowing across to the Charlestown shore,
mounted his horse and rude toward Lexington, arousing each
household as he went ; the bells of the village churches rang
the alarm ; signal-guns were lircil, and other messengers had
given warning far and wiilc. By midnight Revere had ar-
rived at Lexington and given the alarm ; the militia at once
assembleil on the village green, but there being no signs of
the British, they were dismissed to await their coming, after
a number of men hail been sent out toward Boston to report
their approach. It was about half-past four in the morning
when the British nuijor Pitcairn, with six companies, who
had surprised and captured all the outposts, arrived within
a mile or two of Lexington. A gener.al alarm was now
sounded, and the militia to the numiier of sixty or seventy,
under command of ('apt. .John I'arker, were drawn up in
line upon the green. Pitcairn, moving rapidly forward with
his men, rode up and ordered the militia to surrender and
disperse. The militia, however, held their ground, and after
a volley had been tired over their heads without ellect, they
received a second fire, which killed eight and woundedjen
of the little band. Capt. Parker, seeing that further resist-
ance would result in the certain destruction of his men, or-
dered them to disperse, which they did, some discharging
their musl<e,'s at the British as they retired, inflicting, how-
ever, but little injury upon the enemy (three of the regulars
were wounded, and Pitcairn 's horse struck), who now pressed
on to Concord. 6 ndles beyond, whence Revere, continuing
his ride with Kbenezer Dow and Dr. .Samuel Prescotl, had
hastened to spread the alarm. Revere and Dow were cap-
tured by a British patrol ; Prescott, barely escaping, suc-
ceeded in reaching Concord. The Ijexington men rallied
after the departure of the regulars, and followed on to Con-
cord, and in the retreat of the British which followed the
battle at Concord bridge, .joined in the pursuit, which only
terminated on the arrival of the regulars at Charlestowii
Neck, under the guns of their ship[iing. In this pursuit
three more of the Lexington militia were killed. In 1799 a
snuill monument was erected uiion the spot where began the
contest of the Revolution. Editor of " Minute-Man.".
Lexington: city (settled in 1837); capital of Lafayette
CO., Mo. (for location of county, see map of Missouri", ref.
3-E) ; on the Missouri river, and the JIo. Pac. and the Atch.,
Top. and S. Fe railwa.vs ; 45 nules E. of Kansas City, 250
miles \y. of St. Louis. It is the center of the richesi coal
region in the State, also of the hemp-growing section ; on a
bluff 300 feet above the river. It has manufactures and a
large river commerce, and contains Went worth Jlilitary
Institute, Ba]itist Fenude College, Central Female College,
Elizabeth Aull Female Seminary, 4 State banks with coin-
bined capital of ijSlOo.OOO, and 3 weekly newspapers. In
Sept., 1861, a Union force of about 3,000 men, under Col.
James Mulligan, occupied the hill on the N. E. of Lexington,
which naturally strong position was fortified and held
against a Confederate force of some 18,000 men, under Gen.
Sterling Price, the siege terminating on the 20th in the
surrender of the town and garrison. L^pon^ Fremont's ap-
I>roach with a large force Price withdrew,' leaving a few
men in the town to guard the wounded prisoners remaining
there. On Oct. 16 Maj. Frank J, White, with about 220
men, captured 60 or 70 prisoners, and released such of Mul-
ligan's force as were found there. Again, in Oct.. 1864, the
army of tien. Price here attacked Gen. Blunt, who, after a
two"hours' resistance, withdrew. Pop. (1 880) 3,906 ; (1890)
4^37.
Lexington: town; ca|iital of Rockbridge co., Va. (for
location of county, see map of Virginia, ref. 6-F) ; on the
north branch of the James river, and the Bait, and O. and
the Ches. and O. railways; 35 miles N. N. W. of Lynchburg.
It is in an agricultural region, near the celebrated Natural
Bridge and the picturesque Peaks of Otter; is the seat of
Washinuton and Lee University {q. v.); and has good
water-power, a foundry, flour-mills, public library, two State
banks with aggregate cai)ital of .f!45,000, and a daily, a
monthly, and two weekly newspapers. Poji. (1880) 2,771 ;
(1890)3,059. KdITOR OK "(felZETTE."
Lex Loci Contractus [Lat.] : the law of the [ilace of a
contract. See International Private Law.
Lex Rei Sita- [Lat.]: the law of the place wliere a thing
is situated. See Interxationai, Private Law.
Ley'deii, or Leiden (Lat. Liiiidunnm Batavorum) : a eit.v
of South Holland, on the Old Uhine; 6 miles from the
German Ocean and 31 miles W. of Utrecht (see map of
Holland and Belgium, ref, 6-E). It is well built ; has broad,
well-k(^pt streets, and is intersected Ijy numerous canals, bor-
dered by aveiuies of trees. It is chiefly interesting for its fa-
mous university, founded in 1575 by VVilliam of Orange as a
reward to the citizens for their heroic defense against the
Spaniards the previous year. The uiuversity has a library
of 300,000 volumes and 5,600 MSS., and iimseums of natural
history, antiquities, and ethnography. In the sixteenth cen-
tiu'y Ijeyden was the cenlir of the woolen fabric industry,
and had a population of 100,0011, which in 1800 h.ad dwin-
dled to :iO,000. In 1807 a portion of the city was destroyed
by the exi)losion of a powder-ship. Pop. (1890) 43,379.
Leyden, Ernst: neurologist: b. at Dantzic, Prussia. Apr.
20, 1832: studied medicine at the University of Berlin,
graduating M. D. in 18.53; entered the nu'dieal corps of the
Prussian army in 1.S.54; in 1865 was appointed to the chair
of Theory aiid Practice of Medicine at the University of
Konigsberg; in 1872 was elected to the .same chair in the
University of St rassburg: in 1876 to the same chair in the
Universitv of Berlin. In 1879 he started the Xeifuchrifl fur
kliiiixrlie'Medieiii.oi which he is still an a-ssoeiatc editor.
Among his important works are />i> ffrniie Degeneration
dertiinlerti Uurkenmarksxt range (Berlin, 1804); Die Klinik
der Hiickenmarkakrankheiien (Berlin, 1874).
S. T. -Armstrono.
214
LEYDEX
Leyden. Jons: poet and Oriontal soliolar; b. in Denholm,
Roxbiiru'lishire. Si-otlan.l, Sopl. 8. 1775; stiulii-a at K<iin-
bur"hl'nivi-i>itv; wasoidiiiniil in 17!)S. l>ul sihui abandoneil
theTlorioal for the imiiioal iirofessinii. ami in 18(12 olilauii'.l
an apiHiinlMient as assistant siirRoon in India. lie lirst re-
sideJ at Ma.lras; studied the Oriental lan;,'ua;res, and remov-
ine to Caleutta, became Professor of llinduslani in I-ort
William t'oUege. lie afterward beeaine a jiid{;e anil assay-
niftster at tlie mint. He aoeonipnnied the Hritish expedition
a-'i.;.. ^t .;...a. and died at liatavia, .\uj.'. -27, 1811. Anion;;
oflier works he wrote an Jlifloriml Anoiiiil uf JJiscoienrK
ntid Sritlrmentof h'liropeann in yvrlhern aiitl ^\'eslenl Af-
rica (178U). and an h'ssai/ tin the Lnnqmujfs and Literature
of the Jmti)-C/iine.^e .Vii/i'on.v. in vol. xi.\. of Axiatic lie-
searches; also Poemii and liiillad^. published after his death.
Leydeii. Litas Jacohszoon, ealled I>iRas van Leyden :
painter and engraver; b. in Levden. Holland, in 14!l4. While
Mill a child he had learned diirerent methods of paint ing
and engraviiifT, and at the age of twelve, having ar(|iiin(l
all his masters eould teach him, he painted in tempeia so
surprising a picture of the Stiirii uf St. Hubert that Hj«
burghers of ],ochorst gave him for it as many golden lloriiTS
as he had years. He became an expert in the art of engrav-
ing, equali'ng .\lbert Diirer. who competed with him, each
eng'ravingsubjects designed by the other, Lucas surpassed
Albert in avoiding confusion in the figures, and in harmo-
nious arrangement, while I)ilrcr"s coneclness of drawing
was greater. In 1520, when Dilier visited Flanders, he went
to see his rival in art, and marveled to find so great a genius
in so small and fragile a body. They both painted on the
same picture in sign of amity. The Lust Judgment in the
counsel chamber at Leyden is <me of Lucius's mo.st im|iortaiil
works. He painted inaiiv .Scriptural subjects, among otlurs
The Blind Man of Jericho, a marvelous work in color, and
his last. His poi-traits also are very remarkable. At the
age of tliirty-two he undertook a journey through the Low
Countries, in order to make the acquaintance of all the best
artists of his time. He had fitted out a ship very splendidly
for this purpose, and at Middelburg he was joined by llie
eccentric Mabuse. He returned home ill, so that it is sup-
posed he may have been poisi>ned by some envious rival.
He languished in great sutTering for six years, his only con-
solation being his art, at which he laliored incessantly, liav-
ing had his sick-bed filled up with the means of painting
and engraving. He wius working when <leath put an end
to his sufferings. He left an incredible amount of wcjrk in
glass, in tempera, and in oil, besides his engravings, of which
there are over 172. I), in 1."):!:!. W. J. Stili.ma.n.
Leydeii Jar: a well-known form of electrostatic con-
denser, so named from its invention in the town of Leyden
(1745) by Cuneus. It consists of a wide-moutlied glass jar,
of some' variety of glass which insulates well. Inside and
out it is covered nearly to the neck with tin-foil. A brass
knob inserted in the wotMlcn cover is connected with tlie
inner coating by means of a wire or chain. When a differ-
ence of potential is i>roduced between the coatings of a
I>eyden jar, it becomes charged, the energy of charge ile-
pending, as in any CoNUENskr (q. v.). upon surface of the
coatings, their distance apart, and specific inductive eaiiacitj
of the intervening glass. The length of spark, upon diseliarge,
rises with the potential difference between the coalings, but
not ill direct proportion to the same, excepting when the
spark occurs in certain liquid dielectrics. The distance
from the upper eilgc of the coatings to the top of the jar
should be such that the strength of the dielectric along the
air-path from coaling to coaling (over Ihe neck of the jar)
is less than the electric strength of Ihe iiilerveiiing glass at
its weakest point. Otiicrwise, if the process of charging be
carried too far \\w glass will lie broken by the discharge,
and the jar will be ruined, Leydeii jars are freipienlly con-
nected 111 series (the cascade arrangement) to secure a
potential iliflerence eipial to Ihe sum of those due to the
electrification of Ihe individual jars, or in inulliple, all
outside coatings conneiled logel her and inner coalings the
same, when increaserl quanlity is di'sired. Such a combina-
tion, in either form, coiistilutes a Leyden battery. For Ihe
early history of tin' Leyden jar, imrlicularly concerning the
allegerl discovery of it by von Kleist of Cainin, previous to
Ihecelebrated'experiiiien'l of Cuneus, see Fischer, (ienchirhte
der I'hijKik, vol. v., ji. 41)0. See further, Co.vdknskr, Ki.kc-
TRiriTV, and I.Noi'cTiVK CaI'acitv. E. L. Nichols.
Lpvs. .Ions ArcirsT IIknkv : painter; b. at Anlweri), Feb.
18, r81.5; was deslineil for the Church, but at the age of
LL\XA
fifteen entered the studio of Brakeleer, his brother-in-law;
exiiibiled in 18^11 a picture that excited remark, Comlnil of
a (Irenadier with a CoD.sacI: : traveletl and studied in Franco
and Holland, and on his return till his death, Aug. 2(). 1869,
lived ill his native city. The artist took the subjects for bis
canvases from the history of his own country ami the life of
Ihe Middle .\ges, and painted historical and legendary scenes
wilh fiilelilv to costume and surroundings and strong feel-
ing. His cliief works, such of them as were not iiainted for
his rich patron. M. Couteau, were executed on tlie walls of
public buildings in Belgium. Three pictures which he .sent
to the Exposition in I'aris of 1855 obtained for him one of
the grand medals of honor. To the Exposition of 1807 he
sent eleven pieces, and was again honored by a lueiial. In
1846 he was decorated with the order of Leopold; in 1851
was raised to the rank of oflicer: in 1867 was made com-
mander of the order, and promoted to the dignity of officer
in Ihe Legion of Honor. He had already been created a
baron by Leopold L and elected a member of the Koyal
Academy of Belgium. Kevised by Ku.ssei.l .Sti'Rois'.
Leytc : one of the larger of the Philippine islands, of the
Viscaya group, separated by a very narrow strait from
Saiiiai- ; lats. 10 to 11° X., loii. 125' E. Area. :!,440 sq. miles.
I'op. 270,000. It is long, narrow, mountainous, somewhat
volcanic, has a good soil, warm and wet climate. The jieople
speak Viscaya. M, \\ . H.
liherniittc, liir'me"et', Leon AiuU'Stix: genre-painter,
principally of French peasant life; b, at Jlont-Saint-Pere,
Aisne, France, Jan. 81, 1844. He was a pujiil of Lecocq de
Hoisbaudran ; received a second-class medal in the Salon of
1880; decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1884; medal of
honor at the Paris Exposition of 1889. His pictures are
notable for vigor and technical qualitiesof a high order: his
representation of peasant character is truthful and whole-
some in senliiuent. Harreflerx \Vaye,^i (1SS2) is in the Lux-
embourg (iailery. Paris: The IVh^i.^c (1884) in Ihe ]SIetro-
polilau Museum, Xew York. Studio in Paris. W. A. C.
L'Hopital. lo'pi'e taaV, Michel, de: -statesman; b. at
Aigueperse, Puy-de-Doine, France, about 1504; studied law,
first at Toulouse, then at Padua and Uologna. Returning to
France, he entered upon Judicial fuiietioiis in the parliament
of Paris (1537); was sent to the Council of Trent, llien just
removed to Bologna (1547): became member of the council
of slate (1553) : and president of the court of accounts (1554).
tin the death of Olivier he succeede<l him as chancellor of
France (1560). He contributed to reform the legislation of
Ihe kingdom, and by wise moderation tried to allay the
bitterness of the civil dissensions by which France was torn.
He ojiposed the introduction of the Inquisition into France,
and at the meeting of the Stales-General at Sl.-Germain,
jusi before Ihe outlireak of the Hugucnol war.s, he asserted
principles ofloleralion and civil liberly far in advance of
the S|iirit of the age. "Many," said he, "may lie citizens,
who are not even Christians." He fell a prey io the enmity
of the Guises, and relired from office in 1568. He escaped
Ihe ma.ssacre of St. BarlholomewV night, and died Mar. 15,
1573. His works, published by Dufeye in 1824, in five vol-
umes, consist of Latin poems, memoirs, speeches, and papers
of judicial and pcilitical interest. A. (i. Cankielu.
Liability of Employers: See Master and Servant and
Neuluience.
Liall : town in the Pnnjaub, British India; in hit. 31° N.
and Ion. 71° E. (sec map of Northern India, ref. 4-B). It
carries on a considerable trade in sugar, cotton, silk, indigo,
cojiper, inm, and wool. Poji. aliout 18,000, mostly Afghans.
Lialiliof Islands (from the Rus.siau merchant Ivan Lia-
khof, who discovered tliem in 1770): the two southern islands
of New Siberia, hit. 73" to 74° X., Ion. 138 to 144° E., in
the Arctic Ocean, off the mouth of the Yana. The larger
and more southerly, Blizhniy Liakhof, is 70 miles in length
ami 40 miles in breadth; Ihe smaller. .Maly Liakhof, is 30
miles in lenglh and 15 miles in breadth. 'I'hey are rocky,
not ]iermauently inhabited, dillicull of access, have n>iii-
deer, wolves, ]"iiar foxes, and while bears, but are especially
remarkable for Ihe large number of bones of mammoths
anil other extinct animals. M. W. IlAKKiNiiToN.
Lia'iia [Eiig. also liane, from Fr. liane, any twining or
climbing tropical plant
I'l
Cf. Her. bind; lien, bondl: a
name (usually found in the plural) a|iplied to thei'limbing
and twining woody plants which, in some tropical countries
(as Brazil), entwine themselves among forest trees, often
rendering great areas of land quite imi>enetrable. They bo-
LIAS
LIBEL AND SLANDER
21i
long to many (HlTcrcnt families. Some are of very great
size, and often kill the trees round which they cling.
Liao-tun^ : See Shing-king.
Li'as [from Fr. lias, earlier liais, sort of hard limestone,
prob. from liret. liacli, stone]: a group of strata occurrinu;
in Western Europe, and belonging to the Jurassic pericHl;
in its lower portion thin bedded limestones alternate with
marls. In both (iermauy and P^ngland the Lias has yielded
hundreds of perfectly preserved skeletons of sauriaiis and
pterodactyls; from 70 to 100 species of fish, often most
beautifully preserved ; and a host of molhisca. Corals were
not .so aljundantly represented. It gives us the most com-
plete representation yet found of any extinct fauna. The
English Lias includes an important sovn-ce of iron, the
Cleveland ironstone, an argillaceous carbonate of iron, yield-
ing on an average about :iO per cent, of iron. It extends
over a district of some hundreds of scjuare miles, in a stra-
tum, generally oolitic in structure, and 16 feet in thickness.
Liba'nins: rhetorician; b. at Antioch in 814; jirobably
survived the Em|)eror Theodosius, who died in ;^!lo ; studied
at Athens, but acciuired liis education principally Ijy private
study of the old Greek writers, whom he often imitated with
success, and for whom he always showed great enthusiasm.
He first set up a private school of rhetoric at Constanti-
nople, and became so popular that the schools of the official
teachers were deserted ; and in their jealousy these teachers
charged liim with <Iealing in magic, and succeeded in get-
ting hira expelled from the city about 346. He went to Ni-
eomedia, where he taught with equal success, but wdien re-
■called to Constantinople at the end of five years he was
rather coolly received, and, persecuted by the intrigues of his
rivals and harassed by domestic troubles and ill-health, he
gave up teaching and lived in retirement in his native city.
Libanius was a thorougli Greek, and had no sympathy with
Roman life and a scant knowledge of the Latin language.
His idol was Greek style, and for his time lie had rare suc-
cess in mastering the secrets of Greek expression. A pagan
born and bred, he was an ardent admirer of the Emperor
Julian; but his devotion to the Apo.state did not prevent
him from associating on terms of ailectionate intimacy with
.St. Chrysostoin and St. Basil ; for he was above all a rheto-
rician, and his tolerant attitude toward Christianity, so far
as it did not interfere with the study of the Greek classics
and the attainment of excellence in Greek composition, may
be explained by his shallow cleverness as well as by his easy
temper. Ilis orations, declamations, etc., have been pub-
lished by Reiske (4 vols., Leipzig, 1791-97), and his letters,
■which are of great value for the history of that period, by
I. C. Wolf (Amsterdam, 1738). There exist, however, still
many letters by him, in manuscript and unpublished, at
jMadrid, Venice, and other places. See G. R. Sievers, Das
Leben des Libanius (Berlin, 1868).
Revised by B. L. Gildersleeve.
Liba'tion [from Lat. liba'tio, deriv. of liha're, taste, sip,
pour out as an offering to a divinity ; Gr. Kdpeti/, make a
libation] ; among the Homans, a drink-offering sacrificed to
the gods or to the spirits of the dead, by pouring a portion
of tlie draught upon the altar or the ground, either as a
separate act of worship or in connection with other sacri-
ficial rites. The libation was most commonly of wine, un-
mixed with water; but it might also consist of honey or
milk, as the occasion or ritual demanded. The Greeks
called such an offering awovSii. G. L. Hexdricksox.
Li'bau : town; in the government of Courland, Russia; on
the Baltic, 146 miles W. Ijy S. of Riga (see map of Russia,
ref. 6-B). It has a considerable ship-building interest and
large trade in timber and corn. Its harbor freezes later
than other harbors of the Baltic, and is earlier free of ice.
(See Harbors.) Pop. 29,700.
Libel [from Lat. Ubcl'lus, little book, pamjihlet, lam-
poon, dimin. of liber, book] : in civil law, the designation of
the first pleading in an action. The term was adopted by
ecclesiastical courts, and is still retained in divorce suits in
some of the U. S. Its most frequent us<> in I']nglish-speak-
ing countries is in admiralty proceedings. This pleading
corresponds to the Dkci.akatiox (q. r.) in common-law
courts, and to the complaint of modern codes. See Plead-
ixus. F. M. B.
Libel and Slander: in law. those utterances which pro-
duce a legal injury to the reputation of another. If the
defamatory utterance consists in speech, either vocal or
manual (as in the case of mute.s), it is called slander. If
made by means of permanent visible signs, employed to
convey distinct ideas, as by writing, printing, painting, or
cfligy, it is termed libel. By the Roman law a person
coulii be defamed by another's acts, unacconqianied by de-
famatory words or signs, as when with a view to injure his
credit his goods were seized by the other on a fictitious
debt. In such cases the English law gives the injured
party an action for damages, Init does not treat tin? wrong
as defamation. Nor does the English law deal with every
assault upon a person's rejiutation or honor by word or
sign as an actionable dcfanuit ion, even though it is made
nudiciously and causes harm to its victim. In order that it
amount to actionable defamation it must produce legal in-
jury to the reputation of the one assailed. Some of the
rules for determining when a legal injury of this nature
has been sustained are technical and unsatisfactory.
Dffatnation as a Tort. — Libel may give rise to a private
actitm for damages, and also to a crinn'nal prosecution.
Slander, unless it consists in speaking blasphemous, obscene,
or seditious words, is only a private wrong. And first of def-
amation as a tort. An actiimaljle libel is generally defined
as a written statement published without lawful justifica-
tion or excuse, calculateil to convey to those to whom it is
published an imputation on another injurious to him in
his trade, or holding him up to hatred, contempt, or ridi-
cule. In this definition the words "written statement" are
to be understood as including any permanent visible sym-
bol of thought. In order that slander or spoken defama-
tion be actionable, it must cause special damage to its
victim, or it must be of such a character that the law pre-
sumes, without proof, that its victim's reputation has been
impaired. This presumption exists in the following cases:
(I) Where the words impute an indictable crime, involving
moral turpitude or liability to infamous punishment. It is
enough in England that the words impute a criminal of-
fense, punishable by imprisonment. The crime need not be
indictable even. Some courts in the U. S. adopt the English
doctrine. Some require the words to charge a crime in-
volving disgrace; others, to charge an indictable crime
punisliable corporally, ami still others to charge a criminal
offense involving both moral turpitude and eorjioral pun-
ishment. The weight of judicial decision supports the rule
first stated above. (Pullard vs. Ltjim, 9.5 U. S. 22.5.) What
punishment is infamous depends largely upon public ojiin-
ion. but imprisonment at hard labor in the State prison or
penitentiary is such. To charge that a person "is guilty of
the crime of concocting a bhukmail or extortion scheme"
has been held not actionable, because it did not charge an
overt act. but merely a ])lanning to act, and the intention
to commit a crime is not a criminal offense; although the
court thought the language seriously reflected upon the
plaintiff's character. (2) Where the words impute to the
plaintiff, at the time they are spoken, the possession of a
contagious disease, which would naturally exclude him from
society. The only examples furnished by adjudged cases
are of leprosy, venereal disorders, or the plague. (3) Where
the words disparage a person in his trade, business, office,
or profession. In such ca.ses it is not enough to show that
the defamatory words were spoken of one while engaged in
the duties of his office or calling. It must be shown that
they were spoken of him in relation thereto, and to his
prejudice therein — theynnist touch him in his office or call-
ing. Thus to say of a restaurant-keeper, " Vou are an in-
fernal rogue and a swindler," was held not actionable on
the ground that there might be very successful restaurant-
keepers who were both rogues and swindlers. If a person's
calling requires a special kind of knowledge, a charge that
he does not possess that knowledge is acti(aiablc; as to say
of an attorney, " he has no more law t han a goose,'" or of a
physician, "he is a quack-salver." In case one holds an
office of profit, anything sai<l of him in his office, imputing
to him a want of" ability or honi'sty unfitting him for the
office, is actionable. If he holds an office of honor or credit,
the disparaging words must l)e such as, if true, to show an
unfitness for the position, which would expose him to the
risk of removal therefrom. Accordingly, it has been held
that to say of a town councilor, "he is never sober, and
is not a fit man for the council,"' is not actionable with-
out proof of special damage. It wiis intimated, however,
that if the imputation had been of a disgraceful act done
in his office, although it might be an act not sufficient to
dei)rive him of that office, it would have been actionable
l)er se. (Alexander vs. Jenkinx, Law Reports, Queen's
21G
LIBEL AND SLANDKU
Bench Division, 1WU2, vol. i., p. 797.) Special Damage. — If
the slamlerous wonls can not bo broiipht within onu of
these three ehisses they are not aotioiiahle without priKif
tliat they have oaiiseJ tjie phiintilT special (lamai;e, ami this
torni is liniiletl to a material temporal loss which is the
natural ami probable conseouence of the slander. It is not
special ilamaire that a slamier causes its victim's friemls to
stuin him. but he is legally ilamaneil if the slauiler causes
thera to withilraw from him their hospitality. .Mental dis-
tress and conseipient physical illne.ss do not amount to
S|)«cial damaire. Various reasons are assifjned for this doe-
trine. !^ucll harm is spoken of as fancifid. and as not re-
sulting fairly and naturally from the wrongful act. It is
nls<.> said that it would l>e highly impolitic to hold all lan-
KUage wounding the feelings, and affecting unfavorably the
health and ability of aiiotlier to labor, actionable, for then
the right of action would de[K'ild upon wlutlicr the victim's
sensiliilities were easily excite<i or not. and a dangerous use
would lie maile of it. However, if the words are actionable
per se. injuries to the feelings nniy be proved to enhance
the jtlaintiff's damages. A slander that causes one's expul-
sion from a religious society does not produce special dam-
age; but it nniy if it causes his expulsion fnmi a social
club. In the one case his loss is spiritual, in the other it is
temporal.
If the dcfamati(m is by libel, it is actionable whether fol-
lowed by special damage or not. The distinctions above re-
ferred to. which arc of prime iin|)ortaiice in the law of
slander, although not resting on any satisfactory principle
and quite artifuial, have iittlp or no application to libel
ca.ses. The publication of any written statement (using the
term as above delined) calculated to bring another into
hatred, contempt, or ridicule is actionable. Injury to repu-
tation is deemed the natural and [U'obable consequence of
such a publication. A published sneer or pleasantry at the
expense of another is not actionable. In which of these
classes a particular publication belongs is sometimes difli-
cult to decide, and is to be resolved in each case as a question
of fact in the light of all the circumstances. It has been
said that " there are no words so plain that they may not l)e
published with reference to such circumslances, and to such
persons knowing these circumstances, as to convey a mean-
ing very diflerent from that which would be understood
from the same words used in different circumstances."
Where the language is not obviously defanmtory the plain-
tiff must allege and prove extrinsic facts showing that the
hearers or readers on the particular occiusion would natu-
rally give to it an injurious meaning. This allegation is
called an innuendo. If the defendant charged the plaintill
with "healing felons." the innuendo must allege that those
words were used and would be understood to mean "con-
cealing felons." Where the language is ironical, as "you
are an honest lawyer," or does not contain the name of "the
plaintiff, an innuendo is necessary. The plainlilt is not re-
quired to show that the defendant intended to defame him.
ft is enough for him to show that injury to his reputation
would be the natural and probable consequence of the ile-
fendant's langmige. " Xo one can cast about firebrands
and death and then escape from being responsible by saying
he was in spurt."
Ffiir Voniinenl. — When a person has done or published
anything which nuiy fairly be said to invite public atten-
tion, every one ha.s tt right to make fair and proper com-
ment thereon, and as long as he keeps within that limit
what he publishes is not a lil)el. (Campliell vs. Spo/lisiromle, 3
Best anil .Smith 7t)!l.) This right extends to all pul)lic alTairs,
including the pulilic acts of those engaged in such affairs;
to published biHik> and pictures, to architecture, to theaters,
concerts, and other public entertainments, and generally to
every form of ap^K-al to the public. It docs not extend,
however, to the private iharacter or life of those who have
invited public atlenti(.n to certain of their acts or works.
(Jne may indulge in bold and even exaggerated criticism of
a book. an<l of the author as connected with the buok, with-
out exceeding the liinils of fair comment : but if under pre-
text of book criticism he attacks the author's cliaracler, or
makes allegations of I'ai-t iliscredilablc lo him as a man. his
language cea.ses to Ih' fair comnii'iit and becomes actiimable
defamation. This is well illusi rated by two ciuscs between
the same parties in Kngland, .S'/ivim«« vs. />(iii<-/.<, 4 foster
and Finlason !i;(i) ami 111)7. The defendant described a
novel by the plaintiff as " the very worst attempt at a novel
that has ever been perpetrated," and commenled scverelvon
" its insanity, self-complacency, and vulgarity, its profanity.
its indelicacy (to use no stronger word), its display of bail
Latin, bail t'rench, bad (brman. and biul Knglish " ; yet
this language was not thought by the trial judge to exceed
fair comment. an<i the plaintiff withdrew a juror. The de-
fendant published a statement that he consenteil to the with-
drawal of a juror, because he consiilered the plaintiff could
not have paiil defendant's costs had he recovered a judg-
ment. The jury were told that if this statement was made
for the jmrpose of attacking the reputation of the plaintiff
it was malicious and actionable.
Privileijeit Orcnxion. — Publishijig a defamatory statement
on a privileged occasion differs from fair comment in that
there is no libel or slander in the latter case, while in the
former there i.s, but its utterance is excused. These occa-
sions are of two kinds, absolute and privileged. Occasions
of al)Solute privilege cndirace legislative proceedings, judi-
cial proceedings, including courts martial, and probably the
reports of naval and military officers to theiv superiors. Ab-
solute exempt ion from liability to suit in these cases is consid-
ered essential to the public interest. In the case of legisla-
toi-s it is secured in Kngland by the bill of rights, and in the
U.S. by constitutional provisions. The immunity does not ex-
tend to snbordinale legislative bodies, such as county coun-
cilors or supi'rvisors. Judges and jurymen Jire not subject
to an action for defamation, for any language they may use
while acting in their official capacity in any causes before
them. The Knglish courts extend the same exemption to
the pleadings, affidavits, etc., of parties, to witnesses, and
counsel. They believe that public ])olicy requires that not
only judges, but counsel, parties, and witnesses, shall per-
form their parts in a court of justice with their minds unin-
fluenced by the fear of an action for defamation ov a prose-
cuti(m for libel. .Although some courts in the U. S. adopt
this rule, the majority hold that in the case of parties, coun-
.sel, and witnesses. their defamatory statements must be perti-
nent and material to the case, or must be made in good
faith and without actual nuUice : in short, that a judicial
proceeding is an occasion to them of qualified privilege only.
Other cases of (puilified privilege are when one makes a
defamatory slatement in the performance of a legal or social
iluty.or in self-protection, or as a fair report of public legisla-
tive or judicial procee<lings. In England and in many of t he
U. S. this privilege has been extended by statute to a fair and
true report of any iniblic or oflicial proceedings. Generally
the liberty of the press consists only in the right to publish
"without any previous license, sulnect to the consequences
of the law," in case of al)use. Whether a report of public
proceedings is fair or whether a stalemeiit is nuidc in self-
protection does not generally present a difficult question for
the courts, but they have been greatly troubled in (letermining
the limits of the legal or social duty, espeeinlly of the social
duty, which will render a defamatory stjitement condition-
ally privileged. On the one hand is the consideration that
if its limits are too narrow persons will be deterred from
warning their fellows against rascals. On the other hand
is the fear that extending the boundaries unduly will enable
gossips to filch the good name of honest peii|ile. under color
of the iierforuiancc of duty. The English courts seem dis-
poseil to give to the term a broader scojjc than do those of
the LT. S. Compare i?i/f(m vs. C'o//i'«6', 111 Xew York 143
(1888) with Stiuiii \s.'Bell,2 Queen's Bench Division 341
(18!)!). In the hitler case Lord .luslicc Lindley said: "I
take moral or social duty to mean a <luly recognized by Eng-
lish people of ordinary intelligence and moral |)rinciple, luit
at the same time not a duty enforceable by legal proceedings,
whether civil or criminal," If the maker of a defamatory
statement has an interest in the subject-matter and the re-
ci|iient has a like interest, the occasion is undoubtedly one
of conditional iirivilege : as where the directors of a cofti-
pany circulate a report among the stockholders reflecting
upon its agents. Whether the occasion is privileged or not
is a question of law. If it is conditionally privileged, the
jury are to say whether it has been abused.
ilalice. — It is often said that a defamatory charge must
be malicious in oiiler to be actionable. This use of the
term has been deplored by eminent judges. All that is
meant liy it is that the charge is mude without just cause
or excuse. The defamation may be published without a
particle of malice or improper motive and yet be action-
able. If the statement is conilitii>nally privileged, however,
the jilaintiff is bound to show that it was made with ac-
tual malice. Whether such malice actuated the defendant
is a question for the jury : but it is proper for the court to
instruct the jury that such tests of actual malice as the fol-
LIBEL AND SLANDER
217
i
lowinfj may be ap)ilied : " If a man is provcil to have stated
what lie knew to Ije false, no one iiuiuii'es further; every-
body assumes that he was malicious, that he did so wrong a
thing from some wrong motive. Again, if it lie jjroved that
out of anger or from some other wrong motive the defend-
ant has staled something as true without knowing or in([uir-
ing whether it was true or not. therefore reckless, by reason
of his anger or other motive, whether it is true or not. the
jury nuiy infer that he used the occasion for the gratification
of his anger or other improper motive,'' and therefore acted
maliciously.
JiLtlification. — The defendant, in a civil action for defa-
mation, who alleges and proves the truth of his statement,
is entitled to a verdict, though he published the charge with
express malice. Such a charge does not invade the plain-
titt's right of re|iutation, though it may show that he has
been enjoying a reputation that he did not de-ierve, lie has
sustained no legal injury. However, the legal presumption
is that every defaniatory statement is false. The burden is
therefore upon the defendant to allege and prove the truth
of his particular charge, and the courts enforce this rule
with great vigor. In the older cases there is some authority
for the view tliat the defendant could justify by showing
that he simply repeated the statement of another, giving at
the time the name of the author and acting in good faith.
Those decisions seem to have proceeded on the theory that
actual malice was necessary to actionable defamation, and
have long been overruled. The author of a defaniatory
statement is not liable for its repetition, unless he actually
or impliedly authorized the repetition. The one repeating
the charge is the proximate cause of the damage which the
statement thus repeated produces. If the statement is made
to one who is known to the author to be under a legal,
official, or social duty to repeat it, and the occasion of its
repetition is thus privileged, the author will be liable.
Defamation <is a Crime. — Although every libel that is
actionabli! as a tort is also a misdemeanor at common law,
some kinds of defamation are punishable criminally which
will not sustain a civil action for want of a proper plaint ill'.
Such are blasphemous, obsc-ene, or seditious words, calum-
nies on a court of justice, libels on the dead, and those
which tend to excite the hatred of the people against a sect
or class but not against particular individuals. The first
two classes are dealt with as crimes, because they tend to
corrupt public morals or endanger the institutions of the
state ; the others because they conduce to a breach of t he
peace. Prosecutions for seditious defamation are practically
unknown in the U. S., and the doctrine of scandulum mag-
niilum, founded upon the statutes of 3 Edw. I., c. 34, and 2
Kic. II., c. .5. that words derogatory to "great men of the
realm " would sustain civil and criminal proceedings, al-
though such as woulil not be actionable if applied to a com-
moner, has never been adopted in the U. S. The doctrine is
practically obsolete in England, no action having been
brought calling for its application since 1710. Blasphemous
defamation is discussed in the article on Blasphemv.
Defamation of a lieceased person is not actionalde civilly.
for it docs not assail the reputation of any one who can act
as plaiutitf. (Lnckumsey Roicji vs. Ilurbun Nurfsei/, Indian
Law Reports. .5 Bombay 580.) In an English case the court
expressed a doubt whether such defamation constituted a
crime (Reg. vs. Lahoiichere, 13 Queen's Bench Division 320),
although it has been understood that if the publication was
made with intent to scandalize the deceased person's rela-
tives, and thus tended to a breach of the peace, it was in-
dictable. .Such is the statutory rule in many of the U. S.
Patttimtiiin. — Tliis is a necessary element in the cause of
action for defamation, whether the proceeding is civil or
crhninal. A criminal libel is published whenever the uttcrer
knowingly displays or parts with it in such circumstances
as to expose it to lie seen or understood by another. Hence
there is a publication if the writer sends the libel in a seale<l
envelope to the one defamed. The tendency of such an act
is to provoke the recipient to a breach of the peace. This
would not amount to publication for the purposes of a civil
suit, for injury to the reputation of the jilaintiff is the
grouml of such action, ami one's reputation consists in the
good opinion of his fellows. In Virginia a statute has dis-
pensed with publication to a third jicrson. (Holland vs.
Batc/iehler, Si Virginia 664.) C'onimunication of the libel
by the ntterer to the wife of its victim is a publication ; but
communication of it by the utterer to his wife is not, for the
communication is privileged.
If a person, intending to send an innocent writing to an-
other, by mistake sends a libel on a third, lie has published
it for the purposes of a civil action, but not for those of a
criminal prosecution. In the former his intention is imma-
terial ; in the latter a guilty intention is necessary. Where
a libel apfiears in a book or [laper there is a publication liy
the author, by the printer, and by any one who sells or de-
livers it to another, conscious of its defamatory character.
Justification. — At coniUKm law " it is immaterial with
respect to the essence of a (criminal) libel whether the mat-
ter of it be true or false, since the provocation and not the
falsity is the thing to be punished criminally." (4 Black-
stone's Commentaries 150.) In applying this doctrine. Lord
Mansfield declared that "the greater truth, the greater
libel." The common-law rule has been changed both in
England and the U. S., and the defendant in a criminal
prosecution for libel is allowed to [irove the truth of his
charge as a defense, provided he also proves that the publi-
cation was with good motives and for justifiable ends.
Court and Jury. — Prior to the statute 32 Geo. 111., c. 60
(1792), known as Fox's Libel Act. it had been dccitled bv the
court of King's Bench that "on the trial of an indictment
for a libel the only questions for the jury are the fact of
publication and the truth of the innuendoes. 'I'he question
of libel or no libel is necessarily a question of law." Jus-
tice Willes dissented, holding that while the jury should re-
ceive the law of libel from the court, it was their consti-
tutional right to examine the innocence or criminality of
the writing, and, though they found the publications and
the innuendoes were proved, they might still give a general
verdict of acquittal without being obliged to give their
reasons. (Reg. -vs. Shipley, il)oun\ass 73.) This doctrine
was declared by Fox's act to be the law of England. Stat-
utes or constitutional provisions of like tenor are found in
the U. S. In the former country the functions of the court
and jury are the same in civil proceedings as in criminal
proceedings for a libel. The court may nonsuit the plain-
tiff in a civil action or may direct the jury to acquit in a
criminal prosecution, if satisfied that the publication is not
libelous. On the other hand, though the court may deem
the publication obviously defaniatory, the question of libel
or no libel must still be submitted to the jury; whether the
proceeding be civil or criminal ; althougli in a civil suit a
verdict for the defendant in siii-h a case may be set aside as
against evidence, and a new trial ordered. (Capital Coun-
ties Bank vs. Ilejity, 7 Ajipeal Cases 741.) In the U. S. the
court may decide as a matter of law the question of libel or
no libel in a civil action, but not in a criminal case.
(Moore vs. Francis, 121 N. Y. 19!).) Starkie On Slander;
Ogders On Libel and Slander : Townsend On Lihe! and
Slander; Bishop On Criminal Law ; May's Constitutional
History of England (vol. ii., eh. ix.) : Robert's iWw York
(vol. i., ch. xvii.). Franxis M. BiRmcK.
History of Libel and Slantjer. — In primitive society in-
sults are punished by private vengeance. \A"lien the com-
munity begins to discourage violence and to attempt to sup-
press it. the law substitutes for the right of revenge [lenalt ies
enforced through judicial procedure. These penalties are
at first (and for a long time) regarded as a comiiensation
granted to the wronged individual in exchange for his older
right. In early law, therefore, there is a tendency to make
the penalty correspond to the degree of irritation which the
wrong naturally excites. This tendency is nowhere more
clearly marked than in the penalties attached to insulting
and defamatory words and act.s. Thus in early Icelandic law
the man accused of cowardice had the right of immediately
slaving his accuser. If he chose, however, to resort to judicial
procedure, he could obtain the outlawry of his antagonist.
The form of defamation which obtains widest currency in
early society, and which is therefore as a rule most keenly
resented, is the libelous chant or song. In an Icelandic
law-saga of comparatively late origin the slaying of the
author of such a .song is treated as something very near to
justifiable homicide (Dasent. Story of Burnt i^Jal. i.. 13.5-
146), and in the Roman Twelve" Tables we find that the
"evil song" (malum carmen), which Cicero (De Repuhlica,
4, 12) defines as a libelous song, was punished with death.
These primitive ideas not only explain the origin of the
criminal action of libel, but tiiey rcrire.sent the starling-
[xiint in the development of the English distinction between
libel and slander. They also throw light upon certain prin-
ciples of the Engli.sh eomhion law — such as the statement
" the greater the truth, the greater the liliel." and the say-
ing that libel is punished criminally because it tends to a
breach of the peace. The same reasoning was applied as
21S
LIBEL AND SLANDER
LI BELT
lato as 170;} to tlii> notion of slander (cf. Baker vs. Pierce, 2
Lonl Havnion.l Ur)9), wliore tlie attion of tort is recognized
as a subs'tiluto for tlic impulse of the wronged nnrty to take
revenge, anil where it is expresslv argued that legal redress
must not btf made too dillieult ot attainment if private ven-
geance is to be suppressed.
Jioman Late— hi the Koman law the line of development
was in some respeits dillerenl from the English. In aildi-
tion to the iriminal [H-naltv iniposeil upon the author of the
lilji-lou* song, the Twelve Tables gave an action for a pen-
altv of tweiitv-five agses for every uuiiria. At a later pe-
ri.>il the pnetors substituted the so-called aflio (H<limatona,
in which damages could be proportioned to the gravity of
the offense and its publicity, and in which vindictive as well
lus actual damages could be recovered. " Injury," at Homan
law. was a broader conception than defamation ; it included
injury to the physical person as well as attacks upon the
reputation — i. e. it covered the field of assault and battery,
as well as that of libel and slander. In the case of dcfaina-
tiem. imjicrial legishiliim subsequently establisiicd criminal
actions that su])pleniented the civil actions, and imposed
severe penalties, such as whipping or exile, upon the authors
and publishers of defamatory pamphlets (libilli famosi) and
anonvmous epigrams and [msquinades. Insults to the em-
[icror and his family were not governed by the law of libel ;
thev were punished as lese-majesty.
In the civil and criminal actions alike, malice (rfo/us) must
lie proved or inferred. The truth of an accusation was a
defense to either action, provided that the truth had not
been stated in an umiecessarily public and ofTensive manner.
In other words, the form of publication might constitute an
independent offense in which the truth or falsity of the ac-
cusation was immaterial ; so, for example, with the libellus
famosHS.
Medictvnl Laic. — In the early German codes, which were
mereTy compilations of IriVial custom, we find various forms
of defamation (particular words in some cases) taxed with
varving fines. The heaviest fines are regularly imposed
upon those who charge women with unchastily. or persons
of either sex with witchcraft: for such charges imperiled
the lives of the accused. In some tribal laws a reasonable
distinction is drawn between words spoken in the heat of
anger, which the speaker is willing to withdraw, and defa-
mation persistently uplieM. In the former case the slan-
derer escapes with a smaller fine and a declaration under
oath of the plaintilT's unsullied honor. In the latter case
the defendant seems to have been entitled to prove the truth
of his charges by wager of battle, but if the ordeal goes
against him the fine is greatly increased, amounting in many
cases to the icergeld or sum paid in compensation for homi-
cide. By the laws of the Alemanni, women were not re-
sponsible for ordinary scolding ; but she who called a woman
a witch or a man a fraud or a liar was fined twelve solidi.
(Cf. MvannvT, Diulsrhe liechfsffescltirhte, ii., 671-674.) With
the reception of the Justinian law-books, toward the close
of the Middle Ages (see liosiAN Law), the Roman rules of
injuria were generally accepted, but with one modification,
due |)artly to the survival of Teutonic custom and partly to
ecclesiastical infiuences. Besides vindictive damages for
defamation, the successful plaintiff was entitled to a public
apology from the di'fendant, coupled with a formal willi-
drawal of the offensive expressions and a declaration of the
plaintiff's honorable re|iulation. A modern remnant of this
rule is found in the (ierman j)enal code, which declares
(Art. 200) that when judgment is obtained for public defa-
mation the injured pally shall be authorizeil to publish the
judgment at the cost of the defeiiilant. If the libel was
pulili--hed in a newpaper. the juilgment, if possible, is to be
published in the same jiarl of the same paper a:\d in the
same Ivpe.
Miiilfrn European Codex. — The principles of the Roman
law lie at (he basis of most of the modern legislations on
the continent of Europe; but the Roman actio iFstimaloria,
with its combination T)f actual and vindictive damages, has
generally liecn alH)lislied. Hefamation gives rise to a civil
action, but in such an action only actual damage can be re-
covered. The defamir is pnnislicMl l)v concurnnl criminal
actions, which, however, are inslituled oidy on the demaiul
of the insulteil party. The penalties (fine ami imprison-
ment) are in(rreased when the defamatiim is publicly nuide,
ami also (in (ierman law) when it'can lie shown that the de-
fenilant knew that his statements wiTe false. Eines im-
posed as a result of the criminal action go into the treasury
of the state. In Uermany, however, the defendant may be
condemned also to pay actual damages to the party at whose
instance the iirosecution was insiituted, and in this case no
civil action can be brought subsequently.
The truth of an accusation can not always be pleaded in
bar of an action. In the case of defamatory statements pub-
lished in newspapers, the French law admits priKif of truth
onlv when the statements refer to official acts. (See Laws
of Jlay 20, ISlll. and Apr. 1">. ls71.) In the (Ierman law
the proof of truth is regularly lulmitted; but it does not
avert punishment, in the criminal action, if the true state-
ment was clothed in an insulting form.
To the English doctrine of privilege corresponds the nile
of the Roman law, that he who has made a statement in the
exercise of a jiublic right is not liable to the actio iiijuria-
ntm. Modern European codes extend this privilege to
legitimate criticism of scientific, artistic, an<l industrial pro-
ductions, etc., when the criticism is not clothed in an insult-
ing form : but in (iermany such privilege is no defense when
it can be proved that the jierson making the injurious state-
ment knew it to be false. Decision of the criminal court of
Berlin, Oct. 2:i. 18713.
At Homan law and in modern European legislations the
ijroleclion of the reputation is not limited to living persons;
It extends to the memory of the dead.
Insults directed against the head of the state and other
public officers, against foreign princes and their diplomatic
representatives, etc., are ))unisheil in many European legis-
lations as special offenses and with spicial severity.
Surcical of the liigtit of Jifveiiye. — It can not be said that
the evoluti(m here indicated, from the primitive right of
vengeance to the system of legal penally, is even yet com-
pleted. In many modern states the duel is so lightly
punished that it may be said to be practically tolerated;
and the duel, of cour»~e, is usually resorteil to for the aveng-
ing of insult and the protection of the insulted person's
honor.
LiTHRATfRE. — Petit, Les Injures et la Diftamation en
Droit Jioiiiaiti (Paris, lS6;i) : Paillart, l)e la Diffamation
eiiri-rs /a .Jlemoire des Morts (Paris, 1S66): Baumeister,
Veber Injiirien (Berlin, 1880): Boulanger. /^p la Diffama-
tioii et de r Injure (Uennes, 1882); Freudenstein, System des
Beclites der tHirenkrunkungen (2d ed. Hanover, 1884);
Landsbcrg, Injuria und Beleidigung (Bonn, 1886); Eck-
stein,/.'/V AVo-f in I'liilo.td/jliie und /I'fc/i/ (Leipzig, 1888);
Kratz, Strdfrechlliclier Elirhegriff {(.Jiessen, 18111 ); Hess,
Elire und lieleidiyung (Hamburg, 181)1). Minroe Ssirru.
Libelt, Karol : philosopher and statesman ; b. at Posen,
Poland, A|)r. 8, 1807: studied mathematics, philology, and
pliilosojihy (under Hegel) at Berlin ; received a gold medal
for his essay <m S|iinoza in 1828 : by his dissertation De
panllieismo in pliiliLiophia won in 18;TO the degree of Ph. D.
In 18;!0 he took part in the Polish revolution, and was
consequently .senteiued to nine montlis' imprisonment at
Magdeburg. In 1840 he returned to Po>cn, where he estab-
lished a ]irivate school and edited two journals, Dsiennik
dumouy and Jiok. The essays contributed by him to vari-
ous journals were afterward collectively published in /Cbior
pism poniniijszi/ch (Posen, 184!)-.51). A result of his ex-
perience as teacher was Wijklad niateniali/ki, etc. (A Iland-
tiook of Mathematics for (iymnasial Schools, 2 vols., Posen,
1844). In 184.5 apiieared his first great i>hilosophical work,
Fitozofn i Krytijka (Po.scn, 184.5), which was to be an intro-
duction to his Si/.'iti'm uninictwa czi/li titiisotii utnyshncij
(A System of Phiiosophy. 2 vols., Posen, '18.50; ;}d ed. 18.57).
He was again impri.soncd (1846-48), and during his confine-
ment wrote an elegant historical sluclv, Dziewica Orlianska
(The Maid of Orleans, Posen, 1847). "in 1848 he established
a politii-al journal, Dzicnnik I'olski (suppressed a year later).
The yi'ar INIS was llie most eventful of his life. He was a
member of the Komitet Polski of Berlin, took ]iart in the
reorganization of tireat Poland (Wjelkopolska), presided
over the Polish-Silesian section in the Slavonic Congress at
Prague, and,asa deputy to the parliament of Frankfort, lU'o-
tested against the incorporation of (Jri'al Poland with (ier-
many. In 184!) ap|peared the first volume of E.ttetyka czyli
I'mnictm piiknc I Ksthetics. or the I'"ine Arts, Posen, 184!);
2d ami 'M vol. at St. Pelerslmrg, 18.54); in 18.50 his System;
in 1852 a collection of short sket<hes. Humor i prau'da
(Humor and Truth). Shortly after he retired to the village
of Brdowo, where he pursued agriculture and the study of
political economy. D. .lune !). 1875. Libelt is the first Po-
lish philosopher of note. In his works he coinbiils the ab-
soluti.sm of reason in pliiloso]ihy, defends the unity of ma-
LIBER
LIBERIA
219
terial and unseen worlds, and oxj^resses the liope that the
spiritual soepter of Europe will pass into Slavonic hands.
J. J. Kral.
Liber: See Bast.
Libera'le: painter; b. at Verona in 1451. lie formed
his style on that of the elder Bellini, lie wsis a distin-
guished painter of religious suhjei-ls, and also illuminated
many sjjlendid books for the monks of Monte olivelo. near
Siena. He worked diligently all his life, and died at Ve-
rona in 15:J6. W. ,J. S.
Liberals : those who hold jirogressive views in polities or
religion, especially the members of that political party in
(Ireat Britain which, in opposition to the Conservatives,
has sought to promote reform. See Political Parties.
Liberal-Unionists : memljers of a political party in
fireat Britain, formed in 1886 by separation from the
Lilieral party in consequence of the latter"s support of
Home Rule. Under the leadership of the Marquis of Ilart-
ington, afterward the Duke of Devonshire, and Jlr. Joseph
Chamberlain, one of the members for Birmingham, they al-
lied themselves with the Conservatives on the Irish question
in that year, and secured the defeat of Mr. Gladstone. With
tlie aid of this alliance the Conservatives remained in power
till 1892, when in the general election the Liberals, with the
help of the Irish members who favored Home Rule, secured
votes enough in the House of Commons to defeat the Con-
servatives and Liberal-Unionists by a majority of 34.
C. K. Ada.ms.
Liberia [from Lat. Jiber. free] : a reput)lic on the west-
ern coast of Africa ; between lat. 4 20' and 7 20' X. ; stretch-
ing from the river San Pedro on the .S. E. to the river
Gallinas on the X. W., a distance of 600 or 700 miles.
Topography^ — The coast-line, like that of most of Africa,
is rather monotonous, broken only by a few capes and river-
mouths. The territorial area, which has been steadily in-
creased bv purchases from native tribes, is estimated at from
120.000 t() loO.OOO sq. miles. The shore is elevated and rocky
in the S. E., but otherwise low, generally sandy or gravelly,
seldom marshy. The interior of the country is more elevated,
swelling into forest-covered hills and lofty mountain ranges,
traversed by fine valleys. For 200 miles or more it gradu-
ally rises toward the Kong Mountains, the head-waters of its
rivers, and to a still undetermined boundary toward the in-
terior. Many streams flow to the ocean, but none of tliem
is navigable for more than 20 miles from the mouth; the
most important are the St. Paul, navigable for 18 miles, and
having 7 feet of water at low tide on the bar at its mouth,
the St. John, the Junk, and the Cape Mount river. Fine
oysters abound at some points, and some of the rivers are
notable for their fine scenery, especially the Cavallo river,
which equals the Hudson in its beauty and grandeur.
Climate. — The climate is thoroughly tropical. Of the two
seasons the dry lasts from October to .June, and the wet from
June to October. In the dry season the average heat is 84
P., the mercury seldom rising above 90° in the shade ; in
the wet season the average heat is 76", the mercury never
falling below 60°. Bilttikofer, who spent tive years in Li-
beria, found the highest temperature to be upon the grass
plains, where in 1881, in Fel)ruary, the tropical summer,
the mercury marked 113 F. To the white man the climate
of the lower regions is deadly, not from its excessive heat,
but |irol)ably from miasmata ; and even the Xegro, when
born and reared in another climate, suffers, on his arrival,
from the so-called African fever. The natives, on the con-
trary, are healthy, robust, and long-lived.
Soil and Prndiicfionfi. — The soil is generally very fertile,
and, in The more elevated regions particularly, capable of
producing many of the products of the temperate zones.
J'he principal fanning dislrictslie along the valley of the
St. Paul. Here the sugar-cane grows lu.xuriantly, one year's
product sometimes reaching liOO.OOO lb. Cotton is indige-
nous, and yields two crops annually. Coffee of excellent
quality is cultivated with success in the interior. The cere-
als are principally maize and rice. Two crops of the latter
are produced during the year. Cabbages, peas. Vieans, toma-
toes, cucumbers, lemons, oranges. gnava.s, tamarinds, pome-
granates, pinea|>]iles. and African peaches are easily raised,
'i'hc forests contain teak, nuihogany, rosewood, hickorv, and
poplar trees, several kinds of gum-trees, dyewoods, medicinal
shrulis, and varieties of useful palms, among which is the
nut-bearing palm from which palm oil is made. Palm oil
is a very important product, and is sent in great quantities
to England and Germany. Tobacco, one of the most valu-
able products, is used as currency, one leaf being equivalent
to two cent.s. Among other valuable products are the Afri-
can rubber-tree, the cassava, the castor-oil jdant, the paw-
paw (fV/m'a 7;o/ja^a), the unripe fruit of which is said to
make tender the toughest meat: and the kola-nut (Sterculia
accuminata). which surpas,ses in alkaloids any other fruit
known. It is active as a stimulant, is a nerve t'onic of great
value, and is said to remove effectivtdy the stujior of inebri-
ety. Its medicinal properties are also found valuable in
asthma, for which it is being brought into use in the U. S.
The slave-trade of 150 or 200 years ago swept the countrv
and left it desolate, so that where formerly liundreds o"f
towns and thousands of inhabitants existed, one may now
travel .50 and 75 miles without encountering a single town.
The natives, in crossing this desolate region on their way
to the coast, carry a few kola-nuts in the folds of their
breech clouts, and crunching a few kernels will often per-
form a whole day's march without further sustenance. This
nut has a more elongated form, but in size and color is not
unlike a medium-sized horse-chestnul. The medicinal jilants
of Liberia are of great value. The active principle of the
pawpaw is powerful as a dissolvent of allmminous substances,
and the membraneous deposits of croup and diphtheria are
said to be removed by it. Lilieria also furnishes a haemor-
rhage plant (the Aspilia latifolia). and a powerful antiseptic
in its termite earth, valuable in ulcers, boils, and gangrene.
Minerals and Animals. — Iron abounds, and copper, gold,
and quicksilver, with other minerals, occur in the interior.
The country of the Mandingos, lying at the base of the
Kong Mountains, is said to be gold-producing to a remark-
able degree, that metal being used so abundantly that hea\-y
twisted gold rings are common, tlie gold earrings of the
Mandegna women beinjj of such weight as to require being
braced to the head-band. Only 140 miles from Grand Bassa
iron ore occurs in great abundance and purity, the earth in
some places seeming to be composed almost wholly of iron
ore. This is, by the Mandingos. smelted in conical clay
furnaces. Wild animals, the ele]ihant, leopard, hippopota-
mus, crocodile, etc.. are now nearly exterminated.
Population. — The population of Liberia consists of colo-
nists and their descendants, estimated at about 15.000 to
20,000 in number : alioul the same number of contiguous
and more or less civilized Christian natives; and the pagan
and Mohammedan aborigines, never accuratelv enumerated,
but numbering from 1,000,000 to 2.000.000 souls. The na-
tives belong to different tribes: I lie pagan Veys. among
whom the Protestant Episcopal Church of the U. .S. has es-
tablished a mission school at Cajie Mount, 40 miles from
Monrovia ; the Pessehs, entirely pagans; the Bassas, among
whom the American Baptist missionaries established a mis-
sion in 1835; the Kroos, mostly idolatei-s ; the Mandingos.
the most gifted of the tribes; and others. The Mandingos
are a native Mussulman race of great intelligence. They
read and write the Arabic language with equal facility to
their own. The want of roads and other proper means of
communication has prevented their becoming identified
with the more cultivated inhabitants of the town.s. As
their country lies about 2.000 feet above the level of the
sea, among them are found various animals of the more
temperate zones, iiicluding hoi-ses. cows, and goats. Tliese
enter into the commerce of ihe people, as do also a great
and interesting variety of textile fabrics. The Araerico-
Liberians possess a regular school system, and are progress-
ing in all branches of civilization. The official report for
1892 shows a public-school system embracing 51 school dis-
tricts, 58 schools. 60 teachers. 1,750 jnipils for whose tuition
the sum of if;10,819 was paid, while 1.8.50 jiupils were in-
structed in the private denominational schools. Tlie Jlaii-
dingos are a people by themselves, and have never come
under tlie jurisdiction of the republic of Liberia. They are
an extremely fine race of people, and the women are often
finely formed and beautiful. J^ike many of the native Afri-
can tribes they have shapely limbs and small hands and feet,
and have the proud, independent air of a free people. They
despise the American Liberian because of his former slav-
ery, and often in disjiutes with them draw tliemselves u]i
prouilly and exclaim. " Me no slave! me no slave!" The
Slandiiigos and the Veys seem to have been at some former
time related, as the Mandingos coming down to the country
of the Veys have little difficulty in comprehending lliem.
The Veys" are slightly shorter than the Jlaiidingos, being
about 5 "ft. 8 in. in height. The Bas.sas are of medium size,
and slender, dark brown in coloi', and keen and shrewd in
intellect.
220
LIUEKII'S
LIBERTY
IndustritsantI Commerce. — Industrial proccssos and inan-
ufactun'S liavo Ixhmi slarti-d, ami a lively trade has stmnij,'
up iH'twcin the n-publii- anil the l'. S., Great Britain. Bel-
gium.and Ilanit)iir>;. I'alni oil, sufrar. cotton, coffee, ivory,
camwood, arrowroot, etc., are exported; cotton gootU, cut-
lery, powder, and toliacco are imported. The exports are,
however, still inferior to the iniiMirl.-i.
Oovermneitt and Fiiinitres. — The countr)' is divided into
four counties — Mesurado. Grand Bassu. Sinou.and Maryland.
The capital. Monrovia, is situated on t'ape Monlserrado.
and is a town of several tliousjind inhabitants. HI her set-
tlements are those of New tleorjria, t'aldwell, Virj^'inia.
Edina, Greenville. Lexinsjton, etc. The total population in
1«>1 was cstimatol at l.OCy.OOO. only IS.OtH) of whom were
Anicrico-LilH'rians. The annual revenue is almost exclu-
sivelv derived from custom-housi' duties. The official re-
j)ort of \f<'Ji sives the receipts as $18)^,OT5.4.5: the disburse-
ments as $10."i.'.l4;i.ti(t, leaving a balance to the crcilit of the
countrv of ;|2i,l;n.!S.-|, notwithstanding that in ISTt a debt
of ^.VKJ.tHX) was conlradcil. The constitution of the coun-
try is modelcil after that of the U. S. All men are born free
and equal before the law. Elections are conducted by bal-
lot, and every male citizen possessing real estate ha-s the
right of sulTrasie. The president is elected for two years;
the senators for four; the representatives for two. Each
county sends two senators to the legislative assembly, and
one representative for every 10.000 inhabitants. The first
president was .loseph Jenkins Roberts, who served four
terms, from 1848 to 1856, and was once more elected in 1871.
ililary R. \V. Johnson was elected president in May. 1883.
On May a. 1801, Jolin Joseph t'heeseman was. according to
the provisions of the constitution, elected president for two
vears, and in 1808 was re-elected for a second terra. Eng-
lish is the official language.
llisiory. — Liberia was founded by the American Coloni-
zation Society, which had been organized in 1811 at Prince-
ton, X. J., and ha<l as its object the settling in Africa of
freedmen ami recajitured slaves. Since 1822 this society has
sent out 18.000 persons from America to colonize Liberia.
In 1817 agents were sent out to select a site, and chose
Sherbro island and the adjacent coast, and in 1820 a colony
of eighty-eight persons emigrated, intending to erect huts
for the reception of several hunilred slaves and to cultivate
land for their own support. In 1822 they aliandoned their
settlement on Sherbro island ami made a new one at Cape
Mesurado. In 1H24 the society adopted a plan for the civil
government of Liberia, but retained the ultimate decision
on all questioiLS of government. In 1828 a more formal
constitution was adopted, giving the colonists greater power
in civil matters. To avoid threatened trouble with Great
Britain, which claimed that Liberia had no existence as a
nation, an<l could not levy imports on the goods of British
traders, the directors of the society surrendered their powers
and atlvised the colony to declare itself an independent na-
tion. This was done July 26. 1847. In 1857 JIaryland, a
Negro repulilic to the E. of Cajie Palmas. founded as a
colony in 1821 by philanthropists of Maryland in the U. S.,
united with Liberia.
Liberia made an instructive exhibit at the World's Co-
lumbian Exliil>ilion. in a court occupying a space allotted
to it in the building of agriculture. It was constructed of
African woods, tusks of elephants, and ropes. The collec-
tion incluiled many interest ing ethnological objects. See
Stockwell. Tlie Jtr^jiihlicof Jjibirin, ils Oeoqraphij, C'limafe,
iioil, and I'riiductwna, with a Ilixinrij of its EnrUi Settle-
ment (New York, 1868); Ijiberia, the America- African He-,
public (^evr York, 1886); and Anderson's Journei/ to Mu-
sardu. FRKt)ERicK Douglass.
Libe'rius, .Saixt: a Bishop of Rome, reckoned in the se-
ries of popes after Julius 1., whom he succeeded May 22.
853. The Semi-Arians, countenanced by the Emperor Con-
stantius, were then in the ascemlanl. and in the councils of
Aries (;i.53) and .Milan (:555) they condemned the doctrines
of .\thanasius. Lilu'rius. together with some other Western
bishops, having refus4'd to sitrn this con<lemnation, was ar-
restc'l l)y the emperor's ordiTs and taken to Milan, where
Constant ius endeavored to secure liis obedience by personal
solicitation. Fimling him resolute in nniintaining his pre-
vious attitude. Constant ius in .1.54 declared Liberius deposed
from the bishopric of Rome, banished him to Berea in
Macedonia, and had Eelix, a deac<m, consecrated in his
place. In 357 Lilierius was restorcil to his post in conse-
quence of a petition from the principal women of Rome.
The Council of .Vriminum (Rimini), convened in :!.5n for thc
settlemeut of doctrinal difficulties, at first followi'd the sug-
gestions of Liberius by confirming the N'ieene Creed and
comlemning Arius. but gave way to the influence of Coii-
stantius. and finally accepted an Arian confession of faith
proposed by him. Liberius has been falsely accused of hav-
ing signed this confession. Its well as of having purchased
his recall from Berea by sulimission to the emperor's will as
regarded Arianism. lie built the basilica now called Santa
Maria Maggiore. Felix, the antipope. died Nov. 22. 36.5.
Liberius died Sept. 24. 366, and was succeeded by Damasus
I. In the Roman Catholic calendar his festival falls on
Aug. 27, and in the Greek on Sept. 23.
Libertad' : a coast deparlmcnl of Peru: bounded X. by
Lambayeciue, Cajamarca, and Amazonas. E. by Lorcto. .S.
bv Ancachs. and W. by the Pacific; area, 18,706 sq. miles;
population about 1.50.000. Capital, Trujillo. Libertad, to-
gether with Lambayei|ue. Cajamarca, I'iura, and Ania-
zoiuis. separated from it at various times, constituted tho
colonial inttudencia of Trujillo; the present limits were
fixed in 1874. The coast region, exteiuling from 7° 10' to
8" 57' S. lat., is comparatively low, thougii much broken,
hot. and in great part so dry as to present the ap|)earance of
a desert; some of the valleys, however, are very fertile.
The western part lies in the Andes, embracing two parallel
Cordilleras, with the valley of the Jlararioii — in parts re-
duced to a narrow gorge — between them. The mountains
are said to be ricli in silver, copper, etc.. and gold is ob-
tained in affluents of the Maranon : but these minerals are
neglected or mined only on a small scale; the mountain
region is very thinly inhabited. IIkrbert If. Smith.
Liberty [from liber'las. freedom, deriv. of liber, free] :
in the abstract, the power of acting as you^will (postextax
virendi ut velis — ('icero): but for a finite being this defi-
nition has to be modified into the power of acting as you
will within the sphere of existence pertaining to the indi-
vidual. It is assumed also that the will itself is free, in
view of motives, to choose what appears to be the greater
good before the less, or the less befoiv the greater. For an
infinite being the highest freedom coincides with the high-
est moral necessity ; that is to say. there is one course, ami
one only, which his perfection of nature requires him to
choose, and makes it certain that he will choose. For a finite
being, moral excellence, united with the greatest perfection
of intellect ]>crtainiiig to human nature, will make the best
course of action certain williin his sphere of existence.
Lilierty in the sphere of the citizen can not be understood
without a correct idea of rights. (See Ju.stkk and Rniins.)
Personal and civic liberty may pertain to a man. while in
particular cases he renounces the exercise of it ; in which case
a man waives his right — that is. freely renounces what he
was free to own. do. or enjoy. (See also IIahkas CoRins.)
Liberty in this sphere consists in the power of freely exercis-
ing those rights which may be deduced from a true idea of
the nature ami destiny of man. The entire, or nearly entire,
absence of such rights makes a man a slave. To be autlior-
izcd to exercise some of them is imperfect liberty ; to enjoy
all of them is iierfeet liberty. Sometimes the liberty exists
in a degree, although the individual would be injured if
free to act as he chose. Such is the case with children, who
have rights even against their parents, yet can not. under
wise law. exercise tlic rights of colli ra<'t and of testament,
because they would be in danger, if lliey did, of injuring
themselves.
Political lilierty implies a share in political power, and
those restraints on a government and on iiuliviiluals which
are necessary for the proledion of one and of all in the
civil and political spheres. Such liberty consists in the
right of voting, the right of holding olVue. in a great va-
riety of institutions an<l of guaranties, and in certain free
modes of action in concert with others, such as the rights
of association, of discu-ssing, petitioning, and remonstrating
against pub!i<> measures, of freedom of the press, and others.
What may be called ])ersonal liberty and ecpiality of indi-
vidual rights may exist without eipiality of political rights.
Thus a iiuiii who can not rcail. or does not hold a certain
amount of property or pay a certain house-rent, may have
no right to sulTrage or eligil)ility to office. So a woman, a
male minor, a foreigner, may have no suffrage ; a man over
seventy may be incapable of holding a jiiilicial office, or a
man under thirty-five bi' ineligible to the offici> of President
of the C.S. All these last-mentioned ilisqualifications exist
in the U. S. In the most exact use of terms the status of
LIBERTY
LIBERTY, RELIGIOUS
221
I
such jjersons is not equal to tliat of some others, altliough
the (lisqualitifiitions affect all, in each of the classes alTected,
alike. We do make a (lilferetK-e between cives uplinw jure
and cives non uptimo jure (citizens enjoying the best riglit,
and citizens enjoying a riglit that is not the besi). Under
free institutions these disijualilications are so few tliat the
persons affected by them are in no danger of having tlieir
Eersonal liberties invaded, especially as they are connected
y close relations with utiiers who have a soinewliat greater
share of political power. If, however, a larger part of a com-
munity were shut out of suffrage and the power to hold of-
fice, in order to keep power in the hands of another distinct
part, the guaranties of personal rights would not be felt to
be great enough, and the pmliibited good would be much
coveted, wliile yet not one of a tliousand, perliaps, of such
persons, would under unlimited suffrage ever hold office.
T. S. WOOLSEY.
Liberty : city ; capital of Clay co.. Mo. (for location of
county, see map of Missouri, ref. 3-D); on the Han. and
St. J. and the t'hi.. Mil. and St. P. railways : 4 miles X. of
the Missouri river, 14 miles N. B. of Kansas City. It is in
an agricult ural and stock-raising region ; contains 6 churches,
William Jewell College (Baptist), Liberty Female College
(non-sectarian), 3 flour-mills, a distillerv, and 3 weekly
newspapers. Pop. (18S0) 1,476; (1890) 2,3b8.
Editor of " Advamce."
Liberty, Va. : See Bedford City, Va.
Liberty, Religrious: absolute freedom of religious opin-
ion and worsliip, tlie equality of all churches, religious asso-
ciations, or persons in the way of protection or restraint by
the legally expressed will of the nation. The distinction is
quite clear and broad between what is civil and what is re-
ligious. Civil government is not to support or hinder any
form of religion. Privileges are not to be granted nor are
injuries to be inflicted because of religious belief. A state
is manifestly unable to exercise minute supervision over re-
ligious opinions. The state can not go beliind the overt act.
Keligion looks to the posture of the mind ami the lieart.
Men are bound to sulirait their judgment on points of faith
to no visible body. Toleration is the assumption of the right
by civil process to control religious affairs. Toleration
ex vi termini implies that the state prefers one or more
forms of belief, but graciously allows others. To permit im-
plies the right to prevent.
The New Testament contains no precept favoring a na-
tional or state religion, or interference by government with
the right of worship. It recognizes a clear distinction be-
tween " the things wliich are God's " and " the things which
are Caesar's." IHsciples of Christ were such not by com-
pulsion, bvit by free choice. The kingdom set up was not
of this world, acknowleged no temporal head, asked no
help from, nor alliance with, civil power. Until the third
century Christianity had the hostility of governments. A
state religion, under pagan governments, subjected the
early Christians to severe persecutions. Unfortunately,
Constantine in 313 established Christianity by law, and since
that time Christians, when they have obtained jiower, have
allied their religion with civil authorities. When tlie Ro-
man Catholic Church was established and became strong, the
governments of Europe were not .so much in alliance with, as
in subjection to, the ecclesiastical power. When, as the re-
sult of the Reformation, several stales in Europe renounced
the authority of the pope, Protestant kings and govern-
ments, as a substitute for papal dominion, assumed to them-
selves authority over religion. In some instances, when the
pope's authority ceased in the realm, much of the authority
exercised by him was claimed by sovereigns, who became
the. heads of the Churcli in their respective dominions. Civil
governments in Europe universally claimed and exercised
the right of legislating upon ecclesiastical aiul S|)iritual
matters. The power of legislation or control extended to
the very being and constitution of the stale Church — to its
creed, ministry, office^ and ordinances. The Church be-
came completely at the disposal of the civil power in tem-
poralities and in spiritual condilion.
As the result of this claim on the part of the separate
g»vernments, a national Clmrch was established in each.
The Church thus estalilished became the recipient, of state
favors, was supported by state property, endowed with mani-
fold and exclusive privileges, and became a part of the go^f-
crnment. These national establishments rested at first on
the principle of making citizenship and church-membership
coextensive. To secure conformity and crush dissent lives
were sometimes taken, property confiscated, civil and educa-
tional disabilities imposed, and other repressive measures
enacted and enforced. Under the hunnniizing inlluences
of C'hristian civilization this harshness has been greatly
modified. In every government of Europe there has beeii
more or less relaxaiion of rigid rules. Toleration is becom-
ing general, and the tendency is toward unrestrained lib-
erty of worship. In France several denominations receive
Government patronage. In Gernumy, although the Govern-
ment claims the mauageinenl of ecclesiastical affairs, there
is little interference with the right of worship. In Russia
[jrogress has not been so marked, but even there the public
opinion of Christendom has made itself felt in oi)ening
prison-doors and obtaining exemptions. The revolutions
in Sjiain and Italy have rid tliose countries of former ex-
clusiveness, and now different forms of faith are entitled
to protection. In Great Britain the change has been mar-
velous. The colonies enjoy perfect liberty of religion. The
Anglican Church hsis been disestablished in Ireland. It still
remains the establishment in England, as the Presbyterian
is the establishment in Scotland, with many privileges, but
there is now no public position, not ecclesiastical, for the
tenure of which a particular religious belief is required,
except the throne, the offices of Lord Chancellor of Great
Britain and Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and the office of
governor, and certain fellowships, headships, and professor-
ships of a few colleges. These reforms in Europe indicate
the irresistible advance of public sentiment. Propagation
of religion has almost ceased to be regarded as one of the
ends of government. It has been found quite aS easy to
persecute or bribe into one religion as into another. The
connection of Church and state is increasingly regarded as
corrupting to the Church, destructive of the purity and
spirituality of religion, and antagonistic to the rights of men.
The success and popularity of republican iileas of govern-
ment have contiibuted largely to these gralifying results.
In the U. S. a distinctive jirinciple of government is that
what is religious is necessarily, from its very character, be-
yond the control of the civil government, lieligious liberty
is an absolute personal right. All denominations, churches,
and religious faiths are equal and free in the eye of the law.
None receive gratuities, none are subjected to inequalities.
There is entire divorce of Church and state. Within the
limits of the public peace and proper order the full liberty
of religious thoughts, speech, and action is guaranteed. So
long as private rights are not violated, no one is restrained
frftm publishing or advocating his opinions on religion or
morals. Worship is sustained, ministers are sujiported,
church-houses are built, missionary operations are carried
on, by purely voluntary contributions. The Constitution of
the U. S. contains these two articles: "No religious test
shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or
public trust under the U. S. ' ; "Congress shall make no
law respecting the establishment of religion, or prohibiting
the free exercise thereof." It is prohibitory only upon the
action of the Federal Government in reference to religion.
The State constitutions are equally emphatic, and generally
more specific, in the expression of their jealousy of ecclesi-
astical ambition aiul sectarian intolerance, and in forbidding
any discriminating lcgislatit)n in favor of. or again.st, any
Churcli or sect. Absolute religious liberty is the contribu-
tion of the U. S. to the science of politics. Many external
causes conspired to give it the vantage-ground in the estab-
lishment of soul liberty. The Ronum Catholic colony of
Maryland as early a-s 164!) passed a f<u-mal act granting lib-
erty of cimscience to all accepting the cardinal doctrines of
Christianity, as no interprelalion of the charter couUl be
made, " whereby God's holy rights ami the true Christian
religion, or the allegiance due to the King of England, may
in any wise suffer liy change, prejudice, or diminution."
Religious tolerance did not originate in this colony with this
act, but existed at least fifteen years earlier; in fact it was
secured in the charter itself of the colony, obtained in 1632,
earlier even than in Rhode Island, which long was credited
with the honor of being the first state in the worhl to incor-
porate in its organic law, and to practice, absolute religious
liberty. Other colonies set uji some forms of Christian wor-
ship and established some articles of faith. In New Eng-
land a kind of theocratic government was established. In
South Carolina, New York, and Virginia the Episcopal
Church was established. In some of these States harsh at-
tempts were made to enforce conformity. Very early tliere
was positive and prolonged resistance to the attempt to per-
petuate the establishment of the English Church in the col-
LIBOCEDRUS
LIBRARY
onies, and the evidence is conclusive tliat such an attempt
hasloued tlio bcfiinniug ami aided iu the success of the
American Uevohuion. J. L. M. (.'fRRV.
Llboce'driis[MiHi. Lat. ; Gr. \l0os. tears + xtSpos. cedar] :
a genus of coniferous tn'cs. of which a few species are
known. Two grow in New Zealand, one in C'hih. and one
(//. dteiirrens) in California, where it wa^! discovered by
Fremont, and is now known as white cedar. In France
and Knijland it was for some time confounded with the
Thuja ijigantfii, or arbor-vitje of Oregon, which it somewluit
resi'Mibles. The California si^)ecies is fouml only in the
raouiuains, generally at an elevation of 4.01KJ feel or more.
It is a l>eautiful tree, attaining a height of 120 to 200 feet,
with a trunk 6 or 7 feet in diameter, and a peculiar fibrous
bark, much like that of Set/uuia. It has a yellowish wood of
great durabilitv, the leaves are glossy and bright, and the
young tree is elegant in form.
Liboiinie' : town ; in the department of Gironde, France;
on the Dordogne, at its confluence with the Isle, and 22
miles by rail X. 1^. of Bordeaux (see map of F'rance, ref.
7-1)). It is a handsome and thriving town, with large
manufactures of leather, ropes, nails, and yarn, and trade in
wine, salt, grain, and timber. Pop. (1891) 17,867.
Li'bra [ := Lat., liter., ba!at}ce]: the sign of the zodiac
which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox (about Sept.
2;J). The constellation Libra has no very remarkable stars.
It corresponds at present to the sign Scorpio, while the
sign Libra corresponds to the constellation Virgo.
Libra : See As.
Library [from O. Fr. Ubrairie, bookstore, bookcase, li-
brary, deriv. of Ubraire, bookseller < Lat. libra ri us, book-
seller, deriv. of liber, book] : a collection of volumes, manu-
script or printed, containing the product of human thought.
Libraries are to be ranked among the foremost agencies of
civilization. The great development which they have under-
gone in modern times, and especially since 1875, both in Eu-
rope and the U. S.. has very nearly doubled the immerical
extent of the principal collections, while many more pro-
gressive libraries have advanced in a still greater ratio.
The oldest ap|)roximations to libraries known were found
in the mounds of Mesopotamia, and consist of Babylonish
books inscribed on clay tablets, supposed to have been pre-
fared for public instruction about boO B.C. It is said that
'isistratus founded a library at Athens about 537 B.C.,
though there is no clear evidence of the fact. .Strabo says
that Aristotle was the first known collector of a library,
which he bequeathed (n. c. 323) to Theophrastus; and this
library, through successive hands, at length found its way
to Rome on the capture of Athens by Sylla. The story of
the great Alexandrian library, founded by Ptolemy Soter,
and burned by order of the Caliph Omar in the seventh cen-
tury, rests on insullicicnt evidence. Its alleged number of
volumes, stated by different writers at from 100.000 to 700,-
000, so vastly exceeding the aggregate of any library of the
MidiUe Ages, or indeed for three centuries after the intro-
duction of printing, throws discredit upon the whole story,
except the single fact of the existence of a collection of
books at Alexanilria. Plutarch says that the library of Lu-
cullus at Rome wius open to all, and this antedated the
library of Pollio, which Pliny asserts was the first public
library established at Rome. Suetonius relates that Au-
gustus collected in the temple of Apollo two libraries of
Greek and Latin writers, while Tiberius and Domitian as-
sembled mamiscripts to add to these libraries, and emjiloyed
sc-ribcs at Alexandria to copy works there preserved. Jlany
Romans, notably Cicero, collected extensive libraries, not-
witlistanding tin- limitations which the great cost of copying
and the scanilv of books and iiiatorial entailed upon the
collectors. .St. .ferome records I hat St. Pamphilus of Ca>sarca
(a. D. 30t») made a collection of 30,000 volumes, chiefly re-
ligions, with a view of lending them out to read. This, if
authentic, is the Mist record of a circulating library, except
some olwciire notii is in the Latin writers.
The libraries of tlie .Middle .\ges were very limited in ex-
lent, and were of monkish origin. One of the earliest
known was the still existing library of the Swiss abbey of
.St. (iail, which claims an antiquity of 1,000 years. As early
as the thirteenth century there are records of a library-tax
levierl on all the memliers of an individual nnma-stery. In-
dee<l, many media'val conventual institutions were univer-
sities for ihi' coiiying or reproduction of books, and ren-
dered inestimable service in [ireserving, before the inven-
tion of the printing-press, precious manuscripts which
might otherwise have been lost. The first approach to a
librarv in Knglaiul is s<iid to have been nine precious MSS.
brouglit by .Augustine on a mission from Pope Gregory the
Great (A. 1). 55)0), and preserved at (."aiiterbury. In (iG8 this
deposit at the monastery of Christ Church was enlarged by
the library of Theodore of Tarsus, brought from Rome in
the Siime year. The abbey of .St. Albans had a collection
by the year 1100. and other moniLsteiies of the English
Benedictines collected a few hundred volumes. The mon-
astery of Croyland had 300 volumes and 400 tracts, all of
which i^ierished by fire in lODl. Richard of Bury (a. D.
1333) was an enthusiastic book-collector, and has elocjuently
written in praise of libraries in his I'liilnbilihm. Among
the earliest royal libraries that of Charles VI. of France
numbered 1,11)0 volumes in 1411. As late as the reign of
Henry \'11I. the royal library (jf the British crown con-
tained only 32!) volumes. In striking contrast to this lit-
erary poverty in England and France was the splendid li-
brary of Matthias Corviiuis, King of Hungary, which at his
death in 14SI0 numbered 50,000 volumes, nearly all JISS.
Forty years afterward tliis jirecious collection was pillaged
and burned by the Turks. Lorenzo de" Medici gatliered a
great library, which still forms the basis of the Lauientian
Library of Florence. In 1.55G the royal library of France,
then containing 2,000 volumes (of which only about 200
were printed books), received by royal ordinance the privi-
lege of a copy of every book printed in France. This was
the foundation of the copy-tax, which has been the means
of enriching so many of the great government libraries of
Euro|ie. That of France had grown to 200.000 volumes as
early as 1789, and was then, as now, the foremost library in
the world. Italy, which has long enjoyed the reputation of
being rich in libraries, and which possesses many manu-
script treasures and early ]irinted books, is poor in collec-
tions of modern literature. The library of the Vatican, the
most precious in Rome, contains about 275.000 volumes of
printed books and 25.000 JLSS. In GerniaMv. the land of
books and universities, are more libraries of great extent
and value than in any other Eurojiean country. Petzholdt.in
his Adrexsliurh der Bibliotlieken Deufxclilands (1875). enu-
merates 1,044 libraries of all grades in (iennany, Austria,
and Switzerland, twenty-nine of whidi contain over 200.000
volumes each. The largest collections are the Koyal Library
at Berlin. 925,000 volumes, including pamphlets; the Im-
perial Public Library, Vienna, 540,000; the University Li-
brarv at .Strassliurg, now numbering 700.000 volumes; and
the Royal Library at .Munich. 700,000 books and .500,000
pamphlets. The last-named library has long passed in sta-
tistical tables as the second in Europe ; this claim was based
on the fallacious system of enumeration which counted every
thesis and tract as a separate book — a method which would
swell many collections in our table to double the figures
claimed for them. France has, bcsidesthe National Library,
over twenty collections of 100,000 volumes or upward, ami
the provincial libraries of that country furnish superior op-
f)ort unities for improvement. Spain has alnnit thirty public
ibraries, containing altogether some 700,000 volumes, of
which the largest, the National Library at .Madriil, has 530,-
000. The Imperial Library of .St. Petersburg, now contain-
ing over l.OOD.OOO volumes, is. next to the libraries of Paris
■Jind the British Museum, the richest in Europe. Of North-
ern European libraries, the Koyal at Copcniiagen contains
550,000 volumes, most others being of small account in com-
parison.
In Great Britain, the library of the British Museum dwarfs
all other collections. Founded in 1753 by the wise and
timely purchase of .Sir Hans Sloane's collection for £20,000,
it received no other grant of public money for its increase
until 1807, or more than liiilf a century. It has been fortu-
nate in niunincent gifts of many valuable private collec-
tions, and there has been a systematic and highly successful
effort to make it a great moiuiincntal library whose funda-
mental idea should be inclusiveness, not, exclusiveness.
For many years past the sum expended for books and bind-
ing has been I'Ki.OOO iinnually. and the British Museum Li-
brarv now counts l.O.'iD.OOO volumes. Next to this stands
the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the oldest and most valuable
collection, ni'xl tf)the British Museum, in Englaiul. now num-
bering .530.000 volumes. The library of the I'niversily of
Cambridge stands next, with ,500,000 volumes. Tin' Fa<ulty
of .Vdvocales library in Edinburgh numbers 393.000. and the
librarv of Trinity College, Dublin, has about 225,(X10. These
five libraries enjoy the benefit of the copy-tax, and may each
LIBRARY
223
claim one copy of every work printed in the United King-
dom. In Great Uritain tliere are only fcmrtecn lilmirics ex-
ceeding 100,001) vnluines each. Provincial and town liliraries
are, however, springing up, having been originated in 1S50
with the Manchester Free Liljrary. The fact that for nearly
a centurv and a halt after Shakspcare's time there was no
public Library in London speaks volumes as to the develop-
ment of this means of iiublie enliglitenment.
The first estalilishment of a library in the U. S. was in
1638, when the library of Harvanl College was founded at
Cambridge, Mass. In 1700 a public library was founded in
New York city, which was known for over half a century as
the City Library, but, not flourishing in that form, was con-
verted "into a suliscriplion library in 1754, becoming the
New York Society Library. Yale College Library was
founded in 1700. "in 1731 i)r. Franklin and his associates
founded in Philadelphia a library company, still in exist-
ence, which was the first subscription or proprietary library
of which there is any record. The Library of Congress — or,
as it was called in its first general catalogue, the Library of
the U. S.— was founded in 1800, on the establishment of the
seat of government at Washington. The Capitol and li-
brary having been burned in 1814 by the British army,
(Congress purchased ex-Presideut Jefferson's collection of
7,000 volumes as the basis of a new library, which was
gradually increased until 18.jl, when it had reached 5.5,000
volumes." and was again nearly consumed by fire, only 20,-
000 volumes being saved. The collection now numbers
over 735,000 books, besides 225,000 pamphlets. The valu-
able scientific lil)rary of the Smithsonian Institution was
incorporated with the collection in 1866. The library of
Congress is rich in history, jurisprudence, political science,
and books relating to America, while no other department
of letters has been neglected in its formation. It is the
only library in the U. S. receiving the benefit of the copy-
right law, through which it will in time come to possess an
approximately complete representation of the entire prod-
uct of the press of the U. S. The preservation in a na-
tional fireproof repository of all the national literature, with
a seleetidu of the best literature of all other countries, is a
boon which will be more and more appreciated by scholars
with the advancing development of the country. Next to
the Library of Congress in numerical extent stands the Pub-
lie Library of Boston, founded in 1848, and now numbering
over 600,000 volumes, circulating through numerous branch-
es or subsidiary libraries in the suburbs of that city. This
is one of the most widely useful collections of books in Amer-
ica, lending its volumes free of charge to all citizens. Its
example has been widely followed in other cities and towns.
Cincinnati and Chicago, for instance, have each rapidly in-
creasing free-lending libraries, supported, like that of Bos-
ton, by funds derived from municipal taxation.
The school-district library system, originated by New
Y^ork in 1838, has been adopted by many other States, the
books collected being paid for by a proportion of the school
taxation fund of the respective States. The State libraries
of the country are many of them collections of considerable
extent and value. That of New York at Albany is the
largest, numbering 190.000 volumes, and furnishing a model
of a well-stored and liberally managed public library, free
to all. In the other States, and in all of the Territories, li-
braries have been gathered at the seat of government, prima-
rily for legislative uses, and consist chiefly of documents, all
of which are open to public use and reference.
A class of subscription libraries which have had much
success in the U. S. are the mercantile liliraries, of which
those of New York and Boston were founded in 1820, the
Philadelphia Mercantile in 1821. the Cincinnati in 183.5. and
the San Francisco in 1853. Of professional libraries, law,
medical, theological, and scientific, there are many. The
largest medical collection in the U. S. is the library of the
surgeon-general's office at Washington, numbering 110,000
volumes; next to which stands the library of the College of
Physicians, Philadelpliia, with 52.000. Several of the his-
torical societies, of which more than 240 have been organ-
ized in the U. S. since 1789, have valuable libraries, those
of New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania being espe-
cially rich in early American books and pamphlets, and in
manuscriiits. Public libraries founded by individual be-
quest are becoming numerous. Some of the principal are
the Astor and the Ijenox Library at New Y'ork. the Watkin-
son Reference Library at Hartford, the Newberry and John
Crerar liliraries at Chicago, and the Peabody Institute and
Enoch Pratt Free Library at Baltimore.
By the returns of 1892 the public libraries in the V. S.,
including in that designation every collection down to col-
lege, society, religious, and other liliraries, numbering 1,000
volumes and upward, each, as well as the large libraries
open to iniblic reference, numbered 3.8(j4 collections, aggre-
gating about 27,000,000 volumes. The number of libraries
in the U. S. returned as containing 10,000 volumes or up-
ward was 609, according to the tables published by the
commissioner ef education in 1893. These library statistics
exhibit an increase in the last sis years of 66 per cent, in
the numlier of volumes contained in American libraries — a
fact as gratifying as it is remarkable.
The following table exhibits all the libraries of the world
known to contain 100,000 volumes or ufiward nt the latest
dates. The figures given are for years varying from 1890 to
1895, except for the libraries of the U. S., which are cor-
rected to the year 1895.
City.
Aberdeen, Scotland
Aix*. France
Albany, U. S. A
Anisterdam, Netherlands.
Annapolis, U. S. A
Athens, Greece
Augsburg, Germany
Avignon, France
Baltimore, U. S. A
Bambere, Germany..
Barcelona. Spain
Basel, Switzerland...
Berlin, Germany
Besan^on. France
Birmingham, England.
Bologna, Italy
Bonn, Germany
Bordeaux. France .
Boston, U. S. A
Bremen. Germany..
Breslan, Germany . .
Brooklyn, U. S. A...
Brussels, Belgium...
Budapest, Hungary.
Caen. France
C'amliridge. England..
Camljridge. U. S. A...
Carlsruhe. Germany.,
( "asset. Germany
Charkow, Russia
Chicago, U. S. A
Christiania. Norway
Cincinnati, U. S. .\
Cologne, Germany
Copenhagen, Denmark .
Cracow, Austria
Darmstadt. Germany.
Detroit. U. S. A
Dijon. France
Dorpat. Russia
Dresden. Germany
Dublin. Ireland
Edinburgh, Scotland..
Erlangen. Germany..
Ferrara, Italy
Florence, Italy
Frankfort, Germany
Freiburg. Germany.
Geneva. Switzerland
(ieni)a. Italy
(Jheiit, Belgium
Gipssen, Germany . .
Glasgow. Scotland..
Gotha. Germany
Grittingen. Germany
LIBRARY.
Graz. Austria ] University .
University
M^james
New York State
University
State Library
National
Royal and City
City
Enoch Pratt I.ibrar>'
Peabody Institute
Royal
Provincial and University
Public University
Royal
University
Public
Free
University
Munieipal
University
Public
Public
Athenaeum
City
Royal and University
City
City
Royal
National
University
Municipal
University
Harvard College
Grand Ducal
National
University
Public
University
Newberry
University
Public
City
Royal
University
University
Grand Diical-
Pubhc
Municipal
Universitv
Royal Puhlic
Trinity College
Faculty of Advocates
University
University
Communal
Marucellian
National Central
City
University
City
University
University
University
Universitv
Ducal Puhlic
Royal University
(Jreifswald. (iermany. .
Grenoble. France
Hague. The, Netherlands.
Halle. Germany
Hamburg. Germany
Hanover, Germany
Heiilelberg, Germany..
Helsiiigfors. Russia
Innsbruck. Austria
Ithaca. U. S. A
,Iena. Germatiy
Kasan. Russia
Kieff. Russia
Kiel. Germany
Kiinigsberg. Germany .
Leipzig, Germany
Royal University
Cit'v
Royal
University
City
Roval Public
Technical High School
University
University
University
Cornell University
University
University
University
University
Royal and University
City
Vdlume*.
120,000
151,4.30
189,359
lOO.OCO
100,000
185,000
aw.ooo
lao.^io
163,000
123,000
300,000
154,000
186.900
925,000
21.5,000
140,000
200,290
2.55.000
226.;J76
219.000
160,000
610.000
ISJ.OOO
120.400
300,000
153,000
120.000
402,000
403,000
211.626
100.620
60li.500
448.000
167,424
160.000
129.8ri
211.157
380,000
125,000
130,000
202.705
117.000
5.W.000
305,000
306.7M
400.000
131.192
101.5.')8
17fl.867
406.000
2:)l,5:«
393,000
181.000
183.000
100,000
1.30,000
452.579
186,805
2.'i0.5(X)
111.0.1-
SiJO.OIX)
160.000
150.0110
207,037
481.800
189.055
148,000
174.090
400.000
190.800
505,000
163.500
145,000
40G,62S
173.000
1.39.476
175.000
200.800
167,924
118,000
222.8S5
821.100
107,256
'Ji'4
LinUAKY
LIBKAKY ADMINISTRATION
Ol,.
1,.
L
i.
1..
1.1
1.
"ly
: ria . . . .
riauds
'V .
• ■!....
Iiiuci .
iUd...
Lubeck, (lermany
Lund. Swedeu
Lvoiis, Froiiee
Madls,m, Wis., U. S. A.
Madrid, Spuiu
Manchfsler, Eagland.
Marbure. (if ramny ■ • •
MarseilU-s. France
Mayeuce. GtTinnny . . .
Mf iiiino'n. tJerinany .
Melbourne, .\uslralia.
MfXicu. Mexico
Milan, Italy
Modena. Italy
Moiit|>ellier. r"rance..
Moscow, Russia
Munich, Qermany. . .
MQDSter. Germany. .
Nantes. France
Naples, Italy
New Haven, U. S. A .
New York, U.S. A...
Odessa, Russia
Oldenbur^r, (lerinany .
Oporto. Portucal
Ottawa, t^anada
O.xford. Eni^land
Padua. Italy
Palermo. Italy
Paris, France.
Parma. Italy
Pavia. Italy
Phila<lel|iliia, U. S. A
Piacenzn. Italy
Pisa. Italy
Prague. Rolieniia . .
Princeton. U. S. A..
Ouebec, Canada . . .
Reims, France
Rio Janeiro, Brazil.
Rome, Italy
Rostock. Oerniany
Rouen. France
St. Andrews. Scotland .
St. Louis. U. S. A
St. Pet rsburg, Russia .
San Francisco. U. S. A.
Stockholm, Sweden
StrasHbiirir. Oermany . .
Stutttrnrt. (termany. ..
Tokio. .Japan
Tours, I'Yanco
Troves, France
TUbinc>'n, Germany . . .
Turin. Italy
Upsala, .Sweden
Utrecht. Netherlands.
Venice. Italv
A'erona, Italv
Vienna, Austria-
Warsaw. Rus>4ia
WosliinBtou, U. .S. A. .
"Weimar. Germany
Wolfenbllitel. Oeiiiiany..
Wllr/hurir. (lernmny
Zurich. Switzerland
'y
i IllverNliy
UuiTeraltf
City
National
PubUc
Bi'itish Museum
I.(Ondon Library
University ColleRe
City
University
City
State Historical Society
National
University
Free Reference
IJniverslty
City
City
Ducal Public
Public
National
Ainbrosian
National Brera
Esti
City
University
PubUc Museum
Royal, including pamphlets.
University
Royal Paul
Library
University
Royal National
Yale College
Astor
Mercantile
Columbia College
University
Grand Ducal
Public Municipal
Parliament
Bodleian
Royal University
National
Communal
National
Arsenal
St. Geneviiive
Sorbonne
Mazarin
University
Palatine
University
Library Company
Mercantile
University of Pennsylvania.
Communal
Royal University
University
College of New Jersey
Laval University
City
National
Vatican
Casanata
National
University
Public
University
Public
Imperial Public
Acatleiny of Sciences
University
Sutr > Library
Royal
University
Royol Public
University
City
Communal
University
University
National
University
Unlversitv
St. Marks National
Communal.
Imperial Public
University .
University
Library of Congress
House of Representatives . .
finrgeon-g'*neral U. S. army,
Grnn<l Ducal ...
Bnmswlck Ducal
University
City ,
MM.iMM
l»0..'..ts
i;iii,0(Hi
•Jtw.oiio
UK>,,M 1
SKI. Il.'>
isi,i:)l
l.lvNI.IllKl
ItX).!""'
1(>.).(R»)
ItKl.lKIO
. i.vi.iNin
](>l.ll(K>
lOO.lHil
NJd.rtid
atxi.ru
250.-'>l'3
I.W.IKX)
ITO.tioO
181.11)0
1.10,1)0(1
15.1,000
100,000
178,100
338.800
138.451
130.090
217.000
850.S5O
1,200,000
•103,000
110,300
104.403
171..5()0
8(>3.0M
2.34..V)0
3(il>.l'i.-il
34.s.'.l.")0
210.1X10
103.718
113.303
1(K) l»)0
1.50.000
530.l»)0
138.113
18l.'.).'i8
2I«.3(>3
2,701 .073
4fi3.lj.-il
133.3113
170.1)00
SO.'i.win
14I.i;78
S.w.nii)
137.100
183.'.W.3
171.01111
ll.'.OiKi
133.010
in'.l.374
a3'.>..-n
13.-..0(l(l
lOO.IHIfl
101.700
SIW.OOO
275.7(K)
■ 217.1)00
3'(i.lXi7
807.IX)0
l:Vi.SIH)
ll.VlHK)
lo:!.0(X>
1,10(1.0110
170.000
2.38.:i.'«s
30."..OIKI
341. mm
700,lll«l
B()().IH)0
issoiiii
101.713
1I3.H3H
,330, 0I«)
2110.31)0
2011.1113
2113.01HI
200.000
41.1.81(1
14I).4S0
.WI.lO'i
4.W..M10
131.r.00
73.'i.41IO
I3.-.l«¥l
11(1.HI7
3:11). 01 10
303,(lo:t
3llO.(llHl
134,:iOO
The dossiflcat.ion of every librnry by snbjcct-ranttcrs is
in<lisprnsiihlo. The ciitnloirtie systom iiiosl nnivorsnlly eiii-
ploveil is I he onnl ciiliiliij;iie in iiminiscript, by which ii si rial
iilfiiiiilielical nrraiiKemeiit is seeiircd, nnil tlic accessions ?o
Ihu library cuii be kept conshiiilly cutiilogucd up lu (lute.
The print inn "f coniph'te catalogues lins been abandoned by
most of the lurtrcst cnUections, including the pi-incipul gov-
crninenl libraries of Kuiope, as too expensive and hiborious
to be kept up withotit falhiif; hopelessly into arrears. When
it is considered Imw enoiiiioiis is the protUiction of ]irinted
matter, and that the principal libraries both in Kiimpe and
in the U. S. have doubled during the last twenty-live years,
this deprivation to the public of the boon of printed cata-
logues of the largest collections is partially exiilained. Yet
there is no libniiy hitherto gathered, however large, which
contains anything like a conipleto collection of the litera-
ture of all nations, or even of its own. I'very national li-
brary should have for its object the collection and preserva-
tion,on the exhaustive system, of all that the country within
which it is located produces. The use of a great library is
not for one generation only, but its value is developed by
passing into the hands of successive generations, and fur-
nishing a complete record of the progress of letters from
age to age. See the article on Library Admixistr.vtiox
below. A. K, Si'oKKoRD.
Library Atliiiinistration : the arningement and man-
agement of libraries.
I. 7'Ac liiiihliny. — Libraries are now for the most part
planiKHi, like most other buildings, with a view to utility, and
not to mere architectural beauty of design externally.
Nearly all modern library buildings have certain features
in common : (1) A large lobby or delivery-room cenlrally
located, properly under a rotunda wlure such a feature is
introduced ; ('J) a well lighted and ventilated reading-room
opening from the delivery-room, and ]ireferalily separated
from it by a pitrlition largely of glass, enabling the delivery at-
tendant to supervise the reading-room as well ; (y) librarian's
room and calaloguing-room, also in immediate connection
wilh the delivery-room, in order that the librarian may be
entirely accessible to the readers and may al.so have the
cataloguing work under his eye; (4) delivery c(ninter and
desk at the side or end of the delivery-room nearest the
book-room, furnished with aJl needed facilities for the
promjit suiiplying of the wants of readers; (o) the book-
room itself, so arranged as to combine large capacity for
books wilh the greatest possible convenience in their use.
The only important difTerencc among intelligent librarians
as to the jilan for a library building refers to the arrange-
ment of tiie book-room. The stack system is a favorite
with some, and has been largely inlnxlucecl intti the newer
buildings. Under this system, of which the best examples
are to be found in the new congressional library, the book-
room is a clear space from floor to roof, from 50 to 80 feet
in height, and in it is built up an iron or steel framework
consi.sting of liookcases running across the room at inter-
vals of about 2 feet, and reaching from the bottom to the top,
light openwork floors being introduced at every 7 feet ni
height, so that all books can easily be reached from the
floor,s. The great advantage of the stack system is in its
compact storage of books, in wliich it undoubtedly excels
any other known method; but serious drawliacks are cim-
neeted with this advantage. It is impossible to intmduce
daylight into the interior portions of a stack, and the effort
to do .so leads to the use oi very large side windows and of
skylights, both of which are objectionable, the former for
the injury from excessively strong light to books placed
near them, and the latter for the roof heat, which is seri-
ously injurious to books in the ujiper portions of the stack.
The stack is also inimical to the plan of allowing readers
access to the shelves, a plan which is growing in favor in all
but the circuhiling departments of the larger libraries.
The plan of building most in favor as ojiposed to the
stack system is the one advocated for many years by Dr.
\V. F. I'oole, of Chicago, and incorporated in the Newberry
Library under his direction, Hy tliis plan the building is
divided into separate stories, from 1,5 to 18 feet high, only
the lower hidf of each story being occupied wilh boiikcnses,
and the upjier iiart devoted to the pr«per dislribution of
light and air. Fewer books can l)e accommodiited in a
building of a given height on this plan tloin wilh the stack,
but they can be so much better lU'i imodated that the dif-
ference is fully atoned for. Dr. Poole's .system provides
abundant daylight, admitted mainly in the upper part of
the walls of each story, and so being of the most available
kind. Either of these methods of building is eiiually
adapted to large or small libraries, the dillerences being
mainly in the matter of size and proportions. A library of
100,000 volumes can be provided for on the I'oolo jilan in a
LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION
225
book-room GO x 80 feet, anil space }>e left for eonvetiient use
by readers admitted to the shelves. When a library grows
beyond this size it will naturally be divided into depart-
ments occui)ying separate floors, each provided with read-
iiig-rooni and other facilities.
II. Classijicafion of the Books. — The classification of
books is a matter retiuiring much attention from the libra-
rians. Even in a circulating library it is needed to facilitate
the finding of books for a])pUeauts, but it is especially use-
ful in reference libraries or where readers go to the shelves
naturally wishing to find the books on a given subject to-
gether. Classification is to many a fascinating study, and
various elaborate schemes have been worked out which are
widely adopted. Chief among those now in use are the
Dewey decimal and the Cutter expansive systems. By the
Dewey system the library is divided into ten sections — Phi-
losopfiy. Theology, Sociology, Philology, Science, Useful
Arts, Fine Arts, Literature, History, and General (encyolo-
piedic and bibliographical). Each of these is separated into
ten divisions and these again on the same decimal plan ;
thus number 974 means simply the fourth subdivision (Xew
England) in the seventh division (North America) of the
ninth section (History). In the later editions of this scheme
it is very thoroughly worked out and copiously indexed,
and presents many claims for acceptance. The chief objec-
tion to it is found in the " Procrustean " nature of this
rather arbitrary method of division. The Cutter system
recognizes the need of a more elastic scheme, and provides,
by a somewhat intricate combination of letters witn figures
as symbols of notation, for a division at any point into any
desired number of subdivisions. The system takes its name
of "expansive" from the fact that it is presented in seven
forms proceeding from the simplest to the most complex.
A small library may be arranged by the first form of the
scheme, and as it increases there may be applied to it the
additional features of the more complicated forms, one after
the other, without materially changing any of the book-
designations already used. Both of these systems, and others
which have had wide acceptance, are ingenious and elaborate,
being carefully constructed on the basis of a division and sub-
division of the field of knowledge. As was long ago pointed
out by Edward Edwards in his Memoirs of Libraries, these
schemes are better adapted to the arrangement of titles in a
catalogue than to that of volumes on the shelves. The rea-
son why no fine scheme of classification can ever be rigidly
applied to books is that so many of the best books are com-
posite in their nature and can not be broken up to fit the
classification. The great argument for elaliorate classifica-
tion is that it will exhibit in a given place all the resources
of the library on a certain subject. Just so far as the clas-
sification is depended on to do this it will be misleading,
and tend to limit and dwarf one's reading. For example,
if there is in the political economy section a class " Taxa-
tion," one may find perhaps two or three books arranged
under that subdivision ; while in order to find the best ma-
terial the library has on the subject he should be referred to
the general works on political economy and to many papers
in the publications of societies, in the periodicals, etc. In
the natural sciences the same thing is more strikingly true,
as in many cases much more on a given subject can be found
in transactions and periodicals than in separate books.
If it is thus iniderstood that the classification can not be
made to serve the purpose of guiding the reader to the ma-
»terial he needs, the reason for devoting painstaking atten-
tion and large expense to its elaboration falls to the- ground.
One-fourth of the effort sometimes expended in this direc-
tion is ample to provide for a simple and practical arrange-
ment of the books, the main dependence for finding books
I being placed, as it must always be, on the catalogue. An
effective classification for a small library, say up to 10,000
or 15,000 volumes, may be made by separating the books
into about ten or twelve chisses as: (a) Fiction, (b) Juve-
niles, (c) Poetry, (rf) Miscellaneous Literature, (e) Ilistory,
{f) Travels, (g) Biography, (h) Natui'al Sciences, (i) Useful
Arts, ( /) Fine Arts, (A) Philosophy and Religion, (?) Politi-
cal and Social .Science. To each of these classes will be ap-
plied a letter of the alphabet, as above, and in each class
the books will be numbered consecutively from 1 up.
When the library has outgrown this classification and de-
mands a more minute subdivision, this can easily be made
by adding a figure or another letter to each of the cla.ss-
marks, and renumbering the books. A classification made
for the individual library and growing out of its own exi-
gencies is better than one imi)orted from without,
i 241
III. Cul(ilof/Hi)ig.—Ca.iii]oguing is recognized as the most
important feature of technical librarianship. The only ac-
cejited form of library catalogue is that arranged alphabet-
ically, primarily by authors and titles, secondarily by sub-
jects. The subject portion of a catalogue is often given in
claiisifled form, but even here the alphabetical is probably
the more common method of arrangement. Formerly every
library undertook periodically to issue its printed calidogue,
and there was quite a rivalry among libraries as to the ele-
gance and thoroughness of their issues. The rapid growth
of liljraries rendered this process so expensive and its re-
sults so unsatisfactory that the practice has very generally
been abandoned in favor of the issue of simple and cheap
finding-lists for the use of readers, dependence for anvthing
more complete and elaborate being placed on the manuscript
catalogue kept in the library. Finding-lists are usually
made in a classified fonn, the titles being grouped under
suliject-headings, those in each group being arranged alpha-
betically by authors. Titles are written as brieflv as is con-
sistent with their serving to identify the books, ilost libra-
ries print these finding-lists on fine" Manilla paper to resist
the wear and tear of use by their popular constituency, and
issue frequent supplements and occasional new editions.
Permanent catalogues in manuscript are now almost uni-
versally made on the card system. Each title is written
(or type-written, or even printed) on a separate Bristol-
board card, generally of the ordinary postal-card size, and
these cards are set on edge in drawers in aljihabetical order.
By this means insertions can be made at any point and to
any extent without deranging the titles already in place.
Entries are usually made for each book not only under the
name of its author, as Bikreli^, Aiiffvstine. Obiter dicta,
London, 1887, 16mo, but also under title, as Obiter dicta,
by A. Birrell, and under subject, as English literature,
Birrell, A., Obiter dicta.
Most books thus require three separate cards placed in
different portions of the catalogue. In many cases even this
is not sufficient. For example, the book already referred
to has distinct chapters on several prominent English au-
thors. To make the subject portion of the catalogue com-
plete, each of these chapters requires a card headed with
the name of the person treated, as Milton, John, Birrell,
A., In his Obiter dicta, vol. i. Johnson, S. Birrkll, A.,
In his Obiter dicta, vol. ii. These latter entries are called
analyticals, and where thoroughness of cataloguing is made
an object, they become very numerous, as some books are
worthy of having cards made for them under a hundred
or more different subjects. To reduce to a minimum the
labor and expense of this elaborate cataloguing, all title
and subject entries and all analyticals are usually written
very briefly, just enough being given to refer the reader to
the book intended. The author-card, on the other hand,
generally receives more careful and fuller treatment. On
it are given such particulars as second edition, illustrated,
and the imprint, number of pages, etc., also all library
marks necessary for a complete record of the book. The
author-card thus becomes the primary or complete entry,
the others being regarded as references. In some libraries
the different classes of cards are kept in separate sets of
drawers, one constituting the author-catalogue, another the
subject-catalogue. The title-entries are generally placed
with the authors, but sometimes with the subjects. This
division of the catalogue seems espiecially useful in university
libraries and others where the patrons are mostly somewhat
scholarly and well-informed. In popular libraries it is gen-
erally preferred to merge the whole in one general alphabet,
and in one alphabetical order, this arrangement l)eing known
as a dictionary catalogue, meaning that one is to look for
either authors, subjects, or titles in the same alpliabetical
order as one would look for words in a dictionary. The best
examples of printed catalogues have been made on precisely
the same principles, and they have often been printe<l directly
from the card-catalogue. Those of the Boston Athena-um,
Boston Public Library (Bates Hall). Pealmdy Instituteof Bal-
timore, and Cleveland Pulilic Lilirary may be cited as good
examples of the printed dictionary catalogue. All these
conform to the Bii/es for Making a Dictionary Catalogue,
compiled by Charles A. Cutter, and issued by the U. S. Bu-
reau of Education. These rules are generally followed in
the liliraries of the U. S., Mr. Cutter having compiled them
in 1876, rather as a consensus of the practice of leading li-
bmrians than as a s<^heme of his own.
The general principles of cataloguing as given above
may seem quite simple, and one may well be surprised to
2-'0
LIBKAUY ADMINISTKATION
know that it re(|iiiri's 120 vlosoly priiitcJ oi-tuvo paRes to
Lviitaiii Ciiltrr'D Hiiltt) with tlu- iu-i-fss)iry speciuciitioiis,
oximiiilis ixirptioiis, iiuJ ilist-ussioiis of imioli'il points.
Tlie faot is tliat Uwks prfst'ut so many dilleri'iici'S of prac-
tice aiiionj; aiitliors anil publislu-rs tliat, outside of a roin-
paratively small number tliiit are regular anJ fall under
simple riiles. every book taken up seems to require some
siK'eial tieutment.'anil llie exiHTt lataloguer, after a life-
time in the work, often finds his injienuitv taxed in the
ellort to make a bixik fall in with the established rules and
preeedi'iits, the only obieet soUfiht being to make the book
tiiitluble by means of the catalogue as likely to be undcr-
stuixl and used.
For many years librarians have been impressed with the
evident exiravaganee and wastefulness of a sysliiii under
which all the elaborate ami careful work descrilied above
must be done for each book in each one of perhaps hun-
dreds of libraries in which the book was to be found. Re-
lief has been sought in two directions. In the first place,
the attempt has been made with considerable success and
with pMiniso of more, to reduce llie amount of work put
into the subject-catalogue by substituting for its analytical
references imlexes, printed and thus made available once
for all. As an illustration of this reform may be mentioned
the fact that for some years prior to ISHO many of the larger
libraries were putting into their catalogues as unalyticals
references to leading periodical articles. In 1883 the new
and enlarged Poole's Imifx to Periudicals was published,
and has bueii kept up to date by supplements, ami this part
of the cataloguing work was thus rendered unnecessary.
Similarly the .1. L. A. Index to essays and composite books,
published in 18!)^, has made it unnecessary to insert such
analyticals as those given above in connection with Obiter
dicta.
The other way in which relief is being found from the
wasteful repetition of careful cataloguing of the same books
in multitudes of libraries is in the furnishing to libraries
of the titles already printed on cards by some central
agency. This system has been fairly established by the Li-
brary Bureau of Boston, and it only remains to be seen
whether there is a sullicieiit number of books common to
many libraries to make the undertaking successful. Another
scheme is that of the Kudolph Indexer Company, who olTcr
to furnish to librarii'S printed titles of all books which they
may have on narrow strips of carilboard to be clipped by an
ingenious process on large sheets of pasteboard, put together
by a iletacliable binding in large volumes, or strung on end-
less bamls and made to pass before the rea<ler under glass
by turning a crank, the slips to be movable for the inser-
tion of new ones in their proper places.
IV. Other liecurdit. — Besides the regular catalogue of a
library made in general as described aliove, other records of
its books are essential. First among these is the accession-
book, or register of all books as received. This can readily
be so kei)t as to be practically a bill-liook, each lot of books
being entered in it from the bill, but with titles extended,
and all necessary parliculai's given. The usual items for
each book are : Date of entry, accession-nundjer (a running
number carrieil on c<Hilinuously from the first), shelf-num-
ber (inserteil afterward), author and title, place of jmblica-
tion and publisher's name, dale of pulilicatioii, number of
volumes, size, biniling, from whom received, price, remarks
(a blank for future statements). This makes a permanent
record which is useful for many purposes, especially when
books are lost or misplaced, or the catulogue-eards are found
to disagree, or are thi'inselves lost.
One more record must be kept up in order to nuiintain a
library in filllcicnt working order — a shelf-list. This is
usuulfy a series of lists rather than one. a separate list, being
made for each subilivision of the library, the titles being ar-
ranged in the due order of the books on the shelves. The
main uses of the shelf-list are two — to answer at once the
constantly recurring ipiestion. To what book does a certain
number belong f ami to serve its a stock-book in the annual
stock-taking or examination of the library.
No library, howiver sriiall.can atloril to dispense with any
of these records. Tlic^ smaller tlii^ library, tlie nion^ easily
can thev be maileah<l maintained, and in a simple form they
should lie found in the smallest. In many larger libraries
there is nothing else that causes .so much trouble as the fact
that the records made in their early history were so imper-
fect, if indexed any have Im'cii preserved.
Many diirerent melhod.s of recoriling loans are in use, but
the one most in vogue iuis great advaniage- over all olliers.
This is the book-card system ; eAch book contains, while in
the library, a card headed with its number and title. When
a book is drawn, its card is nuirked with the borrower's num-
ber and the dale, and jilaced in a box on the desk. In this
box the cards are stiuid on edge, and those drawn on each
day are separated from the others by a movable partition of
wood or pasteboard, marked with numljcrs representing the
days of the month. When books are returned, their cards
are taken from the box and ivturneil to the books, and those
remaining in the box nuike it ai)i>ear at once what books
have been kept out over the allotted time. The usual prac-
tice is to send for these books by u printed jiostal-card no-
tice, which is generally received as a favor by Ihi' reader, who
is thus saved from accidentally ruiniing up a large line.
This system is so simple and elledive tluit it is to be advo-
cated for the smallest libraries, while witli some added fea-
tures, to fit the exigencies of a particular case, it is also
suited to those having the largest circidation.
V. Head i tiff-rooms. — Heiuling- rooms constitute an impor-
tant part of all public libraries. These rooms should be
carefully ailajited to their peculiar uses. The following are
some of their requisites : Ample iliiylight from north or ea.st
windows; good warm air in winter, and ventilation at all
seasons without draughts; sullicient and well-placed artificial
light — incandescent electric lamps, dropped near the tables
and well shaded, are by far the best means ; good reading-
tables (small ones arc best), and light, armless clmii's shod
with rubber. Reading-mom floors, and all those suliject to
much passing, should be covered with lincileum orcorlicene.
The room should be wellsu])plied with rifiTeiice-books, con-
sisting of dictionaries, encyeloi'a-ilias, atlases, and the many
special works adapted to this use, as dictionaries of biogra-
phy, history, literature, science, music, fine arts, biblical and
religious knowledge, etc. The number of these books which,
each in its own fiehl, supplement the ordinary eneycloi)a'ditt
with more extended and precise iiifornwition, is considerable,
and a jiublic reading-room is greatly enriched by a full
supply of them. Sets of the lea<liiig periodicals, with the
volumes of Poole's Index up to date as a key to them, also
form a desirable feature.
VI. T/ie Reference-room. — In many libraries the reading-
room is supiilemeiited by a reference-room, in which case
the latter receives most of these reference-books, and is also
used for the consultation of books drawn freely from the
library for t hat lairpose. The change in methods of instruc-
tion, by which pupds are expected to read on various to]iics
of study the best availalile books, tends to send ]ieopIe to the
lilirary to study ujj sulijects rather than to draw single books.
Whatever value may attach to the circulating of books for
home reading (and it is inestimable), this reference-work is
coming well to the front as a leading function of the lilirary.
For its effective accomplishment a library needs S|)ecial
means, among which may be nanuMl. outside of its own com-
plete catalogue, a good outfit of general and special biblio-
graphical books, indexes to literature, catalogues and ludle-
tins of other libraries, but above and before all else a ciuali-
fied librarian. The qualilications rcciuired in this position
arc a good knowledge of books, a large stock of general in-
formation, a lively interest in the pursuit of knowledge, and
irdiiiite patience with the vagaries and the ignorance of many
applicants for help. In a library of any importaiu'c the
chief lilirarian can not do this work, but much is gained if
he is entirely accessible, so that tliose who think they need
the best guidance the library can atlord, can freely resort to
him. i\Iost of this assistance to readers must devolve on
the one attendant whose business it is, and about whose
desk are gathered the needed indexes, bibliographies, etc.
Within a few yeare there has been a reaction against the
rigid exclusion of rea<lers from the book-shelves of public
liliraries, and arrangements are now made in many institu-
tions for their free access to such classes of books as they
may wish to consult. So far as this freedom of access
proves to be consistent with the safety and good order of
the library, it should certainly be granted, and will be of
great value in giving readers contact with books in mas.ses
and an opportunity to liecome acr|uainted with the outside
at least of many not read, and thus to ac<|uire much of the
liookislmess which makes people intelligent readers anil
stinnilates a fondness for liooks and case in their use.
Kvery scholar knows the ililTerencc between selecting books
for his own use from a list of titles and going directly
to the books themselves. It is coining to be recognized that
much of the eood which a public library might do in pro-
viding the means of culture is sacrificeil when readers are
LIBURNIA
LICENSED FOOL
227
kci)t away from the books and served only lliroufj;h an ap-
paratus of catalogues, cards, tickets, and red tape, managed
by ill-instnicted and unsympathelic attendants.
Vn. C'u//i'f/e Libraries. — College and nuiversity libraries
present some features affecting the administration wliieli
differ from those met with in public libraries. Ileterence-
work in them predominates largidy over circulation, though
general culture through mi-scellaneous reading is not over-
looked. The departments of study must each receive spe-
cial attention along the lines of the cnrriculum, while
enough attention is paid to general literature to make the
librai'y fairly representative of the best authors. Where
seminary methods of instruction prevail, de|)artm(^nt li-
braries are generally formed by withdrawing books from
the general lilirary for tliis purpose. The preservaticm of
these segi'egated books from loss and injury can only be
effected by some snch system as that employed at Har-
vard University, where each of the departments is fre-
qnently visited by an officer of the library, who checks off
the books and institutes an immediate inquiry for any found
absent. It is desirable that the number of books from the
general lilirary set aside for department use should not ex-
ceed absoUite requirements, and books of value for general
reading should be duplicated if needed for a department.
In a college Ubrary there can not be the same strictness of
regulation as to the loan of books that is usually enforced in a
public lilirary. Professors and teachers will require consid-
erable latitude as to the number of books taken out and the
length of time for which they can be kept, nor can any
regulation of these matters be enforced by fines in the ease
of the faculty. It therefore becomes necessary that the
record of loans shall be so kept that the whereabouts of any
book may be immediately ascertained, in order that it may
be sent for if especially wanted. By such a system a library
may be kept at its highest efficiency, it being understood
that one who desires to get a book is not debarred by its be-
ing in use, but may have it recalled if the person wlio has it
is not actually using it at tlie time. The system of charg-
ing books loaned by means of cards, described in the early
part of this article, is exactly adapted to this purpose.
No class of rs,aders is more likely to be benefited by di-
rect access to the book-shelves than students, and in many
colleges they are freely admitted to the larger part of the
library. The idea is gaining ground that it is an essential
part of a liberal education to learn to use books. Brief
courses in bibliography and the use of books are now given
as a part of the course of instruction in several colleges and
universities, and in others efforts are made to furnish to
individual students visiting the library all needed facilities
for becoming accjuainted with the bibliographical apparatus,
and learning to make practical use of it.
VIII. Training of the Librarian. — The growing demands
of tlie librarian's position and the increasing appreciation
of its importance have led to provision for tlie training of
tho.se who would enter it. Since 1886 a school of library
economy has been conducted l)y Jlelvil Dewey, first at
Columbia College, and now at the State Library at Albany.
This school provides a- regular two years' course of instruc-
tion, theoretical and practical, and has already graduated
a large number of students who are acceptably filling im-
portant positions. Shorter courses in library economy are
also offered at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, the Drexel
Institute in Philadelphia, the Pulilic Library, Los Angeles,
Cal.,and the Summer School of Languages at Amherst, Mass.
The Lihrarij Journal, established in 1876, is a veritable
thesaurus of information on all lilirary topics, containing, in
addition to much other matter, the papers and proceedings
of the meetings of the American Library Association, held
nearly every year since 1876. The meeting held in 1893 at
Chicago was so arranged that its papers covered the whole
field of library work, each topic being assigned to a w-riter
specially com|)etent to treat it. The report of this meeting,
issued by the LI. S. Bureau of Education, constitutes almost
an encyclopa'dia of library science. W. I. Fletcuer.
Libur'iiia : in ancient geography, a mountainous district
of Illyricum extending along the coast of the Adriatic in the
present Croatia and Dalmatia. Driven by the unfriendli-
ness of their mountains, the Liburnians turned their atten-
tion to commerce ; their ships were seen in every sea, and
became of great value to Rome after the submission of the
Liburnians in 176 B. c. Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lib'ya (in Or. Ai/SiJr)): the name which was given by the
Greeks'to the whole continent of Africa, but after the Roman
conquest the name Afrij-a became universal, and the name
Libya was generally applied only to that part which is now
called the Libyan Desert, extending from Egypt to Fezzan
and from the Jlediterranean to Darfur, and consisting of
vast stony terraces, sometimes covered with sand and gravel,
and sometimes broken by oases, Seewali being the largest.
Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lib'yaiis: a nation which occupied in ancient times the
whole northern coast of Africa with the excejition of the
Delta of the Nile, though, according to Lcjisius anil other
Egyptologists, they probably at one time occupied this terri-
tory too, but were driven out by the Egyptians. They were-
a seafaring people, and harassed the Egyptians with con-
tinuous invasions, until their jiower was checked in the six-
teenth century B. c. by Thothmes III. In the fourteenth
century li. c, when the" Pelasgians on the northern coasts of
the ]\lediterranean had accjuired some importance on the
sea, tlie Libyans renewed their attacks on Egy]it in connec-
tion with the Tyrrhenians and Achsans, and conquered
Lower Egypt, but were entirely defeated by Ramses II.
At the period when the Phoenicians founded Carthage and
the Greeks Cyrene, the Libyans became enfeebled. They
were pressed back from the coast, and submitted completely
to the Romans, and fell partly into barbarism. With re-
spect to their ethnogratihical and linguistical relations, see
the article Berbers.
Libyan Sea : in ancient geography, that part of the Med-
iterranean situated between the island of Crete, the Delta of
the Nile, and tlie territory of Carthage, or Africa proper.
Syrtis Major and Syrtis Minor were inlets of this sea.
Lica'ta. or Slicata : a seaport -town of Sicily, in the prov-
ince of Sicily;, on the south coast; 25 miles S. E. of Gir-
genti (see maji of Italy, ref. lO-F). It exjiorts grain, wine,
suljihiu', etc. Near it are the ruins of the ancient Gela.
Pop. 17,478.
Lice: wingless insects which occur as parasites upon the
bodies of birds and mammals. Two distinct groups are
recognized among the forms
united under the common name
lice : the one, the bird-lice, form-
ing a distinct order (Mallopha-
ga), the others which occur upon
mammals being included as a
group, Purasita or Pediciilina,
among the Hemiptera, or true
bugs. (See Entomology.) Tlie
bird-lice have their jaws fitted
for biting. They live almost ex-
clusively upon birds, each spe-
cies of which has it's jieculiar
parasite. They feed upon the
feathers and dead skin, and it is
to rid themselves of these pests
that hens, etc., roll themselves in
the dust. In a few cases, as the
goat and sheep, the 3IaUophaga
occur ujion mammals, where they feed upon the wool or
hair. The true lice (Feiliculinu) have the mouth-parts, like
those of the true bug.s, fitted for piercing the skin an<l suck-
ing the blood of their host. In some cases they manage to
burrow entirely under the skin. Their
feet are shaped something like jiipe-tongs,
enabling them to hold firmlv to the hairs
among which they move. I'hey lay their
eggs in firm capsules attached to the hairs,
and the young pass through changes close-
ly similar to those of the other Ili'miplera.
Slan is subject to the attacks of three dif-
ferent species of lice : the head-louse (Pe-
diculiis capitis), the body-louse (P. vesti-
mnili), and the crab-louse (Phthirins pu-
bis). Other mammals have their own para-
sites. The best remedy for these pests is
cleaidiness. See Denny, Monographia
Anopluriim (1842); Giebel, 7rt«pc/n Epizoa
(1874); Piaget, Les Pediculines (1880). For the parasitic in-
sects which affect plants, see Aphides and Plant-lu'e.
J. S. Kl.NGSLEY.
Licensed Fool, called also Conrt Jester. Buffoon, and
Motley : a personage found in the courts of kings and nobles
of media'val Europe, who.se employment it was to amuse the
household by witty and mirth-provoking acts and sayings.
Fig. 1.— Hen-louse.
Fio. 2— Body-
louse.
228
LICEXSK, I'l.KA OF
LICENSE, PRIVATE
At first the office was lilU-d by any Imlf-witted fellow whose
senseless or seemiiiK shrewd talk was tortured by his hearers
into a st'iuliliiiK-e o{ wit ; but he stM,)n gave plaee to the jester
proiier, and, in roval retinues, the oIKce beeauie of such im-
portance that Kniiluates of Oxford and Cambridge were not
ashamed to till it.
Philip of Macedon, Alexander the Great, Augustus and
his successors, all maintained fools, and in Kiistern ciiurts
they are a very ancient institution. The ollice has been
lilleii by womeii, but infrequently.
Anioiig the famous fools are Triboidet and Brusquet, at-
tached to the court of Francis I. of France; Boisrobert, the
buffoon anil secretarv as well of Cardinal Kichelieu : Klaus
der Narr, court fool of Frederick HI. of Saxony; Kunz von
dcr Koseu, court fool of the Kmiieror Maximilian 1. : Gonello,
in the service of the Maniuis of Ferrara, by whom his judg-
ment was so highly nrized that he was consulted on affairs
of state. Some of the famous English jesters are Scogan,
jester to Ivlwanl IV.; John lleyward and Will Somcrs, to
llenry Vlll. ; and llitard, to Edmund Ironside. Archibald
Arms'trong was a famous fool attached to the household of
James VI. of Scotland. On the accession of Charles I. he
retdined his ollice. and accinnulated enough wealth to make
him a popular butt for rliyinsters.
Court fools do not appear distinctly and oflicially till after
the crusades, and the ollice ceased to exist in most European
countries about the end of the seventeenth century.
The typical fool's costume consisted of close-fitting doub-
let and' hose, of two colors, counterchanged, and a motley
coat; a hood, ornamented with belLs, covered head and
shoulders. Yellow fornieil so large a part of these grotesque
costumes that it became known as " fool's color." The jester
always carried a wand, terminating in a grotesque, grinning
head', also ornamented with bells. M. V. Worstell.
License, or Leave and License, Plea of: in common-
law pleading, the plea made by a defeiulant to an action
who relies upon a license given him by the plaintiff, as jus-
tifying or excusing, either in whole or in part, the act com-
plained of. The plea of license is most commonly employed
ni actions for trespass upon land, but may be usetl also in
actions for trespass to persoiuil projjcrty, or in actions of
covenant or of detinue, or in act ions upon the case. Except
in actions upon the ca.sc the defense of license must be spe-
cially pleaded, and can not be given in evidence under the
general issue. (See Issi'k.) In an action of covenant a plea
of license is not sustainable as a defense if the license was
by parol, unless a parol license is provided for by the terms
of the deed. In those Stales where common-law pleading
has been abolished there is no particular form of plea or
answer designated by this name, but a license may of course
be pleaded as a defense whenever it constitutes one.
F. Sturoes Allen'.
License, Private : a permission by one person to another
to do what but for the licensi! would subject the actor to
legal liability. It is a topic of considerable interest in sev-
eral liranches of the law, although it is most prominent in
the law of real property.
Many of the applications of force to the person of another
would be act ionable assaults but for the " leave and license "
of the injured party. A denti>t who pulls a tooth, a surgeon
who performs an operation, an athlete who strikes, pushes,
or grapples his antagonist, conimits an assault and battery,
unless his act has the legal consent of his patient or his
opponent; or the act is done in such circumstances that the
law implies consent. If the consent is obtained by fraud,
or for the purpose of doing anything which the law pro-
hibits, as fighting, it avails nothing. Again, a person has
no right of action for defamation against one whom he has
licensed to piiljlish the charge. It is not necessary that he
inteniled to givi' a license. If he sends an agent to procure
a copy of a iilii'l with the view of bringing an action, he
thereby consents to its publication to the agent.
In the law of ( 'oi-vriiiht (i/. c.) and Patents (q. v.) a license
is to be ilistingnished from an assignment. In order that a
<'ontracl. relating to a patent, shall operate as an assignment
it nni-^t be a Cduveyancc of the entire right secured by the
patent, or of an undivided part of such right, or of the
exclusive interest in such entire right for a specified terri-
tory. So an assignment of a copyright is the conveyance of
proprietary rights therein. The grant of an exclusive privi-
lege to print or to sell a book, or to use, rent, and sell a
i)ateTite(I article, is only a license. It docs not give to the
licensee the right to maintain actions for the infringement
of the patent or of the copyright, nor the imwer to enjoin
unlawful sales of the book or article within his territory. A
licensee can not assign his right, unless specially empowered
to do so by the licensor.
License Appertaitiinii to Land. — This is an authority to
do an act or .series of ads upon hind without |ia.>-sing any
estate therein. It may be created by a written instrument,
verbally, or liy conduct. If a landowner suffirs his neigh-
bor to construct a drain from the land of llie latter to his
land, he thereby licenses the act, as he would have done
had he expres,sed his permission orally or in writing. The
characteristics of the ordinary real jiroperty license are
(1) that it does not pass an estate in the land ; (2) it is per-
sonal and non-assignable; (3) it is revocable at the will of
the licensor.
Whether a written agreement for the use.of land amounts
to a license simply or transfers an estate, depends upon the
intention of the parties as disclosed by the writing and the
surrounding circumstances. The fact that the parties de-
scrilje the agreement as a license is not controlling. Ac-
cordingly, where a laixlowner granted by deed what he styled
a license to an ice company, its successors, and assigns in
said ice business to use a strip of land as a way of ingress,
egress, and regress, and upon which it might pass and repass
railway cars containing ice and materials for use in its ice
business, and it appeared that this strip of land afforded the
only means of communication between the ice company's
premises and those of the railway company upon which the
ice company depended for the transportation of its ice to
market, the court held that the ice company acquired an
Easement (?. r.), and not a mere license. The position of
the parties, taken in connection with the language of the
contract, indicated that they intended to convey and acquire
a permanent interest in the land, an<l not a rey<icable user.
(The Greenwood Lake. etc.. Company vs. The AVic York,
etc., Rnitway, 134 N. Y. 43.'5.) On the other hand, a per-
mission by a mine-owner to another to enter and worK a
mine if he sees fit is a mere license and not a Lease (q. v.).
The purchaser of a ticket to a ]ilace of anuisement acquires
no more than a license, which the proprietor of thei)lace
has the power to revoke at anv moment. Wood vs. Lead-
hitter, 13 Meeson and Wclsby 838.
An indefeasible interest in land can not be transferred by
oral agreement, because of the Stati'TE of Frauds iq.v.),
which requires the conveyance to be in writing. Such agree-
ment, however, may operate as a license, protecting the
party who relics upon it from all liability as a tresjiasser for
acts done before its revocation. Indeed, if it purports to be
a sale of the land, the purchaser, by part performance, may
acquire the right to a conveyance which a court of equity
will enforce. The agreement is no longer a Hcense, and
revocation is impossible.
As a license is personal — that is. restricted to the original
parties — tliedeatli of cither terminates it. So does a con-
veyance to another of the lu'cmiscs to wliicli the license
appertains, or a grant which is inconsistent with the license.
Moreover, it can not operate either for or against strangers
to it. Therefore, a ])arty who hius a license for the exclusive
use of a private canal can not maintain an action against
others who make use of it. If one person obtains by written
contract a license to explore and examine the land of an-
other, he can not assign the contract to a third party; nor
can a license be sold \inderan execution against the licensee.
A mere license is reyocal)le at the will of the licensor,
whether a valuable consideration has been given for it or
not. 'Of course, if its revocation amounts to a breach of
contract, the licensee will have a right of action for damages.
For example, if the holder of a theater ticket, after taking
his seat, is notified by the proiirietor to leave the building,
he is bound to do so. ' If he remains he will become a tres-
passer, and the proprietor may lawfully eject him ; but if
the license is thus revoked, and he withdraws, without fault
on his part, he can sue for the bi'ea<h of contract.
In some jurisdictions it is held that in case the licensee
has nimle expenditures u])on the land, relying on the license,
a court of equity will interyeiie and prevent a revocation,
which Wi>uld operate as a fraud upon him. (Saner vs.
Keller, Vi'.) Imi. 47.5.) The w.'iglil of authority, both in
England and the U. .S., is opposed to this doctrine, and fully
sustains the rule that a license is always revocable. Conse-
quently, if one grants for a consideration a license to another
to enter on the licensor's land and construct a watercourse,
or a sewer, or a railway track, the licensor has the power at
any time to revoke the license. Certainly the licensee, during
LICENSE, PRIVATE
the continuance of the license, acquires no rights by adverse
possession, because he exercises his i)rivilege not against the
will of the hmdowner. but with his consent. Nor has he the
right to the interposition of a court of ei|uity to compel the
specific jierformanee of an agreement void by the statute
of frauds when made, but now partly performed. He en-
tered and made his expenditures not on a parol contract for
an estate in land, but pursuant to a license which diil not
purport to give a permanent interest therein. (Pitzman vs.
Boyce, 111 Mo. 387 ; Lawrence vs. Springer, 49 X. .1 . Kq. 289.)
If the license is revoked, either expressly or by implication,
and the former licensee continues to use the land as before,
such enjoyment will be adverse to the landowner, and may
ripen into an irrevocable right by Presceiptiox {5. v.). Eck-
erson vs. Crippen, 110 X. Y. 58.5.
A transaction. may have the appearance of a license when,
in fact, it is the abandonment of an easement. An abutting
landowner consents to the construction of an elevated rail-
way in tlie street in such a manner as to abandon to a cer-
tain extent his easement of liglit and air therein. X'either
he nor his grantee can revoke the consent. ( \Vhi/e vs. The
Manhattan Railway. 139 X. Y. 19.) Such a transaction is
the permanent surrender of an interest in the laml of an-
other; not a temporary permission to that other to do a
series of acts on his own land. To call it a license is to use
a misnomer, and produce confusion.
Quasi License. — It is frequently said that a license coupled
with a grant is irrevocable, and the following example is
given by %vay of illustration. If one agrees orally with an-
other that the latter may cut and carry away growing trees
from the former's land, this is revocable, before the trees are
cut ; but after they are cut, and have thus become the per-
sonal property of the purchaser, the license to take away such
property is irrevocable. It is submitted, however, that the
license to remove chattels from the land of the vendor, or
of one who has brought them \x\wn his land, or wlio has con-
sented to their remaining there, is a license by operation of
law, and not by agreement of the parties. As it does not
originate in the landowner's consent, but may arise against
his will and in spite of his opposition, it is not subject to his
revocation. It is as distinguishable from a true private li-
cense as a quasi contract is from a true contract.
Fraxcis M. BrRDicK.
The rules of tlie Roman law and of the modern European
codes are very similar to those of the English law. X''o civil
action lies for injuria (see Libel .ind Slander, History of)
if the acts or statements on which the complaint is based
were authorized or permitted. •'Volenti non fit injuria" —
no wrong is done to him who consents; but where such
injurious acts or defamatory utterances are forbidden on
grounds of public interest, such authorization or permission
will not necessarily exclude the criminal actions established
by the law.
As regards property, immovable or movable, possession
and use could be granted at Roman law by a mere license
iprecario); and, as in Euglisli law, sucli license was revoca-
ble at the pleasure of the licensor (precario rogatus). Even
an express agreement that the possession of the licen.see (pre-
cario possidens) should continue until a certain date had no
effect as against the licensor's change of purpose. If the li-
censee refused to restore possession on demand, tlie licensor
had a summary remedy — viz., tlii^ interdictum de precario ;
but as against all other persons the licensee enjoyed the pro-
tection of the ordinary possessory remedies. See Possession.
Precarium, or license, closely resembled commodatum, the
gratuitous bailment for use. Commodatum also was appli-
cable to land anil to movables alike. Precarium differed
from commodatum (1) in the absence of all obligation on
the part of the licensor; (3) in that the licensee was not li-
able for damage caused by his negligence: and {'A) in that
the licensee hail no counterclaim even for necessary outlay.s.
Modern European codes incline to subject the licensee to
responsibility for negligence, and to give him a counter-
claim for necessary outlays ; and therefore, as a rule, they
do not recognize precarium as a separate legal relation.
Either no mention is made of it, as in the Code Xapoleon.
or it is expressly declared to be a special form of commoda-
tum {pret a usage. Ge/irauch.ileihe), differing otdy in the
right of the bailor to demand re-delivcry whenever lie
pleases: so in the Saxon code, arts. 1173, llHl: the Swi.ss
Federal law of obligations, arts. 321, 327: and the German
draft code of 1888, art. 558. On the other hand, 1 he Prussian
code, arts. 222-234, and the Austrian code, arts. 971, 974.
recognize precarium as a separate institution. See Loan.
LICENSES, PUBLIC
229
Literature. — G. E. Schmidt, Commodatum und Precari-
um (Leipzig, 1841); Bulling, Das Precarium (Leipzig,
1846) ; Motive zum burgerl. Oeseizbuch fur das Deutsche
Reich (1888), ii., 453, 454. 'Ml'neoe Smith.
License, Public : a permit granted, by competent public
authority tn do certain acts which it has been made unlaw-
ful to do without obtaining such permits. The authority
granted by such a license, of <'ourse, is not more extensive
than the power of the licensor to regulate the subject-mat-
ter of the license, or to exempt from the operation of the
laws which forbid the acts permitted by the license.
The necessity of obtaining a license' lawfully to perform
certain acts may be imposed either for the purpose of rais-
ing revenue, in which case it is simply a form of taxation,
or, more usually, for the purpose of regulating those call-
ings, trades, or classes of acts which bear such a relation to
the state that it is for the general welfare of the public
that the state or government shall regulate them, such as
the practice of medicine, the driving of a public hack, the
peddling of goods, the celebration of marriage, the burial of
the dead, etc.
The authority of the Federal Government to grant licenses
is limited by the Constitution, and, except as to thcjse mat-
ters the regulation of which is intrusted to Congress, such
as navigation, a license taken out under the laws of the
U. S. would be of no force as against a State law forbidding
the licensed acts. Thus where Congress in its internal rev-
enue legislation provided that no person should engage in
certain occupations without obtaining a license from the
U. S., and these occupations were not among the subjects
which Congress has power to regulate, the granting of »
license to pursue one of these occupations under this legis-
lation gave the licensee no other privilege than that he
should be subject to no penalty under the national law for
so doing, and the law requiring the obtaining of a license
was nothing more than a mere form of imposing a tax, the
States being free to prohibit the occupations entirely or
regulate them in any other way; but a liceii.se granted by
Congress in the exercise of a power granted by the Constitu-
tion, such as that of regulating interstate commerce, give
to the licensee authority to do whatever is authorized by
the terms of the license without interference by State legis-
lation "on that subject or by a State tax. (License-tax
Cases, 5 Wallace 462. 470.) The licensee, however, is sub-
ject in the exercise of the privileges of the license to the
State and local laws passed for purposes of police regulation.
Most public licenses, however, are included among those
which are required either by State legislation or liy the laws of
or ordinances of municipal corporations deriving their powers
from the State. The State may, in the exercise of its police
power, within certain wide limits, which can not with ac-
curacy be conclusively defined, require a license to be ob-
tained by persons following any trade or calling, but all
trades or callings are open to all, except when expressly re-
stricted by legislation. It may also forbid the performance
without a license of any acts which involve an element of
danger to the welfare of the community when unregulated.
Municipal corporations have no power to pass license
laws, except as these powers are expressly or by implica-
tion conferred by their charters or the laws of the State,
and the laws granting such powers will be strictly con-
strued. Thus the grant of the power to " regulate " certain
trades will not be construed to include the i>ower to regu-
late those trades by license laws ; and the grant of the power
to •' regulate by license laws " does not authorize the corpora-
tion to impose licenses for the inirpose of revenue. In some
cases, however, where the natural method of regulation
would be by license, as in the case of the liquor traffic, the
power to pass license laws has been inferreil from a general
clause granting authority to make such laws as may bo
necessary for the general welfare of the community.
Unless a license be of the nature of a franchise, it will be
revocable at any time without a return of the license fee, if
one be paid ; although it has been held, in some cases where
the fee was in the nature of a tax, that a proportionate
amount of the fee must be returned. This rule of law is
ba.sed upon the principle that neither the State nor a niunici-
j)al corporation chartered liy it can bargain awav its power
of -police regulation. Slaughter-house Ca-scs, l(i » allace 36.
The license laws of the .States are frequently held to be
unconstitutional, as being contrary to the provisions of the
Constitution of the U. S.. especially those providing that
Congress shall have power to regulate commerce among the
2i0
LICEXSK TO TKADE
soveral States (("oust. art. i., st-c. 8. sub. 3) : that " the citizens
i.f faoh Stan- shall U? I'litilK-il to all iiriviU'tfos and inimuni-
tics of tlir citizens of the several States " (art. iv., see. 2. sub.
1) ; anil that no person shall '• l)e ileprived of life, liberty, or
[iroiH'rtv without ilue |inKi-.ss of law." Anientlinent V.
The tirst of these |irovisions |iroliibits the State from re-
nuirini; the taking,' out of a lieensi- from persons, as travel-
ing salesmen, engaged in any form of I.ntekstate Commerce
The second provision prohibits license laws by wliieh a
diserimiinilion is made, directly or indirectly, by a Stale in
favor of a citizen of one Stale as against those of another.
as bv forbidding the sjile of the products of another Stale
except bv persons holding a license, or by requiring the
citizens of another Stale to lake out a license when licenses
arc not reipiired of its own citizens, or by making the license
fee larger in the one case than in the other. A corporation
existing under the laws of another Stale is not reganleil as
a citizen within this provision, and a State is not prohiliileil
from discriminating against anon-resident corporation or
jiroliibiiing it from tran.siicting business within its line.s.
The third provision prohibits such license laws as result
in the exclusion of persons or classes from lawful em|)loy-
luenls. the making of illegal discriminations between jrt-
sons in similar circumstances, and the granting of monopo-
lies in trade. The rule as to monopolies must be ilist iiiguished
from tliose cases where the State gives permission to do
something not otherwise lawful, in which case it may make
the privilege exclusive. This subject will be treated under
Privileuks Asn Immtnities (</. v.). For a fuller treatment
of this subject, see Cooley's Constitutional Limitationn,
Dillon's Miinici/Mil Corporations, and the cases referred to
under Interstate Commerce. K. Sti'rges Allen.
License to Trade: in inlernatioiml law. a permission
given by a belligerent government through its agent, such
as a commander of a siiuiidron. to trade with the enemy. It
may be given to a neutral trader or to a fellow subject ; and
it generally specifies the kind of articles to be conveyed to
the enemy, the port, the time, perhaps the amount. It may
allow of importation, and not of exportation. Being
a permission to do something otherwise forbidden, it is
of strict interpretation, so that to go beyond its specifi-
cations would subject the vessel and cargo to heavy pen-
allies, unless the violation could be shown to be unavoid-
able. I)f course, the enemy is not bound to receive such a
licensed vessel into his ports, so that to trade safely and
successfully the merchant needs a license from each bellig-
erent. ' Revised by T. S. Woolsey.
Licen'tiiis : a Christian poet of the beginning of the fifth
century; native of Taga-ste, North Africa ; pupil of Augus-
tine, to whom he atldressed a poem in 154 hexameters, still
extant. See pages 4i;3-420 of Baehren's Fragmenta Poetarum
Jiomanorum (Leipzig, 1MH6). M. W.
Lichen [see Luiiens] : a term applied to a number of
distinct diseases of the skin, in all of which, however, there
is a tendencv to the formation of slightly raised and red-
dish spots. Persons of low vitality and children of scrofu-
lous diathesis are especially predisposed to these diseases.
Lichen ruber is characterized by spots, as described, which
show no tendency to coalesce, but. which (X'casion great itch-
ing. Fortnnatelv. this is a rare disease, as it causes great
deterioration of health, anil may end fatally. L. tlaniiK, on
the other hand, is dislinguislied by the coalescence of the
dull-red patches, but there is not the same deterioration of
health. L. ^rrofiiloHin occurs in strumous children, and is
recognized bv the salmon-colored, scaly patches, occurring
in groups. '1 he treatment in all forms recpiires atleiiti<m to
the general health, ami tonics, such lus iron, strychnia, and
cod-liviT oil. .\rsenic has decided value, as have oinlmenls
of tar and sulphur. William I'eim-er.
Liclien'ine. or Mnss-sfarch : a substance contained in
the crvptogams lalled lichens, <M)nstituling in some cases.
as in that of the so-called li'eland moss, reindeer moss, tripe
lie r/Wip, etc., nearly the whole mass. JIaiiy other lichens
contain siiuilar mucilaginous bodies. Jjicheiiine may be ob-
tained pure from Iceland moss by long soaking first in cold
water, renewed until it remains tasteles.s. which removi's a
bitter principle ami saline substances. Addition of a lillle
carlKjiiate of soda to the lirsl water is useful. Some chem-
ists treat also with el her and alcohol. The washed mass mav
then be dissolved in boiling water, strained, and evaporated
to a hard, brittle, tasteless mass, which swi'lls in Cold water
wil hout dissolving, and with boiling water forms a jelly. Like
LICHENS
other starch-isomercs, it is converted into a gummy or dex-
trin-like bodv bv long boiling with water. A sugar is formed
bv dilute acids."iis in the case of common starch, and strong
nitric acid forms with it oxalic acid. Iodine does not blue
lielieiiine when pure, as it does common starch, but forms
merely a vellow stain, lus with eellnlosc. Liclieniiie does not
occur' in 'the plant in the cellular or granular form, like
common starch ; and some investigators have advanced the
idea that it is properly not to be classed with starch, but is
cellulose in a soluble inodilication. Strong alcoholic liquors
are prepared on a large scale in extreme northern regions
from these lichens.
Lichens. 11 kenz [= Lat. =(;r. Kux^y. ^'X^"-. lichen, tree-
moss] : a group (Liihenes) 1)1 jiarasitic lower |>laiits of the
class of the Sac Fungi (ll«comjc('/f«). characterized by being
parasitic ujion microscopic algie. They occur abundantly
upon the groun<l, walls, rocks, wooden fences and buililings,
live-trunks, and in the tropics upon leaves. The number of
species is unknown ; an eiiumeratiiui by Nylauder in 11S58
comprised X^M'i sjiecics. Krempelhuber's list in IHIill con-
tained 6,250 entries, which included a great number of du-
plicates. Tuckernian in 1872 reckoned the whole number
of species " as somewhere from 1,350 to 1,750." Tuck-
ermairs unfinished Synopsis of JS'ortti American Lichens
(1881-88) and Willey's su|)pleinentary list (1887) enumerate
i)29 species for North America. Perha|)S we may roughly
estimate the total number of described species of lichens in
the world at not far from 2,500.
Lichens diller greatly in external appearance, some being
flat and foliaceous (Fi'g. 1, C), others consisting of a thin
laver closely adherent to the substratum (Fig. 1, D), others
again are branching steins (Fig. 1,A, B), while in still others
the plant-body is minute and inconspicuous.
. Chidonia cornucoijioitles : B. Clnfloitia ran-
, Physcia utetlaris ; I). Oraphis sn'ipta.
A section of the plant -body (thallus) shows it to be com-
posed of branching, usually colorless, threads (hi/nhip), which
often become indurated and compacted at the .surface.
The microscopic algie upon which the lichen is iiarasitic are
intermingled with the threads, either scattered irregularly
(e. g. (.'olleina. Leploi/iiim, etc., Fig. 2, B, C) or disposed in
Flo. 8.— Sections of lieliens : A, Thetitsrhisteit pnrirliniin, with /Vo-
titcocCHS oellH ; B, Collema tityrittcoreum, younp fruit, and AVrftoc
ceils ; C, Cotlema nigresceus, young aseogone, and A'twfcJC cells.
one or two more or less distinct layers (e. g. Usnea, Phi/srin,
Parmelia. Sticta, etc.. Fig. 2, A).
Schwendcner and others have carefully studied these
LICHENS
231
alga-, and referred tlicm to species common on trees, rocks,
fences, earth, etc. When dissected out from tlie liclien-body
they grow freely. Formerly tliese liost-alga' were tliouglit
to be parts of the lichen itself, and were styled gonidia (a
FiQ. 3. — Host-alga? of lichens : A, Protococcus virldls, attacked by a
thread from a spore of Thetuschiste.t pdrietinns ; B C, Pnt-
tucoccus, with threads of Chidonia fuvcata ; D, Nostoc, with
threads of Leptogium myochroum ; E, Chrooleptts u:nbrinurn,
dissected from GraphU scrtpta.
term which it is still convenient to use). Some lichenolo-
gists still adhere to this view.
The lichen-threads penetrate or clasji around some of the
cells of the host-alg:c (Fig. 3), from which they derive nour-
ishment. Such attacked cells soon die, but the others grow
rapidly in the moist air of the interior of the lichen-thallus.
While individual alga' here and there are destroyed by the
parasitic lichen, the alga colony as a whole is doubtless bene-
fited by this symbiotic relation.
Lichens are reproduced by the formation of spores of one
or more kinds, and also by the escape of colonies of host-
algse with a few attached threads (called the foinnation of
soredia), soon resulting in the production of a new lichen-
thallus. Of the stalkecl spores (stylospores) which line certain
cavities (pycnidia) now and then found on the thallus, we
need only to say that they are probably asexual spores ho-
mologous with those similarly named in the Black Fungi.
The spermogones are small cavities lined with hairs which
bear great numbers of minute spore-like bodies known as
sperraatia (Fig. 4). In CdUrma, Leptogium, and similar
jelly-lichens spermat ia are known to be male fertilizing bodies
analogous to antherozoids, liut it is not known whether they
have this function in all lichens.
Fig. 4. — A. spermogones of Plttjsciu stelhtrtu (shown as minute black
specks) ; B, the same in section ; C, spermatia-bearing hairs.
The ordinary spores of lichens are borne in cups, disks,
furrows, or globular structures [apothecia) (Figs. 5 and 7)
consisting of erect spore-sacs (a.ici) and sterile threads (para-
physes), surrounded by a margin (e.rciple), which is an up-
turned portion of the thallus (thalline esciple, Figs. 5 and
Fio. .5— Diagrammatic section of young apothecium of Lfrnnora
subfusea : e, exciple (thalline) ; p, paraphyses ; s. spore-sacs.
7, A), or a specially developed tissue (proper exciple, Fig. 7,
II., III., IV., v.). "The apothecia vary greatly in shape and
appearance. In many common species they are concave
disks f i'om 1 to 10 mm. in diameter, and situated on the up|ier
surface or margin of the thallus (Fig. 7, I., II.); in others
the sides of the disks are greatly incurved, forming the glob-
ular apothecium (Fig. 7, IV., V.); in still others the disk is
much elongated into a sort of furrow, whose sides may be
more or less approximate (Fig. 7, III.). These differences
in the shape and structure of the apothecia are made the
basis for the separation of the several families of lichens.
The spore-sacs do not differ essentially from those of the
Black Fungi, and their spores. whi((h range from one to a
Fig. fi. — Spore-sacs and spores : A. Pirtusiirui leinplnca ; B. C.
Phtjscia : D. Phi/scia stclhiris : E. F. Pljrennla ititidd : G. H,
Peitiyern ; I. Gruphis ; J. Umbdicaria jjusttduia ; K, L, Aco-
lium ; M, Bceomyces rusetts.
hundred or more in each sac. are equally similar. The
spores are simple or compound, spherical, oval, or from
cylindrical to needle-shaped. In one family (Caliciacece)
tile walls of the spore-sacs are very thin, and at maturity
have broken up. so that the spores are then naked in the
apothecium.
In 18TT Stahl discovered the sexual organs of Colhma,
one of the jelly-lichens (Collfmeip). He found that previous
to the formation of the apothecium a deep-lying thri^ad de-
velops into a coil (ascogone) from whicli one extremity (the
trichagyne) ascends to and projects beyond the surface of
the lichen-thallus (Fig. 2, C). At the same time spermatia
escape from the spermogone, and coming in contact with
the protruding trichogyne fertilize it, after which many ver-
tical threads spring up from the ascogone or its surround-
ing threads, and develop into snore-sacs and paraphyses
(Fig. 2, B). It is not yet known whether such a fertilization
takes place in other genera than Collema. Leptogium, and
their near relatives. While it is supposed by some botanists
to be present in all lichens, its existence has not yet been
proved outside of the CollemeCB.
There are some licliens whose spores are not formed in
sacs, but externally upon homologous cells {haxidia). thus
showing relationship to the toadstools and pufTballs. In
other words, while most of the lichen-forming fungi are
Ascomycetes, a few are Basidiomycetes. The latter are re-
ferred to in recent works under ilynienolicliens (related to
toadstools) and Ga.sterolichens (related to piifTballs).
It is evident that the group Lirhenes is not a strictly natu-
ral one. We are dealing here with plants of considerable
structural differences among themselves and marked resem-
blances to other chlorophvll-less carpophytes. It is not im-
probable that the lichens will eventually be distributed
among several of the great orders of the fungi, e.g. the
Black Fungi {Pyreiionti/cetecv), Cu]) Fungi (DiKComycetew),
piiffballs (Gasteromyreieif), and toadstools {Uynienomyce-
tew). If we exclude the Gastcroliclicns and Ilymenolichens
the great body of lichens may be arranged as follows, essen-
tially in accordance with Vroi. Tuckerman's system :
Family I. Panneliacea:— Apothecia open round disks,
with a thalline exciple, sometimes with a proper exciple
also (Fig. 7, I.). , „ „
This large family includes nearly one-half the species,
which are distributed among many genera — e. g. Ramnlinn,
L'unea, Cefraria. T/ieloscliistex. Parmelia, Physcia, I'mhih-
caria, Slicfa, Pelfigera, Collema, Leptogium. Placodium,
232
LICHENS
I.ICIXIO
Lecannra. etc. Roccella tinetori'a ami rolatinl species fur-
nish litmus. Cflraria ixlanilica is the I1EI.AND Moss (y. c).
aiietit puhmmarin was formerly used in meilicine, but has
proiH-rfv fallen into disuse. Lecanorn larlarea furnishes a
dve (euilbear), and L. rsculfiita supplies a valuable food in
Asia Minor. The story is told that it oi'casionally falls in
showers from the sky. whither it had been carried by whirl-
winds. Berkeley states that during a famine at Erzerouni
such a shower " fell most opportunely, to the great relief of
the inhabitants."
Flo. 7.— Families of liohens : I,
Oruphidacftv : IV., Caliciaceoe ; V,
cia ; b, sections of saiiiej.
Parmeliaceat; 11., Lecidiacea' : III.,
'ernicoriaccte (a, apotiie-
Family II. LiciJiaceip. — Apothecia open round disks,
with a proper exciple (Fig. 7,11.).
A family next in point of numbers to the preceding, and
containing many speeies of the genera C/adonia, Bteomt/ces.
Bialora, Lecidea, liiiel/in. etc.. C/ndunia rungiferiiia of the
northern regions, is the well-known reindeer-moss which
supplies a valuable food to the reindeer of Arctic America,
Europe, and Asia.
Family III. (rraphidnceip. — Apothecia mostly elongated,
furrow-form, with a proper exciple (Fig 7, III.).
Here are gathered many species of bark-lichens whose
thalli are crustaceous or indistinct, and whose apothecia
form more or less elongated, crooked, black lines (Fig. 1, 1)).
The common genera are Opegrapha, Grnphix, Arthanin, etc.
Family IV. <\iliciiieeip. — Apothecia open, globular or
nearly so, frequently stalked, with a proper exciple. the
spores free by the breaking of the spore-sacs (Fig. 7, IV.).
The most important genera are Acolium, Ccuicium, and
Con iori/be.
Family V. Verrucanaretr. — .Vpothecia closed, globtdar,
with a proper exciple (Fig. 7, V.).
The globular apothecia have a small opening at the sum-
mit for the escape of the spores. The more common genera
are Endocarpon, Verrucaria, and Pyreiiula.
See HoTA-NY, Fi;.voi, Plants, Fossil ; and Vegetable
Kl.NODOM.
LiTERATVRE. — The following works will give the student
an idea of the present state of our knowlcilgo of lichens:
Fries's Lirhinograp/iia Eurnpwa Rffurnutta (W.W); Kor-
ber"s Systema Liclienum Geimani(e (185.")) : Xvlander's
Enumfriitiun Oenerale dex Lichens (1858) ; Xylaniler's Sg-
nopHiH Mvlhiidirn Lichenum (1858-60); Korber's Parernn
Lir/ieni/logica (18()5); Kremnelhuber's (leschichte iind Li-
leraliir der Eirluimlogif (18t(7-72) ; Schwendener's Die Al-
grrilypfn der Flirli/enijunidien (1860); Tuikerman's Genera
Liclienum : on Arrani/emrnI uflhe Xorlh American Lichens
(1872); Hornet's Iteclierches sur les Gunidies des Lichens,
in Ann. Set. Xal. (st-ries v., vols. xvii. and xix., 1873-74);
Stahl's HeitrSge zur Enlwickliingsyeschichle der Flechten
(1877); Tuckerman's Sijnopsis of Xorlh American Lichens
(part i., 1882; part ii., 1888); De Bary's Comparative Jfor-
pho/ogg anil fiinlogg of the Fungi, Mgcelozoa. and Bacteria
(1887) ; Willcy's /n't roil net ion to the .Study of Lichens (1887) ;
Sturgis's Carpologic .Structure ami iJen'lopment of the Col-
le.macr.ie and Allied Groups, in I'roc. Am. Acad. Arts and
Sciences, vol. xxv. (181)0). Charles E. Bessey.
I.irhfleld : city of SlalTordshire, England ; 118 miles
N. W. of London, on an affluent of the Trent (see map of
Kniiland, ref. S)-II). It has carpet-manufactories, etc., a tine
cathedral, and a grammar school, in which Addison. John-
son, and (iarrick were educated. It is the seat of a bish-
opric. The cathedral, a noble pile, dates from the beginning
of the thirteenth century, mid is built in a transitions! vie from
Early English to Decorated. Its total length from b. to W.
is 411 feet, with a breadth of 66 feet, and it has an impo.sing
central lower 2.58 feet high, with two western spires 183 feet
high. The building underwent extensive restoration in 1671
and in 1882. There is a statue of Dr. Johnson in the mar-
ket-place. Pop. (1891) 7.864.
Li'elli, lee chee', sometimes lichee': the fruit of a tree
(Xephelium litchi) of the family Saimnmiack.e (q. v.), found
only in China and Coehin-Cliina. It grows in clusters upon
a small tree resembling a horse-chestnut, is globular, about
li inches in diameter, and contains a sweet edible pulp with
the arillus inclosing the solitary seed. This fruit is highly
valued by the Chinese, who dry it for preservation.
Lieh'tenberg, (iEORG Christoph: writer; b. July 1, 1742,
at Oberramstadt, Hesse-Darmstadt ; studied at the Univer-
sity of (iiitliiigen ; became professor there in 1709. He made
frequent jouriieys to England, where he studied the life of
the people and gatliered the material for his famous expla-
nations of Hogarth's pictures. Of his physical writings,
those are the best known which contain his investigations
concerning electricity, more especially the so-called " Lieh-
tcnberg figures." which he explained in two independent
memoirs. His satirical writings made a great sensation,
and are still read. His Ceber Physiognomik wider die
Physiognomen (1778) is directed against Lavater; I'eberdie
Pronunciation der Schopse des alten Griechenland (1782)
against Voss. The greatest general interest, however, was
attracted by his Ausfuhrliche Erkldrung der Hogarthschen
Kupferstic.he, which first appeared in the Gottingschen Al-
manach, of which Lichtenberg was the founder and editor.
His explanations contributed very much to introduce Ho-
garth in (iermany. They are often very striking and very
witty. Liclitcnbcrg's wit, however, though pointed and
generally sure to hit the nail on the head, is of a somewhat
labored description. His writings have been republished,
with an excellent introduction by A. Wilbrandl (1893). See
also R. M. Meyer. Jonathan Swift und Lichtenberg (1886).
Lichtenberg died Feb. 24. 1799. ' Julius Goebel.
Licllteiisteiii. Clrich. von: minnesinger; b. in Austria
at the beginning of the thirteenth century ; was educated at
the court of the Margrave of Istria. and was made a knight
in 1222. His name appears in contemporarv documents
from Nov. 17, 1227, to .Tuly. 1274. He died Jan. 26, 1276.
In his Frauendiensf. a book which contains valuable infor-
mation concerning the customs of the times, he gives an ac-
count of his adventurous life and his foolish anil frequently
ridiculous loye-aflairs. His Fraiienbuck is a poem of more
didactic character. He may be considered the romanticist
of the minnesong, who, by his futile efforts to revive the
waning ideals of chivalry, reveals the ludicrous, unnatural,
and even iiiiuioral character of the whole struct urc of ininiie-
poetry. .See the editions of his works by Lacljuiann (1841)
and Bechstein (1887); and Becker, Wahrheit und Dichtung
in riricli von Lichtenstein's Frauendien.il (\S><H) ; K. Knorr,
I'elter I'lrich riui Lirhleiislein (1875). JuLifs Ooebel.
Lh'iiiian Laws: certain Koman laws enacted or pro-
po.sed at different times by different persons named Licin-
lus. The most iiniiortant are those passed 367 B. c. permit-
ting plebeians to share the consular dignity with patricians,
proliiliitiiig the owning by a single iiidiviilual of more than
500 acres of land, or of keeping more than 100 cattle and
500 sheep, and providing that interest already paid on debts
should be deducted and the balance jiaid in ecjual installments
within three years. See Uome.
Licinia'nus. Graxr-s: a Latin historian of the .second
century A. D., of whose works fragments were discovered in
an Egyptian palimpse.st, and first published by Pertz, 6'ran»
Liciniani Annalium qua' supersunt (Berlin. 1857); also see
Editio philologorum Bonnensium he})tas{\A-iu7.\t:. 1858). It
appears to have been a compilation from Livy for school
use. M. W.
Lioinio, Ital. jiron. l("e-chee lu'e-f/. (iiovANNi Antonio, com-
nionly callcil I'ouiikxoxk : painter; b. at I'onlcnone. Italy,
in 1484. He wius known sometimes as Corticello, or de Cor-
ticellis, and as de Sachis. He also took the name of Kegillo.
LICK
LICK OBSERVATORY
233
He is supposed to have studied art in Giorjjione's school at
Venice for a time. lie then returned to his native place,
where he worked in fresco for peasants until he acijuired
wonderful facility of execution. He painted at Valeriano,
Vareno, Villanuova, Fontanclla, S]iilimber{;o, Kovai, and at
Treves, where his composition of The Mtu/i luis a procession
of peasants in the background that is most realistic in treat-
ment. His famous picture of Tlie Armunciation in the
Church of St. Peter the Martyr at Udine has been spoiled by
repainting, but wcll-jireserved works are to be met with in
many of the little villages of Priuli. At Venice hej)ainled
the fayaile of a house in San Benedetto, for the Flemish
merchant Martin d'Anna, using the history of Curtius as a
subject. The foreshortening in this work is remarkable.
His fame was henceforward assured, and he no longer hesi-
tated to compete with Titian, whose successes stimulated
him to further efforts. Both artists painted in S, Giovanni
di Rialto. This rivalry continued in the ducal palace.
These works have since been destroyed by fire. It is said
that this emulation stimulated jealousies so bitter that when
Licinio was decorating the cloisters of St. Stephen he had a
sword and shield beside him always. A few fragments of
his painting there remain. It was at this period in his ca-
reer that he painted his masterpiece, the S. Lomnzo Gius-
tiniani, now in the Venetian Academy. He then worked in
the Cathedral of Cremona, wliere his frescoes are still to be
seen. At Prince Doria's invitation he went to Genoa, where
he worked conjointly with Perino del Vaga. He afterward
painted in Mantua and at Piacenza, where he decorated the
tribune and two chapels of S. Maria di Campagna. Charles
V. conferred knighthood on him. He returned to Venice
to paint in the Church of S. Francesco del Frari a series rep-
resenting the evangelists and doctors of the Church, and re-
mained till called to Ferrara by Hercules II. to make de-
signs for some tapestries. These represent the Wanderings
of Ulysses and the Labors of Hercules. There he was taken
ill and died within three days (1540). It was suspected that
he was poisoned. Pordenono's work is chiefly in fresco.
Among his best oil-pictures are The Resurrection of Laza-
rus, at Brescia; a Holi/ Family and a St. Mark, at Porde-
none ; tlie JIarriage of St. Catherine, at Piacenza ; and the
Annunciation, at Murauo. W. J. Stillman.
Lick, James : philanthro]iist ; b. at Fredericksburg, Leb-
anon CO., Pa., Aug. 25, 1796; in 1820 obtained employment
in a piano-manufactory in Philadelphia; a year later start-
ed in the same business for himself in New York city, but
failing to succeed for want of capital, went soon after to
South America, where at Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, and
other places he engaged in the manufacture of musical in-
struments; in 1847 settled in San Francisco, where he in-
vested in real estate and in enterprises, becoming wealthy
thereby. In 1874 he placed his entire property, amounting
to about $3,000,000, in the hands of seven trustees, to be de-
voted to public and charitable purposes. The bequests then
made were in some respects twice changed before his death.
Among them were the following : For the construction of a
suitable observatory, and the erection therein of a telescope
superior to and more powerful than any before made, ^700,-
000, the same to be connected with the University of Cali-
fornia ; for the erection of free public baths in San Francis-
co, $1.50,000; for the erection of a monument to Francis
Scott Key, author of The Star-spangled Banner, in Golden
Gate Park, San Francisco, .|60,000 ; for the erection in the
City Hall of San Francisco of a group of bronze statuary
representing by afipropriate designs and figures tlie history
of California, $100,000 ; to found and endow an institution to
be called the California School of Mechanical Arts, $.540,-
000. D. Oct. 1, 1876. In 1887 his remains were placed in a
vault under the pier sustaining the great equatorial tele-
scope of Lick Observatory (q. v.).
Lick Observatory : the Lick astronomical department
of the University of California ; founded by James Lick
(q. V.) by a deed dated 1875, in which he charged his trustees
"to expend the sum of $700,000 for the purpose of jnirehas-
ing land and constructing on such land a telescope .superior
to and more powerful than any telescope yet made . . . and
also a suitable observatory connected therewith," the whole
to be made usefid in promoting science. This w!^ his only
instruction in regard to it.
The site was selected during Mr. Lick's lifetime on the
narrow summit of Mt. Hamilton, 4,201) feet above the sea,
and 26 miles E. by road from San Jose, tlie chief city of
Santa Clara co., Cal. Not only is the air clear during many
months of the year, but it is quiet, so that the stars are
steady (do not twinkle), hence high magnifying powers can
be employed. The work of construction was begun in 1881.
The major part of this work was completed before June 1,
1888, at which date tlie observatory was transferred to the
university and began its astronomical activity. It was neces-
sary to remove more than 70,000 tons of rock from the
summit in order to get a level platform for the buildings
and instruments; to arrange a sullicient water-supply ; to
make roads, etc. The main road from San Jose was built
by Santa Clara County 'at a cost of $78,000. Witli the ex-
ception of a few acres which were purchased, the land for
the site (2,600 acres) was granted by the U. S. and by the
State of California. The chief question to be decided was,
however, whether the most powerful telescope was to be a
.miM^
Lick Observatory 3G-iuch tt-lescope.
reflector or a refractor. It was finally decided to have a re-
fractor of 36 inches clear aperture and 694 inches focal
length. This was constructed out of rough glass disks,
made by Fell & Mantois, of Paris, by Alvan Clark & Sons,
of Cambridge, Mass. The object-glass weighs about 600 lb.
in its cell. The crown-glass is 0'60 inch thick [edge] and
1-96 inch [center]; the flint is 1'65 inch thick [edge] and
0'93 inch [center]. The radii of curvature beginning with
the first surface of the crown are r = r" = + 259-5 inches;
r" = — 239-6 inches, »•""=— 40,000 inches ( + convex —
concave). The distance between crown and flint is 6'5 inches.
Besides the visual objective (as above), there is a third lens
of 33 inches aperture and radii of curvature of H = +
253'0 inches, B = — 303-1 inches. When this is placed in
front of the visual objective the combination becomes a
photographic object-glass of 570 inches focal length (the di-
ameter of the photographic image of the moon is about 5-2
inches). The cost of the visual objective was $50,000, of
the photographic corrector about $13,000, mounting of the
telescope about $45,000. The cost of the dome complete
was about $85.000 ; of the whole observatory about $600,000.
The mounting of the great telescope was made by Warner
& Swasey, of Cleveland, 0. The whole weight of iron pier
and mounting is about 37 tons. The moving parts of the
latter weigh about 7 tons; the tube weighs nearly 3 tons.
The telescope is used for visual purposes, and micrometer
measurements; it is also used for photography. A powerful
s|>ectroscope, made by Brashear, of Pittsljurg. Pa., is also
provided. The chief work to which the instrument has been
put is the visual examination of planets and satellites, the
observation of comets, nebuhe, and double stars, etc. In all
of these fields it has made discoveries, some of them of high
importance. Its photographs, especially those of the sun,
moon, and planets, are also valuable. Its chief spectroscopic
work is the study of the motion of nebulie and of fixed
234
LUTOliS
LIEBER
stars in the lino of si^rlit. Tlio otlier iiistniinonts are cn-
gaSiHl oil ' ' -" ■! work .if a tirst-cliussobst-nralory. In 1H»*!<
eflii>si' ■ wore s'lit from Mt. Iluiuilton (to Hart-
lotrSpi anil to t'uyoiino, S. A.). anJ n third to
Chili to obM-rvi- liio oclipse of 'Apr.. 1S!»3. .^^landnnl tinio is
fumishod to ilie railways as far K. as Kl I'aso and Ofidon,
and as far X. iis Porlland, Ore. Kojiiilar obsorvatious of
eartluiuakos aro inado lioro, iu> woll as tho simplor iiiolooro-
lo);ical obsorvatious.
Tlio frroat stool diiinc is 7."i foot in diainotor. and woijihs
100 tons. It was hnilt in San Krancisoo. Tho flotir of the
dome is niovahlo vortioally (about 16i foot), according to a
plan by Sir Howard tiriibb. This insures a convenient
position for the observer, no mnfter whether the telescope is
pointing horizontally or vertically.
Tlio prinoipal instruments are a 1'3-inch and a 6-inch
rofnutor. a 4-inch comot-soeker, a G-iiuli iiioriilian-iirclo,
a 5-inch photof^raphic telescope, a 4-inch transit, ii .l-inch
photoheliograph, etc. Flore also is the Crossley or Berracr-
side reflector, presented to tho I'liivorsity of California by
Edward Crossley, F. K. A. S., of Halifax, England. Apr. 6,
18»5. (See Telkscoi-e.) Si.\ aslronoiiiors are now eiiKaged
in the work of rosoarch. Saturday night is sot apart for
the admission of visitors to look through the great telescope.
Though there are no hotel aceoinmoilations at the summit,
some 6,000 persons visit 51t. Hamilton every year.
Edward S. Holdkn.
Lic'tors [phir. ntliclor = Lat. plur. licto'res] : the attend-
ants of the I{oman magistrates possessing imperium, before
whom t hoy bore the /((•-■<•<'« (axes and rods), the enibloin of
magisterial authoritv. They varied in number, according to
the dignity of the ofVieer whom they altpiidod. from two for
the prietor, within llio city, to twenty-four for tlie dictiitor.
They marched in single file liefore tho magistrate whom
they accompanied, and it was their duty to clear the way for
him, to see that appropriate recognition was made of his
dignity,' and to execute his orders. They were generally
chosen from the lower class of society, anil were frequently
froedmcn of the magistrate whom they served, G. L. H.
Lid'dell. Henry Geori;e, D. D.. D. C. L. : classical s<diol-
ar ; b. in England in ISll; studied at the Charterhouse;
graduated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 18:!;i, with highest
honors ; was head master of Westminster School lH4ti-5o ;
chaplain extrannlinary to the Queen (1862) ; became dean of
Christ Church is.';,"), and was vice-chancoUor 18T0-T4: trans-
lated (with Dean Scott) I'assow's (rreel: Lexicon (1843 ; 7th
ed, 1883); and wrote a Itistorij of Rome from the Earliest
Times to tlie Ksta/itixhment of tlie Empire (1855),
Liddon. Henry I'arry, I). I)., 1). C. L., LL. D. : pulpit ora-
tor; b. at North Stoiioliam. England, Aug. 20, 182!) : gradu-
ated IJ. A. at (,'lirist Churcli, Oxford, in 1N,50; was vico-jirin-
cipal of the theological college. Cuddosdun, 1854-59 ; vice-
principal of St. Edmund's Hall, Oxford, 1859-70; Ireland
Professor of Exegesis there 1870-82; a prebendarv of .Salis-
bury 1864-70 ; canon of St. Paul's, I.ondon, 1870-86 ; chan-
cellor 1886 till his death at West on-super-Mare, Sept. 9, 1890.
Be.sides numerous volumes of sermons and minor works, he
published t)ie Bampton Lectures on The Dirinily of our
Lord ami Saviour Jettiis Chri.il (IHm : 14th ed. 1890) and
Some Elemfiils of Hi-ligioii (1870-72 ; 5th ed. 1885). There
appeared posthumously his Kxplnnniory Annlijsis of St.
Paul's Epistle to t/ie liomans (1893) and the first part of his
very elaborate Life of Pusoy (vols. i. and ii., 1893). lie was
a preacher of remarkable power.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Lie, lee, Jonas Laitritz Tdkmii, : novelist : b. at Eker,
Norway, Nov. 6, 18;i;{: stiidiod law at the University of
Christiania; was adinitlod to the bar in 1858, and for some
years practiced law at the lillle town of Kongsvinger. In
1868 he moved to Christiania. in order to devote himself
entirely to literature. In 1874 the Norwegian Storthing
granted him a i«iet"s pension {Diyterynge). Since 1883 ho
nas lived out of Norway, most of the time in Paris. In
1875 he received Iho cross of the order of .St. (ihif for liter-
ary merit; in 18(iO was married to his cousin, Thoina.sine
llenriette Lie, who has been a sloadycownrker in his lilerarv
priMluctions. His fii-sl publication. Diu Fri-msipite eller
Billeder fra Xonllaiiil. a novel (1870; 81 h ed. 1889), iilacod
him at once in the front rank of Norwegian novelists, and
has been Iraiislated into several languages, an English trans-
lation iindiT the title of The Visionnri/ having appoaroil in
London in 1894. The next was Forta'lliiKjer og Skildrinyer
fra Norge (.Stories and Sketches from Norway, 1872) — one
of those stories (Little Orey. the Pony of Xord fjord) has
boon translated into English bv the Hon. Mrs. Arbulhnot
(Edinburgh, I87:J) and by Nellie V. Anderson (Chicago,
1885). The Xorth fjord Horse a|ipeared in Scandinavia, vol.
ii. ; Tremastrren Trenitiden. a mivol (1872), was translated
into English bv Mrs. Olo Bull, The Hark Future (Chicago,
1879). Lodsen oy liaiis Iluxtru (1874; 7tli ed. 1891). was
twice translated into English; A Norse Lore Story. The
Pilot and his H7/<>, translated bv Mrs. Ole Bull (Chicago,
•1876), and The Pilot and his ^f'ife, by G. L. Tolteniiam
(Edinburgh and London, 1877). His novel Thomas lioss
(1878), dealing with city life, and his next novel, Adam
Srhrader (187i(), can not, as regards artistic merit, compete
with his earlier productions. In yi'i/Z/ion/ (1880) anil (laa paa
((io .Vhead.asea story. 1882), Lie again takes his subjects from
sailors' life. Lirsslaven (The Life Convict) and the best
among his later novels, not to say his chief literary pro-
duction, Fumiljen paa O'ilje, both appeared in 1883. Lie
by these lalor-day novels has joined the realistic school of
writers, although these works also show the same amia-
bility of temperament and sympathy with human sulToring
that have been characteristic of his writings from the first.
Then followed En Malstrom (A Miielstrom. 1884); Olte For-
ta-llinyer (YA^Xii Stories, 188.5); Komnmndorens Diitre (The
Daughters of the Comniandcr, 1886), the last named ranking
almost with Fumiljen paa Oilje ; Et Sanilir (Married Life,
1887) ; j\faj.fa Jons (The Storv of a Seamstress. 1888); Onde
Magfer (Evil Powers. 1890) ;" Trold L and II. (1891-92), a
collection of monster tales. His latest novel is JS'iohe. which
appeared in Dec, 1893, shortly after the author had left his
native cnuiitry. whore he had siieiit the sunimcr for the fii-st
time after an alisence of twelve years, and had l>pen honored
with public festivities in Christiania and other Norwegian
cities. Tho drama Orabows Kat (1880) and the dramatized
poem Fanstitia Strozzi (1875) did not rise above the aver-
age. P. Groth.
Lieber, or Liebler : See Erasti-s, Thomas,
Lieber, Francis : publicist ; b. in Berlin, Prussia, Mar.
18, 1800; served mider Bliuher in 1815 and was wounded
at the battle of Naniur. Having returned to Berlin and
entered the gymnasium, whore he became the favorite pu]iil
of Jahn, he was arrested for his political ojiinions, and upon
his discharge several months later was iirohibited from
studying at the Prussian universities. IIo couseciucntly
went to Jena, where ho took his degrees in 1820. IIo soon
afterward took part in the Greek war of independence.
After sutfering great hardshijis he went in 1822 to Rome,
where he remained for a vear in the house of the historian
Niebuhr, and wrote his Journal in Greece which he pub-
lished at Leipzig in 1823. Niebuhr quilled the embassy at
Rome in 1823, and Lieber reluriied to Berlin, Niebuhr hav-
ing iiroviously obtained a ]iromise from the King of Prus-
sia that he should not bo molested. He liad hardly arrived
in Berlin when he was again arrested upon tho old charges
of enmity to the government, entertaining republican senti-
ments, and belonging to a secret a.ssocialion, and was cast
into the state prison at Koo|inick. After some months he
was liberated through Niobuhr's pressing solicitations.
While at Koejinick he wi-ote a little volume of poems, Wein
und Wonne Lieder. which was published in Berlin under
the name of Arnold Franz. Fearing renewed persecution,
he took refuge in F.iiglaiid. He arrived in Lonilon in 1825,
and resided there for a year, writing for turniaii periodi-
cals and giving lessons in the languages for his support.
In 1827 ho went to the V. S. with warm recommendations
from Niebuhr, and passed the next five years in Boston at
work on the Enryclo/jadia Americana. In 1832 he re-
moved to New York, iiiiil there translated do Beaumont and
do Toeiiueville's work on llie peiiileiiliiiry system. He then
sjient two years in Philadelphia, where he pulilislicd his
Letters to a (rentleman in (icrmany. In 1835 he was ap-
pointed to the firofessorship of History and Political Econ-
omy in South Carolina College; he rcniainod in that posi-
tion at Columbia more than twenty years, ilurii|g which
period ho wrote and published the great works upon which
Ills fame ehieflv rests. The three principal of these arc his
Manual of Political Ethics {'i vols.. 18:i8) ; Legal and Po-
litical Ilgrmeneulics, or the Principles of Inti rpretation
and Construction in Lair and J'olitics (1 vol.. 1839); and
his Ciril Liberty and Self-government (2 vols., 1853). In
1856 Dr. Lieber resigned his professorship in South Carolina
College. In 1857 he was elected to a similar professorship
in Columbia College, New York, and subsequently to the
LIEBER
LIEGE
chair of Politiciil Science in tlie law scliool of the same in-
stitution. Dui-injf the civil war liis jjcn was constantly at
work supporting the Federal Governiuent and uplioldiHg the
Union, lie wa-s frequently suninmned to Washington by
telegraph by the Secretary of War for consultation and ad-
vice upon the most important subjects. Upon the reijuisi-
tion of the President of the U. S. he prepared a code of war,
which was oflii'ially promulgated to the army in general or-
ders of the War Department (\o. 100. ISO;!), as Iiistntc/iunti
for the (jDVcrnment of the Armies of the United States in the
Field — a work which added to his great reputation. IJ. in
New York, Oct. 2, 1873. Besides the works which have been
already mentioned, Lieber wrote many minor works of value.
His writings constitute a distinct landmark in the history of
public law and political science. The saying of whicli he
was the autlior, and which he adopted as a motto in his
later years, may be taken as the keynote of all his political
writings: " Xo ri£ht without its duties — no duty without
its rights." He was a memlier of the French Institute and
of many learned and scientific societies in Europe and the
U. S. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Lieber, Oscar JIoxtgomert: geologist and chemist ; b. in
Boston. Sei)t. 8, 1830 ; son of Dr. Francis Lieber ; was edu-
cated as a chemist and mineralogist at the Universities of
Berlin and Gottingen and the School of Mines at Freiberg.
Saxony ; was appointed State geologist of JIississi|)jii in
18.50; wrote The Assai/er's Gnide (18.>3) ; The Anali/tiral
Chemist's Assista?it (18.i3) ; freuloff// of J[issi,ssi/i/)i (l,sr)4) ;
and many articles in The Minitig Maijazine. In 18.~)4-r).j he
was engaged in the geological survey of Alaliama. and from
1856 to 1860 was mineralogical. geological, and agric'ultu-
ral surveyor of .South Carolina, pul)lisliing four amuial re-
ports; in 1860 went as geologist to Ijaljrador with an astro-
nouucal expedition ; entered the Confederate army in 1861 ;
was mortally wounded at tlie battle of Williamsburg, and
died in Richmond, \'a., .June 27, 1862.
Liebi^, lee'bich. .Justus, Baron von : chemist ; b. at Dann-
stailt, Germany, May 13. 180;:J ; received his earliest education
in the gymnasium of his native city; from IMl!) to 1832
studied natural .scietice and chemistry at the Universities of
Bonn and Erlangen, and from 1822 to 1824 in I'a.ris. A
paper on fulminic acid which he read before the French
Institute introduced him to Alexander von Humboldt, and
by his influence he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at
the University of Giessen, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1S34. He
resided in Giessen from 1824 to 18.53 : establisheil a labora-
tory for practical chemistry, the first of its kind in Ger-
many; founded, together with Geiger, of Heidelbi^rg, the
Annnlen der Pharmiieie : and made in a short tinu' his lec-
ture-room the center of the study of chemistry, to which
students gathered in great numbers, and from which issued
many great scientific discoveries, and a flood of new ami
most valuable practical ideas with respect to the application
of chemistry. In 1852 he removed to JIunich as I'rofessur
of Chemistry at the university and director of the chemical
laboratory. In 1860 he was chosen president of the Academy
of Sciences at Munich, and in 1861 foreign member of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris. I). Apr. 18, 187:3, generally
acknowledged as the greatest chemist of his time. Besides
a great number of articles in the Annnlen der Pharnnieie
and the I[itndn<(irterhiich der C/iemie (0 vols., 18:^7-64),
which he compiled together with PoggendiU'tf, of Berlin, lie
wrote J)ie orijuiiische Chemie in ihrer Anu'endniiij laif
AgricHltur (1840), translated into English by Dr.' Lyon
Piayfair under I lie title Chemistn/ in its Application to
Agriculture and Phi/siolngg ; (Trundsdtze der Agrinilhir-
chemie (1855) ; Theorie itnd Praxis der Lnndirirthsfhaft
(1856) ; N(tt\iririssenschitftlirhe Briefe iilier die moileme
Landwirthsrhaft (185!));" and in another line. Die Thier-
chemie oder on/iinisehe Chemie in ihrer Aniceitilung ouf
Phi/siologie und Puthologie (1842). translated into English
by William Gregory umler the ti\U' Animal Chemistri/. or
Chemistn/ in its Appliratinn to Phi/siologi/ and Pnttiolngy;
Chemische Vntersiirhiingen illier das Fteisrh iind seine Zu-
bereitung zum ^nhnin'i/smittel (1847); Die Vrsuctien der
Sdftebewegung im thierisriien Organismus (1848). The vol-
ume which made him most poi>ular. and contributed most
to introduce chemical truths among eilucatcd jieople aiid
sprea<i souml views with respect to their imjiortauce in
evervday life, was his Chemische Briefe (1844), translated
into'English imder the title Familiar Letters on Cliemistnj
and its Relations to Commerce. Physiologij. and Agriculture.
On practical life he probably exercised a greater influence
than any chemist before him ; new methods were introduced
by him in agriculture, iiharmacy, the manufacture of vine-
gar, glass, etc., the pre[)aration of food, etc. His meal ex-
tract is now extensively used, and so is his Suppe fur Saug-
linge (baby .soup). In science he ranks as one of the
founders of organic chemistry, and his researches concern-
ing the application of chemistry to physiology and pathology
are invaluable.
Liebermeister, lee bcr-mis-ter, Kakl, von, M. P. : jihy-
siciaii : b. in Bonsdorf, Rhenish Prussia, Feb. 2, 18;i;{; pur-
sued his professional studies in Bonn. Wilr/burg, Greifs-
wald, and Berlin; graduated M. 1). in 1856 from the Uid-
versity of Greifswald ; from 1865 to 1871 was Professor of
Pathology and director of (he medical clinic at the Univer-
sity of Basel ; in 1871 he went to the Univei'sity of Tiibingen.
He stands in the first rank of clinicians. Among his numer-
ous contributions to medical literature are : Jieitrdge zur
pathologischen Anatoinie und Klinilc der Lelierkrankheiten
(Tiibingen. 1864) ; Handbuch der I'atliologie und Therapie
rfesi'^teiere (Leipzig, 1875) ; Vurlesungcn Hber specielle Palho-
logie und Therapie (Leipzig, 1886). S. T. Ahmstroxo.
Liebling, leep ling, E.mil ; pianist and composer ; b. at
Pless, Germany. Apr. 12, 1851 ; stmiied under Kullak,
Dachs. and Liszt ; went to the U. S. in 1867 ; settled in Chi-
cago in 1872; has played in principal cities both as pianist
and in connection with leading orchestras. Among his
compositions are Romance Dramatique. lionurnce Poeiique,
Cradle Song for piano and violin, waltzes for the orches-
tra and for the piano, and several songs. D. H. H.
Liebreich. -rich. Richard, M. I). : ophthalmologist ; b. in
Kcinigsberg, Prussia. .June 80, 18:i0 ; pursued his profes-
sional studies in the Universities of Kcinigsberg, Berlin, and
Halle, graduating JI. I), from the latter in 1858. He stud-
ied under Donders in Utrecht and Bruecke in Berlin, and
from 1854 to 1862 was assistant in von Graefe's clinic. While
at the clinic he pursued his special investigations in the use
of the ophthalmoscope, publishing his Atlas der Ophthal-
moskopie in 1863. In 1862 he went to Paris to practice his
specialty, but on the outlireak of the Francn-Gcrmau war in
1870 he left that city anil made Loudon his home. In the
latter city he became lecturer on his specialty at St.
Thomas's Hosjiital. Besides a number of papers on topics
connected with diseases of the eye. he has written several on
investigations regarding visual defects of artists, as shown
in their paintings. S. T. Armstroxo.
Liege, leej (Fr. Liege ; Dutch Luyk ; Germ. LUttich) : the
ea.sternmost province of Belgium. Area. 1,117 sq. miles.
The southern part of the province is hilly, consisting of
rocks covered with heath or woods, but rich in coal and
iron. The northern part, the so-calleil Ilerretand, is more
level, is exceedingly fertile, and is cultivated like a garden.
Large (luantities of butter and Limburg cheese are made
here. Pop. (1891) 771.168, of whom nine-tenths sjjcak French
and one-tenth Flemish.
Liege: city of Belgium ; capital of the province of Liege,
and the center of one of the most enterprising and pros-
perous manufacturing regions of the country (see map of
Holland and Belgium, ref. 10-G). It is situated in a beauti-
ful valley on both sides of the Meuse. at its junction with
the Ourthc. and defended by a strong citadel on the sum-
mit of Sainte-Walburge to the N. \\'., aTid by several de-
tached forts — Cornillon to the N., and Chartreuse to the
E. The older part of the city consists of narrow and
crooked streets, lined with tall, gloomy, and dirty houses ;
the more recent parts, the numy public squares, and the
quays along the rivers, which are crossed by a number of
elegant bridges, are very fine. The most renuirkable of the
public buildings are the cathednd, built in the thirteenth
century; the ('hurch of St. Martin, which was burned in
i;n2. but was rebuilt in 1542; the Church of St. Jacques,
one of the richest specimens of the ogival Gothic; the
Palais de Justice, built in Renais.sance style 1508-26, and
formerly used as a residence by the prince-bishop. The
university was fminded in 1817. during the union with the
Netherlands, and is now a flourishing institution, and has a
library of 100.000 volumes, a mining-school, a polytechnic
school, and a botanical garden connected with it. The
whole region around Liege is very rich in coal and iron ;
the mines are run even under the city and the river. These
natural riches, in connection with the favorable situation of
the city at the junction of two navigable rivers, very early
gave rise to an extensive commerce and manufacturing in-
236
LlfiUEARP
LIEN
dustry, which, in spite of many violent inlorniptions, have
gone on increasin;; tliroiipli st-vcral centurii's. The prod-
ucts are vcrv varieil — I'ottou RikxIs, cloth:*, straw hats, chem-
icals, etc. — but iron, c.swcially ils guns, cannon, and ina-
chincry, is the principal branch of manufactures in Licfje,
and is' carrieil to perfection. In the s»'ventli century the
citv existtnl as a villaftc of the name of Leotliuin; in the
eighth it became the seat of a bishnpric; in the tenth it was
surroundeil with walls and furtitied. During the wars with
the French republic the Bislmp of Liege, who was an inde-
pendent prince of the German empire, was expelled, and
his territory incor|)orateil with France. In 1815 the city
was assigned to Holland by the congress of Vienna, but in
IWO it was one of the first places which rose in rebellion
against the unnatural union. Pop. (18!»0) 147,060.
Li^pcard. li-d-'haar, FraN(,ois f^MiLE Stephkn : author;
b. at Dijon, France, Mar. 2!), ISW: practiced as an advocate
in his native city: tmik an active part in politics; was a
member of the legislative asseinlily from 1867 to 1870, but
retired into private life after the fall of the empire. He has
publislied several collections of poems: LfS Abeilhs d'Or
(18r)9); Le Verger d'/sa lire {IS'O): Livingstone (IHlti); Les
grands Cveitrs (1883), crowned by the Freiich Academy with
the Montyon prize. Besides these may be mentioned I'ne
fisi/e aitx monts maudils (1872); \'ingt jonnues au pays
de Luchon (1874); .4 m caprice de la plume (1884); La Cute
d'Azur (188)^), a dcs'cription of the coast from Marseilles to
Genoa, crowned by the .\cailemy with the Bordin prize;
and Trois ans a ta chambre (187S). a collection of political
discourses. Revised by A. R. Marsh.
Liegr'nUz : town: in the province of Silesia, Prussia ; at
the confluence of the Katzbach and the Schwartzwasscr ;
ZS miles W. by X. of Hreslau (see nnip of German Empire,
ref. 4-H). It is a neat and thriving town, with many good
educational institutions and large manufactures of cloth,
leather, and tobacco. It was formerly a fortress, but its for-
tifications have been transformed into gardens and prome-
nades. In the tsvelfth century it became the seat of the
Dukes of Liegnitz, and in its vicinity was fought the battle
of Wahlstatl (1341), which though a victorj- for the Mongols
checked their invasion. At times it was a center of con-
flict in the Thirty Years' war. and the Saxon army de-
feated the imperialist forces in the neighborhood in 1634,
but the historical event for which it is chiefly noted is the
battle of Aug. l-i, 1760, in which Frederick II. defeated the
Austrians. Pop. (18110) 46,874.
Lien, lecn, or leeVn [Fr., bond] : .\s a legal term lien is
used in so nnmy different senses that it is impossible to frame
a single definition which shall accurately describe them all.
Properly, a lien is merely a right to retain possession of a
chattel until some debt or demand, generally iticnrred in
respect of it, is paid by the owner. In all other cases it
is a charge or incumbrance upon either lands or chattels
which are not retained in the possession of the creditor, as
a security for the payment of some debt or demand, with
power to enforce the claim by a judicial proceeding residt-
mg in a sale of the thing and a payment of the demand
from the proceeds. There is therefore no real legal identity
between these different classes of rights. That first de-
scribed is of purely a common-law origin ; the others are
mainly derived from doctrines of the Roman law. A lien
is never, in any of its plia.ses. an estate or properly in the
thing overV'hich it extends; it is at most an incuinbrance
upon the thing, the proiierty in which belongs to another.
and a right to regard and treat the thing as a special fund
from wliich the payment of the debt may be enforced.
Liens exist either as the result of .some general rule of the
law. and are then the incidents of a prior transaction or
h'gal relation enlereil into by the parties, or they niav arise
froni the slipnlalions of ail express agreemeiit. Those
which are created by the law operating upon the acts or
omissions of the parties are separated into the following
classes: I. Common-law Mens; 11. Ki|uitable Liens; III.
Maritime or Admiralty Liens; IV. Statutory Liens.
I. Cummiin-lair [jiiHH. — The liens which fall within this
division were created or recognized as existing by the com-
mon-law courts, and the rules whiih govern tliei'n were es-
tablished at a very early dav in the history of F.nglish jnris-
l>rndence. They are entirely dilTerent in' their imture and
olTects from thost) which lu'long to the other clas.ses, having,
in fact, little in common with them except the name. The
essence of the common-law lien is the pussession of the thing
over which it extenils. It consists in the right of the credi-
tor, uiuler the circumstances in which it arises, to retain in his
own possession the goods and chattels of another until some
debt or denuind is paid by their owner. In order that the
right should arise at all. the possession must be lawful and
valid — that is. the person who delivers the articles into the
custoily of the one asserting the lien must have authority
to nndie such a disposition of them, for the common law ad-
mitted no lien upon goods as against their riglitl'nl owner
which would result from the unlawful or unauthorized acts
of another. Exceptions to this rule have been created by
statute in a few instances in the interests of trade, but the
ride remains, as a general doctrine of the law, in full force.
There can also be no lien when t he possession was f raudu-
lently or tortiously obtained by the creditor. As possession
is the very essence of the common-law lien, as it consists
solely in the continued retention of ])os.se.ssion, it follows as
a necessary conseipience that when possession of the goods
is voluntarily surrendered the lien thereon is at once and
forever gone. If, however, a number of articles have been
received at the same time and as <me transaction, and the
creditor afterward delivers to the owner a portion thereof,
the lien for his entire demand in respect of the whole
amount remains good against the balance still left in his
hanils. For example, if 100 barrels of .some commodity
were deposited as one lot with a warehouseman to be kept
for hire, and he should from time to time iiennit the owner
to withdraw !K) barrels without receiving payment for their
storage, he could retain the remaining ten until ])aid his
charges for the whole number deposited. Common-law
liens arc either o)y/i'/(or^ (sometimes called .special) or gen-
eral. In the case of the ordiiiari/ or xperiat hen the debt or
dcnnind must be due for services rendered to or about t!ie
very articles themselves which are subject to it. One who
has a specijir lien upon ]iroperty can not retain it for the
payment of other debts due him from the owner without a
special agreement to that effect. In the case of a general
hen the goods may be detained for a general balance duo
for former services of a similar character reii<lered in re-
spect of other goods of the same owner. The former is the
rule, the latter is the exception: in fact a general lien is
permitted oidy in a very few instances, and usually only by
express agreement of the parties.
Asa general jiropo.sition, the common-law lien thus de-
scribed ari.scs whenever goods and chattels are received into
the possession of a person, in oriler that he may render
some service in res|iect of them to the owner, upon an ex-
press or implied contract for compensation therefor. The
service may consist either in the mere care aiul custody of
the articles, or in work and labor expended upon them, or
in the advancement of money upon their credit. This de-
scrii)tion includes all cases of bailments for hire, and also
certain other employments which, though not strictly bail-
ments, re(|nire that the articles in (onnection with which
the service is rendered should conu^ into the possession of
the person employed. The following are the most impor-
tant and faniihar instances of persons who are thus entitled
to a lien upon the goods and other articles which come into
their possession in the course of their respective employ-
ments as a security for the compensation due therefor:
warehouseuu'ii and wharfingers ; innkeepers on the goods of
their guests ; boarding-house keeiiers are not entitled to any
lien at the common law. but it has been given to them by
statute in several States; common carriers ; all bailees for
hire, who receive the goods of tlieir employers and perform
work and labor ujxvn their construction and repair (includ-
ing tailors and mechanics of every kind); auctioneers, fac-
tors, anil commission-merchants for their charges, expen.ses,
a:ul advances on goods consigned for sale, anil on the proceeds
thereof when sold ; vendors of goods sold for cash for their
price; l)ankcrs, on the securities of their customers for any
advances nnide upon the credit thereof ; attorneys on the
papers of their clients, and also at the common law on judg-
ments recovered by them. t)f these only the liens of bank-
ers, factors, warehou.semen. and wharfingers, and the attor-
ney's retaining lien on papers lielong to the class of general
liens. All the others, including the altornev's lien on judg-
ments, are specific. As idreaily stated, tlie common-law
lien allows the holder thereof onlv to retain possession of
the articles until his demand is paid.
11. JCijuitable Liens. — The liens which belong to this class
were created, and are exclusively enforced, i)y courts of
eipiity. They differ in every re.s'|>ect from those already
described, since possession is not an essential, nor even an
ordimiry, element of their existence, and i)ayment of the
LIER
LIFEBOATS
237
demand secured can be directly enforced by tlicir means.
An equitable lien is therefore a charge or incumbrance,
cognizable in eiiuity, upon property, generally land, not in
the possession of the creditor, as security for" the payment
of a debt or demand, and il may be enforced by an action
and a decree made therein, ordering the sah^ of the subject-
matter and payment of the debt out of the proceeds. The
following are the most important cases in which such liens
exist : (1) Whenever land is sold or conveyed, and the price
remains unpaid, and is .secured in no other manner than by
the purchaser's own verbal or written promise, the vendor
or grantor has a lien on the land as security for such un-
paid price. (2) When lands are contracted to be sohl, but
are not conveyed, and remain in the possession of the ven-
dor, the vendee has a lien thereon for the purchase price
which he has prepaid. (3) If land is conveyed or devised
subject to a charge upon it for the payment of debts or
legacies, a lien arises upon it in favor of the creditors or
legatees as a security for the payment of their demands.
(4) A deposit of title-deeds as a security for the loan of
money creates a lien in favor of the lender upon the land
described in the conveyances. (.5) According to the equita-
ble doctrine which now prevails in many and perhaps most
of the States, the right and interest of the mortgagee in an
ordinary mortgage of lands is simply a lien on the premises
as a security of the mortgage debt. See Mortgage.
III. Maritime or Admiralty Liens. — The liens of this
class are created by the law which is administered in courts
of admiralty, and they result as incidents from various spe-
cies of maritime contracts and torts. In their general na-
ture they resemble the equitable liens, both in not requiring
possession of the subject-matter by the creditor, and in being
enforceable by a judicial proceeding. They constitute a
charge upon the thing, even though in the custody of its
owner, and often follow it into other countries and into the
hands of subsequent purchasers. These liens may attach
to the vessel, to the cargo, or to the proceeds of each, and to
the freight earned by the ship. The most important cases
are — (1) That of seamen for their wages on the ship and
freight, or their proceeds. (2) That of material-men under
certain circumstances on the vessel for repairs made or sup-
plies furnished. (3) That of the shipowner on the cargo for
the freight earned in its transport. This is, however, not in
its full extent a maritime lien, for it is lost if the goods are
voluntarily delivered without payment. (4) That of the
shipper on the vessel for the value of his goods shipped.
(5) That created on tlie vessel by the execution of a bottomry
bond, which is a peculiar form of security given by a master
or other agent for money borrowed bv them under certain
special circumstances upon the credit "of the ship. (6) That
of salvors on the ship, cargo, or freight which they have res-
cued from loss by marine perils. (?) In case of a collision
the owners of the injured vessel have a lien on the one in fault
for the damages caused by the tort. Purely maritime liens
are enforceable by a judicial proceeding in a court of adnd-
ralty, which results in a sale and payment out of the proceeds.
IV. Statutory Liens. — In addition to the foregoing tliere
are various other liens entirely created or regulated bv
statute. One or two of the most important only need be
mentioned. In many of the States, and probably in most,
a lien is given by statute to mechanics, builders, and fur-
nishei-s of materials upon the buildings constructed or re-
paired by them, in order to secure the cost of the materials
furnished and the price of the work and lalior done. The
statutes conferring these liens greatly differ in their details,
but they all authorize a judicial proceeding for their en-
forcement analogous to that for tlie foreclosure of mort-
gages. Judgments are made liens upon the lands of the
debtors therein, but tlie provisions of the statutes in refer-
ence to their commencement and duration, and the ItMids to
which they apply, are so various and conflicting that no at-
tenipt will be made to enumerate them.
Nothing has been said in respect to those liens which are
created by express agreements, because their nature and ex-
tent must depend entirely upon the sti|)ulations which the
parties see fit to enter into, and they are therefore subject
to no general rules, and a<liiiit of no general classification.
Revised by George W. Kikchwey.
Lier, leer, Adolf : painter ; b. at Herrnhut, in the king-
dom of Saxony, Germany, May 21, 1826 : worked as a paint-
er's apprentice in Zittau. and afterward attended the art
school at Dresden, the Museum of Art in Hasel. and in 1849
went to Munich, where he became the pupil of Zimmermann.
In 18f)l and later he came under the influence of the French
landscape-painter Jules Dunn'; in 18G.5 visited London and
vicinity ; then returned to Munich, where he rose to the first
rank as a painter of landscapes. lie excelled in the re[)re-
seulation of moonlight scenes, and of clouds and rain-storms.
From 1869 to 1873 he was busy as a teacher, and exerted,
both then and later, a great influence <m the development of
lajidsciipe-painting at Munich. Some of his best works are
Kdnallandacliaft von Sclileiszheim (1868); Landstrasze liei
Milnclien im lieyen (1872); Im Eiclienwald (X^Sl); Abend
an der Imr (1877, in the National Gallery at Berlin). D
Sept. 30, 1882.
Lierre, li-iJr': town; in the arrondissement of Mechlin,
province of Antwerj). Belgium : on the Nethe. at the conflu-
ence of the Great and Little Nethe ; on a railway junction,
11 miles by rail S. E. of the city of Antwerp (s"ee map of
Holland and Belgium, ref. 9-E). It has a Gothic church of
the fifteenth century with excellent paintings, a seminary, a
high school, large manufactures of shoes, beet-sugar, lace,
cotton, woolen, and silk fabrics, and salt-works, breweries,
and distilleries. LieiTC was famous for its cloth industry
in the Middle Ages, and untd 1784 was a fortified town.
Pop. (1891) 20,133.
Lieutenant [readapted to Fr. < M. Eng. levetenant (of.
earlier jironunciation, leftenant), from 0. Fr. lieutenant,
liter., place-holder; lieu, p\ace + tenant, pres. partic. of
tenir, holdj : one who acts as the representative of another.
In the U. S. army and marine corps a lieutenant is a com-
missioned oflScer below the rank of a captain. There are
two grades, those of first and second lieutenant. Second
lieutenants are the lowest in rank of commissioned officers.
The first and second lieutenants take rank with lieutenants
junior grade and ensigns in the na^-y- A lieutenant of the
U. S. navy takes rank with a captain in the army. His
office is next higher than that of lieutenant junio"r grade,
and next below that of lieutenant-commander. A lieuten-
ant-general in the army ranks next below a general and
next above a major-general. His rank is equivalent to that
of a vice-admiral. Lieutenant-colonels in the army rank
next below colonels and next above majors ; their rank cor-
responds with that of commanders in the navy. Lieutenant-
commanders in the navy rank next below commanders and
next above lieutenants ; their office corresponds with that
of majors in the army. Revised by James Mercue.
Life : See Biology.
Lifeboats ; boats constructed especially for the escape of
persons from vessels wrecked or in jeopardy. As long ago as
1777 M. Bernieres, of Paris, projected a vessel for inland and
short sea-voyages, and his experimental craft showed such
resistance to capsizing that it must have embraced some of
the leading features of the modern lifeboat. The inventor
of the latter was Lionel Lukens, who, on Nov. 2, 1785. secured
an English patent on his improvements. The invention of
Lukens displayed the salient and essential features of the
lifeboat of to-day. It was copied in princii)le by another pro-
jector, Henry Greathead, who put the invention into succes.s-
ful use in 1790. Greathead's boat was constructed with cork
floats arranged in and around the sides and gunwales.
About 180.5 Christopher Wilson proposed to make the
gunwales hollow, and to divide them into compartments, so
that injury to one portion would leave the other intact.
This addition to Lukens's invention was a judicious adap-
tation of the Chinese system of forming a vessel in a num-
ber of water-tight chambers. The same principle is em-
braced in the lifeboats of Joseph Francis, a native of the
U. .S., which are made of sheet-metal, and are used at the life-
stations on the coasts of the U. S. It is also embraced in
the boat of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution of Great
Britain (Fig. 1). This craft is about 30 feet in length and 8
feet wide, with its ends 2 feet iiiglu r t lian its central portion.
It has, like previous boats, an iron keel. This keel weighs
233
LIFEBOATS
LIFE-IXSL'KANCE
On each side are air-ti^lit ohamlH'rs. The floor of
• • .1 ... iili-nt Willi the water-line, ami the
hiitloni is tilled with cork, eto. The
cr in the method of its const met ion.
being foniieii «i lw<> pieies nf metal, eaeh bronffht to shape
in dies, ojwruted by powerful hydraulic presses, the two
800 1b.
the '
o — ^
Fio. S. — Fackrell's lifel>oat.
halves being afterward firndy secured together. The material
is sheet-copper ; it is corruitated bv the dies, so as to give
great longitudinal strength ami stiffness; the boat is pro-
vided with a number of water-tight air-chambers or compart-
ments to in.<ure its buoyancy. This is the boat now in use.
Francis's original idea, brought forward about 1839. was to
construct the craft of copper cylinders firmly bound side by
side by metal bands, and the whole furnished with an iron
keel. Very many alleged improvements in lifeboats have
been brought forward, but few or none appear to have prac-
tical utilitv beyond those just descrilieil. An illustration of
some of tVie more noticeable varieties of these may. how-
aver, be of interest. For example, Fackrell's lifeboat em-
Fio. 3.— Hensel's lifeboat.
braces the principle of the (ireenlander's kyak, the pas-
sengers being placed in circular openings formed in the
closed deck or top of the boat, and closely packed around
the middle by suitable water-proof material. Hensel's
(1866) embraced an oblong annular raft having a closed
cabin suspended longitudinally on gudgeons or spindles
within the central space of
the raft, and provided with
a screw propeller at each
end worked by a crank at-
tached to the' end of the
propeller shaft extended
within the cabin for the
purpose. LegTos(18.')y) made
the outer sides of his boat
Fio. 4.— Lepros's lifeboat.
of metal, while the top ami unexposed surfaces are of rubber
or other air-proof flexilile material. Another unitiue but
impracticable form, proposed in 1859 by W. X. Clark, em-
bfMiied a combination of water-cask, boat, raft, and lifeboat.
It was in effect a cask nuide on one side with a curve ap-
proximating that of a boat, and provided on the other with
a covered opening for the admission of the passenger.
In cases of emergencv an ordinary ship's boat may have
its buoyancy very mucli increased, and be thereby fitted
for use as a lifeboat, by tying empty casks at the sides,
which serve in a rude way the same purpose as the cork
floats or empty chambers in the gunwales of regularly con-
structed lifi Imats. S[pars or any other buoyant nuitcrial
may be lashed in place in the .same way. and will serve the
same purpose in proportion to Ihc^ir lightness.
It ha.s been proposed In employ water balla.st in lifeboats,
conjoined with proportionate air-chambers to control buoy-
ancy and increase stability of motion. An invi'iiticju intro-
duced in 1889 comprises among other features a convertible
and collapsible life-saving boat, in which a skeleton ciinvas-
covered folding frame is combined with longitudinal mat-
tresses, securc'd thereto with inflatable air-chambers iiitir-
Cosed between the mattresses and llie frame, the latlir
eing provided with a keel, u stern, a stern-post, and other
suital)le adjuncts.
The life-car is n kind of boat, closed in on top, and de-
signed to be dniwn through the surf between the vessel ami
the shore. To do this a hawser is stretched from one point
to the other; the car is attached to the hawser by rings pro-
vided on the free ends of suspending chains fixed to Iho
ends of the car. Aline attached to each extremity of the
car enables it to be drawn to and fro. The life-car used in
the U. S. was devised by J. Francis, the inventor of the
Francis lifeboat. For life-saving apparatus in which the
princi[)le of the raft is substituted for that of the boat, see
Lll-E-KAKTS. JaMKS A. WlIITNEV.
Life-ostate : See Estate, Dowkr. .Iointure, Emblements,
Estovers, and Landlord and Tena.nt.
Life-iiisiirauce : the guarantying of money contingently
on human life. The guaranty is given by an association or
corporation called a liff-hisuraiire cmnpntii/, and is con-
tained, with its conditions, in a written instrument tenned
a pulicji of insurance; the person on whose life or death
payment of the sura insured is made dependent is i\\Q person
whose life is insured, and the one to wlioiii or to whose rep-
resentatives the payment is to be made on the haiipening
of the contingency, and who is responsible to the company
for the premiums, is the insured or vol ici/-?io!der ; the con-
sideration to be paid the company tor insurance is the pre-
mium ; the chance of death or life in any given year, to the
person whose life is insured, is the risk:
A life-insurance company may be proprietary, mutual, or
mixed. A proprietary or stock com|iaiiy is one formed by a
number of persons who subscribe a capital (and thus become
Iiroi)rietors) adequate to pay expenses and cover the con-
tingency of early losses before the ])remiums have accumu-
lated sufficiently. It is organized for dealing in life contin-
gencies as other mercantile companies are for trading in
goods. Policy-holders have no voice in tlie management
and do not participate in any profits which may accrue. A
mutnnl coni]iany is an association of persons, each of whom
is insurer as well as insured. Policy-holders exercise ccm-
trol through their votes for managers, and are entitled to
all the profits or dividends of the society. A mixed com-
pany is one formed upon a combination of the principles of
the two preceding. A cash capital is raisi'd by a number of
subscribei's, who agree to assume responsibility for the first
exi)enses and early losses, and at stated intervals to divide
among the insured a certain proportion or the whole of the
accumulated surplus or profits.
Policies of insurance are of various kinds. The chief are
whole life, endowment, endowment insurance, term, joint
life, annuity, and survivorship annuity.
Policies which are to be paid on the death of an individual
are, in theory, not payable till the end of the year in which
the given life fails; but in ]iractice they are usually paid in
sixty or ninety days aftei' due proofs of death have been
furnished. In other kinds of policy the time of payment is
specified in the contract. Whatever the kind of policy, the
preminn\ to be paid for it Ijy the holder depends ujion the
liability of dentil or life (i. e. the risk), in any given year, of
the |)erson insured, and on tlie rate of interest on money.
Table of Mortal it;/. — This shows, for each year of life, from
birth to the highest age attainable, how many persons out
of a given numlier alive at the beginning of any year die by
the end of it.
Dr. Price's Northampton table was the first known to
have iTeen n.sed todetenniiie rates of premium for life-insur-
ance. (Walford.) It had many defects, as might reason-
ably be expected from the cnide stale, at the time, of the
science of vital statistics. It has been practically super-
seded in Great Britain, and has never been much used in
the U. S., except for certain purpo.ses in courts of law.
The tables which have been computed since differ materiallv
from tlie Northampton, but, with due allowance for such
viiriations as might be expected from the circumstances
atti'iiding their construction, corroborate I'acb otlier in a re-
markable manner. Since they were prepared by different
persons from different data, their general coincidence forms
strong proof of t heir essential accuracy. Two tables largely
used in the U. S. by companies and for State supervisory
purposes are the actuaries or combined experience, and the
LIPE-INSURANCK
239
American experience table. They arc here inserted, with
tlie exi>eututiuu of life as deduced from each :
Actuaries' Table.
American Experience
Table.
Nnmber
Number
ExpecM-
Nnmber
Numb«r
Expect*.
Ag..
of living.
of deathB.
tioii,
join.
Age.
of living.
of dustlis.
tloD,
yean.
10
100,0110
676
48:16
10
100.000
749
48-7
11
99.:iW
674
47-68
11
99.351
746
48-1
12
98,650
672
4701
12
9S,.505
743
47-4
13
97,978
671
46-33
13
97.762
740
46-8.
14
97,307
671
45-(M
14
97,022
7:37
40-2
15
96,036
671
«-96
15
96,285
7:35
45-5
16
93,965
672
44-27
16
95,.5,50
7:52
44-9
17
95,393
673
43 -.58
17
94,818
729
44 2
18
94,620
675
42-88
18
94,089
727 "
43-5
19
93,945
677
42-19
19
93,:362
725
42-9
20
93,268
680
41-49
20
92,637
72-3
42 2
21
92,588
OS.-)
40-79
21
91,914
722
41-5
22
91,1)05
686
40 09
22
91,192
721
40 9
23
91,219
690
39-39
2:3
9(1.471
7-20
40-3
24
90,529
694
.98-68
■M
89,731
7J9
:39-5
25
89,835
698
.37-98
25
89,032
718
38-8
26
89,1 .»
703
37-27
20
88,314
718
38- 1
27
88,434
708
36-56
27
87,.596
718
37 4
28
87,720
714
35-86
28
86.878
718
;30-7
29
87,012
720
35 15
29
86,160
719
360
30
86,292
727
34-43
:30
86,441
720
35 3
31
a5,565
7i54
3:3-72
31
84,721
721
.34-6
32
84,8:31
742
3:3-01
32
84,000
723
3:3-9
33
84,089
760
32-30
33
8:5,277
726
;33 2
34
8;3,339
758
31-58
.34
82,.531
7-29
:32 5
35
82,381
767
30-87
35
81,8-22
732
31-8
3«
81,814
776
30 15
36
81,090
7,37
31 1
37
81,0;«
785
29-44
37
80,333
742
30-4
38
80,253
795
28-72
38
79,611
749
290
39
79,458
803
28-00
39
78.802
756
289
40
78,6,53
815
27-28
40
78.100
765
28-3
41
77,SJ8
826
26-56
41
77.341
774
27-5
42
77,012
839
25 84
42
76.567
785
20-7
43
76,173
857
25 12
43
75,782
797
260
44
75,316
881
21-40
44
74.983
812
25-3
45
74,435
909
2:3 69
45
74.173
828
24 5
46
73,526
944
22-97
46
73,343
818
23-8
47
72,582
981
22-27
47
72,497
870
23 1
48
71,601
1,021
21-56
48
71,627
896
224
49
70,580
1,063
20-87
49
70,731
927
21-6
BO
69,517
1,108
20-18
50
69,804
902
30 9
51
68,409
1,136
19-60
51
68,842
1.001
30-2
52
67,233
1,207
18-83
52
67,841
1.014
19-5
53
66,046
1.261
18-16
53
06,797
1.091
18 8
54
64,785
1,316
17-60
54
05,706
1.143
18-1
55
63,469
1,375
16-86
55
04.51)3
1,199
17-4
56
62,094
1,430
16-22
66
03.-364
1.-260
10-7
57
60,0.58
1.497
16-69
57
62.104
1.325
10 1
68
59,161
1,561
14-97
58
60.779
1.394
15 4
59
57,600
1,627
14-37
59
.59.:385
1,408
14 7
60
55,973
1,698
13-77
60
57.917
1..346
141
61
54.275
1,770
1318
61
56.371
1,628
13-5
62
52..')n5
1.841
12-61
62
54.743
1.713
13-9
63
50,661
1.917
12-05
63
53,0:30
1,800
12-3
64
48,744
1,990
11-51
64
51,2:30
1,889
11-7
65
46.754
2,001
10-97
65
49,.-341
1,980
HI
66
44,693
2,128
10-46
66
47..301
2.070
10 5
67
42,.365
2,191
9 96
67
45.291
2,168
10-0
68
40,374
2,246
9-47
68
43.1:33
2.243
9-5
69
38,128
2,291
9-00
69
40,890
2,.321
9 0
70
35,837
2,327
8-64
70
38,569
2,:391
8-5
71
8:i,5I0
2,351
8-10
71
.36,178
2,448
8-0
72
31,1.59
2,362
7-67
72
.33,730
2,487
7-6
73
28,797
2,.338
7-26
73
31,243
2,.505
7-1
74
26,439
2,339
6-80
74
28,738
2.501
6-7
75
24.100
2.303
6-48
75
26,237
2,476
6-3
76
21,797
2,249
6-11
70
23,701
2,4:31
6-9
T7
19,.548
2,179
5-76
77
21,.3:30
2,;369
5-5
78
17,369
2,092
5-42
78
18,901
2,291
5-1
79
15,277
1,987
5-09
79
10,670
2.196
4-8
80
13,290
1,806
4-78
80
14,474
2,091
4-4
81
11,424
1.7.30
4-48
81
12,.383
1.961
41
82
9,094
1,.582
4-18
82
10,419
1,810
3-7
83
8,112
1,427
3-90
83
8,003
1,648
3-4
8t
6,685
1,268
363
81
0,9.35
1,470
3-1
85
5,417
1,111
3 :36
85
5,483
1,292
2-8
86
4,306
958
3-10
80
4,193
1,114
2 5
87
3,318
811
2-M
87
3,079
9:33
3-2
88
2,.537
673
2-59
88
2,140
744
1-9
89
1.804
545
2-35
89
1,402
,5.55
1-7
90
1.319
427
211
90
847
.3K5
1-4
91
892
322
1-89
91
462
246
1-2
92
570
231
1-67
92
216
137
1-0
93
3.)9
l.-)5
1-47
93
79
58
0-8
94
184
95
1-28
94
21
18
0 6
95
89
52
1-12
95
3
3
0-5
96
37
24
0-99
96
97
13
9
0-89
97
98
4
3
0-75
98
99
1
1
0-50
99
The manner of readinc; such a table is apparent. Accord-
ing to the actuaries' falile. of 100.000 persons alive at age
ten, 076 will die before reaching age eleven; upon their
next year will then enter the ditference between 100.000 and
676, or i)fl.;i24, of whom 674 will die before attaining age
twelve, etc. At age ten the expectation of life is 48-36
years ; at age eleven, 47-68 years, etc. By the "expectation
of life" at any age is meant the mean after-lifetime remain-
ing to persons of that age.
The determination of the expectation of life may be of
interest to the general reader, but it is of little or no jirac-
tical value in insurance business proper. The real use of
the mortality table in an insurance oHice is to tinil the aver-
age chance of death or life in any year of persons of a given
age. To obtain the average chance of death, take, for ex-
ample, a person aged 40. The American table shows that
of 78.106 persons alive at that age. 76.5 died during the suc-
ceeding year, or about 98 in 10,000: the chance that am/ one
of them will die is expressed by 76.5 divided by 78,106. or, ap-
proximately, by To'TftTr; and similarly for any age in the table.
If it is desired to And the average chance tiiat a person aged
40 will survive 41 and die before reaching 42 the process is
equally simple. Thus of 78.106 persons aged 40, 774 survive
the year immediately following, and die before reaching 42,
or about 09 in 10.000; the chance that «Hy one of lliem will
do so is therefore expressed by 774 divided by 78,106, or,
nearly, by TuWaTS ', and so for each succeeding' year. The
chance of life for successive years is also casily'deducible.
Since a person aged 40 has i)8 chances in 10.000 of di/hii;
during the year, he must have 10,000 diminished by 98
chances, or nearly 99 chances in 100, of living through the
first year ; since he has 99 chances in 10.000 of surviving the
first and dijiiiy the second year, he must have 9,901 chances
in 10.000. or about 99 in 100 of aurvii-ing the second vear.
In addition to the chance of life or' death in any given
year, as determined from the mortality table, the premium
for insurance depends also, in part, upon the rate of interest
on money. The premium is not to be locked up in a com-
pany's safe and left unproductive. It is expected to earn
interest, and thus assist the policy-holder in carrying out
his design. One great function of company otlicers'is to see
that the premium docs its full share of tlic work. It is of
the first importance, therefore, to determine at the outset
how much assistance this matter of interest can be safely
counted upon to render — not this year nor next year alone,
but always. In mutual companies of the U. S. the rate gen-
erally assumed is 4 per cent.; in pro);rietary comjianies it is
somewhat higher. The rate of interest Ijeing fixed and a
mortality table selected, the determination of the premium
for any kind of policy is sim|)le in principle.
The full or office premium in any case consists of two
parts — the pure or net premium, as it is termed, and a cer-
tain addition thereto called the loading. The loading and
(consequently) expenses and contingencies of business w-ill
for the moment be disregarded, and the net [iremiuni alone
considered. The general method of determining the i)re-
miuin is the same whatever the amount of the policy, the
age of the insured, the kind of company selected, the rate
of interest, and table of mortality.
I. .\ ivhole-life policy is a contract in which the company
agrees to pay the policy-holder or his representatives a sj)e-
cified amount of money at the end of the year in which the
person whose life is insured may die. The net iiremium may
l)e paid in several ways. First, in one single payment in ad-
vance, known as the net single premium. It will be observed
that while the premium is paid at once, the amount of the
policy is not due till the end of the year in which the given
life fails. It it had certainly to be paid at the end ot the
first year, the premium necessary would be .$1,000 dis-
counted for a year at 4 per cent. (i. e. such a sum as. in-
vested at 4 per cent., would amount to .$1,000 at the end of
the year) — that is, ,f 961.54 nearly ; but it has to be paid only
on condition that the insured shall die during the year. Tlio
chance of his death is found from the mortality table (as
before explained) to be ninety-eiglit ten-thousands of cer-
taintv, and hence the net premium for the fir.st vear should
be p^n^ffTjths of $961..54. or $9.42. In the same" way, if the
policy had certainly to be paid at the end of the second year,
the premium for this would be $1,000 iliscounted for tiro
years at 4 per cent, compound interest — that is. $924.56;
but the average chance that a person aged 40 will survive
41 and die before attaining 42 was found to be ninety-nine
ten-thousandths of certainty, and therefore the [iroper pre-
mium for the second year is -nftRTrTths of $924.56, or $9.15.
The net charge being, then, .$9.42 for the fii-st year and $9.15
for the second, it will for botli be the sum of these, or $18.57.
Calculate in like nianiuT the requisite jiremium for the third
year, the fourth year, and for every separate year up to and
including the last year of life as given in the table, which is
95 ; add the results for all the separate years together, and
240
LIFE-INSURANCE
the sum will be found to be $367.58, which is the net single
pn'iiiium requiivil for the jiolii-y consiiliTt-d.
Till' iii't siiijjle priMiiium, luii'ij; comiiaratiyely large, may
for various roasous bo iiicouveiiiiMit or uudesirable. A plan
has therefore U-eu ilevisi'il by which a series of equal annual
payments, coiuiuueil for life, may effect the same object.
These annual imMuiums. which are made at the bc-tinning
of each vear, must have a prenenl i-atue equal to the net
sinsie paVment. for the hitler is just sufficient. The present
value of a series of equal paynu-nts, each of given amount,
to be made at stated periods for a specified lengtli of time
(money bearing a certain rate of interest), is tliat sum of
monev which, invested at the given rate of interest, will
pro<luce the given amount at the successive periods for the
whole of llie time. To obtain the equal annual payment
required, find, tirst, the present value of one dullar paid at
the beginning of eiuli year by a person aged 40 us long as
he shall live. The lirst payment, being made at once and
subject to no contingency, is worth one dollar; the second,
due a year after the tirst, would, if certain to be received,
be worth one dollar discounted for a year at 4 per cent. —
that is, 96 cents; but its receipt depends on a person's being
alive to nay it. the chance of which, as before shown, being
ninety-nine hundredths of certainty, the second payment is
worth I'tftrths of i»G cents, or !»5 cents ; the third payment,
due two years after the lirst, would, if certain, be worth one
dollar discounted for two years at 4 per cent., compound in-
terest— that is, 93 cents; but the chance of its recefition
being ninety-nine hundredths of certainty, it is worth i^tlis
of 92 cents, or 91 cents: the three payments are together
worth the sum of these, or $2.86. Continue thus to estimate
the contingent value of the payment for each successive
year of life up to and including 95; add all the results to-
gether, and the sum, $16.44, is the present value in one pay-
ment of one dollar [mid annually in advance for life by a
person aged 40. Since, then, $16.44 is the present value of
one dollar paid as described, $367.58 must be the equivalent
of an annual payment made in like manner by the same
person, found by 'dividing $;567.-')8 by 16-44— that is, $23.35,
which is the net annual i)remiuni sought.
To explain the function of the net premium, let it be as-
sumed at first that the [layments for a policy are in equal
annual premiums continued for life. The same explanation
will serve, mutah'K mutandis, when payments are otherwise
ma<le. The net annual premium being invariable in amount,
and the risk of death to the insureil increasing from year to
year, such premium must accomplish two purpo.ses. It must.
m the first place, pay year by year what is technically called
the cost of insuranri'. This expression, as used by an actuary,
means something (piitc different from what a policy-holder
means by it. To the latter it is the premium ; to the former
it is the part which that premium must contribute to the
death-claims in any year. On the hypothesis that the mor-
tality table is exact (and all the calculations must be made
on this supposition), a certain number of policies will annu-
ally become claims by death. These must be paid, and as
the company is supposed a mutual one, and has no capital
beyond what has been and is contributed by the policy-
holders, each premium must contribute its just proportion
to meet the obligations. Thus of 10,000 persons, aged 40,
insured in a company, 98 will die the first year, and, each
policy being for $1,6(W, $98,000 will have to be paid. As
provision is made at the bej/inning of the year, anil the noli-
cies are not payable till the mil of it, $98,000 disconnted for
a year at 4 per cent., or $94,230, will be sufficient, which for
each of the 10,000 would, if each paid junt enough to raise
the necessary fiinil, be $9.42 apiece. Each jiays a net pre-
mium of $22.35. and hence pays $12.93 more than is neces-
sary for the current obligati<')ns; therefore, each of (hose
who (lie cimtribnIi'S to his own claim $12.93, which for the
98 amounts to $1,267, leaving the real amount to be jiro-
vided by the company the dilTerence between $94,230 ami
$1,267, or $92,963 ; I lii's for each of the 10,000 is $9.29. This
$9.29 is the cost of insurance for the first year, and is ac-
tually paid out by the comjiany it the table-mortality is ex-
perienced. It is the contribution whiih each of the pre-
miums under consiilerat ion must make for the benefit of the
representatives of those of the coinsured who do not sur-
vive the year.
The second function of the net premium is to provide a
deposit to the credit of each policy at the end of the year.
The necessity of this deposit Is apparent. If each year's
cost of insurance, and that only, were paid each year, the
charge to the insured woulil be lighter in the first years of
the policy than under the e(|ual-annual payment system,
but It would grow steadily heavier with advancing time, and
finally become an intolerable burden. To prevent this, iie
nays inore at first than the risk is worth, that at a later date
tie inav pay less. Entering at 40, and ]iaying each year by
itself, )iis net premium on a policy of $1,000 for the first
year would be $9.42 : at ,58. it would" be $22.05 ; at 70, $59.61 ;
at 95, $961.>54; and these charges a company would be com-
pelled to make to be entitled to confidence ; yet under the
ecjualized system it is no more at any time than $22..'i.5. It
is evident from this that the excess of the payments in the
earlier years must be rigorously set o-side as a fund, which,
with the interest accumulated upon it, will sullicc to make
good the inadequacy of those of later years. The method of
determining the amount of the necessary deposit has just
been illustrated. In the case considered the depo.sit on each
|iolicy in force at the end of the first year is $13..58; at the
end of the second year it is $27.64; and similarly for each
succeeding year. If the insured who entered at age 40 were
just entering at 41, his net annual premium would be $33.19 ;
yet he pays but $22.35 — 84 cents less — because he has on
deposit $13.58,* which (4 per cent, interest being a-ssumed)
is the present value in hand of 84 cents paid annually in
advance for life by a person aged 41, If he were just enter-
ing at 42, his net annual premium wimld be $24.08; but he
pays $1.73 less, because his deposit of $27.64* is the present
value of $1.73 paid annually in advance for life by a person
aged 42 ; at the end of ten years the deposit to his credit
must be $157.29, the present value of $11.35 — the difference
between the net premium $22.35, which he pays, and $33.70,
which he would be required to pay if he were just taking
his policy at age .50. The amount of the deposit on a policy
paid for by equal annual |ircmiums, continued for life, must
always be the present value of the dilTerence between the
net premium paid and that which would be requisite if it
were taken by the same ])crson at his then increased age at
the beginning of the year next succeeding.
It is evident, from what has preceded, that when a life
policy is paid for by annual premiums continued for life,
the deposit or reserve is accumulated to aid the insured in
continuing his insurance from year to year ; that when paid
for by a single premium such deposit is intended to effect
his continued insurance ; and that when paid for by annual
premiums continued for a limilcd number of years only, the
deposit is to aid the policy-holder until the expiration of the
given number of years, at which time it must be sufficient
to effect the continued insurance.
II. A term policy is a contract in which the company
agrees to pay the representatives of the insured a specified
amount of money at the end of the year in which lie may
die, provided his death should occur within a certain num-
ber of years named in the policy.
HI. An f?irfoM7n<"»/ iioliey is one in which the company
agrees to pay a specified amount to the insured himself at a
certain future period (stated in the contract) if he should
then be alive to receive it. The net premium may be paid
at once or at stated intervals, as may be agreed.
Children's Eudownitnt Policies. — These are promises to
pay, on a child's attaining the age of eighteen, twenty-one,
or twenty-five years, as may be stated, a certain specified
amount. In case of the child's death before the age speci-
fied, the premiums jiaid may be retained or returned, accord-
ing to agreement. If they are to be reliirned. the |>olicy is of
a mixed character, consisting of a pure endowment for which
a certain premium, cither single or animal, must be jiaid,
and a term insurance on the child's life of an amount which
varies with the preniiuins paid liefore the policy becomes a
claim, for which an additional ]iremiuni must be paid.
IV. An endowment insurance (commonly called an endow-
ment) policy is a combinatiim of a jmre endowment with a
term policy. By it the company agrees to pay a stipulated
sum of money at a certain future period in case the person
oil whose life insurance is made sliould then be alive, or at
his death if that shoiihl luqijien before the expiration of the
period.
V. A joint-life policy is a contract to pay a certain
amount on the death of one of two or more ]iersons named,
on the joint continuance of whose lives insurance is iiiado.
There are not usually more than two persons mimed, though
there may be three or more.
• Eacti of tliese amount* is. in consequence of t!ie fractions dis*
reRanied in tlie caleulalion, slightly in error ; liut liere, as in ottier
examples Riven, accuracy of result is made to yield to simplicity of
illuut ration.
LIFE-INSURANCE
241
VI. Annuity. — This is a contract in which a company
agrees to pay a given sum annually, either during the re-
mainder of life, or for a specified number of years if the
person on whose life insurance is made should live so long,
in consideration of a gross sum paid at once by the annui-
tant.
VII. A survit'omhip annuity is an agreement to pay a
specified annuity to a nominee during his survivorship of
the person on whose life insurance is made.
The policies which have been briefly explained are the
chief and fundamental ones. Other varieties are obtained
by variations of conditions us to forfeiture, to mode and time
of paying premiums, to distribution of surplus, etc. Only
one such variety will be treated of here, viz. :
Tantine DiciiJend nr Sariiigs Funil I'olii-y. — This is an
ordinary lite policy, or an endowment insurance policy with
from ten to twenty years or more to run. in which the ton-
tine principle is applied to dividends. The di.stinctive fea-
tures of it are — the holders of such policies constitute a class
by themselves ; they do not participate in profits till after
the lapse of a certain number of years (ten, fifteen, or
twenty), specified in the policy ; in case of death before the
dividend period begins, the representatives of the insured
receive the sum secured by the policy, and no more ; no sur-
render value is allowed to any one who may relinquish his
policy, and no dividend is credited to such policies as may
become claims before the dividend period arrives ; all prof-
its accruing from every source within the class are reserved
till the arrival of the sjiecified dividend period ; the accumu-
lated dividends are then to be equitably divided, on tlie con-
tribution plan, among such policies as are actually in force.
There are, of course, variations in the application of the
tontine principle giving rise to variously named policies.
^Reserve. — Upon each policy issued a deposit must accu-
mulate in each successive year of its currency, upon the
same general j)rinciples and for the same reasons as were
given under life policies. It may in general be stated that
the deposit on a policy at the end of any year must be the
present value of the difference between the net premium
Eaid by the insured and that which would be requii-ed from
im if he were just taking, at his then increased age, a
policy of like kind and amount terminable at the period
specified in the policy. The sura-total of all the deposits
held, with their accumulated interest at the iissumed rate,
is known as the rencrri-. It is also called reserve for rein-
surance, inasmuch as it is the amount with respect to each
policy which a company, in transferring or reinsuring its in-
dividual risks, would be obliged to pay another company to
make it safe for the latter to undertake them.
Registered Policies. — In several of the States life com-
panies authorized to transact business therein are permitted
by law to make with the State insurance department a
special deposit of securities for the protection of certain
policies. The policies thus protected are iluly registered in
proper books kept in t he department for that "purpose. The
securities so deposited must always be kept equal in value to
the net present value of the registered policies. The State
makes itself responsible for the safe-keeping and proper ap-
plication of the reserve fund on the registered jjolicies of a
company, but does not guaranty the payment of such poli-
cies. Very few policffes are registered.
Loading. — The premiums so far considered are 7iet pre-
miums; that is, premiums calculateil with mathematical ex-
actness, on certain assumptions of mortality and interest, to
accomplish the payment of the insured sum or sums at the
time agreed upon, and nothing else. If the assumpt ions on
which the calculations are made should accord with the
facts experienced in a company, nothing would be left for
expenses and other necessities of the business. The net
premium must be increased by a sum suflicient to provide
for ex(ienses and C(mtingencies. This additional sum. ob-
tained by taking a percentage of the net premium, is called
the loading; and it, added to the net-premimn, forms the
full or office premium. The exiienses of conducting the
business are many and large. Tlie chief of them is that of
agents. Nearly all the business of a life company is ob-
tained through agents, who devote their time to .soliciting
custom and securing the prompt [layim'nt of premiums.
For their services they are paid chiefly by "commission,"
which is a certain percentage of the premiums on policies
obtained through their instrumentality. The commission
is not uniform, but varies according to the practice and
standing of each company. If an agent has an interest in
more than one premium paid on a policy, he may dispose
242
of such interest to the company, as he sometimes does, for a
gross sum in hand, called in the company's reports a "com-
muted commission." Besides the agents, a company must
pay its general officers and other employees, taxes, bills for
advertising and printing, legal fees, etc.
Forfeiture or Lajjse. — In all kinds of policy, in which the
contiiuiance of life is of pecuniary advantage to a company,
tliere are certain conditions imposed upon the insured, \u>-
latioii of which will work a forfeiture to the com|ianv of the
policy and of all payments made thereon. Such conditions
are with reference to limits of travel and residence, to cer-
tain hazardous occupations, to death by suicide or in conse-
quence of the violation of Jaw, to the accuracy of the state-
ments and declarations made in tlie application for the
policy, and to the prompt jiaymciit of tlie premiums on or
before the day or days on which they fall due. With respect
to the condition in the policy that'if the insured shall "die
by his own hand" the policy shall be void, there ajipears to
be some diversity of opinion in the courts. The law ap-
pears to be well settled in England, and in the States of
Jlassachusetts and New York, thai in the event of suicide
the representatives of the insured can only recover upon
proof that the act of self-destruction was not his voluntary
and willful act, and was committed at a time when he had
not sufficient power of mind and reason to understand the
physical nature and consequences of his act, without refer-
ence to his capacity at the time to appreciate its moral char-
acter. The Supreme Court of the U. S. has laid down the
following rule : " If the assured, being in possession of his
ordinary rea.soning facidfies, from anger, ]n-idc, Jealousy, or
a desire to esca[je from the ills of life, intentionally takes
his own life, the proviso attaches, and there can be no re-
covery." If the death is caused liy the voluntary act of the
assured, he knowing and intending that his death shall be
the result of his act. but when his reasoning faculties are so
far impaired that he is not alile to understand the moral
character, the general nature, consequences, and effect of
the act he is about to commit, or when he is impelled thereto
by an insane impulse which he has not the jiower to resist,
such death is not within the contemplation of the i)arties
to the contract, and the insurer is liable. Life Ins. Co. vs.
7'ern/, 15 Wallace 580 ; Insurance Co. vs. Rodel. 95 U. S.
232;' Manhattan Life /«.s. Co. vs. Broughton, 109 U. S. 129.
Frequently, however, and without reference to the proviso
as to suicide or the law on the subject, policies of one or
more years' standing, upon which all subsequent ()remiums
have been regularly paid and which are terminated by the
self-inflicted death of the insured, are paid in full with-
out contest. For travel or residence beyond the limits as-
sigr,ed in the policy and for hazardous occupations special
permits must be obtained from the company ; and the extra
risk involved in such travel, residence, or occupation will
not be covered until the company has agreed in writing to
accept it. For violation of the remaining conditions of a
policy, forfeiture is in general al)solute, though special ar-
rangements or provisions are often made with respect to the
payment of premium. The premium should, however, al-
ways be paid promptly when due. All the calculations are
based upon such payments, which are the very life of a
policy, and could not be waived to any extent by a company
without danger to all interested in it. The premiums
should, moreover, be paid preferably in co.s/i, and not partly
in cash and partly in promissory notes. There is a growing
tendency among the companies to modify the conditions
working' forfeiture — and there seems to be also a growing
inclination on the part of legislatures in the same direction.
In many policies it is agreed that after the [lolicy has been
in force one or more years, it shall not be forfeited for ncm-
oliservance of restrictions as to travel, residence, occupation,
or jiayment of premium. After one or more full annual
premiums have been paid, and a failure to pay then oc'curs,
provision is not uncommonly made liy which the "reserve"
upon the policy and dividend additions thereon may be used
as a single premium either for a "term " insurance of like
amount with the original policy or for a pai<l-iip insurance
of equitable amount, payable at the time slated in the origi-
nal policy — and in some of the States the law recpiires a
provision of this kind. See Sew York Lairs of 1S!C». chap.
690 ; see also Massachusetts Insurance Act of 1887, sect. 76,
and Revised Statutes of Missouri, 1879, sect. 5983.
Surrender. — After a certain numlier of oayments have
been made by a policy-holder, companies will in general, if
he apply in time and surrender his policy, grant him a sum
of money called the surrender value. The equitable sur-
24:>
LIFE-INSURANCE
render value of a policy is a matter much in dispute among
actuaries and otlicrs in'tvre^twi in the business, and is much
misunderstoiHl ainun!,' tlie insured. Its small amount as
conuuireil witli the premiums i>aid astonishes the iwlicy-
holder, and loads him t«« think he has been imposed upon.
It must be remembered that a [lart of the premium is con-
sumed every year in the payment of cost of insurance and
expenses; all that remain are the deposit or reserve, and in
mutual companies anv dividends which may have accrued.
The deiKisit, called sometimes the "net value"' of a policy,
is contributed liy the iKilicy-holdcr. and accumulated to aid
in his continued' insurance"; dividends arise chiefly from the
over-jMiyments of the insured, and in mutual companies be-
long to'tiiem. So far, therefore, as it can be mathematically
determined, the surrender value of u policy at any time is
in proprietary companies tlie deposit on the policy at llie
time, ami in nmtual companies the deposit added to divi-
dends credited to the policy. For "surrender value" fixed
by law, see Massachusetts Insurance Act of 1887, sect. 76.
' Surplug, Profits, or Dividends.— Each of the assumptions
ma»le in calculating the tut premium gives rise to surplus.
That premium is estimated on the supposition that the
death-rate in the company will be that called for by the
mortality-table, and that "but 4 per cent, interest \yill be
realizetlon monev. No iiroperly managed company expe-
riences the assum'ed deatli-rate. " The "new business" fur-
nishes every year a number of carefully selected lives, whiih,
being better" for some years than the'average, diminish the
company's mortuary-rate. The ratio of the estimated to the
actual inortality varies in different companies and in differ-
ent years, and depends in great measure upon the skill and
care with which the risks are selected. It is safe to say,
further, that the coinpanies get more than four per cent, on
their investments. The loading, added to the net premium
for expenses, also provides surplus. The average loading is
about 33i per cent, of the net premium. The average ex-
pense of management does not exceed 18 per cent, of the
gross amount of premiums received.
The above-enumerated sources of surplus or dividends are
the chief,.an(l are likely to be the enduring ones. There is
another, however, which is mainly due to instability of pur-
pose or of fortune on the part of policy-holders — viz., sur-
render and lapse of policies.
Distribution uf Surplus. — In proprietary companies the
surplus belongs to the stockholders, and is their profit. In
mutual companies it belongs to the policy-holders, from
whose necessary over|>ayments it chieny arises, and repre-
sents to them, not profit, but savings. The proper mode of
its distribution in mutual coinj)aiiies is a somewhat vexed
question, upon whicli many opinions have been exitressed.
The plan in general use in the U. .S. is the " contributiim
plan, ' devised in 1HG3 by Messrs. Sheppard Homans and 1).
Parks Fackler. The design of this plan is to divide the
surplus among the policy-holders in proportion to their
individual overpayments or contributions to the surplus
fund.
The method of determining these " proportions overpaid "
is, briefly and without the use of equations, as follows (it is
assumed that the policy is a whole-life one, pai<l for by
equal annual i)renuums): At Uk hrginning o{ tlie year, the
company had to the credit of the policy the deposit or re-
serve upon it at tlie end of the preceding year and the full
annual premium then just paid. From the annual premium
must be taken the proportion of actual exijcnses pro|ierly
chargeal>le to the policy ; the remainder, added to the re-
serve, must then be increased by interest at the rate actually
received by the company. From the amount thus <ibtained
must be taken — (1) the actual cost of insurance for the
year; (2) the reserve necessary to be held at the close of the
current year : the remainder is the contribution to surplus.
This contribution, added to the policy's share in the " mis-
cellaneous protiU," if any, constitutes the estimated divi-
dend in favor of the policy. In mutual companies a portion
of the t(jtal surplus is retained as a contingent fund.
Modes (if Applying Dividiiuls. — There are in common use
two ways of applying the dividend credited to a policy —
viz., to the purehiLM' of an a<ldilional amount of insurance,
anil iLs ciush in payment of premium. Assumi'. for illus-
tration, a life jiolicy of if.'j.OOO taken out at age 80 and paid
for by an eijual annual premium of $ll:i. .'>(); and fur-
ther, that after it has run four years a dividend of $(!1.17
has been crediteil to it. The holder may use the dividend
— First, to purcha.se an aildition to the amount of the
policy. At age 34, to which the insured has then at-
tained, the net single premium for a policy of f 1.000 is
l};a21.8G; the dividend of $(>4.17 will therefore purchase an
addition of $iy!).y7, no expense or commissions being
charged to the dividend. This addition, sometimes called a
"reversionary dividend," of $li)!».;i7 is a iiaid-un policy for
that amount, and earns dividends: it is payalile with the
original policy, and is in general subject to its terms. /SfC-
on<7, as cash, to diminish by $04.17 the premium then just
due. Other methods of application have been and are still
employed: such as to the purchase (the insured being in
sound health at the time) of a temporary insurance for one
or more years ; to the reduction of all subseciueiit premiums ;
to limit the number of premiums required ; but the two first
given are the principal methods.
Industrial Insurance. — Industrial or "prudential" in.sur-
ance is life-insurance in which the policies are for small
amounts paid for by weekly installments of premium. It is
Jesigned particularly for persons of narrow means, who can
spare, or leel disposed to spare, but a few cents weekly from
their income. The general principles on which the business
is based and conducted are those which govern ordinary
life-insurance business and need no si'parate explanation.
It is life-insurance at retail. Uf the nine companies in the
U. S. issuing industrial policies, four transact also ordinary
life business, and these four hail in force, at the close of the
year 1891, more than 96 per cent, of all the industrial busi-
ness written. (Tlie Insurance Year-book for 1892, New
York.) The average amount of each such policy in the
U. S. is $113. (Ibid.) The following information and tables
of rates are furnished by the company transacting the largest
industrial business in the U. S. : " It costs 5 cents per week
and upward. No initiation-fee is charged. No increase of
payments is required. Premiums are collected weekly at
the homes of policy-holders. All ages from one to seventy
are taken. Claims are payable promptly at death. Males
and females are taken at same cost. Only healthful lives
are insured."
TABLES OF RATES.
Table for In/ants.
Amounts payable for each 5 cents of weekly premiums.
Amoant payable provided death occur after 3 calendar month* from date.
u
and after the policv has been In force for the following period, vU. :
ll
1!
H
li
n
CO S
li
li
11
n
11
2
815
$17
820
824
$29
$35
842
850
$60
$75
$95
$115
3
IT
2(1
24
29
,15
42
50
60
75
95
115
4
20
24
29
35
42
SO
60
75
95
115
5
24
21)
X,
42
.50
fiO
75
95
115
6
2fl
35
42
,50
00
75
95
115
7
3,1
42
,50
fiO
75
95
115
8
42
50
«0
75
95
115
9
50
60
75
95
115
10
fiO
75
95
115
11
75
95
115
12
95
115
When the amount of insurance, according: to the terms of this
table, reaches $Ub (for each 5 cents of weekly preniiuu)), it will con-
tinue at that amount during the lifetime of the person insured, sub-
ject to the terms and conditions of the policy.
For .S cents per week above amounts will be paid.
For 10 cents per week twice above amounts will be paid.
Fur ir> cents per week three times abovq^amounts will be paid.
For '-iO cents per week four times above amount.s will be paid.
Under age C no higher premium than 10 cents will be taken.
Table for Adults (whole of life).
Amounts paj-able for each 5 cent* of weekly premiums.
Onv-foiirth only of theu amonnU pavmlil* If diiAth oocun after 3 mnd within 6 calcndu'
un->iilh» fffin dmie, on<-h*lf only If death occur »flrr fi calpodv monthi kdiI wllhln 1 ymr,
BDd thv full attiouut odI>' if death ocvtir after 1 yaar. No benetiu wtil b« due or payable
If dMtb occur wlthlii 3 calendar monlbi from dale.
Ar» next
Urlliday.
Amount.
Age next
birllida;.
Amount
Ace next
birthday.
AmounL
Ace next
birthday.
AmounL
13
$115
28
$77
43
$46
58
$85
14
no
29.
75
44
43
B9
23
15
107
SO
72
45
42
«0
22
16
104
31
70
4«
40
61
21
17
102
32
67
47
39
«2
20
IH
100
S3
65
48
37
63
19
10
98
84
63
49
8fi
64
18
ao
95
85
61
60
85
65
17
21
93
36
69
51
*)
68
16
22
90
87
60
52
32
67
16
28
88
38
64
63
31
68
14
S4
86
S9
62
54
80
69
IS
25
84
40
60
65
28
70
12
26
81
41
48
66
27
87
TO
42
46
57
S6
.
LIFE-IXSURAXCE
243
Co-operative or Assessment Insurance. — " An assessment
insurance society is one wliieli promises to pay, on tlie death
of a member, as many dollars as its members shall then con-
tribute. In some cases its laws provide a limitation beyond
which tlie amount shall not fj" : so that, the limit being
fixed at 1*1,(100. the balance paid in beyond that goes to a
general fund for the reduction or extinction of future as-
sessments. No definite promise otlier than this is made
as to the amount. So long as the money paid in remains
above that sum, the sum is paid, but when the amount re-
ceived falls below it, only so much is paid as the assessment
realizes. This is what may be defined as the legitimate and
pro[)er iussessmcnt plan. All other devices are outsicU; of it,
and when engrafted upon it are delusive. As a rule, there
are no assets, and there is no particular responsibility. As
the payment of the asse.ssment is absolutely voluntary, so the
payment of the benefit is practically voUmtary." {X. ¥.
Ins. Report, 1882.) Tliese remarks apply particularly to
pure assessment. The " assessment " or co-operative compa-
nies that report to State insurance departments often con-
duct the business in a way different from that indicated, as
follows: The management expenses are provided for by an
annual charge to each member, which is the same for all
memljers irrespective of age, and is called the annual dues.
An initiation or entrance fee may be required, and is called
membership fee. The claims arising annually by the death
of policy-holders are provided for by yearly charges to the
members, which charges (they are really net annual life pre-
miums) are graduated according to age, and are called
mortuary assessments. By a percentage added to each mor-
tuary assessment a fund is accumulated to be held as a re-
serve or emergency fund, to guard against the danger of
excessive mortality in any one year, and other untoward
contingencies. The membership fee when exacted is of course
paid at entrance. The annual dues may be paid at the begin-
ning of the year, and the mortuary assessment in weekly,
monthly, quarterly, or other installments; or the annual
dues and mortuary assessment of a member may be added
together, and the sum resulting paid by him in periodic in-
stallments. The business thus conducted is practically one
of pure, or net, insurance, whereby the necessary expenses of
conducting the business year by year and the net cost of
insurance each year are paid annually by the insured. The
cost of insurance constantly increases with the age of the
insured, and in the later years of life must become an ex-
cessive burden. To obviate this difficulty in part some of
the companies have a plan, which they commend to the pub-
lic, by which the annual cost of insurance for each of sev-
eral years, computed from a table of mortality, is increased
by a certain amount for expenses, and the sum so obtained
divided in such a way as to make the payment required of a
member the same for each year of the period. At the end
" of the period, the necessary equal annual charge (it will, of
course, be larger than before owing to the increased age of
the insured) for another period is fixed in like manner. A
policy for which tlie payment is so arranged is merely a re-
newalile term policy, and should the term be extended to
include the whole of life would be the ordinary whole life
policy of the ordinary life company. There is, apparently,
a tendency in companies, as their age increases and their
operations extend, to assimilate their methods with those of
the prdinary life company ; and it would appear but reason-
able that the requirements of law applicable to them should
be also assimilated.
Oovernment Supervision. — A few of the U. S. have no
laws regulating life companies further than may be neces-
sary for purposes yf taxation. The most of them, however
— and all of them in which the business has grown to be of
any importance — have made special provisions for the pro-
tection of policy-holders and the supervision of companies
by a State oflicer. The following brief abstract of the in-
surance law of Xew York will well illustrate the kind of su-
pervision exercised and of protection afforded to nolicv-
holders. (See X F. Lnivs. 1892. chap. 690.) In Xew York a
State superintendent of insurance has supervision of compa-
nies; before beginning business each sucli company must
have at least -t! 100,000 invested in stocks or bonds of the U.S.
or of the State of X'ew York, or of any county or incorpo-
rated city of the State authorized to be issued by the Legisla-
ture, such stocks or bonds not to be received at a rate above
their par value or above their current market value, or in
bonds and mortgages on improved and unincumbered real es-
tate within the State of X^ew York worth 50 per cent, more
than the amount loaned thereon, such securities, to the
amount of ^100,000, to be deposited with the superintend-
ent, and held by him for the security of policy-holders; a
company chartered by another State and wi.shing to trans-
act liusiness in Xew York nnist have the same amount of
actual assets securely invested as companies chartered by
Xew York ; the sujierintendent being satisfied of a com-
pany's compliance with the hiw will issue it a certificate of
authority to begin business; each company chartered by the
State must invest, by loan or otherwise, its funds or accu-
mulations in any of the securities in which deposits with
the superintendent are required to be invested, m the pub-
lic stocks or bonds of any one of the U. S., or in the stocks,
bonds, or other evidence of indebtedness of any solvent in-
stitution incorporated under the laws of the U..S. or of any
State thereof, except its own stock, or the stock of any other
insurance corporation, or in such real estate as it is author-
ized to hold, in the bonds issued by any city, county, town,
village, or school district of the State pursuant to any law
of the State; such company may invest any amount of its
surplus moneys or funds not exceeding one-half of its an-
nual premium receipts upon its outstanding policies in any
other State of the L . S., upon bond and mortgage security,
upon real property in such State which shall be unincum-
bered, improved, and worth double the sum loaned thereon ;
policies are not to be declared forfeited for non-payment of
premium unless at least fifteen days' notice to pay the same
has been given without effect ; a policy that has been in
force three full years, should it become forfeitable for non-
payment of premiums, is entitled, under specified conditions
and for its continuance, to the reserve on such policy, in-
cluding dividend additions; a detailed statement, on blanks
furnished by the superintendent, must be made of its affairs
by each company transacting business in the State on the
first day of January in each year, or within sixty days there-
after showing its condition on the thirty-first day of Decem-
ber then next preceding; the information obtained from
the annual reports of the companies must be arrangetl and
tabulated by the superintendent and presented by him, with
such remarks and recommendations as he may deem proper,
to the Legislature in his annual report ; the superinten<ient
must make annually valuations of all outstanding policies
and other obligations of every domestic life company doing
business in the State — the valuation of the policies to be
made according to the actuaries' or combined experience
table of mortality and an assumed rate of interest at 4 per
cent. ; the superintendent is empowered to address inquiries
to any company on any matter connected with its transac-
tions, reply to which must be promptly made in writing un-
der pecuniary penalty ; the .superintendent may. in his dis-
cretion, appoint one or more competent persons, not officers
of or connected with or interested in any insurance corpora-
tion doing business in the State, other than as a policy-hold-
er, to examine into the affaii-s of any such company, and for
purposes of such examination, the examiners must have free
access to the books of the company, and are authorized to
examine officers and agents under oath, the result of the ex-
amination to be published in one or more newspapers of the
State, whenever the superintendent shall deem it for the
public interest to do so ; if it shall appear from examination
that a company has assets insufficient to justify its con-
tinuance in business (reinsure its outstanding risks) the su-
perintendent must determine the amount of such deficiency
and caU upon the officers of the company to make it good
within a specified time, and should it not be made good
within the time set, the corporation must be deemed insol-
vent, and may be proceeded against by the attorney-general
as an insolvent corporation ; wlien a company intends to dis-
continue business it must give notice to the sujierintendent,
who will cause notice of such intention to be published in
the paper in which State notices are inserted at least twice
a week for six months, and after the superintendent, ujjon
full examination of the affairs of such company, is satisfied
that all its debts and liabilities of every kind are paid and
extinguished that are due. or may become due upon any
contract or agreement made within the I'. S.. he is then to
deliver up to the company the securities held by htm be-
longing to it.
Life companies transacting business upon the co-operative
or assessment plan must obtain a license from the insur-
ance superintendent, and nuist have at least 200 persons in-
sured for an amount not h>ss than $400,000. on which 2 per
cent, of the amount of insurance severally subscribed for
must be paiil in cash and deposited in bank to the credit of
the mortuary fund before it can begin business ; such com-
244
LIFE-INSURANCE
LIFE-PRESERVER
pany must make to the suporintendent on or before Mar. 1
in each vear a iletaileii report of its affairs and operations
durins the vear ending Pee. 31 preeeding; it need make no
deposit of si"'eurities witli the superintendent, mnst aeeuniii-
late and maintain a reserve or emerfieney fund of an amount
not less than the proceeds of one death assessment, and at
least equal to the amount of its maximum certilieate or
policy; it is suhjeet to the visitation of the superintendent
at aiiv time, and must answer any in(|uiries of the superin-
tendent as to any imitter connected with its transactiims;
even.- iH.)licv or certiliealo issued must specify the sum of
monev which it promises to pay upon the contingency in-
sured" against, and the number of days after proof of the
hapjieniiig of the contingency on which payment will be
made, and failure to make ]mymcnt for thirty days after it
l)ecomes due. will ileprive the company of license to issue
new certificates till payment is made : each notice of assess-
ment, premium, or pei'iodical call must state the cause and
purpose of the same ; whenever the superintendent is satis-
fied that such a company is insolvent, has exceeded its pow-
ers, or is conducting business fraudulently, he is to report
the facts to the attorney-general, who may jiresent the com-
panv in the Supreme C'ourt for trial, and after hearing, the
cimrt may order a receiver appointed and an etiuitable dis-
tribution of its property an\ong its creditors ancl mcniliers.
Slnlititics. — In (ireat" Hritain the amount of insurance,
other than '■industrial." in force in T2 British companies at
the close of the year 1800. was f4!H).(KM).0O0 (approximated),
to which must be added the amount in force in 3 l'. S.
companies transacting business there. t'401.6T5,4!»4, making
a total, at the close of 1890, of .fH!ll.G75,494 : the amount of
"industrial" insurance in the Hritish companies in force
at the same time was £130,000,000, giving a total sum of
£l,0il,67.'»,494. {The Insurance .Register, 1892. London.) In
Canada there were 47 companies, 31 of them foreign (Brit-
ish and U. S.), which had in force at the close of the year
1890 policies 1.57,878 in number, insuring $382,778,331: in
adilition, there were in force at the same time 23,99.5 iiulus-
trial policies, insuring $1,474,385. T/ie Insurance Year-bouk
for 1892. New York.
From a synopsis of the principal continental life-insurance
business in 1890. contained in The Post JUagazine' Almanack;
the Insurance Directory, Reference, and Year-bouk, 1892,
London, the following abstract is taken :
COMPANIES.
Austrian
Dutch
Oeniian
Russian
SoandiDaTian
Freiioll
Swiss
Belgian
Italian
19
9
49
5
13
17
8
2
2
Aiaouot of iDianoo* In force.
678,9T8,099 florins
14a,I00..51I "
4,a:W,Ki5,481 marks
irB.SW.41S roubles
a4;l,7".;T.(i'jr) kronen
3,3S,5.601.g:* francs
ai.i.aid.OMv! ••
a6,r43.933 "
80,293.276 lire
In 1859 the insurance department of the State of New-
York was created by act of tlie Legislature, and was organ-
ized in Jan.. 18G0. JIassachuselts had a few years previ-
ously established a department of supervision, and subse-
quently other .States followed the example. The healthful
influence exerci.sed by State laws in shaping and developing
the business, the pul>lic confidence begotten of Slate siijier-
vision and the publication of detailed annual rejKU-ts. the
activity produced by the personal solicitations of numer-
ous agents, extensive advertising through newspapers, cir-
culars, and pamphlets, the unsettled state of monetary
values in the country near the close of and after the civil
war, together with the intrinsic value of the institution it-
self, caused the business to grow with great rapidity, and
to assume in a few years nslounding proportions. In lH(iH
there were .55 companies represented in New York .Slate,
which together issued more new policies in that one year
than the total nuiid)er of policies Lssued by all American
companies condiined for the seventeen years 1843-59. The
business steadily iiicrea.sed till 1H73, at the end of which
vear there were .50 conqianies reiircsented in New York,
having in force H17.0K1 policies, assuring $2,080,027,178.
(.V. Y. Ins. Report, 1874.) In the whole of the U. S. there
were at the same time 108 existing companies, 74 of which
had in force 870.870 policies, insuring $2,191,230,995. (I.ife
Ins. in the f'niteit States, by Walter C. Wright, before tlie
American Statistical As.sociatioii, Oct. 20. 1888.) From
1873 to 1879 the business steadily decreased, and at the
close of the latter year there were 31 companies in New
(y. Y. y»i.s. lieport. 1880.) In the C. S.
in 1879 03 ("ordinary ") life com|)anies e
York, with 505,480 policies in force, assuring $1,4.39.061,16,5.
at large there were
existing. 49 of which
had in force 655,129 policies, insuring $1.51 l,2;i5.317. (\V. C.
Wright l)efore American Statistical As-sociation, Oct. 26,
1888.) This was the lowest |MiiMt reached.
At the close of the year 1891 there were in the V. S. 48
"ordinary" life companies (4 of which issued industrial
policies also) and 5 companies tran.sacting "industrial"
business only — in all .53 companies; there were 1.404.799
policies (excluding industrial) in force, insuring $3,905,380,-
862; the number of industrial policies in force was 4,309,-
862, insuring $481,925,977; these 53 compaiues had an ag-
gregate income for the year XX'M of $2 1 3,444..589, disbursed
a total of $144..5o7,9:!2" and hail. .Ian. 1. 1H!)'2, gross a,ssets
to the amount of $859,408,114. The Insurance Year-book
for 1892, New York.
With regard to the business of co-operative or assessment
comjmnies in the U. S., it has been found impracticable to
get full and reliable statistics. There reported in 1891 to
the Insurance Department of the State of New York 119
co-oi)erative companies and 36 fraternal be)icficiary socie-
ties or orders (which are also assessment companies) — in all,
155 cimipanies. A number of these were engaged in casu-
alty as well as life insurance, and it has not been practi-
cable to separate .satisfactorily the amounts due respectively
to each kind of business. With this statement the returns
as they ajipear from the j.V. 1'. Ins. Report of 1892 are here
given for the year ending Dec. 31, 1891 :
Cooperative companies (119) had in force 5ii3,397 policies.
Frattrnal " (361 " " 'ih.SM
Receii)ts of co-operative companies for the year, S20.'.J06.074. of which
the sum of $19,465,446 was contributed by nienihcrs.
Receipts of fraternal companies for the year. 8^'O,09.'>,596, of which
the simi of $19,676, KSO was contributed by inenil)ers.
Dishursenients of co-operative companies for the year, $18,513,106,
of wliich the sum of SKliHlll.TiKi was paid for claims.
Dishurseinents of fraternal companies for the year, $19,698,611, of
w liicli the sum qf $18,96li,5K0 was paid for claims,
"Our life companies arc becoming vast financial corpo-
rations, and may become a source of danger to the com-
monwealth liy reason of the vast money jiowers lodged in
the hands of a few men — possibly only one m.an in each
company. The assets of great railroad and manufacturing
corporaticms are practically all planted, while those of life
companies are in marketable securities which can be con-
verted into cash in 10.0(K),0()0 lots, and be used to influence
legislation or to affect the money-market. It is easy to im-
agine very startling possibilities when our life companies
shall attain their probable future .size," D. P. Fackler, at
the anniml meeting of insurance commissioners and super-
visors, 1892. J. II. Van Amrisge.
Lifp-preserver: a small buoy designed for attachment
to the jicrson, and made of canvas or of .some other faliric
stuffed with cork, or of liiili,'i-rul>licr and inflated with air.
Many difl'erent varieties of lifc-llI•csel^■crs have been devised,
among which the following are the most notalile.
Annular Ufe-preservers. — These are simply large rings,
either of inflated rubber or cork-stuffed canvas, the hole in
FiQ. 1.— Cork Jacket with supplemental floats.
the center being large enough to receive the waist of the
wearer, the ilcvice being worn beneath the arms. This is a
clumsv form, and, although calculated to keep the heiid and
.shoulders above water, must mnteriiillv interfere with any
freedom of moTement of the arms. Nevertheless, from its
simplicity and strength, it Ls in very cimimon favor. The
Fig. 2.— British gold-medal life-pre-
server.
LIFE-PRESERVER
best, instead of a canvas covering filled with granulated
cork, are made of solid cork blocks securely fastened to-
gether, anil then turned in a lathe to the reijuired size and
form. This construction is very firm and durable, and the
solid annulus, being covered with canvas waterproofed by
painting, retains its buoyancy during long immersion.
Block Life-preservers. — Commonly made of blocks of cork
inclosed in canvas, two blocks being hinged together by a
sewn joint in the fabric. These may be used as simple
buoys. A more elaborate construction makes the sjiace of
fabric between the blocks
large enough for a hole
through which the head
may be thrust, the fabric
resting on the shoulders of
the wearer, and the blocks,
one on the breast and one
at the back, being held
close to the body by suita-
bly arranged strings.
Life - fiuats. — Hollow
drams, provided with
stra])S and buckles for at-
taching tlie apparatus to
tlie person ; the more com-
plete have receptacles for
saving papers, socket for
staff of a signal iiag, etc.
Buckets, stools, mattresses,
etc., have frequently been
made buoyant with a view
to their use as life-preserv-
ing floats when thrown
upon the water. Life-pre-
servers have also been made
in the form of jackets,
which are readily placed
and retained in proper po-
sition upon the person.
Cork jackets were known to the Romans, and air-inflated
jackets to the English as long ago as 1724. An improved
cork jacket (Fig. 1), devised about 1873, was constructed
with supplemental floats at front and back, which depend
like the skirts of a coat except when the wearer is in the
water, when the floats rise by their own buoyancy against
the breast and behind the shoulders, and thereby assist the
flotative action. A belt stuffed with granulated cork is at-
tached to the waist of the jacket, and the arms and collar
are also filled with the same material, quilted in to keep it
in place. Rubber vests, to be in-
flated with air through a tube and
mouth-piece, like the rubber float,
have been devised. The combi-
nation of a bust and waist float
constitutes a European life-pre-
server (Fig. 2) which has secured
several gold medals, and appears
to have met with much favor.
Life - preserving Trousers. —
These comprise trousers, boots,
and annular life-preserver, all in
one, and the first projector of
them appears to have been J.
Macintosh, whose patent was
dated Nov. 11, 1837. The wearer
places his feet and legs in a pair
I'f sack-like pantaloons closed at
the lower extremities, with an air
or cork-stuffed annulus arranged
to be placed beneath the armpits,
the trunk being inclosed within
a sack-like body connecting the
annulus to the trousers. In 1840
R. Porter added to the feet por-
tions of the device a pair of feath-
ering propellers.
Life-preserving Suits. — The
success achieved by Capt. Paul
Boyton with an air-filled water-
proof dress (Fig. 4) has given to
this variety of life-preservers a prominence never before at-
tained, lie crossed the British Channel in it in 23^ hours
May 28 and 29, 1875. The apparatus (Fig. 3) used by Boy-
ton was that patented by Clark S. Merriman, of Vallisca,
LIFE-RAFTS
2i5
Fio. 3.-
-^lerrimanV life-pre-
serving suit.
la., July 16, 1872, and its object, as set forth by the in-
ventor, "is to provide a water- proof life-preserving dress
suflSciently inflated with air to sustain the weight required,
while the limbs are allowed full freedom of action in swim-
ming ; and the vital heat is retained in the body, the inter-
FiG. 4. — Paul Boyton at sea.
vention of a stratum of air between the body and the dress
acting as a non-conductor of heat." The dress is made of
India-rubber, and comprises a head-dress, jacket, and trou-
sers, the whole so connected as to form an air-tight suit
which can be inflated, like an ordinary India-rubber life-
preserver, with the breath. Boyton attached a sail to the
suit to assist his progress while at sea.
James A. Whitney.
LIfe-raftSi : rafts constructed for the purpose of saving
life, when boats or other means are not available. The
oldest form of life-raft, and that still frequently employed,
consists of spars, doors, etc., bound together as firmly as
possible. Jlany plans for their improved construction have
been proposed. Some of these combine some ordinary use,
as that of a mattress, settee, bench, or the like, with those of
-Jk-
Fig. 1.— Mattress life-raft.
a life-preserver on a large scale. A life-preserving mattress,
weighing 17 lb., capable of sustaining in the water 284 lb.,
was manufactured some years ago in London. Among the
most recent of such devices is one in which a water-proof
canvas sack has its lateral edges secured along the centers
of two mattresses in such manner as to provide an open
chamber between them capable of holding several persons,
while the downward strain upon the matt re.s.scs. bein^ ex-
erted centrally and longitudinally thereon, insures their re-
tention in a horizontal position. The liest buoyant material
is undoubtedly cork soaked in linseed oil. the oil preventing
the absorption of water by the cork, which reduces the flota-
tive power of the material rapidly to a degree estimated at
246
LIFE-SAVIXG SERVICE
40 per cent. On the other hand, the oil is found to rot the
canvas. A fabric at the suiue time water ami oil proof
would add very much to the utility of this class of appa-
ratus.
Fio. 3.— Combined life-raft and settee.
Another idea is that of a bench, which has the form of a
boat divided in vertical loM);itudinal sections, with lonjji-
tudiiial flotativo seats, two adjacent ends being hinged to-
gether. When the apparatus is opened out, it presents the
appearance of two settees ranged in line, and can be useil
as such. When folded together and fastened, a boat is
iormed, needing only thwarts and ours.
Fio. 3.— Combined air-float and cork life-raft.
Of rafts to be carried on deck, there have been numerous
mollifications. Among these is one arranged to be grasped
from the water, in which a number of air-filled floats are
surrounded by an outer casing of cork, inclosed in canvas,
ribbed or corrugated to form the cork into sections.
One apparently effective form of life-raft, several examples
of which were shown at the Fisheries E.xhibition in London
in 18.S:3, com])ri.ses an oblong annulus of cork provided with
numerous trailing ropes.
A favorite plan with projectors, though seldom or never
adopted by ship-builders, is that of so constructing the cabins
of a vessel that they may be readily detached in ease of ac-
cident to the hull. Even less feasible than this is the idea
of making the upper deck itself detachable ; the deck requir-
ing a firmness of fixation to strengthen the vessel inconsist-
ent with its ready and hurried detachment.
Catamaran lite-rafts, composed of two or more oblong at-
eigar-shaned floats, firmly connected, are carried on ocean-
going anu other vessels. The floats are frequently of sheet-
metal, and owe their buoyancy to their contaiiuHl air. One
of the latest patented improvements of this class includes
the construction of each float with an internal rigid longi-
tudinal brace, an impervious canvas covering, and a stuff-
ing of buoyant material interposed between the cone and
the covering, tlie object being to combine lightnes.s. strength,
and non-liability to injury from punctures or fracture dur-
ing the vicissitudes of Use. The catamaran is said to be
more easily managed than any other form of craft.
Life-buoyx are made circular in form and flat, and are
provided centrally with an elevated light provided by chem-
icals, the combustion of which is not extinguished by water.
Circular lifi-rafts have also been constructed with a mast
and sail and other conveniences, and some ha*'e given excel-
lent results in long experimental trips.
In cases of emergency very efficient apparatus may be
improvised from spars, canvas, and empty casks, accorlling
to Cook's iriveiilion, which consists of a sfjuare frame with
canvius nailed across it, and with a closely buoyed cask lashed
at each corner. In tolerably smooth water ten men may be
supported by a large cask provided with ropes for hokling
on. It would lie well for every vessel on the occurrence of
danger to have all empty casks well stoppered and tied with
loose-lying ropes, for use in event of disaster.
James A. Whitxey.
Life-snTing Sprvico: a term specifically used to desig-
nate organized equipincnt and effort for the saving of life
in ciuse of wrecks upon the seashore, or upon the shores of
lakes or rivers. With the exi'eption of about fifty stations
supported by the Danish (iovernment, mainly on the coivet
of .Jutland, and a few on the coast of Uelgium, the life-
saving service of the U. S. is the only government estab-
lishment of the kind in the world. The tiLsk of marine
life-saving in (ireat Britain, France, Germany, and other
European count rii-s. is left entirely to private societies, ex-
cept that in (ireat Britain the coast-guard, under the direc-
tion of the Boanl of Tmde, is charged with the operations
at rescues allem|>ted by the use of line-carrying rockets.
An effective life-saving service has been inainlaimd in
China for centuries by benevolent institutions, chiefly on
the Yang-tse and other great rivers. Besides succoring
those in danger this service endeavors to prevent casualties
by ferrving passengers and accompanying junks across the
rivers in stormv weather. It also provides " rest-houses,"
wliere shipwrecked persons may stay until they can be sup-
pliedwith means and sent on their way. Their "red-t)oals"
are specially built for this service, and are well manned and
managed. 'With this lifeboat service associations for pro-
viding coffins and decent interment for persons found
drowned also co-operate.
The institutiim in the U. S. gradually grew out of the sen-
timent created by the terribly fatal disasters which took
place on the Atlantic seaboard, more ]iarticularly those on
the coa.sts of Long Island and New Jersey during the first
half of the nineteenth century. For nearly fifty years these
frightful wrecks, often of the emigrant ships of those days,
occurred without remedy. In 1S4.S, following some grievous
disasters, an appropriation of !j;10,000 was made, with which
eight buildings were erected on the coast of New Jersey and
equipped with boats and some other life-saving appliances.
These, and other stations established shortly afterward,
were without crews, but their value became so evident that
crews were provided for them, and their number and the
completeness of their equipment have been gradually in-
creased, until in 18'J5 there were 2ol stations fuUy supplied
with the best-known ajipliances.
Under the organization effected by the years of effort
since 1871, the ocean, lake and Gulf coasts of the U. S.,
covering an extent of 10.(100 miles, are laid off into twelve
life-saving districts. Each of these is governed by a local
superintendent responsible for its operations. Over all are
a general .superintenilent. and an assistant general sui)er-
intendent, stationed at Washington. Offiiyrs of the revenue
marine service are detailed as inspectors in the several dis-
tricts, and the same service furnishes a general inspector of
stations. These stations are honsc^s a story and a half in
height, specially designed for the purpose, having six, and
sometimes seven, rooms, and furnished with every known
appliance that can aiil in saving life — life-boats, surf-boats,
life-cars, breeches-buoys, wreck-ordnance for effecting line-
communication with wrecks, hawsers, hauling-lines, etc.
On the Atlantic beaches they are located at distances aver-
aging .'3 miles apart, and at points periodically liable to
wrecks, mainly wild and desolate places, and often far re-
moved from habitations. On the coast of Florida, with one
exception (a fully equipped station at Juiiiler Inlet), the
stations are simply |)rovisioned houses of refuge severally
inhabited by a keeper and his family, the peculiarity of the
beach enabling wrecks to drive close ashore and the iieople
on board to land easily without assistance, t he main danger
to the latter being of death from hunger and thirst, as the
region is mostly uninhabited and desolate. All the stations,
except tliese houses of refuge, have severally a keeper and
a crew of seven, in some cases eight, surfmen, a hermit-
group residing on duty at their lonely lodge for the eight
most inclement months of the year. They arc the best of
the professional surfmen and salvors of the coast, elected
solely on the ground of their ability to be of service to sea-
fan'rs in times of peril.
The most important of the ordinary station-duties is the
unremitting watch kejit upon the beach. If a vessel can be
seen driving, crippled, for the land, or near the time of lier
stranding on a bar, 200 or 300 yards away, operations can
be prosecuted for the rescue of those onboard before the
surf has time to tear her to pieces. Hence the emphasis
placed uyion the requirement of this watch. Betwi^en sta-
tion and station the beach is steadily patrolled by the crew
every night from sunset to dawn ; if tlic weather be tinck,
it is equally patrolled all day: and at all times, in the fair-
est weather, a lookout is kept from the station. The period
of the iiight-i>atrol is divided into four watches, each kept
by two nuMi of the crew, each carrying a beach lantern and
pouch of Coston signals, which are cases of combustibles,
capable of being ignited at will by jiercussion.
If a ship be seen heading for the breakers, the patrolman
strikes his Coston cartridge, letting the red blaze free, and
the warned vessel stands away from the dangerous shore.
If the vessel is seen to be aground the Coston light reddens
the darkness to let those on board know that tluy are seen,
and the jiatrolman ha.stens to the station to summon the
crew. If the surf is at all within bounds, however danger-
ous, they fetch the boat — this being the (piickest mode of
rescue — put out, and piihaps wit bin an hour bring back all
LIFE-SAVING SERVICE
LIGATION
247
on board in safety. If it is plain that lioat-serviee is im-
practicable, resort is had to the wreck-ordnance. The gun,
trained with skill and judgment, fires a slender line over the
hull. This line has been previously coiled over a frame of
pins, which, now withdrawn, leaves the line in layers of
loops or fakes arranged to pay out freely and fly' to the
wreck without entanglement or friction. A shank pro-
trudes from the end of the cylindrical shot in the gun, to
the extremity of which the line is tied. Once on board, the
Life-car.
line is hauled upon by the sailors, and brings out to them
an endless rope, called the whip-line, reeved through a pul-
ley-block, to which is attached several feet of rope, called a
tail. This tail is made fast to a mast. One side or part of
the whip is then hauled upon by the life-savers, and the
other side takes out to the sailors a hawser which has been
attached to it. The hawser is then fastened to the mast a
couple of feet above the whip, the shore-end drawn over a
wooden crotch 10 feet high, and fastened in the sand by a
buried anchor. Upon the slender bridge of rope thus con-
stituted is suspended the life-car if the number on board is
large. The lifcjcar is a sort of covered boat of galvanized
iron capable of containing six or eight persons. Hung to
the hawser Ijy bails and rings, it can be worked out to the
vessel by the whip, and drawn back again when it has re-
ceived its load. Sometimes, however, the hawser is dis-
pensed with, and the car is dragged back and forth through
the water by the whip-line alone. If there be only a few
Eersons on board, a lighter contrivance, called the breeches-
uoy, is brought into play. It consists of a circular cork
Method of using breeches-buoy.
life-buoy, to which is attached a short pair of canvas
breeches, and is suspended by lanyards to a traveler-block
on the hawser. It is worked back and forth by the hauling-
lines, bringing in one man at a time, who gets into it, his
legs dangling through the breeches, sustained liy the can-
V!is saddle. By such methods the lives are saved. Often,
after suffering great hardships, persons reach the shore
seemingly lifeless from exhaustion, or apparently drowned.
For such cases the station medicine-chest is on hand, con-
taining appropriate remedies.
Besides the saving of life, the rescue of property is a con-
spicuous though secondary feature of the service. The surf-
men are experts in floating stranded vessels, extricating
them from dangerous situations, relieving leaking vessels,
running lines where it can not be done with ordinary l)oats,
and rendering assistance in various ways. In the majority
of cases they succeed in saving the vessels and cargoes with-
out any other aid than that of the ship's crews, and often
alone. Their unremitting watch enables them to warn off
numerous craft in imminent danger. The nundier of such
warnings in the year l«l->-!W was 23.j, and in no recent year
have they been less than 200. The connection of the tele-
phone lines with telegraph stations enables the service to
give to the maritime exchanges and underwriters prompt
notice of disasters, with a statement of the condition of the
vessels, the nature and extent of additional aid required, if
any, and to send directly for the nearest tugs and other
necessary help, thus securing early assistance when serious
or fatal consequences might result' from delay.
The operations of 1894-95 are sumnuiriz^d as follows :
Number of disasters 6T.5
Value of property involveil I10.T2.5.1T.5
Value of property saved 9.220,20.')
Value of property lost 1,504.910
Number of persons on board 5,2!33
Number of persons lost 30
Number of persons succored at the sta-
tions 80.3
Number of days succor afforded 2,232
Number of vessels totally lost 73
The contrast between the showing made by this summary
and the frightful fatalities of the years before the present
life-saving organization is sufficient to make evident the
value of this branch of the public service.
Revised by S. I. Kimhall.
Lif'fey River: a stream about TO miles long, which rises
in the mountains of Wicklow, Ireland, and flows easterly
through the city of Dublin into Dulilin Bay. Dublin is
divided by this river into two nearly equal parts, lined with
spacious and substantial quays, and connected by bridges.
Lifts : See Elevators.
Ligament [from Lat. ligamen'tum, tie, band, deriv. of
/(■^a re, tie, bind] : anyone of many structures in tlie ani-
mal organism whose function it is to huld other organs in
their places. The articular ligaments are found in most of
the movable joints. They consist in most cases of white
fibrous tissue, which is very flexible, tough, and inelastic.
Some, like a part of the ligaments of the vertebra^ are
partly of yellow fibrous tissue, which is very elastic. Ar-
ticular ligaments are capsular when they invest a joint on
all sides ; fascicular, when they are flat bands of fibrous
tissue passing from bone to bone : funicular, when they
are rounded cords. Many of the viscera (as the liver, mam-
mary gland, uterus, bladder, etc.) have ligaments holding
them in place. Some are susptnson/. receiving the weight
of the organ; others are lateral, acting !us guys or stays to
prevent lateral displacement. Folds of peritoneum, aborted
total vessels, or slips of fascia are made to serve as liga-
ments for the viscera.
Ligran [etymology unknown] : goods that have sunk in
the .sea, but are attached to a buoy, in order that they may
be recovered. Bracton applies the term to goods found in
the sea so far from shore "that it can not be proved to what
land or district they are to be referred," and declares that
they ■' belong to the finder, because they may be said to be
no man's goods." (Liher 3, c. 3, fol. 12().) Before the time
of Lord Coke the doctrine was well established that such
goods were not abandoned or derelict, but could be recov-
ered by the owner upon paying rea.sunalile salvage if any
one had become entitled thereto, and' if he did not claim
them they belonged to the crown. Actions relating to such
goods were brought in the admiralty and not in the com-
mon-law co\irts. If the goods, though buoyed, were washed
ashore, they became Wreck (q. v.). See Flotsam and Jet-
sam. Fraxcis M. BuitnicK.
Ligation and Ligratiire [deriv. of Lat. lit/are, to bind] :
in surgery the operation, and tlie cord or band used in the
operatiim. of tying blood-vessels, to [irevent h.i'morrhage, or
in the strangulation of a tumor or the like. The ligature
was described long before the circulation of the blood was
discovered, the first account of its use having been given
by Susrutas, b. c. 1500. Hippocrates alludes to it, and
24S
LIGHT
Celsus (contemporary with Christ) refers to it as a well-
known rf-innly. Uiilen, 200 years later, often mentioned it.
The Arabiuii '|ih.vsiL-iaus were faniiliitr with it. After them
the Italian surfjeons continued to use it, and to descrihe its
applications ami nnHtitications. Its use is genenilly ascribed
to the celebrated French surgeon Ambroise Pan- (ISlT-ilO),
who championed its more extended use and made it indis-
pensable, but he was not its discoverer. Previous to his
time lifratures had been used for the jiurposi' of tyiiip an
artery or large blood-vessel in its continuity, as for aneu-
risms', secondary ha-raorrhage, etc. During this period fresh
wounils were seared with red-hot iron, the " actual cautery,"
in order to check bleeding. It was Pare's inestimable serv-
ice to show how easily the ligature could be applied to the
ends of the divided vessels, and with what .security the
bleeding could thus be stanched. His method soon won
general favor as against the horror of the cautery, and the
employment of the ligature became universal.
ligatures are made of metallic substances, as silver or
iron wire; of vewtable material, lus of rubber, hemp, or
linen; and of aifimal tissues or products, as silkworm gut,
catgut, and silk. Strips of kangaroo tendons or of ox aorta
are occasionally used by surgeons. Whatever material is
employed must needs be first aseptic, surgically clean, or
free from all infectious material, otherwise there is danger
of suppuration or of blood-poisoning. Wires may be heated
before use, but the preparation of vegetable, and particu-
larly of animal, material requires great care. They will
be iised by the conscientious surgeon only when they are
absolutely s/erite — i. c. clean as above.
Metallic ligatures are rarely used. They may be left
buried in the deep tissues, there to remain, but will never
become absorbed. On the other hand, vegetable fiber very
slowly disai)pears, often at least, if not invariably : tlie same
is true in less degree of silkworm gut. Catgut is the most
rca<lily absorbable of all material used for ligature, though
it can be made more resisting when so desired.
Ligation of vessels is resorted to (a) in an open wound
for the checking of |)rimary or secondary ha-raorrhage. In
this case the individual vessels are seized and tied a short
distance from their divided ends. In case of the larger ar-
teries it is necessary to tie both their ui]per and lower ends,
since bleeding from below might otherwise occur, (h) For
aneurisms or other tumors connected with blood-vessels liga-
tion of the vessel involved, or its main stem, is performed
at some point where it may be conveniently reached ; when
this is aoove the lesion it is known as priju-imal ligation;
when on the side away from the heart it is called diafa!.
(c) The same measure is practiced for secondary ha-morrhage
when the bleeding vessel can not be easily found at tlie
point where bleeding is occurring. ((/) It is occasionally
done by surgeons as a preliminary to a more serious oper-
ation, in order to make ha-morrhage less severe during the
performance of the latter, as when the carotid artery is tied
before removing the jaw. (e) Finally, it is rarely done witli
a view of shutting off main blood-supply from a rapiilly
growing tumor or other morbid growth — e. g. elephantiasis.
These are the principal purposes for which surgeons nowa-
days tie blood-vessels.
Occasionally ligature is applied only for a short time, as
during an operation, or as safeguard against possible acci-
dent; this is known as tempornri/ ligation. Ligature en
masse is a name given to the inclusion within the loop or
knot of a small mass of tissue in which there is a blee<ling
ves.sel which can not easily be found or grasped. For fur-
ther information the reader should consult treatises on sur-
gery. RoswELL Park.
Light (M. Kng. lilil < 0. Kng. leoht : 0. H. Germ, liotit (>
Mnil. (iirui. lie/it) : Goth. Iiiilia\. liglil < Indo-Kur. lenk- :
luiili- : Ink- > Sanskr. rur-. sliine : (ir. hfuxis. while : "hat.
lux, lu'cis, \\iih\]: light is that agent by which bodies are
seen. A little careful study of our every-day experience
shows that we sec bodies by the aid of something which
comes from them to the eve ; that this agent is thrown out
from the sun and other bright objects; that it generally
seems to fly instantaneously in straight lines; and that it is
reflected from one body to another cjr away into space.
The present article is conlincd to the general nature, prop-
erties, and laws of this agent, and the reailer is referred to
Optics, Piiotomktrv, and other articles for special <letails.
Sources of Liglit. — So far as experiment shows, light ema-
nates permanently and in large (pnuitities only from hot
bodies. W'henever a solid body is heated to nearly 1,000
P.. it begins to emit red light, and is said to be "red hot."
If the temperature is raised still further, the color of the liglit
gradually changes toward white, until a "white heat" is
reached.' The sun, the great source of light to our planet,
is, according to all jihysical laws, intensely hot. Artificial
light, from the combustion of gas or other substances, ema-
nates from intensely heated particles in a state of combus-
tion. The luminosity of the electric spark is due to the
momentary heating of the air in front of it, as it passes
from one electrode to the other. There are, however, cer-
tain sources of light which have not been traced to the
actual heating of matter, of wliich the following are the
principal :
1. Pliosphorescence. — When certain bodies are exposed to
intense light, especially that of the sun, they are found,
when taken into a dark place, to emit a certain quantity of
light for a short time without being apparently hda'ted.
In this case we may have something analogous to a molecular
heating of the intimate particles of the body. See Phos-
PUOKESCF.NCE.
2. Oxidation. — The slow oxidation of organic matter, as
decaying wood, and of certain chemicals, as phosphorus, is
sometimes accompanied by an appreciable amount of light,
although the bodies do not become hot. Here also we prob-
ably have to do with a condition of the molecules analogous
to those of a heated body.
3. Vital Activity. — flatter becomes luminous under cer-
tain forms of vital action, as in the case of the common fire-
fly. No explanation of this by known physical laws has yet
been given.
4. Obscure Electric or Magnetic Action. — The light of the
aurora has not been referred to the effect of high tempera-
ture, and the same may be true in certain Imninous effects
produced in an exhausted bulb which were first discovered
by Crookcs.
Propagation and Reflection of Light. — Light which ema-
nates from any source whatever jiroceeds in straight lines,
with a definite velocity, until it meets some body or some
form of matter. It a]ipnrently suffers no loss in passing
through a vacuum to any distance. It is true that its in-
tensity, or the quantity of light which falls upcm a unit of
surface, diminishes inversely as the square of the distance
from the source. This, however, is not owing to any dimi-
nution in the total quantity of light, but only to its being
s{)read over a greater surface. Imagine several hollow
spheres or sjihcrical surfaces at distances 1, 2. 8, etc., around
a luminfius point as a center. The surfaces of these spheres
will be in the ratios of the numbers 1, 4. i), 16, etc. Each
surface would receive all the light emanating from the point
were those inside of it removed ; but, since the light on
the second sphere is spread over four times the surface of
the first, eacn unit of its surface receives only one-f<nirth as
much light ; each unit of the third one-ninth as much, etc.
So far as observat ion has shown, light comes to us through
the immense intervals which separate us from the fixed
stars, without any loss whatever. A celebrated theory of
the extinction of light in its passage through sjiace was, in-
deed, formulated by the eminent .Struve. early in the nine-
teenth century ; but he derived it from a theory of the order
an<l arrangement of the fixed .stars which has not been
shown to have any certain foundation. We may therefore
.say that if there is any extinction it is still to be detected.
When light .strikes a body, one of three tilings may hap-
pen : it may be reflected from tlie body, pass through it, or be
absorbed by it. One portion may be reflected, aiiotlur por-
tion absorbed, and another iiortion transmitted. The rule
is, however, that in all cases a greater or less amount of the
light will be alisorbed ; no body either transmits or reflects
all the light which falls upon it. In the ca.se of most gases,
when in a state of purity, the quanlitv of light reflected or
absorbed is so minute as to escape detection, except when
the light passes through great distances in the gas.
In entering a transjiarcnt body obliquely, an exception is
found to the rule that light is propagated in straight lines,
because refraction then occurs. See Hkfraction.
Nature of Liglit ; the I'tidulatory Tlieorg. — Two views of
the nature of light have been held hy philosoiihers. One is
that this agent consists of corpuscles ejected by the lumi-
nous body. This theory explains the salient nhi'iiomena very
clearly. The corpuscles move in straight lines, in accord-
ance with the motion of solid bodies; I hey are reflected as
solid bodies are when they strike an iin|ienetrable obstacle ;
the change of course in refraction by a trans|iarent body is
produced by the attraction of the body upon the corpuscles ;
LIGHT
249
absorption occurs when the body neither reflects tlie light
nor transmits it. Sir Isaac Xewton was the great supporter
of this emission theory, and the weight of his name long
gave currency to it ; but it is now universally rejected.
The undulatory theory of light attributes' that agent to
undulations in an elastic medium, known as the luminiferous
ether, filling all space. This theory has been found to ac-
count so completely for the phenomena exhibited by light
that it is now accepted as one of the fundamental conclusions
of physics ; but in studying the theory, the word " undula-
tion " must not be understood to necessarily imply an actual
wave-motion of the parts of the ether, nor must the ether
itself be regarded as a form of matter. In fact, the remark-
able coincidence between the velocity of propagation of
light and that of electro-magnetic effects has recently led
to the C(mclusion that light b really in the nature of a peri-
odical electro-magnetic polarity of the luminiferous ether.
What we can certainly say is that light consists of an alter-
nating action of two opposite kinds; that these two opposite
actions, when equal, will annihilate each other if combined
at the same point and the same moment, as two opposite
motions would : and that the alternation takes place with
exceeding rapidity, millions of millions of times in a second,
and within the space of less than one-thousandth of a milli-
meter. In these respects it is quite analogous to a wave-
motion, and may be represented by it.
The following figure will illustrate the wave theory of
light. It is supposed to represent waves in a medium which
is itself at rest, while the waves
■^ - M _ move from left toward right, as
in the ocean.
At the points A B, etc., the
displacement of the medium is
upward, and here the crests of the two waves are found at
the moment ; at M and X the displacement is downward,
and here are depressions in the waves. Thus each particle
of the ether, considered in itself, is conceived to be simply
moving up and down. On the electro-magnetic theory,
however, no actual motion of the ether takes place, but tlie
ether at A and B is polarized in one way, and at M and \
in the opposite way. Whatever theory we adopt, the dis-
tance A B or M X is called a wave-length.
Now imagine the waves to be in motion from left toward
right. This will mean that the particles between A and M
are undergoing elevation, those between M and B depression,
etc., at the moment represented in the figure. Thus all of
the particles are continually in motion, making a complete
vibration down and up again in the time in which the wave
moves over one wave-length. This is called the wave- time,
and if the wave-length and the velocity of propagation are
known, it is easily found by dividing the wave-length A B
by the velocity. It is thus found that the vibrations or
changes of polarity at one point occur millions of millions
of times in a second.
Relation of Color to Wave-length. — The fact that light is
something composite in its nature was first clearly proved
by Xewton. when, by the action of a prism, he resolved a
ray of white light into lights of the various prismatic colors,
and by recombining these colors reproduced white light.
It is now found that these differences of color arise from the
fact tliat the light which emanates from the sun, and indeed
from any incandescent solid body, is not of one wave-length.
but is composed of a confused mixture of waves of every
length down to a limit depending on the temperature of the
body, and that differences of wave-length affect the optic
nerve so as to produce a sensation of difference of color. The
relation between color and wave-length maybe stated some-
what as follows : Let us take as a unit the iO.OOOth part of a
millimeter. Then light of wave-length T units will ap|icar
intensely red, and will suffer a certain refraction on enter-
ing a prism or other transparent substance. If the wave-
length is gradually diminished to 6. the effect on the eye
will change to salmon yellow. As the length diminishes
from 6 to 5, the yellow effect will change to green. Dimin-
ishing the wave-length from 5 to 4, the optical effect will
change from green to blue and violet. As the wave-length
becomes less than 4. the color will change to lavender, and
then the light will entirely disappear. With every diminu-
tion of the wave-length, the amount of refraction by a prism
or other transparent body will continually increase.
Polarization aside, two kinds of light of the same wave-
length and of the same intensity are perfectly alike in all of
their properties, just as two specimens of any elementary sub-
stance would be. It follows that one ligli't can differ from
another only in intensity and wave-length. All ordinary kinds
of light which come from incandescent substances are formed
of a mixture of light of all wave-lengths, and not merely of
a certain, definite number of such lengths. There are some-
times supposed to be exactly seven prismatic colors ; this,
however, is not the case ; by observing the spectrum thrown
by a prism, it will be seen that there is every gradation of
color from the extreme red to the extremeviolet without
any break whatever. See Color.
Identity of Light and Radiant Heat. — The wave-lengths
of light, so far as the eye can show, do not extend beyond the
longest limit that we have just mentioned ; that is to say, so
far as optical observations go, no light has a greater wave-
length than seven and a half of the above defined units, or
about 0000750 of a millimeter. There is no evident reason,
however, why the undulations or polarizations of the ether
produced by the action of heat or other causes should be
limited to this wave-length ; in fact, they are not so limited.
The actual wave-lengths of the undulations of the ethereal
medium have a range so wide that it has not yet been de-
termined ; but when the length exceeds 7'5 units, it no longer
affects the optic nerve, so we do not have the sensation of
light. Still we have the sensation of heat, and are therefore
led to inquire into the relation between light and heat.
Let us study the phenomena of the latter from another
point of view. We all know that the sun is continually
sending us heat through space ; that if any substance is ex-
posed to the sun's rays it becomes warm. We know that
the same thing is true of a fire ; by standing before it we
are heated, and we can easily convince oui-selves that this
heat does not arise from any warming of the air. If we
suddenly make a hot fire in a cold room, we shall feel the
heat before the air gets warm, and by merely holding a
screen before our face, we can cut the heat off. This shows
that the heat which comes from the fire proceeds in straight
lines, like light. Suppose now that instead of a fire we
take simply a piece of hot iron. On holding the hand very
close to the iron, we shall find heat is radiated from it in
the same way, although there is no luminosity. By a care-
ful study and generalization from such eases, the conclusion
is reached that all bodies radiate heat at all temperatures.
If we hold the hands near a mass of ice, we shall feel a sen-
sation of cold, an effect which arises, not from cold passing
from the ice to the hands, but from the hands radiating
hcirt to the ice. The analogy thus shown between heat in
the act of being radiated and light has long l)een the sub-
ject of inquiry. The nature of the relation was formerly
expressed by saying that both light and heat were radiated ;
but the view now universally accepted is that the two
agents are identical. The proofs by which this view is sus-
tained are too numerous to be detailed at length. It will
suffice to say in a general way that heat is found to have a
wave-length, like light, and that at any given wave-length
light and heat are strictly proportional. It is therefore log-
ical to suppose that only one agent is concerned in both.
This agent may be called radiance. The theory of the rela-
tion, as now understood, may be expressed as follows: Al-
though bodies emit radiance at all temperatures, yet the
wave-length of the radiation varies with the temperature.
The rule is that we always have the longer wave-lengths
however high the temperature, but tliat rays of the shorter
wave-lengths are radiated only when the body reaches a
certain temperature corresponding to them. Kor example,
we may imagine that at the temperature of boiling water
the radiance is of all wave-lengths exceeding, we may sup-
pose, ten or twelve of our ifnits, but of none shorter than
this; and as the body becomes hot and hotter radiance of
wave-length is continually added, until at a temperature of
980' F., waves of a length as short as 75, or 750 mdlionths of
a millimeter, are emitted. Then for the first time we have
an agency which will affect the optic nerve, and produce
what we call light. The color is a dull red. As the temper-
ature of the body is raised still higher, waves of yet shorter
length are produced ; thus we have light which appears not
merely red. but of a color resulting from a mixture of the
red light with light of shorter wave-lengths, yellow, green,
blue, etc., being successively added. The successive addi-
tion of these colors gradually changes the color of the mix-
ture to white, which is a mixture of light of all visible wave-
lengths.
Velocity of Light. — To all appearance the motion of light
is instantaneous. By no ordinary experiment which we can
make can we detect any interval of time iK'tween the mo-
ment when light is allowed to escape from a luminous
250
LIGHT
LIGHTFOOT
source and the moment wlicn it affects the eye. cither by di-
rect priijuipition or by r»-Hectiuii tmm a distant object.
That the nmtioii is not inslautiuieous was first shown l>y the
eclipsos of the satellites of Jupiter. It was found bv R<>e-
iner about two centuries ago that when the earth and Jupi-
ter were on op[H)site sides of the sun the eclipses of tne
satelliles seemed to occur too late, wliile when on the same
side they occurred too early. The extreme deviation from
the mean lime wius found by Koemer to l)e eleven minutes.
It is now, however, known to be aljout eijrht minutes twenty
seconds; that is to say, light crosses tlie interval which sepa-
rates the earth from' the sun in a little more than eijcht
minutes. This speed is such that it would make a complete
circuit of the earth seven times in a single second. During
the nineteenth century various experimenters have found the
velocity of the surface of the earth to be nearly 2i>'J.8<50 km.
per second. Knowing this velocity and the time required
to cross the orbit of the earth the distance of the sirn can be
calculated. See Solar Par.\llax.
Jlethod of JIfaKuriiii/ the Vulocity of Light. — With such
a speed as carries a ray of light around the eiirth seven
times per second, this is a very dilTicult problem, of which
the solution must rest upon the possibility of sending a ray
of light to a distant mirror, seeing it by reflection on its re-
turn, and determining tlie time which it took to go and
come. This has been done with entire success in two dif-
ferent ways. The siuiplest method consists in sending the
rays through the apertures between the teeth of a rapidly
revolving wheel, and concentrating them by means of a
telescope on a distant mirror, which may be several miles
away, but which reflects the light back to the starting-point.
When the wheel is set in rajjid rotation, each flash of light
passing Ix'twcen a pair of teeth may be caught, cither on
the adjoining tooth or on one of several teeth following,
according to the distance and the speed with which th»
wheel revolves. The flashes are then invisible. When the
wheel turns more rapidly the return ray passes through be-
tween some pair of teeth, and so t)ecomes visible.
A much more accurate method is, however, that of the re-
volving mirror, invented by Koucault. The principle of the
method may be understood by the accompanying figure,
which shows the arrangement of the apparattis used in
Washington during the years lb8(M?3. A B is a part of
a telescop, of which B is the object-glass. By a hcliostat
mirror, II, a beam of sunlight is thrown through tlie slit G.
The ravs emerging parallel from the objective B- fall upim
the polished face of the revolving mirror C C. from which
they are reflected in the direction L to a distant mirror not
shown in the figure. In the Washington cxperimerils the
aiiparatus was at Fort Myer, a hill in Virginia, overlooking
the Potomac and the city of Washington, wliilo the distant
mirror was at the base of the Wttsliington Monument, more
than 2 milcsaway. The rays relurn from the distant mirror
along tlie line L. again strike the mirrorCC.anrl are reflected
back from it. To receive t hem a second tclesconc. H, is used,
having its object-glass K In-low that of the other telescope.
The faces of the mirror (' were 4 inches in length, so as to be
large enough both to receive the rays from the one teles<'ope,
A B, and reflect them back into the other, K H. Were the
mirror perfectly at rest, thi' ri'turn ray would he refle(-ted into
the receiving lelcsj'opi" H K, when it was parallel with the
other ; they would, in fact, be sent out in a direction parallel
to that from which they came; but wlien the mirror is set
in rapid rotation, then every time it passes the position
shown in the figure the sunlight flashes upon the distant
mirror, and the return flash comes back. The mirror C
having revolved through a small atigle between the time
that the flash is reflected to the distant mirror and the time
that it returns, a-s shown l>y the dotted line, the return ray
is no hmger reflected in the same direction, but in the ilircc-
tion K if, or toward the ]x)int Q, according to the direction
in which the mirnir is revolving. Supposing the mirror to
have equal speeds in the two directions, the deviation of the
lines K II or K Cj) from the medial line B A would be double
the distance wliich the mirror revolves while the ray is go-
ing and coining. Knowing the exact velocity of revolution
of the mirror, the lime each ray requires to go and come is
exactly determined. It was thus found that a ray of light
went from Fort Myer to the Washington Monument and
back in about twenty-five millionths of a secontl, or some-
what less than the forty-thousandth part of a second. The
distance between the two points was determined with great
accuracy by triangulation. It was thence concluded that
light moves in the air with a velocity of 2!(y,780 km. jier
second, and in a vacuum with a speed of 2!)y.860 km.
Actinic Effect of l^iylit. — It has long been known that
light is capable of producing certain chemical changes, es-
pecially in the salts of silver, a property wliich is now util-
ized in photogni|ihy. This effect is sometimes called actinic,
and was once attributed, like heat, to a separate kind of ra-
diation. It is now found that the actinic cfl'ect is merely the
action of light itself: and since light is nothing but radiant
energy, it follows that all the effects of heat, light, and chem-
ical action are due to the one agent which we call radiance.
The idea that the actinic effect was not due solely to the
light was first suggested by the fact that only the blue and
violet rays of the spectrum, or those of sliortest wave-
length, produced any actinic effect. This, however, does not
show that any separate cause has acted; it merely shows,
what is now well understood, that the rays of short wave-
length are those wliich are most powerful in producing
cliemical action.
The action, properties, and applications of light give rise
to a nuiiiber of branches of research, the principal of which
may be classified as follows :
(1) The Vndnliitnnj Theory. — To work out the results of
this theory requires a mathematical investigation of the
laws of vibration of an elastic medium, as the ether was
supposed to.be. This branch of the subject is too abstruse
to be treated in a popular cyclopaedia. The mathematical
student who wishes to ])ursue it will have to consult the
original memoirs of Cauchv, Hamilton, and other writers,
or .Mascart's Traite d'Optiqiie (3 vols.. Paris, 1890-93).
(2) Oeometricnl Optics. — This branch of the subject is
concerned with the laws of the reflection and refract ion of light
by transparent substances, and especially with the applica-
tion of tfiese laws to the construction of optical instruments,
telescopes, microscopes, S|)ectroseopes, etc. A resume of
these laws will be found under Optics.
(3) Physical optics, which is concerned with the laws of
the action of light of different wave-lengths, the measure-
ment of these wave-lengths, diffraction, polarization, etc.
The division of this subject which offers tlie most interest-
ing field of study is that of diffraction. The measurement
of the refractive indices of various transjiarent substances
may be included in the same general category.
(4) Spectrum analysis, and the study of the light emitted
by incandescent bodies, or absorbed by transjiarent gases,
as indicated by their spectra. This subject is treated under
Si'ECTRiM and .Si-kctroscope.
(5) Photometrv (^. r.). or the measurement of the total
intensity of light emitted by or reflected from bodies.
((>) Physioliii/icril optics, or the laws of vision based upon
the action of light on the optic nerve. This subject is
treated under Vision.
See J. Tvndall, .S'(> Lectures on Light (1885) ; G. G. Stokes,
On Light llUH-!); I'. G. Tail, Light (1889); E. Loramel, The
Suture of Light (1892). S. Newcosib.
Lig'htfoot, Jnnv, P.I).: Hebrew scholar; h. at Stokc-
unon-Trent, Kngland, Mar. 29. 1(>02: was ediiijiled at
Cnrist's College, Cambridge ; took orders in the Church of
Kngland; became cha|)lain to Sir Howland Cotton; was
minister at Stone in Staffordshire and at Ashley ; was a
member of the famous " .Vssembly of Divines" at \V'esl min-
ster (lG4;i); became in 1044 rector of Much Munden, llert-
LIGHTPOOT
LIGHTHOUSE
251
fonlsliirp : in 1650 master of Catharine Hall, Cambridge ;
and in 1654 vice-chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
At the Restoration he was deprived of his mastership, but it
was subsequently restored to him, and he also obtained a
canonry at Ely, where he died Dee. 6, 1675. Dr. Lightfoot
was probaldy the most learned Hebrew scholar tliat Eng-
land has ever produced, and his great work, llarw Ililimicie
et Talmudicce (1658; new and improved ed. in 4 vols., by
Gandell in 185"J), is still a standard autliority for the illus-
tration of the Gospels by means of the Talmud and Midrash.
He contributed much to Walton's Polyglot liilile. Caslell's
Jhptaglot Lexicon, and Poole's Synopsis Criticoriim. He
maintained the inspiration of the voweUpoints in the He-
brew Bil)le. His miscellaneous works were collected after
his death, together with the work mentioned, in two volumes
(Lon<ion. 1684), and were several times reprinted, the best
edition of his complete works being that of Pitman (lion-
don, i;! vols., 1823-25), which contains a life and an elabo-
rate bil)li(igra|]hy. Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Lii^htfoot, Joseph Barber, D. D., D. C. L. : biblical
scholar; b. in Liverpool, England, in 1828; graduated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1851 with high honors in clas-
sics ; became a fellow in 18.53, tutor in 1857, Ilulsean divinity
professor in 1861, canon of St. Paul's in 1871, and Bishop of
Durham in 1879. His commentaries on the Pauline hpis-
tles display great learning and ability ; thev comprise Gala-
tians{\m^); Philippians (1870; 6th ed. 1881); and CoUis-
sians (1875), each with a revised Greek text. He has pub-
lished the Two Epistles to the Corinthians of St. Clement
of Rome (1869); with an appendix containing the newly re-
covered portions in 1877): Epistles of St. Ignatius (3 vols.,
1885) ; he was one of the New Testament company of Bible
revisers, whose work he explained in an essay Oh a Fresh
Rerision of the English JVeio Testament (1871) ; also wrote
magazine articles, of which the most notable were directed'*
against the anonymous author of a work on Supernatural
Religion (1875). D. at Bishop's Auckland, Durham, Dec.
21, 1889. New volumes and new editions of Bishop Light-
foot's important theological and exegetical works are being
published under the direction of his literary executors. The
following have appeared ; Dissertations on the Apostolic
Age (1892); Apostolic Fathers, part i., S. Clement of Rome
(3 vols., 1890); part ii., S. Ignatius, S. Pohjcarp (3 vols.,
2d ed. 1889). Shortly before his death the bishop printed a
statement of his views on The Threefold Ministry, consist-
ing of his latest references to this subject found in his col-
lected writings. This very valuable and authoritative paper
is reprinted in full in the preface to the third edition of
Canon Malcolm MacCoU's Christianity in Relation to Sci-
ence and Jlorals (3d ed., pp. xxiv.-xxxvii.). Among the
bishop's minor writings are the Sermon before the Repre-
sentative Council of the Scottish Episcopal Church (1882);
Sermon before the Church Congress at Woloerhampton
(1887) ; and Address at the Reopening of the Chapel, Auck-
land Castle (1888). Revised by W. S. Perry.
Ligrhthouse : an elevated structure, usually tower-shaped,
containing a light or lights. It is designed to serve as a
guide at night to mariners, who in the daytime, when within
sight of shore, make use of landmarks as guides, and when
on the open sea find theix way by means of the compass, and
determine their positions by astronomical observations.
Lighthouses seem to have been known from very early
times. The ttrst of which we have certain information was
the one at Alexandria in Egypt. This lighthouse was built
about 300 B. €., probably by Ptolemy Soter. It stood on
the island of *apoj, just in front of the city, and hence re-
ceived its name, which has become generic in tlie languages
derived from the Latin {Ij&t. pharus; Fr.phare; Su.faro),
and even in English the word /)Aaro was once used. This
liglithouse was destroyed during the fourteenth century,
probably by an earthquake. Although the Faros of Alex-
andria is tlie most celebrated of the towers of antiquity, in
all probability it was not the first. There is evidence that
as far back as the Trojan war a tower supporting a light for
the guidance of mariners stood on Cape .Siga-a. a little S. of
the entnince to the Dardanelles. Other towers on the Dar-
danelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus, may also
have antedated the Alexandrian Faros.
Allard ment ions* twenty-seven light houscsof ancient times.
all of which have disappeared with the exception of the one
at Coruna. This tower wiis built originally with an exterior
staircase. When it was restored in 1797, " in order to pre-
* Lcs Pharei ; Histoire, Construction et ^clairage.
serve as far as possible the remembrance and appearance of
the Roman structure, a wide projecting stone bund waa built
on each of the four
faces of the new tower,
following exactly the
slope of the ancient
outside stairway."
During the Dark
Ages lighthouses fol-
lowed the fate of all
other results of earlier
civilization. With the
Renaissance they be-
gan to appear again.
Many were built on
the French coasts in
the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries.
The Trinity House cor-
poration was organized
in England early in
the sixteenth century,
and in the following
century it was in
charge of the lighting
of the English coasts.
The first lighthouse
built within the limits
of the V. S. was the
Boston light on the
north side of the en-
trance to Boston har-
bor. It was erected in
1716.
After the forma-
tion of the U. S. Gov-
ernment, early atten-
tion was given to the
constnietion of light-
houses, and the care of these aids to navigation was vested
in the Treasury Department. The service was under the
control of the "fifth auditor until the lighthouse board was
organized in 1852. This board is composed of the Secretary
of the Treasury as president, of two naval officers of high
rank.of twooffi- _^
cers of the corps (^ y-\( /
of Engineers ' '
of the army, of
two civilians of
high scientific
attainments, a
third naval offi-
cer as the na-
val secretary,
and a third en-
gineer officer as
the engineer
secretary.
Lighthouse
Construction. —
Mariners when
approaching a
coast are always
on the lookout
for something
whereby to de-
termine their
exact position.
If the approach
be made at
night a light
first strikes the
sight: if it be
by day some
day-mark serves
the same pur-
pose. A light
so seen is called
a " land-fall
Fig. 2.— Minot's Ledgp. as prepared to receive
the fouDdatkm-slones.
Minot's Ledge.
light. The farther out at sea it is seen, the better its serv-
ice is performed. It is put, therefore, on top of a structure
of greater or less height, according to its importance. These
structures are called towers, the heights of which vary great-
ly. If built near the level of the sea. it is rarely less than
252
LIGHTHOUSE
150 feot for land-fall Iif;lits. Other lights are used to guide
the mariner throu;;li sjierial channels, or to mark siwcial
tlanjiers. Such li^'hts are jihued in towers of less height,
but rarely less than 35 or 40 feet alxive the sea-level. In
some cases the land-full lights also perform these second-
ary duties. The lights on the outlying rocks of the coast
of 'Maine, and the lights on Northwest Seal and Tillamook
Kocks on the Pacitic coast, are examples of lights for land-
falls and for special dangei-s.
Two things iletermine the dimensions of a tower: (1) the
distance from which it is to be seen : (2) the character of
the light to be shown. The former determines the height,
the latter the diameter at the top. Starting with these data,
the dimensions of the tower are calculated so that it shall
be safe to stand under its own weight, and so that it shall not
be moved by any force of wiml or wave which may attack it.
This calculation is made with comparatively little trouble.
The great dilliculty in lighthouse construction is the foun-
dation. This once obtained, the rest goes on with little
delay.
The preparation of a foundation on a s6a-swept rock taxes
all the powers of the engineer. Every minute is of value.
Alert watchfulness is the ruling feature. Every chance, no
nuitter how slight, fur advancing the work must be seized.
This is well illustrated in the construction of the tower
at Minot's Ledge, near Boston, Mass. (Figs. 1 and 2). It
stands on the outermost of a number of rock ledges near
Cohasset. The rock which supports it rises but 3J feet
above water at low tide. At high tide the highest point is 7
ft. 2 in. under water. At lowest water a space of 30 feet in
diameter only is bare. A landing could be made only when
the sea was calm and smooth and the tide was at its lowest.
For weeks at a time it wjis impossible to land. As some of
the work of leveling and shaping the rock had to be done2i
feet below low water, it can easily be realized how little time
was disposable at this point. Three summers were spent in
preparing the i-ock for
the foundation before
a single stone was laid.
Ten to twelve horn's of
work was required for
each cubic yard re-
moved. The tower was
finished just five years
after the first landing
was made on the ledge.
A direct descendant
of the Minot's Ledge
light is the one at
Spectacle Reef in Lake
Huron (Fig. 3). It
stands in 11 feet of
water, on a rock ledge
over which lies a cov-
ering of bowlders 2
feet thick. No great
waves were to be an-
ticipated. Curtentsare
found here at times
with velocities of 2 or
3 miles an hour. Dur-
ing the winter these
currents carry back
and f(jrth fields of ice
thousands of acres in
extent, and 2 feet
thick. This ice formed
in fresh water is ex-
ceo<lingly solid and
firm, and when it
moves in such masses
and with such veloci-
ties as those named its
living force is well-
nigh irresistible. The
structure wils intended to offer such a resistance as would
crush the Ice first ami then impcdi' its motion so as to cause
it to ground on the reef, and by piling up on itself form a
barrier which should relieve the tower from the pressure of
the mass behind.
The tower is founded on the bed-rock of the reef. Its
shape Is that of a frusrum of a cone, 32 feet in diameter at
the base and 18 feet in diameter at the s[iring of the cornice.
The total height of the masonry is 93 feet. The lower is
soliil for the first 34 feet. Above this it is hollow, ami
divided into five stories or rooms. The walls are 5 ft. 63 in.
thick at the base of the hollow portion, and IH inches at the
spring of the cornice. The tower is lineil with a brick wall
4 inches thick, between which and the outer wall is an air-
space of 2 inches.
Two important lighthouses have been Vinilt on the Pacific
coast : one on Tillamook Umk, oil the coast of Oregim, and
one on Northwest Seal Uock. olf the extreme northern end
of the coast of California. These rocks lie exposed to the
full force of the winds sweeping across the Pacific Ocean.
The waves caused by gales break completely over them.
While work was under way on each it was frequently inter-
rupted by reason of the impossibility of reacliing the site
or of renuiining on the rock when a landing had been made.
Tillamook Uock is a bold basaltic mass, lying about 20
miles S. of the mouth of the Columbia river and about
a mile from the |)romontory called Tillamook Head. The
depth of water arouiul the rock varies from 16 to 40 fathoms.
Uising from the sea the west side of the rock slopes east-
wardly, so that at the height of 40 feet the recession is about
30 feet; in the next 40 feet of rise the slope changes to an
overhang of 25 feet ; in the last 40 feet the rock again re-
cedes. The a|ipearance of the overhang is somewhat like
that of a huge burl on a tree. The toiJ of the rock is 12055
feet above the lowest spring tides. From the top the rock
slopes very abruptly to the eastward to a point 30 feet down,
and from this point it runs down gradually to the sea at a
slope of 1 vertu'al to 5 base. On the south side is a deep
fissure about 25 feet wide, which divides the rock into two
unequal parts. Waves break violently into this fissure
during storms, and at times sweep down the opposite slope.
The principal division of the rock, before its surface was
disturbed, was of exceedingly irregular shape, and about
,.100 feet square. Little needles projected everywhere above
the surface, forming narrow and deep crevices, in and
throuirh which was a mass of large and small cubical blocks
from 3 to 12 inches on a side, cemented togctlier by a tough
and unyielding matrix. The original columnar formation
had been destroyed, and these were tlie' remains.
The first landing for work on the rock was made on Oct.
21. 1870, and on Jan. 8. ISSl. everything was finished, includ-
ing tlie adjustment of the illuminating apparatus. Thirteen
days later the light was shown fur the first time. The great
3. I.if<bth<>ua4* at S]r>ectacle lieef,
Lake llurou <iu au ice-lli>e>.
Fio. 4.— Tillamook Koek light.
difTicnlty in the way of building this light was the great
waves which rise on the Pacific without the slightest warn-
ing. Early in .Jan., 1880, the water fmm the rebounding
waves was carried up to and over the rock in such quantities
and with such violence as to destroy the storehouse, which
was at 30 fi'ct above the level of the sea. The men's quar-
ters were higher up. Although they were not destroyed,
they were in gieat danger.
LIGHTHOUSE
253
The light at Tillamook Rock is 136 feet above the level of
the sea.
Northwest Seal Rock is the outermost of a dangerous reef
of rocks, called St. George's Reef, extending 6 or 7 miles
into the ocean off tlie extreme northern end of California.
The shape of the rock is a rough oval, with a ridge running
from E. to W. ; its area at the level of hiw water is about
40,000 sq. feet ; the highest point is 54 feet above low water.
The water around the rook is about 30 fal horns deep. The
rock is exposed to the waves from any direction from the S.
by way of the W. to N. It is very difficult to land at the
rock. The structure proposed and ailopted for the station
is a pier of irregular oval form, having its top 70 feet above
FiQ. 5.— Northwest Seal Rock lighthouse.
the sea (Fig. 5). On this pier stands the keepers' dwelling,
in the cellar of which are placed the fog-signal machinery
and the hoisting-engines. In one side of the building stands
the stone tower, from the top of which the light is shown,
at a height of 145 feet above tlie sea. To receive the pier
the outside of the rock had to be cut into four benches, and
the part of the rock left standing had to be so prepared that
the surrounding masonry could be bonded into it. The rock
gave every indication of being, at times, completely swept
by the waves, yet in order to have the area required for the
pier the first benclies lia<l to be cut less than 25 feet above
low water. There was no point of the rock where men or
materials coidd find even a temporary lodgment beyond the
reach of waves. As neither men nor materials could be kept
on the rock, and as the nearest landing-point was 13 miles
away, a vessel was used as a living-place for the men and as
a storehouse for the tools, etc., required for the work. The
vessel was moored a short distance from the rock by two
lines leading to ring-bolts in the rock and by four lines
fastened to mooring-ljuoys. A '2-J-inch wire-rope was made
fast at one end to a ring-bolt in the rock, and at the other
end to a mooring-buoy ISO feet from the vessel. The fore
and main throat halyards were made fast to the strap of a
block over which the wire-rope could work easily. By means
of the halyards the part of the rope at the vessel could be
raised or lowered. A traveler block moved Ijy an endless
rope was used to send the men and materials to the rock,
and to bring tlie former liack. The men were generally
carried in an iron cage. In spite of all these difficulties
the benches for the foundation courses were cut in the rock,
and the cistern, of a capacity of 77,000 gal., was excavated,
all during the season.
To [irepare the rock for the Ijottom courses of the pier a
bench 10 feet wide, having four different levels, was blasted
out and accurately finished with patent hamnu'rs. The
center cone was roughly stepped to receive the masonry.
The outside com'ses of the pier are 2 feet and 2 ft. 6 in.
high, built in Flemish bond. The headers are 5 feet long
by 2 ft. 6 in. width of face; the stretchers are 5 ft. 8 in.
long by 2 fl. 6 in. bed. All horizontal beds are connected
by a 2-inch diameter dowel of gun-metal in each block, pro-
jecting half its length into the course below, except in the
upper course, in which the dowels are omitted, but all the
vertical joints of the outside stones of this course are dove-
tailed or joggled into each other. The top of the pier is
laid with stone flagging 12 inches thick. finished with eight-cut
patent hammers. This serves as a water-table with 3 inches
fall from the center to gutters cut in the stone at the outer
rim, whence the water is carried by a 4-inch pipe to the cis-
tern in the base of the pier. To prevent leakage, all the
joints in the top of the pier were cleaned to a depth of 2
inches, and thoroughly calked with sand and cement mois-
tened with lioiled linseed oil.
The lighthouses considered so far have been all founded
on rock. We come now to foundations more or less un-
stable. These foundations may be divided into three classes:
(1) Where the substratum may be regarded as stable so long
as it is protected from the action of the sea; (2) where it is
so soft that the pressure must be spread over a large area,
so as to reduce that on the unit of area to a minimum ;
(3) where the material of the substratum is liable to be at-
tacked by water.
As examples of the first class may be mentioned the tow-
ers at Cape Hatteras and Body's island, N. C, and at Mos-
quito Inlet, Fla. The first two rest each on a grillage which,
at Hatteras, is 6 feet below the surface of the beach, while
at Body's island it is 7 feet below. In each case the gril-
lage is made of two courses of 6-inch by 12-inch timbers laid
at right angles to each other, the timbers of each course be-
ing set close. At Hatteras there was laid on this grillage a
massive octagonal foundation of large granite blocks set in
cement mortar, the interstices being filled with smaller stones
of the same kind. At the proper height the octagonal plinth
courses were placed. At Body's island one course of dimen-
sion stone 18 inches thick was laid on the grillage. On this
was set coursed rubl)le in large blocks, thoroughly breaking
joints, and all grouted with one part of Portland cement to
two parts of clean, sharp sand. At Mosquito Inlet the ex-
cavation for the foundation was carried to 12 feet below the
level of the surface. In this excavation was placed a cir-
cular bed of concrete 48 feet in diameter. As the concrete
foundation was built up, its diameter was reduced 2 feet at
each 2 feet of height. On top of the concrete foundation
was laid a belt course all around the base of the tower.
From this belt course starts the tower proper, which is the
frustrum of a cone of 30 feet outside diameter at the bot-
tom and 18 feet outside diameter at a height of 120 feet.
As an example of the second class of foundation, the
Southwest Pass lighthouse may be taken ; it is the most
important light in the Gulf of Mexico. The soil where this
light stands is the mere sedimentary deposit of the Mis-
sissippi river, its components being clay, very fine sand, and
vegetable matter. It is too soft to sustain any considerable
weight. To obtain the foundation, piles were driven in
rows over an area 60 feet in diameter. The piles in each
row were 3^ feet between centers, the rows being the same
distance apart. The piles were all driven to a depth of 50
feet and cut off at 2 ft. 6 in. below low water. In the cen-
ter of each of the squares thus formed was driven another
pile to a depth of 50 feet, and cut off at 1 ft. 6 in. A grillage
of 12-inch square timbers, laid at right angles and halved to
each other, was laid on the first set of piles. The grillage
was built up to a height of 1 ft. 6 in. above low water. The
pockets of the grillage were filled with concrete, and the
whole space occupied by the grillage was covered with 4
feet of concrete. To this concrete mass are anchored the
socket disks from which the legs of the skeleton tower
rise.
Under the third class may be grouped two kinds of struc-
tures ; those in exposed positions where great strength is re-
quired, and those in .safer places, or where the light re-
quired is such that a heavy structure is not needed. Those
in exposed positions have either tubular or caisson founda-
tions. The tubular foundation was first proposed by Maj.
(now Colonel) G. H. Elliot, corjis of Engineers, while he was
engineer secretary of the lighthouse board. The light-
house at Old Orchard Shoal. \ew York harbor, is con-
structed in this way. It consists of a cast-iron cylinder,
open at the bottom", 33 feet in diameter and 45 feet high.
A hole 7 ft. 8 in. deep was dug in the shoal by means of a
dredge. The cylin<ler, nuule of seven courses of thirty-two
plates in each, was set in the hole dredged for it. The bot-
tom of the cylinder for a height of 13|^ feet was filled with
concrete laii'l under water. Above this level the concrete
was laid after the water in the cylinder had been removed.
The concrete was continued up solid to a height of 3 ft. 10
in. above high water, except the hollow left for the fresh-
water cistern. The remaining height of the cylinder. 10 ft.
9 in., is occupied by the cellar, its floor, and the masonry
which supports the superstructure. The top course of plates
curves outward, so as to give a support to the balcony
whicli surrounds the structure. When the concrete filling
251
LIGUTIIOUSE
was finished a mass i>f riprap was piled around the cylinder
to Rive greater staliilitv.
The best eximi|ile ol a caisson foundation in the U. S. is
that of the Fourteen Foot Bank liglit in Dehiware Hay.
about 22 miles from its mouth. It is an important light, «s
it marks a turn in the eliannel. It is exposed to heavy
shoeks from ice when the lalter goes out of the biiv after a
hard winter: hence it must have great stability, it stands
on an oval-shaped shoal, on which the least depth of water
at low tide is 20 feet. The foundation for the light is a
mass of concrete wliich rises to a height of 13i feet above
high water. The bottom of the mass is 23 feet below the
surface of the shoal. The difference between high and low
water is 6 feet. The concrete mass is inclosed in a cast-iron
cylinder, 35 feet in exterior diameter and 73 feet high ; the
top of the cylinder is 10^ feet above the top of the concrete.
This part of the cylinder is lined with masonry and con-
crete, and forms the cellar of the lighthouse. The cylinder
is made of twelve courses of cast-iron plates, thirty-six
platos in each course. The plates are 1^ inches thick, 6 ft. 1
in. high, with horizontal and vertical flanges, 6 inches wide
and 1} inches thick, on each iilate.
The second kind of these foundations is found in the nu-
merous forms of iron piles, which are niucli used at jxiints
where ice is rarely found. There are cases, however, where
these structures have stood severe attacks of ice, but in
other cases some have been carried away. If a tower be
erected on this class of foundation, it is almost invariably
what is known as a skeleton structure.
The first of these structures in the U. S. was the light at
Brandywine Shoal, 8 miles from the mouth of Delaware
Bay. The site is much exiwsed to waves from the ocean.
The depth of water on the shoal being coniparativi'lv slight,
6 feet at low water of spring tides and 13^ at high water,
the light is not exposccl to serious attacks from ice, which
generally grounds on the shoal above, and below the site.
As this lighthouse was built before the lighthouse board
was formed, nothing is known about the details of its con-
struction except that it is founded on nine screw-piles. An
ice-breaker also resting on screw-nilcs was added after the
construction of the lighthouse. The top of the ice-breaker
is planked over and forms a platform about the lighthouse.
Another sort of foundations of this class is that adopted
for some of the towers of the Florida keys. The tower at
Fowey Rocks may be taken as a model. The depth of water
where' it stands is 5 feet at low tide and 8 feet at high tide.
The ground is coral rock. The structure stands on nine
piles of solid wrought iron 12 inches in diameter, set at the
center and angles of a regular octagon. The piles are pointed.
A shoulder is made on each pile 10 feet above the point.
Each pile is driven through a cast-iron disk, accurately
placed on the bed of the ocean, until the shoulder rests on
the disk. The piles are securely fastened together by l)raoes
and tie-rods, and on them the superstructure, a skeleton
tower, is raised.
The foundation of the lighthouse at Race Rock, at the
eastern entrance to Long Island Sound, presents some fea-
tures peculiar to itself. The site is exposed to heavy wave-
action from the E. and S. E. The tidal currents riin with
great violence in each direction; hence the name, "The
Race," given to the waterway between Little Gull island
aiul Fisher's island. The ice' from the Thames river an<l
from the adjacent waters of the Sound is also to lie feared.
For these reasons a large mass of ri[)rap, 100 by 150 feet on
top, was formeil,the sides being protected by blocks of stone
of 8 or 10 tons weight. The interior of this mass was re-
moved and the concrete foundation laid in its place. The
fouiulation wiLs laiil in steps 2 feet high, each layer being
shaped by means of a cast-iron ring, which was placed in
position by a diver.
The su[ierstruclures of lighthouse towers present no spe-
cial diflicnlties. Where they are exposed to the violent action
of waves, as at Minot's Ledge, they are built o[ masonry,
the stones being cut so that each one has a firm hold on
those «in each side of and aliove and below it. Gn^at dowels
of metal also pass from one stone to those next above and
below. Every means wliich ingenuity can suggest is used
to insure the solidarity of the nuiss.
There arc many points of the coast where the sea is on-
croacliing rapidly. At .some of these places towers haVe
been builtof such construction that they can be taken down if
ncci'ssary and removed to safer sites. The tower at Hunt-
ing ishind, .S. ('., is a specimen of this sort of structure. It
is built of cast-iron panels, each of which is flanged on all
four sides, so that it can be bolted securely to those
around it. This iron tower has a brick lining it inches thick.
The lighthouse at Cape Canaveral, Fla., which is of similar
construction, is (18!)4) in course of removal to a new site,
about a mile farther inshore.
An iron skeleton sunerstructure presents many advan-
tages in. its lightness, the (juickness with which it can be
built, and its comparatively small cost. The lighthouse at
Cape Charles, Va.. has a tower 175 feet high from the top of
the concrete blocks which form the foundation to the focal
plane of the lens, and HI2 ft. ~\ in. to the top of the pinnacle
of the lantern. The tower has a central cylinder, 9 feet in
external diameter, made of cast-iron plates, and supported
by eight hollow cast-iron legs. The cylinder contains an
elevator, in which a load of 250 lb. can be carried to the
watch-room, and a stairway surrounding the cylinder. The
external diameter of the bottom sections of the legs is 13
inches. The remaining six sections have this diameter re-
duced successively by an inch, so that the top section is of
7 inches diameter.
The cost of these different structures is:
Minofs Ledge |332,000
Spectacle Reef 406,000
Tillamook Kock 123.300
Northwest Seal Rock 730.000
Cape Ilalteras 222,500
Bodv's islam! 177,200
Mosquito Inlet 135,600
Southwest Pass 270,700
Old Orchard Shoal 57,500
Fourteen Foot Hank 134,400
Brandvwine Shoal 160,600
Fowev Rocks 163,000
Race Rock 285,700
Lighthouse IHuminafioti. — It will be well to lay down a
few principles before describing the apparatus used for
lighthouse ilhiminatiim. Any brilliant body emits rays of
light which, if not arrested, go out in all directions. As an
observer goes away from the body its brightness diminishes,
as he comes near it increases. This change of brightness
in an absolutely trans|>arent atmosphere takes place accord-
ing to "the law of the inverse squares," i. e. if the light be
seen from a distance of 2, 3, 4, 5 . . . j-ards, its brigiitness
at these distances is i-, ^, iV, jV • • • of what it is at a dis-
tance of 1 yard. In an ordinary atmosphere this law holds
g<iod only in part, because of the absorption of the light liy
jiarticles of all sorts, vapor, dust, etc., which are in the air.
The loss of light then becomes greater than the law of in-
verse squares indicates. In order to overcome this loss it is
necessary to concentrate and make parallel with each other
the rays of liglit given off by the body. This may be ac-
'complished by a lens which refracts or bends the rays pass-
ing through it. This way is called the "dioptric " system.
It may be accomplished by reflecting the rays back from a
properly shaped mirror. This is called the "catoptric" sys-
tem.
The simplest reflector which sends out the rays parallel
to each other is that made by revolving a parabola on its
axis. A parabola (Fig. 6)
is a curve of which each '
point is situated at eipial
distances from a given
point, called the focus,
and from a given straiglit
line. In Fig. 6 V 0 V is
the given straight line, ^
and F is the given point
or focus. The curve A H C
is a parabola. The straight
line O A X is called the
axis. If the curve be
made to revolve about the
axis it will make a hoi- y
low surfiu'c. which, if cut
by any plane passing
through the axis, will always show a line shaped like B A C.
A nuirkcd character of this sort of mirror is this: every ray
of liglit coming from the point F is reflected back in a liiii*
parallel with the axis OA .\. Thus the rays F IJ, Va. etc.,
F C are reflected at B, a, etc., C, in the directions B6, ab,
etc., Ch.
In Fig. 7 the small circle represents the flame of a lamp
.so placed that its center is at the focus of the reflector.
Fio. 6.
LIGHTHOUSE
255
The rays from the side E of the flame are reflected along
the lines El and Ej ; those fnuii the side F are reflected
along Fi and Fj ; the angle Eui
F = El a. El is called the diver-
gence of the reflector. It varies
slightly from point to point of
the curve, as the distance of each
point from the flame changes.
A third way of changing the
direction of the rays rests on the
optical fact that rays of light
striking the plane face of a trans-
parent body under a certain an-
gle, which varies with the com-
position of the body, are totally
reflected. This is called the
■ principle of total reflection. The
ray starting from F, Fig. 8,
strikes the side of the triangular
prism, of which A B C is a section, at L ; here its course is
changed to the direction L M ; at JI it is totally reflected
/ from the face C B, and
A,' B'
Fio.
c:
/'
A,
^J\
,>y
A.
FiQ. 8.
takes the direction il N ;
at N its course changes
again to N H. By giv-
ing a proper position to
the prism the final di-
rection P H of the ray
may be made ])arallel to
the horizon. This sys-
tem being a combina-
tion of reflection and
refraction is called the
"catadioptric."
All three of these sys-
tems find their applica-
tion in lighthouse illum-
ination.
Nothing certain is known about how the lighthouses of
ancient times were illuminated. It is probable that it was
by means of burning wood, although some writers think
that in the following lines of Lucanius's Pharaalia
Sed prius orta dies nocturnam lampada texit
Quam tutas intraret aquas . . .
the word lampada points to the use of some other illumi-
nant. It is more likely that this is only a poetic expression
for the tower and the light it carries. Pliny, in speaking
of the lights at the tops of the towers, expresses the fear
that the steadiness of these lights may cause them to be
taken for stars, as they look much alike, •' Periculum in
continuatione ignium ne sidus existimetur, quoniam e lon-
ginquo similis flammarum aspectus est," and it has been
thought that this fear would apply better to the light of a
lamp than to the waving and unsteady flames of a wood
fire. Outside of these vague presumptions there is nothing
to show that the ancients used oil-lamps in their lighthouses.
Be this as it may, it is well known that wood and coal were
the usual illuminants for lighthouses until after the middle
of the eighteenth century.
In the early jiart of 1674 the sum of Is. 6d. was paid by the
town of Hull, in Massachusetts, "for making fire-balls of
pitch and ocuin"' wherewith to light the beacon.
When the Eddystone tower (Hudyerd's) was destroyed in
1755, the light was given by 24 candles weighing 2i lb.
each. It is not known certainly whether candles were used
from the beginning of this light's service in 1708, but such
is thought to be the case. The Cordouan light, one of the
most celebrated on the French coast, was lighted by coal
burned in a large open basket, until 1782, when the coal-
basket was replaced l)y Sangrain reflectors. These were
segments of spheres witli an oil light given by one, two, or
three flat wicks placed in the horizontal axis of each.
The Sangrain apparatus was so weak that great com-
plaints were made, and mariners desired to have the old
lUuminant restored. M. Teulere, a distinguished engineer,
was sent to examine into and report upon the defects, and
to present a project for removing them. lie showed that
the Sangrain reflectors were defective in that the rays of
light were greatly scattered; then he discussed the various
methods for concentrating light iiilo beams visible at great
distances. He proijoscd a series of 24 lamps " of which
the wick, instead of being flat, forms a cylinder of 2 inches
diameter and 3 lines thick, leaving a tube through the
middle for the passage of air"; these lamps to be placed
each at the focus of a parabolic reflector, the reflectors to
be distributed in three circles, one above the other, so as to
spread the light uniformly over the horizon ; the whole to
be made to revolve by clcjckwork. The idea of the circular
hollow wick had occurred to Argand between 1780 and
1782. Teulere made his report in 178:1 There are strong
reasons for believing that he knew nothing of Argand's in-
vention, but if he did he at least deserves the credit of tak-
ing in at once its advantages.
The apparatus proposetl by Teulere was made by Lenoir
in 17'J0 under the direction of Borda. He made cast-steel
parabolic reflectors 812 mm. wide and 325 mm. deep, the
inside surface being covered with several sheets of silver.
The lamp had a tuliular wick 35 mm. in diameter, and a
crystal chimney. The reflectors were [lut in place in 1791.
The adoption of this apparatus (parabolic reflectors and
Argand lamps) was an important advance. The system
soon spread not only in France, but also in neighboring
countries. It held its ground for years, and it is in use yet
for the smaller range-lights and for lightships ; but a re-
flector is inefficient and wasteful of light. Little more than
half the strength of the rays which strike the reflector is
given back, the rest being absorbed. All the light thrown
out between the lines F B, FC (Fig. 6) is diffused rapidly,
and produces but little effect.
On June 21, 1819, there was appointed to the French
lighthouse commission a man, Augustin Fresnel, whose
mission it was to revolutionize the lighthouse service of the
"iA)rld. and to found the principles on which the construc-
tion of lighthouse apparatus rests. He was led, by reason
of the great absorption of light by reflectors, to propose
lenses, because glass of ordinary thickness does not absorb
more than one-tenth of the light which passes through. A
lens made in a single piece would be of immense weight,
audits great thickness would absorb much light. "But,"
he says, in his memoir of 1822, " if the lens were divided
into concentric rings, and all the useless thickness of the
small center lens and of the surrounding rings were re-
moved, enough being left to admit of fastening their edges
firmly together, it may be seen that the parallelism of the
rays coming from the light may be obtained by giving to
the surface of each ring a proper curve and inclination."
Buffon had suggested this way of constructing ordinary
lenses, but nothing, seems to have been done with the idea.
C'ondorcet had suggested a similar method of making large
burning-glasses. Fresnel propounded the same idea in ig-
norance of the labors of the others, and to him is due the
honor of flnding the use to which it was best suited — the
construction of lighthouse apparatus.
There is a limit to the useful size of a lens, because if the
light strikes the surface of the lens at too small an angle
Fio. 9.— Fre-snel's apparatus, desiened for the Cordouan.
much of it will be lost by reflection. Fresnel thought of
and aetuallv used mirrors aliove and below the lens proper
to utilize this light, which would have been lost without
256
LIGHTHOUSE
them. Fips. 9 anil 10 sliow the applioalion of such reflect-
ors to the light of the t'uriiouiin tower, which re[>laeeil the
reflectors in use up to lsi:3. This apparatus shows an oc-
tagonal frame supporting a middle bell of eight lenses,
Fio. 10.— Plan of the Fresnel apparatus designed for the Cordouan.
eight small lenses above to catch the overhead ravs and
send them in parallel lines to the mirrors above, and eight
series of small mirrors below to catch and send to the hori-
zon the rays which would be lost below the central belt.
Such an apparatus required a powerful lamp, and Fresnel
was led to the construction of one with four concentric
wicks, and to devising mechanical means to keep the wicks
saturated with oil.
The lenses used for onlinarv optical purposes have a focal
length which is great when compared with their other di-
nien.sions. The K-nses used for lighthouses are very differ-
ent; their focal length is small. If in Fig. 11 the central
lens A/ Bm be taken it will be seen that its height A B is
small compared with its focal length 1-7. If a lens be taken
like HA i'l, its height is great in comparison with the focal
length. With the increased height comes increase of thick-
ness. With increase of thickness come loss of light, while
-X'
F<i
\ I'm ;
K^-4? -X
Fio. 11
the ray traverses the glass, and increase of weight. With
the lens of large dimensions the phenomenon of s])herical
aberration becomes more marked. The rays Fll and PI,
in.stead of taking the directions II X' and I X" [larallel to
F X, wouM take the directions II Z and I Y after passing
through the lens. As the great thickness Ix is only hurt-
fnl, it should lie reduceil to just what is necessary for proper
strength and stilfnes.s. The height A B of the central lens
is such that no spherical aberration shall be evident; in
other words, that the rays FA, FB shall lake the directions
An' BA.jiarallel to l'\\ after leaving the lens. If the next
scrii'S of rays — tlmsc inchnled in the angles AFC and
IJ F I) — be considered, Ihi'v will lie found to diverge a little
from parallelism with F X, To correct this the shape of
the next ailjacent pari of the apparatus is somewhat
changed, aiKl the faci' <Vi of the suniU triangle (VtA is
niiide with a curve, of which the center is at O' below the
axis of the apparatus. In like manner the center of the
face DA of the triangle hb B is at O' above the axis. Sue-
t
r
I
-+-
-4-
1
1_
1
I
1
cessive triangles are added. The outside face of each is
constructed with a dilTerent riulius, the centers of the arcs
l)eing on thelineUO O , The height of the dioptric belt
is given bv the condition of having the angle U VI one of
88 \ Th'is lens
could be extended
theoretically to an
indeflnite extent
on each side of the
axis, but as the dis-
tance therefrom is
increased the rays
from the source of
light strike the in-
ner face of the
lens uniler a con-
slaiilly decreasing
angle, so that most
of the light is re-
flected from the
lens instead of
passing t hrough it.
llence after reach-
ing a certain limit
some oilier way of
sending the rays to the horizon must be used. The eata-
diciptric rings give the means of doing this. These rings are
triangular in shape, as shown in Fig. 8, A luminous ray
starting from the focus F strikes the surface C A of the ring
at L; it is refracted along L M, and strikes the ujijier face
at M, whence it is reflecti'd away
at an angle 80' to 84' along M X
without experiencing apprecia-
ble loss; it goes out by the face
A B in a horizontal direction if
the cross-section be made with
this in view. All the rays in-
cluded in the triangle A F C act
in the same way. If the diop-
tric belt end at A, ABC would
be the first catadioptric ring.
The next ring would be so
jilaced as to catch the next ray
aliove F C, and to send it out
horizontally just above B, The
proper position for A' is there-
fore at the intersection of FC
prolonged, and of a horizontal
line through B. In like manner
a third ring would have its summit at A", and so on. A
similar series of catadioi)tric rings is jilaced below the diop-
tric belt. In small apjiaratus the lower prisms are located
in the same way as are the upper. In large apparatus they
are placed vertically one tielow anothi'r. This arrangement
must be made so that the keeper can enter the ajiparatus in
order to clean it.
All parts of the
small a|>paratus
can be cleaned
from the outside.
If all the diop-
tric and catadiop-
tric sections men-
tioned above be
assembled there
will result a figure
similar to Fig, 13,
which is a section
of a fourth-order
apparatus. The
rays of light after
passing through
the Tenses and
jirisms follow the
directions of the
horizontal lines.
If this section be
revolved about the
line F V it would
give a figure shown in elevation in Fig. 13. If revolved
about FX the elevation would be as in Fig. 14. In the
former case there would be a broad band of light distrib-
uted eipially over the horiztm ; in the taller case there would
be one large beam going out on each side. The.se two dis-
T"
FlQ. 13.
3
LIGHTHOUSE
257
Fig. 15.
tributions of light are shown in Pigs. 15 and 16. If a reflect-
or, as A B C, Fig. I'i, be placed so as to cut off and send
back the rays going to tlie right, tlie apparatus standing
still, the light would be called a range-light. If this anpa-
I ratus with a relleet-
or and one beam,
or the one with a
beazn on each side,
be made to revolve
about a vertical
axis, so that the
beam or beams of
light shouhi fall
successively on each
point of the hori-
zon, the light is
called a flashing
light. If the light
bedistributedstead-
ily and constantly
over the entire ho-
rizon the light is
called a fixed light.
In the case of the
flashing light it may be desirable to have the flashes succeed
each other more rapidly than those given by the two beams.
In such cases a part of the lens is taken. For example, if
there are to be four beams of light, the part of the elevation,
Fig. 14, included be-
tween the lines A B,
A B only would be
considered; if eight
beams be desired, the
part between A, B,,
A I Bi would be used ;
if sixteen beams, the
part between Aj Bj,
A, B,.
Each of these parts
is called a panel. It
is easily seen that
with every increase in
the number of beams
the intensity of each is reduced. Each of the four beams
has one-half the intensity of either of the two beams and
double that of either of the eight beams.
In order to turn the apparatus
around it is mounted on a frame,
called a chariot, which rests on
rollers. (See Fig. 17.) This is
driven by a clockwork. In small
apparatus the chariot 'and rollers
are replaced by a pivot. The
friction is great in either case,
and the motion is slow. One
revolution in four minutes is
about the fastest for a first-order
light. If the interval between
the flashes is to be short a num-
ber of panels has to be used ; for
example, to have a flash once in
15 seconds 16 panels are re-
quired if a revolution in 4 min-
utes be the rate of speed. Such
flashes have long been recognized
as lacking strength ; but to in-
crease the strength the nundjer
of panels has to be reduced,
hence the speed of rotation has
to be increased. New means of
support arc required for this.
The .solution of the problem has
been found in the mercury float.
The frame supporting the ap-
paratus rests on a vertical shaft
firmly held at two points. At-
tached to the shaft is a collar
which rests on and is securelv
fastened to a circular float, which
is borne by quicksilver confined in a circular trough wliich
surrounds the shaft. Fig. 18 shows this arrangement. L
is the apparatus mounted on a plate, P, which is supported
by the shaft S. The shaft is held securelv in a vertical po-
sition by the sleeves C and D. The float F is fjistened se-
243
jMIIlDllODDrilIMM
Fio. 17.— First-order holoptio-
tal catadioptric apparatus.
curely to the shaft by the collar K. It is sot inside of the
trough T, in which is placed suflicient quicksilver to suj>-
FiG. 18. — Apparatus with four lenses for Hghtning-liglit illuminatiou.
port the whole apparatus. M is the clockwork which causes
the plate P to revolve and carry witli it everything attached
to the shaft.
Lighthouse apparatus is divide<l into several orders, de-
pending on the focal length in each case. The orders are
1st, 2d. 3d, 3A, 4th, 5th, and 6th. Their use is governed by
the importance of the site occupied by the hghthouse. The
first-order lens is the largest. A light of this order is placed
on very important points of the coa.st, such as a marked
headland, the entrance to an important harbor, to mark
some special obstacle, etc. The second and third order
lenses are placed at less important points. The third-and-
a-half and lower orders are rarely used as coast lights.
They come under the general head of interior or harbor
lights. The focal length of each size of lens is: Of the
first order, 36'25 inches; of the second, 27"58 inches: of the
third, li)-TO inches: of the third-and-a-half, 13-78 inches; of
the fourth, 9'35 inches ; of the fifth, 7'3!) inches ; of the sixth,
5'91 inches. Before the principles of illuminatiim became
so well understood as they are now increased brilliaticy was
sought by means of larger lamps. Larger lamps caused too
great a divergence of the rays when used with the ordinary
lenses, hence a large lens of 52'40 inches focal length was
devised. It is called a hyper-ra<liant lens. Prof. \Viglmm,
of Dublin, after increasing the size of his gas-burner (which
is mentioned later), caused to be constructed what he culls
a "giant" lens of 78' 72 inches focal length. He uses oidy
the dioptric belt of this lens, however, and therefore he
wastes one-third of the light furnished by his burner.
These immense affairs are very expensive. The new method
of flotation on mercury, giving great speed of rotation, the
exact suiting of the lamp to the len.s and the greater spread
given to the latter, are gradually causing the old apparatus
to disa()poar.
Until about a hundred years ago fire.s burning at the tops
of lighthouses were the accepted guides for night. With
the changes recommended bv Teulero came the use of oil as
an illuminant. The first oil burned in the V. S. was fish
oil. This was succeeded by sperm oil in 1812. Sperm oil
was the standard illuminant when the lighthouse board was
organized in 1852. Its constantly increasing price caused
the board to investigate the question of rei)lacing it with
some other. Careful analyses were made of sperm, whale,
shark, fish, seal, colza, olive, lard, and mineral oils. Tests
25S
LIGHTHOUSE
Fio. 19— FuiKkllt-ap fourthor-
der mineral uil-lainp, vertical
section.
of all sorts were applied to prove their ailai>tabililT to the
use o( the lighthouse serviee. The n^sults of these analyses
and tests showed that colza oil was \iiidoubtedlv the best.
It was adopted in ltm2 to a great extent, as miieh as 12.1)0U
gal. having been bought in that year. Kxperinients were
earrie<l on with lard oil, luid it was S[K>n found that it was
superior to the colza in some respects, while in price it was
chea(H'r. Lard oil was then the standard illuniinant until
1878-7U. Since that time it has been displaced gradually
by mineral oil, which is now universallv adoiited for all the
lights of the L'. S. In addi-
tion to the great brilliancy of
its flame, the low price of this
oil makes it an exceedingly
economical illuniinant. The
ciinsumi>tion of this oil in-
creased from 48,000 pal. in
1880 to 350,000 gal, in 1894.
The lamps used in the light-
house establishment of the
U. S. are very simple. In the
4th, 5th, and 6th order lamps
hut one wick is used. This
style of lamp is shown in Fig.
li). In this figure () is the
oil-reservoir. The wick occu-
pies the space W W. The
lower end of the wick is at-
tached to a brass tube, which
carries a stud working in a
spiral channel, S .S. The jiin-
iiin P moves the wheel T, and
causes the tube to turn. The
spiral channel causes the tube
to move up or down. The
flame is made to spread by the button B. Air for the inside
of the flame enters through the openings a a a in the base
of the lamp, and rises through the lube A, C is the chim-
ney support.
Gas is used to only a limited extent in the U. S. It has
praclically no advantages over oil. If the place where it is
used be not near a city or town whence the gas can tie sup-
plied, the construction of a special plant for making it
would be so expensive as to put its price at a prohibitory
figure. It is used, however, in a state of compression at some
points — e. g. on Dry Homer Shoal, at the entrance to New
York harbor, and at the Christiana beacon, mouth of Chris-
tiana creek, Del. At these places the gas-supply is com-
pressed into tanks, which are securely fastened to the bea-
con. The illuniinant is fed
gradually to the burner by
melius of a special device.
I'n.f. J. I{. Wigham, the
adviser of the Irish Lights
Commission, has conslructed
a special burner, Fig. 20,
composed of five series of
jets arranged in five concen-
tric circles, of which the in-
iiennost contains 28 jels.
Kach circle outside contains
20 additional jets, so that t he
tcital number of jets in use
may be 28, 48, 68, 88, or 108,
according to the number of
series used. The diameter
of the rings varies from 4 to
lU inches. The candle-
power according to the jets
in use is 250. 680. iWO, 1,401),
and 2,;iO0. The jets are pm-
vided each with a fish-tail
burner. 1"hc flame is 14
inches in diameter and 6 inches high. There is no gla-ss
chimney. The heat from the burner is .so intense that the
lenses and prisms of the ajiparalus are sometimes cracked.
In order to increase the powir of his light -Mr. Wigham has
proposed to superpose the dioptric portions of several flash
panels in two, three, or four tiers, with a separate burner in
each. These he <^alls his bi-form, tri-form, or tpiadri-form
light, according to the number of tiers. Fig. 21 shows a
vertical section of a tri-form apparatus.
Compressj'il gas is coming into extensive nso in Franco
for use in buoys. There are nearly a hundred ol these lighted
Flo. 30.— \Vl>;bam'H gas-burner.
Fio. ai.
— Tri-fofin gas-light
apparatus.
buoys on the French coasts. The French lighthouse board
hasVecoinmeiided the replacing of six lightships by a large
uuiuber of tlie.se buoys. The recomiiiciidation has been
approved, and the replacement is now in course of execu-
tion. There are but few of these
buoys in the U. S. They are
run down so constantly through
the carelessness of masters and
pilots of vessels as to make their
maintenance exceedingly expen-
sive.
The ajiplication of electricity
to the lighting of lighthouses has
received an immense develop-
nieiit in recent years. The first
attempt was made in Franco in
1863 at the La Ileve light-sta-
tion. Since then this kind of
light has come more and more
into use. It is extensively used
in France and Kngland. Even
Italy hikI Spain liiive introduced
it. ' Fig. 22 shows the essential
arrangement of this kind of light,
which is simply an arc light
placed inside of a lens.
The whole theory of lighting a
coast has changed greatly since
188!). Up to that tiiiie the
changes made were very gradual.
After the invention of the cata-
dioptric apparatus liy Augustiii
Fresnel, who died before he could
see the full fruit of his labors,
his work was carried on by his
brother. JAHinor Fresnel, who succeeded him in the French
lighthouse establishment. The first lights made were fixed
lights — i. e. lights which shine with a fixed intensity and
illuiiiiiiate e<|iially all parts of the horizon. As it was mani-
festly impossible to tell one fixed light from another, dupli-
cate and even triplicate lights were u.sed to indicate certain
places more clearly. Examples of this system are seen in
the double first-order lights of Thatcher's island, Mass., and
of the N'avcsiiik llighhiuds, N. J., and in the treble fourth-
order liglits of Nauset Beach, on the eastern side of the
Iieiiinsuht of Cape Cod, Mass. This method of distinguish-
ing places was expensive, inasmuch as it reiiuired the dupli-
cation of cvcryttiing, towers, lanterns, lenses, lamps, etc.
It also re<piires"doubie supplies of oil, wicks, chimneys, and
other furnishings. With the introduction of fliusliing lights
it was |iossible to do away with the cumbersome system of
double and treble towers. By
varying the number of panels in
a flasliiugiipparalus, orby chang-
ing the speed of revolution, it
was possible to vary the rapidity
with which the flashes were seen.
The enormous friction developed
by the great weight of the appa-
ratus prevented a i'a|iid motion
of rotation, and this varied be-
tween 4 and 8 iiiiiiuli's to a revo-
lution. This reciuired a large
number of flash [lanels if the
flashes were to succeed each
other rapidly. At Barnegat.
N. J., for example, the lens re-
volves once in 4 iiiiuutes ; as
there are 24 panels the flashes
follow each other at intervals of
10 second.s.
Leonor Fresnel considered that
the flashes should lie about eight
seconds in length from the time
they began to show until they disappeare
Fio. 28.— Electric-llght appa-
ratus.
f\ wide disper-
sion had to be given to the beam in order to make it last so
long. Its power was therefori' dissipiited over a wide space.
'I'hisdissipiition, added to the small amount of light used by
a narrow panel, caused the flash to be weak.
Studies made by Dr. Charpeiitier, of Nancy, in France, on
the duration of iiii[ircssioiis on the retina show that afterthe
miixiiniiui impression is (iroduced it is a waste of energy to
hold that impression on the retina. Experiments in the
laboratory and in the fleld show that as a rule so short a
LIGHTHOUSE
259
space as 0'003 second is sufficient to produce a distinct im-
pression on an acute eye, and tliat one-ninth or one-tentii
of a second is sutticient for the average eye. The experi-
ments have also shown that the more powerful the light the
shorter the time re(piired to produce the impression. As a
lightfiouse must be used as a point on whieh to take hearings,
it is essential that the light shall be of such a nature that the
bearings can lie taken. A Freiicli nautical commission gave
great attention to this suljject during a period of many
months. One result of their work was that it was perfectly
practicable to take bearings with flashes of one-tenth of a
seconil, provided that the interval between them was not
more than five seconds.
These considerations of sharp, quick flashes coming at
short intervals led to the devising of the lightning lights
(feux erlairs) by M. Bourdelles, the present director of the
French lighthouse service. The characteristics of these
lights are an exceedingly small divergence of the beam, a
wide opening of the panel, a swift revolution rendered pos-
sible by the mercury float, and a careful adjusting of the di-
ameter of the burner to the focal length of the lens. These
lights are the most scientific and carefully wrought out ap-
paratus yet introduced into the lighthouse service. As yet
they are little known outside of France, a country which
has always been in the van of lighthouse improvement.
The lightning lights are made in many different forms.
In some cases there is but one large lens with an opening
of 180°. A reflector placed on the side of the focus op-
posite the lens prevents any waste of light. In this ease
the apparatus is said to be univalve. There may be a lens
of 180' opening on each side of the focus, in whieh case
the apparatus is bivalve. Three and four panels are
sometimes used, as in the case of the new light at La Heve
(Fig. 18), where there are four. The source of light may lie
either a lamp or an electric light. The flash of the La Ileve
apparatus, which is lighted by electricity, is of 23,000,000
candle-power. This power is obtained by a current of 45
volts and 100 amperes.
The subject of lighting the apparatus has also received
great attention. The earlier idea was to obtain a great quan-
tity of light. Large lamps were brought into use. The
number of wicks was increased in some cases to ten and
even twelve. Two objections to these lamps were found to
exist. First, the great diameter of the burners placed so
much of the flame outside of the focus that much of the
light was useless. Second, the comparative lack of trans-
distance of 80 feet, while a single jet of the burner was
visible at 70 feet distance. Furthermore, when the gas-
burner and a 100-candle-power electric incandescent lamp
were tested in the .same lens it was found that the resulting
flash from the incamleseent lani]) was nujre than half as
powerful as that from the gas-burner, anil when a 50-candle-
power incandescent lamp was used its flash had more than
one-third the strenglh of the gas-flash. This arises from
the fact that the incandescent lamp coidd be placed more
nearly at the focus of the apparatus than could the gas-
burner; the flash it threw was therefore more compact from
having less divergence.
The electric arc-light has the double advantage of great
brilliancy and concentration in small space. Its intrinsic
brilliancy is great, and it is an exceedingly effective illumi-
nant for lighthouses. A common objection has been raised
against it on the ground that it is not able to penetrate fog
so well as the light from an oil-lamp. The theory advanced
is that the electric light possesses more blue rays than the
oil light, and that these rays are more readily absorbed by
fog than the red rays. Those making such an objection lose
sight of three points: (1) The yellow ray enters into white
light to the extent of 75 per cent., and is the predominant
color, while red scarcely furnishes 11 per cent. (2) That
light is merely a manifestation of energy, and in the gradual
development of this energy the red light appears first, and
when the development is greatest the blue comes in ; but the
blue does not destroy the red rays. They remain and pro-
duce their effect in the general whole. (3) The very great
initial power of the electric light will admit of much loss
and still leave the remaining power far greater than that of
either an oil or a gas light. For example : A four-lens light-
ning light of 9'39 inches focal length gives a flash from an
oil light of about 5,000 candle-power ; the same lens with an
electric light of 45 volts and 25 amperes would give a flash
of 12,000.000 candle-power. Again, when the question of
the diminution of light by atmospheric absorption is consid-
ered it is found that under all circumstances the electric
light carries farther than any other. It is the illuminant
recommended by the greatest lighthouse authorities for use
at all important points. It has not yet been adopted in the
U. S., except at the beacon at Sandy Hook and for tlie
lighted buoys at the entrance to New York harbor.
At present (1894) oil is used almost exclusively in the
U. S. for lighthouses. The following table gives data as to
apparatus, oil-supply, etc. :
TABLE GIVIN8 CANDLE-POWER OP EACH OP THE LAMPS USED IN' THE LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE AND APPROXIMATELY ITS INTENSITY
WHEN USED IN ITS APPROPRIATE LENS APPARATUS.
ILLUMINATING APPARATUS.
NAME OF LAMP.
If
1
i
SIZE OF VICES IK INCHES.
EXPESDITCRE OF
OIL PER QCARTER.
CONSCUP-
TION OF OIL.
Order.
i
i
CO
i
6
2
<>
2
&
S
6
s
a
^1
^1
1st
Funck's float lamp
Funck Heap lamp
Funck's tubular lamp.
Funck-Heap lamp
500
I&3
IB.')
78
52
.38
32
.38
52
8,780
4,790
2,-J)0
1,620
598
298
203
.3,915
3,092
12
1,275
760
63,830
33,:»0
10,040
11.720
2,842
1,200
5
3
3
2
1
1
1"
1"
1"
\%'
H"
i"
lA"
U"
lis;;
1 i"
2J"
2S"
2t"
8A"
4ft"
596
182
182
75
55i
37
26
37
55!
lOj
37
19
44.3
135
135
5J
4U
28
20
28
4U
81
28
13
475 IMS
145 '195
145 195
Gills.
16 0
4-80
4-SO
2 0
i*o
0 70
10
1)
0-30
10
0-50
G>1.
2.1.')6
2d
657
3d
657
3i
60
44)
.30
21)
30
44)
9)
30
16
81
60)
40
27)
40
60)
11)
40
20
270
4th
202
5th
1.35
Lens lantern
No.u range lens
Locomotive headlight lantern
Tubular lantern
95
135
202
40
Light-vessel lantern 1
Lamp with rertecttirs l
Old light-vessel lamp with
rertector
Funck's tubular lamp.
38
18
135
«8
pareney of the flame of each wick caused the light of the
inside wieks to be almost wholly hist. Tlie.se large burners
were fully tested in England and Scotland, and were finally
abandoned in favor of the more compact flame of the five-
wick burner. The same objection of size exists to the
fa.s-burner of Mr. Wighara. The diameter (14 inches) of its
ame is far too great for any ordinary apparatus. An enor-
mous lens of 2 meters foeal length (6'50 feet) has been con-
structed for use with this burner. A]i|iaratus of such di-
mensions is exceedingly expensive and unwieldy.
In addition to these objections to the use of large burners,
research has shown that the illuminating quality of a flame
depends not on the total quantity of light given off, but
on the intrinsic brilliancy, that is, on the brilliancy jier
square unit of surface. This has been shown in several ways.
When tested in a heavy fog it was found that I he great
Wigham burner of 2,500 candle-power became visible at a
Lighf-vessels. — There are many places where lights are
needed, but where the construction of a lighthouse would V)e
impracticable or impossible.' Such points are banks lying
far out at sea or places near the entrance to a harbor whence
vessels can take a good departure to make the mouth of the
channel leading in. At such places the lights are shown
from vessels of a certain cla.ss called light-vessels or light-
ships. As the first condition of a light is that it shall re-
main constantly in one position, it follows that a light-ship
must remain always at one spot : hence it must be anchored.
Lying constantly at its moorings and exposed to the most
severe gales, the' hull of the vessel must be of the strongest
possible build. As lights must have a certain elevation
above the sea, there must be masts on whieh to carry them ;
and to distinguish the ves.sels at a distance by day they carry
on the ma.sls certain marks in the shape of disks, cages, or
other easily recognized forms.
260
LIUHTUOUSE
LIGHTNING
The hull of n light-vessel is arranged with quarters for
the officers ami itow and with storerooms of various sorts.
There must always be carried spare lamps, elumiieys. wuk>.
etc and all the provisions required for the people on board.
The' ercw of such a vessel iniludes generally a keeper, an as-
sistant keeper, six or eight seamen, and a cook.
The illuminating apparatus is eonnx>sed of a series ol
lamps with parabolic lellwtors encircling the ma.st, and so
arraii"ed as t.i throw their light all over the horizon, lo
obtain a (hushing light on a light-ship has ahyays been a
difficult problem, but llie introduction of the electric light
has eiven a simple soluiii>ii. The only electrically lighted
licht-ves.si.1 in the world is the one oil Cornfield Point, near
the eastern entrance to Long Island Sound On this vessel
the onlinarv apparatus has been replaced by four-lens lan-
terns on each mast. The lanterns are hung on gimbals, and
each contains an incandescent lamp of 100 candle-power.
The lantern increases the power of the light by ten, conse-
nuentlv the light from each of the four is about l,t)UOcaiiaie-
power'or 4,000 for the whole number. A duplicate electric
plant on the vessel furnishes the current for the lamps. An
ingenioiislv arranged four-armed mm makes and breaks
the current alternately, and thus lights and puts out tlic
" I'Jgiit-vessels arc expected to remain at their stations until
they'go down or are torn away from their moorings. In
order that the raooring-chain can not be detached from the
vessel by intention, its end is securely bolted to the keelson
and no tools whcrebv it can be cut arc allowed on board. If
the vessels break adrift their only motive-power, as a rule, is
their sails. The new ves-sels lately built in the U. S. have
been provided with stcam-i>ropeIlers which can move them
through the water at a speed of about 8 knots an hour.
Whenever it is [lossible to do it these vessels are provided
with a sound-signal. In the V. S. the signal is generally a
powerful steam-whistle; in France it is a siren. Kvery
vessel carries a loud-toned bell to be rung by hand m case of
accident to the more powerful signal.
J'oo-siV/nn/s.— Lights lose much of their emeiency m tieavv
weather. In a dense fog thev may be so completely obscured
as to become invisible at less than a quarter of a mile awav
from the observer. Signals which appeal to the ear are used
under these circumstances. These signals are sirens or
trumpets driven by compressed air. whistles blown by steam
or compressed air, or bells. Signals have their special char-
acteristics in their peculiar sounds: the length of the blast
of the siren, trumpet, or whistle, and the length of the in-
terval between the sounds. The siren is the most [jowerful
and the bell the least powerful of all these instruments. The
trumpet, for the same sonorous intensity, requires the devel-
(ipinent of less energv, but there is a pressure and consump-
tion of air and an intensity which can not be exceeded. In
other words, the trumpet, being a reed instrument of enor-
mous size, should not be forced. The reed is a steel plate
from 8 to 12 inches long, 2 to 3 inches wide, and i to 3 inch
thick. On the other hand, the air pressure and consump-
tion of the sirens may be varied at will. In them the sonor-
ous intensity can be'increascil and with it the range. Hells
are useful only for short distances. (Juiis, rockets, and ex-
plosives of various sorts are not used in the U. S.
JiuoyK. — Huovs are small floating aids to navigation which
mark the sides and turning-iilaces of channels. They guide
by sight and by sound. All buoys are sight-buoys. They
direct by their shape and color. Those which appeal ex-
clusively to the sight are the "can," or cylindrical, the
•• nun," or conical, the " spar," shaped like a ship's spar, and
buoys lighted by gas or electricity. The U. S. alone has
electrically lighted buoys. The electric buoy is a "spar"
having a iOO-candle-power incandescent light at its upper
emi. The current is supplied from a shore station. Huoys
whi<'h appeal to .sound as well as sight arc the " bell " and
" whistling" buoys. The former carries a bell at the top of
an iron frame. As the sea tumbles the buoy about, a ball,
carried on a plate or in a trough, strikes the side of the bell.
The more violent the motion of the sea the louder the sound.
The whistling-buoy has a pear-shaped body which floats on
the large end; im top is an onlinary whistle; to the bottom
is attached a long tube. Waves on the ocean are only super-
ficial. Ata depth of :iO or ;!.") feet the water is almost always
still. This water is a fixcil piston on which the tube of the
buoy works up and down. As the buoy is raised by the
wavi's a vacuum is formed by iiulling away from the piston.
Air rushes in through properly (constructed valves. When
the buoy descends the air drawn in is compressed \>y the
This
water-piston and forced out through the whistle,
makes the whistle sound.
The following table shows the aids to navigation main-
tained by the U. S. lighthouse bureau on .luiie 30, 185)3 :
AIDS TO XAV1I.ATI0S MAIXTAISED BV THE LUiHTllOUSE BOABU,
JLNE 30, 1893.
Kleclric lights
Hi-stordrr lights
Second-order lights
Thirdurder lights
Three aud-a-half order Iigbt«.
Ktuirth-order lights
rift l»-order lights
Sixtli-order lights
Lens lauterns
Itoiige lenses
l{<tlectors
Tubular lanterns
Light-vessels in position
Electric buoys
Uas buoys
Total lighted aids.
Fog-signals operated by steam
or hot air
Fog-signals operated by clock-
work
T>av beacons
Wliistlingbuoys
Bellljuoys
Other buoys
Total unlighied aids. .
Total numl)er of aids .
2
40
lli
27
3
ISii
JOT
63
58
16
37
289
28
IM3
50
162
315
44
79
3.626
4,276
5,119
I
137
611
387
41
1,389
4
55
20
52
II
261
151
118
88
16
46
1,761
32
7
2
2,624
107
187
4-.i0
62
89
4,286
33
4
56
20
52
10
265
148
116
124
16
45
1.M5
.S3
20
2
2,756
-1
4
-8
-2
-1
84
1
13
5,151
7,7T5
114
189
419
6-1
90
4,315
5,191
7,947
2
-1
2
1
29
172
F. A. Mahan.
Lightning (atmospheric electricity) [dcriv. of lighten,
flash deriv. of lii/ht]: the disruptive discharge occurring
between clouds aiid the surface of the earth, or between two
clouds whenever sufficient differences of electrical potential
arise 'The connection between lightning and the electro-
static sparks t)btained by artificial means were suspected at a
very early day, but no definite evidence of the identity of
the'two phenomena was obtained until aliout the muldle of
the ciu-hteenth century, when Benjamin Franklin undertook
cxperTments for the purpose of verifying his hypothesis con-
cerning the nature of lightning. The first actual attempU
to carry out Franklin's suggesti<m were made in France m
IToS. 'During the spring of that year sparks were drawn
from the collector of at mosiiherical elec- •.
tricitv which had been erected at Marly, \y\l»
near Paris.* , -« , , W
This collector was an iron rod 40 feet VO
long, mounted upon a stool with glass
legs and carefully supported by means
of silk cords. In the same year a still
limger collecting-rod, consisting of an
iron bar U9 feet high, was used in Pans
under the direction of the naturalist Buf-
fon, by means of which sparks were ob-
tained. Both of these experiments were
(juicklv followed by Frauklin's famous
experiment with the electrical kite.
Owing to the slow rate of ocean com-
munication in those days, Franklin had
not learned of the success obtained with
the collectors erected in Fniiice at the
time when he made his experiment.
From the time of Franklin atmos-
pheric electricitv has been iicrsistently
studied by means of a great variety of
apparatus. The most successful meth-
ods were those of de Saussure, who made
use of a collector consisting of a con-
ductorending in a metallic point exposed
at a considerable eleyation above the
surface of the ground. With this in-
strument it was fnund that there yvere at
all limes indications of electrification of
the atmosphere. Volta modified de Saussure s apparatui
by attaching to the point a slow-burning match, as shown
•See Keport of Sluili.t of Atmoi>phrrir Elfclriritir. Memlenhall,
Transactiunt oj Xatiuiiul Academy uf .sciences, vol.
Kio. 1.
. (18891.
LIGHTNING
261
in Fig. 1. The indicator used with these collectors wassim-
fly an Electroscope {g. v.), of the type devised by Peltier,
raproveinents upon de Saussure's method were made by
Dellmaim, Lamont, and others ; but all modern study of at-
mospheric elec-
tricity depends
upon the much
more refined
method devised
by Lord Kel-
vin (Sir William
Thomson), whose
apparatus has
been used at the
Kew Observato-
ry since 1861.
Kelvin's appara-
tus consists of a
water- dropping
collector (Fig. 2) and the Thomson quadrant electrometer.
The former instrument consists of a metallic reservoir,
carefully insulated from the earth, with a long nose or
spout. The apparatus is so placed that the end of this
spout extends into the open air, the electrification of which
is to be investigated. The succession of drops issuing from
the water-dropper serves to charge the reservoir. The elec-
trometer, which is maintained in a constant condition of
sensitiveness by means of a water-battery, or other conven-
ient source of electromotive force, is used to measure the
differences of potential between the collector and the earth,
and affords an indication of the potential of the atmosphere.
The Kew observations, together with those made at the
meteorological observatory on >It. Vesuvius, by Quetelet in
Brussels, by Lamont in Munich, and by Dellmann, in Kreuz-
FiG. 2.
Yale, Cornell, and the Ohio State universities, undertook sys-
tematic observations of atmospheric electricity. It was the
purpose of these researches to determine whether there was
a sufficiently simple relation between the electrical condition
of the atmosphere and the weather to make the indications of
use in prognostication. The apparatus used in these experi-
ments consisted of the water-dropper (Fig. 2), previously de-
vised by Lord Kelvin, and of a modified form of tliequaarant
electrometer (Fig. .'!). The large number of observations
made at the .stations just menticmed are recorded in Dr.
Mendenhall's report, already cited. They establish many
interesting facts, for the most part confirmatory of those
already obtained at European stations. On account of the
complexity of the phenomena observed, however, and tlie
failure to discover an obvious and simple relation between
the fluctuations in the electrical condition of the atmosphere
and the weather, the Government abandoned the work. Of
the results obtained by the study of atmospheric electricity,
the following are perhaps the most important : (1) A col-
lector of any fonn properly exjiosed will show marked elec-
trification at all times. (2) The electrification is sometimes
positive and sometimes negative. (3) Quiescence of electri-
cal condition accompanies stability of weather. (4) Periods
of storm are almost always accompanied by very marked
fluctuations in the electrical potential in the atmosphere.
(5) Nothing corresponding to the uniformity observetl over
wide ranges of territory in the records of fluctuations of the
magnetic condition of the earth is met with in the com-
parison of the observations at the various stations for the
study of atmospheric electricity.
That there is connection between weather disturbances
and the electrical condition of the atmosphere seems to be
well established,-but it is unlikely that definite results wiU
be attained until we have long-continued records from a
Fio. 3.— Form of electrometer used in the
U. S. experiments on atmospheric elec-
tricity, 18S4-88.
nach, afford data concerning the electri-
cal state of the atmosphere in various
parts of Europe for a period of many
years. In the U. S. Dr. Wislizonus be-
gan observations at St. Loais in 1861,
and maintained a continuous record for
eleven years. The work of these ob-
servers seemed to show a distinct con-
nection betweeir the electrical state of
the atmosphere and the weather ; but it
was evident from the conflicting char-
acter of the data that the problem must
be attacked in a more systematic manner. In 1884 the U. S.
■weather bureau, under the direction of Prof. T. C. Menden-
hall, and with the co-operation of Johns Hopkins, Harvard,
^^^^Sa.m. lOa.m. lln.m. 12
m. 1p.m. 2 p.m. 3 p.m. 4 p.m. 5 p.m. 6 p.m.
'
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r v^
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r ----- ^
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jr ' ' ^ i
it
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Carve ihowlo^ y»ri»lioni« of pot«iitl&l at Itbica, N. Y.. May SI. ihSS. ft d»y oo which ■ lhiiodi».»lonn oconmd.
SpmrkB (ift&scd Irom oeedl« lo qua<lnuit9 alniMt contiDU&lly from 3.1S to 4.3i p. m.
large number of stations widely distributed over the world.
Lightning is generally considered to be a phenomenon at-
teiuiiiig those fluctuations in the electrification of the atmos-
202
LIGHTNING
phorc which are continually going on, a flash Ofourring
whenever the Jifferences of potential rise to values so great
aj to result in the breaking aown of the dieleetric interven-
ing between a charged clouil and the surface of the ground,
or between two dilTerently charged clouds. That limes when
thunder-storms oi'cur are times of great and sudden lluctu-
ations in the atmospheric potential may be seen by
inspivtion of the records of any electrical ol)serv-
ing station. An example of the elTect upon the
electrometer of the passage of a thunder-storm is
shown in Fig. 4.
The phenomenon is, in the nature of things,
one witli which it is extremely dillicult to experi-
ment, and, in spite of the very large amount of
work which lias been done, we are entirely igno-
rant of the method by which the enormous dif-
ferences of potential necessary to the develop-
ment of the lightning flash are produced. Many
ingenious hypotheses have been put forth, and in
some instances interesting attempts have been
made to establish these by means of experimen-
tal devices for the imitation on a small scale of
the phenomena of the thunder-storm. For a note-
worthy example of this kind of research, the
reader is referred to Gaston Plantc's volume en-
titled Phenomenes £lec(riques de I'AlmosphPre
(Paris, 1888). Kven in the hands of the most skill-
ful experimental electricians, however, such at-
tempts must remain in great measure futile.
Electrical sparks artilicially produced rarely
reach lengths greater than a meter, and our power
of measuring ditlerenees of |)otcntiiil ceases with
differences much smaller than those necessary to
pro<lucc a discharge even through a meter of air.
tinder such conditions attempts to establish the
potential differences between a cloud and the earth, where
the thickness of the dielectric frequently cxceoils a mile,
must be regarded as altogether vague and iMcicfiiiitc. Even
within the range of sparking distance obtainable experi-
mentally, however, it has been shown that the potential dif-
ference does not increase in proportion to the length of the
spark. A curve plotted to express the relation between
difference of potential and the distance in air over which
disruptive discharge will occur seems to show a tendency
toward a maximum value. It may be then that the poti'ii-
tial difference necessary to break down a layer of the atmos-
phere a mile in thickness may not greatly exceed that which
IS nece.s-sary to produce a spark when the conductors be-
tween which the discharge takes place arc near one another.
Pig. 5 shows a curve of the kind just indicated. It is from
measurements made by Steinmetz.* The sparking <listances
to which it refers are
so short, as compared
with those with which
we have to deal in the
case of lightning, that
it would be absurd to
draw any inference
from them furllierthan
to say that the enor-
mons values freipicnt-
ly assigned to the dif-
ference of potential
between cloud and
earth — values which
are based upon the as-
sumption (if law of di-
rect proportionality —
are probably much too
large. An example of
such an estimate is given in a foot-note to page 9 of Ijodge's
book on lightning-conductors, in which he says: "The dif-
ference of potential for a spark a mile long between flat
plates IS, roughly, 1 6.()(H),0(X) electrostatic; units, each one of
which IS equal to 300 volts; that is, nearly 5,000,000,000
volts."
In certain other respects we are in a position to make
more accurate eslimalcs concerning lightning. The elec-
trical strength of air considered as a dielectric is a well-es-
tablished constant. From it we can compute in units of
work the amount of energy necessary to strain the air lying
between cloud and earth to the poiiit of discharge. Tliis is
• Rl<>lnmetz. Trantnclinm of American Imlilute uf Electrical
*;n!;iriffr», vol. x, p. 8.'i(Uia3;.
the energy released when the lightning flash occurs. Lodge
makes such a computation in his book alreiuly cited. Trans-
lated into metric units his result is as follows:
For each cubic kilometer of air strained to the verge of
electrical collapse, the storage of energy amounts roughly to
o,tX)0.000.000 kilogrammeters. It would take a steam-engine
Ul
/
t
/
3.0
A
IM
t
/
i.O
<
V
/
1.0
*
S —
£
/
y
/
0
^
V0LT6. 10,000
^,0U>
Fio. 6.
30,000 <0,000
of 100 horse-power nearly twenty-four houi-s to develop
this amount of energy. When we consider that all of it is
lilicnitcd within a scarcely apjircciable fniction of a second,
by a Hash which discharges a cloud 1 km. square, situated 1
km. above the earth, the effects produced where lightning
strikes are easily explicable.
The most important advances in the study of lightning
which have been made in recent times are due to the study
of photographs of the lightning flash. Fig. 6 is from such
a photograi)!). taken at Middldown, Conn., on June 14, 1S!I2,
by O. S. Hlakeslee. It shows distinctly the crooked |iath
of the discharge, and in many ways the very close wlation-
ship between lightning flashes and the sparks artificially
obtained l)y such means iis the Iloltz machine. (See Ei.kctri-
CAL Machinks.) The bright spot of light showing through
the trees in the back-gnnind is fi-om an arc-light, and is not,
as might be supposed, due to what is termed gloliular light-
ning. (ili>liul;ir iir liall lightning, indeed, is something the
Kia.
' black Ilasti " Urom a pbotoj^raph by
C'layden).
existence of which is very well substantiated by the evidence
of the large number of observers. It has, however, hitherto
almost entirely eluded all precise observation, so much so
LIGHTNING
LIGHTNING- A RRESTER
263
that its very existence has frequently been questioned. The
writer has never seen a photu>,'ra|jli which contains anything
which could be fairly classed as ball-lightning, although such
photograjihs are said to have been taken.
Photograiihs of lightning frequently sliow phenomena
which are ditlicult of interpretation. Fig. 7, luki-n Iroin the
frontispiece (jf Lodge's book, shows a phenomenon known as
the black tl<i.i/i. It will be seen that of the several discharges
recorded upon this plate, one, instead of being while, is
densely black. This result is, however, undoubtedly due to
an idiosyncrasy of the silver salts, well known to photogra-
phers. It is a familiar fact that when the photographic film
is over-exposed there occurs a reversal. Under such circum-
stance one obtains, upon developing the film, a positive in-
stead of a negative picture of the image in the camera. The
simplest cx]]laiiation, and the one which seems most [)rob-
able, of the nature of
the black flash in pho-
tographs of lightning is
that certain flashes are
of such extreme actinic
intensity that even in
the very short interval
during which the ex-
posure lasts they pro-
duce this reversal. The
writer exposed a sensi-
tive plate to the elec-
tric arc-light for the
purpose of illustrating
this effect, to which end
the exposure for the
brightest part of the
image was over-timed.
The result is shown in
Fig. 8, in which it will
be seen that the central
part of the arc itself,
and the crater of the
positive carbon, and
the tip of the negative carbon, appear black instead of white,
while the less brilliantly incandescent regions surrounding
these central portions are shown in the proper manner. The
inspection of any photograph of lightning flashes will con-
vince one that there is very great range of intensities. Giv-
en this range, reversal by over-exposure is a peculiarity of
the photographic process which must be expected.
Fig. y shows another interesting phenomenon, the exist-
ence of which has been established by means of photography.
It is what is known as the multiple flash. Owing to persist-
ence of vision, the evidence of the eve is searcelv to be taken
Flo. 8. — From pliutograpli uf an arc.
over ■ exposed to show several of
the briglitest portions.
Tia. 9.— The multiple flash (from a photograph by Dr. H. S. Piflfard).
concerning such a phenomenon, but the photograpliic plate
affords very good evidence of it. There is reason to believe
that the multiple fiash is simply an oscillatory discharge be-
tween cloud and earth. The question whether lightning is
ever oscill.atory is a mooted one ; but the camera has fur-
nished valuable evidence in the affirmative. Photographs
of scenery taken from the window of a rapidly moving
train during a thunder-storm at night, for instance, have
shown a succession of images slightly displaced through
equal distance with reference to one another upon the plate.
Such an effect could be produced only by an oscillatory dis-
FlG. 10.— From photograph of an ar-
tificial oscillatory discharge in
which several distinct paths are
shown.
charge. It has been held by the opponents of this theory
that the multiple flash can not well be o.scillatory, because
the successive di.scharges would follow the same path.
Photographs of an artificial spark known to be oscillatory
have shown, however,
that the various elemen-
tary discharges which
come after the pilot spark
do not all follow the same
[lalh. Fig. 10 is from
such a photograph, made
under the direction of
the writer in 1893. The
photograph shows one
path of very great inten-
sity and several others
not so well marked. Prof.
Trowbridge, of Harvard
College, also has shown
in the course of an ex-
tended investigation that
in the case of the oscilla-
tory spark the first two
or three discharges occur
along the same path as
the pilot, but that the subsequent ones frequently take other
paths. It is probable that in the case of tiie multiple flash
we have to do with an oscillatory discharge in which the
path followed is continually changing.
There have been many theories promulgated with refer-
ence to the nature of lightning to touch upon which would
exceed the limits of this article. For discussion of these,
and of numerous other matters relating to this subject, the
reader is referred to the works of Plante and Lodge, already
cited. E. L. Nichols.
Ligrhtiiiiig-arrester (in applied electricity) : a device for
protecting dynamo-electric machinery, telejiliones, and other
apparatus connected with systems of outdoor wires, from the
ravages of lightning.
At times of electrical disturbance of the atmosphere, such
apparatus as the above is particularly likely to suffer be-
cause its metal parts afford an ea.sy path to the earth from
a network of exposed wires. The ijuantity of electricity
passing to earth through such channels at the time of thun-
der-storms is often very much too large for the carrying
capacity of the wires and other parts of the apparatus which
happens to form a portion of its path, and a sufficient
amount of heat will therefore be generated to destroy the'
latter. The possibility of protecting such instruments from
the effects of lightning depends largely upon the fact that
they possess self-induction. An alternative path may there-
fore l)e provided which is free from self-induction, but which
includes an air-space. To steady currents this jiath will be
of infinite resistance; but to currents of a rapidly fluctu-
ating character, the path afforded by the tortuous windings
of dynamo coils, etc., offers a greater impedance than does
the air-gap. The discharge therefore chooses the alternative
path, leaping across the air-gap in the form of a sjiark, and
in this way the ma- j
chine or instrument is~
relieved from carrying
an excessive amount of
current to the earth.
Sometimes parallel
plates are used in light-
ning-arresters for the
protection of a tele-
[ihone circuit, as shown
111 Fig. 1. In the dia- pjQ j
,:,'ram, L is the line wire,
T the telephone. E the earth connection. The pair of plates
Ai Ai are introduced directly between tlie line and the earth,
care being taken to reduce the impedance of this portion of
the circuit to a minimum.
The telephone is in direct metallic oonnection with the
earth by means of a circuit possessing considerable self-in-
duction. For steady currents, or even for the undnlatory
currents used in telephony, the only path to earth is through
T, while for the violent surges of current, of which the dis-
charges during thunder-storms consist, the easier path is
across the air-gap between Ai and Aj. Lodge has shown
that increased protection may be secured by placing several
such air-gaps in multiple circuit, as in Fig. 2, and by using
T
A, I L_
D
2G4
LIGllTXING-BL'GS
LIGHTNING-RODS
points instead of plates. In the case of the latter, fusion
sometimes loads to the building up of a metallic l)riil;;e
across the air-fjap. .Such u contact wouKl bo more roailily
noticed between jiolnts and more easily remedied, while the
Uhs x-s
-v\AAAVk^ -VVVVVVW
o-
Fio. a.
likelihood of its occurrence is preatly diminished. One
source of dilliculty in the construction of lightning-arrestei-s
based upon this principle lies in tlie fact that as soon as the
air-space is traversed by Iho spark duo to the lightning dis-
charge, it becomes heatoil and loses its insulating ])ower for
steady currents. It is likely, then, to become a path for the
currents generated by the dynamo or intended to supply the
motor which it is the" object of the lightning-arrester to pro-
tect. It becomes necessary, therefore, to extinguish the
spark as soon as the lightning discharge has passed, thus
permitting the air-space to resume its normal insulating
power. This has been accomplished in a variety of ways,
none of which, however, is more ingenious than that of plac-
ing the air-gap in a strong magnetic field. Under these
conditions the arc is repelled strongly at right angles to the
lines of foi-ce, and is almost instant iy destroyed. Another
successful device consists in employing metallic terminals
composed of one of the so-called non-arcing metals. Those
metals are those which are readily oxidized, forming heavy
solid oxides; for example, zinc, magnesium, etc. It is found
that a permanent arc between poles of such metals can not
be maintained, while the transient discharge following upon
the inductive eflects of lightning will still readily traverse
the air-space.
Many mechanical devices for the temporary introduction
of a shunt or alternative path to allow of the passage of
lightning discharges have boon constructed, but few, if any,
of these are sulliciontly prompt to afford adequate protec-
tion. Owing to the wide area over which the systems of
wires of electric railway and telepnone circuits extend, every
passing thunder-storm induces upon some portion of such
systems electrical fluctuations great enough to endanger the
machinery with which those wires are connected. The
lightning-arrester, imleed, in countries which, like the U.S.,
are exposed to violent eloelricjil disturbances of the atmos-
phere, is an indispensable instrument. E. L. Nichols.
Li;;htnlng-I)ugs: See Fikkfliks.
Lightning-rods, or Liglitnlng-condnctors : metallic
rods attached to buildings or ships for the purjwse of pro-
tecting them from the effects of lightning. The famous ex-
periments of Benjamin Franklin doubtless suggested the
use of such devices. The principal ideas wliich have been
in vogue with reference to protection from lightning, and
upon which nearly all lightning-conductors since Franklin's
day have been based, are two: The dissipation of the
induced charge by the well-known action of points, and the
carrying away to earth or water in a harmless manner of
such portions of the discharge as may include in its path the
building or vessel to be protected.
Owing to the great dlflicullios of experimenting with
lightning, or of imitating its action artificially, the impor-
tant question of the degree of proloclion afforded by lighl-
ning-rods is still an open one. Increasing knowledge of the
phenomena of atmospheric electricity and of related plio-
. nomcna in the domain of eloctroslatics, however, has made
it possible to draw certain conclusions concerning lightning
and protection from its action. Damages from lightning
are of two distinct classes. The first includes damages aris-
ing from the direct action of tlu^ main discharge; the other
class comprises the secondary effects, due to the restoration
of couililiriiun, temporarily disturbed, between bodies in the
neighborhood 6f the main path. As regards the first class,
it is a question whelhor any protective device short r)f a
metallic shield surrounding the structure to be guarded
would prove efficient. We are able to estimate with consid-
erable precision the amount of energy which is liberated
along the i)ath of the lightning flash. (Sec Liohtn-isg.) This
quantity is very great, and it is sot free within extremely
limited regions. It is this energy suddenly liberated which
produces the iuslouiuling mechanical ofTocts noted when a
building is struck liy lightning. When a building is so
situated as to form a portion of the path of the main dis-
charge, lightning-rods, however well constructed, fri'(|uently
fail to perform their functions. The cases in which light-
ning-rods have to deal with the main discharge are, how-
ever, comparatively rare; that is to say, the nundier of in-
stances in which l)uildings lie in the neighlxirhood of the
path of discharge without forming a portion of it are much
more nunu'rous than those in whicli the flash passes directly
through the structure itself. For the protection of buildings
from these secondary effects the oflicacy of lightning-rods is
uiKjnestionable, and so far as this sort of protection is con-
cerned, certain general statements as to tlicir construction
may be laid down :
First. The dixsi paling action of points is vert/ small. It
is doubtfid whether points possess any practical ellicacy, and
the use of points constructed of such metals as platinum
and gold is a useless expense.
Second. The liiivrr end of the si/slems of rods should be
well f/roiinded. In buildings containing water-pipes a satis-
factory coTinoction with the earth can be obtained by attach-
ing the system of lightning-conductors to these pipes.
Third, (ias-pipes should not be used as a means of estab-
lishtnff a connection with the earth. Gas-pipes, when con-
nected with lightning-rods in such a way a.s to form a i)art
of the [lath to the earth, are likely to cause fires by the igni-
tion of their contents at any point where there is a leak.
Fourth. All portions of the structure containing consid-
erable masses of metal, such as the sheathing of roofs, and
.Ki/.'itpms of pipes not connected n^etallically with the earth,
should be so connected btj attaching them to the lightning-
rods. One of the chief soui-ces of danger from the secondary
effects of lightning consists in the inducing of heavy elec-
trostatic charges upon the surface of all such conducting
bodies as may be insulated. In the ])rodnction of these in-
ilticed charg(>s, either positive or negative electricity will be
forced to seek a path to the ground; and if an unbroken
path of good conductivity is afforded, it will be carried
away without the production of sparks and without the dan-
ger of fire. If, however, the path is interrupted here and
there by air-spaces, or by other bad conducting material, a
series of sparks will leap across these spaces. Such sparks
are frequently the cause of serious damage.
Fifth. As regards the material of which lightning-rods
should be made, the metal of which theg are constructed is
of less importance than the form. Of course, metals readily
fusible, such as lead, are not to be selected; an<l since light-
ning-rods are expo.sed to the weather, it is desirable to have
them <>onstnicted of metals which will be pernuinont. Or-
dinarily the choice limits itself to copper and iron ; and iron
is, on the whole, probably the best available material. It is
true that copper possesses a much higher conductivity than
iron, but. as has been pointed out by Lodge in his vohune on
lightning-conductors, high conductivity is not altogether a
desirable quality in the lightning-rod. For many years there
was a controversy between those who held that the essen-
tial characteristic of lightning-rods was a sulliciont cross-
sectional area, and that the shape of the cross-section was a
matter of indifference; and those, on the other hand, who
hold that the rod should bo constructed so as to olfer a
largo surface. It is now perfectly well ostablislu'd that sud-
den surges of current, such as pass over lightning-rods at
the time of discharge, are not capable of being conducted
save by the outermost layers of tlio metal. This fact is ac-
counted for by the self-induction of the material. Owing
to this inductive action, which confiiu's the current to the
oiitside, tidies with thin walls are as good carriers of light-
ning as solid rods of the .same diameter, while a broad strip
or tape weighing the same per linear foot as a rod or tube,
is much bettor than either.
Si.rth. Insulation of lightning-rods from the bodi/ of the
.'structure irhich Ihei/ are intended to protect is distinctly
di.sadraiitageous. 'I'he object of lightning-rods is not so
niiich to convoy a discharge from the sky to the earth with-
out permilting the same to utilize the building itself as a
conductor, as it is to connect all those |iortions of the liuild-
ing it.self which are conductors of electricity with the earth,
so as to allow the transfer of electricity, under the tre-
mendous inductive action of passing clouds, to go on with-
out the production of dangerous sparks. As has already
LIGXE
LIGNITE
265
been indioateil, tlie attempt to protect in the case of the
direct disolmrge is iirobalily futile in the great majority of
instances ; and at any rate the intervention of an inch or
two of glass affords no appreciable obstacle to the passage
of such a discharge as that which occurs when exchange
takes [ilace between earth and sky.
Srvnith. Liyhtning-rnds should he as 7iearli/ s/rniijftt as
possible. All coils and loops are to be avoided, because
they possess self-induction sufficient to cause the discharge
to leap across between the intervening portions of the con-
ductor instead of going around through the metal. Al-
though a metallic loop will afford a path of infinitely better
conductivity for steady currents, it becomes useless when-
ever rapid fluctuations of electromotive force take place.
The desirability or undesirability of attaching lightning-
rods to buildings is a question concerning which it would
be difficult to lay down any general rule. In the case of
ships at sea carrying wooden masts or spars there can be no
question of the importance of such protection against light-
ning. In the case, on the other hand, of a building situ-
ated upon some stratum which in itself affords insulation
from the surrounding regions of the earth's surface — and it
may be noted that localities are frequently found where it
is difficult to obtain a ground connection sufficiently good
to serve for telephonic purposes — it is a serious iiuestion
whether a system of metallic conductors connecting the
house with the earth would be a source of protection or of
added danger.
The development of extensive systems of overhead wires
for telephone and electric-lighting service has greatly modi-
fied the problem of protection from lightning, and has com-
pelled the introduction of apparatus quite as important as
the lightning-rod. This apparatus is the lightning-arrester,
the oV)ject of which is to afford a path to earth for the elec-
tric charges which gather by induction upon such systems
of wires. The function of the lightning-arrester is prima-
rily to protect the instruments (telephones, dynamos, mo-
tors, etc.) which are connected with the outdoor wires, but it
also protects against fire the buildings which the wires en-
ter. The system of wires pei'taining to a telephone exchange,
for example, gathei-s charges of electricity over a wide area,
and the discharge to earth is likely to occur through the
grouiui wire of some building remote from the disturbance.
A properly arranged lightning-arrester will prevent this by
keeping the potential of the entire system under control.
Lightning-rods are ordinarily brought into service only at
rare intervals; the lightning-arrester, on account of the ex-
tended network exposed to the inductive effects of thunder-
clouds, will be in action with nearly every passing storm.
See Anderson, Lightning-conductors; Lodge, Lightning-
conductors and Lightning-guards. E, L. Nichols.
Ligne, leefi, Charles Joseph, Prince of: soldier: b. in
Brussels, May 12, 1735 : was descended from one of the
wealthiest and most powerful Belgian families ; entered the
Austrian army in 1752, distinguished himself in the Seven
Years' war, and commanded the vanguard in the Bavarian
war of succession. During the reign of Joseph II. he held
the highest military and diplomatic positions, and the ele-
gance of his manners and the brilliancy of his conversation
made him a favorite with all European courts. Under Leo-
pold he fell into disfavor, partly on account of his son's
participation in the Belgian insurrection (1790), and though
Francis I. made him field-marshal in 1808 he never re-
gained his influence in the state. In the latter years of his
life he was occupied in literary pursuits. D. in Vienna,
Deo. 13, 1814. Of his Melanges militaires. litteraires et
sentimentaires (34 vols., 1795-1811), Malte-Brun has given
a selection, (Euvres choisies. in 2 vols. His letters and
memoirs have considerable historical interest.
Ligrnine [from Lat. lignum, wood]: a synonym of Cel-
lulose (q. v.).
Lig'nite [from Lat. lignum, wood. Cf. Fr. lignite]: the
name originally given to bitumenized wood, but now applied
to most coals which occur in the more recent geological for-
mations; the term is therefore synonymous with brown
coal. As stated in the article on Coal, lignite has no defi-
nite formula of composition, but different specimens vary
much in physical and chemical character, shading into un-
changed vegetable fiber above and true coal below. Lignites
or brown coals are found chiefly in the Cretaceous and Ter-
tiary formations. Here they occur in deposits which rival
in area and thickness the coal-beds of the Carboniferous sys-
tem. In general terms, it may be said that the lignites oc-
cupy an intermediate position, both in date and composi-
tion, between the peat which is now forming and true coals
of Pala>ozoic age. and represent a stage in the progressive
distillation which vegetable tissue passes through when
buried. This process results in the formation of — 1, peats;
2. lignite: 3, bituminous coal; 4, anthracite; 5, graphite.
Xo sharp lines of demarkation separate these groups, as we
find them shading into each other by all possible intermedi-
ate phases. Since they are successively derivatives one from
the other, the series is necessarily contiinious. It should
also be said that the name lignite is applied to woody tis-
sue in which the process of bitumenization has begun, and
among the forms of recent and superficial bitumenized vege-
tation that which has been derived from the decomposition
of mosses, grasses, etc. — generally a porous, spongy sub-
stance— is called peat.
The mode of formation of the great beds of so-called lig-
nite of the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems seems to have
been similar to that in which peat is now accumulating, and
in which coal was formed in the marshes of the Carbonifer-
ous age. In some instances they are underlain by strata of
fire-clay, and are overlain by shales, sandstones, and lime-
stones, precisely as the coal-strata are ; and it is evident
that they have a common origin and history, except that
in the lignites that history has not reached as far as in the
coals. It frequently happens, however, that beds of lignite
have by local causes been changed to the condition cor-
responding to bituminous coal, or even anthracite. Such
instances are furnished by some of the best lignites of Colo-
rado, L^tah, and Alaska, which have reached the condition
of bituminous coal, and by the anthracites of Crested
Butte, Col., and that of Queen Charlotte's island. In the
last two cases beds of Cretaceous lignite have been, by
local volcanic action, converted into anthracite, as bright,
hard, and useful as that of Pennsylvania. As the deposits
of carbonized vegetation formed in the Tertiary and Creta-
ceous systems are classed as lignites, all the so-called coals
of the great areas underlain by these formations come into
this category.
It happens that the most important deposits of mineral
fuel in Europe and Eastern North America are found in the
Carboniferous systems, but it is not known that any impor-
tant deposits of true coal exist in other parts of the world.
So far as we know, all the great coal-fields of China. India,
Borneo, and Western North America, are of Mesozoic or
Tertiary age. Deposits of lignite are also known to exist in
Greenland, Arctic America, and in Central and South
America. The economic value of lignites is, as a general
rule, considerably less than that of true coals. This is
due both to their chemical composition and physical charac-
ters. They usually contain from 13 to 20 per cent, of oxygen
and 10 to 16 per cent, of water. Their heating power is
therefore usually from one-half to two-thirds that of bitu-
minous coal. The different ingredients mentioned some-
times constitute as much as one-third of the mass — a third
which probably contributes nothing to the heating power,
the water even absorbing some portion of the energy of the
combustible material in its vaporization. The calorific
power of pure carbon being estimated at 8.000 iinits, and
that of the best coals, in which the hydrogen is mainly neu-
tralized by the oxygen, at from 7,000 to 7,500. the calorific
power of lignite may be said to vary from 4,000 to 5,000. It
should be said, however, that this' is only a general rule.
The calorific power of some of the Carboniferous coals of
the U. S. hardly exceeds 6.000 units, and some of the best
lignites reach and even pass this point. The physical char-
acter of lignites also frequently impairs their economic
value. They are usually somewhat tender, and the waste in
mining and "transporting them is greater than in the bitu-
minous coals. They are apt, also, to crack badly and fre-
quently on exposure fall into a multitude of angular frag-
ments.' It rarely happens that they are capable of produc-
ing good coke. They are usually open-burning, i. e. do not
adhere in the fire, arid the proportion of volatile matter to
fixed carbon is large. When this is driven off, the residual
coke is spongy and pulverulent. To tliis hde there are,
however, exceptions which will be mentioned further on.
In Europe the lignites or brown coals have been mined
and used for years, and the practical tests to which they
have been subfected have accurately determined their value.
The majority of the coals found in the western half of the
U. S. are of modern age, and are classed as lignites. These
occur in both the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations, but
chiefly in the former; and although their extent and value
2C6
LIGNITE
LIGUORI
ANALYSES OP
AMERICAN LIGNITES, BY H. S. MUNROE, NEW YORK SCHOOL OF MINES
•
PLAGE.
Caibaa.
Hrdifi.
oxn-.
mmtrn.
Solphnr.
WiUr.
Aik.
1. Mt. Diablo. Cal
Cret
se-784
69 lilll
84 99-i
69 144
56-244
55-789
87-674
74-«re
84-103
5-078
4 336
3 897
3 70-J
4-362
8-879
3-284
4-858
2-583
0-852
15-897
15-518
10-990
15 199
9-53^
21-815
19-OM
12-801
8712
2-137
ii iiiiiiii
3-918
1-602
0-768
1066
1-oas
0-810
0-632
0920
0-727
0-229
8-940
9 415
9170
11 565
8065
3-285
16520
8-075
3-190
5-191
56.17
2999
3403
1 680
8 619
4047
4 183
9-287
2. WrUr rlv,T, I'lah
S. Hx-hn (.-aAou, "
4. Carbou sUlion, WyomiOK
5. " •• "
6. CoiweBay.Ore
7. Alaska
*
;'.'.!;"..!;'.'.Tert.
w'.'.'.'.'.'.i'.'. J
Lignilic Anihracitet.
9 Santa F*^ N M
Cret.
6052
10. Los Bronces. Souora, Mexico
Tria«.
7 204
have been but imperfectly (k'tcnnined, it is known that very
extensive deposits of this' kind (K-c-ur in New Mexico. Colo-
rado, Wvoniinji, Utah. Nevada, California, Oregon, and
Alaska. 'The lignites of Xew Mexico all belong to the Cre-
taceous formation, and are chiefly found in the lower por-
tion of this series. They underlie a large area, including
the northern portion of this Territory and Arizona, and on
the San .luan river form .strata altogether similar in ap-
pearance to true coal-beds, showing many miles of outcrop,
and sometimes attaining a thickness of over 30 feet. These
great beds, however, are not homogeneous, but consist of
layers of a better ipiality, interstratified with those that are
shaly and impure. The lignite beds of Colorado and Wyo-
ming occupy a broad belt along the flanks of the Hooky
Mountains, extending X. acro.ss the Missouri and reaching
far into Canadian territory. It is not known how large an
area in this belt is underlaid by workable beds of lignite,
but it would probably not be extravagant to estimate that at
least 50,000 sq. miles will prove to be productive coal area.
The strata here vary in thickness from a few inches to 20
and even 30 feet. In Colorado and along the line of the
Union Pacific Railway these beds have been opened in many
places, and are extensively mined. The most important
mines now workeil are located at Trinidad, Canon City,
Golden, Carbon Station, Kvanston, etc., and the coal is not
only generally used by the resident population, but is large-
ly consumed for locomotives on the railway. The lignites
of Colorado have much the character of the best-known
varieties used in the Old World, and hold about the .same
rank in comparison with the Carboniferous coals. Here,
however, as in other countries, some localities furnish fuels
of superior character; for example, the coal of Trinidad and
Crested Hutle, Col., can be coked and is capable of beijig
succcssfullv used in forging and smelting. The same may
be said of tlie San Pete coal, w-hich is found in Utah, S. from
Salt Lake City. The geological age of the lignites of Colo-
rado has lieen much discussed, but there is little doubt that
they are for the most jiart Cretaceous. There are, however.
Tertiary lignites in this region, and a part of those so ex-
tensively exposed along the Missouri river are of Tertiary
age. Xevaila and California are not so well supplied with
mineral fuel as Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah, but beds of
lignite have been found in both. In California they have
been mined on the flanks of Mt. Diablo. The coal of this
locality is Cretaceous. On the coast of Oregon the Coose
Bay coal has been mined for many years. This is of Ter-
tiary age, and may be taken as a typical example of Tertiary
lignite. Its composition will be seen from the table given
below. In physical character it is, when first mined, hard,
bright, and pitchy, but on desiccation it is prone to break up
into small fragments. Vancouver's island is well supplied
with coal, and has l)een a source from which a large part of
the coal used on t he Pacific coast has been derived. This is of
Cretaceous age ; it has precisely the aripearance of some va-
rieties of bituminous coal, and has a nigher heating power
and bears exposure and transportation better than most of
the western coals. In Alaska two varieties of lignite have
-been mined, both of which arc reported to exist in large
quantities. Of these, one (N'o. 7 of table) resembles closely
tne Coose Bay coal, and may be suspected, both from its
coipposilion and associated fossils, to be of Tertiary age.
The other has been sulijccleil to local metamorphism, and is
much hanler and more valuable.
The localities which have been mentioned are by no means
all in which lignite is known to exist in the western part of
the U. S., and there is every reason to believe, so far as
quantity is concerned, that the deposits in this region are
capable of supplying all the wants of its future population.
In quality, however, these coals are not equal to the Car-
boniferous coals of the Eastern States,
The talilc of analyses here printed will show the composi-
tion of typical exaiiiples of tne lignites of the western por-
tion of America.
The material called jet, so largely used for ornaments, is
a variety of lignite which is chiefly obtained from the Lias
at Whitby, England. Lignite of similar character occurs in
Texas, Utah, and Colorado, and some of it is equal in quality
to the English jet. Revised by Cuarles Kircuuoff.
Lig'niiin Rho'diiim [Mod. Lat., liter., rosewood ; Lat. lig-
num, v/ood + (ir. ^liSov. rose] : a comniercial name for Canary
island rosewood (see Rosewood), w-hich yields the so-called
oil of rhodium ; also for the wood of Amyris hahamifera,&
tree of the West Indies, which yields an oil used as a substi-
tute for that just mentioned,' The name is also given to
other fragrant woods.
lilgniini Vita;: See Guaiacum,
Ligonier : town ; Noble co., Ind. (for location of county,
see map of Indiana, ref. 2-F)-. on the Elkhart river, and the
Lake Shore and Mich. S. Railway; 2.5 miles S. E. of Elk-
hart, lOH miles W. of Toledo, 0, It is in an agricultural re-
gion, has several manufactories, ships large quantities of
grain and produce, and has 2 private banks and 2 weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,010 ; (1890) 2.195.
Ligor': a state, town, and isthmus of the Malay Penin-
sula. The state is feudatory to Siam, lies between 7' and 9°
X. lat., and extends across the peninsula; area, 17,000 sq.
miles; pop. about 150,000, three-quarters Siamese, the rest
JIalays, Chinese, and the aljorigines of the forests. The
country is generally mai-shy. and the forest growths gigan-
tic. The principal "productions are rice, pepper, ratans, dye-
woods, ivory, tin, and gold. The town arul capital is in lat.
8° 25' N^., near the east coast, on a wooded plain, near the
mouth of a small stream, forming a good harbor. Pop.
about 12,000. The isthmus forms the northern part of the
state; it has long been a favorite place for crossing the pen-
insula. Distance, 70 miles, Mark W, Harrinuton.
I.iffiio'ri, Saint .\lfonso Maria, de : priest ; b. in Naples,
ItalylSept. 27, 1696; of a noble family; became a lawyer
when sixteen ycai-s old ; entered a religious congregation in
1722, and w-as ordained priest in 1726; devoted himself to
the religious instruction of the poor; founded in 1732, at
Villa Scala, the order of Redemptorists (^. i'.), w-hich re-
ceived papal approbation in 1749, when Liguori was con-
firmed as itssujierior-genpral; declined the archbishopric of
Palermo ; was Bishop of Sant' Agatha 176-2-75, -nhen he re-
signed and devoted himself to theological studies and writ-
ing, giving up even his generalship of the Redemptorists,
1). at Nocera dei Pagani, Aug. 1, 1787; w-as declared vener-
alile 1796 ; beatified in 1816; canonized in 1839, and declared
a doctor of the Cliurch in 1871. Among his many works aro
T/ieolo(/ia Jloralix (1755); Homo Apoxtoliciis (\1H2): Jnsli-
titlio Cntfclielien (1768). As a moral philosopher he is equi-
probabilist, teaching that in a balance of ojiinions that which
IS the less safe may be followed provided it be as probable,
or nearly as probable, as its qiposite. 1 1 e w-as accused by the
rigorists of leaning too much to the side favorable to lib-
erty, but tliis charge was vigorously denied. According to
him, moral theology may be either positive, speculative,
polemical, or practical. Casuistry belongs to the last named,
and is of two kinds. The first kind consists of a brief ex-
position of the principles of moral theology, but insists
largely on the application of principles to oases. Casuistry
of the second kind consists exclusively in the application of
princi]>les to cases real or imaginarv. His coniplcle works
were often republislie<l. especially by Marielti (ruriii), and
were translated into French. His letters were published
complete in Italian, French, and (ierman bv the Redemptor-
ists (3 vols., 1887-92). Revised by John J. Keane.
r
LIGUORIANS
Ligriiorians : See Redemptorists.
Ligiu'ria: in ancient geography, a district of Northern
Italy ; tlie land of the Ligures, the boundaries of which were
not accurately defined until the time of Augustus. Accord-
ing to his division of Italy, it comprised the territory from
the Ligurian Sea across the JIaritinie Alps to the Padus
(I'o) in the X.. and from the Varus in the \V. to the Macra
in the E. When first mentioned in history, the Ligures oc-
cupied a much larger territory, extending far into Gaul, on
the western side of the Rhone. They were a warlike, quick-
witted, and enterprising people, whose origin and relations
are entirely unknown. In the period between the first and
second Punic wars the first encounter took place between
them and the Romans, and about 12.5 n.-c. they were wholly
subjugated. Liguria formed the nucleus of the Roman
province of Gaul. The name was renewed by Xapoleon,
June 6, 1TS)7, when the republic of Genoa was transformed
into the Ligurian republic, but the absorption of the little
state in the French empire, June 4, IHO.'i, destroyed its au-
tonomy, and its territory became for a time the three French
departments of Apennin, Genoa, and Montenotte.
Li Hung-Chailgr, lee-hoong-chaang : Chinese statesman ;
b. about 1823 (according to some authorities 1819) in the
Hofei district, in the province of Ngan-hwuy ; showed un-
usual talent as a student, and attained the degree of Chin
Sze (the third) in 1847. He was afterward appointed a com-
piler of the second class in the Hanlin College, and in 1850
acted as compiler in the imperial printing-office. During
the Taiping rebellion he served with honor, rose rapidly in
rank, and conducted the final campaign that crushed the
revolt. He was equally successful against the Nienfei rebels,
whom he completely overthrew in the summer of 18(58. In
1870 he was appointed Viceroy of Chihli and made Senior
Grand Secretary of State. His policy has been liberal and
progressive. In the face of opposition he has brought about
the introduction of the telegraph, the reorganizing of the
army on European models, the establishment of dockyards
and arsenals, and prevailed upon the Government to permit
the construction of railways. In his foreign relations he
has worked steadily for peace, and by skillful diplomacy
has generally contrived to secure it without sacrificing the
interests or honor of his country. In 18"J6 he represented
the Emperor of China at the coronation of the czar, and on
his way back to China visited the principal countries of Eu-
rope and the U. S., and was well received everywhere. Note
that Li is the surname, and is in Chinese custom invariably
placed before the given name Hung-Chang. See Name.
Lilac [from Arab, lllak, from Pers. lilaj, nilaj, indigo-
plant; cf. I'dak, iillak, bluish] : the popular name of shrubs
of the genus Syringa, family Oleaceie. The best known is
the common lilac, IS. vulgaris, a native of Central Asia, half
naturalized in Europe and the U. S. Its early-blooming
flowers are commonly of the tint called lilac, but often are
white or dark purple. S. persica, S. chinensis, with other
species and their hybrids, are common in cultivation. Their
bark has decided febrifugal powers.
Lil'burne, Joux : political agitator : b. at Thickney
Puncharden, Durham, England, in 1618: imbibed in youth
opinions extremely hostile to the Church of Englan(l, and
having circulated pamphlets against the bishops, was con-
demned in l(iy8 to pay £500, to receive 500 lashes, to stand in
the pillory, and be remanded to prison. In 1(541 he received
from the Long Parliament a handsome compensation (I'JJ.OOO)
for his sufferings. He fought in the Parliamentary army at
Edgehill, Brentford, and Marston Moor, and was thrown
into Newgate for libeling the Presbyterians. He afterward
aided in organizing the Levelers (q. v.) ; accused Cromwell
and Ircton of designs upon the sovereignty; was in 1049
tried for sedition and acquitted ; took refuge in Holland ;
returned in 1653; joined the Quakers; died in 1657.
Lilia'cese : the Lily Family (q. v.).
Liliencroii, Rocuus, Freiherr von : b. at Plon, Holstein,
Dec. 8, 1820 ; studied theology, jurisprudence, and German
philology at Berlin and Kiel ; became professor at Jena in
18.52; went to Meiningen in 1855, and became editor-in-
chief of the AUgemeine Deutsche Biographie in 1869. His
researches are devoted chiefly to the history of the popular
song and its music, the results of which are embodied in the
large critical edition of Die hist. Volkslieder der Deutschen
vom 13-16 Jahrhuudert (1865-69), and in the exquisite little
■volume DeutscUes Leben iin Volkntied (1884).
Julius Goebel.
LILLE
267
Lilinokalani, k'e-lee-oo-u-kaa-laa m'e, Lydia Kamakeha :
ex-t|)ueen of the Hawaiian islands; b. Dec. 2, 18:58; married
John (J. Domiuis. a native of Boston, governor of Oahu,
who died Aug. 26, 1891. She had been made vice-regent
when King Kalakaua left Hawaii for the U. S., and soon
after his death in .San Francisco she was pnjclaimed queen,
Jan. 29, 1891. She gave offense by her attempts to abolish
the constitution of 1887, and restore the more absolute power
of the crown. Though forced by the opposition to desist
from these attempts, fear of their renewal and dissatisfaction
with her government caused her overthrow Jan. 30, 1893,
by a small portion of the population, consisting chiefly of
the U. S. element. A provisional government was then set
up and annexation to the U. S. proposed. The queen, on
the other hand, alleging interference on the part of the XJ. S.
minister on behalf of the revolutionists, recjuested the aid of
that Government in restoring her to the throne. Soon after
his inauguration. President Cleveland withdrew from the
Senate the annexation treaty which had been negotiated,
and in the following winter attempted unsuccessfully to
mediate between the provisional government and the queen,
with a view to her restoration to the throne, and a republic
was proclaimed July 4, 1894. In connection with a rising
of her supporters in Jan., 1895, she was arrested as an ac-
complice. Some days later she renounced her right to the
throne, but was tried and sentenced to five vears' imprison-
ment and a fine of .|5,000. She was released, liowever, in Sep-
tember of the same year, and in Dec, 1896, visited the U. S.
Liliiiin [see Lily. O. Eng. lilie, from Lat. li'lium, from
Gr. Kdpiov. lily]: a genus of the Lily Family {q. v.), com-
prising some of the commonest and most valued of hardy
ornamental bulbiferous plants, natives of the northern tem-
perate zone. Several are indigenous to the U. .S., the more
showy and common ones being Lilium philadelphicum,
with an upright flower, and L. canadeiise and L. superbutn,
with nodding ones; the^e orange and orange-red. Related
species of California are now coming into cultivation, as
well as one or two with white or rose-colored blossoms. L.
candidum, the common white lily of the gardens, came from
the Levant and Caucasus. The large and choice Japanese
lilies, white or partly so, came from Jj. longiflorum, with
long and narrow flowers, and L. japonicum, L. speciosum,
and L. auratum, with very broad and open ones. In the
scarlet-flowered L. chalcedonicum, abounding in Palestine,
we " behold the lilies of the field " of .Scripture. The tiger
and bulblet-bearing lilies of cultivation, all natives of the
Old World, and producing bulblets in the axils of the leaves,
belong to L. tigrinum, L. croceum, and L. hulbiferum, the
last two known by their erect flowers. C. E. B.
Lille, or Lisle (Flem. Ryssel) : the capital of the depart-
ment of Le Nord, France ; is situated in a fertile and well-
cultivated plain on the Deule, and communicates by canals
and railways with the sea and all the large conimercial
places of Northern France and Belgium (see map of France,
ref. 1-F). It is the headquarters of the third military di-
vision, and is one of the strongest fortresses of Europe. Its
fortifications were erected in the eleventh century; they
were thoroughly reconstructed by Vauban. .Since 1858 the
ramparts on the south side have been demolished, and tlie
town now includes the old communes of Es(|uarmes, W'azem-
mes, and JIoulins-Lille. The city is well built, with liroad and
regular streets and numerous squares. It has a university, a
lyceum, an academy of design with a celebrated collection
of drawings — among which are 86 by Raphael and about 200
by Jlichaelangelo — a botanical garden, several literary so-
cieties, and many scientific and educational institutions. Its
principal importance, however, it derives from its manufac-
tures. Much flax is grown in the vicinity, and the linen
manufactures of Lille are very extensive; the whole neigh-
borhood is covered with blcaching-grounds. Xo less impor-
tant is its cotton-spinning industry ; alx)ut thirty-six large
establishments are in operation. The tobacco-manufactory
of the Government produces annually about 11.000,000 lb.
Beetroot sugar, rape-seed oil, gloves, and gunpowder are also
manufactured in large quantities, and an extensive trade is
carried on. Lille was founded in the ninth century, belonged
alternately to France or to the Counts of Flanders, came into
the possession of the house of Burgundy at the end of the
fourteenth century, jjassed from Burgundy to Austria and
Sjiain, but was conquered in 1667 by Louis XIV., since which
time it has been a French city. In 1792 the Austrians bom-
barded the city for nine davs and nights, but had finally to
raise the siege. Pop. (1891) 160,966 ; (1896) 216,276.
2CS
LILLY
LIMA
Lilly. Jons : S«? Lyly.
Lil'ly. William: iLstrologer ; l>. at Diseworth. Leicester-
shire. K'n:.'laiul. May 1. 1G0-' ; beiraii the study of astrolojry
in l(Wi, ami in lli+4 befjau llie publication of an animal al-
manac, Merliiiiis Anfflicus Junior, which containeJ some
woiuierful predictions, and was eagerly read by all jjarties.
He iiistnicted m.my iiupils in his art. and practiced medicine.
In his Monarchy or S'u J/oH<ire/iy (1051) apix'ared two hiero-
plyphical fiirures which were subsequently claimed to refer
to' the plairue and the great tire in London in 1G66. He
wrote ail Introduction to Astrology, a Grammar of Astrol-
ogy, and T<ibles of yaticilies, and died at Walton-upon-
Tliame.'i, .June 9, 1681, leaving an Autobiography, which was
first published in 1715.
Lily [O. Eng. /i7i>, from Lat. lilium, from Gr. \(lpioy.
lily] : any plant of the genus Lilium ; by extension any one
of various other lily-like flowers belonging to the same or
related families (see' LiLV Family), and even to some dicoty-
ledonous plants, as the water-lilies, Symphiea, CastaUa, etc.
Lily Family: the Liliacea',a. groupof inonoeotyledonous
plants clianicterized by a regular complete perianth, free
from the three-celled ovary, and six stamens. They are
mainly herbaceous, and with the six divisions of the peri-
anth colored alike and the leaves parallel-veined; but to
all these characters there are exceptions. Many have bulbs,
others tubci-s or root-stocks. A few are arborescent, such as
the larger yuccas, and esj^ecially dragon-trees (Dractena).
The famous dragon-tree of t)rotava, Teneriffe, described
and figured by Humboldt (overthrown in 1868). was regarded
as one of the oldest trees in existence. As now received,
the family comprises fully 2.300 species, widely distributed
throughout the world, and constituting a number of well-
marked sub-families (sometimes regarded as families). To
this family belong the tulios, lilies, crown-imperial, calo-
chortns. and most of the well-known and highly prized or-
namental plants of the order, as Also the hyacinth and the
onion tribe, the asparagus, and a popular conservatory climb-
er, Myrsiphylliim (falsely called Smilai), Convallaria (the
lilv-of-the- valley), Polygonatiim (Solomons seal), the dragon-
trees, the medicinal and ornamental Colchicum (meadow
saffron, so called from a resemblance to Ci'ocux), Veralrum,
the white hellebore and its allies, which furnish veratrine,
the last named having very active acrid-poisonous roots or
corms. Such properties are not wholly absent from the
first-named plants, as in the bulbs of Gloriosa and of crown-
imperial. 'I hose of squills are likewise very active, while
those of garlics and leeks are well-known condiments, and
those of onions and the young shoots of asparagus are staples
of food. The bitter juice of one or two species of Aloi; fur-
nishes aloes, a common purgative. One of the strongest of
fibers is New Zealand flax, from the leaves of Phormium
tenax. Keviscd by Charles E. Hessey.
Lllyhte'iim (originally the name of the cape which forms
the western extremity of Sicily): the modern Marsala (g. v.) ;
built by the t'arthaginians about 3.50 B. c. It was their last
possession on the island. At the close of the first Punic war
it was made over to Rome, and became the basis for her at-
twte on Africa. At the fall of the Roman empire it was
still a flourishing place, and the Saracens valued its port.
Revised by G. L. HEXDRirKsox.
Lily-of-thp-Valloy : a plant of Europe and Asia, also
sparingly indigenous in the Allegliuny Mountains, prized in
garden and greenhouse cultivation for its beauty and fra-
grance. Its scientific name is Convallaria majalis. It is
used l)y perfumers as the basis of euu d'or.
Lima, lecmiiii : a coast department of Peru ; bounded X.
by Ancachs, E. by .luiiin, S. E. by Iluancavelica, S. by lea,
and S. W. by the Pacific ; area. 23.647 sii. miles. The port
of C'allao, with a few square miles of adjoining country, is
sometimes separated as a distinct constitutional province.
The western portion of the department lies in the Cordil-
leras, and has many peaks al)ovc the snow-limits; the east-
ern part is lower, but broken by many spurs of the moun-
tains, some of them extending to the seashore. Hetween the
spurs are the valleys of several small rivers, which wiilen
out toward the sea ami constitute the most fertile districts ;
in these a large portion of the inhaliitanis are gathered.
Sugar-cane and grafts are the principal crops. Silver, gold,
copper, coal, anil other minerals are found in the mountains,
but there are few mines. The cnast valleys were long occu-
pied l)y Indian trilws of the (^iiichua race, who were not
conquered by the Incas until about 1420; at the time of
the Spanish conquest thev still retained many of tlieir pe-
culiar customs, and one of their iilols. Pachacamac, wius re-
nowned throughout Peru. They had large cities and exten-
sive irrigation-works, the ruins of which still exist; and
their cemeteries, particularly that of Ancon, near Lima,
have yielded eiuirmous (piantities of objects which tliey bur-
ied with their dead. The northern valleys were held by pef>-
ple of the Chimu race, to which some archa'ologists also re-
fer the Ancon remains. Pop. of department in 1894. prob-
alily 3.50,000 (the confessedly imperfect census of 1876 gave
261,414). ' Hekbekt H. Smitu.
Lima [Span, corniption of Quichua rimac, an oracle ; in
allusion to an idol and temple formerly located here] : capi-
tal of Peru and of the department of Lima ; at the head of
a plain forming a plateau where the river Rimac emerges
from the spurs of tlie Cordilleras ; .512 feet above the sea ; 6
miles from its port of Callao on the Pacific ; in lat. 12° 2'
34' S., and Ion. 77° 7' 36' W. (see map of South America, rcf.
5-B). Historically it is the most important city in South
America. It was founded in .Ian., 1530, by Francisco
Pizarro, who called it Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the
Kings), probably in allusion to the feast of the Magi Jan. 6 ;
this name was the official one during two centuries. It was
the seat of the Viceroys of Peru, who, during most of the
colonial period, ruled nearly all of Spanish South America ;
their court was the most magnificent in America, and at-
tracted all the learning and riches of the continent; the
Archbishop of Lima was the most powerful prelate in
America, and here the religious orders and. the Inquisition
had their centers. Taken by San Martin Julv 9. 1821. it re-
mained in the hands of the patriots with slight interrup-
tions during the war for independence. It has always been
an important point during the Peruvian civil wars, its pos-
session generally indicating the party which is in power.
The capital of the Peru-Bolivian confederation 1836-38, it
was taken in the latter year by the Chilians, united with
Gainana and other revolutionists. It wius again occupied
by the Chilians after several severe battles Jan. 17, 1881, and
was held by them until Oct. 22. 1883 ; during this period
great damage was done to the city, and especially to public
institutions. Lima has suffered greatly at intervals from
earthquakes; it was nearly destroyed by the great shock of
Oct. 28. 1746. when more than 1.000 persons perished; and
it was much injured in 1586. 1030, 1(>87, 1806. and 1828. It
has always been an unhcalthful place, and under the vice-
roys there were frequent severe epi<lemics, due to bad sani-
tary arrangements. The city now has an excellent system
of undergrountl drainage, and its water-sujiply is improved ;
but intermittent fevers and dysentery are still prevalent.
Owing to the proximity of the mountains the temperature
is low, the mean from June to November being only 56'4°
F. ; thtf remaining months are warmer (maximum 82 ). and
are characterized by long spells of thick mist, peculiarly
trying to weak lungs: but rains are rare. Formerly the
city included about 3 sq. miles on the southwest side of the
Riinac. with a suburb. San Lazaro. across the river; it was
surrounded by adobe walls, which were leveled in 1870 and
replaced by fine boulevards; but these were destroyed dur-
ing the Chilian invasion. The Riinac is crossed by three
bridges. The city is regularly laid out. but has narrow
streets and sidewalks ; there arc thirty-three public sqiuires,
many of them lianilsomely adorned with statues and foun-
tains. Among the inomiments are a fine equestrian statue of
Bolivar (bnmze) : the marble group of Columbus discover-
ing America; and the Dosdc JIayo column, commemorating
the defense of Callao against the Spaniards. The cathe-
dral, on the Plaza Mayor, is one of the largest and finest in
America. It was founded by Pizarro. destroyed in the earth-
quake of 1746, and rebuilt on the old founilalions. Elevated
on a marble terrace, it has the usual two towers, of excep-
tional height, and a portal in Moorish style. The older parts,
including pillars of red marble and statues in niches, are
finely wrought; but .some of the modern adilitions are in
brick, stucco, and wood. The interior is imposing and very
rich, many of the adornments being of solid silver: there is
a very fine organ. In the crypt are shown the coflins of
Pizarro and of .several of the viceroy.s. There are .some sev-
enty other churches, many of them of great interest, but
some of them have been turned over to secular uses; most
of the Church treasure was given to the Government during
the Chilian invasion. The senate house is the old [lalace of
the IiKpiisition. and Pizarro"s palace is now used for {iovern-
ment ofliees. The mint has a coining capacity of ifl.OOO.OOO
LIMA
LIMBORCH
269
monthly. The University of San Marcos is the oldest in
America, having been founded in 1551 ; it now includes the
College of San Carlos (founded 1770), where most of the bet-
ter class of Peruvian youth are educated. There are, besides,
several national colleges (answering to high schools in the
U. S.), medical schools, a raining and engineering school,
naval and military institute, etc. Girls are very generally
educated in nunneries, of which there are eight or ten. 'I'he
national library was next to that of Rio de .Janeiro, the finest
in South America, and particularly rich in historical books
and manuscripts relating to Peru ; it was sacked by the
Chilians in 1881, and, though it was reopened in 1884, only
a small part of its priceless treasures has been recovered.
The Dosde Mayo Hospital, built at an original cost of ^1,000,-
000, has 700 bods, and is perhaps tlie finest edifice in the
city. The exposition building, a kind of national museum,
erected in 1872, is a very handsome edifice, and is surrounded
by a beautiful pleasure-ground, now the favorite promenade.
Another fine promenade is the Alameda, in the San Lazaro
suburb ; and tliere is a good botanical garden and a zoologi-
cal garden in the outskirts. The Pantheon or principal
cemetery is noted for its numerous fine marble monuments.
The houses of Lima are generally made of sun-dried bricks,
a sufficiently durable material in this dry climate ; and the
older ones have the second story projecting over the side-
walk ; the better class are furnished with richness and taste.
Clubs are numerous and popular. The society of Lima is
noted through Spanish America for intelligence and culture.
Many of tlie well-to-do families have residences at Mira-
flores by the seashore, a beautiful place which was destroyed
during the Chilian invasion, but has been rebuilt ; this and
Chorillos, a favorite bathing-place, are connected with the
capital by railway. The railway from Callao is continued
in the Oroyo route, destined to open up Western Peru ; and
a line runs northward along the coast. Lima is the com-
mercial metropolis of Peru, Callao being, for practical pur-
poses, a portion of it : the most important exports are silver,
gold, vicuila wool, hides, sugar, cotton, and cinchona. Popu-
lation (1891) estimated at 103,5.56, which is probably below
the trutli. Paz Soldan (1877), rejecting the imperfect cen-
sus of 1876, claimed a population of over 200,000. See
Markham, Cuzco and Lima ; Fuentes, Estadistica de Lima ;
Vincent, Around and About South America ; Childs, Span-
ish American Republics. Herbert U. Smith.
Lima : village ; Livingston eo., N. Y. (for location of
county, see map of New York, ref. 5-D) ; on the Lima and
Honeoye Falls Railroad ; 4 miles S. of Honeoye Falls, 18
miles S. of Rochester. It is in an agricultural region ; con-
tains 4 churches, Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, 2 district
schools, and a weekly newspaper ; and has coal and lumber
yards, wagon and blacksmitlis" shops, and a machine-shop.
Pop. (1880) 1,878; (1890) 1,003; (1893) estimated, 1,010.
Editor of " Recorder."
Lima : city ; capital of Allen co., 0. (for location of
county, see map of Ohio, ref. 3-D) ; on the Ottawa river, and
the Cin., Ilaui. and Dayton, the Erie, the Lake E. and W.,
and the Penn. railways ; 130 miles N. by E. of Cincinnati.
It is the center of the great Ohio petroleum and natural-gas
fields, and since 1885, when petroleum was first discovered
in the city, it has become one of the largest petroleum ship-
ping-points in the country. It has one of the largest oil-
refineries in the world, the shops of the Lake E. and W. and
the Cin., Ham. and Dayton railways, and manufactures of
straw-board, egg-ease fillers, and of tools and macliinery
used in the petroleum and wood-working industries. There
are 2 national banks with combined capital of ^220.000. a
State bank with capital of .$50,000, a private liank, and 2
daily and 6 weekly newsp.\pers. Pop. (1880) 7.507; (1890)
15,981. Editor op " Republican-Gazette."
Limac'idse [Mod. Lat., liter., those belonging to the slug
family : li max (= Lat. li max. slug, snail), the typical genus
+ tir. patronymic ending -i5ai, plur. of- -i'Stis. descended
from] : a family of gasteropodous mollusks of the order
Pulmonata. distinguislied by the elongated semi-eylindri-
cal body, which is not distinguishable from the foot, the ab-
sence of any visceral sac, and the rudimentary character of
the shell, which is concealed by the mantle : the respiratory
orifice near the right posterior margin of the mantle; the
anus close in front of tlie respiratory orifice ; the jaws are
ribless ; the teeth of the radula in numerous rows. The
family thus defined emliraccs the well-known slugs of the
gardens, and in the U. S. includes two species introduced
from Europe — viz., Limax agresiis and L. Jlavus. These
are found in moist places under boards, stones, etc. They
are herbivorous, and are frequently injurious to succulent
young plants. Besides the introduced species, there is an
indigenous form which is widely distributed in the U. S. —
Limax campestris, Binnev.
Lima e Silva, -a-seelvaa, Luiz Alves, de (successively
Baron, Count, Marquis, and from Mar. 2.3, 1869, Duke of
Caxias) ; general and statesman ; b. at Rio de Janeiro, Bra-
zil, Aug. 25, 1803. His father, Francisco de Lima e Silva,
was a distinguished soldier, subsequently general and re-
gent in 1831. The boy entered the army as a cadet when
only five years old, studied in the military academy, and in
1823 made his first campaign in Bahia. lie fought in
Uruguay 1825-28 ; was j)romoted to brigadier ; was presi-
dent of 'Maranhao Feb., 1840, to May, 1841, subduing a for-
midable rebellion ; in May, 1842, was made vice-president
and military commandant of Sao Paulo, which was also in
rebellion, and finally defeated the insurgents at Santa Luzia
Dec. 24, 1842. To subdue the formidable revolt in Rio
Grande do Sul he was made president of that province Dec,
1842, and only retired in Oct., 1846, after complete peace was
restored. In 1851-52 he was commander-in-chief of the Bra-
zilian army which, in alliance with Urquiza, drove the dic-
tator Rosas from Buenos Ayres. In June. 1855, he accepted
the portfolio of war in the conservative ministry of the Slar-
quis of Parana, and by the death of that statesman Sept. 3,
1856, became premier, resigning May 3, 1857. Already in
1855 he had been chosen to the senate, and he was now ac-
knowledged leader of the conservatives. From Mar. 3,
1861, to May 4, 1862, he was again premier. In Dec, 1862,
he became marshal. When the war with Paraguay broke
out he was at first excluded from active command owing to
his political affiliations; but after the disaster of Curu-
paity he was made commander-in-chief of the Brazilian
forces Oct. 13, 1866. During the ensuing operations he was
twice left in command of the whole allied forces, and these
intervals were marked by the great successes of the war, in-
cluding the taking of Humaita, Aug. 5, 1868; the victories
before Asuncion Dec, 1868; and the occupation of that
city Jan. 5, 1869. In Feb., 1869. he was relieved, owing to
ill-health. The duke was again prime minister June 25,
1875, to Jan. 5, 1878, a period which included the absence
of the emperor in the U. S. and Euro]ie. D. at his estate of
Santa Monica, province of Rio de Janeiro, I\Iay 7, 1880. He
was the most distinguished soldier ever produced by Brazil,
and the only duke created under the empire. See J. Pinto
de Campos, Yida do grande cidaddo Luiz Aires de Lima e
Silra (Lisbon, 1878). Herbert H. Smith.
Limassol, le"e-ma"a-sol' ; port in Cyprus; on south coast;
40 miles .S. W. of Nikosia; and chief place of the district of
Limassol. Here the Ottomans landed in 1571 and took the
island from the Venetians. Gypsum, raw umber, raisins,
brandy, and an excellent wine are exported. Pop. (1891)
7,388. Three miles north are the ruins of Amathus, ancient
capital of Cyprus, celebrated for its copper mines and its
temple of Venus. E. A. G.
Limbo, or LimbllS [from Lat. lim'bus, edge, border, in
limbo, on the border — i. e. of hell]: the word linibus was first
used by the scholastic theologians of the Middle Ages to
designate, as being on the outskirts of hell, that jilace in
which the souls of the just who died before Christ's resur-
rection were detained. In this sense it was, and still is,
called the limbus patrum. It was a place of rest and joy,
though imperfect, to the saints of the Old Testament, till
Christ delivered them, and led them into heaven at the time
of his ascension. It also means a place where the souls of
infants that die without baptism are detained on account
of original sin. In this sense it is called limbus infantium.
Though the Church has not spoken on the subject, yet it is
the common opinion of theologians that such infants suffer
no '• [lain of sense," but are excluded from heaven. Some
even hold that they know God by the use of their natural
powers, and enjoy a certain degree of natural happiness.
John J. Keaxe.
Liml)orcli. lim burch, PuiLipprs, van : theologian; b. at
Amsterdam. June li), 1633 ; studied theology under his un-
cle, Episcopius, and was appointed in 1657 minister of the
Remonstrant congregation at tionda, and in 1667 Professor
of Theologv at the Remonstrant College of Amsterdam,
where he died Apr. 30, 1712. His llteologia Christiana
(Amsterdam, 1686) gives a comprehensive and systematic
exposition of the doctrines of Arminius. It was translated
into English by W. Jones (London, 1702; 2d ed. 1713, 2 vols.).
270
LIMBS, AKTIFICIAL
His JTislon'a Inquistilioni»{i692) was translated by S. Chand-
ler (The History of the Iix/uisttion, London, 1731, 2 vols.).
See his Life, by Van der lloeven (Amsterdam, 1843).
Limbs, Artificial : artificial limbs are employed for two
purfHjses — nliof of doforinity and restoration of function, so
far as mnv Iv p<is.-;ilili', after deprivation of a limb or part
thereof. They lirst came into practical use during the early
part of the sixteenth century, although in certain classical
instances they had been resorted to before that. Of course
the earlier forms were very imperfect, and could only be
moved by the aid of the hands, or the one hand if only one
were left. In a measure they served their purpose, and by
their use men were enabled to engage in battle, guide their
horses, and otherwise care for themselves. A little later ef-
forts were made to [lermit natural movements of the lost
parts, and thus for the iron hands which had been first used
there were substituted contrivances of metal, leather, paper,
etc. During 200 years or more the models were not ma-
terially altered. During the latter part of the eighteenth
centurv a Carmelite monk maile considerable progress by
inventing a hand with movable joints, independent of as-
sistance from the other hand. It was made of sheet-tin, and
contained several springs. Since that time inventive spirit
has produced very great improvements, and now artificial
Iimt» are made with such perfection that under ordinary
circumstances they not only do not attract attention, but
give rise to no suspicion of their presence.
The chief materials in the construction of artificial limbs
are Knglish willow covered with strong rawhide, alumin-
ium, rawhide, leather, and felt. The three latter materi-
als are usually strengthened with steel or some other form
of metal. The feet are of some firm material, such as
wood or soft rubber. The best form of artificial limb is
of English willow covered with rawhide, with a foot of
the same material or of rubber. The construction of rub-
ber feet is well shown by Figs. .'5, 6, and T. A wooden core
is first carved of the desired shape and size. This is placed
in an iron mold previously formed of proper dimensions
and the rubber covering vulcanized over or around the
wooden or inner portion. Feet constructed in this manner
arc firm, yet elastic, and give to the wearer many advan-
tages in walking.
If the amputation be above the knee, a form like Fig. 1 is
For amputations through the instep or arch of the foot an
appliance like Fig. 4 may be used, and while it will not
Fui. 1 -Shf'Wiiitr 'oi arti-
flnnl liriih for (iii aiii|iii-
taliou above the kiii-t*.
Km. L> — Shmviiit; nn nrlilliinl limb for
au auiputatiuii beluw the knee.
usually employed. It has plain antero-posterior tnovements
Ijolh at the knee ancl ankle If thr amputation be below the
knee, the upper socket or hucr is of leather, aiid Is attached
to the stump socket by means of lateral-joint irons ns shown
by Fig. 2. If the amputation luus been made through or
near the ankle, the apparatus need not reach above the knee,
but may bo constructed in some form resembling Fig. 3.
-Showing an artificial leg for
auklu amputations.
Fm. 4.— Showing: .iti nrtill-
cial limb fur iuslep am-
putations.
prove so .satisfactory as Fig. 2 or 3, it will be the best that,
from the nature of the case, can be provided.
The weight of the patient is not. as many suppose, borne
upon the end of the stump but is distributed over a large
amount of surface by means of a conical-shaped socket fit-
ting closely to the exterior of the stump. If, therefore, the
patient be supplied with a painless stuni)) that is absolutely
conical — if it is of sufficient length to provide leverage with
whi<-h to swing the limb, and has the firmness to bear the
contact with the socket — the best of results may be expected.
In walking, the action of the natural leg is largely auto-
matic. The limb is swung forward by such muscles as lie
upon the pelvis, having their insertion in the upper portion
of the femur. The knee is automatically self-locking, be-
cau.se the bearing of the ends of the bones forming this joint
is posterior to a line drawn perpeiidieularly through the
shafts of the tibia and femur. With the exception of the
antero-posterior motion of the ankle, the latter is largely
automatic in its movement, because independent of any at-
tempt on the part of the patient the foot naturally accom-
modates itself to any inequalities of the ground.
Fio. 5.— Showing tli' i: I'f woo.I over which a rubber foot is
molded.
In the construction of artificial limbs, these automatic
movements are closely imitated, and many patients learn to
accommodate themselves to the changed' condition of cir-
cumstances to such an extent that their di.sability is un-
noticed even among those with whom they associate daily.
Fig. n, Sl)i'\\ ir)_- !i til! i'i- r I'i ■■!
Favorable cases do not exist among patients following
amputations either in or near to an articulation. If an am-
putation is made through the knee-joint, the end of the
stump necessarily occupies the space t hat should be emjiloyed
for kiu'e-joint nieclianism. Pig. 8 shows the best form of a
kne.-liearing joint. It consists of a long, hollow cylincler
supplied with a bushing of leather or other suitalile mate-
riiil, and has a bearing throughout its entire length. If the
amputation has been nnide through the joint, the instru-
LIMBS, ARTIFICIAL
271
ment-maker must make use of some form of a lateral-join
iron similar to Fig. 1). This pattern can not be made witi
it
ith
Fig. 7. — Showiug huw a rubber foot will beud in walking.
a bushing ; it will not withstand much lateral strain, its
bearing-surface is limited, and it will occasionally get out
of order.
If an amputation has been made through the tibia nearer
than 3 inches to the knee-joint, the short stump will con-
tract, and the patient will be obliged to wear a knee-bear-
Fio. R.— Showing a cylindrical
or best form of knee-joint.
Fig. 9. — Showing a lateral
knee-bearing joint iron.
ing or peg leg — one in wliieh the weight is taken on the an-
terior aspect of the flexed limb. These are inefficient and
usually unsightly appliances, and a patient supplied with an
Fig. 10.— Showing the best forms of ankle-joint irons.
apparatus of this character will always walk with an awk-
ward or clumsy gait.
The same rules that apply to amputations of the knee
have equal force when considered in connection with ampu-
tations at the ankle j and in amputations at this point, un-
less there be sulficient space underneath the end of the
stump for the insertion of a cylindrical form of joint similar
to Fig. 10, the best of results can not be expected.
Natural walking is accomplished by exercising the lever
principle illustrated in the extension of the foot. This
principle is well exhibited in the flexion and extension of
the foot while walking, the foot itself being the lever, the
tendo Achillis or "hamstring" furnishing the power, the
ground or floor the fulcrum, and the body the weight to be
moved. To take a complete step forward necessitates the
raising of the weight, because the trunk, at the time when
the forward foot is planted on tlie ground (being then mid--
Fig 11. Fio. 12. Fio. 13.
Figs. 11-13.— Showing forms of artificial arms and hands.
way between its two oblique supports), has dropped until the
pelvis is on a lower plane than before the step was begun ;
the completion of the step requires the raising of the trunk
to its original level. This elevation of the body is accom-
plished by the exercise of the lever power to which we have
referred, because the extension of the foot then in the rear
forces the body forward and raises it until the trunk is in
a position perpendicularly over its advanced limb, and the
step completed.
In walking, the heel and ankle rise on the ball of the
foot, and by the lengthening of the limb caused by the ex-
tension of the foot the body is forced forward, and is raised
by the changing of its supporting limb from an inclined
to an upriglit position. Tiiis falling and raising of the
trunk produce the undulating motion so noticeable in
walking.
If one or both of these levers are amputated at points
where they can not be artificially replaced, an awkward,
limping gait will result. If one lever be removed it be-
comes necessary for the patient to take a shorter step with
the sound limb, otherwise he would be unable, for the want
of the extension previously referred to, to ci^mplete the
movement — at least without undue exertion. It is evident
that the longer the stride, the lower the level reached by the
pelvis. The taking of a short step with the sound limb,
however, does not entirely compensate for the loss of a foot,
but usually compels the patient to adopt a lurching move-
ment of the body. This lurching, due to rotation of the
pelvis upon the hip of the sound limb, is frequently as-
sisted by a greater flexion and extension of both knees.
These movements, whether made use of singly or conjoint-
ly, are directed toward the accomplishment of the same re-
sult, viz., the forward propulsion of the body and the conse-
quent elevation of the trunk until it has reached the level
occupied by it before the step is begun. Patients who
have suffered amputations of this class, after being prt)-
vided with artificial substitutes, rarely walk so well (and
to walk at all requires the outlay of more labor) as those
upon whom the amputation has been performed through
the tibia.
Owing to the manifold uses required of an arm, it has
been impossiljle to furnish a gO(Ml artificial substitute, and
the surgeon should therefore exhaust the last resources of
272
UMBURG
LIME
conivrvative surperv in liis pmloavors to save every possible
portion of this valuable meniU'r. When selected simply for
dress an arm and hand closelv resembling the natural one
(see Fis- I-) should be adopted (the hands may be provided
with articulations, and with them considerable work may
be aceomplisheil) ; if for a laborer, some form of a hook or
clasp (see Figs. 11 and 13) will be found morp serviceable
than the complicateil mechanism of an artificial hand. The
former mav be used as an assistant in performing a great
deal of manual labor, and in point of utility it is much to
be prefernxl.
Following amputations of a portion of the hand, appli-
ances similar to Figs. 14, 15, and 10 can be constructed,
many of which will prove of great .satisfaction to the wearer.
Where the surgeon has been enabled to leave a portion of
a hand it is possible to construct an appliance that will
afford the patient a fair degree of satisfaction, not only in
point of utility but in general appearance.
''".'\'-';'V-f^7^VJ7rt7'T6?i[^
FUJ 10.
Flos. 14-16. — Showing appliaoces for portion of band.
Most of the present devices are protected by patents, and
are in the hands of a relatively small number of makers. To
soldiers disabled while in U. S. (iovernment employ the Gov-
ernment furnishes these artilicial substitutes. Others pro-
cure them usually through dealers in surgical instruments,
from whom catalogues, illustrations, and prices are easily
obtained. It is of no small advantage nowadays both to
surgeons and to patients to realize th.it the lo.ss of a limb is
not necessarily a disfiguring or inutihitiMg iitrair, but th.it
very frequently an artilicial limb well filled will be of vastly
more service and less trouble and annoyance than a mem-
ber already crippled by disease, or left in a eondilion where
life even is thereby threatened. In other word.s, the art of
the instrument-maker has done very much to lussist the sur-
geon, an<l to make patients willing to undergo serious oper-
ations who otherwise would bo very loath to lose so u.seful
apart of their bodies as one or more limbs. It has done
much also to atone for the horrible injuries and mutilation
inflicted by railway and various other acciilents.
CnAltl.KS TltTAX.
Liiiibiirg (Dutch pron. lim'boorrh), or Limhoui-g (Fr.
pron. litiiboor ): a territory e.\teniling along both sides of the
river Meuse, which alternately belonged to the Netherlands,
Helgiuin, France, and Austria, until it was finally dividcil
lielween IJelgiuiii aiid the Xellierlands in 18:59. Along the
Meuse the region is very fertile, alTonliiig excellent pastur-
age for large henls of cattle, but the rest of the country is
sterile, the soil being either marshy or sandy. At llerve, not
far from the city of liiinliurg, is made the celebrated Lim-
biirgcr cheese. Diilrh ///wi/o/n/ cnmprises an area of 8r>l s<i.
miles, with 'J.'iO,.Vj:) iiiliabilanls, <if wIkuii nine-leiilhs are
Koinan Catholics ; the iirimipal towns are .Maestriclit and
Roerinond. lieli/inn Jjiml/nry, which contains .sonu- iron
and coal mines, comprises an area of Wi'i S(\. miles, with i'i'-i,-
531 inhabitants. Principal towns, Ilasselt, St.-Trond, and
Tongres. Revised by S. A. ToRK.t.vcE.
Lime [0. Eng. llm, lime : 0. 11. derm, llm > Mod. (ierin.
leim < Teuton. Urn- < Indo-Eur. liiiios > Lat. li miis, mudj:
one of the alkaline earths, chemically the protoxide of cal-
cium, symbol CaO. It forms the base of limestones, mar-
bles, corals, aiul the shells of mollusks, where it is in com-
bination with carbonic acid, forming the carbonate of lime.
By the application of heal the carLnjuic acid is driven off,
and the hine is left in the condition of "caustic" or "quick"
lime. Lime is usually white, light gray, or cream-colored,
porous, and soft. It iaiii<lly absorbs water, uniting with it
chemically, with the evolution of miuli heat. This process
is calle<l slaking or slacking. Pure or "fat" limes when
slaked swell verv miicli, and ultimately fall into a snow-
white powder. If more water is a<lde<i, what is called the
" milk of lime" is formed. The lime is now in the condi-
tion of a hydrate, and if exposed to the action of the air it
absorbs carbonic acid, and is again converted into the car-
bonate of lime. In the preparation of mortar, sand is added
according to the richness or "fatness" of the lime — that is,
according to the fineness and uniformity of the powder into
which it falls when slaked. Where the powder is very fine
it makes with water a fluid pa.sle which will penetrate the
inlei-stices between the grains of sand, however closely they
may be crowded. The thinner the film of paste between the
grains of sand the stronger their adhesion will be. Hence
the value of a lime is roughly measured by the quantity of
sand it will .serve to unite. Lime is largely used in agri-
culture as a dressing on soils which require calcareous mat-
ter, in the manufacture of bleacliiiig-power (chloride of
lime), in tanning, as a flux in smelting iron, etc. Lime is
extremely infusible, aiuI cylinders of t his substance are com-
luoiily used in the oxyhydrogen or calcium light, a jet of the
ignited gases being thrown upon a ]iiece of lime, which
when intensely heated emits a light so bright as to be almost
unbearable to the eye.
The great consumiition of lime, however, is in the pro-
duction of mortar, and for this purpose it has been used in
construction l)y all modern and most ancient civilized na-
tions. In the earliest masonry cf whi<'li any remains have
been found, as the Etruscan, that of the island of Cyprus,
and ancient Troy, walls were laid up with large stones with-
out mortar ("cyclopean" masonry), or with smaller ones
packed in clay, but by the Egyptians, Hebrews, (ireeks, and
Uoiiians the use of liuie for mortar Wiis universal. In the
manulacture of mortar from lime, as has been slated, the
hydrate of lime is formed l)y the addition of water to quick-
lime. This is, in part, chemically combined with the lime,
and i)roduces the first "setting" of mortar. .Subsequently,
by the absorption of earl)onic acid, it is converted into the
hydrated carlionate. In process of time a combination is
also formed between the lime and some of the silica of the
sand with which it is associated, and silicate of lime is pro-
duced. By this the strength of the mortar is still further
increased. This progressive change has been asceitaincd by
careful analysis of many samples of oliler and newer mor-
tars. These have shown that in the older mortars — which
in some instances are as hard as the stones they join — the
percentage of silicate of lime is much greater than in those
more recently made.
The notion is commonly entertained by architects and
masons that the best lime is produced from the purest car-
bonate of lime. aii<l statements to that elTecl will l)e founil
in many books which treat of this subject. This theory,
however, has been alnindantly proved to l)e a fallacy, for it
has bei'U shown that nearly all the most extensively used
and highly esteemed limes contain a large jiercentage of
magnesia. Magnesian limes are preferred by masons, be-
cause, as they .say, they are "cooler" aii<l set more slowly.
The pure lime is, in their language, too " hot " and "([uick."
A similar fallacy prevails in regard to the use of mag-
nesian limestones for fluxes in metallurgy. It is generally
believed that pure limestones make much the best fluxes,
but this is a mistake, as abundant expiMJence has shown
that inagiiesian liiiii'stones are (|Uite as well adapted to this
use as those which ciwilaiii llu: carbonate of lime only.
Lime is manufactured from limestone, marbles, or shells,
l)y calcination, which expels the carbonic acid. This is ef-
fected in kilns of various kinds. Fiuinerly. lime-burning
was done in kilns having the form of an inverted beehive,
with a single opening at the bottom. In these the fuel and
stone were mixed, the fire lieing lighted below. At the end
LIMK
LIMERICK
273
of three or four days, the fuel having been consumed and
the limestone calcined, the charge was allowed to cool par-
tially, and was then drawn out at the bottom. Now, liuie-
buriiing is nearly all done in what are called perpetual
kilns. These are square or round towers, 2.'j to 30 feet in
height, having a cylindrical caviiy within, H or 6 feet in
diameter. These kilns have usually two furnaces, one on
either side, situated at about one-third of the height from
the bottom. In these the fires are kept perpetually burn-
ing, and are fed with wood or soft coal, the llanie and
heat from which, passing up through the limestone, calcine
it so that when it has descended to the level of the furnaces
it is deprived of all its carbonic acid. From time to tiuie
the limestone is charged at the top and the calcined lime
drawn out below. See Kilns.
When mortar freshly made from quicklime is placed in
water, it softens and loses its form ; but, on the contrary, the
lime made from certain limestones which contain a large
percentage of silica and alumina hardens under water, and
forms what is known as hydraulic cement. When calcined,
these hydraulic limestones yield a yellow or brown lime
which does not slake or heat much on the application of
water. From its hardness it must be grovind in a mill be-
fore it can be used for mortar. Further particulars in re-
gard to this class of lime will be found in the article
Cemext. See also Vieat On Mortars and Vicat's Treatise
on Mortars and Cements; Pasley's Limes, Mortars, and
Cements ; Burnell's Mortars, Limes. Cements, and Concretes ;
and Gillmore's Limes, Mortars, and Cements.
Revised by Charles Kirchhoff.
Lime [from Fr. lime, from Pers. lltyiu, lime. Cf. IjEmon] :
the fruit of Citrus acida and C. limetta (the last called
sweet lime), both probably mere varieties of Citrus medica,
the citron-tree. The lime grows upon a dwarfish tree or
shrub, and is a native of Asia, but is cultivated in nearly all
warm regions. Limes are in nowise inferior to lemons, for
which they are used as a substitute. The limes of the West
Indies apd those mostly known in the markets of the V. .S.
are the sour limes — the Citrus acida of many botanists.
Pickled limes are prized as a condiment. Lime-juice is ex-
tensively employed in ships' stores as an antiscorbutic. Cit-
ric acid is largely manufactured from it. Lime is the usual
English name of the linden-tree (genus Tilia).
Revised by L. H. Bailey.
Lime, Chloride of : See Hypochlorous Anhydride and
Hypochlorites.
Lime-light, frequently called from its inventor, Thomas
Drummond (q. v.). the Drummond Li^ht: a source of illu-
mination consisting of a cylinder of lime (CaO) against
which the flame of an oxyhydrogen burner plays. The re-
fractory oxide becomes brilliantly incandescent, and affords
a source of light interior in whiteness, among artificial il'
minants, only*to the arc-light and to that of burning
nesium. When first ignited, indeed, the incandesc
exceeds in brilliancy the arc, and nearly or quite
magnesium light. It very soon depreciates in '^'"P "?'^'''
ever, and when it reaches its permanent co- '"'f peuods
Owing to the cost of oxygen gas, the lime-light is used
only for special purpo.ses, viz., for jiroducing spectacular ef-
fects upon the stage, for
the projection of trans-
parencies by means of the
magic lantern, etc. For
these purposes, too, it has
been in some measure su-
perseded by the more pow-
erful electric arc - light.
Other refractory oxides are
sometimes substituted for
the lime in the Drum-
mond light, generally mag-
nesium oxide and the ox-
ide of zirconium. Of these
the latter, zircon, is prob-
ably the best substance for
the purpose, but its rarity
has prevented it from com-
ing into general use.
The essential features of
0
9
;i
8
1
7
1
e
!
5
,
4
/
3
J
/'^
II
^""^
mini 1
ABC D Eb F a
FiQ. 1.— Curves of relative intensities
10 the spectrum of the lime-lig-ht
as compared with gas-light.
Curve I. gives results of measure-
ments upon the freshly ignited
lime. Curve II. upon lime in per-
manent state of incandescence.
the simplest form of burner for the lime-light are shown in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.— Lime-light.
light of a lower degree of incandescence th
jecome unreason-
ne necessary testi-
I
Comparisons of the lime-light with
following result, the data being rediV ,, . ■, ^, .
so as to represent lights equally brig-^ the principle that
0'589> • ^ ^, not those who sleep
/note the diligence of
Relative intensities of limelight and while an adequate de-
lengths. both taken as unity in the re>„a^bly practicable. The
LIME Far' arbitrary, though it was
REGION OF THE iG-viTerence to" two important
sPECTRL-M. Lime ^'^or should uot be forced
^n before time was given to
to employ other means of
vait until an impoverished
)f satisfying the claim ; and,
d not be unwarrantably pre-
he creditor's excessive delay.
is commonly termed in law a
its purpose and effect are to
extinguish causes of litigation,
I oppressive suits. There has
.iflicting adjudication in the
rri,„ _ u • • tu be deemed a statute of repose
The res^ilts R>ven in t^j,.<,i,j„„, ,^,t^i„i , t,,^ ,,,'„^r
made by ^lchols and Frai^^^^^^i ^j^^^ ^ credit.rrs claim is
of htc.iencK, vol. xxxviii., p.
ally in curves of Fig. 1.
244
X = 75.'M)
66,S5
6562
6080
5890
5570
51*5
51*)
49ao
4B85
4300
■ration of the prescribed period,
1 law that it has been satisfied.
See, further, articles Electric Lightino and BIagic Lan-
tern ; also Dolbear's The Art of Projection, and Wright On
Light. E. L. Nichols.
Lim'erick : county ; in the province of Munster, Ireland ;
bounded on the N. by the estuary of the Shannon and the
counties of Clare and Tipperary, on the E. by Tipperary, on
the S. by Cork, and on the W. by Kerry. Area. 1,064 so
miles. The surface is mostly an undulating plain on a .ill
soil of limestone, trap, and sandstone, comprisin"- 'iijquali-
portion of the so-called Golden V-' . ^k, me debt, if un-
Shannon, which '—o 2'^"*! to pay or by any declarations
which r)»\j T-J-p f 2 ?-.;;l.v upon the statute as a defense.
navip-< - . ■ . gtj^fyfg .(^.gg generally held to be
ry slight and trivial admissions
e existence of a debt could be
by the courts as sufficient evi-
lUSe they sen-ed to repel the
was even generally held that
lur;^^-... gh his admission were ac-
companied by a refusaT^fo pay; but when the statute came
to be regarded as a statute of repose the natural deduction
was that the debtor might take advantage of the statute,
unless he voluntarily waived it by an express promise or by
an acknowledgment so full and unequivocal as to be equiva-
lent to a new promise ; and this is now the established rule.
It is provided in Great Britain by Ijord 'i'enterden's act
that no promise or acknowledgment shall be sufficient to
take a debt out of the operation of the statute unless it be
contained in some writing to be signed by the [larty charge-
able thereby. This act, however, it is declared, shall not
alter the effect of any payment of principal or interest.
Similar statutes have been adopted in a number of the U. S.
The statute of James provides that it the plaintiff be
under certain disabilities at the time when the cause of ac-
tion accrues, he may bring his action within six years after
the disability ceases or is removed. The disabilities enu-
merated are minority, coverture, or marriage, imprisonment,
unsoundness of mind, or absence beyond the seas. The ex-
pression '■ beyond seas " means beyond tiie four seas sur-
rounding Great Britain, and therefore is equivalent to
" out of the realm or country." The same phrase, as con-
tained in statutes of limitation in the \j. .S.. has been usually
interpreted to mean "out of the State," though in some
States it has been held to mean " out of the X^. S." It
was also provided by the statute 4 .\nnc, ch. 16, that if the
defendant in any action shall at the time when the cause of
action accrues be " beyond seas," the action may be broughf
274
LIMESTONE
LIMITATION OF ACTIONS
foiiiuliii^ iif Newtown I'orv, in 1769, bv Sexton Pory. Pop.
(18«l);!7,l.').'>.
Limestone: a soiliinenturv riK'k composed chiefly of cnl-
ciuin cttrtxiimto. It niiiv orifriniite by precipitation of the
mineral from solution in the water of ocean or lakes, but
this process is usually suppUincuteil or replaced by an or-
ganic process, the material beiufj secreted bv aquatic ani-
mals or plants to form their tests or other haril parts. These
parts are not deconi[H>sed after death, but accumulate in
layers which are afterward consolidated by the precipitation
of calcium Cfirlnmate in the interstices. Such a deposit if in-
coherent, is calleil shell marl or calcareous marl, and a
special variety of fine texture is called Chalk {q. v.). Coqiii-
na is a porous but coherent variety occurring in Florida.
Olilile, or oolitic limestone, is comriosed of spherical grains
believed to be secretcil by alga\ When precipitated lime-
stone, instead of crystallizing, gathers in successive coherent
stony layers it is called tufa. Usually such deposits occur
in springs or streams, but tliey may be formed in lakes. The
ornamental stone <'alled .Vejrican onyx is a tufa. Some
limestones consist partly of magnesium carbonate, and are
called mai;>ie>iian or dulomitie limexlones. All other sub-
stances contained in limestones are regarded as impurities.
Arenaceoiui and ari/illaceoits or earthy limestones are
characterized severally by notable amounts of sand and
clay. In cherty limestone silex is segregated in concretion-
ary masses called chert or flint. Pure limestone is white, a
yellow color is sometimes given by iron oxide, and gray, the
ordinary color, is commonly due to organic matter. 15y
raetamorphisni limestone becomes marble. The limestones
constitute about one-fifth of all seiiimentary rocks. They
are extensively used as building material (see Buildixo-
STOSK), in the construction of roads (see Roads), as a source
of Li.ME (q. v.), and for the fluxing of ores (see Flux).
G. K. Gilbert.
Limestone Sink : See Sink-hole.
Lime-tree: See Bass and Lixdex.
Limicnlie [literally "mud-dwellers," from Lat. limu^,
mud + co'lere, to dwell] : an order of birds containing those
small waders comprehensively termed snipe or plovers, hav-
ing slender, soft, and often lung beaks. The palate is schi-
zognathous. the nostrils usually schizorhinal ; there are basi-
pterygoid processes and the angle of the jaw is produced.
, The toes are only exceptionally, as in the avocet, webbed ; the
"^jva^ arc generally long and pointed, the tail short. The
g'lJ^Ncc^ usually four in number, pear-shaped; the young
are born drT?'.'."^ aninin about a-s soon as hatched. See
AvocET. LapwixI;, Pi!oVKR,^uTal5A.s"OT£ER- F- A. Lucas.
Limitation of Actions: in law, the liniTfat.>Qn of the
time within which actions may be brought to enforce'fi£"ts.
Ilislorij of the Doctrine. — In the older Roman law ali-
rights of action were in principle unlimited or perpetual.
Actions in rem, for the recovery of land or movables, of
course perished when the property had passed into the
ownership of an adverse possessor by vsiicapio, but in this
case the right of action wa.s lost simpiv because the sub-
stantive right on which it rested ha<i Wen extinguished.
(See I'rescriptiox.) The first true limitation of action was
intro<luccd liy the pnetors and icdilcs when they began to
give equitable actions unknown to the older law. (.See
KoMAN Law.) Many of these new actions were limited or
tempond. and limited to very brief periods — from sixty
days to a year — but in comjiuting these periods days on
wliich the plaintiff could not have brought suit (e. p. legal
holidays) were not counted. Even the pra-torian actions,
however, were usually perpetual when they ran for recovery
of property or its value, and only the actions which aimeil
at imposing penally upon the defendant were regularly
limited. Later imperial legislation subjected all actions to
shorter or longer periods of limitation, and in .lustinian's
time the so-called perpetual actions were merely actions
that ran for the longer periods — thirty or forty years.
In the pra'torian procedure the j>lea that an action wa.s
extinguished by limitation was a plea of tempuK; and at
the time of the classical jurists this olea was put at the
head of the formula or abstract of pleadings sent to the
referee (judex), ami was therefore termed a prescription
(prtfucriplio loniji temporin). The same form was used in
Iileading right derived from long and undisturbed (lossession.
ience media'val jurists treated the acipiisition of title by
aiiverse possessors and the loss of rights of action by limit-
ation as a single legal institution — viz., prescription ; and
the same confusion exists in the Code ^apolion. Modern
European jurists and later cixles distinguish the prescrip-
tive acquisition of rights in things from the limitation of
actions, but they still use the word prescription ((ierman
Verjdhrutig) to cover both classes of casi's. It was jiartly
because of the media'val confusion of ideas that the canon
law declared that " no prescription shouUl be good without
good faith." a principle which at liomaii law did not apply
to limitation of actions, but only to prescriptive acuuisition
of rights. Media'val practice applied this canonical rule to
the limitation of actions only in ciuse the action was for re-
covery of tangible properly from an adverse possessor, but
even in this restricted interpretation the rule has been re-
jected in all the great modern codes.
Following the initiative of the Code Napoleon, modern
legislations have considerably shortened the lioman periods
of limitation for all actions that arise in the ordinary course
of traile and in the ilealings of daily life, adopting terms
ranging from six months to five years ; but for other actions
they generally retain the subsidiary term of thirty years.
Human and Modern European liulr.i. — At bottom it is
the non-enforcement of the right, of which the action is only
an expression, which entails the loss of the action. For this
reason modern German jurists speak of limitation of claims
rather than of actions. Limitation in fact begins to run
not merely from the time when suit can be brought (actio
nala in the concrete sense), but from the time when satis-
faction of the claim can be demanded, t'onversely. limita-
tion is interriipted by any exercise of the right (such as the
retention of a i)ledge by way of security, or the receipt of
interest or of a payment on account), and in some modem
legislations by any express recognition of the claim by the
adversary. Limitation is also interrupted by bringing action.
At Koman law the loss of the action by lapse of time was
viewed as a just |iunisliraent of the negligence of the party
entitled to sue. Hence limitation did not run against those
who could not sue — against lunatics, for example, or boys
under fourteen years of age; nor did any but the longest
limitations run against minors (youths between fourteen
and twenty-five). Some of the modern codes iledare that
no limitation will begin'to run against lunatics or minors,
but that limitations already running may be completed.
The general tendency of modern European legislation is to
permit limitation to run against minors and lunatics, at
least when they are under guardianship.
What effect the loss of an action has upon the substantive
right of which it is an expression is a question differently
answered in the case of rignts in rem and in that of rights
in perxonam. The loss of an action in rem, even against an
adverse possessor, leaves the property right thcoretioallv in-
tact. (Not so. however, in the Code Napoleon. See Pre-
scription.) In the case of the right in personam, on the
other hand, most European jurists hold that when the action
is' no longer enforceaole ttiere is nothing left. In other
woVt'.s, they hold that statutes of limitation, a% far as actions
in personatn are concerned, destroy the right as well as the
remedv.
Not all actions, according to the better opinion, are sub-
jecte(l to limit.Htion. Actions that do not aim at the en-
forcement <if a claim against a special derendant. Iml at de-
termining status (the existence or validity of a marriage,
the legitimacy of a child, etc.), and in general all actions
the object of which is to ascertain the existence or non-ex-
istence of a legal relation, the genuineness of a document,
etc. (Germ. Feststellung.<k-lage}i), are not. in |irinciple. limited.
At Roman law such suits were not termed actions, but prx-
judicia.
(rrounds of Limitation. — Apart from the theory already
noticed, that the loss of t'.ie action is a just i>unishinent of
the negligence of the jierson entitled to sue, oilier considera-
tions have been urge<l. One is that old claims are very
likely to be l)ad claims that have been purposely held back
until it has become cHIVk ult for the defendant to disprove
them. Another consideration is the increasing dilliciilly, as
time goes on, of jiroving that i debt has been paid. From
this point of view statutes of limitations are inlemled to
protect honest ilefendants by raising a presiiniplion that
the claim, if originally good, hts been satisfied. This was
clearly the view of the French (odifiers. at least as regards
some of the briefer limilalions if the code; for whi'ii such
a limitation is pleadeil the (ode Napoleon ]iirmits the
plainliff to compel the defendtnt to take oath to the fact
of pavmeiit (art. 'J^Tr)). Short tTins of limitalion have also
been defended by German writirs on the ground that they
iliscouragc long credits and ke-p business on a solid basis.
LIMITATION OP ACTIONS
275
The fundamental principle on which statutes of limitation
and laws of prescriptive acquisition alike rest is the social
necessity of doing away witli uTicertainties of title and dis-
puted claims. If such matters are not settled by adjudica-
tion, they must be settled by time. Cicero expressed this
thought in saying that there must at some time be " an end
of litigation and the peril of suits," and the Knglish courts
have insisted upon the same idea in declaring that statutes
of limitation are "' statutes of rest."
Literature. — Windscheid, Die Actio (Diisseldorff, 1856) ;
Puchta, Institutionen, sec. 208 (8th ed. Leipzig. 1875) ; J/o-
tive zum Deutschen bUrgerl. Oesetzbuch, i., 288-347.
MuxROE Smith.
LiMiTATioJi IX English and U. S. Law. — At common
law a presumi^tion of payment or satisfaction arose after
the lapse of twenty years. This presumption threw upon
the complaining party the burden of proving that tlie debt
ha<l not been paid or the claim satisfied; but the fact tliat
this presumption could be rebutted and the claim asserted,
even after the twenty years had elapsed, rendered it a very
inadequate rule of limitation. It has accordingly been
supplemertted by a considerable body of direct legislation,
which has taken its place in our law alongside of the legal
presumption referred to. Various statutes of this kind liave
been enacted in England at different periods, but those
which were first adopted were narrow in scope, applying only
to actions relating to real property. The first statute to be
enacted of a comprehensive character, applying to civil
actions in contract and in tort, as well as to actions con-
cerning real estate, was passed in the reign of James I. (21
James I., ch. 16). L^pon this statute the various statutes of
limitation enacted by the different States of the U. S. have
been chiefly based, its principal provisions having been fre-
quently adopted with but slight if any modification.
The rules relating to actions of tort and to actions con-
cerning real property, as well as the statutes of limitation
which have been enacted with reference to suits in courts of
equity and to criminal prosecutions, may with most con-
venience be considered separately from those relating to
contract.
I. Actions upon Contract. — It is provided by the statute
of James that " all actions of account and upon the case,
other than such accounts as concern the trade of merchan-
dise between merchant and mercliant, their factoi-s, or serv-
ants, all actions of debt grounded upon any lending or
contract without specialty, all actions of debt for arrearages
of rent, shall be brought within six years next after the
cause of such actions, and not after." Before the enact-
ment of this statute there was no limit to the period within
which an action upon contract might be instituted. It was
a maxim of the common law that a "right never dies," and
it could therefore not be barred or extinguished by any
lapse of time. The object sought to be attained by the
enactment of these provisions limiting the right of action to
a specific and comparatively brief period was to relieve
debtors from the undue embarrassment and hardship natu-
rally attendant upon harassing litigation at remote periods
of time, when vouchers and other instruments of evidence
are likely to be lost or destroyed, or it has become unreason-
ably difficult or impossible to procure the necessary testi-
mony. The statute is in furtherance of the principle that
■■ the law favors those who are vigilant, not those who sleep
upon their riglits," and aims to promote the diligence of
creditors in enforcing their claims while an adequate de-
fense, if any can be made, is reasonably practicable. The
limit of time assigned is necessarily arbitrary, though it was
undoubtedly fixed upon with reference to two important
considerations: first, that the creditor should not be forced
to undue haste in bringing action before time was given to
collect all necessary testimony, to employ other means of
effecting a settlement, or to wait until an impoverished
debtor might become capable of satisfying the claim ; and,
secondly, that the debtor should not be unwarrantably pre-
i'udiced in his interests by the creditor's excessive delay,
''or these reasons the statute is commonly termed in law a
" statute of repose," because its purpose and effect are to
quiet old and stale claims, to extinguish causes of litigation,
and to relieve debtors from oppressive suits. There has
been, however, no little conflicting adjudication in the
courts as to whether it should be deemed a statute of repose
or one of presumption. Tlie decisions sustaining the latter
doctrine proceed upon the ground that a creditor's claim is
not to be enforced at the expiration of the prescribed period,
because it is then presumed in law that it has been satisfied.
It is now to be considered as the generally established rule
that the statute is one of repose, founded upon principles
of expediency and public [lolicy, and not one of legal pre-
sumption. It may be briefly stated as the substance of the
statute that it requires actions upon simple contracts (i. e.
contracts not under seal) to be brought within six years
after the cause of action accrues. 'V\\v. time when the cause
of action accrues and from whicli tlie six years are to be
reckoned is the time when the creditor could have begun his
action. Thus if credit be given, the statute begins to run
when the term of credit expires. If a bill of exchange be
payable at sight, the six years are coin|)Uted from the date
of presentment ; but a note payable on demand is due at
any time, and the statute runs from the making of the note.
If, however, the note be drawn payable a certain time after
demand, a demand iimst be made to fix the beginning of the
period of limitation. If a bill or note have days of grace,
the statute runs from the time of their expiration. If a
debt be payable by installments, the statute begins as to
each installment from the time when it becomes due.
It is a general principle applicable to statutes of limita-
tion that they do not apply to actions brought by the crown
or state, unless there be an express provision in the statute
to that effect. It was a maxim of common law that " time
does not run against the king." Special provisions are gen-
erally adopted at the present day barring the right of the
state to recover real property after a certain specified inter-
val ; but the rule as applicable to actions upon contract is
not so frequently changed.
The statute also provided that actions upon contracts
under seal, or specialties, should not be included within the
prescribed period of limitation. Accordingly, the defend-
ant in such an action had only the imperfect protection af-
forded by the disputable presumption of payment after
twenty years, which has been above described'. It is now
provided in England and in most of the U. S. by statute
that actions upon sealed instruments shall be begun within
twenty years after the cause of action accrued. The bar
of the statute may be removed in any case by a new prom-
ise to pay the debt, or by a part payment of its amount or
of interest thereon, made within six years before action is
brought for its recovery. The statute begins to run anew
from the time of the promise or payment. This is true
whether the six years have wholly or partially expired.
The new promise may be either express or implied. It will
generally be implied from an unconditional and unquali-
fied acknowledgment of the existence of the debt, if un-
accompanied by any refusal to pay or by any declarations
showing an intention tfi rely upon the statute as a defense.
In former times, when the statute was generally held to be
a statute of presumption, very slight and trivial admissions
of the debtor from which the existence of a debt could be
inferred were fastened upon by the courts as sufficient evi-
dence of a new promise, because they sen-ed to repel the
presumption of payment. It was even generally held that
the debtor would be liable though his admission were ac-
companied by a refusal to pay ; but when the statute came
to be regarded as a statute of repose the natural deduction
was that the debtor might take advantage of the statute,
unless he voluntarily waived it by an express promise or by
an acknowledgment so full and unequivocal as to be equiva-
lent to a new promise ; and this is now the established rule.
It is provided in Great Britain by Lord Tenterdeii's act
that no promise or acknowledgment shall be sufficient to
take a debt out of the operation of the statute unless it be
contained in some writing to be signed by the party charge-
able thereby. This act, however, it is declared, shall not
alter the efeect of any payment of principal or interest.
Similar statutes have been adopted in a number of the U. S.
The statute of James provides that if the plaintiff be
under certain disabilities at the lime when the cause of ac-
tion accrues, he may bring his action within six years after
the disability ceases or is removed. The disabilities enu-
merated are minority, coverture, or marriage, imprisonment,
unsoundness of mind, or absence beyond the sea.s. The ex-
pression "beyond seas" means beyond the four seas sur-
rounding Great Britain, and therefore is equivalent to
"out of the realm or country." The same phrase, as con-
tained in statutes of limitation" in the IT. S.. has been usually
interpreted to mean "out of the State," though in some
States it has been held to mean " out of the U. S." It
was also provided by the statute 4 Anne, ch. 16, that if the
defendant in any action shall at the time when the cause of
action accrues be "beyond seas," the action may be brought
LIMITATION OP ACTIONS
«jn«iii^l him within six vcars after his return. It has been
{.'uiiiTally Ill-Ill under this slatutp that the return must not
bechmdi'Stine.ttiui with an intent to set the statute in motion,
and then ile|mrt without ]s:ivin>,' the creditor an opportunity
to cnforoe his elaini. It must be so public and made uniler
such oireumstances of notoriety as to render it presumable
that thecretlilor might l)y oniimiry diligence have acquired
information of the return and set the machinery of the law
in motion against the debtor. Thisexception is usually held
to apply to foreigners as well as non-resident citizens, and
they nuiy be sued within six years after coming within a
state, even though the debt may be barred by the statute
of their own state ; for it is a general principle in reference
to statutes of limitation that they are controlled in tlieir
operation and elTect by the lex fori, or the law of the place
where a suit is brought to enforce a legal demand. (See
International I'riv.^tk Law.) Similar e.Kceplions and dis-
abilities are usually included in the statutes of limitation in
force in the U. S. It is the general rule, also, that when
fraud has been committed by the defemlant under such cir-
cumstances astoconceal from the plaintiff nil knowledge of
tlio fraud, and prevent hiin from asserting his right, the bar
of the statute may he avoided and the six yeai-s computed
from the discovery of the fraud.
The statute of limitations is held to affect the plaintiff's
remedy, but not his right. Hence, though the remedy be
lost by the cxpiratiim of the prescribed time, any lien which
the creditor may have will not be extinguished. So a
promissory note may be barred, while a mortgage given as
setniritv for its payment may be enforced by foreclosure
after the six years have terminated. Moreover, it is held
that the enactment by a State of a statute of limitations
barring a right of action after the lapse of a certain inter-
val, and operating prospectively, is not in violation of that
clause of the U. S. Constitution which provides that " no
State shall pa.ss any law impairing the obligation of con-
tracts," since the " obligation " of the contract still subsists,
though the creditor is deprived of the regular legal means
of enforcing it.
II. Aclions of Tort. — The common-law theory of the ac-
tion in tort, asa purely personal action which could not sur-
vive the parties to it, afforded a certain, if somewhat in-
definite, limitation upon actions of this nature. Whereas
rights of action for breach of contract would usually devolve
upon the executor of the person entitled, and rights of entry
u[ion land would descend to the heir of the person who died
without exercising such rights, the right of action for a tort
died with the death of cither jiarty to the tort. Obviously,
there was need of shorter periods of liraitatit)n for actions
of this nature, and this need also was supplied by the statute
of .lames. The periods of limitation presc-ribed by this
statute in eases of tort are as follows: In actions of trespass
for injuries to real or personal property, in actions of trover,
of detinue, of replevin, and of case (except for slander), six
years after the cause of action accrues ; in actions of tres-
pass for assault, battery, or false imprisonment, four years ;
and in actions for slander, two years. (See Trespass,
Trover, Conversion, Detinue, Keplevin, and Case.) These
arc the periods still established in (ireat Britain. In the
V. S. similar statutes generally exist, applying to the same
forms of ai'tion, or the same classes of tortious injuries,
though there is no .such general agreement among the vari-
ous States in regard to the periods of limitation prescribed
in these actions as in relation to actions upon contract.
III. Actions Uelating to Real Property. — By the statute
of .lames it was further provided that no person should
make entry into lands, Tenements, or hereditaments but
within twenty years after his right should first accrue. This
provision, siip()leinenteil by later legislation, has operated
to set up an alisolule bar against actions for the recovery of
real property in all cases where the rightful owner has been
exclude)! from the possession of the property for twenty
years. By the Knglish law persons under the disabilities
of infancy, lunacy, or coverture, and those beyond seas are
to be ullowi'd ten years from the termination of the dis-
ability to enfone their rights, but no action can be brought
by any one after forty years. Stiiliites of a similar chaiiu-
ter exist in all of the C S.,and though these ,\iinrican rules
differ much in detail and in scope, the Knglish period of
twenty years has usually been adopted as the time of limita-
tion. The li.st of disabilities has also been somewhat re-
duced in the U. S., coverture, or marriage, having by recent
legislation in many States lost the character of a disability,
and absence " beyond seas " not being generally regarded as
a ground for claiming exemption from the general rule of
limitation. It should lie ad<leil that in Great Britain as well
as in the U.S. the only disabilities which are permitted to
delay the running of the statute are such as exist at the
time the right of action tii-st accrued. No subsequent or in-
tervening disability will be regarded, and no original dis-
ability can be extended by "tacking" another subsequently
incurred. Thus a woman who is disseised during minority
can not prolong her period of disability by marrying before
she comes of age. Disabilities under the statute relating to
actions upon contract and in cases of tort are similarly
dealt with; but whatever may be the di/Ierences between
the several statutes of limitation, their jiractical operation
is substantially the same. A person who is deprived of the
possession of his land by an adverse occupant for the statu-
tory period is forever prevented from recovering it, and is
thus, to all intents and purposes, divested of his ownership.
The aiiparent effect of the statute, then, is to vest an inde-
feasible title in the adverse possessor, or, as it is sometimes
expressed, to transfer the title from the original owner to
the one who has maintained the adverse possession against
him. It would, however, be a more accurate dcscriptioa of
the process to speak of it as confirming to the adverse pos-
sessor the undisturbed enjoyment of a title acquired by liira
by his original act of dispossessing the former owner. So
important was the actual visible possession of lands deemed
to be at common law that the mere disseisin of one man by
another operated to transfer the freehold from the former
to the latter. The person who had thus been deprived of
his property had certiiin rights of entry and of action, by
the exercise of which he might sliow that he was entitled to
have the lands restored to him; but, in the meantime, not
all of these rights together amounted to a title, nor even to
an interest in the property, and they were so precarious in
their nature that tliey might be lost or barred by a variety
of circumstances. The true effect of limitation, therefore, on
the interests of the parties is not to create any new property
rights, but only to cut off certain rights of action which had
survived the loss of property rights by disseisin. In either
view, the ]>ropertv has, U]ion the expiration of the period of
limitation, become so effectually vested in the disseisor, or
adverse possessor, that he can divest himself of it only by
the ordinary means of conveyance. Even an abandonment
of the property to the original owner, after twenty years'
adverse possession, will not have the effect of restoring the
title to the latter.
This explanation will help to make clear the distinction
between limitation and the related doctrine of prescription.
The latter term designates the process of ac(juiring by lapse
of time rights of user or enjoyment in the land of another.
These riglits. known variously as easements and pro/its, are
pro|)erly conferred by grant, or deed ; but the courts will, after
the right has been exercised for a certain length of time,
conclusively presume that it was originally conferred by
grant. Of course this so-called conclusive presumption is
only a clumsy fiction for the rule of law that rights in the
nature of easements an<l profits may be acquire<l by their
enjoyment during the period of prescription. The doctrine
of prescription has been developed almost exclusively by
judicial decision, and is not, in the U. .S. at least, usually
regulated by statute. (See Prescription.) The doctrine
of limitation is. in its present form, purelv the creature of
statute law, and is, properly speaking, confined to corporeal
property.
1 he act of disseisin which, under the descrii)tion of adverse
possession, deprives the rightful owner of his lands consists
in the taking possession of the property with the intention
of claiming the same as owner, or, in the language of the
common law, it is " possession as of the freehold." This in-
tention is of the essence of the act ; consei|Ueiilly no sciuat-
ter or other trespasser, who enters upon the lands of an-
other without this intention, is a disseisor, and no statute of
limitation runs in his favor. The question of the motive or
intention with which an entry is made is always one of fact
for the jury. In order to raise this question of fact, however,
there must first have been a dislincl ami uneiiiiivocal entry
upon another's lands, under siu'h circiimsliinccs that it shall
at least be open to the construction of being a hostile or ad-
verse act. Thus no length of time will render a tenant's
possession adverse to his landlord. Xeilher can a tenant,
iiy any declarations or conduct on his |iart during the con-
tinuance of his term, confer upon himself the rights of a
disseisor. Even after the expiration of his term, if he con-
tinue in possession, he does not lose the character of a ten-
LIMITATION OP ACTIONS
LIMITED LIABILITY
277
ant, and his possession is always in subordination to his
landlord's title. In New Vork and some other States it is
now provided by statute that a tenant may be deemed an
adverse possessor after twenty years from the expiration of
his terra or tlie last payment of rent. In sueh eases the
statute of limitations begins to run at the expiration of such
twenty years. So, also, the disseisin, in order to confer
upon the disseisor an estate in fee, must operate upon every
freehold interest in the estate in question. In otlier words,
the disseisin of a tenant does not in general set the statute
running against his landlord until the tenant's' term has
come to an end. Until such time the landlord, who is
deemed to have only a future estate in the lands (see Land-
lord AND Tenant), can not bring ejectment for the premises,
and consequently his right of action has not, in the language
of the statute, " accrued." He will usually, therefore, have
twenty years after the tenant's term has expired in which to
bring his action for the recovery of the property.
It has been observed that adverse possession in order to
" ripen into title," as it is often expressed, must be accom-
panied with an intention to claim title to the land occupied
as against any and all other persons claiming the same ; but
so long as this intention exists it is immaterial whether the
adverse possessor acted with iinowledge of any elaiiii hostile
to that asserted by him or not. Thus if a person innocently
incloses a part of his neighbor's land with his own and occu-
pies it as his own for the requisite time, he has as eilectually
displaced his neighbor's claim and title as though he had
knowingly and wrongfully seized and occupied the land in
question. This has been denied in a few States (especially
Iowa and Kansa^, but is the generally accepted and more
rea.sonable doctrine.
There has been no little controversy as to what acts of oc-
cupancy shall be sufficient to raise a presumption of adverse
possession. It is difficult to lay down any general rules on
the subject, as the same acts may require a different con-
struction according to the nature of the land upon which
they are committed. Conduct which would amount to an
assertion of ownership in the case of woodland or pasture
land might amount to nothing more than occasional acts of
trespass on a cultivated farm or a city lot. In general it may
be said that in order to give possession the character of a dis-
seisin it must be accompanied with the habitual cultivation
of the land or by a substantial inclosure or other permanent
improvement of the premises. In otlier words, it can not be
a secret possession, but must be " actual, visible, and notori-
ous." It is not necessary that the rightful owner shall know
of the adverse possession, but it must be of such a character
that he may with due vigilance become aware of it.
As would naturally be expected, a person will usually gain
title by disseisin only to so much land as is actually helil by
him in the adverse possession above described. It must ap-
pear that he has actually cultivated, or inclosed, or improved
all of the lanil so claimed by him ; but there is one class of
cases in which an adverse possessor may acquire title to more
land than he has actually inclosed or reduced to possession,
and that is where he claims under a deed or will which de-
scribes the tract or parcel of land claimed. In such cases
the adverse possessor is said to occupy under •' color of title."
and has '"constructive possession' of the whole tract de-
scribed in the instrument under which he claims. There
must, however, in every case in which this doctrine is in-
voked be actual possession of a part of the lot or parcel
described, and the courts have refused to extend the principle
so as to give constructive possession to very extensive tracts
of land, especially where but a small portion of the tract
claimed has been actually occupied. This doctrine of con-
structive possession does not prevail in I^ngland. Of co\irse
no "color of title" or claim of right, in the proper sense of
that term, is requisite to confer title by disseisin where the
possession relieil upon is of the proper character. The only
title which need be claimed in such eases Is the title acquired
by the disseisin.
It is obviously necessary that the adverse possession, in or-
der to bar the rightful owner.shall be confhiuoiis during the
whole period of limitation. Any abandonment of the pos-
session by the disseisor before the period has run its course
at once restores the title to the original, or " riglitful," owner,
and the return of the adverse possessor, or the entry of a
stranger, constitutes a new disseisin and the beginning of a
new period of limitation. It is a general rule t hat successive
disseisins, even though there be no intervals of time between
them, can not be "tacked" so as to make up the time of
limitation, but subsequent occupants who are ni "privity"
with the original disseisor may tack their terms of posses-
sion to his. ISy privity is here meant " privity of estate," or
the transfer of the lands from one to the other by will, or
descent, or lawful conveyatice. Thus the possession of an
heir is, forthe purposes of the statute, deemed to be continu-
ous with that of his ancestor and the possession of a grantee
with that of liis grantor. Indeed, there is a marked tendency
in some of the States to permit the tacking of consecutive
possessions in all cases where the newcomer has entered
uiuler or by agreement with his predecessor, even thougli
no relation of privity is thereby created between the jjartics.
This is the rule in Coiniccticut, Ohio, and a few Western
States. It seems that in England it is not necessary to have
a continuous possession so long as the original owner is con-
tinuouslv excluded from the possession. See the Carter
cases, 9 Q. B. S63 and 13 Q. B. 045.
IV. Sui/s ill Equitij. — The several statutes of limitation
above considered were not enacted with reference to pro-
ceedings in the equity tribunals, and are of no binding force
there. The equitable doctrine of LAcnES {q. v.) and the broad
discretion vested in the courts of equity to grant or refuse
their aid, as justice might require, rendered unnecessary such
arbitrary limitations on suits before them. It has, however,
become the practice in equity to apply the statutory rules
of limitation to all causes of action which come specifically
within their provisions, and even to extend them to other
analogous cases. Manifestly, however, the courts of equity
are, as compared with the courts of law, capable of employ-
ing these rules with great flexibility, and they do, in fact,
haljitually apply them according to the " conscience " of
each case. Accordingly they disregard them entirely when
to do so would enable fraud to be committed or result in
manifest injustice.
V. Criminal Prosecutions. — There have been several stat-
utes of limitation enacted in England at different periods
applying to prosecutions for certain crimes. Thus, by stat-
ute 7 Will. III., ch. 3. it was provided that no prosecution
shall be had in cases of high trea.son whereby corruption of
blood may ens\ie. except for an attempt to assa.ssinate the
king, unless the bill of indictment be found within three
years after the offense was committed. So by the statute
31 Eliz., ch. .5, prosecution by information upon a penal stat-
ute was limited to a prescribed jieriod. In New York it is
provided that indictments for nnirder may be found at any
time after the death of the person killed : in all other cases
indictments are to be found within five years after the com-
mission of the offense, hut the time during which the de-
fendant shall not have been an inhabitant of the State, or
usually resident therein, shall not constitute any part of
this period. Similar statutes exist in all the other States.
VI. Actions against Public Officers, etc. — In many of the
U. S., as well as in England, statutes of limitation have been
enacted defining and restricting the time within which ac-
tions shall be brought against certain public officials — as
sheriffs, etc. — for malfeasance in office, an<l also for the re-
covery of penalties or forfeitures under a statute, etc. These
miscellaneous causes of action are too numerous and the
rules of limitation regulating them are too various to make
more than a general reference to them possible or necessary
in this place. • The statutes of the several .States should be
consulted for further information regarding them.
On the general subject of limitation of actions, consult the
treatises of Angell, Burrell, Banning, Wood, Buswell, and
Wilkinson On Limitations. George W. ICircuwey.
liimitations. Statute of: See Limitation of Actions.
Limited Liability : a phra.se used specifically to desig-
nate lial)ility of copartners or shareholders in a joint-stock
company upon the future debts of the company when lim-
ited to a fixed sum by virtue of compliance with statutes
provided for that end. At the common law an individual
is liable on his contracts and for his torts to the full amount
of his property, and every member of a partnership is liable
in the same way for all partnership obligations or lialiilities.
In the case of indiviiluals who act themselves or by their
dulv authorized agents in matters concerning themselves,
and over which they have a personal supervision, this rule
works no hardship : but in the case of a partnership consist-
ing of a larLre luimber of individuals it often does. In such
a case the total capital and the total liabilities are commonly
larger than the entire capital of any individual partner, and
the management is necessarily intrusted to a few individuals
over whom no close personal supervision can be had. A
failure nuiv involve the loss of the entire property of many
278
LIMITS. METHOD OK
small holders, and vet be due to no negligence or remissness
on their part, but to the rockless borrowing or incurring of
liabilities by thi-ir agont;;, which is made [wssible by the
fact of the unlimited liability of tlie parliicrs. 'lo remedy
this evil statutes have U-en passed both in Great Britain
and in the V. S. providing for the formation of companies,
usually joint-stock companies, whose members are share-
holder with liabilities limited by the act of conforming to
the formalities prescribed bv law. (See .Ioint-stock Com-
I'ASiES, OoKi-oRATioN. and I'aktxersuips.) In some cases
the liability is regulated by the amount of capital stock sub-
scril>eii for', in others bv the amount guaranteed by the per-
son who becomes a member of a company. The legislation
on this subject in tireat Britain began in the first half of
the nineteenth century, and led up by gradual changes to
the Companies Act of 1862, which is the basis of their present
system. These statutes at first were not made to apply to
banking companies, but the great hardships occasioned by
the failure of the t'ity of IJlasgow Bank led in 1879 to a
provision limiting the liability of shareholdci-s in banking
companies, except that the unlimited liability was continued
with respect to the issuing of notes. The shareholders in the
national banks of the U. S. are liable for twice the amount
subscribed— that is. on paid-up stock for the amount paid in.
and as much more when that is exhausted. This provision
is very generally adopted with respect to banking and in-
surance companies. F. Stukoes Allen.
Limits. Method of: in mathematics, a mcthoil of arriv-
ing at relations l>utwecn certain quantities which do not ad-
mit of being directly compared. An example of such quan-
titiesis aflonled by curved lines and surfaces. In geometry,
two quantities are proved equal by showing that they may be
so divided into parts that ea<:h part of the one may be brought
into coincidence with a separate part of the other; but two
bodies, bounded by different curved surfaces, such, for ex-
ample, as a cone aiid a cylinder, can not be so divided. The
circumference of a circle can not be divided into pieces of a
straight line. To meet these difliculties, what is now called
the method of limits was imagined by the older geometers.
and has come down to us from the time of Euclid. The
principles on which it rests are sometimes called the doc-
trine of limits. Examples of the reasoning may be found
in any elementary treatise on geometry; reduced to its log-
ical framework it' may be iirescnted in lliis form :
I can not prove these quantities equal by dividing them
up in the usual way. because if I had to do so I should have
to divide one or both of them into an infinite number of
parts, which there is no possibility of my doing: but if
they arc not equal they must differ by a certain <|uantity.
and' by whatever quantity you suppose them to differ I can
divide them up so as to show that they di tier Ijy less than
this quantity. Hence they must be ecjual. for if they are une-
qual the difference must exist, and must have a certain value.
When we reduce the rejisoningof the differential calculus
to a rigorous form, we are always led to this mode of reason-
ing, and therefore to the method of limits. By establishing
certain general propositions respecting limits, we are re-
lieved from the necessity of going through this course of
reasoning. Thus we define an infinitesimal as a quantity
in the a<-t of approaching zero as a limit. By the introduc-
tion of such a quantity we reach conclusions by simple and
direct algebraic operations which it would be tedious or im-
possible to reach without it. S. Newco.mh.
Llnio^os, h'e'moih' [Fr. < Lat. Limo'viccs, the ancient
nauiel : capital of the department of Haute-Vicnne, France ;
on the Vienne river, 250 miles S. of Paris (see map of France,
ref. 6-E). It is one of the seven places in which Christian-
ity wasNplanted ahout the middle of the third century, and
it'becami' an iMijiortant ecclesuistical center. It was here.
in 9!)4, that the first attempt was made to establish the Truce
OP God ((/. I'.). The noble Gothic cathedral was begun in
the seventeenth century, and completed in 18.51. The city
has a famous breed of horses and extensive manufactures of
[mrcehiin, a very line while [Hircelaiii earth having been dis-
covered in the neighliorhood in 17<!8. It has also cotton,
paprr, and woolen mills. Pop. (18itl) ?2,6U7.
Li'monito [from Gr. htifuiti, meadow, moist grassy place] :
the hydrateil si'squioxidr of inui. 4)ftiii called bniwn luema-
(ite, one of the commoiu'st anil most important ores of iron.
The de|K)sits of limonite are peculiarly local and irregular
in character. They are never found forming continuous
strata, but are (1) either the superficial deposits of chalybe-
ate waters, filling fissures or cavities or incrusting slojies
LIMPET
or accumulating in concretionary or botryoidal masses in
sand, clay, or gravel ; or (2) they are produced by the oxida-
tion, at and near the surface, of beds of the carbonate of
iron or iron pyrites. From their mode of formation the de-
posits of limoiiite are less extensive and reliable than those
of other ores of iron, and their irregularities have often been
a cause of disappointment and loss; but some of them aro
of great extent, and they are so numerous in many countries
that they have always constituted one of the great sources
from which the supply of iron has been derived. In the U. S.
valuable deposits of limonite are found in a great number
of localities. They occur perhaps in the greatest abundance
in a belt which extends alcmg the eastern flank of the Alle-
ghanies from New England to Alabama. Here they rest on
rocks of various kinds, such as gneiss, serpentine, crystalline
limestone, slate, etc. Kroin Pennsylvania southward their
association with the Lower Sihirian limestones and slati'S is
such that they have by some writers been represented as
holding a definite geological position in that scries of rocks.
It is quite certain, however, that they are altogether super-
ficial in position, and form no part of the stratification of
this or any other formation. It is proliable, as suggested by
Prof. Frciierick Prime, that some of the brown hjematites
of Pennsylvania are formed from the decomposition of py-
rites along the outcrops of pyritous slates: but some of the
most important deposits of this belt are so far removed from
the metamorphosed Paljeozoic rocks of the Alleghanies that
they can have had no connection with them— such as the
limonites of Salisbury region of Massachusetts and Con-
necticut, and .Staten Island, X. Y. In Alabama and Ten-
nessee deposits of limonite of great extent anil purity are
found along the outcrops of the Lower Carboniferous lime-
stone. In 5lissouri a ijclt of superficial limonite encircles
the district which contains the great depo,<its of specular
iron in the central part of the State, and may be supposed
to have been formed from the ferruginous drainage of this
district. The limonites which are formed by the oxidation
of the stratified carbonates are best seen in Southern Ohio
and Eastern Kentucky, where some of the calcareous ore-
beds of the coal-iiieasures are oxidized along their outcrops,
and are more or less deeply converted into the hydrated
sesquioxide. A similar change is observable in some of the
limonite beds of Eastern New York and Connecticut, which
pass into siilerite in depth.
Bog-iron ore is a spongy and usually impure limonite
which accumulates in marshes from the leaching of sur-
rounding beds of sand, gravel, etc., containing iron. Lake
ore is the name given to limonite which gathers at the bot-
tom of lakes and jionds that receive the drainage of ferru-
ginous strata or .'^oils. In some of the Swedish lakes and at
Radnor Forges. Canada, this ore is dreiiged up periodically,
the deposit being reproduced at intervals of one year or of
seyeral years. Revised by CnAKLl-:s Kirciiiioff.
Limousin. Ic'emoo'sith' : a former province of Central
France, comiirisiiig the present dejiartments of Corrcze,
Creuse, Pordogne. and Vienne. Its capital was Limoges.
It gave name to a mediieval dialect which jirevailed through
much of Southern France, and had a considerable poetic
and romantic literature.
Limpet [< 0. Eng. lempedu, from Lat. lam'pefra, lam-
prey. See TjAMPREy] : a name given to various Gastero-
poda (g. V.) in which the shell is low and the spiral obscure,
and which adhere closely by the muscular hn^i {<• the rocks,
etc., in the water. The different
forms to which the name is given
are not closely allied. Strictly
speaking, the term belongs to the
members of the group Doroglonsa, f ! ■ I i ' <'■
which contains the genera Pa-
ti'lla, the comnum limpets of Eu-
rope, and Acnxea, the ('ommon
limpetsof the east coast of the CS. „
fiM 1 111- L / 7.T It ^ iiieiir.'-k iNsurella.
1 he keyhole limpets (Z'l.s.sMrf/m).
which belong to another group (Zijfiuhrnnrliiii). have an
opening at the apex of the conical shell ; the slipper limpets
(also calleil bonnet or <'up limpets) form the family Culi/p-
Irwidip (of the Perlinihranrliin); spe<'imens are common on
the coasts of the V . S. adhering to the inside of deserted
snail-shells, especially those inhabited by hermit crabs. The
fresh-water limpets ( Valvaliilti) are small forms, resembling
the Patellas in general appearance, but belonging to a sepa-
rate sub-order, the Monotucardia, of gasteropods.
.1. .S. Kinosley.
LIMPOPO RIVEK
LINCOLN
279
Limpo'po River: the second largest river in South Af-
rica; so calk'd by natives along its middle course. It has
several other names given by various tribes; is also called
by tlie lioers the Crocodile river. It rises on the Transvaal
plateau, near Pretoria, flows N. W., N. E., and 8. W., and
reaches the Indian Ocean some distance above the Delagoa
Bay. It forms a large part of the northern boundary of the
South African republic. It has many tributaries, but loses
much of its water in swamps. Its mouth is obstructed by a
sandliar, and it is not important for navigation. Discov-
ered in the third decade of the nineteenth century, it was
not known for thirty years where the Limpopo reached the
sea. C. C. Adams.
Limiiliis : See Horseshoe Crab.
Lin'acre, or Lynaker, Thomas: physician and scholar;
b. at Canterbury, England, about 1460; studied at Oxford
and on the Continent ; became fellow of All Souls', Oxford,
in 1484, and afterward Professor of Physic ; was an associ-
ate of ('diet, Erasmus, and Lily in introducing into Eng-
land a knowledge of Greek, which he learned from the
celebrated Chalcondylas. and studied under Poliziano, from
which language he made elegant translations of Galen into
Latin ; studied theology, and in 1518 became a jjrebendary of
York; founded the College of Physicians at London (lolS),
was its j)resident for life, and was physician to Henry \'II.
and VIII. D. in London, Oct. 20, 1524. His translation of
Galen's De Sanifafe Tuenda appeared in 1517, the Mefho-
dus Medendi in 1519, and the De Temperament is in 1531.
He published in 1534 a treatise on the rules of Latin prose
composition, De Emendata Sfnicfura Latini Sermonis,
lib. vi. See the Life by Dr. Noble Johnson (1835).
Linares, lee-naa'ras: a town of Chili; in the central
ba-sin or " valley," on a plain near a small southern affluent
of the river Maule ; 167 miles S. S. W. of Santiago, and
about 500 feet aljovc the sea (see map of South America, rcf.
S-D). Population about 9,000. It is an important railway
station on the line which runs southward from Santiago,
and is the capital and commercial center of a province of
the same name, having 3,488 sq. miles of area and a popu-
lation of 115,646 (1891). II. H. S.
Linares, Jose Maria: statesman; b. at Potosi, Bolivia,
July 10, 1810. He was a distinguished jurist, was Minister
of the Interior under Santa Cruz, subsequently minister to
Spain, president of the senate in 1848, and for a short time
acting president by virtue of that office. In 1857 he was
elected president, and his term was one of the best and most
progressive that Bolivia has ever known. Dr. Linares was
deposed by a revolution in Jan., 1861, took refuge in Chili,
and died at Valparaiso the same year. H. H. S.
Lincoln, or Lincolnsiiire : county of England, extend-
ing along the North Sea from the Wash to the Humber.
Area, 3.762 sq. miles. The ground is very low along the
coast; in some places it is protected by dikes against inun-
dations of the sea; but from the coast it gradually rises
until it swells into high chalk hills in the northwestern part
of the county, the so-called Wolds. The soil is generally
very fertile and cultivated with great care. Large ero[)S of
wheat and oats are raised, and fine breeds of horses, short-
horned cattle, and long-wooled sheep are reared. ■ Immense
flocks of geese are fed on the fens along the shore. Pop.
(1891) 473,778.
Lincoln: the capital of Lincolnshire, England; on the
Witham ; 130 miles N. of London (see map of England, ref.
8-.I). It is a i>arliamentary, county, and municipal borough,
one member being sent to the House of Commons. It is an
old city, the seat of a bishopric, with one of the finest cathe-
drals in England, built in the thirteenth century, .524 feet
long, 250 feet wide, a theological college, and a school of
science; large foundries and manufactures of agricultural
implements, an<i an extensive trade in flour and wool. The
famous bell Great Tom of Lincoln is hung in the central
tower of the cathedral. Lincoln has a noted annual horse-
fair and a celebrated race-meeting. Pop. (1891) 41,491.
Lincoln : city; capital of Logan co.. 111. (for location of
county, see, map" of Illinois, ref. 6-E) ; on the Chi. and Alt.,
the Peoria, Decatur and Evans., and the 111. Cent, railways;
28 miles N. E. of Springfield, 157 miles S. W. of Chicago.
It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and in a
section underlaid with 27 feet of coal, and has four coal
mines, several flour-mills, press-drill works, caiming-fac-
tory, horse-collar factory, and excelsior-works. There are
17 churches, 3 national banks with combined capital of $310,-
000, public library, electric street-railway, and 2 dailv and 4
weekly newspapers. It is the seat of 'Lincoln University
(Cumberland Presbyterian, organized 1865), for both sexes,
which in 1892 had 5 departments. 15 professors and instruct-
ors, 200 students, .$30,000 invested in grounds and build-
ings, and 140,000 in productive funds. The city also con-
tains the Odd Fellows' Orphans' Home of Illinois and the
Illinois State Asvlum for Feeble-minded Children. Pop.
(1880) 5,639 ; (1890) 6,725 ; (1892) estimateil, 9,200.
Editor of " Courier."
Lincoln : city ; capital of Lincoln co., Kan. (for location
of county, see map of Kansas, ref. 5-F); on the Saline river,
and the Union Pacific Railway; 220 miles W. of Kansas
City. It is in a wheat and corn region ; has large wool-
growing interests, and contains 5 churches, a national bank
with capital of |50,000, a State bank with capital of $50,-
000, and 2 weekly newspapers. It is the seat of the Kan-
sas Christian College (Christian; chartered 1884), for both
sexes, %vhich has grounds and buildings valued at $15,000.
Pop. (1880) 422; (1890) 1,100; (1893) estimated, 1,500.
Editor of •' Republican."
Lincoln : city ; capital of Nebraska and of Lancaster
County (for location of county, see map of Nebraska, ref.
10-G); on the Burl, and Mo. Kiver, the Chi., Rock Is. and
Pac, the Fre.. Elk. and Mo. Valley, the Mo. Pac, and the
Union Pac. railways; 65 miles S. W. of Omaha. It is one
of the most flourishing cities of the Missouri valley, and
has an immense wholesale and distributing business in all
lines of merchandise, lumber, coal, grain, and live stock. It
has large stock-yards, slaughtering and meat-packing plant,
seventy wholesale houses, and important manufactures. The
census returns of 1890 showed that 117 manufacturing es-
tablishments (representing 38 industries) reported. These
had a combined capital of .fl,914,889, cmploved 1,518 per-
sons, paid .1936,675 for wages and $1,278,863 "for materials,
and had products valued at $3,018,837. The public build-
ings include the State Capitol (built of white limestone at
ra|iit
a cost of $500,000), State Insane Asylum, State Peniten-
tiary, U. S. Government building.and Home for the Friend-
less. Among the industrial institutions are the University of
Nebraska, Nebraska Weslcyan Univereity (chartered 1887),
Cotner University (Christian, opened as Christian Univer-
sity 1889, name changed 1890), Union College, Nebraska
Military Academy. Lincoln Normal University. Nebraska
Conservatory of Music, Roman Catholic convent and three
parochial schools, and five libraries (State, Public, Public
School, State Historical Society, and University of Nebras-
ka), which together have over 60,000 volumes. Tliere are
4 national banks with combined capital of $1,000,000, 4
State banks with capital of $225,000. a savings-bank, elec-
tric lights, electric street-railwav, and 4 dailv, 21 weekly,
10 monthlv, and 2 other perioilicals. Pop. (1880) 13.003;
(1890) 55,lo4. Editor of "State Journal."
Lincoln, Abraham : the sixteenth President of the U. S. ;
b. in a cal)in on Nolin creek. 3 miles W. of Hodgensvillc, in
Larue (then Hardin) co., Ky., Feb. 12, 1809. He was a grand-
nephew of Daniel Boone.' His parents were Thomas and
280
LIN'COLN
Nancy Hanks Lincoln. Or his anccstrj' and early years the
little thiit is known may Ik-sI be fri^'i'" >" '■'* own IniiKiiage :
'• My parents were both born in Viri;iniu, of undistinguished
faniihes — second families, (lerhaps I should say. My mother,
who died in my tenth year, was of a family of the name of
Hanks, some of w^liom now remain in .\dams, and others in
Miicon CO., 111. My paternal gruiulfather, Abraham Lin-
coln, emigrated from Koekliridge eo., Va., to Kentucky
about 1781 or 1783, where a year or two later ho was killed
by Indians — not in battle, but by stealth, when he was
laboring to open a farm in the forest. His ancestors, who
were Quakers, went to Virginia from Berks co.. Pa. An
effort to identify them with the New England family of the
same name amounted to nothing more than a similarity of
Christian names in both families, such as Knoch, Levi. .Mor-
decai. Solomon. Abraham, and the like. My father, at the
death of his father, was but si.x years of age. and he grew
up literally without education'. He removed from Ken-
tucky to what is now Spencer co., Ind., in my eighth year.
We reached our new home about the time the State came
into the Union. It wa.s a wihl region, with many bears and
other wild animals still in the woods. There I grew up."
The early residence of Lincoln in Indiana was 16 miles
X. of the Ohio river, on Little Pigeon creek, H miles K.
of (ientryville, within the present township of Carter. Here
his mother died Oct. 5, 1818, and in the following year his
father married Mrs. .Sally (Hush) .lohnston, of Elizabeth-
town, Ky. She was an atTeitionate fosler-i>arent, to whom
Abraham was indebted for his first encouragement to study.
He became an eager reader, and the few books owned in the
vicinity were many times perused. He worked frequently
for the neighbors as a farm-laborer, was for some time clerk
in a store at tientryville. and became famous throughout
that region for his athletic powers, his fondness for argu-
ment, his inexhaustible fund of humorous anecdote, and his
cleverness in speech-making. In 1828 he made a trading
voyage to New Orleans as "bow-hand" on aflatl)oat; re-
moved to Illinois in 18;10 ; helped his father build a log
house and clear a farm on the north fork of Sangamon
river, 10 miles \V. of Decatur, and was for some time em-
ployed in splitting rails for the fences — a fact which was
prominently brought forward for a political purpose thirty
years later. In the spring of 1831 he, with two of his rela-
tives, was hired to build a (latboal on the Sangamon river
and navigate it to New Orleans ; the boat "stuck" on a
mill-dam, and was got off with great labor through an in-
genious mechanical device which led some years later to
Lincoln's taking out a patent for "an improved method for
lifting vessels over shoals." This voyage was niemoralile
for another reas(m — the sight of slaves chained, maltreated,
and Hogged at New Orleans wsis the origin of his deep con-
victions upon the slavery question. Returning from this
voyage, he became a resident for several years of New Sa-
lem, a recently settled village on the Sangamon, where he
was successivelv a clerk, grocer, surveyor, and |>ostmaster,
and acted as i>ilot to the first steamboat that ascended the
Sangamon. Here he studied law, interested himself in local
politics after his return from the Black Hawk war, and be-
came known as an effective "stump-speaker." The subject
of his first political speech was the improvement of tlie
channel of the Sangamon, and the chief ground on which
he announced himself (1832) a candidate for the Legislature
was his advoca<'y of this popular measure, on which subje<'t
his practical experience ma<le him the highest authority.
Klected to the Legislature in 1834 as a " Henry t'lav Whig!"
he rapidly acquired that command of language and that
homely but forcible rhetoric which made him more than a
match in debate for his few well-educated opponents. Ad-
mitted to the bar in 1837, he soon established himself at
Springfield, where the .State capital was located in 18.3!),
largely through his influence ; became a successful pleader
in the State, circuit, and district courts; married (1M42) a
lady l)elonging to a prominent family in Lexington, Ky. ;
took an active imrt in the presidential campaigns of 1840
and 1844 as eandi<latn for elector on the Harrison and Clay
tickets, and in 1846 was elected to the V. S. House of Kep-
rcsentatives over the celel)rated Peler Cartwright. During
his single term in Congress, Lincoln liid not attain any
prominence. He voleil for the reception of anti-slavery
petitions, for the abolition of the slave-trade in the Dis-
trict of Columbia, and for the Wilmot proviso, but wa.s
chiefly reinembej-ed for the stand he took against the Mexi-
can war. For several years thereafter he took compara-
tively little interest in politics, but gained a leading position
at the Springfield bar. Two or three non-political lectures
and a eulogy upon Henry Clay (1852) added nothing to his
reputation. In 18.54 the repeal of the Missouri Compro-
mise by the Kansas-Nebraska act aroused Lincoln from his
indifference, "like a fire-bell in the night," and in attack-
ing that measure he had the immense advantage of know-
ing perfectly well the motives and the record of its author,
Stephen A. J)oug!a.s, of Illinois, then popularly designated
as the "Little Giant." The latter went to Springfield in
Oct., 1854. on the occasion of the .State fair, to vindicate his
policy in the Senate, and the "Anti-Nebraska" Whigs, re-
membering that Lincoln hiul often measured his strength
with Douglas in the Illinois Legislature and before the
Springfield courts, engaged him to improvise a reply. This
speech, in the opinion of those who heard it, was one of the
great efforts of Lincoln's life, certainly one of the most ef-
fective in his whole career. It arou.sed great enthusiasm,
and from that moment it was felt that Lincoln wius the man
to be pitted against Douglas. Lincoln was accordingly se-
lected as the -Vnti-Xebniska candidate for the U. S. Senate
in place of (ien. Shields, whose term expired Mar. 4, 185.1.
Trumbull was ultimately chosen, but the armed conflict on
the soil of Kansas, which Lincoln had predicted, soon be-
gan, and the result was the disruption of the Whigs and the
formation of the Kepubliian party. At the IJIoimiington
State convention in 1850, where the new party first assumed
form in Illinois, Lincoln made an impressive address, in
which for the first time he tcK)k distinctive ground against
slavery in itself. At the national Kepublican convention
at Philadelphia (.lune 17), after the nomination of Fremont,
Lincoln was put forward by the Illinois delegation for the
vice-presidency, and received on the first ballot 110 votes
against 2.59 for William L. Dayton. He took a prominent
part in the canvass, being on the electoral ticket. In 1858
Lincoln was unanimously nominated by the Kepublican
.State convention as its candidate for the U. S. Senate in
place of Douglas, and in his speech of acceptance struck
the keynote in tlie celebrated declaration that "a house
divided against itself can not .stand." When he was ad-
vised that the exi)ression was an impolitic one, and would
|)i'obably defeat him. he revealed his character by declar-
ing: "Iwouhl rather be defeated with this expression in
the speech, and uphold and discuss it before the people,
than be victorious without it." (Ilerndon, ii., 67.) The
same inflexibility of far-seeing purpose showed itself at a
later period in the course of the campaign. At a confer-
ence held at Dixon between Lincoln and leading Kejiub-
licans, he declared to them his purpose to propound to
Douglas tlie following question : " Can the people of a U. S.
Territory, in any lawful way, against the wisli of any citi-
zen of the U. S., exclude slavery from its limits prior "to the
formation of a State constitution f" All those present
counseled Lincoln not to put that question to Douglas, be-
cause he would answer it m the aflirniative, and thus prob-
ably secure a re-election. Lincoln rejilied that to draw
an allirinative answer fnmi Douglas was exactly what he
wanted, and that his object was to make it impossible
for Douglas to get the vote of the Southern States in the
next presidential election. He considered the presidential
fight much more important than the senatorial one, and he
would be willing to lose this in order to win that. Ar-
nold quotes him as saying: "lam after larger game; the
battle of 1S(>0 is worth a hundred of this." It turned out
precisely as he predicted. Lincoln propounded the ques-
tion at Free|)ort. and Douglas gave an aflirniative answer.
Had he answered in the negative, Illinois would surely have
voted against him. His allirmative reply gave him the
State, but hopelessly and permanently alienated the South.
The great debate carried on at all the ]irincipal towns of
Illinois resulted in the electicm of Douglas, but being widely
circulated as a campaign document the speeches fixed the
attention of the country upon Lincoln as the clearest and
most convincing exponent of Hepiiblican doctrine. Early
in 18,59 he began to be named in Illinois as a suitable He-
[cublican candidate for the presidential campaign of the
ensuing year; and ft remarkable iiolitical address delivered
at the Cooper Institute. New York, Feb. 27, 18G0, followed
by similar speeches at New Haven. Hartford, and elsewhere
in New Kngland, first macle him known lo the Ea.'^tern
States in the light by whii'h he had long been regarded at
home. Bv the Kepublican .State convention, which metal
Decatur, 111., May 9 and 10, Lincoln was unanimously in-
dorsed for the presidency. The national Kepublican con-
vention at Chicago, after spirited efforts made in favor of
LINCOLN
LIND
281
Seward, Chase, and Bates, nominated Lincoln, with Uanni-
bal Hamlin for Vice-President (May 18), at the same time
adopting a vigorous anti-slavery platform. The Demo-
cratic party having been disorganized and presenting two
candidates, Douglas and Breckenridge, and the remnant of
the " American " party having put forward John Bell, of
Tennessee, the Republican victory was an easy one, Lincoln
being elected Nov. 6 by a large plurality, comprehending
nearly all the Northern States, but none of the Southern.
The secession of South Carolina and the Gulf States was
the immediate result, followed a few months later by that
of the border slave States and the outbreak of the great
civil war. The life of Abraham Lincoln became thence-
forth merged in the history of his country. None of the
details of the vast conflict which filled tlie remainder of
Lincoln's life can here be given : they will be found under
appropriate headings. He reached Washington Feb. 23,
and was inaugurated President of the U. S. Mar. 4, 1861.
Lincoln called to his cabinet his principal rivals for the
presidential nomination, Seward, Chase, Cameron, and
Bates; secured the co-operation of the Union Democrats,
headed by Douglas; called out 75,000 militia from the sev-
eral States upon the first tidings of the bombardment of
Fort Sumter (Apr. 15) ; proclaimed a blockade of the South-
ern ports (Apr. 19) ; called an extra session of Congress for
Julv 4. from which he asked and obtained 400,000 men and
1400,000,000 for the war; placed JlcClellan at the head of
the Federal army on Gen. Scott's resignation (Oct. 31) ; ap-
pointed Edwin M. Stanton Secretary of War (Jan. 14, 1862),
and on Sept. 22. 1862, issued a proclamation declaring the
freedom of all slaves in the States and parts of States then
" in rebellion against the U. S." from and after Jan 1, 1863.
This was the crowning act of Lincoln's career — the act by
which he will be chiefly known through all future time —
and it decided the war. On Oct. 16, 1863, President Lin-
coln called for 300,000 volunteers to replace those whose
terra of enlistment had expired : made a celebrated and
touching, though brief, address at the dedication of the
Gettysburg military cemetery Nov. 19, 1863 ; commissioned
Ulysses S. Grant lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief
of the armies of the U. S. Mar. 9, 1864; was re-elected
President in November of the same year by a large majority
over Gen. McClellan, with Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee
as Vice-President ; delivered a verv remarkable address at
his second inauguration Mar. 4, 1865 ; visited the army be-
fore Richmond the same month, entered the capital of the
Confederacy the day after its fall, and upon the surrender
of Gen. Robert E. Lee's army (Apr. 9) was actively engaged
in devising generous plans for the reconstruction of the
Union, when on the evening of Good Friday, Apr. 14, he
was shot in his box at Ford's theater, Washington, by John
Wilkes Booth, a fanatical actor. He died early on the fol-
lowing morning, Apr. 15, 1865. Almost simultaneously a
murderous attack was made upon William H. Seward, the
Secretary of States At noon on the loth Andrew Johnson
assumed the presidency, and active measures were taken
which resulted in the death of Booth and the execution of
his principal accomplices. The funeral of President Lincoln
was conducted with unexampled solemnity and magnificence.
He was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery, near Springfield, 111.,
on May 4, in an appropriate tomb, surmounted by a statue,
Oct. 15, 1874. Tlie leaders and citizens of the expiring (Con-
federacy expressed genuine indignation at tlie murder of a
generous political adversary; foreign nations took part in
mourning the death of a great statesman ; the freedinen of
the South almost worshiped the memory of their deliverer:
and tlie general sentiment of the great nation he had saved
awarded liim a place in its affections scarcely second to that
held by Washington. The progress of time since his death
has constantly increased the respect and admiration as well
as the affection in which he is held by the people of the U. S.
The most thorough investigations have made it more and
more evident not only that he was the master-spirit of the
great struggle in which the nation was engaged, but also
that he was in very small measure indebted to the counsel
and advice of those about him. See biographies bv Dr.
Holland (1865) ; Arnold (1868) ; Lamon (1872) : Nicolav and
Hay (1890); Schurz (1892) ; Herndon (1888; 2d ed. 1892).
Revised by C. K. Auam.s.
Lincoln. Bexjamin : general ; 1). at Hiiigham, Mass., Feb.
8, 1733 ; was a farmer in- his native town at the outbreak of
the Revolutionary war in 1775; having aided in organizing
and training the Continental soldiery, was appointed major-
general of the Massachusetts troops; obtained the favor of
VV'ashington during the siege of Boston ; commanded an ex-
pedition which in June, 1776, cleared Boston harbor of
British vessels; led a body of Massachusetts militia at the
battle of White Plains and in the ensuing engagements
(1776) ; took a new levy of militia to the aid of Washington
at Morristown, N. J., in Feb., 1777; was appointed by Con-
gress, at Washington's re(|uest, a major-general in the Con-
tinental service Feb. 19; co-operated with Schuyler in the
summer campaign against Burgoyne ; joined Gates as sec-
ond in command Sept. 29 ; was severely wounded at the
battle of Bemis's Heights, near Saratoga, Oct. 8, and dis-
abled from active service until Aug., 1778, when he joined,
and was in September appointed to, the chief command of
the Southern army. He warded off several demonstrations
made by the British general Prcvost against Charleston ;
lost one-fourth of his forces by the defeat of Gen. Ashe at
Brier Creek Mar. 2, 1779; unsuccessfully attacked the
enemy's works at Stone Ferry June 20; joined d'Estaing in
September in his fruitless siege of Savannah, and after the
bloody repulse of Oct. 9 returned to Charleston, which in
the spring of 1780 was besieged by Sir Henry Clinton and
Gen. Arbuthnot with greatly superior forces. The defense
was skillfully and strenuously conducted, but Lincoln was
obliged to capitulate May 12, and was allowed to go to his
home at Hingham on parole. Exchanged in the spring of
1781, he joined Washington on the Hudson, took part in the
siege of Yorktown, and was deputed to receive the sword of
Cornwallis on his surrender. He received the degree of
M. A. from Harvard in 1780. Elected by Congress Secre-
tary of War in Oct., 1781. he held that oflSce three years,
after which he retired to his farm at Hingham. In 1786-87
he commanded the Massachusetts militia in the suppression
of Shays's rebellion ; was elected Lieutenant-Governor of
Massachusetts in 1787; was appointed collector of the port
of Boston in 1789, and held that office for twenty years. He
was one of the commissioners who in 1789 made a treaty
with the Creek Indians, and in 1793 was employed in an
unsuccessful negotiation with the Ohio Indians. He wrote
manv papers on scientific subjects, some of which were pub-
lished. D. at Hingham, May 9, 1810. See his Life, by
Francis Bowen, in Sparks's American Biography (2d series,
vol. xiii.).
Lincoln, Robert Todd: eldest son of Abraham Lincoln;
b. at Springfield, 111., Aug. 1, 1843; graduated at Harvard
College in 1864, and then entered Harvard Law School,
which he soon left to enter the army, where he served
till the end of the civil war as a captain on the staff of Gen.
Grant. He finished his law studies after the war closed,
and was admitted to the Chicago bar; was Secretaiy of
War Mar. 5, 1881, to Mar. 5, 1885 ; in 1884 was spoken of as
a candidate for the presidency, but refused to be placed in
opposition to President Arthur. From 1889-93 he was U. S.
minister to Great Britain.
Lincoln University (Illinois) : See Lincoln, 111.
Lind. Jexxy : " The Swedish Nightingale " : b. in Stock-
holm, Oct. 6. 1821, of humble parentage : her father was a
teacher, and poor. Her precocious talent attracted the
notice of Jlme. Lundberg, a retired actress, who introduced
her to Crajlius and Berg, famous teachers in music, and to
Lindblad, the composer. The manager of the court theater
procured for her admission to the musical academy, where
her progress was rapid. She acted and sang in children's
parts till she was twelve years of age, when her voice failed
her. Four years later it returned, and she sang the part of
Alice in Meyerbeer's Hobert le Diable with a brilliancy that
insured her success. She soon became the operatic star of
Stockholm, and sang with applause in the chief cities of
Sweden and Norway. In 1841 she went to Paris and took
lessons of Garcia. There she was introduced to Jleyerbeer,
who took a deep interest in her. and obtained from M. Pil-
let an opportunity to sing in opera; but she aroused no en-
thusiasm, and in'her ch,Hgrin left Paris. Her next oppor-
tunitv, also due to Meyerbeer, was in Berlin in 1845. There
her success was distinguished. Previous to this she had
sung with acceptance in Stockholm and Dresden. At
Vienna she repeated her Iriuraiihs in Sorma, The Camp of
Silesia, and The Daughter of the Regiment. Her fii-st ap-
pearance in London was in J'lay. 1847. In liobert le Diable.
I Puritani. and Somnambula'she more than justified her
claims as an artist, and covered herself with honors. In
1848 she sang for the first time in oratorio, Elijah, at Exe-
ter Hall, to found musical scholarships in memory of Men-
232
LINDAr
LINDSAY
delssohn. Henceforth this was to be her chosen field. In
1850 she went to tlie V. S., under contract witli P. T. Bnr-
nuiu to (rive ISO concerts. The enthusiasm was unlxninileii,
the [irotits were cnoriiious, but the toil and irksonieness were
excessive, and in June, IMol. after siufjinj; ninety-live times,
tlic contract was terminated by Jenny Lind. In lS>i2 she
married Otto Oolilschmidt, sooii after' returned to Kurope.
and [lassed several years in Drestlen. appearins only occa-
sionally in public, and then for charitable purjioses only.
In 185.S she took up her residence in England, where she
died Xov. 0. 18JS7. Jenny Lind's voice was a lii;ht soprano
of remarkalile sweetness, ilexibility, and charm of expression,
and she threw into it the feelinjjof a passionate soul. She sanp
out of a lioart full of goodness. Hoth in Europe and in the
U. S. she was as well known for her charities as for her genius.
Lindnu, lindow, Pai'L: author and critic; b. at Magde-
burg, Prussia, June 3, 18;i9 ; studied philosophy and liter-
ature at Halle, Leipzig, Berlin, and Paris: visited Italy, the
Netherlands, etc. ; founded Die Gei/enwart. a wt*kly journal
of politics and literature, in 1872, ^ord and SiiJ.a. monthly,
in 1878, and contriliutcd a great number of articles to vari-
ous papers, besides publishing several critical essays — MoUere
(1872); Jieniiinanhdix (187")); Alfred de Musset (1877);
Dramaturyixche Blatter (1875,2 vols.); JVuchterne Briefe
aus Bayreiith (187(1) ; i'eherflux.ii(/e Briefe an eine Frenndin
(1877), etc. ; several dramas— J/«;-ia und Magdalena, Marion,
Diana, etc. ; and travel sketches of Venice, Paris, etc. Dur-
ing later years Lindau tried in vain to make a reputation as
a novelist by imitating French models of the realistic school.
Though a witty and clever writer and a satirist of more
than usual talent, he lacks the true poetic gift, the want
of which be is unable to disguise.
Revised by Julius Goebel.
Lln'degren, .\malia: .Swe<lish painter; b. May 22, 1814.
She began painting portraits without a teacher, and in 1850
she was sent abroad at public expense, where she took les-
sons from Tissier in Paris and prominent masters in Munich
and Koine. Her subjects are chiefly from family life and
among children {The Widair, The Girl with an Orange, eic).
Iter works all bear the mark of genius, and are characterized
by great depth of feeling. Her portraits rank among the
best ever produced in Sweden. K. B. A.
Linden [orig. an adj., deriv. of lind, linden < O. Eng.
/i'h(/ : (rerm. linde]: the lime-tree, I'ilia europwa (family
Tiliaceie) ; a large European forest tree, closely related to
the bass of the \J. S. Its wood is soft, but valued by carvers
and turners, and used in making charcoal. Its bark makes
the bass matting so extensively exported from Russia. Its
flowers afford valuable bee-pasture. There are many varie-
ties, some of which are well known in cultivation in the
U.S. The name is often ajiiilied also to the Bass (q. v.) and
other .\merican species of Tilia.
Lindentlial. lin'dcn-taal, GrsTAv: civil engineer; b. in
Bruenn, Austria, May 21. 1850; was educated in Bruenn
and Vienna, and during 1870-74 was employed on railway
work in .Vustria and Switzerland. He is the designer of
several large bridges, notably the great suspension bridge of
3,300 feet sjian proposed for the Hudson river between New
York ami Jersey t'lty, and is the author of several valuable
paper> im long-span bridges and metal construction.
Lin'derman, IIf.nrv, M. D. : director of the U. S. mint ;
flnaiicicr ; b. at Lehman, Pa., Dec. 26, 1825; studied medi-
cine under his father, aM<l graduated at the New York Col-
lege of I'hysicians and Surgeons ; practiced his profession
in Pike co., Nesquehoning, and Mauch Chunk, Pa. ; took an
active interest in politics as a Democrat; was chief clerk
of U. S. mint at I'hiladeliihia 1H5.5-64; in 1864 resigned
and went into business in a firm of stockbrokers in Phila-
delphia. He was director of U. S. mint at Philadelphia
1866-6!); was .'sent to investigate Hie San Francisco mint;
in 1871 was sent to London, Paris, an<l Berlin, to collect
information concerning thcMr mints ; in 1872 made an elabo-
rate report on the condition of the niarki't for silver; pro-
jected the trade d(dlar to make a market for the great
amount of silver produced in the U.S.; was author of the
Coinage .Vet of 1H7.'! ; Dec. 7, 1873, was appointeil director of
all the r. S. mints for five vears, having entire cliargc of
them; j)id>lishcd Money and Leijal Tender in the I'nited
States in 1877. His annual report for 1M77 was an exhaus-
tive review of the iiielallic stamlard and of the capacitv of
the mines of the U. S. to sup|)ly the world with the precious
metals, D. at \Vn.shiiigton, D.'C.. Jan. 27, 1H7!).
Lindh, Theodor: poet; b. in Finland in 1833; is magis-
trate of the town of BorgA ; has published two volumes of
/>iA7<T (poems, 1862 and 1875). the versified trageilies h'onung
Birgeroch hau^ /yr(;(icr(1864)and Maria af Skiittlund {IHIiTt),
and a translation of Bvron's /feireu) Melodies (Hebreiska
Melodier, 1862).
Lindisfiirnc : See Holy Island.
Lindley. Jons, Ph. D., M. D., F. R. S.. F. L. S. : botanist;
b. at Cattoii, Norfolk, England, Feb. 5, 179'J ; was the son of
a nurseryman ; began early to write upon botany, a.ssi.«ting
in preparing Loudoirs Encijclopirdia ; became in 1829 Pro-
fessor of Botany in University College, London ; was ap-
pointed in 1860 "examiner in Botany in the London Univer-
sity ; edited The (iardener's Chronicle 1841-65. D. near
London, Nov. 1, 1805. His most important botanical writ-
ings are Introduction to the Xatiiral LSy.item (1K30) ; Strue-
iure and Physiohigi/ of I'lants (18;)2); Vegetable Kingdom
(1846); Flora Med'ica (1838); Fossil Flora (with Hutton,
1831-37) ; Pomoloqia Britannica (1841) ; Orchidaceous
Plants (1837-38) ; Folia Orchidacea (1852) ; Theory of Hor-
ticulture (1840), etc.
liindiier. Alhert: b. at Suiza, in the grand duchy of
^^'eimar, Apr. 24, 1831; studied philology at Jena and Ber-
lin, and became a teacher at tlie (iymnasium of Rudcilstadt.
In 1800 his tragedy Brutus und Collatinus was awarded the
first prize at Berlin, and afterward successfully ])layed on
nearly all German stages. This success prompted him to go
His siibseciueiit dra-
mas were, however, less favorably received, with tlie excep-
to Berlin and continue as a playwright.
tion of Die Bliithochzeit (1S71). which is still a standard play
of the German stage. D. Feb. 2, 1888. Jllii's Goeiikl.
Lindo, Mark Prager : writer; b. in London, Feb. 19,
1819 ; d. at The Hague, Mar. 9, 1877. English by birth, he
was as a boy sent to school at Boulogne in France; thence
he went to Diisseldorf. where he attended tlie Realscliule
and gyiiiiiasium. In 1838 a chance ailviTtiscment for an
English teacher took him to Arnheiii, in Holland. The next
year he liecame corresponding clerk in a counting-house at
Amsterdam. Finding this employment irksome he went to
Bonn for further .slinlies. Before he liad obtaine<l his doc-
torate (finally won in 1853), he returned to Arnheni as
teacher in English in the gymnasium (1842). Here he mar-
ried a Dutcli lady (1K44), aiul definitely cliose Holland for
his country. In 1^,53 he was appointed Professor of Modern
Languages in the Royal Academy at Breda, and here he re-
mained until 1865, when his appointment as education in-
spector for South Holland took him to The Hague. His
first literary venture was a sketcli for children published in
Ilerfst-en Lentthloemen voor de }\ederlandsche jeiigd (1844).
From 1845 to 1850 he wrote for the Alyemeen Letterlievend
Maandschrift. In 1851 he began to publish in the Arn-
hemsche Conrant the sketches upon which his fame mainly
rests. He signed these de oiidc heer ,Smits; and in 1853
he issued a collection of them under the title Brieven en
I'itboezemingen van den oiiden heer Smits. The power of
these sketches at once attracted attentiim and gave him a
distinct place in Dutch letters. In 1856 he began the pub-
lication of a weekly journal, written entirely by himself,
called Xc(/(';7((;i(/.st/((' .S'/"''''"''"'' wliirli he continued in the
same fa-shion until 1859, when others were associated with
him. In its pages appeared several of his best-known
works: Clementine (1857); Le Saltimhanque (1859); De
geschiedenis van een gentleman (1862). Worth mentioning
also are Losse schetsen in en om Parijs in den zoiner van
;&;,.' (1853) and Afdrukken van Indrukken (with his friend
Mulder, 18.54). Besides tliese original works lie wrote many
school-books dealing with English, and translated into
Dutch works of Sterne, Fielding, Scott, Kiiigsley, Dickens,
Thackeray, and other English authors. An historical work,
De opkomst en ontwikkeling van het Engelsche volk in zijne
geschiedenis tot op onzen tijd geschetst (2 vols., 18()8-74), lias
some value. In 1877 appeared Kompleete verken run den
oiiden heer Smits (5 vols., The Hague, 1877-79; 3d ed.
1886). A. R. Marsh.
Lindsay, lin'zi : capital of Victoria co., Ontario, Canada;
a junction of .several railways and on the navigable Scugog
river (see map of Ontario, rcf. 3-lC). It has an extensive
trade in lumber, grain, and flour. It has niainifactures of
castings, lumber, sash, blinds, hemlock extract, etc., and a
brewery. The town is mostly built of lirick, and contains
the county buildings and several churches and schools. It
has two weekly newspaper.s. Pop. (1891) O.OHl.
LINDSAY
LINEN
283
Lindsay, Baroxs and Earls : a distinguished family in
the Scottish peerage, ilescended from Sir Walter de Lind-
say, an Englishman of Xornian descent, who in the reign
of David I. aciiuired Ercilduun and Luffness in East Lo-
thian. In the twelfth century the lands of Crawford in
Clydesdale came into possession of the family by an inter-
marriage with the royal line of Scotland. Sir .lames Lind-
say of Crawford was distinguished at the battle of Otter-
burn. His nephew and heir. Sir David, married a sister
of King Koliert III., and was made by that luimarch Earl
of Crawford, while Sir William, David's younger brother,
became ancestor of the Lords Lindsay of the Byres, Had-
dington, and, through a natural .son, was also ancestor of
the celebrated poet, Sir David Lindsay of the Mount. In
the fifteenth century the Earls of Crawford were among the
•wealthiest, proudest, and mo.st influential of the Scottish
nobility, and took a large part in the civil warfare of that
agitated period. David, the fifth earl, a trusted minister
of James III., was made Duke of Montrose in 1488 — a title
never before bestowed in .Scotland except upon princes. In
1644 the tenth Lord Lindsay of the Byres was created Earl
of Lindsay, and soon afterward obtained also, by a new
creation, the Earldom of Crawford, extinct in the elder line.
John, fourth Earl of Lindsay and Crawford, b. in Oct.. 1702,
was a distinguished general in the Russian service, in the
German campaign 1743—4.5, and the suppression of the
movement of the Pretender in Scotland in 1746. D. in
London, Sept. 20, 1749. A. W. Crawford Lindsay, Earl of
Crawford and Lindsay (d. Dec. 13, 1880), wrote Tlie Lives
of the Lindsays. See Crawford, Earls of.
Lindsay, Sir David, of the Mount : poet ; b. about 1490,
either at Carmylton, East Lothian, or at the. Mount, Fife-
shire, Scotland. In 1.511 he is mentioned as an amateur
actor in a play performed at the court of James IV. to Scot-
land, and in 1.512 was appointed keeper or tutor to the
infant prince, who sueceede<l to the throne as James V.
His important duties were discharged with an affectionate
care, which the young king rewarded in 1528 with an ap-
pointment as king's herald, and in 1.530 with knighthood
and the office of Lord Lyon king-at-arms, in which capac-
ity he accompanied embassies to the courts of England,
France, Spain, and Denmark, and is introduced into Scott's
poem of Jiarinion. He represented Cupar in Parliament
(1543-43), contributed to the success of the Refonnation,
and died at an unknown place and date before May, 1555.
As a poet Lindsay takes high rank, and his satires against
the clergy are credited with having been the most effective
preparation for the labors of John Knox. His principal
works were The Dreme (1.538) ; Satyre of the Thrie Lstailis,
played at court in 1539 ; Historie of Squyer Meldrum
(1548); and The Monarchie (1553). The best edition is
that of the early English Text Society (1865-71), in 5
parts.
Lindsay, Thomas Martix, I). 1). : a minister of the Free
Church of Scotland ; b. in Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire, Oct.
16, 1843 ; was educated in the University and New College
of Edinburgh ; has been Assistant Professor in Logic and
Metaphysics and examiner in Arts in the University of
Edinliurgh ; secretary of the board of local e.\amination,
Edinburgh ; Professor of Church History in the Free
Church College, Glasgow ; convener of committee on for-
eign missions in the Free Church of Scotland ; atid was a
delegate to the Pan-Presbyterian Council at Toronto 1893.
He has contributed frequently to periodicals and to the
Encyclopiedia Britannica. He has published Jhmdbooh of
the Histof)/ of the ReformaHon (1882); Commentaries on
,St. Jfark's (fos/jel (1883); .S7. Luke's Gospel (1887); and
The Acts of the Apostles (1888). C. K. Hoyt.
Lindsey, TnEOPniLrs : clergyman; b. at Middlewick,
Cheshire, England, June 20. 1723; studied at Cambridge;
traveled on the Continent 1754-.56 as tutor to the Duke of
Northumberland; held various positions in the Church of
England, but gradually adopted Unitarian views ; resigned
his position in 1772, and began in 1774 to conduct Unitarian
service in Essex Street, London ; and published Unitarian
Doctrine and Worship from the Reformation to our own
Times (1783). He was unique among protesting churchmen
in his secession from the Established Church, as was Dr.
Freeman in the U. S. among [jrotesting f^piscopalians in his
distinct avowal of the .Unitarian position. Lindsey 's was
the first society in England frankly called Unitarian. Lind-
eey's original church edifice is now the headquarters of the
English Unitarians. He was a man of genuine spiritual
force, and of the most thorough intellectual and moral
honesty. D. in London Nov. 3, 1808.
Kevised by J. \V. Chadwick.
Line [M. Eng. < 0. Eng. fine, hawser, cable, from Lat.
li'nea, linen thread, string line (deriv. of linum, flax) > Fr.
ligne, line, which also influenced the meaning of M. Eng.
line]: a geometrical magnitude which has length, but
neither breadth nor thickness. We mav regard a line as the
path of a moving point, in which case the nature of the line
will dejiend upon the law of motion of the point. Two po-
sitions of the generating point are said to be consecutive
when the distance between them is infinitesimal, and the
corresponding portion of the line is called an element. We
may suppose the point to move so that the elements shall be
equal, or so that the projections of these elements on a
given .straight line shall be equal ; the former is the method
of plane geometry, and the latter is the method of analvtical
geometry and of the calculus. Lines may be either straight
or curved. A straight line is a line who"se elements all lie
in the same direction ; that is, it is a line whose direction is
the same throughout ; a curved line is one in which no two
consecutive elements lie in the same direction. .See Curve.
Revised by R. A. Roberts.
Line [from Lat. linea] : in music, a horizontal mark used
not only in the formation of the stave and its extension by
ledger-lines, but also for several other purposes. In a fig-
ured base a long unbroken line after a figure signifies the
continuation or holding of the note indicated by the figure,
while broken or short lines imply repeated strokes of a note,
or sometimes the repetition of the same figure over the sev-
eral notes of a moving bass. See Ex. 1 ;
Ex. 1.
A line drawn through a figure thus, 4 or 0, is equivalent to
a 3 and back. Figures stand for a sharp fourth, a sharp
fifth, etc. When, in a condensed score, one part crosses an-
other, its course is frequently marked by a slanting line, to
avoid confusion or to explain an apparent false progression.
See Ex. 2, where the crossing of the tenor and alto is point-
ed out by lines connecting the notes of the tenor.
Ex.:
In modern music for the organ, curved or straight perpen-
dicular lines, with arrow-heads, are often u.sed to mark the
exact place where a change is to be made from loud to soft,
or the reverse, or from one stop or set of keys to another.
Instances of this are given in Ex. 3 :
Ex. 3.
Two diverging or converging lines over a series of notes im-
ply an increase or decrease of loudness, as otherwise ex-
pressed by the words crescendo or diminuendo, or their ab-
breviations, cres. and rf/m. Revised by Dldlev Blik.
Linen [orig. an adj. <0. Eng. linen, made of flax, deriv.
of I'm, flax ; Germ, tein : Goth. lein. linen ; cf. (ir. \lvov : Lat.
li num, flax, linenl : one of the earliest of textile manufac-
tures. Its origin is lost in tlie cloudland of history. Pieces
are still in existence which were woven 4.000 years ago. In
the davs of Herodotus it was an article of Egjnlian export.
The mummies are wrapped in cere-cloths of this material.
Sir Gardner Wilkinson has fully described the linen-manu-
facture of Egvpt. The term linen is a generic name for
2S4
LINKN
clotlis woven from the fibers of the flax-plant and licmp.
(Soi> Klax.) The raw material of linen proper is the flax-plant
(Linum utiitaliiviifHiim). wliieh thrives in latitudes ranging
from Kgvpt to Unssia. From the seed is expressed the lin-
seetl oil so niiu-h used in commerce. Cloth made froin the
hemp-plant was worn by the Thracians. This plant is ex-
tonsively grown in various parts of Europe, and has been
eultivatiHl in Bengal fn)ni remote ages. The use of hemp
in the linen-manufacture is smaller now than formerly.
Jute (ij. i:) may also be cx)mmercially considered as a sort of
linen, as it atlords a cheap substitute for flax, the cultivatitm
of which has not kept pace with the requirements of the
makers. Of other substitutes which have been employed
with varving degrees of success the nettle, china-grass, rhea,
New Zealand llax, and Jlanilla hemp (Mum texlilin) may
be named. The garments of the Hebrew priests \ycre
chiefly of linen, and in the Bible there are many allusions
which show the esteem in which this fabric was held. In
Honu-r we read that the mother of Nausicaa in the early
dawn spun by the hearth soft fleeces dyed with red purple.
In many parts of theancient world the manufacture of limai
chiefly, it may be presumed, carried on by the women as
a household occupation — was common. Some parts of
Spain and Italy were celebrated for the culture of llax and
its subsequent' convei-sion into textile fabrics. Linen has
been nuide in England from an early ilate. The garments of
the .Vnglo-Saxons were linen and woolen. The daughtei-s of
Edward the Elder were famous for their skill in spinning,
weaving, and embroidering. The Bayeux tapestry is a linen
cloth, with designs worked in wool. Although the flax-
plant hail been cultivated by the Saxons, it is not found in
a list of tithable produce drawn up in 1070. Fine linen is
said to have been first made in Wilts and Sussex in ]2'>',i.
In 1272 Irish linen was used at Winchester. Flemish weav-
ers were introduced into England in 1331, and in 13S6 a
guild of linen-weavers was established in London, but does
not seem to have been very prosperous. Indeed, the manu-
facture was still in its iiifancy in the reign of Charles II.
Yarranton, writing in 1677, proposed the establishnienl of
spinning-schools, such as were then common in Germany.
In these places perhaps 200 girls from six years old u|iward
were assembled under the supervision of a woman who ssit
in a pulpit, and with a long white wand tapped any of the
little workers who flagged in their attention. If this were
not sulTicient she rang a bell, and the offender was taken
away and chastised. From the introduction of the cotton-
manufa<-ture until about 1773. wliile the weft was of cotton
the warp was of linen yarn. Arkwright's invention changed
this. In Ireland the history of linen-manufacture is mixed
up with that of sectarian feeling, for the woolen-manufac-
ture of the Koman Catholic .S. and W. was ruined by heavy
export duties, while the Protestant interest of Ulster was
firotected in 1609 by the act for the encouragement of the
inen trade. A board was constituted which held sovereign
sway over the trade \intil 182.S, when its obsolete regulations
and procedure led to its extinction. As early as the elev-
enth century linen was woven in Ireland, but it was Louis
Crommelin, a refugee driven from France by the Hevoca-
tion of the Edict of Xantes, who set it on a firm footing.
The Duke of Ormonde in 1711 onlered linen hatbands and
scarfs to be used for funeral pun loses; fourteen years later
machinery began to be used, linprnvcments in bleaching
were introduced by Dr. Ferguson in the midiUe of the cen-
tury. It wits not until 1828 that flax-spinning machinery
was starleil at Belfast. The pioneers were iMessi-s. Mnlliol-
land. For eighteen years there was a society for the pro-
motion of the growth of flax in Ireland, but it came to an
end in lH.Ji). Linen was made in .Scothind in the reign of
Charles I., but on a very small scale and in a rude style. In
lOHH .Merer styles it the most noted and beneficial manu-
facture of the kingdom. .\s showing the unfriendly feeling
between North and South, it may bi' mentioned that the
Scotch packmen who traveled into England to .sell linen
were, about 1084, soiiicM lines whipped as malefactors, and
obliged to give bonds that they would discontinue their
Irallic.
On the Continent traces of tlie use and manufacture of
linen are found at early dates. Charlenuigne, who dressed
after the manner of the Franks, had linen underclollies.
In mediicval Italy it was an important article of commerce.
In Spain the Moors paid great attention to textile manu-
factures, and linen wius exported to India and Constanti-
nople. In the lifleenth century Seville had 16,000 locuns ;
a century later they had iliminished to 300. Flanders,
Brabant, and some of the German towns were notalile for
their linen-manufactures in the eleventh century. Louvain
had ir>0,000 linen and woolen weavers in the fourteenth
centurv. In Flanders, by the middle of the thirteenth cen-<
tury, the manufacture w"as very flourishing, and its protl-
ucts were largely exported to England and other countries.
Ypres, which dates from 060, has left its impress in the
word diaper (i. e. d"Ypres, cloth of Yjires), still used for
table-linen. The soil of France is suitable for flax-grow-
ing, and since the time of the Homan rule linen has been
made in that country. In 1304 it is said the king sent fine
linen of Kheims to the sultan in ransom of some noble
prisoners who had fallen into the hands of the paynims.
The Kevocation of the Edict of Nantes was disa.strous in
its effects on French industry, and the linen-trade suffered
in common with all others from the loss of the Huguenots.
Russia has long been the greatest flax and hemp growing
country of the world.
There are more linens used in the U. S. in proportion to
the population than in almost any other country.
We turn now to the history of the processes of the linen-
manufacture. The flax-fiber is made up of a miniber of
smaller filaments bound together. The primary operation
in their .separation was termed heckling. The heckle is a
many-toothed steel comb which removes the coarser tibersof
the low and partially divides the filaments of the flax. The
fineness of the flax depends upon the number of hecklings
it receives by instruments of increasing delicacy. Ma-
chine heckling is now most commonly used, and there are
various patented inventions for this purpose. The fibers
re<iuire to be uniteil into a continuous thread before they
are ca|iable of being woven. The earliest method of doing
this was by tne spindle. One was found at Thebes by Sir
Gardner Wilkinson which had still some linen thread upon
it. They were about 15 inches in length, usually of wood,
with a circular head of gypsum, or composition. They were
bulbous near one end. tapering to a point, while the other
end lengthened into a handle. The thread was attached to
the handle; and the spindle resting upon the right thigh,
the right hand was drawn quickly over it. causing it to re-
volve or s]iin like a top. To this was afterward added the
distaff, a piece of wood round which the flax to be spun was
wrapped. The spinning-wheel was the next step forward.
One was invented at Brunswick in 15.53. That called Saxon
had on the spindle a bobbin round which the thread was
wound, a flyer going round faster than it, giving the requi-
site twist tcithe thread. Tlie flax was loosely wraiiiied round
a distaff or rock above the spindle. A treadle moved by the
foot gave a rotatory motion to the wheel. It was only by slow
degrees that this supplanted the older instrument, and a
two-spindled wheel had not been very long in use when Ark-
wright's cotton-sjiinning machinery must have turned at-
tention to the possibility of a similar revolution in other
branches of human labor. In 1787 .lohn Kendrew and
Thomas Porthouse, both of Darlington (Durham), England,
took out a patent for this |nirposc. Various mills in Scot-
land were worked under licenses from the patentees. It was
long before the hand-made yarn was superseded by the ma-
chine-made article. In 1788 Alexander Kobb invented a
loom to be driven by water, and in 1810 .Joseph Crompton,
of Dundee, one to go by water or steam, but it is doubtful
if they were brought into use. The first manufactory for
Weaving flax by power was set up in London about 1812 by
Charles Turner i: Co.
According to the modern method of treatment, the fibers
arc first urutclwd or combed : broken into three pieces, the
inner section being the best ; heckled, now usually done by
a rotatory machine, the flax placed on the periphery being
drawn through or against a series of teeth ; the short fibers
drawn into one continuous thread ; after having been roved
it is spnn. The flax, however, has to be kejit wet during
this proces.s, for whieli purpose warm water is now used.
The spun yarn is iiseil iMther for thread or for weaving, and
such yarn is called wet-spun, but in modern times Dundee,
in .Scotland, and Lille, in France, nroduce a yarn made with-
out the use of water. This is called dry -spun and is u.sed
principally for heavy fabrics such as sail-canvas, heavy
sheetings, towelings, crashes, glass-cloths, etc. The <pian-
tily of hiis (300 yards) conlaineil in a pound is a method of
indicating the (nialily of yarns, h'or information as to the
processes of Simnnino. Wkavixo. and Blkachino, see the ar-
ticles with those titles.
The greatest spinning centers for wet -spun yarns are Bel-
fast, Ghent, Sili'sia, Bohemia, Westphalia, anil .Moravia.
LING
LINGUATULIDA
285
The principal varieties of linens are lawn (Fr. linon), the
finest qualities of which are now made in Irelatid, for hand-
kerchiefs, etc. Scotland furnishes sheetinj^s, ducks, Osna-
burgs, towelings, canvas, paddings, etc. Diapers are fabrics
with patterns of geometrical regularity such asare produced
by the kaleidoscope. Dowlas is a strong, coarse fabric, for-
merly much used by working people for shirts and trousers,
and also made in jackets for soldiers. Large quantities of
this clotli are exported to South America. Damasks are
fabrics with figures of print and flowers, and free-hand or-
nament as opposed to the geometrical severity of diaper.
The name is supposed to l)e taken from Damascus, an an-
cient seat of the art, which until the introduction of the
Jacquaril machine (see IjOom) was a secret confined to a few
localities. The towns of Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy, and
the whole county of Fife, in Scotland, are the greatest centei-s
of damask or Jacquard weaving in the world. Lately Bel-
fast, Germany, and Austria have appeared as strong com-
petitors, while Barnsley and France have both lost ground.
Courtrai and Ghent are famous for sheetings and fine shirt-
ing linens. Cambric, which takes its name from Cambrai,
once famous for its production, is the finest and thinnest of
linen fabrics. Handkerchiefs made from this cloth range in
price from ^1 to .f20 per dozen. The so-called Scotch cam-
bric is a cotton fabric with the fiber twisted very hard.
Some velvets or plushes are also made from flax, and used
in the printed state as curtains, table-covers, and upholstery
goods. France furnishes most of these velvets.
Hessians or burlaps are made from jute, and are used for
all kinds of bags, for packing purposes, and for making tar-
paulins, and foundations for floor-cloth. Freneh canvas is
a coarse variety, much used by tailors for stiffening, etc.
Crumb-cloth is made in Scotland on Jacquard looms, and is
used for covering carpets in rooms and stairs ; it is woven as
wide as 4 and 5 yards.
The modern process of bleaching has somewhat lessened
the durability of linen, but a greater destroyer is the pre-
vailing system of laundry-work. The lessened cost of linen,
however (50 per cent.), compensates for these evils.
For a time the rapid increase of cotton-manufactures en-
dangered the prosperity of the linen-trade (and to some ex-
tent they are antagonistic), but, although the manufacture
of linens has not kept pace with that of its cheaper rival, it
has exceeded its former proportions as one of the great
staple industries of the world.
The U. S. has not made any appreciable progress in the
manufacture of linens, save a few coarse crashes and towel-
ings. Practically, the manufacture of linens has not begun,
and the outlook is not encouraging for many reasons, such
as climate, unprofitable returns for very hard work in the
preparation by the farmer of the flax fiber for market, and
the difliculty of grass bleaching under a scorching sun. At
present the flax is raised for the seed only. The imports of
flax anil flax-manufactures into the U. S. for the year 1891
had a value of .§24,000,000. This included burlaps, about
16,000,000. Revised by Frederick S. Pinkus.
Ling [jr. Eng. lenge : Germ, langc : Icel. langa. So called
from its length. Cf. 0. Eng. lang, long] : a sea-fish of the
cod family {Molva molva), extensively caught in Europe.
It is eaten fresh, or salted and dried. It is a rather tasteless
fish, its value depending to a great extent upon the perfect
manner in which it takes salt and the length of time dur-
Ling.
ing which it can be preserved in an eatable state. Split and
salted on the spot, it is packed in flats at once. Its flesh is
also preserved in air-tight cans; its sounds arc used for
isinglass and for food ; its roe is a good fish-bait ; its liver
yields a valuable oil. The name ling is also applied to the
burbot (Lata lota), a fresh-water fish of the cod family found
in the rivers of all northern regions. It much resembles
the true ling. Kevisod by D. S. Jordan-.
Ling, Pehr Henrik: poet ; b. at Ljunga, in the province
of Smalan<l, .Sweden, Nov. 1.5, 1776; led as a young man a
rather adventurous life, traveling through Germany and
Prance ; became in 1805 fencing-master at the University
of Lund, in 1818 teacher in fencing at the military school of
Karlberg, and in 1814 director of the newly erected gym-
nastic institute of Stockholm. In 1825 he received the
title of professor, and in 1835 he was elected a member
of the Swedish Academy. Ling represents the same move-
ment in Sweden as Tumvater Jahn in Germany. Uis poeti-
cal production.*, the allegorical poem Gtjlfit (1812), the epos
Asarne (1816-26), and the dramas Agne (1812). Ji'i//// (1814),
Den heliga Birgitta (1818), KngelbrecM Engelbrechtaon
(1819). dramatizing tlie whole of Swedish history, were in-
tended to awaken among the Swedes that heroism of feeling
and thinking which characterized the ancient pagan Scan-
dinavians ; and his gymnastic exerci.ses were at first simply
a means of developing and strengthening the bodv, but by
the thought and study which Ling bestowed on his profes-
sion he developed the simple gymnastic practices into a
medical cure, the so-called movement cure, which has proved
very effective in many chronic diseases, and has made the
Swedish gvmnastic svstem popular in "all civilized countries.
D. in Stockholm, Jlay 8, 1839. Kevised by P. Gboth.
Ling'a, or Liugani [Lingam is the neut. nom. of a San-
skrit crude form linga, meaning mark or token] : in Hindu-
ism, the male organ of generation, the emblem of the repro-
ductive power of Siva the Regenerator. It is worshiped in
the form of a plain column of stone or cone of clay rising
out of an oval stone representing the yoni or female organ
of generation, set up in temples dedicated to .Siva. At the
time of the Mohammedan conquest of India, in the eleventh
century, there were twelve celebrated lingas at different
places, the best known of which was that at Soma-niitha in
Gujarat. R. L.
Lin'g'ard. Johx, D. D., LL. D. : historian ; b. at Winches-
ter, England, Feb. 5, 1771 ; studied at Douai. and was or-
dained a Roman Catholic priest in 1795 ; was afterward
connected with the seminary at Ushaw, near Durham ; was
(1811-51) parish priest of Uornby, Lancashire; declined a
cardinal's hat soon after the publication of his great work.
History of England (1819-30, 8 vols. ; 6th ed. 18.54-5.5, 10
vols.). This work is on6 of great ability and excellence,
though somewhat colored by the religious views of the
writer. Ultramontanists find it tainted with Gallicanism.
It has been translated into German, French, and Italian,
and should always be consulted for the view of a conscien-
tious and erudite Roman Catholic. The work was vigorously
assailed, especially by Tlie Edinburgh Review; but the de-
fense of the author showed so much moderation and learn-
ing, as well as desire for the truth, that the criticisms of his
assailants tended to strengthen rather than weaken confi-
dence in the work. Author of a History and Antiquities of
tlie Anglo-Saxon Church (1806) and an English version of
the New Testament (1836). D. at Hornby, July 17, 1851.
Revised by C. K. Adams.
Lingrg, Hermax:* : poet ; b. at Lindau, Germany, Jan. 22,
1820; studied medicine at Munich ; became a physician in
the Bavarian army; was pensioned in 1851, and has since
devoted himself entirely to literature. In 1854 his first col-
lection of poems was published with an introduction by
Emanuel Geibel, who had discovered Lingg's poetic talents.
This collection established his reputation as a poet, and he
became a member of the circle of poets whom King Maxi-
milian II. of Bavaria assembled in Munich. Lingg's best-
known work is the epic poem Die Volkerwanderung (186.5-
68). Besides, he published a number of dramas and novels
which possess less poetic merit. Julius Goebeu
Lingual Ribbon: See Molliisca.
Lingiials : a group of consonants called also cerebrals or
cacumiiials, whose articulation is formed with tlie tip of the
tongue turned slightly up and back. Thev are commonly
indicated as /, d, ^, r, h. etc. The Sanskrit has not only the
dental series /, th, d, dh. n, articulated with the tip of the.
tongue against the backs of the upper teeth, but also the
lingual .series t. th, d, dh, «, called by the native grammari-
ans miirdhanya, head-sounds. These had their origin in
the speech habits of the pre-Aryan, Dravidian population of
India upon which the Sanskrit as the language of a conquer-
ing race was impressed. The English t, d. n, being articu-
lateii farther back in the roof of the mouth than the corre-
sponding French and German sounds, often appear to French
and German ears as cerebral. A ccreliral r is spoken in some
parts of America. See Phonetics. Benj. Ide Wiieeleb.
Lingiiatu'lida [Mod. Lat.,deriv. of Lat. lingua, tongue]:
a group of parasitic animals usually regarded as Arachnida.
They have worm-shaped bodies, with two pairs of adhering
286
LINGULA
LINNET
hooks near the mouth. There are no eyes, respiratory, or
circulatory organs. In their sexually ri[)e condition they
live in wurm-liloodod animals and reptiles, one species oc-
curring in and near the nose of the dog and wolf. The
voung. passing out, find entrance into the bodies of rabbits,
whence thev again pass to the dog when the animal is eaten.
J. S. K.
LiuiTiiistics : See Ethnology and Language.
Liii'gula [dim. of Jjit. linyua, tongue] : a genus of Brai ii-
lOPODA (7. I'.), in which the two valves of the horny shell are
nearlv equal, and are without a hinge. The animal has a
long fleshy stalk or peduncle, which is bui-ied in the sjiiul.
The living species of Lingula are few, but widely distrib-
uted, one occurring on the shores of the Carolinas, while
others occur on the west coast of the U. S., in the Hawaiian
islands, Australia, and the Asiatic shores. The genus ac-
quires peculiar interest from its great antiquity, fossil Lin-
guhv, much like those of to-day, occurring in the oldest
rocks; and through all geological ages the genus hius main-
tained itself unchanged. The living species have few points
of general interest, but it nniy be mentioned that the recent
forms exhibit a power of retaining life under adverse cir-
cumstances which is possibly correlated with the vitality of
the race. J- S. Kingsley.
Lingil'lidw [Mod. Lat.. liter., those belonging to the Lin-
gula familv : l.ingula (liter., diniin. of Lat. linyua. tongue,
named from the shape) + tir. patronymic ending -(5oi. phir.
of -(Stjs. descended from] : a family of the class Bkalhiofoda
{q. r.) and order i/yo/;o;Ho/«, distinguished by the more or
less linguiform shape of the shells, the slightly unequal
valves, tiic want of articulating apophyses, and the devel-
opment of a long vermiform peduncle which passes between
the apices of the valves; the shell has rather the appearance
of horn than of true shelly matter. The family is very in-
teresting, being one of the very few which have survived in
comparatively unaltered forms from the Lower Silurian
epoch, some of the types of the earliest period being scarcely
generically distinct "from the living iyiwji^te, although the
apparent slight differences may be the result of the simplic-
ity of the shell.
Liniers y Hrpniont, lee-m'e-aree-bra-mont', Santiago
Antonio Marik. tie (Span, form of his French name,
Jacques Antoine .Marie Deliniers-Hri5mont) : naval of-
ficer and administrator; b. at Niort, Deux-Sevres, France,
Feb. 6, 1756. He was of a royalist family, and after the
Revolution took service in the Spanish navy, attaining the
rank of captain. In 1H06 he commanded a squadron in the
Rio de la Plata, defended Montevideo against the British,
and attacked the British force which had occupied Buenos
Ayres, compelling its capitulation (Aug. 12, 1807). The
weak viceroy, Sobremonte, was deposed on tlie demand of
the people, and Liniers ])ut m his place (May 16, 1808).
Meanwhile the British had been strongly re-enforced and
had taken Montevideo : they now attacked Buenos Ayres
and gained a battle mider the walls (.Jidy 1), but Liniers de-
fended the city so well that they were forced to retreat with
great loss and eventually agreed to leave the country. The
Spanish Junta ('entral was opposed to Liniers. and in Aug ,
1801), Cisneros arrived to take his plwe. His measures pre-
cipitated the revolution of .May 10, 1810. Liniei-s, who had
retired to Cordoba, on hearing of the revolt collected a
small force and nuirched on Buenos Ayres, with the inten-
tion of restoring the royal authority; but he was captured
(.'Vug. 6), and by order of the revolutionary junta was shot
near Buenos Ayres, Aug. 26, 1810. Herhert 11. Smith.
Linlithgow, lin-lithgo, or West Lothian : county of
Scotland, bdrdering N. on the Firth of Forth, K. and S. on
the county of Kdinburgh. Area, 120 s(|. mili-s. In the
southern part the soil is swampy ; elsewhere it is generally
fertile, producing wheat, barley, and oats. Very little of
the arable lainl has remaincil unreclaimed. Horses, cattle,
sheep, and swine are rcarcil. (ireat numbei-s of cattle are
bought and fattencil.and ilairy-farmingis briskly prosecuted,
the fresh butter and buttermilk being sent partly to Kdin-
burgh and partly to Newcastle. Very little cheese is made.
Pop. (18i»l) .V.'.HOS. — LiNl.lTHOow, the principal town, has in-
teresting monuments, among which is the caslle in which
Mary Queen of Scots was born. It was b\iilt at various
times; the west side is probably the oldest portion of the
structure, and is believed to date from the time of James
III. In the history of Scotland the jialac(! has been quite
conspicuous. It was burned in 1746 by Hawley's dragoons.
Pop. of town 4,104.
Linn. John Blair: clergyman and author; b. at Ship-
pen.sburg. Pa., Mar. 14, 1777. He graduated at Columbia
College in 175)5; entered the law-ollice of Alexander Hamil-
ton; published anonymously two snuill volumes of miscel-
lanies in prose and verse, in Jan., 17!)7, he brought out at
the John Street theater. New York, a "serious drama, inter-
spersed with songs," entitled Jioiirville Canlle, or the Uallie
Orphan. Shortly afterward he abandoned the law and en-
tered the Presbyterian ministry, and was iLs^islant pastor of
a church at Philadelphia from 17'.ty till his death there, Aug.
30,1804. In 1800 he wrote an Ossianic miem on the Death
of W(islii)ig/on, and in 1801 juiblished his principal poem,
i'lie l'ower.'< of Oeniits. In 180:j he engaged in a tneological
polemic with Dr. Priestley. In 1S((5 his brother-in-law, the
novelist, Charles Brockdcn Brown, pulilished, with a brief
memoir. Valerian, a narrative poem by Linn, incomplete,
but extending to 1,500 lines of blank ver.se, treating of the
early struggles of Christianity against paganism.
Linna''tt [Mod. Lat., named from Lintaetin] : a genus of
jilants contaming but a single s]>ecies, L. borealis, the twin-
ilower, of the honeysuckle family, found by Linnanis in
Lapland in 1732, and named by Gronovius. It is a small
trailing evergreen herb, with round leaves occurring in
[jairs, as do also the flowers, which are bell-shaped, of a
pinkish color, and very fragrant. It abounds in the more
northern regions of Kiirope, Asia, and in North America,
occurs as far S. as JIaryland, and as far W. as Colorado and
California.
Linna*'us, the Latinized name of Cari, von Linn£ : the
father of systenuilic botany; b. at KAshult, in SmiUand,
.Sweden. May 12. 1707. He was the son of a Lutheran vicar,
who, we are told, on account of |ioverty, apprenticed his son
to a shoemaker, but soon afterward sent him to VVe»io to
school, where his fondness for natural science made him so
careless of his other .studies that his t^'achers advised the
father to put him lo some trade; but Rothman, the doctor
of the place, took the boy into his house and gave him books
upon botany and medical science to read ; aiul sent him in
1727 to Lund, where he read books of botany under Prof.
.Stoba'us. In 1728 he went to Upsala, attracted bv the fame
of Rudbeck, Professor of Botany, but the young Linne suf-
fered much from hunger and cold, and being without money
or friends began to despair, when Olaf Celsius, Professor of
Divinity, met him by accident, gave him congenial employ-
ment, upon his Ilierubotaninin. \i.Ki\i him into his own house,
and introduced him to Rudbeck. whose lussistant he became.
In 1732 he explored Lapland under the patronage of the
Academy of Sciences, and gathered material for his Flora
Lapponica (1737). In 1735 he took the degree of M. D. at
Ilanlerwyk, in the Ijow Countries; resided at Ilartecanip
173.5-38, under the patronage of (ieorj;e Cliffort, a banker of
Amsterdam; publislied \\\s Sy.tle)na JSaturip (\TA~))\ Fitnda-
menla Botanica (1730); Bihl iotlieca liotanica (1736); Critiea
Bolanica (1737); Jlortu.i CI ifforl ianu.i {ll'^Sl) ; Genera Plan-
tarum (1737); Vlaxms Platitarnm (173S); returned in 1738
lo Sweden ; was appointed in 1730 physician to the king
and Professor of Botany at .Stockholm; liccame in 1740 Pro-
fessor of Medicine at I psala, and was Professor of Botany
there 1741-78. giving the university a worldwide fame and
attracting thither large numbers of students from foreign
lands; was ennobled in 1757. He died at Upsala, Jan. 10,
1778. Besides the works above mentioned, his principal
writings are Philosnphia Botanica (1751); Fauna Suecica
(1746); and Flora Suecica (1746) ; works on materia niedica
(1747-50); and above all the Spcciex Plantaruni (1753). It
woiilil be hard to overestimate the importance of the work
of Liinueus in the establishment of modein systematic bot-
any and zoology, to which he gave the binomial nomen-
clature of species. The botanists of the U. S. in 18!)2 agreed
that "the botanical nomenclature of lioth genera and species
is ta begin with the publication of the fir.-;t edition of Lin-
naMis's Species Plantarum in 17.53." His library and col-
lections were bought, after the death of his son, in 1783, by
J. Fi. Smith, the lirst president of the Linnean Society in
London, who also translateil his Lacliexis Lapponica into
English (1811).
Llnn<>t [M. Kng. linrl (confused with O. Fr. linof, linnet
< O. Eng. hnele. Name(l from feeding on llax (O. Eug. /in:
Lat. litium. See Linen); cf. Germ. /i(7«///»_f/, liniuit, deriv.
of lianf, hemp] : a name given to various birds of the family
Frin(/tlliil(e (finches), but proper to those of the genus
Linola, o! which L. cannabina, the common European lin-
net, is the typical species. These birds are remarkable for
LINOLEIC ACID
the changes in their plumage during the breeding season.
North America has several liirds allied to the European
linnet ami similar in food and habits. For green linnet see
Green Finch. Revised by D. S. .Iorua.n.
Lino'leic Acid : an acid of the formula (',ell,„Oj, found
in combination in linseed oil and poppy oil, from which it
is obtained by saponification. It is a limpid oil (if specific
gravity Oifi at U C, of a faint-yellow color, a slight acid
reaction, and a high refractive power. It absorbs 2 per cent.
of oxygen by long standing, and thickens so that it will'
hardly flow, but remains colorless, and forms a varnish on
wood. It is due to this power that drying oils have their
property of hardening when exposed to the air. I. R.
Liiio'Iciim : See Carpets.
Linseed Oil : the oil of flaxseed ; extensively used for
all kinds of painting, for making oil-cloths, oil-silk's, printer's
ink, etc., its manufacture being a most importatit industry,
and the parent of many others. The oil-mills not only con-
sume the greater part of the seed raised in the U.S., but
large qiiantities are imported, especially from the East Indies.
The seed is crushed and submitted to'great hydraulic pres-
sure, by which the oil is for the most part removed. When
the seed is not heated the oil is light colored, and is called
cold-pressed oil. When, however, the seed-paste is heated
after grinding, and pressed while still hot, the oil is of a
little darker color, but it is nmch more rapidly and thor-
oughly removed. The paste in this operation is heated by
steam, and brought to a temperature not much higher than
212° P. It is placed in strong cloths or bags of equal size
and holding equal quantities, which are placed in iron cases
and laid up under the presses, where they are subjected to
a gradually increasing pressure, equivalent at length to a
weight of 300 to 800 tons. The cakes from cold-pressed oil
are reground and heated with the rest. The total product
of seed grown in the U. S. in 1890 is estimated at 9,000,000
bush. The amount of linseed imported in the same year
was 2,391,175 bush. Revised by Ira Remsen.
Linton, Eliza Lynn: wife of William .1. Linton, engrav-
er ; b. at Keswick, Cumberland. England, in 1822 ; published
a novel, Azeth, the Egyptian (1846); Amymone, a Romance
of the Days of Pericles (1848); and Realities, a romance of
modern life (1851). She has since been connected with the
press, especially The Saturday Revieiv, in which her papers
on The Oirl of the Period attracted great attention. Among
her later novels are Lizzie Lorton of Greyrigg (1866) ; Sow-
ing the Witid (1866); The True History of Joshua Davidson,
Christian and Communist (1872); Patricia Kemhall (1874);
The Rebel of tlie Family (1880) ; Paston Carew (1886).
Linton, William James : wood-engraver and author ; b.
in London, England, in 1812; was apprenticed to U. W.
Bonner, and in 1842 became partner with Orrin Smith ; was
first engaged on TTie Illustrated London J\'ews. and did the
work of illustrating Jackson's History of Wood-engraving,
published by the proprietors of that journal. His hand is
seen in The Lake Country (1864) and in the book of De-
ceased British Artists, issued in 1860 by the London Art
Union: in Josiah G. Holland's A'((//-(>irt" (New York, 1809) ;
and in Bryant's Tlie Flood of Years and Thanatopsis (1878).
Mr. Linton, though eminent as an engraver, is still better
known as the author of a Life of Paine ; Claribel, and
Other Poems (London, 1865) ; The English Republic; The
Flotver and tlie Star (Boston, 1878); Some Practical Hints
on Wood-engraving (1879); Wood-engraving, a Manual of
Lislruclion iis>^-;); Poems and Translations (1889); and
papers in The Westminster Review, Examiner, and Specta-
tor, mainly on social topics. He edited Rare Poems of the
Sixteenth and SeventeenJh Cent uries(\SS'ij,am\ with Richard
H. Stoddard English Verse (5 vols.. New York, 1883). In
youth a zealous Chartist, he was interested in the revolu-
tionary plans of his time, was a friend of Mazzini, entered
heartily into the cause of the British and European work-
ingmen, and defended the French Commune against the
accusations of its enemies. Since 1867 3Ir. Linton has re-
sided in the U. .S.
Li'niiin [Mod. Lat., from Lat. li'num, flax. See Linen] :
a genus of plants of which the common Flax {q. v.) is the
most important. It includes several flax-plants not culti-
vated for fiber, but sometimes grown in gardens for orna-
mental purposes. Among these are L. perenne, or perennial
flax, found in the western parts of the U. S., growing 18
inches high, and forming tufts of slender stems with delicate
blue flowers; L. grandiflorum, a beautiful annual found in
LION
287
Algiers, with abundant scarlet flowers; L. flavum a green-
house species, and L. berlandieri, growing in Texas, both of
which have yellow flowens.
Li'nus (2 Tim. iv. 21): according to tradition, the first
Bishop of Rome after .St. Peter, but it is doubtful whether
he succeeded the apostle, or whether SI. I'eter consecrated
tiim bisliop, oerhaps long before his own marlvniom The
dates of his life are uncertain, some giving th'e year of his
death as 80 ; others as 78 or 67. .
Linus (in Gr. AiVos) : a personage in Greek mythology of
uncertain antecedents. (1) In Argos he was a son of Apollo
by the 1 rincess Psamathe. To escape detection Psamathe
exposed the child, who was reared by shepherds, but when
growing into manhood he was torn to pieces by his own
dogs. (2) In Thebes Linus was the son of Apollo and the
muse Lrania; he was killed by Apollo on Jit. Helicon be-
cause he dared to dispute Apollo's supremacy in music 'Ac-
cording to another version, Linus, a celebrated minstrel
was slain by Heracles, who was instructed by him in music'
and in a fit of impatience killed him with the lyre In each
version of the myth Linus dies a violent death. It is con-'
ceded now that the word Linus did not refer to an individ-
ual person, but was the name applied to the dirges that were
sung throughout Asia in commemoration of the premature
death of the husband-son (Tamrauz, Hadad-Kimmon San-
dan, Atys, Adonis, etc.) of the great Asiatic mother-goddess
known to the Greeks as Cybele. Rhea, etc. Some think that
Linus was the personification of a flower like Narcissus and
Hyacinthus. See Brugsch, Die Adonisklage vnd das Linos-
lied (Berlin, 1852); Gruppe, Die Griechischen Culte und
Mythen m ihren Beziehungen zu den Orientalischen Reli-
gionen (Leipzig, 1887) p. 541:5 S. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Linyan'ti : a native town on the Chobe tributary of the
ZamVjesi river. Africa, containing, when Livingstone visited
it (1851), about 15,000 people, and then the chief center of
trade in South Central Africa. This fact drew to it a party
of missionaries, men, women, and children, nearly all of
whom fell victims to the pestilential climate. The' annihi-
lation of these pioneers made a deep impression, and is the
sole reason why Linyanti, surrounded by swamps, is still
remembered. Q, (j j^
Linz: city; the capital of the province of Upper Aus-
tria, on the Danube; 117 miles by rail W. of Vienna (see
map of Austria-Hungary, ref. 5-D); Its fortifications, built
in 1828-36, consisted of thirty-two bombproof towers, con-
nected with each other by subterranean alleys, a method of
fortification invented by Archduke Maximili'an of Este, but
superseded by later improvements in artillery, and now en-
tirely abandoned. It is the seat of the provincial govern-
ment and of a bishopric, has a theological seminary and two
cathedrals, one dating from 1670. and one dedicated to the
Immaculate Conception (built 1862-90). It has some manu-
factures of cloth, carpets, silk, leather, gold-lace, paper, and
tobacco. By the treaty concluded here Dec. 13, 164.5, re-
ligious liberty was gra'nted by the Emperor Ferdinand to
Hungary. Pop. (1891) 47,560.
Lion [from 0. Fr. lion < Lat. le'o, leonis, lion : Gr. AtW;
cf. 0. H. Germ, leu'o (> Mod. Germ. Unve), 0. Bulg. llvu.
The word is probably not Indo-Europ., but was obtained by
the Europi'ans from some unknown source] : next to the
tiger the largest and most jiowerful of the /'(7i(/(p, or cat
family, a full-grown male being a little over 10 feet long
from tip of nose to tip of tail. The female is smaller. The
scientific name is Felis leo. The color of the lion, which is
nearly uniform over the body, varies from pale yellowish
gray to almost chestnut browii. This coloration is largely
protective, assimilating with the sand, or sun-dried grass of
the animars favorite h.-iunts. The young are born sp^jtted,
and remain so for .some time. The tail is tufted, and the
male usually has a dark mane, and dark fringes of hair along
the flanks. The mane begins to grow when the animal is
two or three years old, and attains its full development in
about three years. Some males have no mane, and lions
sho\y great individual variation, not only in this rc.si>ect, but
in size ainl c<ilor. Lions are not gregarious, but parties of
six or seven may be seen together, and while I hese are usually
members of one family, yet several adults are now and then
seen together. The lion is found over the greater portion of
Africa, and in Mesopotamia, Persia, and |iarts of Northwest-
ern Hindustan. In other parts of .Southwestern Asia, as
well as in portions of Africa, the lion has been exterminated.
Within the historic period lions occurred in Asia Minor,
288
LI PANS
LiyUEFACTIOX OP OASES
and in the ailjoiiiing part of Eunipo as fur as the Isthmus
of Corinth. Except when pressed for fooii, the lion is rallier
lazy and indolent. He rests during the day, and preys dur-
ing the night. The testimony of tlie famous hunters wlio
have written of the lion is that' he is rather timiii than cour-
ageous, and that he entertains great fear of man. l)r. Liv-
ingstone gives a singular account of the roar of the lion. lie
says, comparing it with the voice of the ostrich, " in general,
the lion's voice seems to come deeper from the chest than
that of the ostrich, Init to this day 1 can distinguish between
them with certainty only bv knowing that the ostrich roars
by dav, and the lioii by nig)it." tiordon Cumming gives a
graphic descriptiim of the imposing characterof the nightly
concerts which the lions perform when they meet, often in
eonsiiierable numbers, at son\e spring where they all come
in order to drink, and 1 hen stop and challenge one another
with mighty roars of defiance. Revised by F, A. Lucas.
Lipans : See Ath.^p.vscan Indians.
I.ip'uri (Lat. Meliiju nis, the ancient name = Or. yifkiyov-
rls): lU one of the -VA)lian islands, situated near the north
coa.st of Sicily, and the most important and populous of the
group. Area, 13 S(i. miles. It was a volcano, as appears
from Aristotle, but the period of its extinction is unknown.
With the exception of certain very precipitous and rocky
portions, this island is most fertile,' and its fruits and wines
are excellent. Pop. 14.000.— (2) A town on the above island,
situated on a rocky eminence protected by a fort. It is an
old town, and nuiny interesting antiquities exist in the
neighborhoml. The modern town, which has suffered se-
verely from earthquakes, is not well built, but it has a hand-
some cathedral and some respectable pulilic buildings. The
inhabitants are skillful sailors, and carry on an active com-
merce with Sicily, etc. The port affords good anchorage,
though a mole is recpiircd to make it secure. Pop. 4,000.
Lippe. or Lippe l)etmold,lip'pe-det injjlt : a small princi-
pality of (iermany, between Hanover, Hrunswick, and Wcst-
{)halia, and comprising an area of 469 si\. miles. It is hilly,
)ut verv fertile, well woodeil. and watered by the Werre, an
affluent of the Weser. The southern ]iart is covered by
the Teutoburger Wald, famous as the place where Arminius
destroyed the Roman legions under Varus. The inhabit-
ants, numbering 128.495, belong to the Reformed Church.
The principal town is Detmold.
LippI, lwp'pe"e, FiLippo, called FraLii'i'O Lirpi: painter;
b. in Florence, probably about 1412. He was a monk in a
Carmelite monastery throughout his youth; was maile chap-
lain of a convent in 14.52, and later rector of a church in
Legraia, in Tuscany. Endless romantic stories are told of
his adventures, all of which are doubtful and probably un-
true. In some way he liecame a skillful painter, and an heir
of the ways of work of the great JIasaccio, whose power he
could never attain, but whose straightforward way of look-
ing at the visible world was natural to the pupil also. His
most important remaining works are frescoes in the Cathe-
dral of Prato, behind the principal altar — the Hixtory of SI.
Stephen on one side, the Life of John the Baptist on the
other. In a picture gallery of the same town is a picture of
the Virgin ijiring her Oirile to St. Thoma.'i, and two others.
In the Acailemy of Florence is a large Coronation of the
Virgin, with many curious episodes introduced, and a por-
trait of the artist; also a Nativity. In the UHizi Gallerv in
Florence is a beautiful and uninjured Virgin and Child
with Angela, and a landscape background; and in the I'itti
Palace a Virgin ivith Two Saint.i. The Vision of SI. Ber-
nard, a very fine Annunciat ion, ani\ three other pictures, arc
in the National (tallery of London. The frescoes in the
S|>oleto Cathedral have been much injured. 1). at Spoleto,
14t!'.». Russell Sturois.
Lippi, KiLiPpn, the younger, called Filippixo Lippi :
painter; b. at Prato l)efore 1460. He was a pupil of Fra
Filippo Lippi ; probably was adopted by him ; and is said
by \ asari to have been his son. His style seems to have
been modified by study of I he works of liotticelli. His most
important existing work is the series of frescoes in the Bran-
cacci chapel in the (liurcli of the Carmine, at Florence;
and, soon after, those in the Strozzi chapel in the Church of
Santa Maria Novella. These were painted between 14.H2
and 1490, the work having been previously laid out by Ma-
saccio. Some of the compositions contain many figures,
an<l show much power of composition, though of not so stately
a characler as that of his great predecessor. In the Church
of Santa JIaria Sopra Minerva, at Rome, he jiainted the in-
terior of a chapel, finishing it about 149;). In the Church of
the liadia, at I'lorence, is the famous IVa/o/i of St. Bernard,
often engraved. In the Lllizi is a Madonna with saints.
In the Munich Pinakothek is a noble picture. Chriet appear-
ing to the Virtjin after the crucifixion. In the National
Gallery are a Virgin and C)iild with St. Jerome and St.
Dominick, and several about which there is dispute, for sev-
eral existing pictures are ascribed to Lippi and also to Bot-
ticelli. There is also an important picture at Berlin, and
others at Bologna, Naples, and Lucca. 1). at Florence, 1504
or 1505. RissELL Sti'rgis.
Lippincntt, Sara Jane (Clarice): author and lecturer;
b. at IViujiey, N. Y., Sept. 23, 1823; was educated at Roch-
ester, N. v.; removed in 184;J to N'ew Brighton, Pa. Sho
has lived chieHy in Philadelphia and New York. She is
well known as a writer for children under the pseudonym of
Grace Oreenwoml. In 1853 she was married to Leander K.
Lippincott, of Philadelphia. Among her works are Green-
wood Leaves (2<1 series, 1850); Jltstorg of my Pets (1850);
Popw.? (1851); Jfaps and Mishaps of a Tour in England
(18.54); Merrie Eni/land (18,55); Stories from Famous Bal-
lads (1860); Records of Five Years (1867); and New Life
in Xew Lands (X'STi). She has been .'ictive in anti-slavery
and reform movements by means of lectures, and has been
a correspondent of leading New York newspapere.
Lip'sillS, Justus (Joest Lips): classical scholar; b. at
Oberrisclie, near Brussels, in 1547; was educated at Ath,
Cologne, and Louvain ; became the secretarv of Cardinal
tiranvella in Rome in 1563; Professor of 'Eloquence at
Jena in 1572, after renouncing the Roman Catholic faith;
at Louvain 1576; at Leyden in 1579; resigned his position
on again returning to Catholicism, taking the chair of His-
tory at Louvain in 1592. D. Mar. 23, 1606. Lipsius's relig-
ious tergiversation and general lack of ethical equipoise
can not command respect for him as a man, but as a scholar
he calls for unqualified admiration, his position among the
greatest representatives of classical learning being undis-
puted. His erudition is phenomenal, and his critical acumen
of the highest order. His edition of Tacitus, whom he knew
completely by heart, is one of the immortal masterpieces in
the field of classical philology. It was published forthe first
time in 1574, and repeatedly re-edited thereafter. Of his
other works the best known are editions of Vclleius, Vale-
rius Maximiis, and Seneca. Lipsius was but an indifferent
Greek scholar, and, like his great contemporary Casaubon,
he had but little sympathy for classical poetry. His works
(4 vols.) ajipeared in 1675. See F. van der Haeghen, Biblio-
graphie Lipsienne, ceuvres de Juste Lipse (2 vols., i)p. xxviii.,
598-709, Brussels, 1885); Reiffenberg, J)e Justii Lipsii vita
el scriptis commenlarius (IS'i'ii); Nisard, Le tritimvirat lil-
teraire au X]'I' siecle (Paris, 1852); L. Mi'iller, Geschichte
der class. I'hilol. in den Xiederlanden (pp. 24-29, 32-35).
ALFRED GUDEMAN.
Lipsilis, Rkiiahd Adelbekt, D.I).: theokigian; b. at
Oera, near Leipzig, Germany, Feb. 14, 1830; studied at
Leipzig, where in 1855 he became privat docent.and in 185U
jirot'essor extraordinary; in 1861 ordinary professor of The-
ology at Vienna, in 1865 at Kiel, and in 1871 at Jena, 1).
at .Jena, Aug. 19, 1S92. His principal writings were Chro-
nologic der ri'imischen Bischiifc liis ziir Milte lies vierlen
J<ilirliini(lerts {Kiv\, 1869); Die Qnellin der iiltesten Ketzer-
geschiclite (1875) ; Lehrbuch der evangelisrh-protestantischen
Dogmalik (Brunswick, 1876; 3d ed. 1893); Die apokryphen
Aposlelgeschichlen und Apo.itel!egenden (1883-87, 2 vols.);
JJie Ilaiiptp\inkte der christlichen (Haubenslehre (lUSi); 2d
ed. 1891); and many minor articles. — His father. Kakl
Heixkich Adelbert (1805-61). was a professor at Leipzig,
author of Grainniatical Studies on Biblical Greek. — His
brother, Justus Hermann (b. at Leijizig, Jlay 9, 1834), be-
came in 1866 rector of a gymnasium in that city, and has
iiublislied critical remarks on Sophocles (1860 and 1867) and
jysias (1864). Revised by S. M. Jackson,
Liquefaction of (Jilsps: the convei-sion of ga.ses into the
liquid I'lpnii. Since the boiling-point of all lii|uids is raised
by pressun', and since gases are to be considered simi)ly as
vajjors existing at temperatures and pressures such that they
are more or less remote from their boiling-point, it follows
tliat by the application of pressure, iwcompanied by reduc-
tion of temperature, the liquefaction of gases maybe accom-
plished. Faraday was of this o|)inion, and maiie extended
experiments upon the liquefaction of the so-calleil permanent
gases. Ill the case of certain of these he failed. Carbon
monoxide (CO), methane (Cli,), oxygen, nitrogen, and hydro-
LIQUEFACTION OP GASES
LIQUID DIFFUSION
289
gen, he found it impossible to liquefy at the lowest tem-
perature he was capable of producing. This temjierature
was— 110° C.,aud it was produced by niixingetherarid solid
carbon dioxide. Tlie resulting liquid evaporated willi great
rapidity when placed under the bell-jar of an air-pump, and
the teiiiperature fell to the point just indicated. Oxygen,
nitrogen, aiul carbon monoxide, even un<ler pressures of
many atmospheres, remained in gaseous form at this low
temperature. Xatterer in lSo4 repeated Faraday's attemiJt
with an apparatus which allowed of pressures up to 30.000
atmospheres. Even under these conditions the so-called
permanent gases retained their form. The reason tor the
failure of Faraday, Xatterer, anil of other early experiment-
ers, became apparent when it was shown by the investiga-
tions of Andrews that above the critical temperature all dis-
tinction between liquid and vapor disappears. Above this
temperature no amount of pressure will sutfice to liquefy a
gas. The critical temperatures of the gases already men-
tioned lay below the range attainable by the use of the cool-
ing mixtures at the command of Faraday and of his contem-
poraries; consequently all attempts were necessarily unsuc-
cessful. It was not until 1878 that these gases were finally
liquefied. On Dec. 24 in that year it was announced by
Dumas at the sitting of the Academy of Sciences, in Paris,
that Cailletet in that city, and Pictet, in Geneva, had both
succeeded in liquefying oxygen. The Cailletet method was
a comparatively simple one. The gas was compressed in a
glass tube with heavy walls to a pressure of about 300 at-
mospheres. The ghiss tube containing the conipres.sed gas
was cooled in a freezing mixture. It was then suddenly
relieved from pressure by the opening of a stop-cock, and
the resultant fall of temperature was sufficient to fill the
interior of the tube for an instant with a dense fog consisting
of particles of the liquefied and possibly of the frozen oxy-
gen. Pictet's process was more complete, and the results
obtained were much more satisfactory. A double cooling-
bath was used consisting of sulphur dioxide in the liquid
form, within which was placed a bath of compivsseil carbon
<lioxide. The apparatus was so constructed that the latter
was entirely surrounded by the sulphur dioxide batli. By
means of separate pumps the compression of these substances
(COj and SOj) was kept up continually to feed these baths,
while other pumps, also continuously in action, maintained
a vacuum in the vessels in which they were placed. Under
these conditions the sulphur dioxide fell by tlie cooling eflEect
■of its own evaporation to —65" C, while the carbon dioxide
in the inner bath sank to —140'. The gas to be liquefied was
compressed to over 300 atmospheres in a glass tube, this tube
being cooled by contact with the carl)on dioxide of the inner
bath. When tlie pressure was suddenly reduced it was con-
verted into the liquid form flowing from the tube in a jet.
Subsequent dttvelopment of these processes, with tht^ introduc-
tion of a new cooling sidjstance, ethylene, a li({uid which boils
in the open air at —105% and which can be further reduced
materially in temperature when made to boil at low pres-
sures, have made it possible to liquefy both oxygen and nitro-
gen and their mixture (atmospheric air) in large quantities.
Carljon monoxide and marsh-gas have also yielded to these
methods, and hydrogen is the only suljstance concerning
the liquefaction of which the evidence is in the least meas-
ure unsatisfactory. Cailletet, indeed, succeeded in 1884 in
cooling compressed hydrogen in a bath of boiling oxygen,
and he observed, when he reduced the pressure suddenly,
a momentary formation of fog within the tube. Olszewski
placed the tube of compressed hydrogen in a bath of nitro-
gen boiling in vacuo. When he suddenly diminished the
pressure upon the hydrogen from 160 to about 40 atmos-
pheres, it went over into the form of a colorless liquid. In
1805 the latter observer succeeded by this method in deter-
mining both the critical temperature and the boiling-point
of hydrogen. He found the critical temperature to be
— 23'4-5 C. and the boiling-point — 243-5 C. At the Royal
Institution in London Prof. Dewar has an apparatus by
means of which liquid oxygen and nitrogen are prepared in
large quantities. The physical properties of these substances
at their boiling-points (—184' C. and —103" C, respectively)
have been studied, and they have been used for cooling otlier
forms of matter for the same purpose. Liquid oxygen was
found liy Dewar to possess magnetic permeability inferior
only to that of the metals of the iron group.
By placing boiling oxygen in a vessel with walls of a
highly reflecting power, and therefore of poor radiating
power, surrounded by a vacuum, so that no heat losses may
occur by convection or conduction, the liquid evaporates
245
very slowly. In 1893 nearly a pint of liquid oxygen was
thus sent from London to Cambridge. It was placed in a
flask, the outer surface of which was coated witli a mirror-
like film of frozeti mercury. The flask was placed in an
outer vessel, and tlie intervening sjiace was exhausted. The
loss of oxygen during transit was small. E. L. Nichols.
Liqueurs, le'e-kerz : strong alcoholic drinks, usually
founiled on distilled spirit, and very rich and sweet. This
is the most common use of tlic term, and such liqueurs arc
very numerous and of varied flavor. Bitters {</. c.) are
sometimes classed as liqueurs. Some distilled spirits not
sweet nor highly aromatic are called liy this name, especially
when unfamiliar, such as kirschwasser and vodki ; of these
the best known is the famous Absixtue (q. v.). Liqueur
wines, called also dessert wines, are those which are very
sweet and rich, such as Cyprus wine of the kin<ls usually
brought to Europe; Muscatel of different sorts': Lunel and
Froiitignan, from the south of France ; and AUatico of Tus-
canv. These wines are sometimes called simply liqueurs.
Of the distilled liqueurs some have almost gone out of use.
such as Parfait Amour and Noyau, which were both very
fashionable in France and England before 1825. Others of
old date have kept their favor, such as Jlaraschino, and es-
pecially Chartreuse and Curasao. A number of popular
liqueurs are made in certain great monastic estal)lisliments
in Europe. Of these Chartreuse and Benedictin are the best
known; but the Certosa of Florence has its own product,
much admired in Tuscany, and there are many others of
similar local repute. " Russell Sturgis.
Liquidiinibar: See Gvm-tree.
Liquidated Dauiag:es: See Penalty.
Liquid Diffusion : a phenomenon which occurs when
liquids capable of mixing are brought into contact and al-
lowed to stand. It is found under such circumstances that
the^two licpiids. which at first may have ])ossessed a clearly
marked surface of division, mix very gradually with one
another without being subjected to the action of any extrane-
ous forces, such as the action of gravity causing a heavier
liipiid to settle down through a lighter one to the bottom of
the containing vessel ; or of heat acting through the agen-
cy of convection currents ; or of any mechanical disturb-
ance.
Diffusion is a slow process, and it seems to consist of a
true movement of the molecules of the liquid masses among
themselves. At any rate, the nu)ving particles are small
enough to permit of ditfusion through all sorts of porous
membranes, even tlirough materials such as porcelain, the
interstices of which are too small to admit of the passage of
the most minute microbes. The laws of diffusion have been
carefully studied bv a variety of methods, and many interest-
ing and"important"facts with reference to this phenomenon
have been established. It has been found, for example, that
at a given temperature each liquid possesses a definite rate of
diffusion, so that when two liquids are brought together with
a separating wall or septum the rate of transfer through the
partition of the two liquids will in general be different, and
mixture will occur more rapidly on one side than on the
other. The consequence is that 'one of the liquids will gain
in volume at the expense of the other. This difference is
sufliciently marked to produce a considerable change of level
on the two sides of tlie dividing wall. The liquid rises on
the side toward which the motion is more rapid until the
column thus raised in excess of that ujion the other side of
the jiartition exerts sufficient pressure to produce a counter-
balancing flow back through the porous diaphragm, after
which no furtlier rise can occur and the two diffusing liquids
come into a condition of eipiilibrium, with a permanent dif-
ference of level on the two sides.
The chief of the earlier authorities on the diffusion of
liquids is Graham (PliiUimphieal Transactions. 1850 and
1861), whose results mav be stated in the following form:
(1) The velocitv of diffusion varies with the nature of the
substance in solution. (2) The quantities of a salt carried
by diffusion in a given time, by solutions varying in con-
centration, are proportional to the degrees of ccmcentratiou.
(3) The amount of a salt diffused by a given solution in-
creases rapidiv with the temperature. The diffusion of ad-
jacent hquids not separat.'d by a septum is sometimes de-
noted simple diffusion. Dillusion through a septum is
termed osmosis. The method of separation of tlie com-
ponents of a mixture, sometimes employed in chemistry, bv
taking advantage of ditferenccs of rate of diffusion through
a septum, is called dialysis. E. L. Nichols.
290
i-igriits
Liquids: a term usoil in plioiictios to deiioto I ho varioui:
souiuTs i-X|>ress*Hl hy the syinl>ols r niul /. In (unctinn they
are both svllubiu uml non-syllubic ; thnsdi/e (pron. ablj and
let. In acoustic value they are best fhisseii with the couso-
nunts. The Jental or alveolar r may be trilled as in French
and German, or untrilled as in Knjjlish right, irri/. A
uvular r, produced by trillinj; the uvula above the raised
back of the toiij,'ue. is in recent times establishing ilsdf in
the speech of North (iermany and Paris, and is knowu in
Enj;lish, c. g. in the Xorthunilirian burr. The common
dental or alveolar / is jiroduced by breath, voiced or un-
voiced, pjissing between the sides of the tonjiue and the back
upper teeth, the point of the tonjjue bein^ placed asainst
the ;;ums or front teeth. The •guttural / of Kussian is pro-
duced by raising the back of the toiiiruc toward the soft
palate. ' Bknj. Iuk Wukixer.
Liquids: substances which, as distinguished from solids,
are charjieterized by lack of stability of form and by fjrcater
free<lom of motion lietwivn molecules, and as distinjruished
from ijuses are characterized by stability of volume and by
less freedom of motion between the ultimate particles. A
liquid may be defined as matter exist insr in the state between
the meltinjr-point and boiling-point. (See Fluids.) Althoufjh
the liquid state is eoininon to all forms of matter, no gases
being known which can not be condensed by proper appli-
cation of pressure and adequate reduction of teniperature,
and but few solids (such as carbon) which have nut been
rendered fluid by the application of heat, only two of the
chemical elements, mercury and bromine, are liquids at or-
dinary temperatures anil pressures.
Temperature and presxure arc the two factors which de-
termine the maintenance of the liquid state, and one of these
being constant, changes of the other will in general suflice
to condense a gas or to volatilize a liipiid. There is, how-
ever, a critical temperature for each sulistance above which
no increjise of pressure will bring about liijuefaction. 'J'he
critical temperature has been determined only for a few
substances, of which the most impcu'tant are given in the
following table :
TABLE 1. — CRITIC.\L TEMPERATURES, AHOVE WHICH LIQUEFAC-
TION CAN NOT BE PRODUCED BY PRESSURE,
Hydrogen — 1T4'> C.
Nitrogen — IW C.
Oxygen -lOS" C.
Metliane (CH.t -JST" C.
Ethvleiit! (C,U,I -H a" C.
CarUtu di« >.\ide +31** C.
Aeelylen iC'jH,! -t-ST" C.
Hydrochloric acid +5rS'>C.
Ammonia (NH,1 -(-130° C.
Chlorine +141° C.
Sulplmr tlioxide +155° C.
Elheri(\H,„0) +195° C.
Alcohol +234° C.
Chloroform +200° C.
Carbon disulphide +272° C.
Water +365° C
The temperature at which liquids go over into gaseous
form by ebullition (Boilino-poi.vt, q. c.) varies with the
pressure. The law of this variali<m has been workeil out
experimentally by Kegnault and others with great precision.
The following table gives the boiling-point of water at vari-
ous pressures above and below the normal :
TABLE II. — noiLIXC-l'OIXTS AT VARIOUS PRESSURES.
PRESSURE.
BoUlog-pobt.
PRESSDRE.
BoiUnp-potnt.
^1-4«C.
88-8° C.
51 •7° C.
60-5» C.
75-9° C.
830° C.
88-7° C.
98 6° C.
97-7° C.
7«cm. = 1 atm..
1000° c.
120-6° C.
13;J0° C.
1440° C.
153-2° C.
Ii>9-2° C.
105.3° C.
170-8° C.
175-7° ('.
180-3° C
20 cm
4 atm
40 cm
6 atm . . .
50 cm
7 atm
70 cm
9 atm
111 atm
12 atm
188 4° C
11 atm
195-5° C.
Melting points of solids are to a much less degree subject
to change with pressure. The cfTcct, however, is not alto-
gether inappreciable, and it obeys the following law, viz. :
substanics the density of which increasi's by fusion have
their melting-point lowered by pressure aiid rire vi-rm
Water and iron belung to the former da^s. Sulphur, phos-
phorus, and, indeed, nearly all .substances a.s yet investigated,
are of the latter clas-s.
While in the ca.se of water the change is small. 120-S at-
mospheres iH'ing neeos-sary to lower the mclting-i)i>iiit one
degree centigrade (.see Ick). it is very marked in the case of
many substances of the second class. Hopkins (see WUll-
ner, P/n/m'k., iii., p. 556) found for .sj)ermaceli. beeswax, sul-
phur, and stearin the values shown in Table III.
CHANGB OF MELTING-POINTS UNDER PRESSUBE.
PRESSL'SK.
SpvraiM-clI
DUlU ftl
. Bu»mi
mrlu at
Salpbur
g»lu«l
Sloria
BMlUal
51 -O" C.
eo 0° c.
80-2° C.
64 5° C.
74 5° C.
80 2° C.
107-0° C.
185 2° C.
140-5° C.
72-5° C.
73-6° C
519 atm
792 atm
792° C
Although the liquid state is intermediate between the
solid and gaseous conditions, the physical constants of
liquids are not always intermediate between the constants
of the same materials when frozen or in the form of vapor.
The specific heat of ice. for example, is ()-50, that of water is
1-UO. that of steam is 0-48. Bromine in the solid state has a
specific heat of 0-Of*. when liquid O'lO, when in the form of
vapor 0-05. The index of refraction of ice is 1-31, of water
V.i'i'i, of steam l-0O()25. Liquids arc frequently spoken of
as the incompressible fluids. They are, however, capable
of measural)le compression. They possess, in fact, less resili-
ence of volume than many solids.
The following table from Everett's Units and P/it/sical
Coiistaul.-i (2d ed., pp. 53, 53) gives the compressibility of
certain liquids :
TABLE rv.
LIQUID.
CoeQIaeat of
ndlteaoa.
Compr«<*[on for on*
aiegadj'ne par cm'.
5-42x10"
2-2(1 xlO'H
7-92x1(1''
l-12xlO'i>
1 tSOxKl'O
2-33xl0">
r8ixio-«
Water Tat IS° i
4-55x 10-*
Ether (at 14°)
1-28x10 *
Alcohol lal 131°)
8-91 X 10~*
(1 -je X 10 •
Sea- water (IT '5°)
4-30x 10" *
In comparison with these may be cited :
Steel, resilience of volume = 1-841 x 10".
Copper, " " " = 1-G84 x lO".
The case of sea-water is of special inlercst on account of
the influence of its compie.ssibility upon the ocean-level.
Tail, in his extended investigation of this property, in con-
nection with the deep-sea explorations of tne famous Chal-
lenger expedition, computed the loss of volume due to the
compression of each layer of ocean-water by the superin-
cumbent mass, and found the level of the sea to be more
than flOO feet below that which would exist in the case of a
strictly incompressible fluid.
Heat of fusion is a term by which the fact is expres.sed
that in passing from the solid to the liquid state definite
quantities of heat-energy must be expended. The heats of
fusion of some of the more important liquids are given in
the following table:
TABLE V.
SUBSTANCE.
■Water, at 0°
Acetic acid (CjH^O,!, at 3°
(;lycerin(CsHeOsi. at 13°..
Beeswa,\, at 61°.
Phosphoric acid (H.PO,).
at 18°
Naphthalene (C,oH,), at 80"
Benzol (C,TT,>, at 2°
Zinc, at 41.")°
Haal of
ftiaion.
44-3
42-5
42-3
37-4
35-7
29-1
28-1
SUBSTANCE.
Bromine, at — 7 .3° . . .
Caduiium. at 3*^°
Tin, ai -J-JS"
Bismuth, at 266°
Iodine
Sulphur, at 115°
I>ead. at 32.">°
Phosphorus, at 44 2°.
Mercurj-
Hail of
ftwloD.
16-2
13 7
13-3
12 6
11-7
9 4
5-8
5-0
2-8
In order to convert liquids into vapor form further energy
must be expended, which may be expr<?ssed in heat-units
under the name of the heat of vaporization. This quantity,
a variable one. diminishing at the boiling-point, is caused to
rise by pressure, and vanishes altogether at the critical tem-
perature. Table VI. contains some values of the heat of
va])orization of various liquids:
SUBSTANCE.
n|K>iliaIloa.
68°
366°
"f-R*
100°
48-2°
0°
84°
Haat of
TaporiivKoB.
45-6
23'9
Mercury
62 0
Sulphur
862-0
Nitrons oxide (N,0)
100-6
Aniinonin )NIt|(
294-2
Sulplmr dioxide (SO,)
88-3
Water
Cnrlion disulphide (ES,)
Ciirlion ilioxidp iCO,)
Kh9
867
49-8
208-9
Ether (C«H|gO)
89'«
LIQUIDS
291
The following table, deduced from the results of Rcg-
nault, under the assuuiption that the speeitic heat of water
in tlic liquid form is a eoiisliiut, will serve to illustrate the
falling off in heat of vaiiorization with rise of temperature :
TABLE vn.
Water Tipnrizcd at
0°
100°
230°
Heat of TaporlzatioD.
5;JT0
44UB
It will be seen that in Tables V. and VI. much the largest
values are those for water, which substance also, as will be
noted from Table VIII., possesses a very much greater
specific heat than any of the ordinary liquids :
TABLE Vni.— SPECIFIC HEAT OF VARIOUS LIQUIDS.
SUBSTANCE.
Raoga of tampetatura.
Specific beat.
340° C.
13° C.
49° C.
17° C.
119° C.
280° C.
250° C.
to 450°
" 45°
•' 98°
" 48°
" 147°
•' 380°
" 350°
C.
C.
e.
c.
c.
c.
c.
0 040
0 107
0-2O4
0 033
o-au
0 038
Tin
00637
Alcohol (CaHeO)
1«°C.
14° (J.
18° C.
25° C.
15° C.
19-5° C
to 30° C.
" 29-5° C.
" 30° C.
" 33° C.
" 20° C.
" 30 5° C.
0-612
0-:M7
0-2:«
Ether 1 C, H , o':> t
0 546
0-4B2
0-4158
Water (according to Regnaulti
0°
50°
100°
150°
200°
1-0000
1-0042
i-oi;m
1-0262
1-M40
Nearly all liquids, with the exception of molten liquids
and certain solutions, are capable of transmitting light.
Since rays penetrating them are retarded by different
amounts, according to the wave-length, dispersion occurs as
well as refraction. Table IX. presents the index of refrac-
tion of such liquids as have been systematically studied, for
the wave-lengths corresponding to the Fraunhofer lines.
The data given here are confined to the temperature of 15° C.
For corresponding values applying to other temperatures,
the reader is referred to Landolt and Boernstein (Physi-
kalisch-C'hemische Tabellen. pp. 206-209), from which work
many of the numerical data of this article are taken. For
the refractive index of certain liquids for longer waves, see
Kubens (Wiedemann's Anna/en, vol. slv., 1892).
TABLK IX. — REFRACTIVE INDICES
OF LIQUIDS AT 15
° C.
WAVE-
LENGTH.
CSj.
CHCI3.
CjHeO.
C4H,„0.
C,H..
HjO.
A
B
c
D
E
b
F
0
H
1-6114
1-6177
1-6209
1-6303
1-64:34
i-6554
1-6799
1-7035
1+440
1 -4458
1-4467
l-44i«
1-4.-.35
1-4332
1-4.W4
1-4611
1-3600
1.3612
13621
l-36:«
1-3661
1-368.3
1-3720
1-3751
1-3529
l-3,>45
l-ri566
l-35<)0
i-seoB
1-3646
1-3683
1-4905
1-4939
1-4U53
1-51X12
1-50U6
1-5078
1-3124
1 52:M
1-5329
1-3316
1-3339
1-3379
Phenomena accompanying change of state are among the
most interesting of those which tlie study of liquids afford.
The properties of liquids differ so greatly from those of
solids on the one hand and of gases on the other that the
■Sulphur
\.^
1.100
■
=
"5
//
1.00(1
^__soU£__-^
Tevipei-atures
1 » ._j 1 1 .
.=10°
Fio. 1.
melting and vaporization points are points at which very
sudden changes must occur, the abruptness in many cases
amounting almost to discontinuity of condition. Actual
discontinuity is the exception, however, the changes, so far
as physici.sts have been able to trace them, tending to occur
by rapid but continuous process. The difference of density
between solids and the corresponding liquid has already
been alluded to. A careful study of volnme-changes near
the melting-point often reveals this tendency to change by
continuous process, the coefficient of expansion taking on
abnormal values as the point of fusion is approached.
Kopp (Liebigs Annalen, vol. xciii.) has shown this in the
case of sulphur. His results are presented graphically in
\
Water
1 .IKH).)
=8
i
1.0002
■ a
\
\
1.0001
Temperatures ^^
^ ^
\
\
^
CO,
~\48«
5
,5%
a- Y
\3o° \
\32°\^
13°
L
^^=^~-
Prensurfs
' ' '
i""l' '"
MM {>i iq n lij
""i"'l""
Fig. 3.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. Water affords a more familiar and more remark-
able instance, the coefficient being reversed from a positive
to a negative value at 4% as if in preparation for the great
increase in volume to be undergone at 0\ (See Fig. 2.) In
vaporization also this tendency shows itself, particularly in
proximity to the critical temperature, the coefficient of' ex-
pansion of the liquid rising to extraordinary values just be-
fore the change of
state occurs. The
classical measure-
ments of Andrews
exhibit this profi-
erty in the case of
carbon dioxide in
the most striking
manner. (See Fig.
3.) This represents
the changes of vol-
ume brought about
by changes of pres-
sure, the substance
being maintained
at a constant tem-
perature. It will
be noticed that at
temperatures be-
low SO there is apparent discontinuity, but above that tem-
perature the broken line of volumes becomes a curve, the
double turn in which indicates a maximum value of the
coelRcient of expansion which is greater than the coefficient
of either the gaseous or the liquid carbon dioxide.
Superheating and Supersaturation. — It is probably on
account of this difference of condition between the states of
matter and the tendency to continuity of change that super-
heating and supersaturation are due. It is found that wnen
a liquid is cooled below its melting-point in the absence of
the corresponding solid of kindred crystallograpliie forms,
it will sometimes maintain its fluidity, although in a condi-
tion of equilibrium increasingly unstable as the tempera-
ture falls. Such a lii|uid is said to lie supersaturated. The
same term is applicil to any liquid wliii-h under analogous
circumstances holds in solution a larger amount of some
solid than it is capable of retaining in the presence of undis-
solved particles of the latter.
In the case of liquids and vapors an analogous phenome-
non (sup>erlieating) is observed. I.i(|uids from which all
gases have been removed (by previous boiling or otherwise)
are found callable of retaining their .state when heatetl many
degrees beyond the boiling temperature. When vaporiza-
tion of the unstable superheated liquid finally takes place,
the change is always sudden, and frequently of explosive
violence. See experiments of Donnv. Ann. de Chimie el de
Physique (3), 16 : of Dutoiir. Pogg. Ann.. 124 : and of Krebs,
Pogg. Ann., 136. The I.Hst-named observer succeeded in
heating water, previously freed from air, to 20O' C. without
boiling.
As has been pointed out by James Thomson (Proceedings
of the Rnyat Society, 1871), the changes of volume brought
about by the change of state are continuous when super-
292
LIQUIDS
heating occurs, following a curve (similar tonJcrfe/i/in
Fig. 4) instead of a broken line, a b d f g, which is the
^/^
'V
1 /'
i
kl*
a
e
••
s \
2 f
^^^
^ ^
d
-V, ■5
LI;ulJ
--''1
t
3
Trmi.a. |
line indicating change of volume when a liquid is vaporized
at the bciiling-poiiit.
Maxwell, in his Theory of Heat (p. 126), held that the
counterpart of this phenomenon, supersaturation of a vapor,
with return to the liquid state without discontinuity, might
be Idiikcd for provided the necessary conditions could be
fulfilled. The observation has since been recorded (Trunx.
of the Kansas Academy of Science, vol. ix., p. Ul) in the
case of isolated bubbles of tlie vapor of water or of carbon
disulphide cooled in a surrounding liijuid medium, respec-
tively oil and water, to a point considerably below their
condensing temperatures before lii|uefaction took jilace.
The spheroidal stale is a name given to the condition as-
sumed by any liquid when brought into contact with a sur-
face the temperature of which is very high as comjiared
with the boilnig-point of the liquid, tender these circuui-
stanees rapid volatilization produces a cushion of vajmr
which effectually sejiarates the lii[uid and the heated sur-
face, and which by virtue of its very poor thernuil conduc-
tivity protects the former. Tlie cooling due to evaporation
keeps the liquid permanently below its boiling-point. The
surface film tends to gather the fluid mass williin into
spheroidal form, whence the name. That the spheroid of
the liquid is not in contact with the neighboring solid nuty
be shown in various ways : one of the most striking demon-
strations is by means of a drop of water placed upon the bot-
tom of an inverted crucible of platinum, which is kept in a
state of incandescence by the flame of a blast-lamp. The
thickness of the eushi(m of steam upon which the spheroid
rests is sufTicient to allow the observer to look through be-
neath the spheroid of water to any bright object beyond.
Pig. 5 is from a
photograph, and
shows a water-drop
at the end of a pi-
pette, and pressed
down u|)iiu the face
of the hot cruci-
ble so strongly as
greatly to flatten
the drop. The
thickness of the
intervening steam
cushion is show'u
Kiu. 5. by the broad line
of light beneath
the drcj). The photograph was taken by transmitted light
for the purpose of displaying that feature.
Surface Tension.— Amorifi the most interesting of the
phenomena perlainiug to liquids are those bv which the
j)rnperties of the surface film are nnide manifest. The do-
main is an extensive one, including all that goes under the
name of capillarity, wilh a varietv of allied phenomena fa-
miliar to the sluilent iif physics.
Exuerimenis nnmi Ihe Surface Film.— Thai the free sur-
face layer of all biMlies of liquid forms a film possessing re-
markable properties nuiy be shown in many ways. This
film is composed of molecules in all respects identical with
those situated below the surface. Its i.roperlies are due to
the uioleculur forces between the indivulual particles of the
outermost layer. Thi'se forces give to the surface laver the
property of a stretched film or skin, perfectly flexible, yet
always showing a marked conlractile tendencv. The pres-
ence of the film is shown in the well-known experiment
which consists of floating sled sewing-needles upon the
surface of water. In order to float the needles must dis-
place their own weight of the licjuid, or be sujiported by
considerable forces
fri>m below. Obser-
vation shows that in
point of fact a float-
ing needle lies in a
Ik>11ow produced by
the bending of the
film under it, and it
is the elastic reaction
of Ihe film which
finally becomes suffi-
cient to overconu' the
action of the force
of gravity. The con-
^idurallle magnitude
of these contractile
forces is l)eautil'ull\
shown in the toll<j\\-
ing cxperiuu^nt, due
to the ingenuitv of
KlG. 6.
Klii
Prof. Krnest F. Nichols. (See Physical Revictc, vol. i., Xo.
4, 1H!)4.) An ordinary rubber band is floated upon the
surface of a vessel of water. The forces upon it due to
the film of the re-
gion inclosed by the
banil are balanced by
those of the surface
surrounding the lat-
ter. A dro]) of oil
ujion the surface in-
closed will, however,
instantly weaken the
film cuveriug that
portion of the liquid.
The outer film im-
mediately pulls the
rubber band outward,
temling to give it a
circular form. The
distortion is very
marked when, finally,
the elastic forces of
the stretched vulcan-
ite balance those of the ."^t longer film. A drop of oil ap-
plied to the surface without will reduce its tension to
equidity with that
of the inclosed re-
gion, whereujxm
the band is in-
stantly relaxed
and returns to
its origiiud form.
Figs, (i and 7 are
from photographs.
They show t he
rublier band be-
fore oil has been
applied to the in-
closed film, and
after that oper-
ation. It is in
structive to com-
pare this with Ihe
celebrated experiment of van der .Mensbrugghe. which in
Figs. 8 and !) is illustrated by means of photographs from
the sanu' hand. Fig.
8 shows a flat snap
film bounded bv a
metal riiij;. witliin
which float sa looped
thread of silk. This
divides the film, as
in Nichols's experi-
ment, into two re-
gions. Now in the
case of the si'ap
film the conlractile
strength of the in-
ner region may not
merely be reduceil ;
we may go further
and remove the in-
Fio,
LIQUORICE
I.ISBURN
293
iier film altogether by piercing it with a splinter of wood.
The outer film instantly draws the loop of thread, which
now forms one of its boundaries, into a tense ring. (.See
Fig. 9.) The analogy between the two experiments is com-
plete. When the surface film comes into contact with any
solid and the molecular forces between, liquid and solid are
brought into play, the nwult i.s capillary action, with the
many striking phenomena that are classified under that head.
E. L. XlCHOLS.
Liquorice, or Licorice [via 0. Fr. from Lat. liquiri'tia,
by analo^'y of lique're, etc. (see LifjriDS), from Gr. yKvKip-
pi(a, licorice, liter., sweet-root : y\uKvs, sweet + l)i(a, root ; cf:
Gvrm. lakri/ze]: the dried extract of the roots of Glijcyr-
rhiza glabra and echinafa, leguminous herbs of Southern
Europe, Africa, and Asia, largely cultivated in Central
Europe. The extract is a hard, black mass, containing a
large percentage of an uncrystallizable sugar called glycyr-
rhizin. It is prepared very extensively in Spain, Italy, and
Russia, and to some extent in France, England, Germany,
and the U. S. It is a valuable demulcent and expectorant
medicine, and is employed extensively in flavoring chewing-
tobacco, as well as in pharmacy as an excipient in pill-
masses. The hard, woody root is also used in medicine and
in porter and stout breweries. Ohjcyrrhiza lepidota of the
western parts of the U. S. has the flavor of true liquorice, as
have Galium circwzans, (i. lanceulaium, etc., rubiaceous
herbs of the IT. S., which are used in domestic medicine and
called "wild liquorice.''
Liquor Sanguinis: See Blood.
Lisboa, Balthazar da Silva : See Silva Lisboa.
Lisboa, lees-bo'a"a, Jolo Prancisco : author ; b. at Iguara,
Maranhao, Brazil, Mar. 22, 1812. He was destined for com-
mercial life, but deserted it ; managed to obtain an educa-
tion, and was long a journalist, supporting the liberal party.
In ISS.'j he was made secretary of the province, and in 1838
was elected to the provincial legislature. In 1852 he began
the publication of a kind of literary magazine, written by
himself, and called the Jornal de timon. It consisted of
political and satirical essays, aimed at both parties, and of
historical papers — some of the latter of great importance.
Twelve numbers, or volumes, were published, of which the
last two, issued at Lisbon in 1858, are devoted to the history
of Maranhao, and contain many original documents. In
1856 the imperial Government sent Lisboa to Europe to col-
lect historical documents, and while thus engaged he died
at Lisbon, Portugal, Apr. 26, 1863. He left several works in
manuscript, of which one, Vida do Padre Antonio Vieira,
was published in 1874. Herbert H. Smith.
Lisboa, Jose da Silva : See Silva Lisboa.
Lisbon [ : Portiig. Liahoa < Lat. Olisipo, the ancient
name] : capital of Portugal and residence of its king ; one
of the most important commercial centers in the world ; on
the northern shore of a bay, Rada de Lisboa, 4 miles broad,
formed by the Tagus at its influx into the Atlantic Ocean
(see man of Spain, ref. 17-A). It is 9 miles from the mouth
of the lagus, and is 412 miles by rail \V. S. W. of Madrid.
Built on tlic declivities of seven hills, with numerous white
cupolas and magnificent monumental buildings towering
above the mass of 4:J,000 houses, interspersed with lovely
terraces, Lisbon offers, when approached from the sea, an
aspect at once charming and imposing. The bay forms a
harbor large enough to accommodate at tlie same time all
the fleets of Europe, and so deep that the largest ships can
anchor immediately at its docks. The entrance to this
harbor is defended by several forts, of which one, consisting
of an interesting old Moorish tower called Torre de Belcm,
is situated on a sandbank in the bay. The city is 10 miles
in circuit, and is divided into four quarter.s — Alhama,
Rocio, Bairro Alto, and Alcantara — l)esides sevenU exten-
sive suburbs, including those of Belemand Olivaes, annexed
in 1885. The old city, especially the quarter of Alhama,
has in'egular, narrow, and dark streets. 'J"he newer parts,
built since the great earthquake (Nov. 1, 1755). which did
not reach Alhama, are more regular and beautiful, and con-
tain many palace-like l)uildings. The finest part is the
quarter of Rocio, extending along the river and containing
many splemlid buildings and open places. Among the
squares the Pra(;adoCommercio is the most remarkable, situ-
ated on the Tagus, containing in the center the equestrian
statue of Joseph I., and surrounded with magnificent build-
ings, the exchange, the royal library, the custom-house:
the market-place is noteworthy also, and the immense place
of Dom Pedro in the northern part of the quarter of Rocio,
bordered on one side by the monastery of .S. Domenico and
the buildings formerly belonging to the Inquisition. .Still
farther to the N. stretches the public promeiuide. The
most beautiful streets are Rua Augusta, which is the busi-
ness center and contains many fine jewelry-shops, Rua do
Oura, and Rua da Prata. The city has 64 churches and
about 200 chapels; the former monasteries, mostly magnifi-
cent buildings, situated at the most elevated jxiint.s, are now
used for public purposes. The monastery of Belem is ]ier-
haps the most remarkable building of the city. It was
founded in 1499 by King Emanuel the Great, on the spot
where Vasco ila Gama had embarked two years before, and
its style is a mixture of Moorish, Byzantine, Norman, and
Gothic elements. The material is white limestone, which
has now become yellowish like old ivory. The least beauti-
ful part of tins building is the churcli, which contains the
tombs of Camoens and Vasco da Gama. The whole building
is used as a hospital for foundlings and orphans. The
monastery of the Heart of Jesus is also an interesting stnic-
ture, founded in 1770 and provided with a splendid cupola
of white marble, an imitation of the Church of St. Peter in
Rome : furthermore, the Church of the Patriarchs, with its
gigantic cupola, situated to the N. E. of Monte do Castello;
the marble Church of S. Roque ; the basilica of S. Maria ;
the Church of Carmo, in Gothic style; and the Church of
S. Vincent de Flora, the largest of the city, and the burial-
place of the dynasty of Braganza. The most remarkable
palaces are the royal palace of Ajuda, the palace of Nossa
Senhora das Necessidadcs, and the palace of Bemposta.
Other noteworthy buildings are the theater of S. Carlos;
the national theater, which was formerly the palace of the
Inquisition ; the arsenal, the custom-house, the corn-market,
and the polytechnic school. The educational institutions
are very numerous; there are schools of every kind, includ-
ing a military and a naval school, an academy of science,
observatories, a geographical academy, a museum of natural
history, and a conservatory of music. The city receives its
water through the Alcantara aqueduct, constructed by
Emanuel de Maya. The main stream comes from the vil-
lage of Canassas. 2^ miles from Lisbon, and traverses the
valley of Alcantara on thirty-five arches, of which the larg-
est has a heigTit of 230 feet and a diameter of 107 feet. The
promenade on the top of the aqueduct offers a most beauti-
ful view. The Gallegos (Spaniards from Galicia), who carry
the water from the various fountains throughout the city,
act as porters and perform other services, form a corpora-
tion of their own and number about 35,000. ^ The hilly sur-
roundings and the mountain region of Cintra are full of
charming valleys, interesting peaks, and beautifully situated
churches, monasteries, and mansions. The industries of the
city are not considerable. Gold and silver ware and jeivelry
are manufactured, and spinning and weaving establishments,
iron-foundries, and manufactures of silk, hats, boots, cutlery,
stoneware, tobacco, chemicals, paper, soap, and steel are in
operation. The commerce is very extensive. Lisljon is the
largest port in the kingdom, and its custom-house is a sub-
stantial and spacious building, in which merchants are al-
lowed to deposit their goods free of duty for one year, or
for two years in the case of Brazilian pi-oduce. More than
2,500 vessels (including coasters) annually visit the port.
The average value of the annual imports exceeds $30,000,000,
and that of the exports $30,000,000. The most active com-
merce is carried on with Brazil and Great Britain, tropical
products being imported from the former and manufactured
goods from the latter, while wine and oil are exported to
both. Lisbon had existed as a Roman municipium under
the name of Felicitas Julia ; later on it was taken by the
Goths and by the Moors. When in 1147 Alfonso I., at the
head of the crusaders, conquered and Christianized the city,
it was called El-Oshliuna. In 1.580 the Duke of .Alva occu-
pied it for Philip II. of Spain, and the Invincible Armada
sailed from its port in 1588, but in 1640 the Spaniards were
expelled and the dynasty of Braganza ascended the throne
of Portugal. On Nov. 1, 1755, an earthquake destroyed the
greater part of the city and killed 30,000 persons, liut in
an incredibly short time the place was rebuilt. In 1807-08,
during the wars of Napoleon, the French held the city for a
short time, but since then a long period of peace has greatly
promoted its prosperity. Pop. (1892) 243,000.
Lisbon, Ohio: See New Lisbon-.
Lisburn : town; in the countv of .Antrim, Ireland; on
the Lagan ; 8 miles S. W. of Belfast (see map of Ireland,
294
L'ISLET
LIST
ref. 5-J). It is celebrated for its manufactures of damasks
and fine liuen stuffs, a brancti of industry established by a
settlement of Huguenots after the Kevo<.'alioii of the Edict
of Xanles, The parish church, wliich hai> a Vieautiful «-
tagonal tower, was coustilulcd the cathedral church of the
unitc<l dioi'eses of Down and Connor and Drouiore by Charles
II., and contains a niouuinent to .lereinv Tavlor, who wsis
bishop of the see. Pop. (1 SIM) 9,517.
L'Islet: town of L'lslet County, Quebec, Canada: station
on the Intercolonial Uailway ; 45 miles X. E. of yuel)cc (see
map of (Quebec, ref. 4-D) : on the rij;ht bank of the St. Law-
rence (which has here a width of about 20 miles) and oppo-
site Crane island. Pop. 2,500.
Lisienx, kn; zi-o' [Fr. < Lat. Lexohii, Lexovii, a people
at the mouth of the Lequana, or Seine] : town; in the de-
partment of Calvados, France: on the 'lou((ucs. at the very
point where it is joined by the Orbiijuet ; 30 miles by rail K.
by S. of Caen ( see map of France, ref. 3-D). Though its
Sosition at the junction of two rivers makes it subject to
isastrous inundations, it is one of the most prosperous
cities of Xonnandy. forming the center of a very consider-
able industrial activity, the arrondissement having more
than 200 factories, producing linens (cretonnes), woolens,
cottons, and flannels, besides spinning-milk, bleaching-
fields, dye-works, etc. There is a large trade in grain,
hemp, and cider. The Cathedral of Lisieux is one of the
most interesting specimens of the transition from the Ro-
man to the Ogival style. It was founded in 104.0, and the
greater part was finished in 1233. It is 360 feet long, 90
feet broad, 65 feet liigh, and its southern tower, rebuilt in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, rises 230 feet. It
is dedicated to St. Peter. The Church of St. Jacques, dating
from the fifteenth centurv. is also an interesting building.
Pop. (1891) 16,260.
Lis pendens : a phrase meaning literally a pending or
continuing suit or action, but used in general to designate
a rule of law prevailing, with certain e.xce[)tions and re-
strictions, in courts of equity and in courts of law. that dur-
ing the pendency of a suit neither party can alienate nor
transfer property which is the subject of the action so as
to affect the rights of his adversary ; or. in other words, that
all persons hold any rights acquired during the pendency of
the action in the subject which it affects subject to the rights
of the parties as settled by the result of the suit. The rule
is in effect the same as that expressed in the maxim pendente
lite, niliil innoretur, that is, during the pendency of an ac-
tion no change will be allowed to be made (in the existing
state of things).
Origin and Basis of the Rule. — The rule has been by
some authorities supposed to have bei'n adopted by analogy
from proceedings in real actions at common law, but is more
probably ultimately derived from the Roman or civil law.
(Mackenzie's Roman Law.'dH).) Although it had already
been long acted U[M)n as a principle of practice in the pro-
ceedings of courts, it was first formally stated and estab-
lished by Lord Bacou in, 1618 as one of his rules or ordi-
nances governing the administration of justice in courts of
chancery. Numerous authorities have referred the rule
concerning the effect of a lis pendens (pending action) to
the doctrine of c<mstructive notice, but the better opinion
now is that it is based uiion the necessity that, in order to
Eut an end to litigation, the decision of the court shall Ije
indiiig not only on the parties to the siut, but on third
parlies who claim title oi rights under them by alienation
or transfer made during the pendency of the sviit, whether
such alienees had or had not notice of the pending action.
The rights of the parties are the same in either case.
When the Rule Becomes and Ceases to be Operative. —
The rule /j«i pendens is operative oidy when the court has
full jurisdiction over the person ami over the property,
which must be of such a character as to lie affected by the
rule, and must be described with such certainty as to enable
it to be identified by the description. For this purpose the
court in general has full jurisdiction on the filing of tlie bill
and the service of thesubpiena; and its jurisdiction ceases
upon the final dismissed of the action, either by decree or
judgment or from any other cause. In the U.S. the rule
also ceases to be operative in cases of negligent failure to
prosecute, but the decisions are not uniform as to what con-
stitutes such negligence lus to destrov the lis pendens. The
reasonable rule which has been followed in many of the
cases would seem to be that the prosecutor should be
estopped from claiming the benefit of lis pendens by such
negligence as under the circumstances of the case justifies
the belief that the suit has been abandoned. In the U. S.
the question whether a lis pendens, valid in the Slate in
whicii the action is i>ending, shall be recognized as valid un-
der the laws of another State has been variously decided.
Properly tiubject to the Rule. — Real property has uni-
versally been held to be subject to the operation of lis pen-
dens, and it is settled t hat t he rule ai)plies also to jiersonalty,
l)ut the decisions of the different courts limiting the classes
of jiersonal property subject to it are not uniform. With
the exce[ition of a few cases in Pennsylvania, however, nego-
tiable papier of all kinds has been held to be exei!ipt from
its ojieration. The rule is undoubtedly beneficial in its re-
lation to real estate, but in its application to personal pro|>-
erty, which is the subject of ordinary commerce, it is liable to
work great injustice, and the courts will not aid in setting the
rule into operation by presuming facts material to that end.
Slatutury Regulation. — To alleviate the harshness of the
"constructive notice" fastened upoti a purchaser by force
of this rule, the matter has been regulated by statute, both
in England (2 A'ict., c. xi., sec. 7) and in many of the U. S.,
so far as real estate is concerned. For a ftdler statement of
the law of lis pendens, see the treatises of Story, Adams, and
Pomeroy On Equity Jurisprudence; Bennett, On Lis Pen-
dens, and the various statutes. The substance of the legisla-
tion is that written notice of the pendency of the action is lo
be tiled in a desigiialed oflice, giving suflicient information
of the names of the litigants, tlie property affected, and the
object of the litigation. Constructive notice is given from
the time of the filing. F. Sturoes Allkn.
Lis'sa (anc. Issa. Slav. TVs): an island in the Adriatic, in
lat. 43' 1 X., Ion. 16 6 E.. in the Dalmatian Archipelago.
Area, 35 sq. miles. Poji. 7.900. The fortifications of its
two harbors — especially of that upon the east side, near the
small town of Lissa — are so strong that they almost rival
those of Jlidta. This island was an importani naval station
under the Romans, a stronghold of the corsairs during the
Middle Ages, an enqiorium of contraband British mer-
chandise during the wars of Xapoleon. Here the Italian
scpiadron was defeated by the Austrian squadron in the war
of 1866. Revised by M. W. Harbinoton.
Lissa: town; in the province of Posen, Prussia; 40 miles
S. by W. of Posen (see map of (ierman Km|)ire. ref. 4-11).
It has large licpieur, wax, and tobacco factories, a cele-
brated bell-foundrv, and extensive manufactures of woolen
and linen stuffs. In the sixteenth centurv it was the chief
seat of the Bohemian Brethren. Pop. (1890) 13,116.
Lissciifcphala [Mod. Lat., from Gr. Ki<ra6s, smooth +
iyK((paKos, liniiii 1 : a name given by Owen to a class of mam-
mals characterized by the comparative smoothness of the
surface of the brain. The corpus callosum is well devel-
oped, but the cerebrum is small, leaving the cerebellum
and part of the olfactory lobes exposed. The class incliules
the edentates, inscctivores, rodents, and bats, and is the
equivalent of Bonaparte's Ineducabilia. V. A. L.
List. list. FRiKDRirn: economist: b. at Reutlingen, in
Wiirtendierg, Aug. 6, 1789; was apixiinted Professor in
Political Ecimomy at the University of Tubingen in 1817,
but gave up this position in 1819, in order to work in a more
direct ami practical way for the development of German in-
dustry aiul commerce. Having been elected a member of
the diet of Wiirtemberg, he exposed in a ]ietition to the
(rovernment the vices of the administration, aiul was con-
demned in 1822 to ten months' imprisonment. He (led. and
lived for some time in Switzerland and Alsace, but returned
home in 1824, and w)u- imprisoned in the fortress of Asperg.
As he declared that he wished to emigrate to the U. S., he
was pardoned after a short time, and he then settled in
Pennsylvania, wlu're he soon attracted the attention of the
most prominent men by his work, Outlines of a JS'eiv Sys-
tem of I'lililical Economy (1827), iti which he attacked the
ideas of Ailam Smith, and advocated an economical devel-
opment on an exclusively national basis. Having discov-
ered a rich deposit of anthracite on his grounds, he aided
in founding the two towns of Tamaqua and Port Clinton,
and returned in 1833 (o Europe in possession of an inde-
petidenl fortune. He was for a short time U. S. consul at
Hamburg and then at Leipzig, but afterward settleil in
Augsburg, and began to agitate for the formation, of a sys-
tem of railway lines as the only suitable means o[ trans-
portation. His writings — L'eher das siichsisclie Eisenbahn-
system (1833); Ueher ein deutsches nationales Trans/xirlsys-
tem (IH'Sii) ; Das nalionale System der jiulitischen Uekono-
LISTA Y ARAGON
LISZT
295
mie (1841) : besides a large number of minor articles in the
papers — had some weight, but his ideas were too far advanced
to be fully ap|)reeiated. In 1S46 he visited England in the
hope of securing a comprehensive commercial alliance be-
tween that country and Germany, but failed in his mission.
In a tit of despondency caused by this disap|ioinl merit and
by his ill-health and loss of property, he shot himself at
Kufstein, in the Tyrol, Nov. 30, 1846.
Lista y Aragron, Alberto: poet; b. at Triana. a suburb
of Seville, Spain, Oct. 15, 1775. After studying in the Uni-
versity of Seville, ho became in 17'J6 Professor of Mathe-
matics in the Cologio de San Telmo in that city. Compelled
to flee to France during the political troubles of the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century, he returned in 1817 and
taught matliematics successively in Bilbao, Madrid (1820),
Cadiz (1838), Seville, in which latter place he was made dean
of the philosophical faculty of the university. In 1822 he
published a collection of poems (2d ed., enlarged and revised,
2 vols., 1837). In 1828 he worked on the supplement to the
e<lition of JIariana"s Ilisloria de Uspana, published in that
vear. In 1829 he began to issue a translation of the histori-
cal works of the Comte de Segur. D. at Seville, Oct. 5, 1848.
Ho was a member of the Spanish Academy and of the Acad-
emy of History and edited Trozos escoyidos de los inejores
hablistas castetlanos en pmsa y verso. His jioems are printed
in vol. Ixvii. of Kivadeneyra's Biblioleai de Autores Eapa-
■floles (Madrid, 1875). See Ochoa, Biognifia del Senor D.
Alberto Lista y Aragbii (1848). A. R. Marsh.
Lister, Sir Joseph, M. D., LIj. D., F. R. S. : surgeon ; b. at
Upton, Essex, England. Apr 5, 1827 ; was educated in Lon-
don, receiving M. B. degree in 1852; in 1855 passed the ex-
aminations for a fellowship in the Royal College of Surgeons
of Edinburgh ; was Professor of Clinical Surgery in Glasgow,
in Edinburgh, and in 1877 in King's College, London. His
early investigations in physiology and pathology suggested
the idea that putrefaction and other fermentative changes
were caused by germs; from tliis iilea the more important
thought developed that the Ijad results occurring in surgical
operations were often due to germ or septic infection, and
that. if these operations should be performed with antiseptic
precautions better results would be obtained. This princi-
ple has been gradually elaborated from the time of its an-
noimc<'ment, in 1869, and it has revolutionized surgery and
placed mankind uniler obligations to its originator. In
1878 Edinburgh University conferred the degree of M. D.
on hira ; in 1880 both Oxford and Cambridge conferred upon
him the degree of LL. I). ; in 1883 he was created a baronet,
and in 1897 was raised to the peerage as Lord Kinnear. His
Croonian lectures in 1863 were on the coagulation of blood.
In 1869 he published his observations on the ligature of arte-
ries on the antiseptic system. Among his more important
publications are Remarks on a Case of Compound Disloca-
tion of the Ankle, witli other Injuries, Jlliistnifinrj the An-
tiseptic System of 'Treatment (Edinburgh, 1870i ; On the
Effects of the Antiseptic System nf Treatment upon the Sa-
lubrity of a Surgical Hospital (Edinburgli, 1870) ; A Con-
tribution to the Germ Theory of Putrefaction and other
Fermentative Clianges (Edinburgh, 1875). S. T. A.
Listing, .loHANN Benedict: physicist; b. at Frankfort-
on-the-Main, Germany, July 25, 1808 ; began his scientific
career as assistant to von Waltershausen 1834-37; taught
in the technical high school in Hanover for two years ; was
then appointed Professor of Physics in the University of
Gottingen (1839), where he remained until his death on Dee.
24, 1882. He was known to science for his contribution
to physiological and geometrical optics, and through his in-
vestigation of certain important properties of space. He
was one of the first to elaborate the theory of thick lenses,
and his work upon knots and linkages anticipated by nearly
half a century the better known researches of Tait. He
enunciated a law relating to the movements of the eye in
vision, known as Listing's law. He was not a voluminous
writer, and his work was published chiefly in the form of
unpretentious communications to the local academy of sci-
ences (A/cademie der Wissenschafien zu (rottingen). 'J'hey
were of a high order, however, and when brought to the
notice of otiicr investigators, sometimes after the lapse of
many years, they received recognition. His very Important
researches in the geometry of position {Der Census rdum-
licher Complexe, Gottingen, 1861) were first brought into gen-
eral notice outside of Germany, twelve years later, by Max-
well (Electricity and Magnetism, vol. i., p. 16, 1873).
E. L. XicnoLs.
Listoii, John- : actor; b. in London, England, 1776; was
educated in Dr. Barrow's school, and became second master
of St. Martin's .School, whence )\i- was expelled for taking
part in stage-plays with the iiujiils. He then went upon
the stage and Ijecjime one of the best comic actors in Eng-
land during the first third of the nineteenth century. His
fame is ccleljratcd by Land). Hood, and all the wits of the
period. His reign al the Hayinarket began in 1805, at
Drury Lane In 1823, and at the 01vm])ic in 1831. He left
the stage in 1837, and died Mar. 22, 1W46.— His wife (Miss
Tyker), though of almost dwarfish stature, was a favorite
actress as well as singer. Revised by B. B. Valle.ntixe.
Listoii, RouERT, F. R. S. : surgeon ; b. at Ecclesnnichan,
Scotland, in 1794 ; studied medicine in Edinburgh and Lon-
don : practiced at Edinburgli 1818-35: was lecturer on
Anatomy and Surgery and surgeon to the infirmary; became
Professor of Clinical Surgery at University College, Lon-
don, 1835 ; surgeon to the North Lomhm Hospital in 1843;
examiner to the College of Surgeons 1846. D. Dec. 7, 1847.
Dr. Liston was one of the ablest and most successful of op-
erative and clinical surgeons, and wrote several able profes-
sional treatises, of which the most important were Elements
of Surgery (in three parts, Edinburgh and London, 1831 and
1832), followed by a second edition in one volume in 1840,
and Practical Surgery (London, 4 editions, 1837-46).
Listoiv'el : a village and railway junction of Perth co.,
Ontario, Canada; on the Maitland river (see mapof Ontario,
ref. 4-C). It is a very important trading center, and ships
large quantities of grain. It has a weekly and a monthly
publication. Pop. 2,587.
Liszt, list, Franz : pianist and composer ; b. at Raiding,
in Hungary, Oct. 22, 1811. His father, an accountant or
steward of Prince Esterliazy, but of musical taste sulficlent
to appreciate the astonishing talent of his son, put liim to
the piano at six years of age. At nine he gave a concert,
and so much interested certain noblemen that he was sent
for instruction to Vienna. There he studied for eighteen
months with Czerny and Salieri. nudiing such progress that
he gave a public concert in Vienna: embolilened by brill-
iant success, his father in 1823 took him to Paris; refused
admission to the Conservatoire as a foreigner, he gave con-
certs and played before the Duke of Orleans till the mu-
sical world was wild with enthusiasm. Flattery might have
spoiled him had not his father held him severely to his work,
compelling him. it Is said, to execute daily twelve fugues of
Bach, transposing them in different keys. In 1824-25 the
boy achieved triumphs in the provinces and in England.
At this time (1825) he composed an ojiera, Le Chateau des
Amours, which has disappeared. Again in Paris he took
lessons in composition of Reicha. In 1827 his father died,
and Franz fell into a morbid state, gave himself up to ro-
mantic fancies and religious enthusiasms, became a Salnt-
Simonian. and in 1830 composed a Si/inphonie revnlution-
naire, which was never published. This condition la-sted
two or three years. The playing of Paganini revived his
passion for art, and made him resolve to be the Paganini
of the piano. His labors were renewed, and he aston-
ished Europe with his mastery of the instrument and the
ease with which he executed the most difficidt works of
Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and Weber. His gift at improvi-
sation was as wonderful as his |iowcr of execution. In 1848
he was made Kapellmeister al \Veinuxr. Honors came thick
upon him. The cities of Odcnburg and Pesth presented
him with the rights of citizenship; the Hungarian nobles
gave him a sword of honor; the King of Prussia made hira
a member of the Order of Merit ; the faculty at Konigsl)erg
created him doctor of music ; the Grand Duke of Saxe- Wei-
mar appointed him chandierlain : in 1845 lie was decorated
with the Legion of Honor, and in 1861 was raised to the
rank of commander. On Apr. 25, 1865, Liszt received the
clerical tonsure in the cha|iel i>f the Vatican with the title
of at>t)e, but belonged to the so-called secular clergy. Liszt
was an admirer, patron, and friend of Ricliard Wagner, to
whom h(' gave one of his two daughters in marriage; the
other, wife of ftmile Ollivier, is dead. Liszt died at Bay-
reuth, Bavaria. July 31, 1886. The works of the artist con-
sist of fantasias, /w("me« ,'ym/)/K<7ii'yHP« (twelve in number),
Faust, iuu\ the Dirina Commedia. grmid symphonies, two
(u-atorios. Die heilir/e Elizabeth and Christus, and tran-
scriptions innumerable. He wa.s a writer as well as a mu-
sician, anil has a position in literature as well as in art. In
lS52-,54 he published a life of Chopin (translated into Eng-
lish by Walter Cook, 1877) and essays on the 7'annhuuser
29(>
LITANY
LITUIUM
and Lohengrin of Wiigner; in 1850 a dissertation on Bo-
hemiaim anJ their Music in Hunijarij. Liszt was a nmii
of anli-nt impulses and lavish generosity. His inslruniental
music has more tumult than gnue, more forte and sound
tlian delicaey. and often only the mastery of instrumenta-
tion saves it from the reproach of heinf; grotesque and fan-
tastical. His vocal compositions have less reputation than
his inslrumental, with the exception of two or three songs.
Revised by Dudley Buck.
liitany [M. Eng. letanie, from 0. Fr. lelunie > Fr. lila-
nie < hut. lilani a = Or. AiTavc/o, [irayer litany, deriv. of
AiTalKdv. pray, pray pulilidy, deriv. of MTtaSm, KlaatcBiu,
beg. pray. Of. Aiti^, prayer] : a term originally used in a
general sense to denote any sort of united prayer, whether
public or private, whether penitential, intercessory, suppli-
catory, or deprecatory. It thus <Kcui-s In the writings of
Eusebius and Chrysostom and in the laws of Arcadius.
Some trace, however, of a more technical meaning is found
in the epistle of Basil to the church of Neo-Cicsarea, where
it seems to denote a religious proceeding somewhat similar
to the so-called rogntiunes {Litania, qum Laline liogalio
dicilur, inde et Rngationes — Ordo liomanus), which, accord-
ing to Sidonius ApoUinaris, came into nse in Gaul in the
beginning of the fifth century, and consisted in processions
of the community, fasting and in sackcloth, for the pur-
pose of procuring tine weather or rain, etc. The earliest
and simplest form of litany is the Kyrie Eleison, repeateil
three, six, twelve, forty, or more times. Gradually both the
form and the purpose of those rogatione.i, or litanies, were
regulated by law. One of the novels of Justinian forbids lit-
anies to be celebrated without the presence of the bishop
and the clergy, and orders that the crosses which were
carried about in procession should be borne only by priests
and deposited nowhere but in the church. The synod of
Orleans (pll) prescribes for all Gaul that the litanies be-
fore Ascension shall be celebrateil for three days, and that
during those days all menials shall be exempt from work,
so as to be able to attend divine service. A synod of Paris
(5o5) ordered litanies to be held for three days at the be-
ginning of Lent, and in 590 Gregory I., on account of the
pestilence which had followed a great itmndation, ordered
that a litania seplifurmi.f, or ."sevenfold jirocessioii, should be
performed by clergy, laity, monks, virgins, matrons, widows,
poor, and children. In 747 the synod of Clovcstoe prescribed
that litanies or rogations should be celebrated by all the
clergy and people on Apr. 25 and on the three days before
Ascension, whence those days are still known in the Eng-
lish Church as rogation days. Thus in course of time litany
became, in the liturgical .services of the Christian churches,
a name applied to various supplicatory acts addressed to
God or to tne saints, or both, but applied especially to sol-
emn prayers in which the people take responsive parts. The
principal litany of the Koinan Catholic Church is the Litany
of the Saints; the Anglican churches have a service called
the Litany and Suffrages; the Lutherans and some other
Protestants have litanies. Revised by W. S. Perry.
Litchfield: town; capital of Litchfield co.. Conn, (for
location of county, see map of Connecticut, ref. 8-E) ; on
the She|)iuig. Litchfield and Northern Railroad; 30 miles
W. of Hartford. It is between the Naugatuck and Shepaug
rivers, 1,800 feet above sea-level; was for years the seat of
one of the most celebrated law schools in the country; con-
tained the first ladies' seminary established in the U. S. ; and,
from its invigorating climate, has been a popular summer
resort. It derives power for manufacturing from Hanlam
Lake near by, has valuable beds of nickel ore. manufactures
paper, oil, satinets, and nickel-ore smelters, and contains a
national liank with capital of $200,000, a savings-bank with
deposits of over $l,fK)0,000, 2 libraries, 2 nark.s, an<l a weekly
newspaper. Pop. (IS'JO) township :J,;J04, ijorough 1,058.
LltchHeld: city (founded 1854, incorporated 1859);
Montgomery co.. III. (for location of county, see map of Illi-
nois, ref. 8-1)) ; on the ('lev., ('in., Chi. and SI. L., tiie St. L.
and Clil., anil the Wabash railways; 42 miles S. of Spring-
field, 47 miles N. K. of St. Louis. It Is in a coal, nalurai-
gas, and lubricating-oil region ; has flour-mills, grain I'le-
vators, and a coal mine; and manufacturus foundry and
nnichlne-shop products, cars, carriages, threshing-nuichines,
paint, brooms, brick and tile, and cider and ginger-ale.
There are gas and electric lights, Holly water-works, public
library, [mlilic parks, an Ursulino convent, and a inonlhlv,
A daily, and 'A weekly newspapers. Pof). (18M0) 4,:!215 ; (1890)
5,811 ■ (1892) 7,396. EurroK of " Hekalu."
Litchfield : village ; capital of Meeker co., Minn, (for
location of county, see map of Minnesota, ref. 9-L)) ; on Lake
Ripley and the (jrcat Northern Railroad ; (57 miles \V. of
Minneapolis. It contains 10 churches, wiKilen and flour
mills. Iron-foundry, and 3 weekly newspaiH'rs ; is in an ag-
ricultural and stock-raising region ; and has a popular sum-
mer resort, Brightwood, on the lake. Pop. (1880) 1,2.50;
(1890) 1,899 ; (1890) 2,044. Editor ok " I.ndepexde.nt."
Litliicniia: See Gout.
l.ith'argp: See Le.vd.
Lithales: See Ukates.
Litliic Acid Diath'csis [diathesis is from Gr. Siofleo-ij. con-
dition, liter., arrangement, deriv. of imBtimi, put separately,
arrange, distrll)ute; 811I-, apart -I- Sfiyai.nBfycu. put]: that con-
dition of the general .system which favors the production of
lithic acid or its salts in the urine. The diathesis is closely
allied in many respects, and doubtless in nature, to gout.
There is little certainty regarding the true pathology of the
disease. Some look upon it as a disorder of the blood, a
dyscrasia, primarily, with secondary atlection of other or-
gans; others believe the root of the trouble to lie in im-
proper action of the stomach ; while still others reganl the
disease as one of the liver. This condition is unquestion-
ably a widespread one, and lies at the root of many of the
vague disorders characterized as faulty assimilation, dys-
pepsia, and nervousness. Its symjitoms are manifested in
disorder of many organs; and, as different groups may be
prominent in different cases, a very varied picture is pre-
sented. In one case gastric disturbances and dyspepsia are
prominent ; in others nervous disorders, headaches, nervous-
ness, sleeplessness, and all sorts of undefined forms of de-
pression; in still other cases the prominent manifestations
are met with in the urinary system. There may be excess
of uric or lithic acid in the urine, either free or combined
with the bases ammonium, sodium, or lime, and all of these
maybe deposited as sediments. Frequently this excess of
lithic acid causes deposition in the urinary passages them-
selves, and stone in the kidney may occur. The treatment
of this condition is directed to the establishment of a better
general tone of the system rather than to any particular organ.
At times palliatives may be called for, but on the whole
a general plan of hygienic treatment promises the be.st re-
sults. Most prominent in the curative measures is regula-
tion of diet and especially the avoidance of certain sub-
stances known to produce an acid condition of the urine.
Starches and sugars are particularly prone to occasion dis-
turbance of the stomach as well as general disorders; and
the patient is therefore warned to partake of as little fari-
naceous or saccharine food as may be possible. For lithic
acid, see Uric Acid. William Pepper.
Lithif'action : See Geology.
Lith'iuni [from (ir. xlBos, stone; cf. \(fleios, of stone]: a
rare metal. Tlie existence In the mineral petalite of an alKali
differing from jiotassa and soda was iliscovered by Arfved-
son in the laboratory of Berzelius in the year 1817. It oc-
curs in lepidolife, spodumene, amblygonile, triphijlite, some
tourmalines, and other mineral species, and is a frequent
constituent, in small proportions, of mineral waters. Lilliium
was first obtained by electrolysis of the fused chloride by
Bunsen. It is a silver-white metal, somewhat softer than
lead, and lighter than any other known solid body, having
a density of only •.5835; so that it floats even on petroleum
and naphtha. It has also the smallest atomic weight of any
element except hydrogen, this weight being only 7. Lithium
hydrate, corresponding to the hydrates of potash and soda,
is a strongly caustic alkaline liody like these, but is not
deliquescent in the air, nor is it volatile at intense heats.
The smallest traces of lithium are detectable by means of
the spectroscope, which gives a spectrum consisting entirely
of two lines — one a brilliant intense crimson, and the other
a faint yellow. Lithium imjiarts to flame this beauliful
crimson tint, and, were it cheap enough, would be a valu-
able agent In fireworks. An Interesting practical applica-
tion of the characteristic flame-color of lithium has some-
times been made. In cases of s\ispicion t hat a well or cistern
is being poisoned by percolation from a privy or drain, a
little lithium may bo put into the supposed source of C(m-
tamlnation. In case of ])ercolation It will .soon be easily
detectable with the spectroscope, with chemical certainty,
in the water of the well. Lithium chloride, corresponding
to common salt, the chloride of sodium. Is easily i)repared.
It crystallizes in regular octahcdra, which taste like com-
LITHOPRACTEUR
LITHOGRAPHY
29^
mon salt. It is, however, di'liquosceiit, unlike the chloriilos
oX sodium and potassium, and is more soluble than these.
Revised by Ira Remsen.
Lithium, Medicinal Uses of. — Lithium carbonate and
citrate are sometimes used in medicine as alkalies, and have
been specially recommended in gout, because of their form-
ins an easily soluble salt with uric acid. In reality, they are
of little value in gout, as they unile more readily wilh the
acid sodium phosphate of the blond than with the uric acid.
The citrate, however, is preferable to the carbonate, from
being more soluble and less tlisagreeable to the taste.
Revised by U. A. Hare.
Lithofracteur : See Explosives.
Lithography : the art of drawing on stone with a chem-
ically jireiiared ink or crayon, or engraving on stone with a
needle or diamond point and printing therefrom with litho-
griinhic ink.
History of the Art. — The invention of lithography is com-
monly ascribed to Alois Senefelder, who in 1796 first prac-
ticed the art in the printing of music in Munich, where he
was an actor, although it is claimed that Simon Schmidt, in
Germany, and William Blake, in England, both utilized the
same or a similar method for producing work as early as
1788. Neither of these two, however, fully appreciated the
value of his invention. Senefelder devoted himself to the
development of the art, and was the teacher of some of the
earlier practitioners. Even the much later improvements are
found suggested in his writings. In 1818 he published a some-
what complete account of. his processes. About the same
time those who had studied of him founded establishments
in many cities of Europe, where very good lithography was
done. Gottfried Engelmann.ot JIiilhouse.inAlsace. hail been
an assistant of Senefelder's in Munich. He established him-
self first in his native place, and then in Paris about 1817.
He also published a book about the art and its possibilities.
The Baron Lasteyrie started another workshop in Paris a
short time afterward. Rcmond Jules Leraereier was one of
the earliest French lithographers. His connection with the
art lasted till his death, and his relatives and successors,
R. .1. and Alfred Lemercier, have received honors and deco-
rations for their services in this direction. In Germany
Franz Ilanfstangl grew up from boyhood in the practice of
lithography. He went to Paris and worked with Lemercier,
and in 183.1 undertook to reproduce the pictures of the fa-
mous Dresden Gallery. This work went on for fifteen years,
and resulted in the completion of a very considerable work —
sixty parts, of three prints each. A similar work was un-
dertaken at Berlin by .Simion in 1840. Ferdinand Piloty
established himself in JIunich about 1830, and formed a
partnership with an artist named Loehle. In the work of
these lithographic establishments it was the custom to give
the name of the draughtsman on stone, as well as that of
the painter, showing that it was the custom to give to a spe-
cialist the duty of producing the lithograph ; but many art-
ists of great ability, and even some of celebrity, found it
easy to express their thoughts in this medium. Adolf Menzel
as early as 1833 produced his Artist's Earth-pilgrimage.
Before that time Gericault, in Paris, had some successful
lithographic drawings. Carle Vernet. father of the better-
known Horace, was one of the earliest; then came Eugene
Delacroix, the younger Fragonard, Tony .Johannot, Alexan-
dre Decamps, and Hippolyte BcUange, and there grew up
also some specially competent lithographers, trained to ren-
der on stone the work of the ailmired artists of the day, as,
for instance, the celebrated .lulien, afterward so well known
for his etudes a deux crat/oiis. and Jlouilleron, who was es-
pecially successful with the pictures of Delacroix. Charles
Samuel Girardet is another such artist of great ability. The
triumph of lithography, however, was in the hands of some
artists who devoted themselves to it princi])ally as the me-
dium best suited to their genius anil to what they had to
say. Such were Nicholas Toussaint Charlet (b. 1792 ; d. 184."))
and Denis Auguste Marie Raffet (b. 1804 : d. 1800). These two
artists cherished the memories of the old armies of Napoleon,
and loved to recall in vigorous prints sold cheaply the brav-
ery and the humor of the " grumblers " of the empire. Then
when the expedition to Africa and the subsequent wars
there under Charles X. and lyouis Phili[ipe gave them anew
military life to describe, Ralfet turned to that, and pub-
lished a great number of most spirited compositions — mod-
els of descriptive art.
Tlie Miiterinis Used. — The stone used in lithograjiliy is a
closely grained limestone, which is found in different parts
of Europe and America ; the best stone, however, is found in
Solenhofen, in Bavaria. Germany, from which place almost
the entire world receives its supply, although in later years
quarries have been opened in Canada and in some of the
Southern and Western States, all of which promise good re-
sults. The lithograi)hic stone before it is shipped from the
quarry is sawn into slabs from 3 to 4 inches in thickness
(thinner ones would be liable to break under the pressure
which they have to undergo in priiil iiig), and in size from
6 by 8 inches to 44 by 62 inches, though these larger sizes
are scarce when of good quality and williout flaws, such as
having open veins or soft lime-spots. The stones vary in
color from a dull gray to light-creamy gray, the coIder"and
darker the color tlie harder the stone.'
The crayon or chalk, as it is sometimes called, which is
used in lithography, is of a greasy composition, ccjuiposed
principally of wax, soap, tallow, shell-lac, turpentine, and
lampblack, and most nearly resembles a small, hard, black
tallow candle, and being exceedingly brittle it is sharpened
from the point upward.
The ink which is used for drawing with the pen on the
stone is composed of the same ingredients as the crayon,
though containing a trifle more grease, and is rubbed dry on
a plate or saucer, after which it is dissolved with water
until it is sufficiently liquid to flow easily.
The Process. — The stone is carefully leveled and grained,
or, if it be used for pen-work, polished ; the graining being
done by putting fine sand and water between two of the
stone slabs and rubbing them together until the lower one
has a grain as nearly as possible resembling the grain of
fine drawing-paper ; the polishing is done witli pumice or
Scotch stone. Sheets of glass, zinc, and aluminium are
sometimes substituted for lithographic stone, but as yet no
substance has been discovered which for perfect working
surface equals the stone.
The lithographic stone when ready for the drawing is so
sensitive to anything of a greasy nalui-e that even to touch
the surface with the fingers would .smut it, and the places
so touched would be liable to print almost the same as
though they were a part of the drawing. After the stone
has been grained or polished, the drawing is made thereon
precisely as though it were being drawn on paper, though
necessarily reversed ; but it is of the greatest importance
that no errors be made, for, while some slight corrections
can be made after the drawing has been finished, there is
always more or less risk in doing so, owing to the sensitive-
ness of the stone, or the fear of destruction of the grain.
When the drawing is completed it is liathed with a solu-
tion of nitric acid and gum arable, the object of which is to
keep the grease of the crayon or ink from spreading, and at
the same time to render those parts of the stone having no
drawing on them more porous and more capable of absorb-
ing moisture. Great care has to be taken not to have the
.solution either too strong or too weak ; if it contains too
much acid the finer and more delicate parts of the drawing
may be eaten away; on the other hand, should the solution
bo too weak, the drawing is ai)t to fill in and become heavy.
It must here be explained that the whole principle of lithog-
raphy rests on the antagonism of grease to water, and it is
necessary to hear this continually in mind.
After the acid and gum have been allowed to dry the stone
is first washed with water, and after this all indication of
the drawing is washed off the stone with turpentine, leaving
only the grease of the ink or crayon on the surface, which
being again washed, this time with pure water, is now ready
for printing.
The stone having been moistened either with a wet sponge
or damp roller (the moisture of course being repelled by the
grease of the drawing), the printing-roller, charged with ink,
passes over the stone, the ink naturally adhering only to
those places where the stone is dry. or, in other words, where
the drawing is. A sheet of (lajier is then placed on the
stone and run through the [U-ess. This process of dampen-
ing, rolling, and pulling through the jiress is necessary for
each impression made, and while but from 200 to .500 im-
pressions can be made per day on a hand-iiress, from 5,000
to 8,000 can be made on a large power-press.
Engraving on stone is done very much as engraving on
steel or copjier, but in printing the engraved lines are filled
in with ink applied with a dabber in place of a roller.
When, about the year 1860, the denuind for lithographs
greatly increased, the process of transferring w.as invented.
By this process it is possible to transfer any given number
of smaller subjects (which at one time had to be printed
298
LITIlOUHiV
LIXnOTOMY
siiijtly from tlie original stones) on a large stone, and there-
by itlias lH>en inaUe jxissible to print forty or sixty or more
subjects at one time. This method of tran>ferriMg is done by
making from the original stones r)r frtun plates as many im-
iiressions as are desin'd on s|»eclally prepared s»'nsilivo trans-
fer-paper, with an ink of the same general substanec as the
original lilhographie ink or eniyon, bnt of a semi-lii]uid
consisleney; then, after liaving fastened these impressions
side bv side on a large sheet of paper or zine, this is i)laeed
faee downward on a eleaii and smoothly polished stone of
requisite size, and pulled through the press with snllieient
pressure to transfer the carefully made impressions from
the transfer-i>aper to the stone. The transfer is then pre-
pared just as though it was an original drawing, and from
5,0tX) to •itVMX) impressions can be made from it, aeenrding
to the quality of the work. Engraved work can be trans-
ferred the same as crayon or ink work.
Colored or ehromo lithographs, sis they are more gener-
ally called, are often printed in as many as twelve or fifteen
colors, which, when artistically handled, will produce twice
or three times as many shades and tints, and it is not un-
common to use twenty or thirty colors to reproduce an es-
[lecially fine water-color drawing or oil-painting, in order to
give in facsimile every shade and tint of the original, each
color used requiring a separate stone.
The ink used in lithographic printing is similar to or-
dinary printing-ink, but usually of a much finer quality.
The paper also should be selected with great care, especially
in cases where the work is to be printed in many colors, so
that the danger from stretching, owing to successive mois-
tenings as it paiises over the dampened stone between each
successive prnitiiig, and the consei|uent fear of misregistra-
tion of the colors, is as far as possible minimizeil.
In later yeai-s photography has been more or less applied
to lithography, the result being not oidy the very common
process of photo-lithography by which architectural and
mechanical drawings, more especially, are accurately repro-
duced from pen-drawings at a small expense, but also the
exquisite effects produced in eomimratively few printings by
transferring negatives to stone through the medium of the
'■ half-lone " or screen process, G. U. Buek.
Litlioroery [from Gr. \ieos, a stone -I- \6yos, science] :
Sec I'ktkology.
Litliosplierc : See Geology.
Lithol'oiuy, Lltliot'rity, or Lithotripsy, and Litliol'ii-
|mxy lltlliotumi/ is from (ir. Ai8oTo^/a. slonL-cutling, deriv.
of \i6oT<iywir, cutting stoiu'. slonc-cutter; \lflos. stone + reiwftv,
cut; lillio/rili/ is from Gr. kWos, stone -I- Lat. It^ri-re. tri-
litm, rub, grind ; lithotripxij is from Gr. KiBos, stone +
TpiBfiy. to grind: litliultipaxy is from Gr. KlSos. stone -l-
Aava^is. evacuation] : surgical operations by means of which
the extraction of a stone from the bladder is effected. The
term li/hulrily refers to the older method of crushing and
removing a stone at several operations or " sittings." whereas
the term lithohipaxij refers to the modern improvement l)y
which it is completely removed at one time or by a single
operation, including its crushing and the evacuation of the
fragments. Urinary calculi are composed most frequent ly of
substances existing normally in a state of solution in human
urine, such as uric acid, urate of ammonia, and the phosphates
of calcium and magnesium. Sometimes, however, they are
composed of sutetances met with only in morbid urine, suc^h
as oxalate of calcium, cystine, etc. liesides these ingredients,
of which they mainly consist, calculi always contain more or
less animal matter, such as dried blood, vesical mucus, etc.
OccasiomiUy they are found to consist almost entirely of a
single ingredient, but more frequently of two or more dif-
ferent constituents arranged in irregular concentric layers.
In certain conditions these ingredients solidify and form con-
cretions. The initial process in their fornuition cinnmordy
takes place in the kidneys; the product then descends alnng
the ureter (a fleshy tube for conveying the urine) into the
bladder, from which it is often expelled in urinating, and
thus got rid of. If, however, it remains in the blaiider, it
becomes a nucleus u|«in the surface of which successive
ileposits of solid matter take place, until a cahiulus is
formed, which in process of time imiy attain a formnlable
size — loo great, in fact, to admit of its safe removal by any
surgical openition. Any foreign substance introduced a('-
cidentally or intentiftinilly into the cavity of the bladder
will also become a nucleus upon which incrustations of solid
matter will take place. Instances have occurreil where
bullets, fragments of surgical instruments, and other foreign
Uxlies have formed the nuclei of stone in the bladder. Cal-
culi may exist single or nmltiple in the bladder; where
multiple, there may Ik' two or more of nearly equal size, or
there may be a large number of every variety of size from
a pin's head to a horse-chestnut. AVhcn there is but a
single calculus, it is more generally of a llaltened, ovoid
shape, or globular, though sometimes it nuiy resendde an
hour-glass in shape, or have any irregular foriti. Its sur-
face is sometimes smooth, sometimes rough, uneven, and
studded with i)ointed eminences. When two or more are
found in the same bladiler, their surfaces are marked by
smooth facets, produced by their contact with each other.
If a concretion remain permanently in the cavity of the
kidney, it may in the process of its growth become molded
into the shape of the cavity. Calculi are met wit'li in both
sexes, though more frequently in males than females, owing
in part to the greater facility with which the nuclear con-
cretion can be expelled from the feiiude than from the male
bladder. No age is exempt from this malady; it has been
met with in the infant at birth, and at ail subsequent
periods of life up to the nu)st advanced age. Certain locali-
ties have been regarded as favoring the production of this
malady by the properties of the drinking-water in use.
At all times tljcre have been remedies advocated as pos-
sessing the property of dissolving the stone in the bladder,
and patients alllicted with the disease, naturally shrinking
as they do from the alternative of a surgical operation, have
been too ready to give credence to the vaunted ellicacy of
such remedies, and by long perseverance in their use liave
lost precious time. The stone has increased in size, and the
danger from a surgical operation has thereby lieen eidianced,
while the chances of recovery have been diminished. The
removal of a stone by a surgical operation is the only reliable
means of cure, and the earlier it is resorted to the better
the chance of recovery.
Lithofomi/ is a cutting operation liy which an opening is
made from the surface of the body into the cavity of the
bladder at certain jioints where this organ lies nearest to
the surface. Through the opetiing thus made an instru-
ment (forceps) is introduced into the bladder, the stone
seized and brought away. This operation has been in use
since the earliest period in the history of surgical art. The
operation is performed according to two principal methods:
(1) The hypogastric or supra-pubic method, by means of
which the cavity of the bladder is reached Ihrotigh an open-
ing made at the lowest point of the abdomen, e.vactly in the
median line of the body, and above the pubis. (2) The per-
ineal or sub-pubic method, Ijy which the bladder is reached
through an incision made in front of the anus, between it
and the scrotum, in the space known as the perineum. This
method 13 more generally and frequently emiiloyed, as the
safer and the one of wider application. It adnnts of three
varieties in its mode of execution, distinguished from each
<itlier by the different directions in which the incisions re-
quired for its perfornuuice are made: First variety, known
as the median operation, in which the incision is made ex-
actly in the median line of the perineal space between the
aims and scrotum. Second variety, termed the lateral op-
eration, in which the incision, beginning at a point in the
median line in front of the anu.s, is carried obli(iuelv out-
ward and backward to the left side of the anus, 'fhird
variety, known as the bilateral operation, in wliii-h the in-
cision extends in a curved line across the prrinral space in
front of the anus, and to an equal distance nn either side of
the median line. Each of these varieties has had able and
zealous advocates; the choice of operative methods must,
however, be determined by a judicious discrimination of
the conditions of each case that comes under consiileration.
Hy the suprapubic melhoii a stone weighing as much as Mi
oz. has been suciessfnlly removed.
Litliotritij, or lilholri/ix)/, is a bloodless operation by which
a stone in the bladder is rciluccd to fragnu'uts small enough
to be expelled through the natural camd in urinating.
Though some traces of a com^eption of this nu'lhod are
fouii(l at an earlier period in the history of surgery, it was
ni>t till the second decade of the nineteenth ceiUury that
Civiale, of Paris, undertook his experiments, which resulli'd
in the (h'velopments of the mi'tliod now in use, ,ind which
is rank<'d among the acknowledged resources of surgical
art. On Mar. 22, lf<24, a <ommission of the .\cadeniy of
iMedicine, of Paris, reported upon it as follows: " Desirous
of avoiding, on the one hand, the enthusiasm which exag-
gerates everything, and on the other that prejmlice which
seeks to depreciate everything, we consider the new method
LITHOTOMY
LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE
299
proposed by Dr. C'iviale for destroying stone in the bladder
without the use of lithotomy as alike creditable to French
surgery, honorable to the author, and consolatory to hu-
manity; that, notwithstanding its insufficiency in some par-
ticular cases, and the dithculty of its application in othere,
it can not fail to establish an epoch in the healiiif; art. and
to be regarded as one of the most ingenious and salutary
resources." After a test of fifty years the expectations ex-
i)ressed in this report have been fulfilled, and litholrity now
holds an honoral)le rank among the resources of surgical
art. The operation consists essentially in the introduction
of an instrument known as a lithotrite. of adapted shape
and size, through the natural canal into the bladder. With
it the stone is seized and crushed by pressure exerted with
the hand alone, or with a screw-power that may be applied
The lithotrite : a b, jaws ; c, stone ; rf, screw ; e. spring caicli.
' at pleasure at the handle of the instrument. An old mode
of crushing the stone was by percussion applied at the handle
of the instrument by means of a hammer. A portion of
the finer debris resulting from the crushing may be brought
away in the jaws of the instrument. Unless the stone is
quite small, the operation requires to be repeated at regu-
lated intervals till the whole calculus is reduced to frag-
ments small enough to be expelled with the urine. In his
early experiments Civiale directed his efforts, after the seiz-
ure of the stone, to perforating its substance in different
directions with drills, and thereby diminishing it4 resistance
and facilitating its being crushed' by pressure. Straight in-
struments alone could be employed for this purpose, and
hence greater ditliculty was encountered in their introduc-
tion into the bhulder. These instruments, moreover, were
complicated in their construction, and required a varied
manipulation in their use, and were therefore more liable
to injure the bladder and occasion serious accident.s. These
objections led to the early abandonment of the perforating
process, and the substitution of the crushing process alone.
This latter process is effected by means of curved instru-
ments, which in their form more nearly resemble the cathe-
ters and sounds in common use among surgeons. The op-
•eration of lithotrity is particularly adapted to patients of
adult age, in whom the expulsion of fragments is facili-
tated by the greater caliber of the urinary canal. In early
life, under the age of fifteen years, and especially under ten
years, the operation of perineal or sub-pubic lithotomy is
successful in so large a proportion of the cases operated on
that we scarcely need a better resource, especially as we
now have the aid of anesthetics, by which patients are
spared the pain of the operation. The descent of a con-
cretion from the kidney into the bladder is accompanied by
an attack, usually violent, of kidney (renal) colic. Its pres-
ence in the bladder itself is characterized by disturbance of
its functions, such as frequent calls to urinate, sudden ar-
rest of the outflowing stream, pain felt on the close of the
act, and referred to the neck of the bladder and end of the
penis, pain also from the jolting of a vehicle, and the ap-
pearance of blood in the urine. A practical injunction
should be borne in mind by patients suffering from symp-
toms of stone in the bladder: to wit, that in the early stage
•of the disease, while the stone is of small size, its removal
by the operation of lithotrity nuiy be regarded as almost
entirely without danger, and sometimes can be accomplisheil
by a single operation. Hence the importance of having its
presence ascertained by a skillful exploration of the interior
of the bladder at the earliest period. If patients sutrering
from this malady would early avail themselves of lithotrity,
which has none of the terrors of a bloody operation, much
suffering might be averted and many lives saved.
A still greater improvement on previous methods of
crushing vesical calculi was devised by Jacob Bigelow,
M. D., of Boston (d. 1879). It consists of eomiilcte removal
of the calculus at one sitting. Its feasibility is based on
facts which experience demonstrated, that the urethra was
capable of a certain amount of dilatation, permitting the
introduction of instruments of larger size than those here-
tofore in use. and that the bladder was not so resentful of
prolonged manipulation as had been supposed. According-
ly, whereas sittings had been previously limited to ten min-
utes or thereabouts, and the stone crushed at intervals or
[)iecemeal, now the jjatient is amesthetized, or not, the litho-
trite introduced, the calculus broken up, and then, after its
withdrawal, a catheter or tube of large size is passed into
the bladder, a stream of water driven in by a rubber bulb
(the so-called washing-bottle apparatus), aiid then drawn
out with some force. As the water returns it brings back
with it such small fragments as may pass through the tube,
which sink to the bottom of the a])paratus by their weight.
After thus flushing the bladder several times the tube is
withdrawn, the lithotrite reintroduced, more calculous ma-
terial broken up, which is to be again washed out, and so
these manceuvers are alternately repeated until the last frag-
ment of stone has been removed. In case of a stone of con-
siderable size or hardness, this may take an hour or more of
time. Large, .';oft cal-
culi are (juite amena-
ble to this method.
Choice as between the
cutting or the crush-
ing operation should
be left to the surgeon
and not decided by
the patient. It must hinge on many things which no lay-
man is capable of properly weighing; but this fact needs
to be emphasized, that when once there is a stone in the
bladder no time should be lost in effecting its removal, since
the consequences of delay are often disastrous.
Revised by Roswell Park.
Litliua'nia (Lith. Leiura : Foh Litica\Gt'rm. Litaue7i):
in the ^Middle Ages an independent and powerful state, com-
prising those large tracts of mostly low and level land which
extend from the Baltic to the Black Sea, between the Nie-
men and the Dilna in the N. and the Don and the Bug in
the .S. In the eleventh century the Lithuanians were tribu-
tary to the Russians, but in the twelfth they threw off the
yoke. In 123.5 Ringold formed the country into a grand
duchy. In 1820 Gedemin conquered Volhynia, Kiev, and
Tchernigov from Russia. In 1386 .lagellon united Lithu-
ania with Poland, having married Hedwig, a daughter of
King Lewis of Poland and Hungary. By the division of
the Polish kingdom one small part of Lithuania went to
Prussia, forming the government of Gumbinnen, while the
rest was incorporated with the Russian crown, forming the
present provinces of Vilna, Grodno, Moghilev, Vitebsk, and
Jlinsk. The Lithuanians in race and language belong to
the Lettic group. See Lettic Race.
Lithuanian Language : a language uniting with the
Lettic and the extinct Old Prussian to form a compact lan-
guage-group which belongs, to the Indo-European family,
and within that family holds peculiarly close relations to
the Slavic languages. The Lithuanian territory as existing
to-day may be roughly bounded as follows : From the Rus-
sian frontier town Polangen, in a southerly direction, some-
what back from the Baltic coast (which is here Lettic), to
Jlemel, and from there along- the cast coast of the Kurisches
Baff as far as Labiau ; from Labiau in a southeasterly di-
rection to Goldap, and from there at first easterly, then
southeasterly, to Niemen ; from here E. N. E. to within
a few leagues of Wilna. and then circling about the city
of Wilna northeasterly to the boundary of Kurland. which
from that point on to Polangen forms the northern bound-
ary of the Lithuanian territory. Within these limits until
within about two generations ago the Lithuanian was the
universal folk-speech, but since that time it has been rapidly
repressed, especially in Prussian Lithuania, where it offers
vigorous resistance to the German in the northerly portion
only. The language is divided into a great variety of dia-
lects, which maybe arranged in the following groups: (1)
The South Lithuanian, spoken in the north of the Russian
province Suwalki and in the Prussian districts S. of Gum-
binnen and Pillkallen : (2) the East Lithuanian, spoken to
the E. and X. E. of the first group : (3) the dialect of Szaulen,
spoken to the W. of the secMind group; (4) the Zamaitic, or
Saniogitic, the folk-speech of the Russian province Telsz
and of the neighboring districts; (.')) the Prussian North
Lithuanian, spoken in the neighborhood of Memel; (0) a
dialect limited to a narrow territory between the last men-
tioned and the next following group; (T) the dialect of Rag-
nit, spoken between the cities of Ragnil and Insterburg. and
stretching obliquely across Prussian l.,itliuania ; (8) S. of
this and W. of the South Lithuanian, a dialect bearing no
particular designation.
300
LITITZ
LITTLE HUMBOLDT RIVEK
The South Lithuaniiin is clearly distinguished from all
the other dialects liv the retention of lon^ e and li at the
end of words (the latter in the form of 6), whereas the others
use instead e, resj>ectively <i. As its boundaries correspond
approximately with those of the Jatwinj,'S or Sudaus, a tribe,
according to the clirouielers, closely related to the Lithu-
anians, and is said to have been extirpated by the German
or.lers, it is probable tliat it does not represent any proper
Lithuanian idiom, but rather the Sudan tongue.
The Lithuanian preserves a remarkably primitive charac-
ter particularly in its possession, like the Sanskrit, Russian,
and to a certain degree the Greek, of a free accent not lim-
ited to any imrticular position in the word, and furthermore
in the fact that this accent appears in two varieties, corre-
sponding to the Greek circuiiitlex and acute, and of like
origin with them. Other primitive cliaracteristics which it
preserves are, for example, the dual, the future, and the in-
flectional endings of declension. The Lithuanian wa-S not
einployeii for literary records, with the sole exception of a
volume in silk, froiii the year 1512. containing an inter-
woven fragment of a song, until the Reformation, and only,
in fact, since the middle of the sixteenth century. The ear-
liest Lithuanian book is a translation of Luther's Smaller
Catechism, to whicli is added a primer and a numlier of
hymns (Konigsberg, lo47). Next followed a baptismal for-
mulary (155!)), ami the Uible translation of .Johannes Bretke
(1579-90), which was, however, never printed. From this
time on the continuity of Lithuanian literature has never
been broken, though it has never flourished, consisting al-
most exclusively of translations of religious works or of
compilations, aiid claiming but a limited degree of interest.
None of its products can lay claim to artistic significance or
importance for the history of literature, unless it be tlie
numerous legends and songs of the Lithuanian folk. Several
of the songs have been utilized by German poets; cf. Dort-
chen's song in Goethe's Fischerin, Ich hab's gesngl schon
meiner Mutter; Chamisso's Sn/in der Wiltwe. The value
of these songs has, however, greatly deprecijited in the prog-
ress of time, and that of the legends was probably never
very great. There exist also since the year 1849 Lithuanian
newspapers, and one of these appears — or appeared — in New
York (the Lietiiwiszka,iis Baisus).
A grammatical presentation of the Lithuanian was made
as early as the seventeenth century in the work of Daniel
Klein, Gramtnatica lituanica (Konigsberg. 1653). A scien-
tific treatment of the subject was, however, first atjempted
in the year lH;i7 in I'otl's«e Lilliuano-liDrusMcm in xliin'riH
letticingxp linyuis princijxitu (Halle, 1837). Since then
August .Schleicher and Friedrich Kurschat, the latter a
native Lithuanian, have rendered ])re-eminent service in
advancing the knowledge of tjie language. See Lettic
LaNUL'AUE and LlTKRATURE. A. BeZZENBEROER.
Triinslateil by Be.vj. Ide Wheeler.
Lititz: borough (founded by the Moravians 17.50); Lan-
ca-ster co.. Pa. (for location of count y. see map of Pennsyl-
vania, ref. (i-H) ; on the Pliila. and Reading Railroad ; 8
miles N. of Lancaster. It derived its name from tlie barony
of Lititz, Hohemia, an ancient refuge of the Bohemian
Brethren. It is in an agricultural region, and is principally
engaged in the manufacture of cigars. There are 5 churches,
a monthly and 2 weekly newspaiiei-s, and several educational
institutions, inc hiding Linden Hall Seminary, opened 1794,
which ha.s a lilirary of over 4,000 volumes, and grounds and
buildings valued at $60,000. The borough, which contains
a noted spring, is a popular summer resort.
John G. York, "Express."
Litniiis, or (sometimes) Lnciniis [from Dutch lakmofx;
lak, lacker -(- nwfx, pulp: cf. Germ. Inrkmini]: a peculiar
coloring-matter derived from certain lichens, chiefly Roc-
eella tinctorin. There are three of these coloring substances
derived from |)lants of this character, namely, litmus, orchil,
and cudbear. These lichens grow upon rocks in the Alps
and in other mountainous portions of the worlil. Litmus,
which is the coloring-matter most frec|uently employed, is
repared for use in the arts almost exclusively in Holland.
t IS reddened by acids and restored to its original blue
color by alkalies. It is therefore largely used for the pur-
pose of ililirniining the reaction of the various licpiiils.
Litolir. Henri ('nARLi:s: composer and ])ianist: b. in
London of a French father and Kngli>h niolher, Feb. 6,
181H; studied under Mosclieles, anil ma<le his first appear-
ance in public a.s a pianist in his twelflli year. He married
at the age of seventeen and eloped to France ; returned to
I
England in 1846, and subsequently led a wandering life,
giving concerts, finally settling in 15ri)nswick, where he mar-
ried >ladame Meyer, the wiilow of a music jiublisher, his
first wife liaving obtained a divorce. Here he began the
i.ssue of the cheap publications with which his name is as.so-
eiated. He was divorced from the si'cond wife also, and
married, in 1860, a daughter of the Count de la Rochefou-
cauld, and resided in Paris till his death, Aug. (!, ISSJl. His
principal compositions are his oi)era» Jtabex^timi; Jleloixe
et AbHard (1872); Les Templiers (1886); King Lear, his
last work ; many piano solo pieces, some overtures, symphony
concertos, and some smaller pieces. As a pianist he was
brilliant, and Berlioz spoke of him as a composer of the
highest rank, possessing inspiration, scientific knowledge,
and judgment. D. E. Hervev.
Litre, or Liter [from Fr. litre, liter, from Jledia'v. Lat.
li'lra. a measure of capaeily, earlier a " pound " (weight, or
money), from Gr. \iTpa. a measure of length, also of weight,
also a silver coin]: the French standard measure of capac-
ity in the decimal system. The liter is a cubic decimeter,
i. e. a cube each of the sides of which is 3'937 English inches ;
it contains 61027 cubic inches. Four and a half liters are
nearly equivalent to the inqierial gallon.
Little Colorado Eiver, or t'olonido Cliiqiiito: a trib-
utary of the Colorado river of the West, rising in West-
ern New Mexico and Eastern Arizona and flowing about
225 mih's toward the W. and N. W. It is not everywhere a
perennial stivam. but is in places absorbed by the sands of
its bed during the dry season. In middle course it traverses
a broad, arid valley, but, approaching its mouth, it plunges
into a deep gorge. Some of its sources have long been util-
ized by the Zuni Indians for the irrigation of small farms,
and white settlers had in 1889 enlarged the cultivated area
to 5,500 acres. G. K. Gilbert.
Littledale, Richard Frederick, LL. I)., I). V. L. : cler-
gyman and author; b. in Dublin, Sept. 14. 1833; studied
ai Trinity College in his native city ; was ordained in 18.56.
iuid held various curacies in the Church of England, but
retired in 1802 on account of ill-health and devoted himself
exclusively to literature. I), in London. .Ian, 11, 1890. He
was a zealous Anglican ritualist, ami very learned. He pub-
lished a new edition of AnsAm'A Cur detis Itnmo (London,
1863) and the Liturgy of St. Mark- and Ojtires from the
Service Bonkx of the Greek Church (1863-(>8); completed
and edited .John Mason Neale's Commentary on tlie Psalms
from Primitive and Media-val Writers ; and wrote, besides,
a great number of polemical, historical, exegetie, and other
publications, among which were Catholic Ritual in the
Church of England, Scriptural, Reasonable. Lawful (1865);
Church Reform (1870) ; Plain Reasons at/ainst Joining the
Church of'Rome (1880), of which 36,000 coinrs were sold.
Samuel JIacai'lev Jackson.
Little Gxunia : See Exuma, Great and Little.
Little Falls: city; capital of Morrison co.. Minn, (for
location of county, see map of Minnesota, ref. 7-1)); on the
Mississippi river,"an(l the N. Pac. Railroad : 108 miles N. W.
of St. Paul. It has good water-power, several manufactories,
and a dailv and three weekly ncwsjiapcrs. Pop. (1880) 508;
(1890)2,354; (189.5)5,116.
Little Falls: city (1895; incorporated as a village 1813);
Herkimer co.. N. Y. (for location, see map of New York, ref.
4-H) ; on the Mohawk river, the Erie Cannl, and the N. Y.
Cent, and Hudson River and the W. Shore railways; 22
miles E. of Utica. It is built against the sides of an abrupt
declivity which rises about 500 feet above the river, and is
in a dairy, cheese-making, and lumber region. The river
here falls" about 70 feet within half a mile, forming pictur-
esque cascades and rapids, whence the village derives its
name. There are 8 churches. 4 graded public-school l)nild-
ings, gas and electric-light plants, 7 knit ling-mills, large
tannery, paper-mills, manufactories of cheese-factory and
creamery apparatus, dairy preparations, knitling-machines,
heating-furnaces, carriages, a iiublic-school library, several
public parks, anil a dailv and 2 weeklv newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 6,910 ; (1890) 8.783."
Editor of " Journal and Courier."
Little Glaof' Bay: coal-mining .settlement of Cajie Bre-
ton island and Counlv (Nova .Scotia). 15 miles E. of Svdliey.
Pop. about 400.
Little iliiinholdl River: the most imporlant tributarv
of the Humliolill, Nevada: flows W. and I lien S. through
Paradise valley in Humboldt County. It has some 35,000
LITTLE INAGUA
LITTLE TURTLE
301
acres of excellent bottoin-liiiul, and 00.000 of bench-lunds
of the best character. The small brooks abound in trout.
The elevation is some 4,.5U0 feet.
Little Iiiugua : See I.\A(irA.
Littlojoliii, Abkam Newkirk, D. D., LL. D. : bishop; b.
in JIoMtjfomery co., N. Y., Dec. 13, 1824; graduated at
Union College in 1845 ; received deacon's orders in the
Protestant Episcopal Church in 1848 ; officiated at Amster-
dam, N. Y., Meriden, Conn., and Springfield, JIass. ; took
priest's orders in 18.50; rector of St. Paul's, New Haven,
1851-60, and since then of Holy Trinity church, Brooklyn,
N. Y. He was for ten years lecturer on Pastoral Theology
in the Divinity School at JUddletown, Conn. In 1808 he
■was»eonsecrated Bishop of Long Island, and in 1S74 under-
took the charge of the American Episcopal Churches on the
continent of Europe. He received the honorary degree of
LL. D. from the Lniversity of Cambridge, England, on oc-
casion of delivering a series of special sermons before the
university. He is author of Philosophy of lii-Ugion, a
series of lectures, The Chriafuiii Jlinin/nj. ItidiciduaUsm,
iind has written largely for The Church Ii'evieir, and has
published many sermons, charges, and addresses.
Kevised by W. S. Perry.
Little Kaiian'Iia River : a river which rises in Upshur
CO., W. Va., and flows in a generally X. W.. course, joining
the Ohio at I'arkersburg. It flows through the oil region,
and has wide and fertile bottom-lands. The building of
three dams has made it navig.ible 38 miles to Burning
Springs. Great numbers of logs are floated to nuirket upon
its waters.
Little Rock: city (settled 1819); capital of Arkansas
and of I'ulaski County (for location, see map of Arkansas, ref.
3-C) ; on the Arkansas river, and the Little R. and Jlern.
and the St. L., Iron M. and S. railways ; 125 miles S. W. of
Memphis. It is built upon the first highland reached by
ascending the river, which is liere 400 yards wide, and navi-
gable eight months of the year for large steamboats, smaller
ones plying to Fort Smith, on the border of Indian Terri-
tory, 300 miles above. The rocky cliff on which the city
stands, and from which it takes its name, is not more than
50 feet above the river, while the Big Rock, beginning 2
miles above, is a precipitous range rising abruptly some 500
feet. Little Rock is a commercial and manufacturing city,
with more than fifty large wholesale houses. The census re-
turns of 1890 showed that 93 manufacturing establishments
(representing 31 industries) reported. These had a com-
bined capital of 11,480,881 ; employed 1,070 persons ; paid
$587,415 for wages and §1,154,675 for materials ; and had
products valued at ^2,454,831. Among the industrial es-
tablishments are 3 cottonseed-oil mills, 2 cotton compresses,
a cotton-goods mill, a cotton-press factory, 4 foundries and
machine-shops, 3 granite-quarries, 2 chair and 2 f\irniture
factories, 3 railway machine-shops, 2 gin-factories, 4 plan-
iStute L'apitol, Litll.' K"rk
ing-mills, 2 ice-factories, and flour, stove, and candy works.
There are gas and 5 electric-light jilants. electric street-rail-
ways, granite, macadam, and vitrified street pavement, and
good water and sewerage |)lants. The city contains 28
churches, 8 pnlilic schools, 2 colleges for colored youth, a
military academy, a Roman Catholic Academy for boys.
Little Rock University (Methodist Episcopal, opened iss'i),
Arkansas Female College (non-sectarian, opened 1874),
Philander Smith College (Methodist Episcopal, ojjened
1877), Roman Catholic convent and academv, 5 libraries
(State, 52.0110 volumes; University. 2,000 volumes; Jlar-
quand, 4.500 volumes ; Masonic, 3,000 volumes ; and Su-
preme Court, 6,000 volumes), 3 national banks with com-
bine<l capital of §.500,000, 2 State banks with capital of
$400,000, a commercial bank with capital of $100,000, a
trust company, and 2 private banks, and 2 daily, 15 weeklv,
and 4 monthly periodicals. The public buildings include
the State Capitol, Penitentiary, State School for the Blind,
State Insane Asylum, Deaf Mute Institute, U. S. Govern-
inetit building, U. S. arsenal. Children's Home, Old Ladies'
H<iine, and board of trade building. The city hiis an as-
sessed propcrtv valuation of over ^12.000,000. ' Pop. (1880)
13,138; (1890) "25,874. Editor of " Gazette."
Little Russia : Southwest erft Russia N. of the Black Sea
provinces. It extends in the middle Dnieper valley frotu
Kharkof to Galicia in the empire of Austria. The people
differ widely in character from the other Russians, and their
language and literature are peculiar. The Little Russian
language is common eastward to the Asiatic frontier, and is
found westward in Bukoviiui and Hungary. See Isabel
Morris's A Summer in Kief. M. W. H.
Little Tibet : See Balti.
Littleton, Adam. D. I). : Oriental scholar ; b. at Hales-
owen, Shropshire, F^ngland, Nov. 8, 1627 ; was educated at
Christ Church, Oxford, taking high rank in the classics;
became rector of Chelsea, chaplain to King Charles II., and
prebendary of Westminster in 1674. D. at Chelsea, June
30, 1694. Dr. Littleton formed a library of rare books and
manuscripts, so extensive that it brought him to bank-
ruptcy. He wrote much on mvstic numbers and other
recondite subjects, and published many sermons ; but his
great work was the Dictionnry of the Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
a/id English Languages (1678 ; frequently reprinted). He
was a descendant of Sir Thomas Littleton. See Wood's
Athena Oj'onienses, vol. ii., and the preface to Ainsworth's
Latin Dictionary.
Littleton, Edward, Lord : See Lytteltox.
Littleton, or Lyttleton, Sir Thomas : jurist ; b. at
Frankley, Worcestershire, England, in 1402. lie was the eld-
est son of Thomas Westcote, but was baptized in the name of
his mother's family, she being sole heir of Thomas de Little-
ton, lord of the manor of Frankley. He was a member of
the Inner Temple, and was in practice as a pleader in 1445,
and in 1453 was called to the degree of sergeant-at-law.
He held several public offices, among which were the shriev-
alty of Worcestershire and the recordership of Coventry.
In 1455 he was made king's sergeant and acted as justice of
assize in the northern circuit, and before the death of Henry
VI. he was appointed steward of the JIarshalsea court and
justice of the county palatine of Lancaster. He appears to
have been involved in the political troubles of the times, and
on the accession of Eilw'ard IV. obtained a general pardon
under the great seal, and was soon in favor with the new
king, by whom he was made a justice of the court of
common pleas (Apr. 27. 1466), and created a Knight of the
Bath (Apr. 18. 1475). He died at Frankley, Aug': 23, 1481,
and was buried in the nave of the Worcester Cathedral under
a marble altar-tomb erected by himself, U])on which was an
effigy of himself in brass, which, however, was removed
during the civil wars. Littleton's fame rests chiefly upon
his treatise on tenures, which was a short work written in
law (Xornuin) French. It was the first systematic exjiosi-
tion of the laws of England concerning real property, and,
unlike the work of earlier writers, was based wholly upon
English law. without drawing from the Roman or civil
law. The work contained a clear and accurate account of
the tenures and estates then known in England, and with
Lord Coke's Commentarie.': long remained the principal au-
tliorityon the English law of n-al property. It is almost
wholly obsolete, and its chief value is historical. The first
edition, in black letter, without title or date, is conjectured
to have been published in 1481. It was fii-st tran.slated into
English iif 1538. lind was published with Coke's authoritative
commentaries in 1628, since which time there have been a
large number of editions. An edition from the most ancient
texts, with collations by T. E. Tondin<:. was published in
London in 1841, with the French and English in parallel
columns. F. Stirhf.s Allex.
Little Tnrtle (.Ve-rhe-cun-na-giia) : a Sliaini chief of
great reputation for intelligence, shrewdness, and valor in
warfare ; is supposed to have received some education in
Canada. He commanded in the battles which resulted in
the defeat of Gen. Harmar on the Miami (Oct. 22, 1790)
and of Gen. St. Clair at St. .'\Iary's (Xov. 4, 1791) ; was pres-
302
LITTORALK
LITURGICS
ent, though not in oomnmml, nt the buttle of Fallen Timbers
or MiiiUMto Kiipids. Aiii:- 20, 17!»4, in which the Indiiins
were dofouttil liv (ien. Wayne; wii.s one of the signers of
the treaty of tireeiiville. Aii^'., ITlCi, which endetl the war
ami conveyed to the whites an extensive repion in Ohio, and
in 170T visited Prvsidont \Va.sliin;,'ton at Philadelphia, where
ho also had an interview wilh I'onnt Volney, the French
philiwopher, and received a pair of elep;antly mounted pis-
tols from Kosciusko. U. ul Fori Wayne. Imi".. July 14, li<\2.
Littornle.lee-to-raa'hi [litlorale is from Ital. 7i7or«?f. liter.,
coast country, deriv. of lillore, shore. Cf. Oerm. name
A'iiji/fM/nHrf, liter., coast country]: a province of the Aus-
trian empire, extending along the northern shore of the
Adriatic from Vcnctia to Croatia: bounded X. and E. by
Carinthia and Carniola. It consists of the counties of Gorz
and liradisca, the margraviate of Istria, and the district of
Trieste, and comprises an area of 3,085 sq. miles, with 695,-
384 inhabitants, mostly of Slavic descent.
Littrfi. l<"c-tnT'. Maximilien Patl 6mile : pliilosopher : b.
in Paris, France. Feb. 1, 1801. Though adopting medicine
for his career. Littre combined with this philological la-
bors in many languages — notably Sanskrit, Arabic. Mod-
ern Greek, and the principal Romance tongues. He had
time also for political enthusiasms, and in 1830 he fought
as a republican on tlie barrirades in Paris. Soon after
ho was invited by Annanil t'arrcl to write for the lib-
eral journal Le yalional. lie imxluced for this a series of
articles <m the physical sciences of such power that the crit-
ics saluted him as a new writer of importance. His larger
reputation, however, dates from the luiblication of the first
volume of his translation of Hippocrates in 1838 (not fin-
ished till 181)0, containing a njaslerly introduction. This
led immediately to his election to the Acadeniie des Inscrip-
tions et Ik'lles-Leltrcs (Feb. 2)i. 1830). At the same time he
was at work on other translations — one of Strauss's Life of
Jesits (2 vols., 1830—10) and one of Pliny the Elder (not jiub-
lished till 1848). About 1840 an important change in his
career was produced by the reading, at a friend's sugges-
tion, of the so-called Positivist writings of .■Vuguste Comte.
Completely captivated by these, he was convinced that in
Comte he had found his trne master, lie became one of
the leaders of the Positivists. and continued firm in his
faith to the end of his life, in spite of the fact that he was
obliged to reject the later visionary doctrines of his teacher.
He accepted the philomnhie positive, but could never adopt
the polilique positive, llis writings in this field, however,
show Positivism at its best. These are Aniili/se niisoniiee
du cours de philosophie positive (1845); Applicdtioiis de la
philosoptiie positive an yonvenii'ment des socii'tes (1840):
ConJicrvation, revolution, et positivisme (1852) ; Paroles de
philosopliie positive (IS'>9); Aiigiiste Comte et la p/iilosoplrie
positive (IS&i) ; La science an point de vue philosopliique
(1873); Litlerature et histoire (1875); Fragments de philoso-
phie positive et de sociologie contemporaine (1870). In
1867 he founded with other Positivists the review La Phi-
losophie Positive. His jireoccupation wilh the new philos-
ophy, however, did not niterl'cre with the prosecution of his
philological studies. In 1844. on the death of Fuuricl, he
was appointed to the latter's place on the comniissi(Ui of the
Academy charged wilh the continuation of the great //I'.s-
toire litteraire de la France ; ancl volumes xxi. to xxix.
of this work owe much to his wonderful erudition. In 1802
he gathered into two yobimes various scattered articles on
the French language — Histoire ile la tangiie franfaise. On
Feb. 6. 1863, he iiresenlcd to the Academic des Inscriptions et
Belles-Let t res I lie first part of his remarkable 7>(W/«HHrt(>e
de la lanyue franfaise (4 vols.. 1863-72; supplementary vol-
ume, 1877), upon which he labored fur years with great dili-
gence, but at the expense of his health. In 1880 appeared
Etudes et glanures pour fa ire suite a I'hisloire de la lauyue
franfaise. In spile of the severity of these labors he had not
ceased to interest himself in incdicine. lie wrote much for
the Dictionnaire de mi'decine. de chiruri/ie, etc, (Nth cd.
1877). and also many art icies and nii miigraplis — e. g. Midecine
et medecins (IH^l). Though he had wilh<liawn from political
aetiyity after 1848, the war (if 1N70-71 nicivnl him deeply, and
in 1871 he accepteil an cleitinn by the city cjf Paris to the As-
sembly. In 1875 he was made life senatnr. An expression of
his views at this lime was hispamphh't De retahlissetnent de
la troisieme repuhlique (IKSO). In ]H74 he was elecleil a
member of the Aeailemie Fruncaisc, to suci'eed VilleTiiain.
I), .lunc 2, 1881. Few men in Ihi' nineteenth century have
had the modesty, the carmslness, and the many-sided eruili-
tion of Littre; and still fewer have succee<led in preserving
to exiremo old age, in spile of the most exhausting labors,
an interest as fresh and unwearied as his in all that has to do
with the intellectual life. Sec Sainte-Heuvc. Notice sur
Littre, sa vie el ses travaux (Paris. 1863). and the Notice sur
Littre in the Histoire litteraire de la France (vol. xxix.).
A. H. Marsh.
liittrow. lit trof. JosEPn Johann. von: astronomer: b.
Mar. 13.1781, at Bischof-Teinitz. in Bohemia; studied at
the University of Prague ; became Professor of Astronomy
at Cracow in 1807: renu)ved in 1810 to Kazan, in 1816 to
Buda. and in 1819 to Vienna, where he died Nov. 30, 1840.
I'niler his direction the observatory of Vienna was much
improved, aiul his lectures drew great audiences. His most
promiiuuit writings are Die ^\'under des Ilimmels (1834),
often republished ; Theoretische und praklisclie Astronomie
(3 vols., 1822-26); and Atlas des gestirnten Ilimmels. — His
son. Karl Lidwig (b. at Kazan. Russia, .liily 18. 1811; d.
in Venice. Nov. 16, 1877), was his assistant in the Vienna
Observatory from 1831 ; succeeded his father as director in
1842. and was employed in 1847 in connecting Austria and
Russia by triangulation.
Liturgies : in the specific sense, in which the term is
eniployeil in this article, the history of the origin and de-
velopment of liturgies, and a description of lli<> books tri'at-
ing of or containing liturgies. The words \cirovpyla, XtiToup-
y6s are used all through the Sejitnagint version of the Old
TestanuMit to denote divine service and the priest. The
same use of the word is continued in the New Testament, as
in St. Luke i. 23, where we read of the "ministration"
(\(iTovpyla) of the priest Zacharias, and by St. Paul it is
proliably used with refereiU'C to the sacerdotal functions of
Ihe Christian )>riestliood in Horn. xv. 16. where we find the
three great sacrificial words all em|iloyed in the same verse —
KdTovpyhv.Upovpyovi^a. and irpoa<popd. Al all events. Clemens
Konuinus uses the word as referring to the acts of Christian
worship, and by the fourth century this use was fully es-
tablished. (Cf. Council of Aneyra. 314.) The general mean-
ing of the word to denote all jiublic services of the Christian
ministry, which has been adopted in this article, was soon
rcstrii-ted. so that by "the Liturgy " was usually meant what
we call the mass, and to the ])re.sent day the celebration of
the Holy Eucharist is calleil in the Greek Church the "Di-
vine Liturgy." By liturgies, then, in this article we mean
all the set forms of words used in the pid)lic worship of God
aiul in the administration of the sacraments. See Horn
Prosper Gueranger. Listitutions Lilurgiques, a book of
gi-eat research, but written in a bitter, iirejudiccd, and par-
tisan spirit.
Antiquit;/ of Liturgies. — St. Paul is bv some learned writ-
ers su]iposed to have quoted in several places the already
existing liturgy, especially in 1 Cor. ii. 9. (See Neale's L's-
.lai/s oil Liturgiology.) And there can be no doubt that
the Lord's Prayer was used, and certain other formulas
which are referred to by St. Luke in the Acts of the
Ajiostles (Acts ii. 42) as " the apostles' ]u-aycrs." How early
these forms were committed to writing has been much di^-
putcd among the learned, and it would be rash to attempt
to rule this question. Pierre Le Brun |iresents most
strongly the denial of their having been written during the
first three centuries, ami Probst (Litiirgie der drei erslen
Christlichen Jahrliunderlen) argues against this opinion.
While it does not sei'Ui jiossible to prove that before the
fourth century the liturgiial books were written out in full,
owing no doubt to the infiui'Uee of the disci/iliiui arcani, it
seems to be true that much earlier llian this there was a
definite and fixed order in Ihe celebralion of divine worship
and in the administration of the s<ieranu>iils. The famous
passage in St. .lustin Martyr seems to luiini to the existence
of such a fnrm in his day. showing how even then the .serv-
ice for Ihe Holy Eueliari>t began with the epistle and the
gospel. St. Augustine and .St. Chrysustoiu beai witness to
ihe same thing. A sernum then followed, and the Mis.<ia
calechiimenorum was done. St. .Vndirose tells us that those
not yet in the nund)cr of the faithful were dismissed at
this point of the service. There now began the nmss nf
the faithful (m('x.w_//(/c//i/m) with the wa.shing of the bish-
op's hands, referred to by St. Cyril of .lerusalem in his
Cateelirtical Lectures. nnd Ihe offertory was made. St. tlnslin
expressly explaining that the cup was mixed. St. Cyprian
tells us that verses of the Psalter were sung in Carthage as
Offertoria. The Sursum Corda is sjHjken of by both St.
Cyprian and SI. Augustine, and St. Cyril and St. Chrvsos-
LITURGICS
303
torn refer to tho Satictus as following the preface. Xow
that we have coiue to the canon, there is almost entire si-
lence, as we so often read in the Fathers, "the initiated
know what I mean." The words with which the dread mys-
teries are consummated were too sacred to be committed to
the ordinary reader's care. We know the words of institu-
tion were used, and that the faithful answered "Amen at
the Eucharist" (1 Cor. xiv. l(i). Just before tlie communion
of the people the veil was drawn aside, so St. Cyril Ahi.van-
drinns tells us, and they received the sacrament under the
form of bread into their hands, and then from the chalice
the deaccjn gave them the precious blood. During the
communion-time was sung " Oh, taste, and see how gracious
the Lord is," as we learn from St. Cyril. The whole service
ended with a blessing by the bisliop — "Grace and peace be
with you." (St. Chrysostora, Horn. in. ad Coloss.) The
foregoing woidd seem to he a fair outline of the communion
office of tlie Church during the early centuries, and it will
be noticed that it exactly agrees with that service as used
by the Greek, Latin, and Anglican Churches to-day. Of
the so-called primitive liturgies none in its present form is
probably earlier than the seventh century, for althougli one
bears the name of St. Mark, another of St. James, and so
on, no real critical work has been done upon them, antl
even of tlie JISS. we have the most meager information.
The Leonine fragment and the Gelasian and Gregorian sac-
rameutaries may justly be considered as early as any litur-
gical remains we possess, for while the Apostolical Consti-
tutions are in part certainly of an earlier date, the eighth
book, which contains these liturgical forms, is in a very
uncertain condition ; we have no reason for supjiosing its
text to be imiululterated, and it is admitted that it is much
later than the other books.
There are, roughly speaking, three bodies of Christians
which look upon their ministry as a priesthood, with sacer-
dotal powers and a substantial oblation to ofEer, viz., L, the
Eastern Churches, IL. the Latin Churches, and IIL, the
Anglican Churches, and the liturgical books of each of these
will be treated separately.
I. The Eastern- LrrcRoiCAL Books. — These books of
" The Holy Orthodox Eastern Church," of which alone we
treat, are in Greek and in Slavic, i. e. Old Russian (which
differs from Modern Russian rather more than Old English
does from Modern English). The services of all the Eastern
Churches are (or once were) in the language of the people.
Following is a list of the liturgical books of the Eastern
Churcli :
1. The Type {rxmiKiv). A series of rubrical directions. 3. The
Meniea, i. e. the propers for festivals and saints' days. 3. The
Triodion and the Pt'titecodarion, i.e. the canons of odes for
Lent and Eastertide. 4. The Paraelet icon, 1. e. the tropes
for tho ferias. n. The Octoechus contains the stichera and
tropes for a ferial week. 6. The Menology is what we call
tho martyrology. 7. The Euchologion contains the forms
for the administration of the sacraments and for the giving
of various blessings. Besides these there are the Tlorologion
and the Divine Liturgy, both of which must be spoken of
more at length. 8. The Horologion. — This corresponds to
the Breviary of the Latin Church and to the " Daily Morning
and Evening Prayer" of the Anglican Church. An edition
of the Great Horology was issued under the authority of the
Patriarch of Constantinople at Venice in 18.56. and since
then there are other editions. Those who desire more in-
formation upon this subject are referred to Synopsis of
Prayers of the Orthodox Eastern C/iiircfi, translated and
edited by Katharine, Lady Lechmere, with an introduction by
J. Geunailius (London, 1891). and to Eurhology : a Manual
of Prayers of tlie Holy Orthodox Church. G. V. Shann (Kid-
derminster). See also the remarks of Dr. \eale in liis In-
troduction to the History of the Holy Eastern Church.
9. The Dirine Liturgy. — This is the order for the cele-
bration of the Holy lOucharist. Two forms are in actual
use, that of St. .John Chrysostom and that of St. Basil : to
these must be added the " Liturgy of the Presanctified," i. e.
a form of service used in Lent (except on Saturdays and
Sundays) in wliich there is no consecration of the holy gifts,
but the connnuuion is made from the reserved sacrament.
For the sake of accuracy it should be added that the lit-
ui-gy bearing the name of St. James is used in Jerusalem on
St. ,"Tames"s Day, Oct. 23.
Literature. — Hammond. Liturgies. Eastern and West-
ern; Duchesne. Origines du Culte Chretien: Xeale, Intro-
duction to the History of the Holy Eastern Church ; Daniel,
Codex Lit nrgic us; doax, Euchologion; Renaudotins, Litur-
giarum Orientalium Collectio; Neale and Littledale, The
Primitive Liturgies.
II. The Latin Litl-rokal Books. — The liturgical books
now in use in the Roman Catholic Church will be enumer-
ated, and afterward some account of their history given.
(1) The Breviary contains the choir oflices for both night
and day, and the Psalter is divi<ied so as to be recited once
each week. The pres<'nt Jireviariuni lionutuum dates from
1631. and was set forth Ijy Urban VIIL It is usuallv in
four volumes, one for each season of the year; when all in
one volume it is called a Totum. When the day hours are
printed separately, the volume is called Hone I)iiirna>. (2)
The Missal contains the ordinary and canon of the mass
and the propers (i. e. the introil, collect, epistle, sequence or
gradual, gospel, offertory, secret, communio, and post-com-
munio) for the Sundays and week <lays of the year. The
present Missale Momanum dates from 1634. and was im-
posed by Urban VII 1. (3) The Rituale contains the forms
for those sacraments which a priest can administer, and
various benedictions. The present Rituale liomanum was
set forth in 1614 by Pius V. This book was in olden times
called a manual, .tacerdotale. agenda, etc. Many dioceses
still use their own forms and not the Roman Rituale. (4) The
Pontific^ile contains all those otlices performed liy a bishop.
It was in its present form set forth in 1644, and imposed by
Urban V^HI. upon all bishops under his jurisdiction using
the Latin rite. (5) The Ceremoniale Episcoporum gives
directions for the ritual to be used by bishops on various
occasions. The present Ceremoniale was set forth by Clement
Vni. in 1600. (6) The Martyrology is a list of the saints
and mysteries commemorated on each day of the year, with
brief historical notices of their lives. AH these books are
of great anticpiity, and the dates given above are those in
which the last reformed edition (so to speak) was set fortli.
We only have space to speak of the history of two in detail.
The History of the Breviary. — The central idea of the
choir offices is the recitation of the Psalter; around this all
else gathers; and this is their characteristic in every part
of the Church. As the service of mass is derived to some
extent at least from the sacrificial worship of the temple, so
the choir offices are certainly but the Christian continuation
of the synagogue services. At first, no doubt, there was but
little fixed in these offices, and we can trace the changes
that gradually took place ; but it is evident that hours of
prayer were in use in the apostles' times, for we read ex-
pressly of the sixth hour and of the ninth hour as being
such (Acts iii. 1. x. '.)). The offices of the Greek Church are
very long, and no doubt so, too, at first, were those of the
West; but this was afterward changed. It is certain that,
while in large part of great antiquity, the Breviary of to-day
is not even in its skeleton older than the beginning of the
fourteenth century. Until after the Council of Trent every
diocese had its own breviary and missal, and some of them,
which were at that time over 200 years old. have continued
in use. This article would be incomplete if no notice were
taken of the reformation of the Breviarium Roinanum by
Cardinal Quignon in the sixteenth century, which wa.s al-
lowed to be used for a number of years but afterward sup-
pressed. Quignon's 5)'e!'/ar)/ has been reprinted at Cam-
bridge under the editorship of Dr. Wicrkham Legg.
Literature. — Gavantus. Thesaurus Sac. Riluum; Dom
Gucranger, Institutions Liturgit/ues; Grancolas, Commen-
taire dii Breviaire Romoin ; Card. Bona. Divina Psalmodia ;
Batiffol. llistoire du Breviaire Rouiain.
Tlie History of the Roman Missal. — There would seem
to be a consensus among the learned that the Christian
Church in Rome at first was chiefly if not exclusively Givek.
Granting that this may have been the case, it is neverthe-
less true that the Cleiiieiitine liturgy as contained in the
Apo.stolic Constitutions licars a close relation to the Roman
ordinary and canon of the mass, and may be tlie .somewhat
incgrrect desei'iption by a Greek of the then Latin service.
At all events, one thing is certain, that the words "Mys-
terium fidei" found in the Roman canon as part of the
form for the consecration of the chalice occur in no other
place (so far as known) than in the account of the institu-
tion found in the Clementine liturgy, where we read " This is
the mystery of the New Testanuiii. Take of it, eat. This
is my body, etc." To be sure, here it is used in connection
with the consecration of the bread, and in the Roman canon
in connect i(m with the sacred chalice, but such a blunder is
one that might easily be made by one not familiar with the
service. There is no space here to enter upon the proof, which
is abundant, of the extreme antiquity of the Gregorian canon.
304
LITURGICS
and of tlie general arningetncnt of the parts of the ordinary
of the mass: we i.'an but siiy tlmt all evidence |K)ints to the
conclusion that here we have the order for the celoliration nf
the Holy C'oiiiniuuion of the jjreatest antiquity, in larjie part
certainly as early as the hfth century, and probalily of
a|JOStolic origin. We can trace the changes made during
the centuries with considersible minuteness, especially from
the comments of Walafrid Strabo and other early ritualists,
and also from a collation of the various early MSS. extant.
One serious change scents to have taken place. The invo-
cation has disappeared (or been reduced to infinitesimal
proportions). On this point and on the relation of the Ain-
brosian anil Galilean missals to the Uoman, and of each to
the Mozarabic, we have no space to enter, but refer to the
Abbe Duchesne's Origiiieii du Ciille Chretien, warning tlie
reader that thus far the abbi>'s theories are not universally
accepted in regard to the effect of Charlemagne's action
toucning the service-books.
hiTERATUKE. — Muratori, Lifurgia Romana Vefiis ; Swain-
son, Liturgij. in Diet. CItrtat. Aniiq.; Probst, Die ultesten
romischen Sakramentarien.
Besides the Koman liturgical books there are the Ambro-
sian, Mozarabic, and other cognate liturgies, and varieties
of the Koman used bv the various religious orders, and those
used in the various dioceses ; we can but refer to these in
passing.
Literati-re. — Mabillon, De Lifurgia Gallicana ; Gerbert,
Veins Lifurgia Alematmica ; Jlissale mixtum-dictum Mo-
zarabe (iligne).
A table of reprints of the pre-Reformation liturgical books
of the Church of England :
iSAKUU. J/i'«s((/f (Hurntisland, 1861).
Breviarium (Cambridge, 1879-90).
Porliforinm : Kd., Leslie (1843-55),
Pontificate: Jlaskell's Mnnumenta Rifualia
(with foot-notes on Bangor, Exeter, and Win-
chester uses).
Processionale : Ed., W. G. Henderson (Leeds),
Reqintrum St. Osmundi : Ed., W, II. Rich
Jones, Rolls Series (1883).
De Officiis Lcctesiaifieis Tracfafus : In Rock's
Cliurch of our Fatliers, vol. iv. (1853).
JJanuale ; Surtees Society, vol. Ixiii., ajipcndix ;
also Maskell, nf mipra.
Defenxoriiim Direcforii ad iisum Sarum : Mas-
kell's Mon. Rit.. vol, ii„ 3d ed,
ToEK. Missale : Surtees >Soc., vols. lix. and Ix.
Jireriariiim : Surtees Soc., vols. Ixxi. and Ixxv.
Manuale: Surtees Soc., vol. Ixiii.
Procesaiotmle: Surtees Soc, vol. Ixiii.
Puntifieal of Egbert: Surtees Soc., vol, xxvii,
Ponfificule (Bainbridge) : Surtees Soc, vol, Ixi,
LosDON, Excerpfa ex Registro Consuetudinum Ecel. S.
Pauti, Land. : Rock's Church of Our Fathers,
vol. iv. (1853).
LiNCOlJf. Sfafufa Eccl. Cath. Line. (London, 1873).
Consuefudinarium de Div. Off. Eccl. Line. :
Ed., Wordswords and Reynolds (1885),
Liber Xiger (Cambridge. 1892),
Exeter. Ordinate: Bishop Grandisson. Ed., Reynolds
(1880).
Leqenda Sancfnrum (ibid., 1880),
Lifter Pontitiralis of Edm. Lacy: Ed,, Ralph
Barnes (Exeter, 1847).
riEREroRD. Missale: Ed., Henderson (1874).
Durham. Rifuale Eccl. Diinelm ; Surtees Soc, vol. x.
LiCDFiELD. atalutes of Bishop Pateshall, in Dugdale's
Jlonaslicon.
Wells. Ordinate et Sfafufa : Ed., Reynolds (1881).
Monastic. Missate ad usum Erct. West. jUonasteriensis :
Ed., Legg, Bradshaw Soc.
Excerpfa ex Ordinario fotius anni ad usum
alicujus monasferii Ord. Cisterciensis, etc. :
Rock, Church of our Fathers, vol. iv. (1853).
Mirroure of our Ladye: Early English Text
Soe. (1873).
The Jtartiloge in Englysshe (Sarum use) : Brad-
shaw .Soc.
Books fob TtlE Laitv. Lag Folks' Mass Book: Ed., .Sim-
mons, Earlv Eiig, Text Soc (1879),
The Prymer (A, u, 1400 f): Ed,, Littlehalcs
(1891).
The Prymer (a. i>. 1405f): Jlaskell, Mon. Rit..
vol. i.
Books for tue Laity (continued). A Godly Prymer (15SS);
A Manual of J'rayers, or the Prymer in
English ( 1539) : King Henry's Prymer (1549) :
Ed.. Burton (Oxford, 184«).
III. AxoLiCAX LiTiRoiES. — Under this term is here in-
cluded the liturgical books now used by those churches
which are in visible communion with tlir see of Canterbury,
All these churches have but one service-lH>ok, of a comjilex
nature, being at the sjime time breviary, missal, ritual, and
jxnitifical ; it is called The Book of Conunon Prayer and Ad-
minisfrafion of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Cere-
monies of the Church. This book contains first the choir
ollices compressed into two portions called " Daily Morn-
ing and Evening Prayer " and the Pssdter divided, so that
it is recite'd once each month. There is also the Litany to
be said at certain times. The propers for the seasons and
lioly days follow, and the "Order for the .\dniinislration of
tlie Lord's Supjier or Holy Communion,"convs])ondingto the
ordinary and canon of the mass. The forms for the admin-
istration of baptism, confirmation, and the " Communion of
the Sick," for the " Solemnization of Ilirly Matrimony," and
for the " Visitation of the Sick," and the burial office come
next, and at the end of the book are the forms for the ordi-
nation of the bishops, priests, and deacons. Besides these,
there are some sjieeial services of less note, and varying in
ditlerent parts of the world.
History of the Prayer-book. — The Church of England
had always been provided with prayer-books in the vernacu-
lar for her people, but there does not appear to have been
any public service in the English tongue until 1.544, when
the Litany was first translated into English and publicly
used. In 1548 there was issued the " Order for Commun-
ion," being the preparation of the communicants, which in
mass immediately precedes the administration of the sacra-
ment. This now was to be said for the first time (so far as
known) in English ; and it was ]irovided further that the
chalice should be restored to the people, of which they had
been deprived forsoine centuries; for the rest the mass con-
tinued to be celelirated as before.
The English Prayer-book. — In 1549 there was .set forth
the first I'^nglish Prayer-book, in the preface of which it was
declared that although before tliat time "there hath been
great diversity in saying and singing in churches within this
realm, some following Salisbury use, some Hereford use,
some the use of Bangor, sonic of York, and some of Lincoln ;
now from henceforth, all the whole realm shall have but
one use."' This book, which is all in P^nglish, is taken chief-
ly from the service books of the different dioceses and from
those of Rome, which were largely useil by religious people
and othei-s. Of its history we unfortunately know very lit-
tle, and perhaps nothing more than that Archbishop Cran-
nurr was chiefly responsible for it, an<l that while he him-
self was at that time largely under the inihience of the con-
tinental Reformers and chiefiy of those of the Lutheran
school, yet that he was obliged to make the book such as
could be used with a good conscience by (hose who still held
the old faith. On the whole subject, see Jacob's Lutheran
Movement in England and Doin tias(|uet"s A't/wnrrf VI. and
the Book of Common Prayer. Two years later (1552) those
urging radical change had gained ground, and it was de-
termined that a new book should come out, more consonant
with their doctrinal and ritual tenets. Accordingly, the
second prayer-book in the reign of King Edward VI. was
issued, and it is said that a third, still more Protestant and
radical, was even then in contemplation. The king, however,
died almost before the book was out of the jirinters' hands,
and as yueen Mary came to the throne and restored the pre-
Rcformation office books immediately, it is probable that
outside of the university towns and the city of London the
book of \!i^i'2 WHS little used or known. When t^ueen Eliza-
beth renewed the breach with Rome, it was decided to take
the book of 1.552 and to inciprpimite into it certain parts of
the book of 1.549. especially the worils " The body of our
Lord Jesus Christ wliicli was given for thee jireserve thy
body and soul unto everlasting life," used at the delivery of
the Holy Sacrament, and the rubric ordering the vestments
of the clergy and the fittings of the Church to be as they
were in"the .second year of the reign of King Edward VI., '
i, e, tin' yi'ar before the first Eiiglisli I'niyir-liook cajne into
use. This is substantiallv the Liturgy of the Anglican
Churches to-day. It indeed underwent .some slight changes
in the beginning of King James's reign at the Hampton
Court conference, and again after the great rebellion at the
Savoy conference in 10(51, but these alterations were very
LITURGICS
305
minute. Speaking accurately, the Book of Common Prayer
can not be said to be a liistinct liturgy from that of Home,
but rallier an adaptation, in whicli nuii-h of tlie Western
service has been kefit unchanged, but in wliii li. on the other
liand, strange and unaccountable changes in |>osition and
order of the parts have been nuule : e. g. while in each the
(iloria in exctlsis is found in the form for the celeliration of
the divine mysteries, in the Latin order it is at the begin-
ning, in the English at the end of the service. One thing,
liowever, is worthy of notice, that the sacraments have lieen
continuously administered and divine worship continuously
celebrated in the Anglican Church since 1559 in an un-
changed form, and such an antiquity is worthy of the high-
est liturgical regard, even had the forms been at that lime
newly framed instead of being, as they are, modifications of
forms already long in use.
LiTERATURt:. — Keclini;, LitunjicB BritaniiicCR; Cardwell,
Cunferences on the liiiok of Common Praijer ; Schudainore,
iVotitia Eucharistica ; Parker, Infroduction to the Merisions
uf the Book of Common Pniijer: IJlunt, Annotated Bonk of
Common Prayer-, htxthhuvy, Ilistori/ of the Book of Com-
mon Prayer.
The Irish: Prayer-l/ook. — This is the Book of Common
Prayer of " The Churcli of Ireland" i. e. of what had been
the Established Church. The Irish Praj-er-book before the
disestablishment differed from the English only in contain-
ing a few extra services and prayers, but after disestablish-
ment had set it free from parliamentary control, the strong
Protestant spirit asserted itself in the numerous radical
alterations adopted by the Synod in 1870, des[iite tlie strenu-
ous opposition of the famous Archbishop Trench, of Dublin,
and of a few others.
The SeottisTi Prayer-hook. — This is the Book of Common
Prayer of the Nonjuring Episcopal Church in Scotland, com-
monly called the Scottish Episcopal Church After eiiisco-
pacy was abolished in Scotland by the authority of the Dutch
princes and the Presbyterian religion had been established,
despite the penal laws against tliem, the Scotch bishops and
clergy (supported by many in England who had likewise re-
fused to take the oath of allegiance to the newly chosen
monarehs) continued in private to celebrate the sacraments
and to keep up the succession. These clergymen, called
Nonjurors, made some changes in the Prayer-book of the
Church of England, the most imjiortant being in the prayer
of consecration of the communion service. Further changes
are under consideration. All these heretofore have been in
the direction of a return to pre-Keformation use.
Literati-re. — Bishop Dowden. The Annotated Scottish
Communion OfUce: Lathliury, History of the yon/iirors.
The American Prayer-liook. — This is the Book of Common
Prayer "according to the use of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in the United States of America." Until the Revo-
lution the Church of England in the American colonies had
been part of the jurisdiction of the Bishop of London.
After the independence of the country was secured, it
seemed necessary for the prosperity of the Church of Eng-
land here that it shoidd be fret; from any foreign ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction. After some <lelay and difficulties this was
accomplished by the hierarchy of the Church in England
giving both Episcopal orders and also jurisdiction in this
country to three American jjriests. Before, however, this
was dotje, an attempt was made in 1785 to revise the Prayer-
book in what is known as the " Proposed Book," but this (as
Bishop White says) was seen to be a failure before it issued
from the press. It was a very radical effort to simplify and
popularize the Prayer-book. After the episcopate had been
obtained, and with it the right to revise the Prayer-book,
the work was entered into by the General Convention of
1789, and the result is the American Prayer-book as wo
know it to-day, which with but trifling changes and a few
additions has been for over a century the public office book
of the Episcopal Church in the U. S. The chief points in
which it varies from the English book are the restoration
of the rest of the Canon of Consecration (through the inllu-
ence of Bishop Seaburv), the omission of the Athanasian
Creed, and of the indicative form of absolution from the
Office of the Visitation of the Sick, and the addition of A
Form for the Visitation of Prisoners (which was taken from
the Irish Prayer-book), of a service of " Thanksgiving for
the Fruits of the Earth," and of a number of se])arate
prayers and collects. Several apparently anti-Catholic ex-
pressions and directions were omitted from the English
book, notably the so-called "Black Rubric" and the rubrics
prohibiting private nnisses. The Forms for Ortlination were
246
added in 1792, the Form for the Consecration of a Church
in 1709, the Book of Articles of Religion in lH()l,and last of
all an dtlice of Institution in 1K()8. In 18H0 a resolution
was adopted appointing a connnittee to consider wliether
"the changed conditions of the national life do not demand
certain alterations" in the Prayer-book. The committee,
however, at the beginning i)ractically decided to do nothing
in the direction suggested by determining that "no altera-
tion should be made touching . . . doctrine." and that "in
all its suggestions and acts" the committee was to "l)e
guided by those principles of liturgical construction and
ritual use which have guided the compilation and anu-nd-
ments of the Book of Common Prayer, aiul have made it
what it is." This work was only conipleted in the General
Convention of 1892, and the changes made arc of the most
trifling nature, being principally the restoration of the
Mayniticat and of Xunr dimiftis to evening prayer, the
making of the recitation of the Xicenc Creed obligatory in all
churches, and the introduction of translations into English
of three sets of propers from the unreformed service lujciks.
Literature. — Fred. Gibson, Introduction to the Ameri-
can edition of Blunt's Annotated Hook of Common Prayer;
JIcGarvev and Gibson, Liti/rgia' Americnmr (in the press,
1893). ■ H. R. Percival.
German and Lutheran Development of Litcegies.
The Reformers denied that the Mass is an expiatory sacri-
fice, and therefore that it can be offered by one mati for
another, or by the living for the dead. All believers are
priests. Christ bade all drink of the cup. The Word of
God is a means of grace ; therefore it should be read and
explained in the vernacular, and in the Holy Sujiper the
words of institution should be recited in the vernacular in
the hearing of the people. Christ is the only Mediator.
Therefore, retaining the festivals of Christ and the order of
the Church year, they gave up nearly all saints' days. Rites
instituted by men are not obligatory, an<l do not merit grace.
They are of value in training the young and illiterate in the
Word of God.
Ijuther and Melanchthon taught that the Word is of prime
importance, even in the sacraments, being "a means by
which forgivenessof sins is distributed and given." (Luther,
xxix., 134.) Under the idea of the Word, or the Gospel,
they included not only the tectiones and the sermons, but
the Word of God in Baptism and the Holy Supper, and in
the parts of the service (as the Alteluia. Absolution, Par).
" God deals with us in two ways, outwardly and inwardly.
Outwardly .through the spoken word of the Gospel, and
through tangible signs, as baptism and the sacrament. In-
wardly through the Holy ti host and faith and other gifts,
but all this in such measure and order, namely, that the outer
parts nnist precede, and the inner come afterward and by
means of the outer; for He will give to no one the Spirit or
faith without the external word or sign which He has or-
dained for that purpose." Die nrspriingliche Cottesdienst-
Ordnung in den deutschen Kirchen luth. Bekenntnisses
(Kliefoth, 2d. ed. 185.8-61) ; Jacoby, Die Liturgik der liefor-
matoren (1871-77); Luther's work^ passim.
Zwingli denied that the sacraments bring or dispense
grace. The Holy Cominunion was in his view " a common
commemoa-ative celebration of the New Testament by the
atoning death of Christ, and an act of faith and confession
which serves to quicken the congregational consciousness,"
{SIdhelin. in Herzog's Real-Encylopiidie fur protestanlische
llieologie und Kirche.) He relegated the Holy Supper to
great days, and made the .sermon the center and normative
principle of the chief Sunday service; while the Lutherans,
rejecting the appointment of certain days on which the
whole congregaticm was bound to commune, left the Holy
Sujiper !us the culmiiLation of every chief service, though
they forbade consecration where there were not communi-
cants. To the proclamation of the Word of (iod they joined
the appropriation of its gracious gift in the Holy Com-
nium'on. See Schaff. Church History, vi.. vii.; Horn. The
Christian Year (1876); W. Loehe, Ilaus- Hchul- u. Kirchen-
buch (1877).
Lutheran Liturgies of the Sixteenth On/«ry. — (Richter,
Die ei: h'irchenordnungen des 16 Jahrhunderls, 1S45 ;
Daniel, Coder liturijicus II.; Common Service, preface,
1888.) In 1523 Luther pulilished his Formula .Vi.<sw. a re-
cension of the Mass. He would not banish the Latin tongue
from worship. CImngos shouhl be gradual. Old service
should Vie the basis of the new. The onlerwas: Inlroit,
Kyrie, Gloria in Fxcelsis, Collect, Epistle, Graduate and
306
LITURGICS
LIVER
JTalUliiJah, Gospel, Xirene Creed, sermon (or before Tnlroil),
Prefaee. Words of Inntitution, Klei-alion witli Sancliis,
Lord's Prayer, Pax, Distribution with Agnus Dei, C'oin-
munio, /Vn^rrs, JJrnedieamiis, Benediction. Allar, cau-
dles, vostiiiciits wori' retiiincil. 1526. the Deulsclie Messe
followed, and was enjoined upon churelies in Saxony. In
it the Lord's I'rayer, involved in a paraphrastie e.\hi>rtation.
preceded the Words of Instiliitioii. aniX the bread was given
oefore conseeralion of the eup. This found little favor in
later orders, but an Exhortation was introduced, and the
Lord's Prayer before the Words became jiredoniinant Lu-
theran usajte.
All the states published orders reforming the service
ami aiming at uniforniitv within their jurisdictions. 1.
Those of N'orthern and Middle Germany followed Luther's
orders. To this group belongs the first Prayer-book of
Edward VL, except in introduction of the Epikiesis, (Ja-
cobs, The Lutheran Movement in England, 1890 ; Gasquct
and Bishop. Edward VL and the Booh of Common Prayer.
1890.) 2. Those of Southwestern Germany were influenced
by the Swiss. (U.i.'r7.og,lieal-Eiicyclopadie.2,x., 723; xvii.,
595; Grilncisen. Die et: Gottesdiensturdnung i. d. ol>er-
deutschen Ldnden, ISoli.) :i Hnindcnburg. 1540: Pfalz-
Xeuburg. 1543 : .\ustria. \~u\, wliiK' aiming at pure doctrine,
retairunl as uuu-h as possible of the old rite.
Reformed. — Zwingli, more conservative than Calvin in
this regard, shortene<l and revised the old service ; t'alviii
essaye<l a new service on the basis of the Scriptures. The
worship of German Kefornied states is " Lutheranizing."
1. Zuru-h, 1525, 15:i5, IGT5; lierne, 1528, 1581; Basel, 1.'529;
Schatlhausen, 1592. 2. Forms of I'rayer attached to Ge-
nevan Catechism, 1541-45: Neucliutel, ITKi; Liturgy of
French Protestant Clninli, Charleston. 3. Palatinate. 15fi3;
Hessen, 1539, 1566, 1657, 1748; Berg, 1769. See Ebrard.
Reformirtes Kirchenbuch (2d ed. 1890); Liturgie, 1843;
Uaujel, vol. iii. ; Ilarnack, Reiil-Encyilopddie. 2, vii., 723.
Later History of Lutheran .Service. — The elevation (1539)
and mass vestments (Xuremberg. 1801) were given up. The
debates of the Interim period (1548-55) made the Uoman
Catholic antithesis distinct. Trent confirmed it. The
Thirty Years' war destroyed all good order. Pietism un-
dervalued externals, nationalism had no heart in worship.
The Xew Prussian Liturgy (1816, 1822) marked a revival of
liturgical interest. Us author, Frederick William III., awak-
ened by Xapoleonic wars, siiid that "all tlu; new liturgies
have forsaken the historical foiimlalion. We must go back
to Father Luther. ... I have the nld liturgy with the old
Bible. The Christian Church has lia<l it from the begin-
ning; Luther and his coadjutors reformed it." It is Luth-
eran in outline, but omits the Lord's Prayer in the Holy
Supper, and inserts the formula of distribution: "Jesus
says. Take, eat," etc., intended to serve both Lutherans and
Reformed. It aroused debate (against it, Schleiermacher ;
Marheineke. Eylert, Ammoii, Augusti defended it). New
liturgies followed in Baden, 1831; Prussia, 1832; Saxony,
1842; Nassau, Wiirtemberg, 1843; Brandenburg, 1853; Ba-
varia, 1857; Saxonv, 1878. Private compositions: Bunsen's
Capitoline liturgy, 1828; Pasig, 1851 ; Lohe, 1844, 1884; Petri
(llanoveriaii), 1852; Friihbiisz (Pomeranian), 1854; Ilom-
mel, 1851 ; Allgemeines Oebetbuch (Leipzig, 1884) ; of United
Church, Stier, 1852; of Hcformed Church, Hugues, 1846.
In, United .States. — Millileiilierg introduced a liturgy of
pronounced Lutheran t,y|>e in 1748. This was modified in
1786. The first English Ijutheran liturgy was meager. At
the Pennsylvania Synod of 1860, and in' the Church Bnok.
1808, a return to the Lutheran type was made. .So Book of
Worship, 1864, Missouri Synod's German liturgy, is modeled
on Saxon, The English-speaking bodies in 1878 united in
the preparation of a Common Service Book feu- the use of
Evangi'lical Lutheran congregalions, publislie<l at Columliia,
S. C, and Philadelphia, 1888. This arou.se<l general debate,
but finally hiLS been adopted by all the Lutheran general
bo<lies in the U. S. which use the English tongue, and up to
1893 had run through thirteen editions. It presents the
"full Lutheran service with all its provisions, " according
to the common consent of the pure Lutheran liturgiesof the
sixteenth century," ami is in subslaulial agreement with the
revised services of the Scandinavian churchis {Den .Sven.ska
Psalmboken, .Stockholm, 1873; Kirkesalmeliog, Clirisliania,
1893). It hius been piililislied also in German (Kirchenliuch,
Phihulelphia, 1877; (iemeinsame (iottesdienstordnung, Phil-
adelphia, 1H9:>), and ha.s been translated into .lapancso for
the useof Lutheran missions lhere(Saga, 1894). .See Lutheran
Church /ifei'/pw (Philadelphia) and Lutheran (Quarterly (Get-
tysburg, 1878-92); Richards and Painter, r/ir/«/in;i Worship
(i892); Horn, Outlines uf Liturgies [WM); Feasibiliti/Ofa
.Service for all English-speaking Lutherims; The Lutheran
Sources of the Common iiervice (1891); Schuette, Before the
Altar (1894). E. T. lloKX.
Liiitlpraiid. or Liiitprniid : one of the principal chron-
iclers of the tenth century; b. about 922. belonged to a
noble and distinguished Lombard family, and was educated
at the court of Pavia as page to King Hugo of Italy. Under
Hugo's successor. Bercngarius. he was made chancellor and
sent on a diplomatic mission to Constantinople in 949.
Afterward he fell into disgrace, entered the service of the
Emperor Otho I., and was by him made Bishop of Cre-
mona in 961 and enii>loye(i in imjuirtant negotiations with
the pope and the Byzantine court. I), in 972. Three works
by him have come down to us. and have great value as his-
torical sources: Aniapudosis, in six books, a narrative of
the events from 886 to 950, evidently written in order to
avenge himself upon Bercngarius and his ([ueen. Willa: De
Rebus Gestis Ottonis Magni imperatoris (960-64); and
Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana (968). They are
all fouiul in Pertz, Monitmenta (iermaniie Ilistorica. See
Kiipke, De Vita et Scriptis Liudprandi (Berlin, 1842).
Livadia. le"e-vaa dee-ali (in Gr. Ae;8aSeia) : tcjwn of Greece ;
in the Home of Attica and Bo'otia; picturesquely situated
on the Hercyna; was the principal town of Greece under
the Ottomans. Near by are the cave of Trophonius, an-
ciently l:imiius for its oracle, and a curious castle of the
thirteenth century in ruins. Po]). (1890) 6,465. E. A. G.
Liver [(). Eng. lifer : Icel. lifr : O. II. Germ, lebara >
Mod. Germ, leber: tir. ^irap:Lat. /erHr:Fr. foie^•. a large
gland in the vis<eral cavity of all vertebrates. In man it
weighs about 5 lb., and is situated on the right side, imme-
diately below the diaphragm, but extends beyond the mid-
dle line to the left side. It reaches, superiorly, the sixth
rib, while its anterior border inferiorly aiiproaches the lower
margin of the thorax. The form is llattened, broad and
thick toward the right extremity, and thinner and narrower
toward the left. The superior surface is convex, while the
inferior surface is irregularly conclave. Upon the posterior
border the liver is thick and rounded, with a thin and sharp
anterior border. In the abdonu'ii the position is oblique;
in the erect posture the convex surface is directed upward
and forward, with the concave downward and backward.
The diaplirairm. covering the superior convex surface, sepa-
rates till' liver from the under surface of the right lung and
from the heart. The inferior concave surface is in relation ■
with the stomach anteriorly, a portion of the duodenum,
transverse colon, and right kidney, and by its left extremity
with the upper end of the spleen. The diaphragm inter-
venes between the vertebral column and po.steriiu' border
of the liver, while the anterior border is free, and in rela-
tion with the anterior abdominal wall. The liver possesses
five ligamenls, by means of which it is retained in place,
calle<l the liroad, the coronary, the two lateral, and the
round ligament. By five fissures, named longitudinal,
fi.ssiirc f(M- the ductus venosus, transverse fissure, fissure for
gall-bladilcv, and fissure for the vena cava, the liver is divided
into five lobes; these lobes are designated right and left
lobe, loluis (jiiadratus, lobus Si>igelii, and lobiis caudatus.
The liver is covered by the peritoneum externally ; the folds
of this meml)rane as it passes from the surface of the organ
form four of the ligaments above enumerate<l. The round
ligament is the result of the obliteration of the umbilical
vein of the fa>tus. The proper coat of the liver is a dense
but thin fibrous membrane, very adiiereut to the substance
of the organ, and in intimate relation with the peritoneum,
Attached to the liver, in the shallow fussa ii|ion the under
surface of the right lobe, lying parallel with the longitudi-
nal fissure, is a membranous .sac, the gall-bladder. The
gall-bladder is divided into a body, fundus, and neck. The
boily is the mid<lle |>ortion; the fundus the expanded ex-
tremity which approaches Ihi' notch in the fne border of the
liver; the ne<'k the |)ortion which, narrowing, entersihe right
extremity of the I ransverse fissure and formsthe cystic duct.
The cystic duct is about IJ inches in length, and has the
diameti'r of a crow's (luill. At the transverse fissure the
duel uniles wil h the exerelory duct of the liver, the hepatic
(/«r^ forming by this junction the ductus communis chole-
docus. The ductus communis choledocus, with a length of
3 inches, j)a.sses downward and opens inti) the dnodeiuim,
pa.ssing oiiliquely between its coats. For the minute anat-
omy of the liver and gall-bladder, see HisToLouv.
LIVER
LIVERPOOL
307
Tilt Fiinrtions of tlie Liver. — Tin; liver as a gland stands
alone in the ecdnoniy, on account of the coMiplexily of
function which it possesses. The physiology of glands in
general points to but one function for each ; in tlie case of
the liver, lii>\vcvcr, may be cuunici-ated (1) llie secretion of
bile, and (d) the glycogenic or sugar-producing projierty.
Under the head of bile is included both a secretion of im-
portance to digestion — in fact, necessary for life — as well as
important excretion.
How is t/ie Bile iSecre/ed ? — The old theory that the small
glands in the lining membrane of the gall iluct secrete the
bile is inciirrect, as these same glands arc met with in all mu-
cous membranes, and simply produce mucus. There is no
anatomical or physiological evidence that the bile is secreted
anywhere but in the lobules or acini by means of the hepatic
cells. At this point the small bile-capillaries take up the
material and carry it to the duodenum through the ductus
communis choledocus, and a portion to the gall-bladder for
future use. A question of interest arises as to whether the
bile is formed from venous or arterial blood. The hepatic
artery has been tieil, and bile was secreted still. From the
experiments of Ore it is shown that when the portal vein is
obliterated bile continues to be formed from the blood of
the hepatic artery. Hence we conclude that bile may be
formed from either venous or arterial blood, but the portal
blood is doubtless the more important, the hejiatic circulation
being designed more especially for the nutrition of the liver.
Quantifi/ of Bile. — F'rom experiments on animals, with a
fistula in the gall-bladder and the ductus communis chole-
docus tied, it has been estimated that the rpumtity of bile
secreted in twenty-four hours in a healthv man varies from
20 to 50 oz.
Flow of the Bile. — During the period in which the diges-
tive functions are inactive the gall-bladder is constantly
receiving bile from llie liver. As soon, however, as stomach
digestion is completed, and the food passes into the duo-
denum by means of the distentled condition of the sur-
rounding organs, a sufficient amount of pressure is exerted
upon the walls of tlie gall-bladder to force out the bile,
through the cluctus communis choledocus, into the small
intestine. The flow of bile continues during the period of
intestinal digestion, after which no more passes into the
duodenum ; the gall-bladder still receives this fluid from
the liver, and in this manner it is store<l up for future use.
The bile, then, is constantly formed by and discharged
from the liver. This peculiarity belongs "to the liver, for it
is a well-established fact that secreting glands are only ac-
tive at certain times, their functions not being constantly
required. The quantity secreted, however, increases during
the digestive processes.
Properties of the Bile. — See Bile. We have already re-
ferred to the functi<ms of the liver, and have seen tliat it
secretes bile and forms sugar. Let us first consider the
functions of the bile. In the first place, it is a secretion
formed from the blood by the liver, and discharged into the
alimentary canal for purposes of digestion. Here, after
modifying the digestive process, a part is absorbed into the
system, and a part (cholesterin) passes out of the econ-
omy. That the bile is necessary to life is seen in the fact
that when this fluid is allowed to escape through a fistula an
animal will die of inanition in from twenty-seven to thirty-
eight days. Physiologists are not yet certain (^f the exact
action of the bile as a digestive fluid ; some considering
that it is for the purpose of causing the movements of the
intestine (peristaltic action), others that it supplies alkalin-
ity to the absorbitig vessels of the villi, which hastens the
introduction of fat into the blood : while, on the other hand,
it has been claimed that the bile forms an emulsion with
fats to a great extent, and in this manner aids the secretion
from the pancreas, so as to completely digest fatty materi-
als. We can only state that the bile p<'rforms some part in
the digestive process, and it is probable that each theory
represents part of the truth. The biliary salts, with certain
other constituents of the bile, arc absorlicd in the intestine,
as they can not be found in the fieces, and are not seen to
accunnulate in the blood when the liver is diseased or ex-
tir])ated.
The Bile as an E.rcrelion. — Although it is well known
that cholesterin is found in small ipumtity in the crystal-
line lens and spleen, by far the larger amount is met with
in the brain and nervous system. FiXperiments have shown
that the Ijlcioil acquires cholesterin in passing through the
brain and nerves of the exlremities, and therefore there can
be no doubt that the blood takes up this substance from the
nervous system generally : the cholesterin representing the
worn-out nerve-tissue, as urea does that of muscle.
The Olt/cngenic or Siigur-forminy Fimctiiin of the Liver.
— In l^S-18 licrnard, the ilUistricius French |jhysi(jlogist,
showed that the blood coming frum the liver contained
sugar of the variety found in the uriu(' of persons suffering
from difihete.t metlitu.t. When an animal is fed exclusively
upon animal food, which contains no sugar, and the blood
going to the liver is examined carefully, no sugar is to be
found in it; but when the blood coming from the liver is
analyzed, sugar is always present, even though the time
were chosen when the digestive function was quiescent ; in
fact, in .starving animals the blood of the hci)ati(' veins
always contain sugar. These experiments point to the fact
that the blood accpiires sugar in its passage through the
liver. Hernard further examined the blood from various
parts of the body, made extracts of all the tissues, and
found sugar only in the tissue and blood of the liver. As
the blood passes from the hepatic veins it becomes mingled
with that of the vena cava, ami in its passage through tlie
lungs the sugar either entirely or in great part disa|ipears.
We can then conclude that the liver, unlike any other gland
in the body, is a secreting as well as an excreting organ,
and, like the ductless glands, it forms a substance (sugar)
which is delivered directly into the blood. For diseases of
the liver, see Calculus, Hepatitis, and Jaundice.
Revised by William Pkiter.
Livermore, Abiel Abbot, D. D. : religious writer; b. at
Wilton, N. H., Oct. 30,1811; educated at Exeter; gradu-
ated at Harvard College 1883. and at the Divinity School
1836; settled in Keene, N. II., 1836, in Cincinnati IHoO; in
1857 removed to Yonkers and became editor of The Chris-
tian Inquirer, a Unitarian paper in Mew York ; liecame
1863 president of the Theological School at Jleadville, Pa.,
and continued in this office until 1889. D. at Wilton, X. II.,
Nov. 28, 1893. Mr. I^ivermore was a contributor to maga-
zines, and the author of several works : ^1 Commentary on the
New 7'(?s/f/menn6 vols.. Boston, 1842-83); Lectures to Young
Men (Keene, N. II.. 1846) ; Tlie JIarriage Offering, a prize es-
say on the Mexican war (Boston, 1850); L)iscourses{lH5i). He
was also one of the compilers of the book of hymns known
as the Cheshire Collection (1845).
Liveriiiore, IMary Ashton : reformer ; b. in Boston,
Mass., Dec. 19, 1821 ; daughter of Timothy Rice and wife of
Daniel P. Livermore, a Universalist minister ; has written
largely for periodicals, labored with much ability in behalf
of the Sanitary Commission during the civil war, and has
taken a prominent position as a writer and public speaker
upon woman suffrage and various social and religious ques-
tions. In 1870 she was editor of The ^yoma?lS Journal at
Boston, Mass. She is the author of Pen Pictures (Chicago,
1865); Tliirtji Years too Late, a temperance story (Boston,
1878); and Mg Story of the ^Yar : a \Voman''s Xarrative of
Four Years' Personal Experience as Nurse in the Union
Army (Hartford, 1888).
Liverpool : city and port of Lancashire, England ; situ-
ated in 53° 24' lat. N., and 3° 0' 1" Ion. W.. on the eastern
side of the estuary of the Mersey; 202 miles X. W. of L(m-
don and 32A miles W. of Manchester (see map of England, ref.
7-F). The etymology of the name of the city is uncertain.
A plausible bill doubtful derivation is that from the Welsh
Llyvrpool, " the expanse of the port," or "the pool of the
confluence." Liverpool is a parliamentary and municijial
borough, also for certain purposes a county in itself and the
seat of a bishopric created in 1880, when the ti)wn was
erected by letters patent into a city. It covers an area of
5,210 acre's, and .sends nine members to the House of Com-
mons, one for each of its nine divisions.
Streets. — Liverpool forms a kind of semicircle, with the
Mersey for its base. The chief streets run mainly X. and S.
Many are broad and handsome, while the houses in many
others of them are commodious and well built. Church
Street and Bold Street are full of handsome shops. Stanley
Road, connecting Liverpool with its iiorihcrn boundary, the
municipal borough of Bootle, and Scotland Roaii are great
thoroughfares. Some of the city parks have attracted to
residence in their vicinity many of the wealthy inhabitants,
but with a wide sea-range, speedily accessilde by steamer
and railway, numbers of business men have residences more
or less distant from the citv. Manv business men are domi-
ciled at Birkenhead, whichi with nearly 100,000 inhabitants,
is exactly opposite Liverpool, and separated from it by the
estuary of tlie Mersey.
308
LIVKUIMOL
The Mrrsft/ and the Docks. — At Liverpool the Mersey is
3 miles from tlie open sen: at its narrowest ])arts, between
the )anilinj,'-stai;e and liirkenheuii, it is three^pnlrlers nf a
mile in width, liut further N. it widens eonsiileraljly, ami is
navi-fable by vessels of the largest ilraujrht. A railway
tunnel ei>nnects Liverpool ami Birkenhead, the space be-
tween the bed of tlie river ami the irown of tlie tnnnel be-
ing at no [loint less tlian 25 feet. It was opened for trallie
in 1886 by the Prince of Wales. The constrnclion of the
tnnnel cost £"1,250,(M»0. Anion;; the wonders of tlie world
are the docks of Liverpool, some fifty in number, with tluir
appurtenances, and it was in Liverpixd tliat the system of
floating docks originated. The groat landing-stage. H.OKi
feet in length and 8U feet in width, winch rises and falls
with the tide, is connected with the shore l)y seven hinged
bridges. Between it and the shore is a floating bridge, 550
feet in length and 35 in width, for vehicles as well as |)edes-
trians, available at all states of the tide. One-half of it is
used for seagoing vessels and t he tenders of the great " linei-s,"
the other for the Mersey ferries, of which there are eight.
The docks extend along the Liverpool sliore of the Mei'sey
for more than (3 miles. The water area is 381 acres, with 25i
miles of quay space. The docks at Birkeidiead. controlled
by the corporation of Liverpool, extend for a mile along the
snore anri inland 3 miles, occupying a water area of l(i+i
acres and 9i miles of quay space, in all 545i acres of water
area and 35 miles of quay. There are also twenty-three
graving docks in which vessels are repaired. The fine Liver-
pool floating dock, the Salthouse Dock, still in existence,
though j>artly rebuilt and enlarged, was opened in 1753. The
largest Liverpool dock, the .Mexandra. at the north end, was
formally opened by the Prince and Princes.s of Wales in 1H81.
It has a water area of 44} acres and quay space of 2i miles,
anil is used chiefly by the largest class of steamships trading
to the U. S. and the Kast Indies. The Albert Dock, opened
by the Prince Consort in 1846, is surrounded with ranges of
fire-proof warehouses, five floors each with vaults below the
quays, the total superficial area of these five floors with
quays and vaults benig 25 acres. At the south end of these
systems is the llerculaneum Dock, opened in 18(>0, and re-
opened after enlargement in 1881, The petroleum niaga-
zme here is said to be the largest in the world, and capable
of holding 60,(K1I) barrels. The total area of the dock es-
tate in Livenxiol is 1,104 aCres, of which 732 are occupied
by graving-docks. d(jck-quays, sheds, warehouses, etc. A
double line of railway, about G miles in length, runs from
N. to S. on the eastern margins of the dock-quays, with
branches to the various railway stations. Over this ground
railway runs the overhead electric railway, opened by the
Marquis of Salisbury in 1893, with thirteen stations along
the route. Between the docks and the city there is a con-
tinuous broail road with streets leading to the main city
thoroughfares. an<l ali>ng the greater portion of the river-
wall there is a marine parade which can be used as a public
promenade.
Public Buildings. — The town-hall, reconstructed after a
fire in 1795 at a cost, with the furniture, of fl 10,000, is
Classical in style, and contains a spacious council chamber
and a saloon for civic hospitality. The municipal offices
(186G), a quadrangular edifice also in the Classic slyle. cost
about ilOO.OOO. At the north end is a tower 210 feet high.
The E.xchange buildings (18fi4), in the French Kenaissance
style, have an insiile colonnade surrounding a qmi<lrangle,
locally known as The Flags, in which the markets for cotton
and general produce are held. The custom-house, post-
ofTices, and dock offices occu|)y a pile of buildings in the
Ionic slyle, with a fine dome. The (Jovernment buddings
form a block in the Italian style, containing the olliees of
the Inland Keveuue, the county anil probate courts, etc. St.
George's Hall is Ihe finest edifice of the kind in the prov-
inces. It was finished in 1)S54 at a cost of £400000. The
general style of the buihling is Corinthian. Its principal fa-
cade is more than 400 feet in length. Its great hall,lt)9 feet
by 74, contains a fine organ and seats 2.500 persons. There
is another hall which will seal 1. 000. The rest of Ihe Imilil-
ing contains the ;issi/.e and other law courts, with a law
library. In Ihe area in front are ecpiestrian statues of Ihe
Queen and the Prince Consort, and between them a statue
of Lord Beaconsfield.
Piihlic and Other InKtiliiHnns. — The Free Public Library
ami Museum (1M57-04) occupy a slime buililing of the Co-
rinthian order. The institutions themselves arc maintained
by lijcal rales. The Picton ri'ailing-rooin.erictiil liy Ihr cor-
poration, is to the Fni- Library what the reading-room of
the British Muscnin is to its library. The reference liVirary
contains more than 102,000 volumes. The Picton reading-
room ccmneets the lilirary and museums with the Walker
Art Ciallery (1874-77). 'I'he Koyal Institnlion (1814-17) eon-
tains a natural history niuseuni ami a valuable collection of
pictures. The Athen.eum has a library of 40,000 volumes.
The observatory, on Uidstou Hill, is mainlained by the Mer-
sey d(K-ks and harbor board. The Philharmonic Hall, be-
longing to the Liverpool I'hilhariuonic Society, will hold
nearly 3,000 pereons. The largest of the thealei-s, the Alex-
andra theater and t>pera-honse (18(5(i), is in the Italian style.
The Wellington Rooms (1815) have been called the .Mniaeks
of Livi^rpool, and are managed by a committee. Belonging
to the corporation are the Botanic (iardeiis, II acres, and
there are seven parks covering several hundred acres, and
the Mount, a public pi-omenade of 4 acres. There are in
Liverpool more than 130 hospitals and philanthropic insti-
tutions. Among them are tlic Sailors" Home (1852). with
about 7,000 boarders ; the Koyal Infirmary, founded in 1745,
and open toall; the Liverpool liifirmarv for children (1851-
70): the Northern Hospital (1833-34) ; Ihe Koyal Southern
Hospital: and the Liverpool Stanley Hospital (1867).
Chnrehes and Chapels. — There are 100 Anglican churches
in Liverpool. The Church of .St. Peter, in Church Street
(1704), is used as the cathednd <-liur<di of the diocese. The
Roman Cat holies have 44 churches and the Presbyterians
28. the Methodists, of all branchi's, 74 chiqu'ls. the Congre-
gationalisls 28 chapels, the Baptists 27, Ihe rnitarians 6, the
Friends have 2 meeting-houses, there is a (J reek church, and
there are 4 synagogues. Of Ihe several cemeteries the most
striking in its picturesque irregularity is St. James's.
Educational. — Liverpool L'niversilv College (1882), form-
ing part of the Victoria University, ^lanchester, is on Mt.
Pleasant, ami its buildings occupy 4 a<'res. It combines in-
struction in all the liranches of a liberal education with the
teaching of science, theoretical and imictical, and with tech-
nical and industrial training. An imporlaut medical school
is coniicctecl with it. Liverpool College (1840-43) is in con-
nection with the Church of England. Among other educa-
tional institutions are Liverpool College for (iirls, the (!oy-
ernmeiit Sc^hool of Art (1837-83), Liver[iool Nautical College
(1802), and St. Edward's Roman Catholic College for young
men (18-12). The school board has established 25 board
schools, but these are ontnuiMbercd by the 87 national schools
(Church of England), and the Roman Catholic schools, of
which there are 4:J. There are some 22 industrial and re-
formatory schools, with a few ragged schools. Si.xtcen news-
papers (I! daily) and periodicals are ]iul)lished.
Oovernment. — Liverpool is governeil by a corporation con-
sisting of a mayor (on whom in 1893 Ihe ilignity of lord
mayor was conferred by letters jmleiil) with forty-eight
councilors, elected l)y the burgesses in sixteen warrls. and
sixteen aldermen elected by the council. It is a wealthy
and progressive corporation.
('(immerce and Sliip/iiny. — The commerce and shipping
of Liverpool are larger than those of any other port in the
I'nited Kingdom. Ilsinqiorts are less in value than those of
London, but its exports are larger, and its exports and im-
jiorts are more eipially balanced. Its commerce wilh the
V. S. is greater than with any other country. The total ton-
nage of all the vessels (exclusive of the coasting lrade)which
entered and cleared at LiverjicMil in 1892 wiis 11,119,976
tons and of these 5,346,263 tons rejire.si'nled vessels bound
for or coming from the U. S. Besides its general commerce
with the U. S., Liverpool sends lo them large nnnd'ci's of
emigrants, for which it is the chief jiort of embarkation.
The imporls of forciirn ami colonial produce inio the rnited
Kinirdoin in 1892 were nf the value of f423,7!l3.Kf(2, of which
Liverpool received fl(l9.3t7,3.-|4. Tliev included 14,863,493
cwl. of raw cotton, 20.376,294 ewl. of 'wheat, 8,!)17,'203 ewt.
of Indian <(>rn, 271.<iH« live cattle and sheep. 3,22t),831 cwt. of
ba I and ham. 5.999.985 cwl. of unrefined sugar, '29,009,588
lb. of unnmnufactured tobacco, 30,41 (i,283 cwt. of leather.
Tlu' amount of the custom duties paiil at Liverpool in 1892
on Ihe fewarticles on which they are levialile in Ihe I'nited
KingdoTn was t'2.95H.40S. lu-arly a Ihirdof Ihe sum received
byliieLondon custom-house, 'j'lie value of the pripduce and
inanufaclures of the United Kingdom exjiorted from it iu
IS92 was f226.075,173. Of this produce to the value of
t'90.167.3(!2 was exported from Liverpool. The value of the
foreign and colonial nierchanilise ixporled from Ihe Unitetl
Kingdom in Ihe same year was .l't!4.5(i:!.113; Ihe value of
that exported by Llverpodl alone was nearly a fifth. t'Ui,-
147,483. The exports included cotton piece-goods valued
LIVERPOOL
LIVINGSTON
309
I
at £35,693,388; linen piece-goods valued at £2,148,946;
woolen tissues and worsted stuffs valued at £7,165,941 ; iron,
raw and manufactured, valued at £7,554,636 : cliemical
products valued at £2,175.762; and salt valued at £432,671.
Four thousand two hundred and seventy-two vessels (e.\clu-
sive of the coasting trade) entered the port in 1892. They
were mostly British vessels, and chiefly helonging to Liver-
pool, which is registered as possessing 2,333 vessels, of 2,095,-
491 tons collectively, and of these 987 are steam vessels of
1,087,388 tons collectively. Besides its foreign commerce,
Liverpool has a large coasting trade. Of vessels engaged in
this in 1892 there entered Liverpool 12,782, of 2,656,239 tons
collectively, and there cleared from it 13,143, of 3,210,308
tons collectively.
General Industry. — There is some ship-building in Liver-
pool. The various processes connected with ship-building
and ship-fitting employed 3,875 persons. There are also es-
tablishments for the construction of marine engines and of
machinery generally. In 1893 they employed 4,473 fjersons.
Although other industries are carried on, such as sugar-re-
fining, tobacco-manufacturing, and watch and chronometer
making, those connected with commerce, the docks, and
navigation are the most important. Liverpool has four-
teen banks.
Population. — The population in 1801 was 77,653. In 1851
it was 375,955; in 1891, through increase of area, the bor-
ough had a population of 517,951. The population of Greater
Liverpool, as it mav be called, which was 670,304 in 1881,
had increased in 1891 to 708,742. In 1891 the total foreign
population of the urban sanitary district, which is smaller
than Greater Liverpool, was 7,402. In 1892 the death-rate
was 25'9, being 5-7 higher than that of London.
History. — The earliest notices of Liverpool date from the
English conquest of Ireland. King John founded it as a
town, and made use of it for sending re-enforcements to Ire-
laiul. Its history for centuries "was unimportant. It was
not until 1709 that its population, having grown to a few
thousand, the accoinmodaticjn afforded by its little harbor
was increased through the erection of a wet dock. Later in
the century it embarked in the slave-trade, of which it be-
came the heailquarters, and it prospered greatly by nefarious
traffic, exporting Negroes to the West Indies in exchange for
their sugar and other products. When the slave-trade was
suppressed a more legitimate channel for the energies of the
merchants was opened by the development of the Lancashire
cotton-manufacture and of cotton-growing in the L". S.,
Liverpool importing from the U. S. the cotton needed for
that industry. The canal system, originated by the Duke
of Bridgewater, gave Liverpool water communication with
the chief marts of Northwestern England. The Liverpool
and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, added to its pros-
perity, and the growth of railways since then has placed it
in communication with all i)arts of the ignited Kingdom.
See the authorities mentioned under Laxcasuike; also
Sir J. Allanson Picton's Jlejnorials of Liverpool (1873) ;
Harbours and Docks, by L. F. Vernon Hareourt (1885) ;
Kelly's Directory of Liverpool and Birkenhead (1884) ;
County Council and JIunicipal Directory for 1SS4; parlia-
mentary papers, etc. F. Espisasse.
Liverpool: seaport of Nova Scotia; capital of Queen's
County ; has considerable trade in fish and lumber (see map
of Quebec, etc., ref. 3-B). The town is well built and at-
tractive. It has a good harbor, into which Uows the river
Mersey. It has one weekly newspaper, a bank, and a light-
house on Coffin's island ; lat. 44° 3' N., Ion. 64° 36' W. Pop.
(1891) 2,465.
Liverpool : village ; Onondaga eo.. N. Y. (for location of
county, see map of New York, ref. 4-F) ; on the Onondaga
Lake,'the Oswego Canal, and the Rome, Water, and Ogdens.
Railroad; 44 miles N. of Syracuse. It has several mills,
willow-basket factories. cigar-factories, silver-metal factories,
and solar salt-works. There are five churches and a weeklv
newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,350 ; (1890) 1,'284 ; (1893) estimated
with suburbs, 3,000. Editor of ■' TELEORAPn."
Liverpool, Charles Jexkixsox, First Earl of : states-
man; b. in Oxfordsliire, England, May 16. 1727; educated
at Oxford ; entered Parliament, and became I'nder Secre-
tary of State in 1761. Having secured the favor of the
king, he rose rapidly in the official senice. lie was Secre-
tary of State for the \A'ar Department in Lord North's ad-
ministration from 1778 to 1782, in which capacity he had
much to do with determining the course of military opera-
tions in the U. S. during the closing years of the war of in-
dependence in North America. On retiring from this office he
joined the jiarty of the younger Pitt, by whom he was ap-
pointed in 1784 President of the Board of Trade. He held
that post during the whole seventeen years of Pitt's first ail-
ministration. He was created Baron Hawkesburv in 1786,
and Earl of Liverpool June 1, 1796. I), in London. Dec. 17,
1808. He published a Collection of all (he Treaties of
Peace between Great Britain and ot her Powers from l(ji8 to
1783 (3 vols., 1785).
Liverpool, Robert Baxkes Jexkixsox, Second Earl of :
statesnum ; b. in London. June 7, 1770 ; educated at Oxford ;
entered Parliament in 1791, and took rank as a ready de-
bater. He was ap[)ointed Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs in the Addington cabinet, and negotiated theTreatv
of Amiens in 1801. He became Home Secretary under Pitt
anil on the hitter's death in 1806 declined the premici-ship,
but accepted it on the assassination of Mr. Perceval in 1812,
and remained at the head of the administration until an at-
tack of paralysis occasioned his resignation in Apr., 1827.
These fifteen years were marked by a retrograde policy on the
part of the ministry and by discontent on the part of the
people. Though he was respected by his opponents for sin-
cerity. Lord Liverpool's statesmanship was not of a high
order, and his policv was completely reversed by his suc-
cessor. D. Dec. 4, 1828. F. M. Colby.
Liverworts : popular name of certain green plants re-
lated to the Mosses. They form one of the classes of Mo.ss-
WORTS {q. v.).
Livery of Seizin ; See Feoffmext.
Liv'ia Drusil'la: the wife of the Emperor Augustus
and the daughter of L. Livius Drusus Claudianus, who died
by his own hand after the defeat at Philippi. Livia was
married at an early age to Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom
she had two sons, Tiberius (afterward emperor) and Drusus.
While still pregnant with the latter she was married to Oc-
tavian (Augustus), who had been captivated by her beautv
and her talent, and who to bring about this union had divorced
his own wife Scribonia. and compelled Tiberius Nero to di-
vorce Livia. The union with Augustus seems to have been
a happy one, but ancient historians make it appear that her
ambition to secure the succession for her own sons caused
her to commit many crimes in order to remove the mend)ers
of the family of Augustus, to whom the succession wouid
naturally have fallen. Thus the death of the young Mar-
cellus, nephew and adopted son of Augustus (to whose mem-
ory a remarkable passage of the sixth book of the uS^neid is
devoted), and of Lucius and Gains Ciesar, sons of Agrippa,
was charged to her machinations, nor was she free from
the suspicion of having hastened the end of Augustus him-
self. Meantime her surviving son, Tiberius, had been
adopted by Augustus, who designated Livia and Tiberius as
his principal heirs. On her son's succession to the imperial
dignity Livia continued for a long time to exercise great in-
fluence, so much so that at first it seems to have been feit
that Tiberius was subservient to her will ; but in fact Tibe-
rius, while considerate of his mother, always maintained an
attitude of independence toward her in all affairs of state,
and thus by degrees a spirit of alienation grew up between
them which increased so much with years that Tiberius re-
fused to visit her on her death-bed, or even to execute the
directions of her wOl. She died at an advanced age (per-
haps eighty-six) in the year 29 a. d. G. L. Hexdricksox.
Livingston : city ; capital of Park co., Mont, (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Montana, ref. 6-G); on the Yel-
lowstone river, and the N. Pac. Railroad ; 100 miles E. of
Heliina, the Slate capital. It is connected with the National
Park by a branch railway; contains 5 churches, 3 public
schools, electric lights, water-works, 3 hotels, boartl of trade,
and 3 weekly newspapers ; and has railway-car shops, anil
large farming, stock-raising, and coal and gold mining in-
terests. Pop. (1880) not in census; (1890) 2.850; (1893) esti-
mated, 3,300. Editor of •' Herald."
Livingston, Edward : jurist and politician; b. at Cler-
mont, Columbia co., N. \., May 26, 1764; was a son of
Judge Robi-rl R. Livingston (1718-75); graduate<l at Prince-
ton in 1781, and began the practice of law in New York.
Having the advantages of family influence and natural
ability, he rapidly gained distinction in his profession, and
became prominent in local and national politics; was twice
mayor of New York ; judge of a municipal court, and from
1795-1801 a prominent JefTersonian member of Congress.
Owing to pecuniary troubles he removed in 1804 to New
310
I.IVINUSTOX
I.IVY
Orleans, where ho altahieil a lirilhaiit rejuitalimi us a law-
yer, and acquireil sullitieiit wealth to Jischarffe all claims
aeainst him. Mr. Livinp^ton spetit many years in |piv|iariii(;
civil and criminal codes for Louisiana, which were his chief
literary labors, and won for him a wide fame in Europe and
in Siianish America, lie was a meml)er of I'onpress 1822-
29; r. S. Senator 182!l-ai ; Secretary of Stale lWl-33;
minister to France 18;J3-;W. He afterward resided at Hhine-
beck, X. Y., where he died May 23, 1836. Ilis works on
jurisprudence were published in^fcw York in 1873. See his
Ai'/f.bv C H. Hunt (1864): and Itecollrctions of Liriiigsfon,
by M. l)avezao. Kcvised by K. .STiRciKs Ai.le.n.
Livincrston. Philip: a si};ner of the Declaration of In-
dependence : b. at Albany, X. Y., Jan. 15, 1716 ; graduated
at Vale in 1737 ; becjiine a prosperous merchant and ollicial
of Xew York city : was Speaker of the House of the Colonial
liepislature in 1768. a member of the Continental Congress
1774-78, and president of the provincial Congress 1775.
Member of the Xew York General Assembly in 1776, and of
the first State Senate 1777. He was one of the founders of
the Xew York Chamber of Commerce and of the Society
Library, and materiallv aided Yale and Columbia Colleges.
U. at York, Pa., June 12, 1778.
Lirinpston, Robkrt K.. LL. D., known as ChanecOor
Livingston: statesman: b. in Xew York, Nov. 27, 1747; a
son of Judge Kobert K. Livingston and a brother of Kdward
Livingston, jurist ; graduated at King's (now Columbia)
College in 1765 : became a successful lawyer; was recorder
of New York 1773-75: a member of the Continental Con-
gress 1775-77 anil 1779-81: was on the committee which
reported the Declaration of Independence ; was Secretary
of Foreign Affairs 1781-83; chancellor of New York 1777-
1801 ; was a prominent member of the New York conven-
tion of 1788 which adopted the Constitution of the U.S.;
was instrumental, while L'. S. minister to France (1801-04),
in effecting the purchase of Louisiana; was the assistant of
Fulton in perfecting steam-navigation; was one of the in-
troducers of merino sheep into the U. S., and held various
iiublic positions with great efficiency. D. at Clermont, N. Y.,
■'eb. 26, 1813.
Litin^ston, William, LL. D. : statesman; a brother of
Philip; b. at Albany. X. Y., in 1723; graduated at Yale in
1741 ; became a jirominent lawyer and journalist; removed
in 1773 to Elizabethtown, N. J., and was elected in 1774 and
1775 to the Continental Congress. lie became brigadier-
general of militia in 1775, and in the following year was
elected Governor of New Jersey, an office which he held
until his deatli. During the war, when the British occupied
the State, he fulfilled his duties with courage and ability.
lie was a member of the convention which in 1787 drew up
the Federal Constitution. His writings, consisting of news-
paper articles and pamphlets, prove him to have possessed
considerable literary talent. See his Life and Li-l/ers, by
Theodore Sedgwick, Jr. (New York, 1833). D. at Elizabeth-
town, N. J., July 25, 1790.
Livingstone. Davtd, M.D., LL. D. : missionary and ex-
plorer; b. at Blantyre, near Glasgow, Scotland, Mar. 19,
1H1:J. His parents were very poor, and could give him no
aid to accjuire a scholarly education. His religious enthusi-
asm, however, in connection with a passion for traveling in
foreign countries, created early the idea of a missionary life
in his mind ; and first by attending an evening school while
employed during the day in the cotton-mills, and later on
by working hard during the summer and studying iluriiig
tlie winter, he contriveifto prepare himself thoroughly for
his task. In 1838 he offered his services as a missionary to
the London Jlissionary Society, and in 1840 was ordained
and proceeded to Kuruman in South Africa. He was en-
gaged in the service of the London .Society for si.\teen years,
and meanwhile married the daughter of the Hev. Robert
Moffat, the distinguished missionary. In 1849 he ma<le his
first journey of exploration, and discovered and surveyed
Lake Xgami. He started (18.53) on the great journey that
made him famous. His salary was only .f3(X) a year when
the heathen .Makololo chief, Sekeletu, gave him men, ivory,
and trading commissions that enabled him (1853-.56) in
travel from the Zambesi to Loanda on the west coast and
then to retrace his steps across the continent to the mouth
of the Zambesi. He returned to England and wrote his
Mixsionary Travels and Kexeiirrhes in South Africa, which
made his name well known. In 18.58 he returned to Africa,
and, supported by the Government and accompanied by
several scientific associates, ho started on an exploring jour-
ney lip the Zambesi and .Shire rivers, the greatest results
of which were the tliscovcry of Lakes Nyassa and Shirwa,
and the salubrious Hlanlyre llighland.s. His wife, who was
with him, died at Shupanga (1864). He then spent nearly
two years (1864-65) at home publishing A Xarralive uf an
Expfditiun to the /Cambrxi. Livingstone returned to Africa
(1866) to discover the ultimate sources of the Nile. Little
was heard Irom him during the seven remaining years of
his life, but they were years of great discoveries, and, in part,
of great privations and suffering. He was destitute of means
to send tidings to his friends, and the most direful rumors of
his fate were spread abroad. The Xew York Herald's Living-
stone search-party, commanded by Henry M. Stanley, found
the explorer (1871) at Lake Tanganyikiu He could not be
induced to return home, but worked on till he died, having
no resources part of the time except what the natives gave
him. In these seven years he discovered and partly mapped
the large eastern system of Congo sources, beginning with
the Chambezi river near Lake Nyassa. Following these
rivers for hundreds of miles, discovering Lakes Bangwcolo
and Moero, through which they run, and ileterred at Nyang-
we from following the Congo to the .sea only by lack of
means, he believed to his death that the large part of the
upper Congo water-system he had traced belonged to the
Nile. His map of Lake Bangwcolo. derived chieffy from'
natives and long used in all maps of Africa, was very erro-
neous. Had he lived a few weeks after his return to Bang-
wcolo he. and not (liraud. would have supplied a more cor-
rect nitip; but he died (May 1. 1873) on its southern shore.
His heart was buried where he died, and his embalmed body
was carried by his servants to the coast, whence it was taken
to England and buried with imposing ceremony in West-
minster Abbey. Ho was, as a rule, remarkably accurate in
his geographical delineations, considering his imperfect in-
struments. His keen powers of careful observation gave his
books enduring value. He never injureil a native. To him
is wholly due the first great impetus to African exploration
and the first outburst of indignation against the Arab slave-
trade. See Livinffsfone's Last Journals (1874); Blaikie's
Livingstone's Personal Life (1880) ; and Stanley's How I
Found Iiivingstone (1873). Revised by C. C. Auams.
Li'viiis Androni'eus: author; lived in the third century
before our era; was born at Tarentum. a slave of Greek de-
scent. He received his liberty from M. Livius Salinator,
and began to represent tragedies and comedies (which he
composed after Greek inodeL) in Rome about 240 n. r. He
also translated the Odyssey into Latin, and did much to
make the Romans acquainted with Greek literature. In the
time of Horace his compositions were still used in the schools,
but only a few insignificant fragments have come down to
our time, edited by Diiiitzer (Berlin, 1835); 0. Giicnther,
OdyssiiB retiguim (Stettin. 1864): Baehrcns, Frag. Poet.
Horn., pp. 37-43 (Leipzig, 1886); and by Ribbeck. Trag. Lot.
Pell. (Leipzig, 1871). Revised by M. Warrkn.
Livo'nia (Germ. Xip_^fnirf): government of Russia; bor-
<leriiig on the (julf of Livonia, and comprising, together
with the island of Oesel, an area of 18,158 sq. miles. The
surface is low, flat, and often marshy, dotted with numerous
lakes, and covered with forests. Towanl the S. E., how-
ever, it rises and forms a plateau about 500 feet high and
intersected with numerous valleys. The soil is not very
productive. Swamps and peat-bogs occuiiy a large portion
of the ground, and vast sand-wastes stretcli along the Baltic
coast. Rye. barley, oats, buckwheat, flax, and hemp are
raised, anil many cattle reared. In the towns the inhabit-
ants are mostly of German descent, mixed with Russians,
Poles, and Jews; in the country they are of Finnish origin.
Pop. (1890) 1.256.'200. Capital,' Riga. The country was a
Swedish possession from the Peace of Oliva (1660), when it
was conquered from Poland, to the Peace of Nystadt (1721),
when it was ceded to Russia,
Livre, leevr' [Fr. pound < Lat. libra, balance, pound] :
the former French standard unit of weight ; was to the
pound avoirdupois as 17'267 to 16. Also, a former French
coin, superseded in 1795 by the franc, which is to the /lire
tonrnois (the olil standard) as 81 to 80, the Parisian livre
being to these figures nearly as 100. Still other livres were
in use.
Liv'y (in Lat. Titus Livius) : historian ; b. at Patavium, in
Northern Italy, in 59 n. c. ; lived chiefly in Rome, where he
enjoyed the favor of Augustus and inaliiliiineil intimate in-
tercourse with the young Claudius, but returned in his old
age to his native city, and died there in 17 a. d. He was
1.IXIVIATI0X AND LIXIVIUM
LIZARD
311
married, had at least one son and one daugliter, and enjoyed
great celebrity among his contemporaries, lint nothing fur-
ther is known of his personal life. Ai'cording to Seneca, he
wrote several dialogues and essays on philosophy, which have
been lost, but the work by which he won a lasting fame was
his history of Konie from the foundation of the city to the
death of Drusus i) n. c. It consisted originally of 142 hooks,
and the short introductions with which the first, twenly-first,
and thirty-first open seem to indicate that it was divided
into groups of ten books or decades, each decade comjirising
an independent epoch ; but of these 142 books only thirty-
five have come down to us— namely, the entire first decade,
i.-s., embracing the period from the foundation of Rome to
the year 293 B.C.; the entire third decade, xxi.-xxx., em-
bracing the period from 219 b. c. to 201 B.C.; the entire
fourth decade, and one-half of the fifth, xxxi.-xlv., embrac-
ing the period from 201 n. 0. to 167 B. o. Of the rest imly a
few and inconsiderable fragments are still extant ; all the
so-called epitomes, however, short extracts of or indexes to
each book, have been preserved except those to Books 136
and 137. The first printed edition (Rome, 1469) contained
only twenty-nine books — namely, i.-x., xxi.-xxxii., xxxiv.-
xl. The remaining six books were discovered in fragments
in 15bS, 1.^)31, and 1616, and for more than two centuries
the whole learned world was put into general commotion
every now and then by a rumor that the entire work had been
discovered, until in the seventeenth century all libraries had
been ransacked in vain, and all hope of the I'ecovery of the
lost treasure was given up. The best modern editions are
by Drakenboreh (Leyden, 1738-46, and Stuttgart, 1820-28) ;
Madvig and Ussing (Copenhagen, 1861, seq. ; revised 1886,
seq.)\ Weissenborn (Berlin, 1861, sf}.); A. Zingerle (Prague,
1883, seq.) : and A. Luchs (Berlin, 1888, seq.). There arc
English translations by Philemon Holland (1600) ; Baker
(1797) ; John Hayes (1744) ; and in Bohn's Classical Library
(1850). Considered as a work of science, modern scholars
have not given the highest praise to Livy's history ; the
studies on which the representation rests are generally not
exhaustive, and often not accurate. The chronology is
sometimes confused, and the geographical and military de-
scriptions are often inconsistent or misleading ; nor is
Livy strong in tracing the growth of the constitution and
tiie evolution of the state. However, on account of the
scarcity and in many cases the total lack of other historical
documents, the work has an inestimable value, while in the
matter of style it challenges our highest admiration. The
narrative is fluent and picturesque, and full of variety, often
dramatic and brilliant. No writer has shown a greater
mastery of the period. The diction is tinged with a poetic
coloring showing clearly the influence of Vergil. The au-
thor is dominated by a strong feeling of the greatness of
the Roman people, and his ardent patriotism and warm
sympathies captivate the reader. The result of the investi-
gation of Livy's sources in the different ilecades can not be
considered here. See Schanz, liiimische Lit. Geschichte
Sler Theil, p. 184 ff. (Munich, 1892) ; Taine, Essai .mr Tite-
Live (Paris, 1888) ; Capes, Livij (London, 1879) ; Kiihnast,
Ltie Ilaiiptpnnh/e der Liv. Synta.r (Berlin, 1872) ; Riemann,
Etudes sur la lanyue et la grammaire de THe-Live (Paris,
1884). Revised by IM. Warren.
Lixivia'tion and Lixiv'iiim [from Lat. lixi viwn. lye,
liter., neut. of li.a ciiis, made into lye, deriv. of lix, ashes,
lye] : Lixiviation is the method of extracting ingredients
soluble in water from porous substances, like ashes or earth,
by placing the latter in some receptacle, through which
the water may be made to percolate. The vessel for lixivia-
tion usually has a perforated bottom, upon wliich straw or
coarse gravel is fii-st spread, and then the material to be
lixiviated is filled in. All the potash made in the U. S. is
thus obtained from wood-ashes, an<l much of the saltpeter
of commerce similarly from nitrous earth. Much economy
is often arrived at by a construction which enal)lcs the first
water poured on the mass to remain in W. for some time
until it has finished its solvent action, and then drawing ofif
at the bottom. Sometimes then, oy pouring through fresh
water, it will be found soon to run nearly pure. Concen-
trated lyes pre thus obtained without boiling down. The
second water is not allowed to mix with the first, but kept
to pour through a fresh mass of material.
Lizard [M. Eng. hsarde, from 0. Fr. lesarde > Fr. leznrd
< Lat. lacertn, lizard (> Span, lagartu, whence Eng. alliga-
tor)] : a general name for any member of the order Lacer-
tilia, often extended to include not only the crocodiles and
many extinct saurians, but even, in popular parlance, tailed
batrachians, such as newts and salamanders. A lizard is a
tailed reptile, usually with an elongate Ijody, having a scaly
or granular skin, toothed jaws whose rami are firndy united
The anguine or snake lizard of South Africa.
in front, and, as a rule, eyelids and four limbs, although in
exceptional cases, e. g. the blind worm, glass snake, and
scheltopusic. the limbs may be rudimentary or absent. The
serpent-like lizards may readily be distinguished from snakes
by their fixed teeth and the united halves of the lower jaw.
T*he tail may be very short, scarcely longer than the head,
as in the Australian Trachydosaiirus, or several feet long,
as in the great Hydrosaurus. The iguanas have a dewlaj)
and a fringe of high scales down the back, and the curious
lace lizard, Chlamydosaurus (q. v.), has a wide frill about
the neck. Owing to a peculiar arrangement of the mus-
cles the tails of many lizards readily break off. When this
happens the lost portion of the tail is reproduced, but
although externally perfect the missing vertebra' are found
to be replaced by a continuous strip of granular cartilage.
Nearly 2,000 species of lizards are known, ranging in size
from the great teguexin, 6 feet long, to species of 2 or 3
inches in length. Nearly all lizards are oviparous, deposit-
ing their eggs, which are covered with a sliell or tough cal-
careous membrane, in the sand, to be hatched by the heat of
the sun. A few species, however, are ovoviviparous, the eggs
being retained in the oviduct until hatched, and the young
brought forth alive. Lizards are most numerous i"n tropical
Ninible lizard il.ar< rta a(/,/i.M.
and warm countries ; none are found in very cold regions,
and in the temperate zime they pa.ss the winter in a torpid
state. As a rule, they prefer sandy or rocky localities, and
are carnivorous, feeding on small mammals, insect's eggs,
etc. Some species are arboreal and herbivorous, and the
great Amblgrhynchus of the Galapagos islands enters the
31i
UUXGGREX
LLANgriULK
sea and feeds on senweod. With tl»e exception of tlie IIe-
LonKKMA (</. v.). none are |H>isonous. V. A. LriAs.
Ijiiuirirrpn. yotmsr's''''"- <'1-stak HAkax .Tordas, Ph. P.:
oiitK-; li. in Sweden in IJSW : studied at Lnml : frrndiialed
1H44: was in 1S4T aiipdinted Assistant Professor of vKsthet-
irs. anil in l*<o!t I'rofessor of yKstholics and the History of
Literature and Art. In lf<IV) he was eleeted a uu^niher of
the Swedish Aoaderuy. I.junjrfiren's fame as a critic and
writer upon the subjeet of literary history rests not only
upon his ihoroui;!! learning and studies, but also on his
faseinatiiigr way of presenting his subjeet. Chief anions
his writings upon literary history are Srenska dramat in/ill
flutet af ITile arhuitilriidi-t (The History of the Swedish
Drama until the Knd of the Seventeenth Century. "^C^):
Svenxka fitterhelms hafdi-r ff/er Guslaf Ill.'s di'id (Tlu'
Annals of Swedish Literature' after the Death of tiustaf
III.. 3 vols., liST:!-(<6), iiesides several smaller wriliufis —
Bellman vch Fredmanx Epixller (1867) : 3 volumes Smdrre
Skrifttr (.Smaller Writings, 1872-*tl). Ljunggren has ahso
written on topicsofaimrelya'sthetic nature: Frainiiliyiiiiiii/
af de fornamsta exilieliika .ii/nlemer (The Chief /Ksthetic
Systems, 2 vols.: 2d ed. lH6!>^S;t), which is used as a hand-
book in the Swedish universities: Sfudier ofrer Ilulberg
(1864). Finallv mav be mentioned some sketches from Italy,
Fnhi en rem (1871). P. Grotii.
Llama : See Lama.
Lliindlldno. Ian-did nrc a niuch-frequeiitLd watering-
place in Carnarvunshire. North Wales: ijictiiresi|ucly situ-
ated on a sheltered bay of the Irish .Sea. at the mouth of the
Conway (see map of England, ref. 8-E). Two lofty prom-
ontories. Great Orme's Head and Little Orme's Heail, pro-
tect the bav against the sea. The permanent population in
1891 was 7;;i33.
Llaiiel'ly : town of South Wales ; 16 miles S. E. of Caer-
marthen (see map of England, ref. 12-D) ; on a creek of the
Caermarthen Hay, at the mouth of the river Loughcr, and
has numufactures of copper, tin, and iron wares, pottery and
chemicals, extensive liocKs, and a considerable traile in coal.
Pop. (1891) 23,i)37.
Llano Estacado. lyaa'n5-es-ta1i-kaa>lo [Span., palisaded
plain. See Llanos] : a large plateau in Norlliwesturn
Te.\as. (»n nearly all sides it stands above the surrounding
country, from which it is separated by a cliff facing out-
ward, and this clilT or palisade gave rise to its name, which
has been misleadingly translated " staked plain," and sup-
posed to refer to the stake-like boles of a yucca-plant which
grows there. Its general form is quadrangular, with a
length N. and .S, of 4(K) miles, and a width of 7o to 1.^0
miles, but its outline is irregiilar, im-luding many salients
and re-entrants. It is very smooth and apparently level,
but there is an C!U«tward slope averaging 1.5 feet to the mile.
Its surface is constituted of a feebly coherent, sandy forma-
tion of Neocene age, resting unconformably on Triassie
shales and other rocks. The sandstone absorbs all the rain-
fall, so that there are ordinarily no surface-streams ; but the
impervious rocks beneath retain the water in the lower part
of the sand, whence it can be obtained by wells. There are
no trees, but the imtrilious gama-gra-ss abounds, supportirig
an important grazing industry. The climate is so dry that
in the absence of water for irrigation agriculture can not be
pursued. G. K. Gilbert.
Llanos, lyaanos [Span., liter., plains, plur. oill/i nn < Lat.
phi mm. plane, levid, whence V.w^. plain]: in various parts
of Spanish America, tracts of open land of very different
character. In a special and geographical sense, the name
has come to lie usi'd for a vast tract in Venezuela and Co-
lombia, properly tile llanos of the (Orinoco or of Venezuela.
Hroailly speaking, they (K'cupy the space between the river
Orinoco, the coast mountains of Venezuela and the Eastern
Cordillera of Columliia, extending eastward to the Orinoco
delta, westward, by the .\pure basin, nearly to Bogota, and
southwestwaril, arounil the bend of the Orinoco, to the Vi-
cliaila branch of llial river: bc'voiiil the Vichada the iilain
is broken liy woods until it nuTges into the great Amazonian
forest. The entire area has been eslimated at mure than
l.ld.tMH) sq. miles, nnich the larger part being in Vcneznela.
All this region is characlerizi'd by immense stretches of per-
fectly Hat gra-ss land, ami no part of It is more than a few hun-
dred fei't above sea-level: but it is a great mistake to sup-
po.se that the llanos are |K-rfcclly uidforni in character
throughout ; in fact, they vary greatly. The natives always
make a distinction between the llanuH bnjoK, which are
broad river-bottoms, subject to periodical overflows from
the rivei-s Ihemselves, and the llaiius allox, which are above
the reach of such (IoimIs, thcuigh |i(\rtioiis may W inundated
by tlir rains. Again, the llan<vs altos not only present in-
eiiuulilies (linncoK), but are varied in many places by llat-
top|H'd hills. .")(K) or (HKI feet high, evidently the remains of
an old table-land. Along the southern edges of t he Vene-
zuelan mountains these mesas often form a coiiliinious ter-
race : and in one place, at least, they pass entirely across
the Uamis, from the Orinoco, opposite the mouth of the
Caura. to a break in the coast range near Harcelona. The
llanos bajos are green throughout the year, and present, es-
pecially near the Aimre, tlie largest extents of perfectly
open, clean, and lev( I grass-lands, often so great that the
horizon is open in all directions : they are dotted with .shal-
low lakes. siMue of which liry up in the winter months ; dur-
ing the rains they are overflowed in all directions: cattle
wade after the floating gra.<s or retire to the few s|K>ts left
dry : and travelers pa.<s for miles through water u|) to their
saddle-girths: neverthehss. these are the best anil most
productive pastures. The llanos altos are green and beauti-
ful during tlii' rains (.Tune to October), but drvand arid dur-
ing the other months, the winds raising clouds of dust;
cattle pastured on many parts of them must be driven to
the river-bottoms at this season. The lakes of the llanos
altos are little more than pools, but during the rains water
freijuently collects over large surfaces. Eastward, some
portions under the lee of the Cumanii Mountains are so dry
at all tiuu-s that travelers over them are obliged to carry
water,as in a desert. Trees, especially palms, grow scattered
over numy parts of the llanos, or are gathered into small
clumps (mafaa) and lines along the streams. The mesas
often have forest on their edges, but the tops are generally
covered with bushy ro.s/ro/o, similar to the campo growlii
of Brazil. A mullitudc of streams, rising on the flanks of
the mountains or of the mesas, flow over the llaiuis. and
most of them arc navigable at a short distance from their
sources: thus they furnish a network of commuiucatKm
with the Orinoco. The climate in most parts is hot and
damp, but generally healthful in the dry season : during the
rains intermittent fevers and dysentery are prevalent, es-
pecially in the llanos bajos. Animals abound, jaguars, deer,
wild hogs (both the native species and those from European
stock), and a multitude of birds being most )iromiiu'nt : the
jaguars frei|uently destroy cattle. Of the ninnerous Indian
tribes wliicli formerly occupied the llanos, only a few are
left in a wild state, principally in the southwest. At present
the plains arc thinly inhabited, principally by a hardy race
of mixed Indian, Negro, and white blood, the //(/Hfr»s: they
are trained to ride from infancy, and are wonderfully skill-
ful herilsmen : ipiile uidettered. they are nevertheless intel-
ligent, brave, and genercnis. and have done ellicient service
in the nunu'i-ons wars of Venezuela. Though many parts of
the llanos are fertile, they are used at present exclusivelj
for grazing; immense herds of cattle run on them in a
nearly wild .stale, being only driven together annually for
branding, and to separate those inteniled for the market.
Horses are also raised, but they have suffered greatly from
a disease now common in swampy lands throughout South
America. The houses of the llaiitrux.iau] even those of the
best cattle estates, are little belter than huls, and there are
few towns. See Codazzi, Geoyrnfin de Venezuela (1H41) ;
Michelena y Hojas, A'./7;^»-or/(';H oftVi'o/ (1867) ; Carl .Sachs.
,1h,'! den Lhino.t (1878) ; Humboldt, Vni/ae/e dans lex reyiimx
eqiihio.) i til ex !in<\ Tableau.r de la yalure; Edouard Andre.
I/Amerif/ue eqiinlnriale (1878); Kamon I'aez, Wild See nex
in Sonlh Anierira (1862). Heriii;ht II. Ssirrn.
Llanos do ('lii()iiitt)s. or Llanos de los Chiqiiitos: Sec
Santa Criz, Bolivia (Department).
Llanos de Manso (so called from Andres JIanso, who in
the sixteenth century received aulhorily to colonize this
region) : a plain in the extreme southeastern part of Itolivia,
deiiartment of Chuquisaca. It forms a portion of the (iran
Chaco ((/. r.). H. II. S.
Llan(|nilliio. lyn'm-kee'wr! : a southern province of Chili,
S. of Valdivia; approximately between 40 10 and 42° 10'
S. lat. ; but by some authorities the limits are extended to
47°. Area, by the former liuuts. 7.823 sq. miles. The ."Vndes
form the eastern boundary, and in general the surface is
much broken : but in the northern pari, which extends to
the Pacilic. there are considerable plains. The surface is
covered w ilh woods, largely of pine, interspersed with tracts
of open laiul and with many beautiful lakes: of these. Lake
LLKWET.YX Al' OIUKFITH
LOACH
313
Llanquiliuc is the largest body of fresh water in Chili (area
about 225 sq. miles), ami is navigated by steamboats ; it is
170 feet above the sea, and its great deptli and clearness
give the water a blue tint resenililing that of tha ocean.
Above this lake rise the Osorno volcaiui (7.2o() feet), and the
C'albuco cone (5,o")0 feet), which was in eniption in Oct..
1893. The southern part of tlie province^ is a narrow strip
facing the gulfs and channels which separate the Chiloe and
Chonos archipelagos from the mainland ; it is cut up by nar-
row fiords between rugged mountains, and the scenery is ex-
tremely grand and varied. The climate is temperate, but
very rainy ; average temperature at Puerto Montt (Gulf of
Ancud), 53' F. Wood-cutting, the cultivation of wheat,
barley, etc., and grazing are the principal industries. Llan-
quihue was sejiarated as a territory in 1853, when it was a
desert. In 1885 the population wiis already 62.80!), and rap-
idly increasing ; a large proportion of the people are Ger-
man immigrants. Capital, Puerto Montt (pop. 1885, 2,T8T),
at the head of the Gulf of Ancud ; it is now counected by
rail with Valdivia. Osorno, in the northern part, had 3.097
inhabitants in 1885. Herbert H. Smith.
Llewelyn (loo-el'in) a]) Griflitli : Prince of Wales : suc-
ceeded his uncle David in 1241! ; revolted from his allegi-
ance to the English crown, and ravaged the frontier. He
was joined by de Montfort in 1263, and defeated Mortimer
in 1264 ; made peace with Henry III. 1267 ; was summoned
to do homage by Edward I., but refused to appear, and de-
manded the release of his bride, Eleanor de Montfort, who
had been captured by English vessels in the Channel 1275 ;
war began, and Llewelyn was forced to surrender his terri-
tories 1277, but Eleanor was released and married to him.
He became reconciled to his brother David, and renewed the
war with the English 1282, but was surprised and killed by
Mortimer Dec. li, 1282. Kevised by P. M. Colby.
Llorente.lyo-ron'ta, Juan Antonio: historian; b. atRin-
con del Soto, near Calahorra, Spain, Mar. 30, 1756; studied
theology at Tarragona and Madrid ; was ordained priest
(1779) ; became doctor in canon law, advocate in the royal
councils, vicar-general of the bishopric of Calahorra (1782),
chancellor of the University of Toledo, member of the prin-
cipal academies, commissary (1785), and secretary-general of
the Inquisition (1789). He made two unsuccessful attempts
to correct the inveterate abuses of the Inquisition, the latter
of which occasioned his relegation to a mona.stery fora short
time, and the exile of his friend and protector, the minister
of justice, .lovellanos. In 1806, however, he was employed
by the favorite Godoy to write a work in opposition to the
traditional privileges claimed by the Basque provinces —
Noficias histi/rican .lohre las frefs provincial Bdscongadas
(5 vols., 180(5-07). This work is an inijust attack upon the
Basques and Fueros. in which, according to Kanke, he per-
verted the facts of history. Llorente adhered to the French
intervention ; was made a councilor of .state by King .Jo-
seph, and director-general of national estates (1808), in which
capacity he was charged with the suppression of the con-
vents and the administration of the confiscated property.
On the extinction of the Inquisition its papers were placed
in his hands, with a commission to prepare its history. He
fulfilled this task in his Analeit de la Inqiiisicidn de Espnila
(2 vols., 1812-13). Charged with embezzlement of immense
suras, he was removed from his offices, but was appointed to
others; was exiled on the return of Kerdinaud \ 11. in 1814;
resided for a time in England, and afterward in Paris, where
in 1817-18 was published a French version by A. Pellier of
his celebrated Iliatoria Cr'itica de la Inguisicidn de Espnila.
etc., 4 vols., of which the original was printe<l in Madrid in 10
volumes in 1822 (German trans, by II. F. Eisenbach. 1824;
abbreviated English version, 1826). At the same time he
was at work on his JJemnires piitir servir d I'hisfnire de la
liei'olutiijn d'Espayne, published under the pseudonym ,1/.
Kelleiio (3 vols., Paris, 1814-19). In 1818 he printed a brief
autobiogra|)liy, ^"oficia biogrdfiea . . . de •/. A. Llorente.
etc. In 1821 appeared at San Sebastian his ^4/Jo/»(?iV( cati>lira
del proi/erto de Con.stituc.iim relii/io.sa. etc. In 1822 he edited
the Works of B. de las Casas. printed his Ohservaciones criti-
cas sohre el romance de iiil Bias de Santiltana. and issued
a French version of his Jietrato politico de los J'apas desde
S. Pedro hasta Pio VII. (the Spanish was printed the next
year in Madrid). The last of these works aroused grejit in-
dignation among the French clergy, and obliged him to leave
Paris and return to Madrid, where he was well received.
D. Feb. 5, 1823. Llorente was a writer of considerable tal-
ent, and his works were once very popular with the anti-
Catholic element in Europe ; but they can not be trusted
for the accurate statement of facts, and conseqiicnlly have
fallen into comparative discredit. See Hefele, Life of Car-
dinal Ximenes (London, 1860, c. xvii.).
Revised by A. R. Marsh.
Lloyd. Charle-s Harford: organist and composer; b. in
Thornl)>irv, Gloucestershire, England, Oct. 16, 1849; was
educated at Oxford, gra<lnating Mus. B. 1871. B. A. 1873,
M. A. 1875. He became organist of Gloucester Cathedral in
1876, and conducted the Three Choirs festivals of 1877 and
1880. In 1883 he was appointed organist of Christ Chureh
Cathedral. Oxfonl, and conductor of the Choral Society
there. His compositions include many canticles and an-
thems for the Churcli. glees, madrigals, and part songs,
choruses and incidental music to Alceslis, and the follow-
ing cantatas: Hero and Leander (1884); Sony of Balder
(1885); Andromeda (1886): The Longbeard's Saga, men's
voices (1887) ; A Song of Judgment, and The Gleaner's Har-
vest, women's voices. He has also written a few instru-
mental pieces. D. E. Hervet.
Lloyd, William, D. D. : bishop ; b. at Tilehurst. Berk-
shire. England, Aug. 18.1627; was educated at Oriel and
Jesus Colleges, Oxford ; became a fellow 1646 ; took priest's
orders 1656 ; was prebendary of Ripon. Salisbury, and St.
Paul's: chaplain to Charles II.; vicar of .St. Mary's, Read-
ing, and archdeacon bi Jlerioneth ; became Bishop of St.
Asaph 1680, of Lichfield and Coventry 1692, of Worces-
ter 1699. and died at Hartlebury Castle in Worcesteishire
Aug. 30, 1717. Lloyd took an active part in the troubles
occasioned by the so-called Pojiish plot of 1678, and was one
of tlic celebrated seven bishops who protested against the
Declaration of Indulgence to Romanists and Dissenters by
James II., for refusing to puljlish which they were commit-
ted to the Tower, tried, and acquitted (16SS). He was al-
moner to William III. and to Queen Anne. He was noted
as a rabid anti-papal leader and ardent stu<lent of pro])heey :
wrote Considerations touching the True H'n^ to Suppress
Popery (London, 1677) ; An Historical Account of Church
Government as it was in Great Britain and Ireland, when
they Fir.-it Received the Christian Religion (1684); a. Dis-
sertdtion on Daniel's Seventy Weeks (1690) ; a System of
Chronology (1690); a Harmony of the Gospels, and other
theological works, and furnished valuable materials to
Bishop Burnet's History of His Own Time.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Lloyd's : the name by which the first floor of the Royal
Exchange in London is known, being the center where the
business of maritime insurance is transacted, and where the
earliest shipjiing intelligence from all parts of the world is
posted for the infcjrmalion of subscribers, whether mer-
chants, shippers, or underwriters. The board of luider-
writers have rooms here, and receive reports from their
agents in every port throughout the world visited by the
ships they insure. The system is so arranged that the in-
dividual underwriters risk no more than £100 to.t'loOon
any single vessel. Their concerns are administered by a
committee of twelve members. There is a vast " merchants'
room," provided with newspapers from all parts <if tho
world, and a "captains' room," where ship-auctions are held
and convivial gatherings frequently meet. The establish-
ment derives its name from a coffee-house kept by Edward
Llovd in the seventeenth century. In 1692 the cofTee-house
was" removed to Lombard Street^ and became the headquar-
ters of the board of underwriters. In 1774 the institution
removed to rooms in the Royal Exdiange. It was incorpo-
rated by act of Parliament in 1871. The name is now ap-
plied generi<'allv to similar institutions elsewhere, the most
celebrated of which are the Austrian Lloyd at Trieste (es-
tablished 1823 by Baron Bruck) and the North German
Llovd at Bremen'. Lloyd's List was printed a.s a weekly
froiii 1716 to 1800, since which time it has appeared daily,
with the fullest shipping inlelligence. Besides this various
works are i)nblished by the corporation for the benefit of
the mercantile community, including Lloyd's Weekly Ship-
ping Inde.r, Lloyd's Confidential Index, and the Mer-
cantile yari/ List. The 'Austrian Lloyd has a journal,
established in 1834. See F. Martin's History of Lloyd's
(1875).
Loach [from Fr. loche] : a name given to fishes of the
familv Cobitida; which is related to the cai-ji family (C|/.-
prinido'). There are no representatives of the group in
Ainerca. In England there are two species — Coliitis tirvia
and Nemachilus barbalulus. The Semachilus barhatulus
314
LOADSTONE
LOAN
or common loach, a European fish of the family Cubifithp.
is sometimes useJ as loud. It lives at the bottom of clear
The loach.
streams. The lake loach (^fisgurnus fossilis) of Central
Kurope buries itself in mud, anil has a bad flavor.
Loadstone [lode, load (< O. Eng. lad, way, journey, car-
rying, related to the verb lead) + slotie]: the natural mag-
net, a mineral consisting essentially of magnetic iron ore,
which is a compound of the peroxide and protoxide of iron.
It strongly attracts the magnetic needle, but does not itself
always possess polarity.
Loam [O. Eng. liim : Oerm. leJim (from Low Germ., for
High Germ, form leim). clay] : a mixture of sand and clay,
with an addition of about 5 per cent, lime and some ani-
mal and vegetable matter. A loamy soil is intermediate in
character between sandy and clayey soils, and is that best
adapted to general agriculture. It is lighter and warmer
than a clay soil, and stronger and more retentive than a
sandy one.
Loan [G. Eng. Idu. deriv. of lean, lend : Germ, leihen,
lend : Goth, leihwan. leave < Teuton, lihwan < Indo-Euro.
liq- > Gr. \tlit(tt', Aiireii/ : Lat. lin'qnere, leave] : in law,
either (a) a delivery of a chattel, as, for example, money
or stock, by one person to another for the use of the latter.
lor which an equivalent, usually in kind, is to be returned
at a future day; or (6) the species of bailment technically
called comiiiiHlatum, which consists in the delivery of an ar-
ticle to another for his gratuitous temporary use, on condi-
tion that the identical article delivered shall be returned to
the lender.
I. If the loan be of the first kind the lender may bring
an action in a court of law for the recovery of damages
equal to its value, or of the sum agreed to be given in re-
turn, if default be made in rendering the equivalent at the
time appointed according to the teruis of the agreement;
but the thing itself agreed to be given in return can not be
obtained by action in a court of equity, except in certain
cases where the recovery of money damages only would
work inj\istice, or where the amount of damages can not
be ascertained. (See Specific Performanck.) Interest will
usually be recoverable upon the value of the article loaned
from the time of default. Loans of this kind are sometimes
made with intent to evade the laws against usury; but, as
usury statutes generally apply to loans of wares.inerchan-
dise, or other commodities, as well as of money, if the intent
of the parties to a loan and the effect of the transaction are
to violate the usury laws, the same penalties will be in-
curred as in the case of a loan of money. A loan of stock
to be replaced by the same lunnber of shares, however, will
not be usurious, though the value of the stock may be
subject to great fluctuations; and the same rule woidd ap-
ply in other analogous cases. (See Usury.) The most com-
mon loans of this class are loans of money to he repaid in
money. The contract for repayment is usually evidenced
by a promissory note, bill of exchange, bond, due bill, or
other written obligation, all hough, of coui-se, this is not nec-
essary. In order to establish the relation of debtor and
creditor in case of a loan of monev, it is not necessary to
prove that the defendant requested tlie loan, but the law
presumes that when money is loaned to and received by an-
other without any exi)ress agreement for its re|iayment, a
lawful debt is created whidi may be recovered by an action.
See IJei'Osit, Interest, and Statutes of Limitations.
II. In case of a loan of the second kind, the property
loaned may be used l)y the bailee only for the purpose for
which it was loaned, and he will be responsible even for the
slightest negligence if it be thereby lost or injured or im-
paired in value, the necessary degree of care in each case
varj'ing with the nature of the i)ropertv loaned and the cir-
cumstances of the loan. If injury or foss be occasioned by
inevitable accident, sudden disiusler, theft, burglary, or other
cause whi(;h could not be anticipated or provid('(l against,
the bailee will incur no liability, but the loss will fall upon
the bailor. The gratuitous loan creates a trust relation of
a personal nature, and the article loaned may be used only
by the bailee in the absence of any special agreement to the
contrary, or of an express or iumlied license by the owner
that smiie person may use it. Thus it has been held that
the loan of a horse to a jierson for him to ride did not jus-
tify him in allowing his servants to ride. The i)n)pertv
loaned is to be returned to the owner at the expiration of
the time agreed upon, or. if no such sliiiuhition be made, at
the expiration of a reasonable time ; and if the bailor then
refuses to deliver it on a proper demand being made, he is
guilty of conversion, and may be sued in an action of trover
for the value of the goods or in an action of rejilevin for the
recovery of the goods themselves. (See Conversion, Tro-
ver, and Replevin.) lie can not detain the property as a
pledge for any deuuind he may have against the bailor. See
Addison, Storv, and Pai-sons Oil, C'unlracls, and Story and
Sehouler On liaitments. F. Sturues Allen.
The Roman Law of Loans. — The Roman law distinguishes
two forms of the loan, viz., the loan for use (commodatuin)
and the loan for consumption (mutuitm). (1) Cumniodatiim
does not transfer ownership: it is understood that the very
thing lent is to be restored to the lender. This form of
loan is therefore limited to such things as can be used with-
out being used up. Real property can be thus loaned, as
well as movables. (2) Miituum transfers ownership; it is
understood that not the specific things lent, but an equiv-
alent quantity, shall be restored. This form of loan is there-
fore limited to things that take their value (functionem re-
cipiiint) from (piantity; that belong to a class (genus) in
which all the single objects are of equal value, so that the
lender has no interest except in receiving the same "meas-
ure, weight, or number" that he has lent. Among such
things the Romans classed money, wheat, wine, oil, etc. Me-
dian-al jurists described these things as " fungibles " ; mod-
ern jurists call them "representative" or "generic" things.
Both of these loans are in princijile friendly, and there-
fore gratuitous. JIuliiiim does not carry with it any re-
sponsibility for interest, even in case of default. If interest
is to be paid, it must be expressly stipulated. Commodatuin
does not even tolerate ])ayment for the use of the thing
loaned. If such payment is promised, the contract is no
longer loan, but hiring (heat io-conduci io).
Nearly related to commodafum is precarium. It differs
from commodatiim principally in that the thing loaned /)re-
cario can be demanded by I lie leiiiler at any time, even be-
fore the purpose is accomplished for which it was borrowed.
See License.
Closely related to mufuum is the so-called "irregular de-
posit." The regular deposit is a transfer for safe-keeping.
It is not a transfer of ownership; the specific things de-
posited are to be returned. It is in no sense a loan, for the
things de]iosited may neither be used nor consumed. If
now money (or other generic things) be deposited, and if the
parties agree that the de])ositee may use the dejiosit and
shall be responsible only for an eipiivalent amount, the con-
tract is apparently mutuiim ; but the Roman jurists decided
that in su(fh cases the amount could be recovered afi deposit.
The principal reason for this decision was that in the action
of deposit the referee (judex) could condemn the defendant
in whatever sum was due ex fide Jo»n,incluiling interest in-
fiiriniilly promised and interest on default (ex mora). If, on
the other hand, no interest was to be paid, the claim for
money deposited was a jirivileged claim, i. e. the depositor
was entitled to be satisfied before other creditors in case of
the insolvency of the del)tor. This rule was especially im-
jmrtant when, as was often the case, money was deposited
with a banker (<irgeutariu.<i).
In all cases of loan a real contract (ohligatio re contracta)
comes into existence with the delivery of the property lent.
In the ca.se of mutuum and the irregular dejiosit, the liabil-
ity of the borrower is absolute ; in the case of rommodatum,
he is liable for any loss or damage occasioned tiy his willful
wrong (dolu.^) or negligence (eiilpa); in the case of preca-
rium, he is responsible only for willful wrong. In certain
cases counterclaims might arise against the lender. These
were enforced by an actio coutraria.
Loans to a person under paternal authority (filiun fnmi-
ban) were not recoverable, even when the borrower was of
full age, unless the father approved or ratified the con-
tract. Such loans were of course practicallv " post-obits."
Loan in the Kuropean Codex. — Alodern I'liiropean legisla-
tions have retained, for the most pari, the distinctions and
rules of the Homaii law. The loan for use (comtnndat, prt't
d usage, Gebrauchsleihe) is distinguished from the loan for
LOAN AND BUILDING ASSOCIATIONS
LOBBY
315
consumption (prel de consomniaiiun, Ddrlclii'ii). Prefarinm,
liowevcT, is ordiiiai'ily treated as a special form of loan for
use, differing from the ordinary loan for use only in being
revocable at the lender's pleasure. JIuliiiiiii and .the ir-
regular deposit have practically been fused into a single
legal institution. As regards interest informally promised
and interest in default, the rules governing the loan for
consumption are those of the irregular deposit ; but the pri-
ority attached to the latter claim is not recognized in mod-
ern laws of bankruptcy. In many codes, theref(.)re, the
irregular deposit is either ignored or expressly declared to
be an ordinary loan for consumption. Some writers, how-
ever, still maintain that the irregular deposit (especially the
bank deposit) is a ditferent thing from the ordinary loan of
money. They assert that the deposit is characterized by a
different intention ; that the element of safe-keeping enters
into it; and that there is therefore an advantage to the de-
positor that does not exist in the ordinary loan.
Literature. — Durif, Le Pret a Interel (Paris, 1877);
Iluschke, Lehre vom Darlehe/i (Stuttgart, 1822); Hohne,
Theorie des Leihvertrags (Berlin, 1886) ; Niemeyer, Depnai-
tum Irregiilitre (Halle, 1889); von Sohey, Das Darleheti
(Vienna, 1890). JIuxroe Smith.
Loan and Building Associations: See Buildimo and
Loan Associations.
Loanda, or Luanda : See St. Paul de Loanda.
Lo.an'go Coast: the southwest part of the French Congo
coast-line extending from 5' S. lat. about 100 miles N. W.
It was the sea-front of the former province of Loango of
the native empire of Congo lying chiefly S. of the Congo
river. It was acquired by France (1883) through S. de
Brazza's treaties with the chief of Loango and other native
rulers. The Kwilu is the only considerable river, but far
from the sea is not available as a trade-route. The most im-
portant place is Loango, which is visited by French, Brit-
ish, and German steamers, and does a fair business in rub-
ber^alra oil, and ivory. It is little more than a collection
of European trading-factories, though when it was under
native control it had a population of about 15,000. Its im-
portance is due to a sharf) bend in the coast, sheltering the
roadstead from the prevailing winds. C. C. Adams.
Loban, 16'bow: an island in the river Danube; 6 miles
below Vienna. It was taken by Napoleon I. May 19, 1809,
occupied by the French army after the battle of Aspern,
May 22 ; was the place whence the invading forces were con-
centrated in June, and where the celebrated passage of the
Danube was made .luly 4 and following days, 1809. This
island gave the title of count to Gen. Mouton, one of the
French heroes of the campaign.
Loban, lo'bo', Georces Mouton, Count de: marshal of
France ; b. Feb. 21, 1770, at Phalsbourg, France ; enlisted as
a volunteer in the array in 1792; became aide-de-camp to
Meusnier in 1793 and to Joubert in 1798. He took part
with Massena in the defense of Genoa, and was severely
wounded in a sortie. Returning to France after the capit-
ulation, he was made a member and later an officer of the
Legion of Honor by Napoleon, who appointed him general
of brigaile and his 'aide-de-camp in 1805. Thenceforth he
took part in all the imjiortant campaigns of the empire, dis-
tinguishing himself at Jena, at Friedland, and under Bes-
sieres in Sjiain, where he commanded a division. His title.
Count of Lobau, was won in the campaign against Austria
for the services which he rendered during the occupation of
the island of Lobau, and for the storming of J^sling. in
the battle of Aspern. He was rough and blunt, but coura-
geous and skillful. After the Russian campaign he was at
the head of the organization of a new French army, and in
the battle of Waterloo he commanded the Sixth Army-corps
on the right wing. After the Restoration he was banished
from France, and not allowed to return until 18L8. In 1828
he was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies, and
he took a prominent part in the revolution of 1830, assumed
the command of the national guard instead of La Fayette,
was made a peer and marshal in 1831, and put down with
great success the uprisings of 1832 and 1834. D. in Paris,
Nov. 21, 1838. F. M. Colby.
Lobby [\iS. O. Fr. or Late Latin from Germ. ; ef. 0. II.
G. louha > ilod. Germ. lauhe, bower, arbor] : the body of per-
sons who, not being members of a legislature, are engaged in
influencing legislators to vote for or against particular meas-
ures that come before them. This meaning is doubtless due
to the fact that persons who wish to consult legislators are
often to be met in the vestibules or lobl)ies of legislative
chambers. Although the word is more often used in an evil
sense, it is of course true that much of the influence exerted
by lobbyists is entirely legitimate.
'J'he Cdunc/i of the fxistence. of the luhhy in connection with
nearly all legislative tiodies become evident on brief consid-
eration. (1) The legislator needs the advice and assistance of
specialists to enable him to form an intelligent judgment
on very many of the questions that come before him for act ion.
(2) The system of legislation in vogue in the U. S., under
which all liills are referred to small committees for consid-
eration before they are brought for final action befon^ the
full Legislature, furnishes a favorable opportunity for loliby-
ing in the vicious, sense of the word. (3) Under the U. S.
system of legislation, bills that are purely local or private in
their nature usually follow the same cour.se as public bills,
instead of being treated semi-judicially as in England. (See
Lawmaking, Methods of.) Consequently, it is often possi-
ble for an individual or for a corporation that has great in-
terests at stake to push a measure quietly through before its
real nature has been discovered. (4) For the same reason,
a dishonest legislator may bring in a bill that if passed
would seriously injure some corporation, and force the lat-
ter to pay him to drop the measure. A ditferent system
of treatment of private bills would enable such a corpo-
ration to expose the real nature of the injurious bill and the
motive of the legislator more efficiently than is possible un-
der the present system.
The methods of the lobbi/ while, of course, almost number-
less, will still vary more or less with the position and char-
acter of the lobbyist. At times members of the Legisla-
ture themselves will undertake, for pay, to carry measures
through. They may employ, in addition to tlie methods
used by others, that of "log-rolling," i. e. they may agree to
vote for or against certain bills favored by other' members
in exchange for a vote given as they wish. Only members,
too, can make to advantage a "strike," i. e. the introduc-
tion of an injurious measure for the purpose of being paid
to drop it. Ex-members often make dangerous lobbyists
from their complete acquaintance with legislative methods
and men. The most dangerous, because most successful,
lobbyists, however, are those ex-members or others who
make it their regular business for pay to aid or hinder the
passage of any measure whatever at the will of their pa-
trons. Such men in the course of years come to know all
the details of legislative business; they are personally ac-
quainted with all the legislators, knowing their history,
character, habits of life, and how best to secure their favor.
As soon as a new member is elected, his record and life and
personal character are studied, and the lobbyist soon learns
what are the most effective means of influencing his vote.
These means will, of course, vary with the individual ; and
they range all the way from bare-faced bribery, threats of
exposing some past mistake or crime, or of preventing a re-
election, to the most subtle and indirect methods of influ-
encing the mind. Articles are written for the papers, let-
ters and telegrams are secured from constituents, social at-
tentions are lavished upon the legislator, loans of money
are made him, entertainments are provided for him, any-
thing is done that will probably affect his vote for or against,
as may be desired.
The remedies for the evils of the lobby are difficult to
find, because these evils consist in the abuse of privileges
which must be granted in order to secure the most effective
legislation, as the privilege of ready access to legislators to
recommend new laws or give needed information. The ex-
perience of legislative bodies, however, seems to have estab-
lished the following propositions: (1) It is clear that the
separation of private measures from public, so far as is pos-
sible, and the treatment of the former in a semi-judicial
manner, with full notice to all parties interested to appear
to defend or oppose the measures, with due safeguards
against hasty or secret legislation, would remove a large
part of the evil. (2) The evil sometimes works its own cure
in part. In New York, after the exposure of the Tweed
corruptions, members were very fearful of behig suspected
of corruption, and to this day the report that a bill has
money behin<l it is enough to cause many timiil members
to vote against it with little regard for its merits. (3) Of
course, every measure or change in public sentiment that
tends to raise the character of the legislators intellectually
or morally lessens the evil influence of the lobby. (4) In
many States of the U. S., in order to lessen the evil, the con-
stitutions have restricted in many ways the power of the
316
LOBECK
LOBO
Legislnturo, by forliiildiiie sjioeml acts, clmrtors, etc., nnil
severe laws liavc iK-eii paysed a^ruiiist lirilHTV in any form.
In California and tieorjria lobbying is |ninislml>le as a felony,
and a legislator if foinul f;"'lty of takinj: a bribe is punish-
able as a felon, liisfraueliised. and forever dismialilied from
holdin-j any olliee of public trust. (5) The Massachusetts
Leslslature has passed a law by which every promoter of any
law in the interest of others is reu'istered and known as the
regularly employed attorney or lobbyist. Failure to regis-
ter on the part of such an attorney is severely punished.
The publicity thus obtained has seemed to give respectabil-
ity to the work, and to have encourufred corporations and
persons interested to secure the services of persons who
would employ honest means only. See Credit Mobilier
and Law-makixi;, Mkymousof.
AiTHORiTiEs. — Spotlortl, article Lobbij in Lalor's Ci/clo-
ptrdia of Political Science ; Brvce, American Commsn-
ttealth (vol. i.. p. 6~3 ; vol. ii., p. 124, 129) ; H. C. Tanner. The
Lobby and Public Men, passim; ami Report of United
Slates Kailway Commission (p. 84), First Report of Inter-
state Commerce Commission (p. 7). As illustratinj; methods
of work of the lobbv may be cited various novels, e. p. Ham-
lin Garland's A j/ember of the Third House and Frances
Ilodgson Burnett's Through One Administration.
Jereotah W. Jexks.
Lobpok. CnRisTi.*;? Auou.st: Greek scholar; b. in Xaum-
burg, Germany, June 5, 1781 ; was privat docent at Witten-
berg 1802; conrector 1808; rector of the Lyceum 1809; pro-
fessor extraordinarv 1810; professor ordinarv and librarian
at KonifTsberg froni 1814 till his death, Aug. 25, 1860. He is
especially noted for his contributions to Greek grammar and
mythology. His principal writings are Parulipomena gram-
matic(e (2 vols., 18;iT); Pathologim sermonis Grteci prolego-
mena (1843) ; Aglaophamus (2 vols., 1829), in which his treat-
ment of the Orphic sect is particularly valuable, its origin,
doctrines, and history being tra<'ed out with great learning
and acumen. We owe to Lobeck an excellent commentary
to the Ajax of Sophocles. See Biogr. Juhrb. xxxii. (1882)
p. 233 f . ; Bursian, Geschichte der class. Philologie in
Veutschland, pp. 572-575, 711-713. Alfred Gude.max.
Lobeira. lo-bay'ee-raa, Vasco, de : Portuguese soldier and
the reputed author of the famous roMiHiur .Vmadis ok Gail
(a. v.). Little is known of his life. The chronicler Fernam
Lopes informs us {Chronica del Rey D. Jodo /., p. ii., cap.
39, p. 97) that after the battle of Aljubarrota (1386), in
whidi he fought, h« was knighted by John I. The same
writer (('hronicn de D. Fernando, cap. 177) speaks of him as
being already a knight in Elvas in the reign of Ferdinand
IV. The contradiction has never been explained in a satis-
/ai'tory manner. The currently accepted year of his dcatli,
1403, rests upon nosure evidence whatever. Xo Portuguese
version of the Amadis romance is in existence, and many
scholars have doubted whether there ever was one. The
latest, and in many ways the most plausible, theory on the
subject, however — that of Carolina Jlichaclis de Vasconcellos
(in GriJber's Grundriss der romauischen Piiilolofiie, II. Bd.,
Abt. 2, p. 216 seq., 1894)— supposi's that the real author of
the story was the great-grandfather of Vasco de Lobeira.
Joilo Fires Lobeira, who was a Galician troubadour living
before and during the reign of the famous monarch. I). Dinis
(1279-1325). In favor of this view is the fact that we have
from this Lobeira a poem dealing with an episode later ap-
pearing in the Amadis. The confusion of the names is
easily accounted foi-. The transference of the story to Spain
is also explicable on plausible groumls. In various wavs
both Joao de Lobeira and the Amadis are connected wiih
the infante I). A/Tonso do Portugal, brother of I). Dinis (b.
1263 ; d. 1312) ; but this D. Alfonso was married to the Span-
ish princess Violante .Manuel, sister of I). Juan Manuel, one
of the most distinguished statesmen and writers of his time.
Through the latter and his friends it would be easy for tlie
romance to become known at the Spanish court.
A. R, Marsh.
liObpr, Matthew (Tjat. form Lobelius): botanist; b. at
Lille, Flanders, in lii3H; studied medicine at Monlpcllier;
settled in Kngland before 1570; made extensive botanical
collections in England ; devoted himself especially to vege-
table physiology ami the correction of errors made by
Dioscorides; published Slirpium Adversaria Nova (Lon-
don, 1570), containing marly 1,3(¥) species, with 272 small
figures; Plnnlarum seu Slirpium ///«/orirt (Anlwerji, 1576) ;
Iconeji Slirpium (.\ntwerp, 15S1); and a treatise on Hitl-
tams (London, 1598). I), at II ighgatc, Lonilon, Mar. 2, 1016.
Lohp'lia [named by PIninier in honor of Matthew J.obil,
botanist lo King James I.J: a genus of plants of the natural
order Lobeliaceir, of which the most important species is
the Lolielia inflata. or Indian tobacco, as it Is commonly
called. This is a very common indigenous annual or bien-
nial herb, gmwing wild in waste spots throughout Canada
and the U. S. It has a librous root, and a solitary straight
hairy stem rising about a foot high. The flowers are small
and of a light-blue color; the leaves oval, .seiTateil. and
hairy. The entire herb, dried, is used in medicine under
the name lobelia. Its properties depend on an alkaloid,
lobeline, which is a thick, oily, transiiarent, volatile fluid,
with a imngcnt taste resembling tobacco. Lobelia is a
])owerful nauseating emetic, producing in full dose an efl'ect
like that of tobacco — long-continued, distressing nausea and
vtimitlng, with purging, copious sweating, and great nuiscn-
lar relaxation. In overdose it is a potent a<rro-nareotic
poison. Lobelia is too severe an emetic to be used to pro-
duce vomiting, and its medicinal employment Is in non-
emetic doses as a relaxing agent In asthma and allied spas-
modic diseases. If given at all as an emetic it should be
used in one full dose rather than in several small ones, since
tinder those circumstances vomiting takes place before
enough is absorbed to cause serious symptoms.
Kevised by U. A. Hake.
Lobelia cardinalis: scientific name of a species of lobe-
lia, popularly called the cardinal flower, from the intense
red color <if the blossoms. It is the most showy of the S[ie-
cies indigenous to North America, and Is prized in cultiva-
tion. The low and bright-blue flowered lobelia, largely used
as a bcdding-ijlant, is L. erimus, from the Cape of Good
Hope.
Loblolly Bay: See Gordonia.
Lob Nor (LoB Lake) : a body of water in Eastern or Chi-
nese Turkestan, just W. of 90° E. Ion. from Greenwich.
The fertile oasis It occupies is bordered on the S. by the
.■\ltin-tag range and surrounded on all other sides by the
Gobi Desert. Known for centuries through old travelers
and Chinese writers and map-makers, the flrst European to
visit it In modern times was Prcjevalsky (1876), who found
that it is a reedy lake of no great depth, bordered by flat
shores, the haunt of immense numbers of water-fowl, and in-
habited by a few hundred human beings whose habits, tene-
ments, and mode of life resemble those of the primitive lake-
dwellers. It has no outlet, but its waters arc quite sweet at
its western end, where it receives the Tariiu river. Gradual
desiccation, assisted by the withdrawal of much water for
irrigation purposes, presages the complete disappearance of
the lake, which is now (Bonvalot, 1891) little more than a
marsh. C. C. Adams.
Lo'bo, Francisco Rodrigijes : Portuguese poet. Almost
nothing is known of his life ; the dale of his birth Is no-
where preserved, and that of his death (by drowning in the
Tagu.s) can only be fixed as somewhat after 1623. He was a
native of Lciria, and seems to have been in the entourage of
the Duque de Camlnha. He is said to have studied at
Coimbra. and then lo have pa.«sed his life in comjiaralive re-
tirement at Lclria, occasionally paying a visit to Lisbon.
By Portuguese critics he is acknowledged as one of the best
of their writers. Coming at the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, a period of literary ilecay in Portugal, he
still preserved the strength and beauties of the preceding
century. He felt the influence of coiiteiiiporary Spanish
poetrvl notably that of Gongora, and he was faniiliar with
the work of the Italians; but he also loved the traditional
and popular veree of his native lan<l, and his grejitest suc-
cesses were obtained in his Serranilhas, in imitation of the
naive charm of this art. W(' have from him Romances:
Primeira e segitnda pnrle (with two exceptions written in
Spanish: Coimbra. 1.596); A Primavera (Lisbon. 1601); As
Eclogas (Llsl)on, 1605) ; O Pastor peregrino : segunda parte
da Primavera (Lisbon, 1608); O Desenganailu : terceira
parte da Primavera (Lisbon, 1614). Also an alleinpled epic,
() Condeslabre de Portugal (1610), and an Imitation in
mingled verse and prose of Ca.sliglicme's Cor/fi/iVino. entilled
Corte na Aldea, e noutes de inverno (Lisbon, 1610). The
latter was long regarded as Lobo's masterpiece. The Obras
politicas, moraes e melricas de Francisco Rodrigues Lobo
were printed in Lisbon in 1723 (later, less complete edition,
Lisbon, 1774). - A. K. Marsh.
Lobo, Jeronimo: missionary: b. nt Lisbon about 1593;
entered the order of the Jesuits in 1609, and went in 1622
LOBOSA
LOBSTER
317
ea a missionary to Goa, whence ho proccpiicd to Abyssinia
in 1624. Here lie worlied willi jireat siiceess, but was at
last expelled in lOit-l, anil ret urneil to P(irtu{,'al to persuaiio
the Christian powers to make a crusade against Abyssinia.
Having failed in this, he went once more to Uoa in 1640,
whence he returned in lO.'iG, and died at Lisbon, Jan. 2!),
1678. Lobo wrote a narrative of his travels, wliich made a
great sensation, and was translated into many foreifin
tongues — into French in 167:3 and more fully Ijy the Abbe
Legrand iu 1728, and into English by Dr. .Johnson (Ho.j).
Revised by F, j\l. Colby.
Lobo'sa [Mod. Lat., fr. Gr. \o$6s. a lobe] : a sub-class of
Protozoa belonging to the Rhizopoda, and characterized by
the power of protruding lobe-like processes of protoi>lasni
(pseudopodia). There is no cell-wall to these single-celled
organisms, but in the protoplasm one can distinguish a clear
outer layer gradually passing into the more granular cen-
tral [lortion. A nucleus is always present, an'd there is fre-
ipiently a clear space (contractile vacuole) which rhythmically
expands and contracts, and is supposed to be for the excre-
tion of nitrogenous waste. A few species, like the Amcelia,
are naked, but the majority form protecting cases, either as
in Arce/la by a hardened secretion of the body or, as in
Diffliiyia, by cementing together grains of sand, etc.
Amxba is possibly the best known member of the Protozoa.
All of the Ijobosa are microscopic, and most of the species
occur in fresh water, only a few being found in the sea.
The American species have been beautifully monographed
iu Leidy's Fresh-water /^/i i^oywrfs, published by the U.S.
Geological Survey. J. S. Kingslev.
Lo'hos Islands [Span, lobo, seal], or Seal Islands : three
small islands oil the coast of Lambayeque, Peru, between
6 and 7 S. lat. The Lobo de Tierra is 12 miles from the
mainland ; the other two are about 3.5 miles out. They are
rocky, but of no great height, and have a small population.
They are important for their extensive deposits of guano,
lieing among the few of the Peruvian guano islands which
are not exhausted. II. IL S.
Lobster [O. Eng.- loppestre. perhaijs corrupted from Lat.
locus' ta, locust, shell-fish, lobster : cf. 0. Eng. lopiisf, lo-
cust] : one of the largest and most valuable of all Crustacea,
and second only to the oyster as an ai'ticle of food among
the marine invertebrates of the North Atlantic coast. It is
classified with the Macroura, a sub-order of the Decapoda,
which embraces lobsters, crayfishes, and shrimps. The Eu-
ropean lobster, Ilomarus vulgaris, has its cliief habitat on
the southwestern coast of Norway, but is found throughout
the British islands, on the coast of Iceland, and in the Medi-
terranean. It does not go into the Baltic. The langouste,
or spiny lobster, Palhiunis ruh/aris, abounds in the Medi-
terranean, Init is rare in the Atlantic. The Norwegian lob-
ster, JS'ephrops norregicus. is common in Norway, but less
abundant on the coast of Sweden. It occurs sjiaringly in
the British islands atid in the jNIediterranean Sea. The
North American lobster. //. americaniis, which is more im-
portant economically than all the preceding, is found in
the coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean from Labrador to
Delaware, and in depths extending from the shore-line out
to 100 fathoms.
The extreme northern limits of the North American lob-
ster are the Straits of Belle Isle. Nova Scotia, Prince Ed-
ward Island, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Elaine
constitute the great lobster-producing territory of the At-
lantic coast. A few lobsters have been detected as far S.
as Johnstown. Va., and in 1884 the U. S. Fish Commission
steamship Albatross obtained a good-sized s|)e.cimen off
Cape Hatteras, N. C, from a depth of about 80 fathoms.
The lobster is a sedentary animal, its only migrations being
to and from dee|) water. The spring movement toward
shore occure in April or .Alay, when the temperature of the
water has reached about 55° F., and the fall migration in
<Jctober or Novendter.
In Maine the summer fishing begins in May and lasts
until November. During this time lobsters are caught in
y to 10 fathoms of water. The winter fishing is conducted
in 35 to 40 fathoms.
The lobster never swims at the surface of the water, but
crawls or walks on the tips of its thoracic legs. By means
of the flexible part of the body or "tail," it is able to dart
backward with great rapidity,' sometimes going 25 feet in
less than a second. Its food consists of shell-fish, especially
clams, fish, and all kinds of dciid animals.
The sexes appear to be about equally ilivided. The fe-
male reaches maturity when from 8 to 13 inches long.
Adidt females produce eggs once in two veal's. The spawn-
ing period is mostly confined to June, July, and August,
but it is a remarkable fact that a certain number (probal)ly
not large) lay eggs in the fall, winter, and spring months.
The extruded eggs are attached by a viscous cement, which
hardens in the water, to the swimming legs and to the under
side of the tail. In this position they are carried about by
the female, and are aerated by the tanning motion of her
swimmi-rets for a period of from ten to eleven months,
when tlie young are hatched and immediately dispereed.
The latter rise to the surra<'e. and begin life as free-swim-
ming larvje. At Wood's Hole, Jlass., the nuijority of eggs
always hatch in June ; farther N. the hatching period is a
little later, and a few may be hatched in the fall. The
hatching of a single brood lasts about a week. Shortly
after the hatching of her young the mother lobster molts,
but does not [iroduce eggs again until the following sum-
mer. The eggs are usually of a dark-green color, sjiherical,
and measure about -^ of an inch in diameter. Their num-
ber varies with the size of the animal jiroducing them — from
3,000 to over 80.000. The law of ])roduction of ova may be
expressed as follows: T/ie numbers of eggs produced by fe-
male lobsters at eacli reproductive period vary in a geomet-
rical series, while the lengths of the lobsters producing tliese
eggs vary in, an aritlvmetical series.
According to this law we have the following :
Series of lengths: 8: 10: 12: 14: 16
Number of eggs : .5,000 : 10,000 : 20,000 : 40,000 : 80,000
The adult lobster often falls a prey to fi.sh of many kinds,
such as the pollock, striped bass, and tautog, the sharks,
rays, and skates. The cod and striped ba-ss are perhaps its
most formidable enemies, excepting always man, especially
when it is young or in a soft condition. The pernicious
destruction of spawn lobsters by fishermen and canners has
been instrumental in hastening the decline of the fishery.
The lobster, like other arthropods, is surrounded by an
external skeleton, which is a dead, inelastic pnjduct, and
must therefore be cast off periodically in order to admit of
growth. The frequency of this exuviation or molting de-
pends upon the age and nutrition of the animal, and is the
register of its growth. During the first four months of its
life the lobster molts from eight to ten times, the adult fe-
male probably not oftener than once in two years, and the
giants weighing upward of 20 lb. at much longer inten"als.
Ilard-shell lobsters have the finest flesh, stand transporta-
tion best, and are therefore most valuable for the market.
A large proportion of all lobsters taken in fall, winter, and
spring are of this kind. The greatest number of soft-shell
or new-shell lobsters appear from July to dctober. When
the critical time has arrived the lobster turns over on its
side, distends the membrane between the tail and the shell
of the back until this finally bursts, and the whole body is
then slowly drawn through the opening thus formed. The
carapace is lifted up, the appcndiiges are freed gradually
from their old covering, and tlie tail comes out last. The
old shell is thus discariled whole, the internal parts of ths
skeleton, including the lining of the stomach and intestine,
being simply withdrawn from the foUis in the external skin
in which they are formed. This process occupies five or six
minutes. Immediately after the molt the lobster is limp as
wet paper, and perfectly helpless. The process of harden-
ing of the new shell is very gradual, and it recjuires about
two months to produce a shell as hard as the one cast off.
Kuliber shell, buckle shell, paper shell, and shadow are some
of the names in use to designate lobsters with new soft shells.
A store of lime is secreted during the molting jieriod by the
walls of the stomach in the form of two nodides, each about
the size of a filbert. After molting these gaslroliths are re-
tained in the stomach, where thev are absorbed. Young
lobsters sometimes fill their stomaclis with calcareous parti-
cles, such as fragments of mollusk-shells, immediately after
molting, in order to olitain a large supply of lime for the
hardening of the new shell. An a<lult lcl)ster increases in
length after moltins from J of an in<-h to U inches.
When the young lobster hatches from the egg it is about
one-third of an inch long. It probably keeps near the sur-
face, where it feeds on microsco|)ic organisms. In two weeks
it lias molted four limes. When three to four weeks old it
molts a!;aiii, and soon after goes to the bottom. It now has
the geiieral external appearance and many of the habits of
the adult. The largest lobsters caught arc invariably males,
and attain a weight of probably not over 30 lb. One of the
318
LOBSTER
LOCALIZATION
largest with an authenticated reconl. in tlie nuiseinn of
AdcllxTt Collefc'e. Clcvehind, O., wei^hea wlieu alivf between
27 ami 28 lb. There is no constant relation between tlic
len>'th and weight of a lobster, on aeeount of the variation
in The size of the claws. A lOJ-ineh lobster will weigh
about U lb. , . , i
The extruded eggs of the lobster when m an advanced
stage of development uuiy be successfully hatched by arti-
ficial means, and the youi'ig lobsters liberated. As no suc-
cessful method of rearing the young lobster until it has
passetl its fri'e-swimming stages and goes to the bottom has
vet been devised, little good can be accomplished by this
method on account of the enormous death-rate of the
vouMg. Not over two in every 10,000 eggs hatched survive
and reach the adult state under present conditions.
Attempts to transport lobsters across the continent alive
and plant them in the Tacific Ocean have been made by the
U.S. Fish Commission: 5!)0 lobsters, many of them egg-
bearing females, have been safely planted on the Pacilic
coast. No evidence has yet aiipeared to show that the lob-
ster hius multiplied and thriven in this new environment.
LoOsler-tixlii-iy.—jU early as 1810, according to Kath-
bun, some" fishing was done"at the Elizabetli islands and in
Connect ieut. but the fishery in North America appears to
have been first started on Cape Cod. While tlie lobster
formed an important food-su|>ply to the inhabitants of the
New Knglan<l coast in colonial times, the fishery did not
become a distinct imlustrv until about 1840, when it had
extended to the coiLst of Maine. Here and in the .Maritime
Provinces this important industry has reached its greatest
proportions. It is nnforlunately in a clecline, due to ovcr-
fishnig. The growth of the fishery was correlated with that
of the" canning indiistrv, which is said to have been intro-
duced from Scotland into the U. S. shortly after 1840.
While in 1850 there were onlv 3 canneries in the U. S.. in
1880 there were 23 in the State of Maine. In 1892 there
were 212 canneries in Prince Kdwanl Island alone, 186 in
the province of New Brunswick, 40 in Quebec, and 182 in
Nova Scotia.
Legislation for the protection of the lobster, however
vacillating and mifonnded on scientific knowledge, has
probably helped to slay the decline of the fishery. In
Maine ('laws of IH'.i:!) it "is unlawful to destroy female lob-
sters witli extrniled eggs, or lobsters less than 10^ inclies
long, from July 1 to May 1 following. In May and .lune
the legal limit is .set at 9 inches (mesisured from rostrum to
end of tail-fin). Canning is allowed only between Apr. 20
and July 1 following, and no lobsters must be preserved
under 9" inclies in length. Somewhat similar laws are in
force in the other Slates and in the British provinces.
Lobsters are cauglit in pots or traps made of laths with a
funnel-shaped opening at either end. The pots are weighted
with stones, and set either in single warps or in trawls of
eight to forty pots each. The traps are baited with refuse
flsli, and the'lobster, when once inside the pot, seldom es-
capes unless small enough to crawl between the slats. It
has been estimated that half a million lobster traps have
been used in the Maritime Provinces in a single year.
The pots are tended from small boats, and the catch is
kept in floating "cars," moored in some protected spot near
the shore. Welled fishing-smacks gather the lobsters from
the fishermen and carry them to the canneries and to the
large distributing centers, such as Portland, Boston, and
New York. The lobsters are shipped alive in barrels, with
ice in summer, to all parts of the U. S. Large quantities
arc immediately boileil for home consumption. The im-
pouiuling of lobsters in large inclosures of salt water, where
they can be kept during the winter, and taken up when
needed for imirket, is now successfully practiced on a large
scale. When lobsters are prepared for food the stomach,
or " Imly," ami intestine must ue removed. No other parts
of the lobster are poisonous inidcr ordinary circumstances.
The "coral," or ovaries, and "lonnilly," <jr liver, are highly
esteemed by epicures.
The average uniuuil vield of the Norway lobster-fishery
from 1879-H4 is saiil to luive been 1,175,000 lobsters, valued
at ^I07,4IW, the greatiT portion being shipped to Great
Britain. .About 3,(K)().000 lubsters are said to be taken in
Great Britain in a year, while on the shores of Prince Ed-
ward Island alone' 2<).()00.0(H) lobsters were captured in
18H.5. The tiital iMiMilii-r of lobsters caught in New Eng-
land in 18H7 was l,!mo.!):i!l ; total value, $120,307. Tlie New
England lobsler-fishi>ry in 188!) yii'lded 30.44i»,C03 lb., val-
ued at ii!833,730. The 'percentage of lobsters caught in the
different New England States for the same year was : Maine,
t)8-8l): New Hampshire, '77: Massachusetts, 17'81 ; Rhode
Island, 2.")!t : t'onnectiiut. 'J97. M(Ue peiiple were .said to
be engaged in Maine in the ca|>turc of lobsters than of any
other single product, and the value of the output in 1889
was more than one-fourth of that of the entire yield of the
fisheries of the Stale, being $574, Hio. Bitllelin Untied
iVd/p.f Fiiih CiiiniiiiH.iion. vol. x., p. 108.
The total yield ami value of the lobster-fishery of Canada
in 18!I2 wjis:' Cans of preserved lobsters. 12.524,498; value,
$1,758,425: tons of lobsters shipped alive or fresh, 6.02f<;
value, $2:18,300: total value, $1,990,725. Statistics for 1880
for the r. S. (New England, New York, New Jersey, Dela-
ware) : Lobster-traps, 147,018: pounds of fresh lobsters
caught, 10,934,754 : pounds of lobsters canned (in Maine),
9.455,284: value fresh lobsters, $408,005; value canned
lobsters, $2:^8,253: total value, $740,258.
In the lobster-fishery we have the anomaly of a declining
industry, with a yearly increasing yield, but with a gra<lual
diminuiion in size of the lobsters cauglit. ami an undue in-
crease in the number of traps and fishermen. As a result,
the grounds have in many places been depleted. In Princ»
Edward Island, in 1879, from three to three and a half lob-
sters were re(juire(l to fill a pound can, while in 1888 it re-
(piircd seven. It is said that the business is not profitable
when five to .six lobsters are reiiuiivd fur I his purpose. For
an account of the lobster ami the lubsler-lishery, see 7'he
Fixhcrifx dial Fixltery Industries of the I'liiled States, sect,
1 and 5 (Washington, 1884-87). " Francis H. Hekkick.
Lobworm : See Lugworm.
Loenl Action (in the voltaic cell) : chemical action which
does not generate current in the external circuit, and conse-
quently is a source of loss. See Battery.
Loralizntion : the act of localizing, or of a.ssigning a
definite location or place to something. Specifically (o) in
medicine, the determination of the site or organ in which
physical and morbid processes originate, or the process by
which a general pliysicilogical or pathological condition be-
comes concentrated in one particular locality. When patho-
logical it is known asnuirliid hinilizdlimi. (l>) In iihysiology
and psychology, the principle acc<irdiiig t(i which dillcreiit
regions of tlie brain and nervous system are concerned with
dilTennt ami exclusive functions, more particularly known
as t'cfchral Localization. Jlost ini]Kiitant consequences
fiow from this principle in the sphere of brain physiology
and anatomy, and also of psychology.
Fads of Ldcalnaliim or yervouis Specialhation. — In the
two halves <u- hemispheres of the brain we fiml a twofold or
duplicate org:iii, analogous to the doubleiiess of the eyes
while performing together a single function. In regard to
the function of the brain as a whole, we may say that in the
main it is jierformed equally well by either hemisphere
alone. If one hemisphere be entirely removed or destroyed,
there is no perceptible imiiairmeiit of the mind, at least in
its greater typical activities. The hemispheres are more-
over capable of separate activities at the same time; the
movements of organs on the right side of the body, which
are governed by the "motor area" in the left hemisphere,
may be different from simultaneous movements on the left
side, governed by the "motor area" in the right liemisphere.
Again, there arc certain functions which are presided over
by one of the hemispheres exclusively, the other having no
part in them : the iiKitor spccch-cenler is in the left liemi-
sphere in riglit-liiinded persons, and reversed in left-handed
persons: and it is ]irobable that there is a ctjiTcsponding
functional (leveli>pment for the delicate movements of one
hand only, as in writing, etc. Accordingly, instead of con-
sidering the brain as two duplicate organs, either of which
might be educated to perform all the crrebral oflices, we
have to consider it as a double organ whose functions are
partly separate and jiartly conjoint. That is, the facts point
to the conclusion that (<i) there is a class of functions over
which the hcmisiiheres have conjoint dominiioi: functions
which they may perform together and which either may
perform alone, and functions whi<di they must ])erform to-
gether and can not perform alone; anrl (!>) there are func-
tions which are [leculiar to each alone: which one must per-
form alone, and in which tlie other has no share.
The great divisions of function may be staled in general
terms under three heads in accordance with the facts now
presented :
1. Purely reflex functions are iiresided over by the spinal
cord and lower centers.
LOCALIZATION
319
2. The automatic functions proceed out from tlie central
and tegmental systems of centers beneath the cerebral
hemispheres.
3. Sensation and voluntary movement have their seat in
man in the cortex of the hemispheres.
If 1 and 2 be considered together as giving only one de-
gree of complexity, and
3 be added as giving an-
other degree, we may
show their relation bv
Fig. 1.
The degree to which
the cortex serves the
purposes of mind, above
the bare reception of
present stimuli and me-
chanical reaction upon
them, is seen in the be-
havior of animals de-
prived of the cortex.
Frogs and pigeons have
been fully tested in view
of this question. It is
found, in brief, that the
life and reactions of the
creature are unimpaired
so far as the imtiiediute
..mt
sense organ muscle
FlQ. 1. — s c mt = reflex circuit ;
s c sp c mt = voluntary circuit.
environment is concerned : it lives, breathes, flies, sees, eats,
carries out all reactions of response to direct stimulation ;
but it fails to respond to remote stimuli : the reactions are
for the most part uninfluenced either by the past or the fu-
ture. The creature lacks spontaneity. Memory has ilisap-
peared ; so have generalization and purpose. The creature
has sensations, but not perceptions, as far as a line can be
drawn between these states. It fails utterly to recoynize,
and it fails to attend. It is plain, then, that such a hemi-
sphereless creature lacks largely the co-ordinating, retain-
ing, relating, or, as it is often called, the " apperceiving,"
function. The terms yw^r/d'c-blindness, ^.>i^c/( (V-deaf ness,
etc., are given to this condition, in which there is no physi-
cal blindness, etc., but in which sensations have lost their
mental meaning. As for particular reactions, however, the
greatest difference is found in different animals. In dogs
and birds many functions are performed by the lower cen-
ters which are presided over by the hemispheres exclusively
in monkeys and in man. This illustrates the fact that reac-
tions at one time reasonable and intelligent may become
nervous and mechanical : and this consideration, based upon
extended experimental proof, leads us to recognize the great
elasticity of the system as regards specialization. When
these maimed animals are kept alive, their condition im-
proves, and they begin to get something of their intelligence
back again.
Localization in Special Areas of the Cerebral Cortex. —
The question as to whether there are local areas in the cor-
tex or gray matter of the hemispheres which are especially
active in the exercise of the sense and motor activities is of
great importance for general psychology. Experiments have
Flo. 2.— Outer surface nf left hemisphere of the brain (modified from
Exner) : a, fissure of Rolando : ti, fissure of Sylvius.
been very conflicting in their results, but it is now generally
admitted that there are a limited number of well-ascertained
areas. The motor functions are grouped around the fissure
of Kolando (see a. Fig. 2), extending roughly from the ver-
tex of tlie skull downward and forward in a line which
passes slightly in front of the orifice of the ear. The centers
for the leg, arm, and face are in the order named, proceed-
ing downward. The special muscular groups involved in
the finer movements of these organs are distributed on both
sides of the Rolandic fissure. J^Iovements of speech have
their center for right-handed persons in the third frontal
gyre of the left hemisphere. The sensory area comprehends
the region lying back of and beneath the motor zone; the
fissure of Sylvius (see b. Fig. 2) being a rough horizontal
boundary between the motor aiul sensory areas. Of the
special senses, sight is located in the occip'ital lobe, includ-
ing the so-called angular gyre at the upper end of tlie Syl-
vian fissure. The centei-s for hearing, taste, and smell lie.
less exactly, in the temporo-sphenoidal lobe, the horizontal
area below the fissure of Sylvius,
In man the destruction of the frontal lobes seems to bring
about a higher kind of "psychic blindness": a loss of vol-
untary attention, co-ordination, and thought. According to
a widely current hypothesis these lobes are the final center
of convergence for the connections between the sensory and
motor centers of the brain. The loss of connection between
this seat and any other area cuts the latter with its store of
memories off from its full role in the mental life. For e.\-
ample. speech may be impaired by the loss of any one of
three functions located in different areas, i. e. word-seeing,
word-hearing, and word-uttering.
One of the most difficult and important questions yet re-
maining open is the determination of the particular regions
which contribute directly to consciousness, i. e. which are
sensory. Are we conscious of the motor centers at all, or is
all our consciousness of movement, as well as other sensi-
bility, mediated by elements which are only sensory? May
sensory areas be also motor i That motor and sensory
functions may at least be performed Ijy tlie same areas is
shown by Schiifer and Munk,who find (in opposition to Fer-
rier) definite movements of the eyes following electrical
stimulation of the sight (sensory) center (occipital lobe) in
dogs and monkeys. It is possible (Munk) that this center
controls reflex eye-movements, and that the eye-movement
center in the Kolandic region is the seat of voluntary move-
ments. This view agrees with the suggestion of Bianchi
that the ordinary stimulation of the motor areas does not
pass directly out to the nerves, but passes first through the
sensory centers: a position supported by all cases of sensory
effects following the stimulation of motor areas. Beaunis
holds that the motor elements have an immediate element
of consciousness. Schafer is led to the position that the
visual area represents in some detail a projection of the
retina upon the cortex.
Fia. 3— Inner f mesial i surface of tlie riuht hemisphere of the brain
(modified from Schiifer and Horsli-yl. In both figures the shaded
area is the motor zone.
Principle nf Indifference of Function.— The principle of
indifference includes the cla&s of facts which show that the
nerve-courses are not the agents of different or specific
forces, but parts of a common system and agents of a com-
mon life. As a matter of fact, we find that different courses
can be made to perform each other's function. If a piece of
sensor nerve be joined to a cut end of a motor nerve and
grow in place, it will conduct the motor impulse continu-
ously \vith the motor piece. The contrary is also true. The
range of such experiments is very limited, since it is itnpos-
320
LOCALIZATION, IX SPACE
LOCAI^OPTIOX LAWS
sible to exchange the eiul-conneclions of nerves eitlior cen-
tmllv or |nTipherally ; but the fiu-ts at liiiml e.stnl>lish eon-
elusi'velv the |irinci|ile uf inililTerence as rt'jtanls the sensor
and motor nerve-traots. In its apiilieatioii to tlie centers
the same |iriiici|iK' has a ilillcient name, since it takes a
somewhat ilillcrcnt form of manifestation, i. e. the principle
of xiihutiliition.
Prineiple of Subslitittitm. — The question further arises:
Can the nerve-centers !)« maile to take up eadi otiier's func-
tion* Researches in cerebral locali;tation. chiefly upon ani-
mals, tend to show tliat such a substitution of function is
possible, at least to a limited decree. The removal of a cor-
tical center, which occasions loss of one of the special senses,
say sight, or the loss of control over a certain muscular
area, seems to bo made j;ood by the assumption of the de-
ranged function V>y a contiguous or, at least, a connected
center. At any rate, the animal recovers, if kept alive a suf-
ficiently long period. The word "seems" is used advisi-dly,
for it is still uncertain whether the loss of such a function is
due to the destruction of I he entire apparatus nornudly react-
ing to this function or to its partial loss, the remaining ele-
ments being temporarily iidiibited by so-called "physiological
shock," or. in the case of electrical stimulation, by diffusion
of the current. The latter is known to be the case in many of
the experiments on brain-tissue, esi>ecially when the surgical
method is employetl without the extremest care. This lat-
ter view is also supported by the remarkable fact that in
the monkey and man these substitutions are exceedingly
rare ; a result we would expect on the shock theory, consid-
ering the higher degree of delicacy and differentiation at-
tained by the .system in these higher organisms. Yet in the
case of rabbits and dogs such substitution, notably of the
sight, is probably established on a firm basis.
Principh of Specific Connection. — The limits which the
growth of the organism sets to the sulwtitution of functions
find their expression in wliat is called "specific connection "
through the .system. By this principle is meant, in general,
two things: First, that nerve-courses are specific only ac-
cording as they have certain well-defined connections at cen-
ter or periphery. These connections keep the cotirses to an
invariable function. The optic nerve has a specific connec-
tion with the retina and with the opticcenterinthebrain ; the
auditory nerve with the ear an4l the center for hearing, and
so on. In this case it is the end-organ or the center which
is specific, not the nerve-tract; and, second, it means that
nerve-centers are specific according as their connections
necessitate their reacting to a specific stimulus. The optic
center has specific connections with the retina through the
optic nerve ; the center for soundswith the ear. through the
auditory nerve. and so on. Now there are as many of these
specific connections !is there are kinds of stimuli issuing in
motor reactions. Conse(iuently.llie only specific things after
all are the stimulus and the movement. For the bearing of
all these facts ami principles upon mental theory, see Phys-
iological PsVCUOLOOY.
Refkkexies. — The physiologies generally, of which Fos-
ter, Text-bool: of Physiology. iiih ed.. part iii.. isvery reliable
(Ix)ndon and New York, 1890); Kdinger. Structure of t/ie
Central Aervuus System ; Obersleiner, Central Xervous Oi--
gans (Eng. trans., 2d ed. 18!Kj); Fenier. Funrtiong of tin-
Brain (ii\ ed. London, 1886); Wundt, I'hysiologische I'ny-
ehologie (4th ed. 18U8, i., ersler Almc/i.) ; Ijadd, Elements of
Physiological Psychology (New York, 1887, part i.); also
Outlines of Physiological Psychology (New York, 18ill);
James, Principles of Psychology (i., chap.s. ii. and iii., New-
York, 18i>0); iialdwin, HandVook of Psiicholoqi/ (vol. ii..
chaps, i.-ii., New York, 18111). .1. Si.^rk IValuwi.v.
Lnrulizntion. in S|)nce: the mental act or function by
which We pi iieive oliji its at certain definite localities. The
physiological indications by which we do this are called
local signs. By local signs are meant specific local difler-
ences in the anaiigement or structure of the elements in
the skin and ntinii. My reason of these dilTercnces locali-
ties are known to be in the positions they really occvipy in
space. I refer an excitation to my hand or foot ; why do I
give it such a reference 1 Whv ilo I locate a pain in my
right hand rather than in my left f Simolc sensations, ajs
ta.stes, sounds, are fused together; but siicii sensations from
neighboring points of the skin and retimi preserve their pe-
culiar character and relation to oiu^ another, ami we distin-
guish dilferent localities because t he sen.<)il ions from them are
really dilferent. The first idea of mir uwii budy results from
nnisciilar sen.sations which arise from early movenuMits, and
these sensations are vague and confused ; yet even here the
feeling of extension is present, also vague ami confused.
Whence comes it ( It can only conu' from initial differences
of some kind which are perpetiniled through transmission to
the brain. These differences, probably in the skin or sensor
nerves, and possibly a matter largely of association, afford tt
datum for the localization of sensations indifferent portions
of the body.
The theory of local signs was first propounded by Lotze,
who, however, varied it in its applicatimi to dilferent orders
of sensation. For sight he made the Imid sign consist in
the fixed amount of muscular movement which any retinal
point must undergo to be brought into the line of clearest
vision. This is a different and definite quantity for every
point in the retina. In the skin the local sign, for Lotze,
was the combination of light accessory sensations which
are provoked in immediate connection with the point of
contact. There would be a varying amount of radiation of
stimulus in the skin according to the varying structural
consistency of the jiarts over which the skin is stretched, as
bone, muscle, ligament. This hypothesis foumi develop-
ment in the more natural iiosition that the local sign was an
implanted peculiarity in Ilie structure of the skin itself. A
further theory, very widely ado|ited, and suggested by Czer-
mak, makes the hu'al distinctions in the skin due to the
ramifications of the spread-out nerve fibrils, each such
nerve-end reacting for its own iiosition and being thus a
local sign. This position is most iirobable. It is supported
by the fact that thesensibility of tucskin to Icx^al differences
varies greatly in different narts of the body and may be in-
creased by the fixing of the attention, by exerci.se, and in
the hy]inotic state. These latter conditions tend to bring
into play finer elements of the ramifying nerve. and thus to
diminish the distance between the sensitive points. And
the same fads tend to refute the theory that the units of
tactual feeling are found in Weber"s " circles of sensation."
Besides the general consideration that some such hyjioth-
esis as that of local signs is necessary to the case, there is
direct evidence of the existence of these signs. The fact of
varj'ing local discrimination of the skin has been mentioned;
it is also true of the retina. The relative discrimination of
localities grows less delicate as we proceed from the cen-
ter to the edge of the retina. The quality of massiveness or
extensity of sensations of touch and sight depends upon the
simultaneous independent excitation of units of sensation,
andean be accounted for only on the assumption of some
cliaracteri.slic by which these units are kept distinct. If the
skin of the foreiiead be bent down upon the nose and grow
there, its irritation is felt still at the forehead. The same is
seen in the retimi in certain pathological affections, in which
the retinal elements are displaecil ; the irritating points of
light falling upon these elements are localized where they
would be seen by the healthy eye.
BiBLiooRAPnv. — Kibot, German Psychology of To-day
(New York, 1876) ; Wundt, Grundzuye der pliysiologischen
Psychologic (M\ ed.. ii.. p. 32 ff.) ; Lotze. Metaphi/sic (Ox-
ford. 1884. p. 481 If.); Baldwin. Haudliook of Psi/chology (i.,
p. 12;! ff.. New York, 2d ed. 18110) ; Ladd. Klements of Phys-
iological Psychology (New York, 1887, chap, vi., «;§. 12-10).
■I. Mark Baldwi.v.
Locnl-0|»tion Laws: in general, laws empowering a po-
litical division of a state to decide upon a certain measure;
in a special sense, laws authorizing the people of each local-
ity to deciile for themselves the question of permitting the
sale of liquor within its limits. In the U. .S. objection has
been made to local-option laws as unconslitutional, in that
they delegate legislative power to the locality by making
their adoption depend upon the popular vote; but this ob-
jection has not been sustained by the courts, which have
generally held that these laws merely involve the delega-
tion of a power to determine .some fact or state of things
upon which the law-making body makes or intends to make
its own (iction depend. (See Cooley on ConstiliitioiKil Limi-
tations.) Local option in the matter of the liquor trallic
has been advocated in the V. S. chiefiy liy those who wish
to sujipress this Irafiic altogether, but think it easier to
fight it in the localities than in the State as a whole. To
thesi' arc added those who. while not in sympathy with the
PROiiinnio.N (o. I'.) movement, consider it fair that each lo-
cality should bear the responsibility of the continuance or
supjiression of the traflic within its limits. Acts authoriz-
ing local option have been passed by many uf the State
Legislatures, and its advocates claim that it has been at-
LOCH I.EVEN
LOCK
321
tended with a high degree of success, maintaining that it is
more practicable than proliibition by legislative act or con-
stitutional amendment, and less liable to evasion where it
has resnlted in forbidding the sale of litjuors. Where this
system has prevailed a large proportion of the localities
have [irohibited the traffic. Local-option enactments in the
various States differ greatly in detail, but as a general rule
provide that at stated intervals a certain proportion of the
voters of the locality may. upon petitioning the Legislature,
secure a special election to decide the question of prohibi-
tion. In some States, however, the question is periodically
submitted for decision without requiring a preliminary pe-
tition. In Great Britain the leader of the local-option
movement is Sir Wilfrid Lawson, the author of the Per-
missive Bill, who introduced a local-option resolution in
Parliament in 1879, and has subsequently tried in vain to
secure to the electors of a locality the power to veto the is-
sue of licenses. The term local option in Great Britain also
includes several schemes for the reform of the licensing sys-
tem, and for securing to the localities a wider rangeof
powers than is demanded by Lawson and the United King-
dom Alliance, as, for examjile, the right not merely to ac-
cept or reject, but to regulate completely the liquor traflic
within their bounds. P. j\l. Colbv.
Lochleveii. lochlee'ven : a small lake in Fifeshire, .Scot-
land ; containing an island on which stood the castle noted
as the place where Mary Queen of Scots was imprisoned
from July, 1567, until her escape. May 2, 1.568. The place
is now of no military or strategical importance, but was in
the sixteenth century a stronghold of the first rank.
Lock [0. Eng. loc, inclosure, door-fastening, deriv. of
lucan, lock, fasten] : an inclosed mechanism for fastening
doors, drawers, lids, etc., by means of a movable bolt ; usu-
ally operated by a portable instrument called a key, but
sometimes by a turning knob or dial.
The ancients, although possessing great skill in many
conspicuous arts, do not seem to have distinguished them-
selves as makers of locks, as clumsiness appears to have been
the predominant characteristic of all their locksmithing, or
rather lock carpentry, for the evidence accessible indicates
that the earliest locks were made of wood, long before skill
in the shaping of metals was applied to the construction of
such articles. Without doubt, the first lock was made in
Egypt, the birthplace and nursery of the arts and sciences.
Wooden locks of a rude and primitive design — quite similar
to those made 4,000 years ago — are still in use in Egypt and
Syria. Thompson states that the steward of the convent on
Mt. Carmel opened his magazine with a key as large as a
club, reminding him of Isaiah (b. c. 758) xxii. 22, " The key
of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder." This
suggests the statement of Callimachus (b. c. 260) who in his
Eymn to Ceres speaks of the goddess taking the form of
Nisippe, her priestess, carrying a " key fit to be borne upon
the shoulder." Locks continued to be made large and clum-
sy for many centuries, for Eustathius, Bishop of Thessalon-
ica (a. d. 115.5), tells of keys that were curved like a sickle,
and so large that they were often carried on the shoulder.
In the book of Judges, chap. iii. 23-25, we are told that
" Ehud (B. c. 1.330) locked the doors of the parlor," and that
the servants of Kmg Eglon " took a key and opened them."
This is the earliest mention of a key in history. Homer's
description of the opening of her wardrobe by Penelope is
translated by Pope thus :
A brazen key she held, the handle turned,
With steel and polished ivory adorned.
The bolt, obedient to the silken string:.
Forsakes the staple as she pulls the ring;
The wards, respondent to the key, turn round,
The bars dy back, the rtyin^ valves resound;
Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring,
So roared the lock when it released the spring.
It is clear that this must have been a burglar-alarm lock ;
and the terribly sonorous character of the alarm is sugges-
tive of possible improvements in the mechanism of modern
alarm-locks. •
The door-lock used in Egypt, which is the oldest known
method for fastening doors, etc., is made of wood to-day
precisely as when first invented forty centuries ago, and is a
good example of the " persistence of a type " in mechanism.
The bolt of the lock is rectangular in cross-section, open at
one end, and hollow throughout the most of its length; on
the upper surface of the hollow portion of the bolt are several
vertical holes communicating with the hollow. The bolt slides
in an inclosing box or case of wood secured to the inside of
the door ; when the bolt is pushed in locking (the key is not
247
required for this operation), so that its solid end enters the
mortise in the doorpost, a number of pins (having heads on
their upper ends to prevent tlicir falling loo far), which
occupy holes in the up|ier part of tlie bolt-case, drop into
the holes in the upper surface of the bolt, and thus prevent
its being drawn back without the use of its key — this con-
sists of a flat bar of wood small enough to enter easily the
hollow end of the bolt. On the upper surface of this'key-
bar are fixed a number of vertical pins, placed in the saine
relation to each other as the lioles in the top of the bolt, and
of the same height as the thickness of the wood through
which they are bored. When this key is pushed as far as it
will go into the hollow end of the bolt and then raised ver-
tically, the pins in its upper surface will enter and fill the
holes in the bolt, and so raise the pins which secured it in
its locked position; then the key with the bolt attached is
drawn back, thus unlocking the door. It will be noted from
this description that there is no keyhole in the modern sense
of the term, but as the lock is secured to the inside of the
door, in order to lock it from the outside or use the key for
unlocking, there is a round hole cut in the door through
which the hand and arm can be thrust for that purpose.
There are no springs in this lock, and if thieves had been as
ingenious in Eastern as in Western nations it would have
passed out of use many centuries ago.
The tumbler lock is, next to the Egyptian, the oldest type
of lock, and there is evidence that the Chinese invented it
very early in their history. It derives its name from a lever,
latch, or slide, entering a notch in the bolt, which in conse-
quence can not be moved until the tumbler is lifted by a
key. There have been endless modifications of the tumbler
lock, and it is very generally used, notwithstanding the fact
that it can be picked by a skillful operator.
'Y\ie warded lock Vi as, the next species of lock invented;
it derives its name from certain obstructions of more or less
irregular shape attached to the lock-case in the path of the
key, which are intended to make it impossible to move the
bolt unless the key has openings in its bit which will enable
it to pass the wards. Locks of this kind were used by the
ancient Romans long before the beginning of the Christian
era, and are still very largely used when a cheap lock wiU
answer the purpose. Their construction is very simjile; the
bolt has upon its top a flat spring, and in its lower edge are
cut a pair of notches, one of which is acted upon by the key
while passing the wards, and the other is provided with a
projecting curve which when held in contact with the lower
edge of one of the mortises in the case through which the
bolt slides, by the pressure of the spring, serves to hold the
bolt in its locked or unlocked position. The first action of
the key is to lift the bolt slightly against the pressure of the
spring, thus relieving it from the edge of the mortise, and
as the key continues to turn the bolt is moved into the re-
quired position and the key released. This style of lock can
be readily picked by the use of a stiff wire bent at the end
in such a way as to avoid the intricacies of the wards.
The letter or dial lock was the fourth tyi)e of lock devised.
Its invention has been attributed to M. Kegnier (director of
the Musee d'Artillerie at Paris) about 1650, but he was prob-
ably merely an improver or manufacturer of a style of lock
invented by another, for in Beaumont and Fletcher's play,
2'Ae JS'oble' Gentleman (1615), we find
A cap-ease for your linen and your plate.
With a strange lock that opens with a.m.b.m.
Thomas Carew, in 1620, writes :
. . . As doth a lock that goes
With letters; for, till every one be known.
The lock's as fast as though you had found none.
Regnier's locks were for a time very popular, and were used
for the fastening of diplomatic dispatch-boxes. They have
been described as follows, viz. : " Broad steel rings four, five,
or eight deep, upon each of which the alphabet was engraved,
turned upon a cylin<Jer of steel, and the lock only separated
when the letters "forming a particular word were in a straight
line with each other. This word was selected from among a
thousand, and the choice was the secret of the purchaser.
Any one not knowing the words might turn the rings round
for years without finding the right one." The concluding
sentence of this description is erroneous, as these locks have
been frequently opened in recent years without a previous
knowledge of "the word," but the operation of unlocking
inevitably disclosed it. Such locks are not now used to any
considerable extent.
The four types of lock described are the foundation facts
of look construction, ou which all subsequent improvements
LOCK
s
in sucli incchanisra rest ; hiuI it is difTiciilt to conceive it
possible to make a lock without em|>loyiiijr one or more of
the ideas involved in tliese four typical methods of construc-
tion. It is therefore to a comlilnution of these primary
lock mechanisms, with other details, whose sole object is to
guard them from successful assault from criminal ingenuity,
that we are to look for absolute security in lock construc-
tion, if indeed such a result is attainable. It f;eneriilly hap-
pens that as soon as a Im-k seems to meet all requirements
some burjilar or enterprisiiif; business rival discovers some
hitherto unimajilnable method of picking.
It is sup|)Osed that locks were introduced into Kngland
by Phoenician traders, as locks similar to those orieinatinj;
in Egypt have been used from a remote antiquity in Corn-
wall. Locks were first manufactured in England in the
reign of Alfred (a. d. 8T1-901). In the time of Richard I.
(llt)9-U0) there was an entry in a book of accounts belong-
ing to the Manor of Savoy of the purchase of two "stock-
lokkes, price xx-"," and two"" hang lokks, price xvj''." Dur-
ing tlie reign of (jueen Elizabeth the art of lock-making
had evidently made considerable advance, for we are told
that a certain Mark Scaliot mai\e a lock "consisting of
eleven pieces of iron, steel, and brass, all of which, with a
pipe key of gold, weighed only two grains of gol<l." The
Slarnuis" of Worcester (1G63), in his famous Centunj of In-
venlwns, nuMitions several locks of Scaliol's design, and says
of one of them : " If a stranger open it, it settelh an Alarm
a-going, which the stranger cannot stop from running out ;
and besides, though none should be within hearing, yet it
catched his hand, as a Trap does a Fox; and though far
from maiming him, yet it leaveth such a mark behind it, as
will discover liim if suspected ; the Escocheon or Lock plain-
ly showing what monies he has taken out of the Hox to a
farthing, and how many times opened since the owner had
been in it."
In the middle of the eighteenth century the main depend-
ence for security in locks consisted of a combination of com-
plicated wards, intricate keys, single tumblers, and a multi-
tude of bolts shot simultaneously by the action of a single
key from all sides and even the angles of the door or lid to
wliich they were attached. Sometimes as many as twelve
bolts were used.
Barron's lock was the first lock having multiple tumblers
patented in England (1778), and its construction added very
much to the dilliculty of picking by the means known at
that time. Uramah's lock (1784) and Chubb's (1818) were
for many years regarded in (ireat Britain as absolutely
secure from a successful attack of lock-picking tools and
skill, but they were both repeatedly opened in 1831 by A. C.
Uobbs (b. 1812; d. 1891), mechanician, and a native of the
U. S., who was the exhibitor of the Day & Newell Parantop-
tic (inspection defying) lock at the Crystal Palace in Lon-
don. On .July 22. IS'il, three months after his arrival in
England, he opened a Chubb lock having three bolts and
six tumblers which was affixed to the door of a strong
room at 34 (ireat (ieorge Street, Westminster. This he ac-
complished with his instruments (never having seen the key)
in twenty-live minutes, relocking the door in seven minutes,
neither operation having occasioned the slightest injury to
the door or look. This suec(;ss was followed by the triumph
of opening the famous Hramah lock, with its eighteen slides,
which had been hanging for many years in the window of
Messrs. Uramah's shop as a challenge to a generation of
locksmiths, and receiving from them, by order of the arbi-
trators, the 20U guineas reward offered for so doing. The
actual time Ilobbs was at work on the lock was nineteen
hours, several of which were used in recovering the pieces
of a bnjken tool from the interior of the lock. He after-
ward repealed the operation three times within an hour, and
opened anolhcr lock having eight slides in four minutes.
liobbs established in England tlic numufaclure of locks by
machinery (all locks had previously been made there by
hand-worl{) on the interchangeable plan.
The Parantoplic lock of Day & Newell (owing to his suc-
cess in introducing it to the notice of purchasers this came
to be called the Ilobbs lock) had a functional combina-
tion of part.s that had unsuccessfully been attempted in ear-
lier locks, viz., the ability to adjust automatically its mechan-
ism during the operation of locking to any arrangement of
the removable pieces, or bitts forming the wing of Its key.
which of cours<i must be used for uidocrking; but this auto-
nnitic ailaplabillty enabled the lock to be operateil with a
key of new form whenever it was locked. This was an ele-
ment of safety which none of its coniiielitors for a time pos-
sessed, and, besides, the lock was .so contrived as to defy the
means of picking so successfully used by Ilobbs on other
locks. In consequence of the advantages mimed and the
liberal advertising from the inlluence of Ilobbs 's connec-
tion with it, this lock was largely used for nniny years, but
was finally opened by Linus Yale, Jr. (li. 1821 ; d. 18(!8), by a
method which was not siriclly mechanical, but rather a
means of making the lock Itself report to the operator
graphically and in an unmistakable way the order in which
the bitts were as.send)led in the key when it was used. This
method consisted in smoking or otherwise discoloring the
tumblers before the door was locked, then when the key was
used its bitts would scrape off the substance covering the
tumblers in proportion to the length of the several bitts;
hence, by examining the tuud)lers by the aid of a small mjr-
ror introduced through the key-hole after the removal of
the key, it was i)ossible to nu'asure the length of the abra-
sions on the tumblers, and from these measurements con-
struct a key that would open the lock. This, while very in-
genious and effective, can not be regarded as illustrating so
high an order of skill as the |)urely mechanical methods
which preceded and followed it. Linus Yale, Jr., was a
highly ingenious and very fertile inventor of locks, and with-
out doubt contributed more to the art of luck-makiug in Its
higher branches than any other iiuiividual. The well-known
draw or post-office lock, having a thin flat key, is his inven-
tion, and is what is now popularly known as the Y'ale lock.
One of the most ingenious locks of his design was called the
magic lock. It had cylindrical bolts, was without springs,
had a very small keyhole, and a key with a detachable bitt,
which, when the key was inserted and turned, was automat-
ically removed from the stem or handle and carried about 3
inches away from the keyhole and then made to act upon
the tumblers, and thus enabled the continued movement of
the handle to open the lock. This was followed by the in-
vention by Y'ale of his treasury lock, which was a decided
im|irovement upon the magic lock, inasmuch as it had two
series of tinnblcrs similar in idea to the Day <fc Xewell lock,
and thus the clement of changeability was provided in the
key in addition to dctachability.
Chronologically we have now a|iproached the year 1860.
It had by that time become evident to experts in lock con-
struction that no locks operated by a key were safe from
being picked or opened by some ingenious artifice, and,
further, that the increasing frequency of the use of gunpow-
der by ijrofi'ssional burglars nuule it highly desirable that
there should be no opening through the door into the lock.
These considerations led to the invention of a lar^e luunber
of dial-locks, among which were the Sargent, with its roller
bolt and tumblers changeable by a key, the Marvin nuig-
netlc lock, and several varieties invented by Linus Yale, Jr.
Many of the poorer dial-locks readily yielded to the skill of
operators, and finally the opening of the best of the Yale
dial-locks by Janu'S Sargent, who used a micrometer for the
purpose, which had also been invented by Mr. Yale, gave a
rude shock to the feeling of confidence which had become
very general in regard to the security of the t)est dial-locks,
ami for a time the belief seemed to be general that it was
impossible for human ingenuity to devise a lock that could
not be picked. This condition of affairs caused inventors
to turn their attention to an old and neglected invention,
the time-Inch. 'J'lie first suggestion for a luck that could
OTily be unlocked at a cerlain time is contained in an Eng-
lish patent issued to William Rutherford in 18;!1. In this
invention the lock mechanism was contmlled by a clock
secured to the inside of the door. This clock could be set to
the hour at which it was desired to open the door, and at
that ho\ir and no other could the key or other means for
moving the bolts be nuide to operate. In 18r)7 another lime-
lock was devised by llcjlbrook & Fish, of the U. S. Hulh of
these locks anticipated the days of profitable appreciation
by many year.s, but their inveniors were far-.seeing In their
Ingenuity, for their work embraced details which are now
regarded.as of the first Importance.
About this period there were a number of abortive efforts
to introduce time-locks to the favoralile consideration of
bankers and merchants, but it was not until the dial-lock
had ceased to give coididcnce that the lime-lock l)egan to
attract serious altention. The first successful lock of this
kind was tintented by Janu'S Sargent In 187.'i, and was soon
followed by the Yale tinu'-lock, in which the inventions of
Little, Stockwell, and others were included, and at a later
date by the time-locks of Pillard, Homes, Ilall, and other
ingenious inventors. No time-lock has ever been jjicked, as
LOCKE
323
the time allowed for operating with instruments upon the
lock after its mechanism has been released and before it is
again secured by tlie clock attached is too sliort for the em-
ployment of any instrument with success. Notwithstand-
ing the security of the time-lock against picking there was
still a vulnerable point in it as usually constructed at the
time of its general adoption — the lock was not automatic ;
that is, it required to be unlocked by some form of dial
mechanism operated from the outside of the door ; this, of
course, required that a spindle should pass through the door
to communicate the movements of the dial to the mechan-
ism of the lock. This gave a point of application for tools
to destroy the lock and an opening through which some
highly explosive liquidcould beintroduced. These objections
have been overcome by the invention of the automatic time-
lock, or, as it is sometimes called, the bolt-motor. This
consisted of a case (similar to a lock-ease) secured to the in-
terior of the door. This case contains two very powerful
springs which are set by a key (operated from the inside, as
there is no opening of any kind through the door) before the
door is closed ; one of these springs is connected with a
trigger which releases it as soon as the door is shut, and it
immediately throws the heavy bolts into their locked posi-
tion. The second spring in the case is acted upon by a
clock movement (provided in duplicate to guard against
accidental failure) at any determined hour to wliich the
clock is set. As soon as the second spring is released by the
clock it acts upon the door-bolts with great power, and im-
mediately throws them into their unlocked position. There
are various modifications and refinements on this general
construction, all having for their object the automatic ac-
tion of the bolts at a certain time by means of powerful
springs released by a clock. W. F. Dubfee.
Locke, David Ross: humorist; better known under his
pseudonymn of PeiroUnm V. Nasby ; b. at Vestal, Broome
CO., N. Y., Sept. 20, 1833 ; learned printing in the office of
the Cortland Democrat; was successively editor and pub-
lisher of the Plymouth (O.) Advertiser, the Mansfield (0.)
Herald, The Bncyrus Journal, and the Findhiy (().) Jeffer-
sonian, and editor of T/ie Toledo Blade. In 1861 he began
to publish in The Jeffersoniayi his Nasby letters, finally col-
lected in book form as The Struggles — Social, Financial,
and Political — of Petroleum V. Nasby (1872). Among later
productions are The Morals of Abo u Ben Adhem (1875) and
A Paper City, a novel (1878). D. at Toledo, 0., Feb. 15,
1888. Revised by U. A. Beers.
Locke, John : philosopher ; b. at Wrington, Somerset-
shire, England, Aug. 29, 1632. His first studies were pur-
sued at Westminster School, London. In 1651 he became
a member of Clirist Church, Oxford, where he resided till
1664. Here his mind received that bent which gave him
his subsequent renown as a philosopher. It was partly due
to the reading of Descartes, wliose clearness of exposition,
so much in contrast with the crude instruction of the uni-
versity, Locke admired greatly ; but Locke owed his philo-
sophical stimulus in part, and directly, to a discussion with
five or six students in his rooms at Oxford, when, as he says,
the thouglit came to his mind that the only sure ground of
harmony in judgment must be found in a preliminary de-
termination of the possibilities of tlie human mind. This
" thought," which became the Essay on the Numan Under-
standing, was taken up and laid aside, and written upon at
intervals through a period of more than twenty years, and
only finished in 1687. In 1664 Locke was secretary of lega-
tion at Berlin ; in 1667 he became acquainted with Lord
Ashley, afterward Earl of Shaftesbury, who, in gratitude
for medical advice, received the young philosopher as a
member of his family. During this time he directed the
education of Shaftesbury's son, and that of his grand-
son, who became an elegant philosophical writer in Queen
Anne's reign. Locke was brought, through his friend and
patron, into the society of Buckingham, Halifax, and other
distinguished men. When Shaftesbury became Lord Chan-
cellor he gave to him the office of the presentation of bene-
fices ; liut Locke and his [latron soon fell into disfavor, and
from 1675 to 1679 Locke was in France, mainly at Mont-
pellier with Herbert, later Earl of Pembroke, to whom he
dedicated his essay. From 1683 to 1688, on account of the
.state of his own country, he deemed it wise again to reside
abroad. The revolution of 1688 enabled him to return from
Holland to England, where he filled several civil offices, and
was offered others, which on account of age and ill-health
he declined. His last years, spent in the study of the Scrip-
tures, were ministered to by Lady llasham, a daughter of
Ralph Cudworth. He died at O'ates, in Essex, a firm be-
liever in tlie Christian religion, Oct. 28, 1704.
The PniLosopnv of JjOcke. — 1. Reasons for its Oreat
Popularity and Influence. — The Essay on the Human Un-
derstanding, which contains Locke's system, did not appear
in London until 16'JO ; but four editions, revised by the au-
thor, were issued before his death, and a fifth, with his last
emendations, the year after, a tenth in 1731, and the thir-
teenth in 1748. Jleantime it was translateil into French,
then becoming the universal language of scholars in Europe ;
and this translation, made in 1700, passed through five edi-
tions in fifty years. It was also translated into Latin, into
Dutch and German several times, and since into modern
Greek. These various editions and translations indicate the
popularity and extensive influence of the Essay. As reasons
for this may be mentioned — first, the author's tjublic and so-
cial position, coupled with the clearness and assurance, if
not always the self-consistency, of his utterances. Altliough
wanting the condensation and critical power of such writers
as Kant, his English ranks with the best prose of his time ;
and his familiar style, derived from the refined society in
which he moved, was a help to his popularity, as his public
life was already an introduction to his authorship. Sec-
ond, his adherence to the cause of civil and religious liberty.
In his work on Civil Government lie advocated the rights
of the people against the arbitrary rule to which they were
being subjected. In 1684, by order of His Majesty, he
was expelled from his benefice at Oxford, and was an exile
on account of his too free opinions. He might have met
with Sir Philip Sidney's fate if, instead of being secreted in
Holland, he had fallen into the power of the king. On the
accession of James II. William Penn proposed to procure
for him a pardon, but the philosopher's noble reply was :
"There is no need of pardon where there is no crime or
fault." The above reasons, however powerful as auxiliaries,
would not suffice to account for the influence of the Essay
but for the third — that the times favored such a work. The
psychological field was not much explored, and in attempt-
ing it Locke showed an independence which drew attention
to him. At the same time good men, especially in England,
were disposed to accept authority, and to assume that re-
ligion could find its support in faith, without any help from
philosophy, or even against it. It followed, therefore, that
unchristian thinkers found support for their favorite theo-
ries in the current and accepted philosophy of Locke. " To-
ward 1750," says Cousin, "the principles of Locke were
spread through Europe ; they were developed everywhere
else, as well as in England." This indicates that the time
was ripe for such a system as that announced by Locke.
" Placed between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
he forms the transiti<jn from one to the other. In fact, run
over all the sensualistic philosophers of the eighteenth cen-
tury, there is not one who does not invoke the authority of
Locke ; and I do not speak merely of metaphysicians, but
of moralists, publicists, and critics. Locke is the chief, the
avowed master of the sensualistic school of the last cen-
tury." (Cousin.)
2. What the Loelcian Philo.'iophy is. — Its aim is "to in-
quire into the original certainty and extent of human
knowledge." With this in view, the author strives to show
(Bk. i.) that there are no " innate ideas "—ideas being used
for whatever is in the mind. If any of these are innate,
then the expression of them — for example, "whatever i.s,
is," or " it is impossible the same thing should be and not
lie" — must be accepted by all luiinan beings, not a child or
savage excepted ; but, says he, idiots, children, and savages
do not accept them : therefore they can not be innate. Such
is the reasoning. The obstacles thus removed, the origin of
knowledge is discussed (Bk. ii.). Fortunately, the author's
positions can be given concisely almost in his own words :
" Let us suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper,
void of all characters, without any ideas; how conies it to
be furnished i Whence has it all the materials of reaSou
and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, fmni ex-
perience: in that alt knowledge is founded, and from that
it ultimately derives itself." Again he says — and the pas-
sage is a fundamental postulate of this philosophy : " Our
observation, employed either about external, sensible ob-
jects, or about the internal operations of our own minds,
perceived and reflected on by ourselves, is that wliicli sup-
plies our understandings with all the materials of thinking.
These two are the fountains of knowledge from whence all
the ideas we have, or can naturally have, do spring." These
324
LOCKUAlvT
LOCOCK
are called "seiisiition " aiul " refloi'tion." And it is impor-
tant to ol>scrve that tlie latter must wait on the former. " I
see nil reason to believe that the soul thinks before the
senses have furnished it with ideas to think on." That is,
the mind can only act upon what is given to it from with-
out, furnishini; iiolhinj; original from itself. In the last
analysis the materials of knowledge arc " ideas " due to
" sensation " and " reflection."
Upon this ba-sis the followers of Ixicke have developed
his |H>sitions in two great directions. Some have proceeded
to make a rigorous application of his theory of the origin
of ideas, and what he calls sensjition and retl'eetion becomes
sensation oidy. So a foundation was laid for sensationalism
in Englanii and materialistic naturalism in France. The
other direction is seim in Berkeley, wlio used the " theory of
ideas" to eliminate the e.\ternal world from the sphere of
reality and to give support to idealistic analysis. Historians
of philosophy still disagree as to which of these tendencies
represents the legit iuiate influence of Locke.
References.— \y(>ri^ of Locke (ed. by Fraser. 1894) ; Locke
(by Frascr, in Hlackwood's Philosopliical Classics, Edin-
burgh, ISilO); T/te Philosophy of Locke (by Kussell, in
Sueath's Philosophical Series, New York, 1891) : and the his-
tories of philosophy by Ueberweg, Knlmann, Windclliand,
ami Lewes. Revised by J. Mark Baldwi.n.
Lookhilrt : town ; capital of Caldwell co., Tex. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Texas, ref. .5-H); on the Jlo.,
Kan. and Tex!, and the San Ant. and Aran. Pass railways;
30 miles S. by K. of Austin, the State cajntal. It is in an
agricultural and stock-raising region, is noted for its
springs, and has two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 718;
(1890) 1.2:33.
Lorkhart. Jons Gibson: author; b. at Cambusnethan,
Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1T92; studied at Glasgow Uni-
versity 1807-10; graduated from IJahol College, Oxford, in
1817 as bachelor of law; pa.ssed advocate at Edinburgh
1816; became in 1817 a contributor to Blackuood. in which
his articles were remarkable for vigor and scholarship ;
married in 1820 the daughter of Sir Walter Scott ; was edi-
tor of The Quarlerhj Review. London, 1826-53; received in
1843 the sinecure auditorship of the duchy of Cornwall;
was one of the writers of the Nortes Amhrosianw. I), at
Abbotsford, then the seat of his daughter. Lady llo|)e Scott,
Nov. 25, 1854. His principal works are Yahriiis (1S21);
Adam Blair (1822); Reginald Dalton (182:5); and Matthew
Wald (1824), tiovels; Don Quixote, with notes (1822) ; Span-
iiih Ballads (1824); Life of Burns (1825); of Bonaparte
(1829) ; and of Scott (18'37-3"9). Revised by II. A. Heers.
Lock Haven: city; capital of Clinton co.. Pa. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. :l-E); on the
Susquehanna river, the Pennsylvania Canal, and the Beech
Creek and the Penn. railways; 28 miles S. W. of Williams-
port. It is in an agricultural region, and has several exten-
sive manufactories, including tanneries, paper-mill, fire-brick
works, .sewer-pipe and clay work.s, machine-shops, and cigar-
factories. The city is the .seat of the Central Stale Normal
School (with 510 students, 20 teachers, and buildings valued
at f 190,000), is lighted by gas and electricity, has 2 libraries
and a monthlv, 2 daily, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop.
(18«0) 5,845 ; (1890) 7,358. Editor of " Express."
Lockjaw : See Tetanl-s.
I.ocklaiid: village; Hamilton co., O.; on the Clevc.. ('in..
Chi. and St. L. and the Cin., Ham. and Dayton railways; 12
miles N. of Cincinnati (see map of Ohio. ref. 7-C). It has
manufactories of cotton goods, paper, flour, bricks, and lum-
ber. Pop. (1880) 1,8S4; (1«90) 2,474.
Lockouts: See Strikes.
Lni-kport: village (laid out 1837, incorporated 1853);
Will CO., III. (for IcM-atidn of county, see map of Illinois, ref.
3-G); on the Des Plaines river, the Illinois and Michigan
Canal, anil the Atcli., Tup. and .S. Fe and the Chi. and .Alton
railways; ;)3 miles S. W . of Chicago. It i^ in an agricul-
tural and iinxluctive limestone region; has a high school,
graded pul)lic school, several Koman Catholic parochial
schools, 10 churches, and 2 weekly newspapers, and manu-
factures flour, oatmeal, wire, siraw-boaril, barbed wire, and
bra.ss goods. Pop. (18H0) 1,679; (1890) 2,449; (1893) esti-
mated with suburbs, 6,500. Editor of " Pikknix."
Locknort : city (incorporated as a village in 1829); capi-
tal of Niagara co., N. Y. (for location of county, see map of
New York, ref. 4-C) ; on the Erie Canal and the Erie and
the X. Y. Cent, and H. R. railways; 25 miles N. by E. of
Buffalo, 65 miles W. of Roidiester. It is near the geo-
grajihical center of one of the most profitable grain and
fruit-growing counties in the State, and derived its name
from five hx-ks cut through solid rock to overcome a dilTer-
ence of 60 feet in the levels of the canal, and doubled in
number on the enlargement of the canal in 18;J5. The sur-
plus waler at the upper level is discharged through two
races, each with a fall of 53 feet to the lower level, thus
supplying exceptional power for manufacturing. The in-
dustries include the manufacture of Holly water-works
plants, milling machinery, indurated-fiber products, flour,
steam-dredges, boiler.s, engines, railway trucks, aluminium,
glass, carriages, furniture, jiaper, tackle-block.s, saws, re-
versible scats, and stave, broom, veneer, and chair-making
machinery. There are 15 churches, a union, a high, and 5
public primary schools. 2 libraries (Union .School, founded
1848, Young Men's Christian Association), Roman Catholic
convent and young ladies' seminary, the Flagler Emergency
Hospital, 2 homes for the friendless. 2 national banks with
combined capital of $;i00,000, a savings, a private bank, and
a weekly, 3 semi-weeklv. and 3 daily newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 13,522; (1890) 16.d;38. Editor of '• Union."
Lockroy, 15 krwa'ii', Edouard fixiENXE Antoine Simon :
journalist and politician; b. in Paris, July 18, 1838; accom-
panied Kenan to Judeaand Phicnicia in 1860-64; took part
in Garibaldi's Sicilian expedition, and returning to France
wrote for the newspa]iei-s some articles which caused his
condemnation to four months' imprisonment. He was an
original member of the National Assembly 1871. As ed-
itor of Le Peuple sourerain he again got into trouble
with the authorities, and was condemned to a brief impris-
onment in 1872 for his duel with Paul de Cassagnac, and
in 1873 for a newspaper article. La Liberation du terri-
toire. but in the latter year was elected to the Assembly.
He voted with the extreme Left. Returned by succes-
sive elections, he became Minister of Commerce and In-
dustry 1886-87; Minister of Public Instruction in 1888, and
directed the organization of the Exposition of 1889. Be-
sides his newspaper articles, he has published several vol-
umes, among which are A bas le Progres (1870) ; La Com-
mune et rAssemblee{\>^~\); L' tie revoltee (1877); Ahmed le
Boucher (1888); and Journal d'une bourgeoise pendant la
Revolution (1881).
Lockwood, Belva .\nn Bennett; lawyer; b. at Royal-
ston, N. Y., Oct. 24, 18;i0; was educated in a district school ;
taught school at lifteeii ; was married at eighteen, but lost
her husband next year; wrote for papers and magazines;
graduated at Genesee College, Lima, N. Y., at twenty-seven;
taught school eleven years ; was married to Dr. Ezekiel
Lockwood in 1868; studied law; graduated at the National
University at Washington, I). C, and was admitted to the
liar of the District in 187:3. She wils nominated in 1888 for
President of the U. S. by the Equal Rights party.
Susan B. AiVTHONY.
Lockver, Joseph Norman, P. R. S. : astronomer; b. at
Rugby, Warwickshire, England, May 17, 18:36. He first be-
came well known through the discovery, made independently
by Janssen. that the solar protuberances were composed of
glowing hydrogen, and could be ob.«erved on any clear day
with a sufficiently powerful sjicct roscope. The French
Academy <'ommeinorated this remarkable advance in the
methods of investigating the gases around the sun by strik-
ing a medal bearing the efligies of the discoverers. Lockycr
has princijially devoted himself to ancient astronomy, solar
physics, and spectroscopic observations generally, on which
subjects he has written a number of works, including Con-
tributions to Solar Physics (\STi) : The Spectroscope and its
Applications (1873) ; Studies in Spectrum Analysis (1878);
The Meteoritic Hypothesis (1891); T'he Dawn of Astronomy
(189:3); and is editor of Salure. S. Newco.mb.
Lot'le, l»k'l : town; in the canton of Neuchatel, Switzer-
land ; on the Bied, 10 miles N. W. of Neuchatel (see map of
Switzerland, ref. 4-B). Its manufactures of clocks and
watches an^ very celebrated, and the most extensive in the
world. Its manufactures of lace are also important. The
surplus water of the Bied is (lischarge<l into the Doubs
through an artificial tunnel construcled to prevent inunda-
tion of the valley of the Bied. Pop. (ISHH) 11,312.
Lo'cock, Sir CnARi.Es, M. P., F. R. S., D. C. L. (Oxon.):
physician; b. at Northampton. ICnglaml, Apr. 21, 1799;
studied at the University of Edinburgh, where he gradu-
LOCOMOTION OP ANIMALS
ated in medicine 1821 ; established himself in his profes-
sion in London, and in 1840 wjis appointed, on the recom-
menJatiun of Sir James C'lai'ke, physician-aceoiiclieur to
the yiiecn, by whom, in recognition o'f liis services, lie whs
created a baronet Apr. 14, 1857,
at wliich lime lie retired from the
active practice of his profession.
In tlie same year he was chosen
presi{icnt of tlie Uuyal Medical
and Chinirtrioal Society, and be-
came in 186;^ lionorary president
of the Obstetrical Society. D. at
Hyde, July 23, 1875.
Locomotion of Animals: See
Mechanics, Animal.
Locomotive, or. more fully. Lo-
comotive Engine [locomotive, is
from Lat. lo'cus, place 4- move're,
mo'fiim, move] : an engine mount-
ed on wheels and capable of self-
propulsion ; commonly one oper-
ated by steam and intended for
traction or propulsion on a rail-
way. The railway locomotive en-
gine illustrates better than any other form of motor the
highest art of the engineer in the concentration of power
into minimum space and weight. The machine consists of
a steam-boiler of compact form, filled as completely as pos-
sible with tulies, which convey the furnace-gases to the
smokestack and transfer heat from them to the water in the
boiler. It is mounted on from four to twelve wheels, ae-
coriling to weight and special duty, and is driven by a pair
of engines of the simplest construction, each coupled to its
own set of wheels on either side of the locomotive. The
whole combination, boiler, engines, and wheels, is connected
by a frame of wrought iron in such a manner as to give
maximum power in minimum
space and weight. The steam
pressure is often 150, some-
times 200, lb. to the square
inch ; the speed of piston and
of revolution of engines and
driving-wheels is as great as
po.ssible consistent with safety
and freedom from serious risk
of heated journals; the ratio
of expansion of the steam is
low. and the mean effective
pressure high : and thus all
condit ions of design, construc-
tion, and operation are made
to concur in the production
of a com[)act and powerful
machine capable of hauling
trains of enormous weight or
at very high speed. The smallest kinds of locomotive are
those employed in mines for drawing small trains of light
cars or wagons to the shafts ; the heaviest are emjiloyed on
the principal railways of the U. S. for hauling long and
heavy trains or ascending steep gradients. The former
weigh about 5 tons ; the latter sometimes weigh 100 tons,
e. g. tlie famous engine "999" of the New York Central
Railroad, which first made a record in 1893 of 102, and
later, in exceiitinnally favoraljle circumstances, of 112 miles
an hour — the highest speed yet recorded. It has a cylindri-
cal shell-boiler, with internal firebox and closely packed
tubes, non-condensing engines, three-
ported valves, with Stephenson links and
gear, and a steam-blast produced by the
action of the exhaust steam. The ar-
rangement and number of wheels for
fast and mixed trallic is usually as that
shown in Fig. 1, but the size of the driv-
ing-wheels and their number vary with
the duly for which the machine is con-
structed, the number being increased to
a maximum and their diameter to a -_.--^,-:-r~= =
minimum for heaviest and slowest trains.
Fast express engines have driving-wheels
6A feet in diameter, and in special cases wIk'cIs as large as H
feet in diameter have been adopted: the slow and powerful
engines of long lines have wheels as small as '■ik and 4 feet
in diameter. The forward end of the engine is often car-
LOCOMOTIVE
325
ried on a swiveling truck or bogie with four small wheels.
The standard eight-wheeled engine usually distributes the
total weight, two-thirds to the driving-wheels, one-third to
the truck. The proportion carried by drivers increases with
severity of duty up to a maximum, when all the weight is
sometimes taken on driving-wheels, and the tnick is dis-
placed by the extended system of six, eight, or ten coupled
drivers. The whole mass of engine and boiler is supported
on heavy and very elastic springs, which prevent the jar and
shock of the wheel on the roadbed reaching the niachinerv,
and make the engine ride easily. Standard engines now
weigh about 40 tons, often 45, for passenger traffic on the
leading railways. Such engines have steam-cylinders 20 to
22 inches in diameter and 2 feet stroke of piston, their boilers
containing from 25 to 35 sq. feet of grate surface and 1,500 to
2,000 sq. feet of heating surface. Many modifications of form
Fig. 2. — Forney locomotive,
are given the engine for special wc
irk. 'Pile Fairlie engine
for narrow-gauge railways consists of a pair of engines set
back to back, united by a common firebox with one or with
two furnaces, and thus giving the hauling power of two
common engines built for the same gauge. The Forney
locomotive unites tender and engine on a common frame,
and thus distributes weights of fuel and water to the driv-
ing-wheels to give adhesion and added hauling power. The
"tank-engine," of which the last illustrates one form, is some-
times constructed on a very large scale. Thus locomotives
built at the Baldwin locomotive-works, Philadelphia, for the
FlO. 3.— IWili^li rx press eugiue.
Grand Trunk Railwav. to be used in llie St. Clair tunnel,
under the bed of the St. Clair river, between Port Huron,
Jlich.. and Sarnia. Ontario, have five [lairs of 50-inch driv-
ing-wheels on each side of the boilers, the cab in the middle
326
LOCOMOTIVK
LOCRI
of the boiler cxtonilinfr out over the two tanks, one each side
of the boiler. The cylimlers are 22'28 inches, and the boiler
74 inches, in diameter, to curry 1(50 lb. of steam. Kach loco-
motive with tanks tilled weighs 200.000 lb., the average
weight in running order, with tanks half filled, being about
180,000 lb.«
A favorite and succe.ssful type of engine used on Hritish
and continental railways is seen in the next flgine. It hiu*
one pair of very large <lrivers, "i feet and .sometimes 8 feet
in diameter. British engines of this type have done extraor-
dinary work. Such locomotives on the longer main lines, as
between London and Gln-sgow. make an average of 50 miles
an hour for 400 miles. The Midland Kailway employs en-
gines with cylinders 18 by 26, a single pair of drivers 7 ft. 4
in. diameter, with 1.240 feet of healing surface and 20 feet
of grate, to haul trains of 22.') to 200 tons weight, at nearly
50 miles an hour, and with a fuel expenditure of 20 lb. per
raile. Compound engines of recent construction have
wheels 74 feet in diameter, and have made nearly 1)0 miles an
hour. Compound locomotives are provided with arrange-
ments by which the steam from the boiler, usually at com-
paratively high pressure, is conducted fii^st into a small
nigh-pressure cylinder, and then, after performing about
one-half the total work in that cylinder, is passeil into a
second, larger, low-]iressure cylinder, in which its work is
completed with maximum expansion of the steam, and it
thence enters the exhaust and blast pipes, and is rejected
from the engine. This arrangement permits a more com-
plete expansion of the steam, a larger thermodynamic
transformation, and higher economy of operation without
such serious exaggeration of thermal wastes consequent
upon large expansion anil wiile range of temperature in the
working cyliuder, which, in the common, simple type of
engine, [ilaces an early limit to gain by expansion. (See
Steam-enoi.ve.) These amount often to nearly one-half of
all the heat and steam and fuel in the simple engine .and
about one-fourth in the compound. The latter thus saves
often one-fourth of all the steam use<l in the engine, and, by
thus reducing the demand upon the boiler, makes the latter
still more ellicienl, and the saving in fuel ;J0 to 8.5 per cent.
Under unfavorable circumstances, however, the saving may
be so small as to be unimportant. The average gain may be
assumed to be above 20 per cent, of steam and not fur from
25 per cent, in fuel in onlinary work.
The stamlard engine uses 30 to 35 lb. of steam per horse-
power per hour, 4 to 5 lb. of fuel : the compound from 22
to 30 lb. of steam and from 25 to 3 lb. of good coal.
Either engine hauling a train exerts a pull of from 1 to 2
tons on its draw-bar and from 500 to 1,000 horse-power. In
exceptional instances, with heavy trains or extraordinarily
high speeds, l,.50O to 1,800 horse-])ower has been attained.
The engine has a life of about thirty years, costing 10 to 15
per cent, of its value fwr repairs and maintenance, and uses
a quart of oil and a ton of coal usually for a run of 50 miles
under average conditions.
Fio. 4.— The Pitkin compound.
.\n illustration of the most common method of coin-
pouniling the locomotive is seen in the accompanying en-
graviiig.f
It includes one high and one low ])ressure cylinder, with
• Manual of the fUramenijinr. R H. Thiirstnn. vol. 1., p. 800.
t From The Comphuntt I^intmotivf, BarneK <V Woods. Also Man-
ual of the Steam-engine^ Thurston, vol. 1., p. UOb.
Fig. 5.— Tlie Worsdell engine.
an ingenious intercepting-valve. The receiver has a vol-
ume 50 per cent, greater than that of the small cylinder,
and the clearance in the latter is about 10 per cent., a pro-
portion shown by the indicator to be desirable with the
proportions of valves employed. The valves are arranged
and the general disposition of parts is us in the standard
engine of the old form.
The intercepting-valve is used to admit steam to the
large cylinder before compound working begins. The
ports, at starting, are
closed, and no com-
munication is oiien
between the receiver
and the large cylin-
der, which latter
takes steam through
a reilucing-valve.
On starting, the
exhaust from the
small cylinder fills
the receiver, and the
back pressure taking
effect on the inter-
cepting-valve and de-
stroying its equilib-
rium, it at once
moves, and the large
cylinder takes its
steam properly for
comiiound working.
This engine has
the following dimen-
sions: Cylinders, di-
ameter, 20 and 2!)
inches; stroke of pis-
ton, 24 inches; ratio
of cylinders, 2'1 ; di-
ameter drivers (6). 68
inches ; weight of en-
gine, 126.800 111. :
heating surface, 1,677
sq. feet : grate sur-
face, 28-57 feet. About 80 per cent, of the total weight is
on the drivers.
In the Worsdell form of engine the construction is as
seen in the Fig. 5.* A is the steam-pipe, U the starting-
valve connection, C the receiver, I) the exhaust-pipe, and v
and V are the starting and the intercepting valves. The
engine here taken for illustration is an Knglish passenger
locomotive, having 16 and 26 inch cylinders, 24 inches
stroke, drivers 80J inches in iliameter. The steam-pressure is
the same as the preceding, and the weight of engine 97,000
lb., of which 68.000 rests on the driving-wheels. The areas
of heating ami grate surface are respectively l,323i and 17i
sq. feet. .Joy's valve-gear is employed.
In the Webb compound locomotive the steam enters two
small, outside, high-pressure cylinders arranged like those
of the staiidanl engine, and is then discharged into a reser-
voir, from which it passes into a third, large, low-pressure
cylinder set between the frames. The high-pressure cylin-
ders drive one pair of wheels and the low-prci.sure cylinder
is connecteil with the hinder of the two pairs of drivers, the
two working indeiiendently, the usual side-rod connections
being omitted. \Vliere. as for heavy work, other drivers are
added, they are coupled to the snuUI engines and their
wheels through the ordinary system of parallel rods. The
locomotive with triple-expansion engines, three cylinders
in series, is still in the experimental stage, but promises,
with still higher steam-pressures than now customary, to
give further economy.
The costs of operation of the locomotive average in the
U. .S. not far from 15 cents per " train-mile." nearly equally
divided lietweeii expense for fuel, for attendance, for re-
pair.s, and niisi-ellaneous minor items. K. H. Thurston.
Locomotor .ataxia: .'-iee Tauks Dorsalks.
Lo'cri, or Locri Kpizejdiy'rii : an ancient city of ^lag-
na (rru'cia or Southern Ilaiy; in the subsequent Koinun
province of IJruttium or Calabria, now Keggio. It was
founded probably as early as 710 li. c. (according to Strabo)
a.s a colony from Locris, in Greece, but whether from the
eastern or western country of that name is uncertain. The
• KnijineiTinij. Mar. SO, 1888 ; Wood's Compound Locomotives ;
Thurston's Monual.
LOCRIS
LOCUST
327
original settlement was on Cape Zephvriiim (Capo di Bniz-
zano), near the southeast point of the Calabrian peninsula,
whence the name given to distinguish the colony from the
mother-country. Ultimately the settlement was removed 15
miles farther X. Loeri was celebrated as the first Greek state
to adopt a written code of laws, the authorship of which was
ascribed to a half-mythical legislator, Zaleucus. The Lo-
crians were long in hostility with Khegium and Crotona,
and in alliance with Syracuse. The younger Dionysius
seized upon the citadel at Locri on his expulsion from Syra-
cuse QioQ B. c), and carried on a despotic government until
expelled six years later. During the wars of the Romans
with Pyrrhus and with the Carthaginians, Locri alternately
favored' all the contending [larties, and consequently suf-
fered by turns from all, especially from the Romans, who
were finally victorious, and followed the example of Pyrrhus
in plundering the famous temple of Proserpjine. From this
time Locri sank into insignificance; its very existence for
many centuries is known only by passages in geogra|)hical
treatises. Destroyed probably by the Saracens, its site re-
mained unknown until the nineteenth century, when the
remains of the walls of the two famous citadels and the
foundations of the temple of Proserpine were discovered 5
miles from the town of tierace.
Lo'cris (in Gr. Aoxpi's) : the ancient name of two portions
of the mainland of Greece, inhabited by a kindred people
having the name of Locrians {AoKpol). The eastern Locrians,
divided by a projecting tongue of Phocian territory into
two divisions, Locri Epicuemidii (from Jit. Cuemis) and
Opuntii (from the town Opus), inhabited a narrow strip of
land along the eastern coast of Greece opposite Eubcea.
The western representatives, called — for what reason it is
not clear — Locri Osolre (i. e. having an odor), occupied a
territory shut in by mountains on the Corinthian gulf, be-
tween jEtolia, Doris, and Phocis. They were proverbially
a wild and uncouth people. G. L. Hexdrickson'.
Locus [= Lat., liter., place] : in geometry, first, the line
or surface generated by a point when moving according to a
fixed law. Thus an ellipse is the locus of a point which
moves in a plane in such a manner that the sum of its dis-
tances from two fixed points is always equal to a given dis-
tance. Second, the locus of a line is the surface generated
by that line when moving according to a fixed law. Thus
a hyperboloid of one sheet is the locus of a straight line
which moves in such a manner as to touch three other
straight lines, no two of which are parallel. To find the
equation of a locus we have only to express the law of mo-
tion by one or more indeterminate equations.
The following example illustrates the method of solving
geometrical problems by the principles of loci: Let it be
required to construct a triangle whose base is equal to a
given line, whose area is equal to a given area, and whose
vertical angle is equal to a given angle. Draw a line A B
equal to the given base ; on it, as a
chord, construct an arc of a circle ca-
pable of containing the given angle ;
draw a line D C parallel to A B, and at
a distance from it equal to the quotient
of the given area by half the line A B :
and from either point in which this
line intersects the arc, as C, draw C A
and C B ; then will A C B be the required triangle. For D C
is the locus of the vertices of all the triangles whose com-
mon base is A B and whose areas are equal to the given
area, and the arc A C B is the locus of the vertices of all the
angles whose sides pass through A and B, and which are
equal to the given angle; hence the points of intersection
are the vertices required. If D C cuts the arc in two points,
there are two solutions; if it is tangent to the arc. there is
but one solution r if it does not intersect the arc, and is not
tangent to it, the solution is impossible.
Revised by R. A. Roberts.
Locust [from Lat. locus'ta, locust, grasshopper. Cf.
Lobster] : properly, the migratory locust of the Old World
(CEdipoda migraturium) and the locust of Western North
America {Calopfenus spre/ux). The term " locust " is often
wrongly applied to the cicada or seventeen-year locust. (See
Cicada.) The transformations of the locust, as in all the
grasshoppers, are very slight, the larva differing from the
adult chiefly in wanting wings; but even in this state they
are said by African travelers to travel great distances. The
eggs are large, long, cylindrical, and laid late in the sum-
mer in packets of about seventy-five, resembling cocoons, in
Red-lepged grasshopper, and its
long-wiuged Western Variety.
holes bored in the ground by means of their stout horny
ovipositors. The voracity of the locust, and of grasshop-
pers generally, may be explained by the anatomy of the ali-
mentary canal, which is highly developed, the gizzard be-
ing provided with from six to eight rows of horny denticu-
lated |ilates, situated on ridges, the whole number of teeth
in some species amounting to 270. The stomach and sali-
vary glands are highly developed, the large jaws further
adapting it for its vegetable diet. The air-tubes (trachea')
dilate into numerous large air-reservoirs, which assist it in
taking its long-sustained flights. The ears of the locust
are two vesicles situated at the base of the hind-body or
abdomen, each supplied by an auditory nerve sent from the
third thoracic ganglion. The stridulating noise this and
many other grasshoppers make is produced by rubbing the
thighs against the wings. The migratory locust of the Old
World is widely distrilmted, being found all over Africa, in
Western Asia, and Southern Europe, sometimes occurring
in Belgium and England. It is said to travel about 16 miles
a day. It molts five times, at intervals of about six weeks.
The locust is eaten and is considered nutritious by the na-
tives of the country in which it is found.
The locust of Xorth America is the widely distributed
red-legged "grasshopper" (Calopfetius femur-riilrum, Har-
ris, Fig. 1, I) with Its allied species [Caloptenus spretus,
Uhler, Fig. 1, a), which inhabits the U. S. W. of the Missis-
sippi river, though occasion-
ally found in Xew England.
The eastern species does the
most damage in Xorthern
X'ew England and Canada.
The western species (sprefu.'<)
breeds most abundantly in
the elevated portions of Col-
orado and northward, and
migrates to the plains below.
It also breeds abundantly in
Iowa and Minnesota, and is
so voracious as to drive
farmers from their lands.
The young of the spretus
arc hatched in March, April, and early in Jlay in Texas,
('olorado, and Kansas, and at once begin their ravages.
Late in the season, by the last of June, they acquire wings,
becoming fearfully destructive, though most destructive be-
fore acquiring their wings. They are more active by night
than by day. Late in summer so abundant do they become
that an observer in Texas has seen "the whole surface of
the earth so broken up by their borings that every inch of
ground contained several patches of eggs."
A. S. Packard, Jr.
Locust (in Lat. locusia) : a tree technically named ifo-
hinia, in honor of John Robin, herbalist to Henry IV. of
France, and of his son, Vespasian, who first cultivated it in
Europe. The beautiful genus received its name from Lin-
na?us, and belongs to the sub-family PapiUonacew. of the
iamWy Leguminosce. The five-toothed calyx is short and
slightly two-lipped. The standard is large and rounded,
turned back, and scarcely longer than the wings and keel.
The stamens are in two bundles — i. e. diadelphous. The
style is bearded next the free stamen ; the pod linear, flat,
several-seeded, margined on the seed-liearing edge, and with
thin, flat valves. Leaves odd-pinnate, with stipels at the
base of the leaflets. The flowei-s are very showy, in pendu-
lous racemes, and in the common locust are exceedingly fra-
grant, liohinia pseud-acacia, the common locust of the
U. S., is called false acacia from the resemblance it bears to
the true acacia. The tree never attains great size in the
X'ew England or the Middle States, but reaches its perfec-
tion in Kentucky and Tennessee, where it sometimesexceeds
4 feet in diameter, and grows to a height of 80 feet.
The wood of the locust is close-grained and compact. Its
medullarv ravs are close and numerous. The color varies,
but the reddish-tinted is the mo.st valuable for timber. The
wood is remarkable for its strength and durability, and for
its stiffness, hardness, elasticity, and weight. Fence-posts,
railway-sleepers, and treenails in naval architecture are
made of it. It is considered as durable as the live-oak. It
is useil to some extent in cabinet-making, but only slightly
in house-building. For mill-cogs it is very valuable. Valu-
able as the wood is for many economic purposes, graceful
as is the aspect and foliage of the tree, and beautiful as are
the flowers, the locust is yet so infested by many kinds of
328
LODGE
LOESS
insects as lo make it objectionable. Where it is grown for
timber it slioulil be planteJ in proves, as then only the
trees on the margin seem to be affected. All parts of the
tree — leaves, bark, wood, and seeds — are subject to insect
ravages, almost threatening its extermination. The locust
is considerably used for hedges, for which purpose it is one
of the best plants where (piick-growing and very hardy trees
are needed. It is easily propagated by tlie suckers which
spring from the roots, and still more readily by the seed,
which is best pre.<erve<i in the pod. It prefers a rich, loamy
soil, and the young plants will often grow from 2 to 3 feet in
the first season. There are two species of liubinia found in
cultivation besides the pxriiJ-acacia — vi7..,lhe Jiobiiiia vis-
coMt and t he Hohiti iti h i.spidn. The latter — a mere shrub — is
known as the rosi' acacia, and is distinguished by its rose-col-
ored, inodorous blossoms and hairy stems. It is apt to y)read
and become troublesome. The honey-locust is a different
tree (Oleditscliia triacanthos), although belonging to the
same family. See (ii.euitsia. Revised by L. II. Bailev.
Lodsre, Edmi-nd. F. S. A. : historian ; b. in London. Eng-
land, .June i;i, IT'iG: served in the army in his youth, and
afterward devoted himself to antiquarian pursuits, especially
genealogy. He became a member of the Heralds' College ;
was proiiioted to the ollice of Lancaster Herald 1793, N'or-
roy king-of-Arms 1822, and Clarencieux King-of-Arms
1838. D. in London Jan. 16, 1839. He published, among
other works. Illustrations of British History, Biograp/ii/,
and MoiDiers in the lieigns of Henry VIII., Fduard Vl.,
Mary. Elizabeth, and James 7. (3 vols., 1791). and Por/rni/.s
of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain (1821-34).
Lodlfe, Henry ('Anor: politician and author; b. in Bos-
ton, May 12, 18.)0 ; was educated in Boston at a private school ;
graduated at Harvard in 187 Land at the Harvard Law School
1875, and for the next few years applied himself chiefly to
literary work. He was assistant editor of The Xorth Ameri-
can Jieriew 1874-76, of I'he International lieriew 1879-81,
and in the meanwhile published Life and Letters of George
Cabot. He .served in the State Legislature 1880-81; pub-
lished Short History of English Colonies (1881) ; edited two
series of Popular Tales, and a volume of Ballads and Lyr-
ics: published Life of Ale.vander Hamilton (1883), and Life
of Daniel Webster ; elected chairman of Republican State
committee, and conducted campaign wliieh resulted in de-
feat of Gen. Butler; 1884 published Studies in History;
sent as delegate-at-large to Republican convention at Chi-
cago ; ran as Republican candidate for Congress in Sixth Dis-
trict, and was defeated by some 255 votes in a total of 30,000 ;
edited an edition of Works of Alexander Hamilton, and
published lioston. in the Historic Towns Series. He was
rei)resi'ntative to Congress from Massachusetts 1886-92, and
in 18!)3 was elected L'. S. Senator.
Lnd^p, Oliver .Iosepii, F. R. S. : physicist ; b. near Stokc-
upon-'l rent, .Staffordshire, England, .Tunc 12, 1851. He is a
graduate of the University of London (B .Sc. 1875, D. Sc.
1877). In the former year he became demonstrator in Phys-
ics in University College, London, and in 1877 was appointed
a.ssistatit professor in the same institution. Since 1881 he
has been Professor of Physics in University College, Liver-
pool. Dr. Lodge is the author of many important papers.
chiefly electrical. He was a forerunner of Hertz in the do-
main of electric induction, and ha-s done much to make clear
the function of ether in propagating electro-magnetic ami
clectro.statie disturbances, lie has also written an elemen-
tary text-book on J/«fArtHif«(1877), well-known semi-]iopular
volumes enlillcil Moilcrn UiVira of Eli'riririly (his besl-
known work, 1889), and /lightning Guards: also a series of
biographical skcli^hes under the title Pioneers of Science.
Dr. Lodge is a member of the Institute of Electrical Engi-
neers, ami of the physical societies of London and Liverpool.
E. L. Nichols.
Lodge, TuoMAs : dramatist ; 1). in Lincolnshire. England,
about 1.555; enti'red Oxford University in 1573; was a law-
student at Lincoln's Inn in 1584 ; was for some lime an ac-
tor; was a soldier ill the exfieilit ions of Clarke and Caven-
dish; stuilied im-dicine al .\vignon, ami practiced in Lon-
don, where he ilied of tlii' plague in Sept., 1625. He was the
author of Hosalynde : Euptiui's Goldm Legarie (1.590). a
novel, the basis of .Shakspeaie's As You Like It: True
Tratjedies of Marius and Sylla (1594), a drama; A Mar-
garite of America (1.596), a lale ; a Treatise of the Plague
(1603) ; Phillis. a pcHMii ; anil a number of charming mailri-
gals. With Greene he wnjie ,1 Looking-glass for Loudon
and England (1594). Revised by 11. A. Beers.
LodI, lo'de"e : town; in the province of Milan, Xorthern
Italy (see map of Italy, ref. 3-C). It lies "20 miles S. E. of
Milan, on the right bank of the .\dda, which is here crossed
by a bridge, the river being navigable for large boats until
it reaches the Po. Lodi was the theater of one of the most
daring and brilliant exploits of the French under Bonaparte.
(.>n .Mav 10. 1796, Napoleon, after the terrible pa.ssage of the
long aiid narrow bridge under the full fire of the Austrian
batteries, won the victory which secured him the possession
of Lombanly. The streets and piazzas of Lodi are, for an
old town, broad, spacious, will-pavfd, and clean, and many
of the public buildings are worthy of notice. The cathedral
dates from the twelfth century, and other churches contain
fine marbles, bronzes. frcs<-oes, and especially wood-carvings
of much merit. The educational and charitable institutions
of Lodi are numerous, and co-operative asswiations have
proved very successful. Its majolica has a high reputation ;
also its silk and linen, but the clnef article of the Lodi mar-
ket is the famous Parmesan cheese, which is made in large
quantities in the neighborhood. Pop. about 18,700.
Lodz: city; in the government of Piotrokow, Russian
Poland (see maf) of Russia, ref, 8-A). It is well built, and
has very extensive manufactures of cotton, woolens, and
linens. In 1821 it had only 800 inhabitants, but the estab-
lishment of cotton-manufactures has made it the second
town in Poland. Pop. (1893) 136,091.
Loess [= Germ. loss, from losen. to loosen] : a name first
used to designate certain superficial deposits along the
Rhine, and subsequently extended to deposits of similar
appearance in other countries, which were formed, however,
under various conditions, and in some instances deserve in-
(iividual names. At many localities the loess rests on or is
included in glacial deposits, and in all cases is referred to
Pleistocene or recent times.
Characteristics. — Loess is an exceedingly fine, usually
light-yellow, unconsolidated deposit resembling clay. It is
composed of angular or but slightly rounded grains of
quartz, which make up from 60 to 75 per cent, of its mass,
together with similarly unworn and undeeomposed frag-
ments of other minerals, and contains also suflicient calcium
carbonate to cavise it to effervesce with acids. The average
size of the fragments composing it is le.ss tlian -005 of a mil-
limeter. Although usually homogeneous, it sometimes
grades into coarse deposits of various character, but in most
localities the stratification is so obscure that it can not be
recognized. The deposit is so soft that it crumbles between
the fingers, but resists weathering in a remarkable maniu'r,
and stands in vertical walls under various climatic condi-
tions for many years: this is due to its porosity, which
enables it to absorb water and thus prevent erosion. Its
retention of moisture, together with its physical and chemi-
cal composition, render it exceedingly favorable for agricul-
ture. It is frequently traversed by small vertical tubes, and
contains hard noduies or concretions, of various shapes.
Fossils are usually scarce, but at times land shells occur in
abundaiu-e, and fresh-water shells and the bones of land
animals are sometimes found.
Distribution. — Loess occurs as an irregular fringe along
the bor<iers of the valleys of the Rhine and Danube, and in
a similar position almig the Mississippi, Missouri, Iowa, Ohio,
etc., where it is known as the "liluff formation." It also
covers vast areas in Central Asia, and has been ri'ported in
other countries. A deposit apparently undistiiiguishable
from the loess of Asia lloors many of the valleys of the
arid region between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra
Nevada.
Origin. — The occurrence of loess along the border of
river-valleys, together with other features, has led to the
conclusion that in such localities it was deposited by the
streams themselves when broader and more sluggish than
now and highly charged with glacial silt. In many in-
stances river valleys were filli'd in this manner from side to
side to a depth of 200 feet or more, and the streams in re-
excavating thrir channels left a blulT of loess on cither
bank. In lowa loess occurs on the summits of eminences,
and is thought to have been deposited in glacial lakes. In
Asia loess in valleys incloseil by mountains occurs at various
altitudes up to .several thousand feel, and has been furrowed
d<'eply by streams. These deposits have been studied by
von Uichthofen, who concluded that (hi'V are accumulations
of dust blown from adjacent deserts. This explaTialinn is
not consideiXMl satisfmtory, however, by all who have studied
1 the deposits in question. In the arid region of the U. S.
LOFODEN
LOGAX
329
the valleys are filled to the depth of many hundreds of
feet with material having all the essential features of the
loess of Asia. These deposits, named "adobe" by the pres-
ent writer, are composed of fine angular mineral fragments,
washed from the neighboring mountains, and are still in
process of accumulation. Should they be <lissected by
streams, the peculiar topographic features of the loess re-
gion of Asia would be reproduced. (See Playa.) Consult
also Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley, by
Chamberlin and Salisbury, in !Sixth Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol.
Surv. ; Pleistocene Ilistori/ of Northeastern Iowa, by W J
McGee, in Eleventh Aiui. Rep. U. S. Oeol. Sure. ; Sub-aerial
Deposits of the Arid Region of North America, by Israel C.
Russell, in 2'he Oeoloijical Magazine (London), vol. vi.
Israel C. Russell.
Lofo'den, or Lofo'teii : a group of islands situated be-
tween lat. (i7 30 and 69" 80' N., and stretching along the
northwestern coast of Norway. The largest are Ando,
Langi), Hindo, East ^'aago, and West Vaago. They are
high and rocky, presenting wild, rugged, and deeply in-
dented coasts, and rising in some places of the interior to
the height of 4,000 feet. The inhabitants number about
30,000. partly of Norwegian, partly of Finnish descent.
Slieep-farming is carried on. and along the coasts of the
fiords a little barley, oats, and potatoes can be cultivated,
but the islands derive their importance from the immensely
rich fisheries, which eacli summer employ nearly 30,000
men, and form a source of national wealth to Norway. When
the cod-fishing is over, at the end of April, the herring-fish-
ing begins and continues the whole summer; also groat
numbers of lobsters are caught. This fishing is not without
its dangers. The currents around and between the islands
are so rapid and tortuous, and subject to such violent
changes from ebb and flood, that during spring and fall, when
hard weather sets in, these waters often become unnaviga-
ble. Even whales are sometimes dashed to pieces against
the rocks of the coasts. See JMaelstrom.
Log: an apparatus for measuring the velocity of a ship
at sea. Usually it consists of a wooden float, weighted on
one side so that it will float upright, and having a line at-
tached to it in such a manner as to bring the flat side of
the float so as to offer the greatest resistance to a force
tending to drag it through the water. The attached line is
about 1~)0 fathoms in length, and when not in use is wound
on a light running reel. The line is divided into equal
parts, each of which is equal to y^-^ of ^ nautical mile, the
points of division being marked by knots, formed by passing
pieces of twine between the strands of the line, and leaving
the free ends to project on each side of the line. The first
knot is placed at a consiilerable distance from the float or
log, and is very prominently marked. The part of the line
between the log and the first knot is called the stray line;
its use is to allow the log to become settled before the count
is commenced. To use the log and line, the log is thrown
over from the lee quarter of the vessel, and the line is then
unwound from the reel as fast as the vessel sails. At the
instant the first point of division passes from the reel a
half-minute sand-glass is inverted, and when the last sand
falls the reel is stopped. The number of equal spaces that
have been unwound indicates the number of nautical miles
the ship is sailing per hour, inasmuch as a half minute
bears the same relation to an hour that one of the divisicms
of the line does to a nautical mile. The log is thrown from
time to time, and the results are recorded in the logVjook.
To secure accurate results, the line should be so prepared
as to prevent stretching. To guard against variations of
length due to hygrometric changes, the line is usually satu-
rated with oil. if it is found that the line has changed in
length, a correction must be applied to the measured rate
of the vessel, and the line must be graduated anew.
The so-called patent log consists of a light rod of metal
with spiral flanges, which is attached to the end of a long
line and thrown over the ship's taffrail. to be drawn through
the water as she moves. The spiral form of the flanges
causes tlie ro'd and line to revolve. At tlie other end the
line is attached to a clockwork, which it moves around so
that the miles made are indicated on a dial.
Ldgan ; city; capital of Hocking co., O. (for location of
county, see map of Ohio, ref. 7-F) ; on the Hocking river,
the llocking Canal, and the Columbus, Hock. Val. ami Tol.
Railway ; 18 miles S. E. of Lancaster, 51 miles S. E. of Colum-
bus. It is in a coal and iron mining region : manufactures
flour, woolen goods, furniture, and foundry products ; has a
large trade, and contains a semi-wceklv and three weekly
newspai)ers. Pop. (1880) 2,666; (1890)3,119.
Logan : city ; capital of Cache co., Ut. (for location of
county, see nuip of Utah, ref. 3-M) ; on Logan river, and the
Union Pac. Hallway ; 66 miles N. of Ogden, 90 miles N. of
Salt Lake City. It is in an agricultural and mining re-
gion ; is the scat of Brighain Young College (Latter-Day
Saints), New Jersey Academy (Presbyterian), and the Utah
Agricultural College and experiment station; and contains
a Mormon temple, Presbyterian, Methodist Episcopal, and
Protestant Episcopal churches. 7 public schools, Methodist
Ejjiscopa! and Protestant Episcopal schools, and 3 semi-
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,396 ; (1890) 4,r)65 ; (1895)
5,756. Editor of " Journal."
Logan : Indian chief; b. about 1725; the son of a Cayuga
chief who lived at Shamokiu, in Pennsylvania. He bore
the name of Tah-gah-jute, but took also the name of his
friend James Logan, acting Governor of Pennsylvania. He
was a man of fine physical and mental powers, and was al-
ways friendly to the whites until 1774, when a party of
ruffians munlered his wife and all his children. At that
time he lived near the Ohio river, having removed there
about 1767. For six years after the murder of his family
Logan and his followers kept the West from Detroit to
the Holston in terror, and slaughtered great numbers of
settlers. A well-known and eloquent speech which Logan
sent to the whites by the interpreter a few months after the
murder of his family is preserved in Jefferson's Notes on
Virginia, but its authenticity and the accuracy of its state-
ments are open to serious question. Logan, while intoxi-
cated, attacked a party of friendly Indians at Detroit in
1780, and was killed in the affray by one of his own kins-
men. A granite monument was erected to his memory at
Fair Hill Cemetery, near Auburn, Cayuga co., N. Y. See
Ta-gah-jiite. or Logan the Indian, and Captain Michael
Cresap.'hy I5rantz Mayer (New York, 1867).
Logan, George, M. D. : U. S. Senator ; grandson of
James Logan ; b. at Stenton, near Philadelphia, Sept. 9,
1753 ; studied medicine in Edinburgh ; returning to the
U. S. in 1779, served in the Pennsylvania Legislature for
several terms, and was a warm partisan of Jefferson and the
Republican party under the administration of John Adams.
In 1798, during the imminent peril of war between the U.S.
and France, Dr. Logan, who was a strict member of the So-
ciety of Friends, went to Paris as a volunteer peacemaker,
and' was denounced for so doing by the Federalists, who
procured the passage by Congress of the so-called Logan
Act. Jan. 30, 1799, making it a high misdemeanor for a pri-
vate citizen to take part in a controversy between the L'. S.
and a foreign power, and the law slightly modified remains
on the statute books. (Revised Statutes of the U. S., sec-
tion 5335.) Dr. Logan was a member of the U. S. Senate
1801-07; went to England in 1810 in the hope of contribut-
ing to preserve peace with that country ; was a member of
the Philosophical Society and of the hoard of agriculture,
and author of several papers on scientific farming. D. at
Stenton, Apr. 9, 1821.
Logan, James: statesman and author: b. at Lurgan, Ire-
land. Oct. 20, 1674, of Scotch Quaker stock ; was well edu-
cated, and became a merchant ; removed in 1699 with Penn
to Philadelphia ; was long in public life as provincial secre-
tary, chief justice, etc., of Pennsylvania; was president of
the council and acting governor 1736-38: author oi Experi-
menta de Plantariim Generatione (Leyden, 1739); a trans-
lation of Cicero's De Senectute (1744, printed by Franklin);
and other works in Latin and in English prose and verse ;
was the founder of the Loganian Library. D. at Stenton,
near Germantown, Pa., Oct. 31, 1751.
Logan. Gen. John A. : U. S. ofticer and statesman ; b. in
Jackson co.. 111., Feb. 9, 1824; received a limited common-
school education, and on the outbreak of the war with
Mexico enlisted as a private in the First Illinois Volunteers,
of which regiment he became quartermaster with the rank
of first lieutenant. Returning at the clo^e of the war. he
was elected clerk of the court of his native county in 1849 :
in 1852 graduated at tlie Louisville University, and was ad-
mitted to the bar. attaining popularitv and success in his
profession; was elected to the State Legislature in 1852,
1853, 185(), and 1857, and was prosecuting attorney 1853-
57 ; was elected to the U. S. Congress in 1858. and again in
1860. resigning his seat to enter the army; in Sept., 1861,
was appointed colonel of the Thirty-first Illinois Volunteers,
330
LOGAN
LOGACEDIC METEIIS
which he led at the battle of Belmont in November: at Fort
Donelson in Feb., 18(i3, was wnuiuled, ami the following
month appointeil a bripulier-gi-neral of volunteei-s; en-
gaged at Pittslmrg Landing in April, and in the West until
Nov., 1S0"J, when he was promoted to be major-general ;
throughout the Vieksburg eampaign was in command of a
division of the Sevenleeulh t'orps, and wa.< distinguished at
Port Gibson. Champion Hills, and in the siege and sur-
render of Vieksburg ; in Oct.. 1803. was placed in command
of the Fifteenth Corps, which he led with great credit until
the death of McPhei-son, when he succeeded to the com-
mand of the Army of the Tennessee, lie was, however,
shortly after relieved by Gen. 0. O. Howard, and returned
to the command of his corps, which he led until the fall of
Atlanta, when the eventful political crisis, involving the
choice of a President, demandeil his voice and inllnencc at
home, anil conseipientlv he did not rejoin his corjis until
the arrival of Sherman s army at Savannah, after its fam-
ous '■ march to the sea" ; when, resuming his command, he
retaine<i it through the subsequent march through the Caro-
linas, and in .May, ISfi.j, succeeded Gen. Howard in com-
mand of the Army of the Tennessee. He resigned his jiosi-
tion in the army in Aug., 1865, and in the November follow-
ing was app<iinted minister to Mexico, but declined; subse-
quently was elected to the Fortieth and Forty-first Con-
gresses, and in 1870, 1878, and 1885 to the U.S. Senate from
his native State. He was nominated for Vice-President of
the U. S. by the Republican national convention at Chicago,
111., June 6, 1884: wrote The (irrdt Conspiracy ; ila Origin
and Ilisfon/ (\SS^>) ; also Tlie Voliin/ef.r Snldier nf America,
published in 1887. D. in Washington, D. C, Dee. 26. 1886.
bee Life and Hervicen of Gen. John A. Logan, by G. F.
Dawson (1887).
Logan, Sir Willum Edmond, LL. P.. F. R. S., F. G. S. :
geologist : b. at Jlonlreal, Canada, Apr. 2:i, 1798 ; graduated
at the University of Edinburgh in 1817, and in 1818 became
partner in a mercantile house in London ; was 1829-38
manager of a coal-mining and copper-smelting enterprise at
Swansea, Wales, and jirepared geological maps and sections
of that region for the ordnance survey; was director of the
geological survey of Canada 1842-69, publishing valuable
reports and many important scientific inijiers : was made a
chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1855. a knight by yueen
Victoria in 1856, and received several valuable medals and
other distinctions. D. in Wales, June 22, 1875. He was the
first to apply physical, as distinguished from mineralogical,
criteria in the classification of the crystalline rocks of Cana-
da, grouping them by means of their physical relations into
a numlier of great natural systems; and he thus not only
initiated what modern science regards as the rational mode
of investigation, but accomplished specific results of signal
importance. Revised by G. K. Gilbert.
Loganiads : the Lnganiacece, a family of dicotyledonous
trees, shrubs, and herbs, mostly tropical, but having a few
representatives in the U. S., and briefly characterized by
regular gamojietalous flowers, ojiposite leaves, 4 or 5 partite
calyx, hypogynous, regular or n-regular, 4 or 5 or 10 cleft
corolla, and 2-celled ovary. It contains a large number of
poisonous plants. Strychnine, curare, etc., are among its
deadly principles. S|iigelia and gelsemium, both a<tive
poisons and valuable medicines, are the most important na-
tive loganiads of the U, S.
Logan, Mount: the highest summit in North .\nicrica;
situated in the Alaskan Alps on the Canadian side of the
interimtional boundary. It is visible from the Pacific Ocean
at the .south, but was not specially noticed until the year
1890, when the range was partially explored by an expedi-
tion sent out by IIr' National Gei'igraphic Society ami the
U. S. (ieological Survey. The chief of the expedition. I. C.
Russell, recognized the peak as an imi>ortaiit feature of
the countrv, and named it in honor of Sir William Logan,
formerly cliief of the Canadian Geological Survey. Two
years later the U. S. (Joast and Geodetic Survey sent a party
under .1. H. Turner to make surveys in the same region,
and it was through his triangulalion that the altitude of
the peak was determiind and its supremacy discovered. It
stands in N. lat. 60 30, W. Ion. 140 24, and hius nn nlti-
tudo of 19,500 feet. So far as authenti<- measurements
show, its nearest rivals on the continent are Jit. Orizaba,
Mexico, 18,;t00 feet, an<l Mt. St. Elias, 18,1()() feet, a near
neighbor of Mt, Logan, but staniling within the territory of
the U. S. The peak has not becii ascended nor closely ap-
proached.
Two other peaks bear the same name. One in Northern
Utah (10,000 feet) overlooks Cache valley: the other, in
Northern Arizona (7,700 feet) stands near the Grand Caflon
of the Colorado. G. K. CiiuiKRT.
Lognnsport : city ; capital of Cass co., Ind. (for locaticm
of county, see map of Indiana, ref. 4-1)) ; at,the junction of
the Wabash and Eel rivers : on the Pitts., Cin., Chi. and St.
L., the Vandalia. and the Wabash railways; 70 miles N. of
Indianapolis. It is in an agricultural region, has valuable
timber and building-slone in its vicinity, and derives large
power for manufacturing from the two rivers. The princi-
pal manufactures are galvanized iron, linseed oil, wind-
pumps, ]iaper, hubs ami spokes, flour, and plow-handles.
The city contains improved water-works, natural and manu-
factured gas and elect ri<'-light plants, electric street-railway,
9 piiblic-.school buildings, iniblic-school )iroperly valued at
§200,000, a UniveiNilisI college. 2 national banks with com-
bined capital of $450,000, antl 3 daily, 6 weekly, and 2 other
periodicals. The city has an extensive trade in grain. ]iork,
and lumber, facilitaicd bv 10 main and branch railwavs.
Pop. (iss(i) 11. 198: (1890) 13,328. Editor of " Joikxai.."
L<>gau''dic Meiers {lognceilic is from Gr. Ao7ooi8i)«(s ;
Kiyos, prose or speech + iaiSi], song] : meters or vei'ses con-
taining in each colon one or more cyclic dactyls followed by
one or more trochees, and sometimes preceded by one or
two polyschematic feet regularly in three-eighths time, as
— ^, — >,^^ .. w— (in Greek even ..^v../). One of these
latter feet is called a "' basis," two a "double basis." The
verse may have anacrusis besides double basis. In most lo-
gawdic cola, especially in Latin, a basis is either a pure or
an irrational trochee. Within a verse a colon often ends
with the triseme syllable (>-) instead of a trochee.
The chief logaicdic verses are the following :
I. Without basis.
1. Adonic. — Nomcn imago.
2. Aristopliiniir. — Temperat ora frenis.
3. Lesser Alcaic. — Nee vcteres agitantur orni.
II. With basis.
4. I'herecraiean. — Vis formosa videri.
-> |-^^|^|--A I
5. (I'lyconic. — Pulchris exeubat in genis,
6. I'haUi'cean. — Passer mortuus est meae puellae.
(Not in Horace.) — >
-^ _.,..|_^|_.^|.-|_A I
III. With double ba.sis.
7. Sapphic. — Pauca nuntiate meae puellae.
(Iloratian scheme ; — ^ I — > 1 — ■ ^ I — ^ I *- I — A I )
IV. With double basis and anacrusis.
8. Greater Alcaic. — Non semper idem floribus est honor,
> ;--!-> i->->^i-^i-A I
V. Verses of more than one cola, containing " .syncope " (>-)
within: so-called "chorianibic rhythm." (The true chori-
ambus, — w^ — , is confined to higher lyric jioctry in Greek.)
9. Lesser Asclepiadenn.
Laudat rura sui, mox reficit rates.
-> |_.^|i-||-^^|-^|-A I
10. Greater Asctepiadean.
(,)uae mens est hodie, cur eadem non puero fuit.
->|^^|^||^^|'-||^>-.|-^|-A|
11. Greater Sapphic.
Saepe trans finem iaculo nobilis expedito,
_>^|_>|_.^|.-||_.^|_o|'-i-A|
12. Priapean = Glyconic + Pherecratean.
13. Kupolidean (not in Latin): basis at the beginning
of each colon :
Si 6fwfnvoi, Kartpfjii irphs vfiai i\fv$tpws.
LOGAUITHMS
331
VI. Some metricians, ancient and modern, include
among logaoedic verses those that contain a dactylic fol-
lowed by a trochaic colon, as
14. Greater Archilochian.
Solvitur acris hiems grata vice veris et Favoni.
_^|-i,|-^|-^,||-^|-w|>-|-A II
VII. Sometimes a trochaic or iambic verse occurs among
logaoedic verses in the same period, as the third line of the
Alcaic stanza :
15. Desccndat in campum petitor.
> :-^|-> l-^l-^l
There is no definite limit to the variety of logaicdic cola
and tlieir combinations in lyric poelry. The following sam-
ple is from Pindar :
'EAari^p uTe'^TOTe $povTas aKafiavT6noios Zev real yap wpat.
In modern languages the systematic nse of logacedic
rhythm is almost restricted 'to imitations of classic poetry,
such as Tennyson's Phalaeceans :
Look, I come to the test, a tiny poem
All composed in a meter of Catullus.
The name logacedic is thought by some to be due to the
prose-like irregularity: others believe it signifies "speech
sung" (words set to music). Possibly it was first applied to
verses with bases, which, like the lines in our chants, may
have started without ili-finite measure and ended metrically.
See Meters, Prosody, and Rhythm. M. W. Humphreys.
Logaritllins [Ur. K6yo!, reason, pro[)ortion, ratio + apiBfiSs,
number (whence Eng. arif/imefic)] : The logarithm of a
number is the exponent of the power to which it is neces-
sary to raise a fixed number to produce the given number.
The fixed number is called the base. Thus in the equation
10' = 1,000, :3 is the logarithm of 1,000, the base being 10.
Any positive number except 1 may be taken as a bi^sc, and
for each base there is a corresponding system of logarithms ;
there is therefore an infinite number of systems of loga-
rithms, but only two of them are in general use — the A'a-
pierian and the common system. The Napierian system,
named after its inventor. Baron Napier, is the system whose
base is 3'7183818'28 . . . ; the common system is the system
whose base is 10. In what follows we shall designate Na-
pierian logarithms by the symbol I, and common logarithms
by the symbol log.
Uses. — Napierian logarithms are mostly employed in the
higher branches of analysis and in scientific investigations.
Common logarithms are used in practical computations,
where they serve to convert the operations of multiplication
and division into the simpler ones of addition and subtrac-
tion. In trigonometric computations their use is almost in-
dispensable. Computations by means of logarithms are
made in accordance with the following principles: 1, the
logarithm of the product of any number of factors is equal
to the sum of the logarithms of the factors ; 3, the loga-
rithm of a quotient is equal to the logarithm of the divi-
dend d'iminished by that of the divisor; 3, the logarithm
of any power of a quantity is equal to the logarithm of the
quantity multiplied by the exponent of the power ; and 4,
tne logarithm of any root of a quantity is equal to the loga-
rithm of the quantity divided by the index of the root. In
applying these (irinciples the logarithms needed are taken
from tables called tables of logarithms. The method of
forming these tables will be explained hereafter.
General Properties of Logarithms. — In the exponential
equation «* = n we may regard a as the base of any system
of logarithms, in which case x will be the logarithm of n
taken in that system. The discussion of this equation in-
dicates the following general properties: 1, the logarithm
of 1 in any system is equal to 0: 2, the logarithm of the
base of any system, taken in that system, is 1 : ;i, in any
system whose base is greater than 1 the logarithms of all
numbers greater than 1 are positive, the logarithms of all
numbers less than 1 are negative, the logarithm of 0 is — oo,
and the logarithm of oo is -)- oc ; 4, in any system whose
base is less than 1 the logarithms of all numbers greater
than 1 are negative, the logarithms of all mimbers less than
1 are positive, the logarithm of 0 is + x, and the logarithm
of 00 is — 00 ; 5, there are no I'cal logarithms of negative
numbers in any system. These general properties are used
in analytical investigations.
Relations between Different Systems. — Every logarithm is
composed of two factors. The first factor is constant for
M
t
D
h
^r
K
C
B
E
N
the same system, and depends for its value on the ba.se of
that system ; the second factor is independent of the base
of the system, but is dependent on the particular number
in question, and changes with it. The constant factor cor-
responding to any system is called tlie modulus of that sys-
tem. The modulus of tlie Naiiierian system is 1, that of
the common system is •4;J42!)4."), and that of any system is
equal to the reciprocal of the Napierian logarithm of the
base of that system. Since the Napierian logarithms of all
numbers less than 1 are negative, and of all numbers greater
than 1 are positive, it follows that the nuiduUis of a system
whose base is less than 1 is negative, and that the modulus
of a system whose base is greater than 1 is positive. A
modulus may have any value from — oo to + oc ; it is to be
observed that the modulus decreases algebraically as the
base increases. If we multiply the Napierian higarithm of
any number by the modulus of any system, the [iroduct is
the logarithm of the same number in that system. This
principle enables us to find the logarithm of any number in
any system when we have a table of Napierian logarithms.
Geometrical Relations. — Napierian logarithms are some-
times called hyperbolic logarithms, on account of their re-
lation to the equilateral hyperbola ; there is, however, no
good reason for this distinction, inasmuch as the same re-
lation that exists between the logarithms of this system and
a particular equilateral hyperbola exists also between those
of any system whatever and some other equilateral hyper-
bola. To explain the nature of this relation, let LAK be
one branch of an equilateral hy-
perbola, whose equation, when
referred to its asymptotes, CX
and CM, is xy = m ; let A be
the vertex and let F be any
point on the curve ; and let CB
and CE be the abscissas of ,4
and F, the latter being called the
terminal abscissa. The square
described on the co-ordinates of
A is equal to m, as may be shown from the equation of the
curve. Now it mav be proved by means of the calculus that
the area CDAB is to the area SAFE as 1 is to the Napier-
ian logarithm of CE. Denoting the area BAFE by A,
and CE by x, we have
m : A -.-.l -.Iz ■. A = mix ; . . . (1).
Hence the area between an eciuilateral hyperbola and one
of its asvmptotes, estimated from the ordinate of the vertex
up to any other ordinate, is equal to the logarithm of the
terminal abscissa taken in a system whose modulus is the
square described on the co-ordinates of its vertex. If we
take the conjugate of the hyperbola LAK, whose equation
IS xy — — m, equation (1) will become
A= - mix . . . (2).
The numerical value of m in equations (1) and (3) depends
upon the value of CB ; by giving suitable values to CB, m
mav be made to have any value from 0 to -I- oo ; that is, ±
7nlx may be made to represent the logarithm of x in any
system whatever. It we make CB — 1, we have m = 1, and
equation (1) becomes A = Ix, a result that conforms to the
Napierian system. The value of the area ^1 may be ex-
pressed by an infinite series in terms of a-, and this series
may be used as a means of computing a table of logarithms.
Such a series was originally employed for this purpose, but
its use has been superseded by others found to be more con-
venient.
Tables of Logarithms.— TaUes of logarithms are tables
from whieli we mav find the logarithm corresponding to any
number, or the number corresponding to any logarithm,
within certain limits. Every logarithm consists of two
parts— an entire part, called the characteristic, and a deci-
mal part, called the mantissa. Either of these parts may
be 0, and the characteristic may be either positive or nega-
tive, but the mantissa is always positive. The character-
istic mav be found bv a verv simple rule, and for this reason
it is not'give" in the' ordinary tables; the decimal point is
also omitted in writing the 'mantissa. The manner of ar-
rangitig the tables, as also the manner of using them, will be
best learned from the explanations which precede each col-
lection of tables: and to these the reader is referred for all
information of that nature. In addition to the logarithms
of natural numbers, the tables usually contain the logarithms
of the principal circular functions— sine and cosine, the tan-
gent and cotangent, from 0' to 90'. The inconvenience of
negative characteristics is avoided by adiling 10 to each log-
332
LOGGERHEAD TURTLE
LOGIC
arithm ; an allowance is made in the final result for each
10 thus a»lded. The same device is employed in using the
logarithms of ordimiry decimals.
Logarithms were invcjited by Baron Xapier, who pub-
lished an account of the sjime in 1(514 in a work bearing the
title He mirijici Logarithmorum Canonis C'otintructione.
The first table of common logarithms was published by
Briggs in 1604 under the title of Arilhme/ica Logarithmica.
He calculate<l the logarithms of all the numbers from 1 to
20.000, and also from ItO.tKM) to 100.000. carrying out his
figures to 14 decimal places. In 1(528 Adrian Vlack sup-
plemented the work of Briggs bv publishing a book bear-
ing the same title, Arithmelica fjogarithmica, in which he
supplied the logarithms of the numbers from 20,000 to 90,-
(XK), but at the same time he reduced the number of deci-
mal places to 10. Vlack included in his work the loga-
rithms of the sines, tangents, and secants for each minute
of arc from 0' to 90". Five years later the same author
published a table of the logarithms of sines and tangents,
for every hundretk of a degree from d to 90°, which had
been computed by Briggs. In 1797 Vega published an
edition of Vlack's' tables, but the work is out of print and
copies are difficult to be found. Probably the best accessi-
ble tables are those of Bruhns, published at Leipzig, in both
German and English.
Antilngarithm:,. — An antilogarithm is the number corre-
sponding to a given logarithm. Thus 100 is the antiloga-
rithm of 2 in the common system. Antilogarithins, in the
common system, are denoted by the symbol log ''. Thus
log "'2 = 100 is equivalent to the expression, the number
whose logarithm is 2 is equal to 100.
Revised by S. Xewcomb.
Log'g'erhead Turtle: a large seH-inrWe (Hialassochelys
caretta) inhabiting the tropical Atlantic and Indian Oceans,
so named from its large head, by which it can be readily
distinguished from the green turtle. The flesh is not pala-
table, but the species, especially the smaller individuals, is
often brought to market. In the Southern U. S. the name is
often applied to the snapping turtle {Chelydra serpentina).
r. A. L.
Logic [from 0. Fr. logique, Lat. In'gica. from Gr. Koryiitit
(so. Ttxyri, art), logic, liter., fern, of KaytK6i, pertaining to
thought or reasoning, dcriv. of A.<{yoj, word, reason, thouglitl :
the science o'f the processes and laws of discursive knowl-
edge. The processes involved are conception, judgment,
and reasoning. Logic assumes the whole content of the
unreflective consciousness, what IIo<lgson calls " the per-
ceptual order." and also certain axioms and first principles
on which reflection proceeds. Conception is the process
through which we reach notions of the abstract properties
and the genera and species of things. Notions when named
arc called terms, and are classified as abstracts and con-
cretes, singulars and generals, ab.solutes and relatives, posi-
tives, negatives, and iirivatives, collectives and distribu-
tives, etc. They are also distinguished in view of their ex-
tension or object-reference, their intension or meaning, and
also in view of their denotation and connolalinn, terms al-
most equivalent, respectively, to extension and intension.
Terms indicating genera and species are also open to defi-
nition and division, the former proces.s developing their
meaning or generic and specific characters, the latter fixing
their place in a logical chLSsification. The principal rules
for these processes are: for definition, that it shall be sufTi-
cient to indicate the genus and dilTerentiip of the term de-
fined, and that the terms of the definition shall be clearer
than the thing defined; for division, that cross-divisions
shall be avoided, and that the sum of the species shall ex-
haust the class divided.
Judgment is the function through which we combine or
separate the cutiteiits of two notions or terms by means fif
a-«s«'rlion, as when on contemplating the notional content of
Athenian and Greek we as.sert that the Athenians are
Greeks. Assertions when verbally stated become propo-
sitions. The logical treatment of propositions embraces
their cla.ssification, distribution of their terms, and their
interrelations. The classification of propositions on the
basis of quantity anil (juality gives the f^iir traditional
forms, the universal and particular allirmatives and nega-
tives, symbolized by the vuwels .\, E, I, and <). The terms
in propositions are distributed or undistributed, according
as tne as.sertion includes all or only part of the chiss which
the term names. The interrelation of proptjsitions is called
their opposition, and may be of three distinct species — con-
tradiction or quantitative and qualitative opposition com-
bined; contrariety or opposition of quality; subalternation
or opposition of (|uantity. The i)roperties of propositions
lay the foundation for tluir inferential use.
lieasoning is the function bv which the mind proceeds
from a present content called data to other content which
it reaches through inference. This is achieved either by con-
necting facts with principles or lawstlirough generalization,
that is, by Induction (</. r.), or by connecting a principle or
genus with its species by means of specialization, that is, by
deduction. Of deductive inference it is customary to dis-
tinguish two species, named respectively innnediate and
mediate. Immediate inference is the process by which the
direct implications of judgments are drawn out. No as,ser-
tion stands alone, but is a member of a logical community
which is affected throughout by its action. Every judgment,
besides what it explicitly asserts, both allirms and denies by
implication. It is the business of iiumediatc inference to de-
velop these implications. Its principal methods are opposi-
tion, which proceeds on the relations of contra<liction, con-
trariety, and subalternation ; fo«cp;si'o;i, which transposes the
terms of the judgment either simply, that is, without change
of quantity and quality, or per acciden.t. that is, by a change
of quantity from universal to particular. Of the four fun-
damental forms, E and I convert simply, while A is C(m-
verted per accidens. O can be converted by being first
changed into I. Other methods of immediate inference are
obversion, which develops the assertion of the opposite (lual-
ity that is implied in every judgment ; contraposition, which
gives the converse of this opposite; the addition or trans-
position of qualifying words or phrases and other devices of
which special mention need not be made. Immediate infer-
ence is a most fruitful source of conclusions both in its popu-
lar use and in the stricter employment of it in science and
philosophy.
Mediate inference is the process by which conclusions are
indirectly reached through a comiiarison of assertions. It
embodies itself in several types, namely, the calculative,
which is founded on pure relations of quantity, and em-
braces all mathematical and quasi-mathematical reasoning;
the siitisiimptive, which is founded on relations of genera
and species, and includes all distinctively syllogistic rea.«on-
ing; l\u- generalizing, which is foimded on relations of facts,
and constitutes the special instrument of induction. The
.lubsutnptive type is the special instrument of the traditional
logic. Subsumptive reasoning proceeds by so relating the
contents of two terms to that of a third or common term
in two propositions, of which one enunciates a general prin-
ciple, the other a specification under it, as to render a con-
clusion as to their relation to each other possible.
The first judgment or proposition enuncrsding the gen-
eral principle is called, technically, the major premise; the
other is called the minor premise, and the two, together
with the inference or conclusion drawn from them, consti-
tute what is called a syllogism. Of these three parts all
syllogisms consist ; but for tiie most part we have in prac-
tice either (1) an omission of one of the premises.-as A is
B, therefore A is C, in which case we call the abridged
form an enthyineme, or (2) several premises following each
other in some regular order, and only one conclusion drawn
from them, as A is B, B is C, C is D.'therefore A is D. This
is called a sorites. In such cases we have, in fact, two or
more syllogisms condensed into one formula by the omis-
sion of some of the propositimis that wnuld have appeared
if each of the syllogisms hail been stated in full, eacli with
its own premises, and the conclusion to each pair distinctly
stated as such in due order. Thus, in the example just
given, we have, in fact, (1) B is C, A is B, therefore A is
C ; (2J C is I), A is ('. therefore A is I) ; that is, the second
premise of the sorites becomes the major premise of the
first syllogism ; the first is the minor premise, and the con-
clusion is a proposition that did not appear in the sorites at
all. Then for the .second syllogism the third premise of
the sorites is used for major ]M-emise, and the conclusiiui of
the first syllogism is used for minor premise, and so on un-
til we come to a .syllogism that has for its conclusion the
same proposition as the sorites itself. In the ca.sc of tlie
enthymeme the premise is omitted, because it is a Jiart of
the common sense or the ackni>wledged science of maidiind,
and therefore needs no repetition or explicit statement. It
is, however, a part of the syllogism or argunu'nt as truly
and as really as though it were expressed, since without it
no conclusion can be drawn from any propositiim which
would contain any term that was not contained in the prop-
LOGIC
333
osition used as a premise itself. Hence the means by which
we can find the snppressed or omitted premise is one of the
most important parts of lo^ic in a practical point of view.
There are three species of syllogisms determined by the
specific relations on which they are founded. The cate-
gorical syllogism rests on the relation of individuals or
species to their genus. The major premise in the categor-
ical syllogism is some proposition about genus. Since the
individual and species are contained in the genus, any
proposition about genus will be unrjualifii'illy applicable to
them also. For example, if genus homo is fallible, then
Socrates and the Athenians will be I'allilile also. Besides
the categorieals there are two species of hypothetical syllo-
gisms— the conjunctive and disjunctive, as they are styled
by Fowler. The peculiar character of the conjunctive syl-
logism arises from the fact that it rests on a categorical
proposition about genus, which is not enunciated. Thus in
the conjunctive statement, if it rains the ground will be
wet, is implied the categorical, rain wets the ground, and
in the conjunctive, if Socrates is an Athenian he is a Greek,
is implied the categorical, the Athenians are Greeks. The
ground-principle of the conjunctive syllogism is therefore
an unenunciated categorical proposition, on the strength of
which we assume a relation of conditional dependence of
subject or predicate, and say, if rain, then wet ground ; if
Athenian, tiien Greek. The diyunctive syllogism also rests
on a categorical presujiposition, namely, that of a genus or
whole within which the disjunction takes place. Thus if
we assert disjunctively that a triangle is either isosceles,
right angled, or scalene, we do so on the presupposition of a
containing figure of which these are the only alternative
species. They are the possibilities among which the actu-
ality is to be found.
The rules of the hypotheticals may be briefly stated. In
a conjunctive syllogism if we affirm the antecedent we
prove the consequent, and vice versa if we deny the conse-
quent we disprove the antecedent. Thus
If A is B, C is D.
A isB,
Therefore C is D.
C is not D,
Therefore A is not B.
Any other mode of completing the syllogism would be fal-
lacious. This will be obvious from a simple example: " If
John has a fever he is sick. John has a fever, therefore he
is sick " ; " John is not sick, therefore he has not a fever."
This is right ; but if we say, " John has not a fever, there-
fore he is not sick." or if we say, " lie is sick, therefore he
has a fever," it would be manifestly wrong.
In a disjunctive syllogism it is always safe to deny one
of the parts or propositions as a means of proving the other,
as " A is either B or C ; A is not B, therefore A is C ; or A
is not C, therefore A is B." Polypes are either plants or
animals: they are not plants, therefore they are animals;
but the other method of completion, offering one proposi-
tion to disprove the other, is not always valid. Thus " Cole-
ridge is either a poet or a philosopher ; he is a philosopher,
therefore he is not a poet." In this case poets and philoso-
phers are not what are called co-ordinate parts or species,
for a man may be both a poet and a philosopher at the same
time. The dilemma is a complex hypothetical combining
both conjunctive and disjunctive elements.
The most important and fundamental species of syllogism
is the categorical, and it is in its elaboration that most of
the machinery of logic has been developed. The categor-
ical syllogism is formally a combination of three proposi-
tions, two of which are called premises, the third conclusion.
For example, we argue, the causes of crime .should be sup-
pressed ; ignorance is a cause of crime : therefore igno-
rance should be suppressed. Here the major enunciates a
general principle, the minor makes a specifieation under it,
and the conclusion applies the principle to the ca.se specified
in the minor. In the categorical syllogism three terms are
employed, namely, a major and minor between which the
reasoning is seeking a connection, and a middle term which
stands so related to the major and minor as to show that
one is wholly or in part included in or excluded from the
other. Thus arise the different varieties of affirmative and
negative conclusions. Now, it is manifest that with A for
major premise we may have cither A, E, I, or O for minor,
and thus four pairs of premises, A A, A K, A I, and A O,
and with each pair we can have cither A, K. I. or 0 for a
conclusion : and thus sixteen syllogisms differing from each
other in what is called the mood of the syllogism. In like
manner we may have sixteen with cither E, I, or 0 for
major premise, making in all sixty-four moods. Thus, for
an example of A A A, we have, ".Ml S are M, all M are
P; therefore all S are P"; of K E K, "No S are JI, no M
are P; therefore no S are P." The former is at once seen
to be valid, and the latter is about as obviously invalid or
fallacious, actually (iroving nothing.
In the above example S was used to denote the subject of
the conclusion, wliich is therefore called the nunor term,
and is found only in the minor premise. P was used for the
predicate of the conclusion. It is therefore called the major
term, and is found only in the major premise. M stands for
what is called the middle term. It is found in both prem-
ises, but not in the conclusion. It may, however, occupy
either of four positions in the premises, as (1) subject of the
major premise and predicate of the minor; (2) predicate in
both ; (3) subject in both ; or (4) the inverse of the first, pred-
icate of the major premise, and subject of the minor. These
varieties of position constitute what is called the figure of
the syllogism. As each of these positions of the middle
term may be found in either of the sixty- four moods, we
may have 256 different categorical syllogisms.
Most of these 256 syllogisms are invalid — not only worth-
less, but actually delusive. Hence the discovery "of some
rules and practical tests of validity is of the utmost impor-
tance. Fallacies may be of two kinds — either (1) in form
or (2) in diction. A fallacy is said to be in form when it
is obvious on the mere inspection of the form of the syllo-
gism, without considering or knowing the meaning of the
propositions, or of its terms even ; as " 31 is not P, .S is M ;
therefore S is P " ; but when there is no fallacy in form
there may be one in diction, which renders the reasoning
worthless. This can be discovered and exposed only by a
consideration of the meaning of the several propositions con-
sidered separately. Thus " Light comes from the sun, feath-
ers are light; therefore feathers come from the sun." In this
case the form is faultless, but the diction is fallacious. The
word " light " is ambiguous, and means one thing in one pre-
mise and something else in the other.
Besides these two classes of what are called logical falla-
cies there are one or two others, called extra-logical falla-
cies, of which we shall say a word in conclusion. First we
shall speak of fallacies in form :
(1) There may be no more than three real terms. There
may be any number of words, for nouns will often have sev-
eral adjectives and modifying clauses, but for the purposes
of logic a noun with all its adjectives may be considered as
one word. As an example of the "fallacy of many terms,"
as it is called, we have the following: "My hand touches
the pen, the pen touches the paper; therefore my hand
touches the paper." Here, as we see on a careful analysis,
we have four terms, four different things really spoken of:
(1) my hand, (2) that which " touches the pen," (3) " the pen,"
and (4) that which "touches the paper"; and the syllogism
implies, though it does not state, that whatever touches the
pen is the pen, which is of course absurd. It will sometimes
happen, however, that what is thus implied is not only not
absurd, but is in fact quite true. In that case the apparent
fallacy is only an abridged form of the sorites, of which we
shall say more below.
(2) If both premises are negative, there can be no conclu-
sion. Thus " S is not M, M is not P." After these prem-
ises we can have no conclusion. " Horses are not men,
men are not birds." It is tnie that horses are not l)irds, but
if we say " Horses are not men, and men are not quadrupeds,"
we can have no conclusion, although we know otherwise
that horses are quadrupeds. It will sometimes happen, how-
ever, that there is an appearance of two negative premises
when one or both of them is really affirmative. Thus " No
one who has not enough can be called rich, but no miser has
enough ; therefore, no miser can be called rich." Here two
of the negatives virtually correct each other, making for the
middle term " person not having enough," and the inference
is as valid as though the middle term were positive, "per-
sons having enough." or " No S is M " (which is equivalent
to "S is not M "). " Whatever is not Jl is P" (equivalent
to "All not M is P"), "therefore S is P."
(3) It is found to be necessary that the middle term should
be used once at least, as cither the sut)jeet of a universal
proposition or the pre<licate of a negative one. The failure
to fulfill this condition constitutes what is caded an undis-
tributed middle. Thus " Horses are animals, foxes are ani-
mals ; therefore horses are foxes " ; but horses and foxes
are co-ordinate species of animals, and therefore can not be
334
LOGIC
predicated of each other. Even this fact, however, is not
proved by the prciiiisos. for we inav have " Dofjs are ani-
mals, spaniels are aiiinials." Spaniels are a species or vari-
ety of do^. so that in this case I he major and the minor
terms are subordinate rather than co-ordinate, and may be
predioateil of eaeh other allinnatively.
(4) Neither the minor nor the major term may be used in
the conclusion as subject of a universal proposition, or as
pretiicate of a ne-^ative one. unless it had been used in one
or the other of these ways in the premises. The violation
of this condition constitutes what is called " illicit process,"
and the fallacy is called illicit prtx'ess of the minor when
the minor term is used in violation of this law. and when
the major term is so used, the fallacy is called illicit process
of the major. Here, again, the demonstration of the law
would require more spjue than can be spared to it. As an
example of illicit process of the minor term we may have
the following: " Horses are quadrupeds, and horses are use-
ful animals; therefore all qiunlrupe<ls are useful animals."
It would be legitimate to sjiy either "Some quadrupeds are
useful animals," or -Some useful animals are quadrupeds."
Then, for an example of illicit process of the major, we have,
"Negroes have black skins, the Arabs arc not Negroes;
therefore the Arabs have not black skins." Here the nega-
tive term "black skins" is predicate of a negative conclu-
sion, whereas it was not used as either subject of a universal
or as predicate of a negative premise. It was predicate of
an atlirraative proposition in the major premise.
There are several other convenient rules known to the
expert logician, but they are too abstruse and technical to
admit of being given here. There are, however, two that
may be given that are of great practical value, though re-
sulting from the ajiplication of the preceding four: (1) Af-
ter two particidar premises there can be no conclusiim, for
it is found that in all such cases a conclusion would involve
either an undistributed middle or an illicit process.* (2)
After one particular premise there can be no universal con-
clusion, for the same reason !is that just given in regard to
any conclusion after two partial propositions. (3) It is also
found that after one negative premise there can be no
affirmative conclusion. We have seen that after two nega-
tive premises there can be no conclusion whatever, Init if
one of the premises be negative, any affirmative conclusion
involves a violation of the fundamental conditions of valid-
ity.
Generally, however, the syllogism is left incomplete, and
some premise is assumed without being slated. For this and
for other reasons it becomes very important to know how to
find and put into explicit statement the assumed pi'emise.
This can always be done by means of the principles and
rules already laid down, l)Ut for the purpose now before us
another set of rules is more immediately applicable. Of
course we have in the enlliymeme the conclusion and one
premise. We have therefore all the terms that can be used,
and the problem is to find the other and assumed prem-
ise, such in character as that it will complete the syllogism
without violating any of the rules above laid down. The
four rules arc as follows: (1) If the conclusion be universal
aflirmative, both premises must be allirmative, and the
minor and the midille terms must be distributed. (3) If
the conclusion be particular affirmative, both premises must
be affirmative, and only the middle terra need be distrib-
uted. (3) If the conclusion be particular negative, one prem-
ise must l>c negative, and the middle and the nuijor term
must be distributed. (4) If the conclusion be universal neg-
ative, one premise must be negative, and all three of liie
terms must be distril)uted.
It is necessary to pass to the consideration of fallacies in
diction. Logic assumes that the terms in any argument,
like the letters in an algebraic equation, shall <lenote each
one and the sjiuie thing throughout the argument or solu-
tion, and that language for the most part shall be used lit-
erally, each word describing its object or event as it is, and
that no proposition shall have, either expressly state<l or nec-
essarily implied, two propositions in one, one of which may
be true, while the other is false. Thus if I say, " \ mail
has cea'^ed to be a liar," I implij that he has been a liar, and
I axsert that he is not one now ; but of course either of these
assertions may be true, while the other is false, and they
may therefore be both true at the same time. Subject to
these conditions, all the fallacies in dictitm niav be referred
to four cliu-ises. (1) AmbiyiiiiHH Middle. — In this one term
* An excptloD to this rule Is the plurativc Judgment pointed out
by I>e Morgan.
(usually the middle term) is used to denote one thing in one
proposition and something else in another. Thus in the
example already cited, " Liijlit comes from the sun, feathers
are /ly/i^" here both premises maybe true se[)arately if we
shall take the word light to mean dilTerent things in each
of them, but not otherwise. (2) Variatiun. — This may be in
quantity, condition, etc. Thus " Money will buy whatever
is for sale; a ten-cent piece is money." etc. Here the word
" money " is not used ambiguously ; it means the same thing
in each premise, but it is used with reference to different
quantities in each premise, ami the premises will be assent-
ed to only as we so understand the words. (3) Division and
Compnaiiion. — This fallacy consists in using a word (usu-
ally the middle terra) as a collective term in one place and
as a general distributive in the other. Thus in the proposi-
tion, "The Romans conquered Carthage." the word " l{o-
mans" is used as a collective term. If. now. we should say
after the first. " Cicero was a Roman, therefore he conquered
Carthage," our fallacy would be one of division ; but if the
word is first used as general distributive an<l then as collec-
tive, the fallacy takes the form which is called composition.
(4) Substance and Accidents. — A ))roperty may be acciden-
tal in one premise, and yet used so as to make it essential in the
other or in the conclusion ; or it may be affirmed with re-
gard to some j)roi)crty, mode, or accident in a premise, and
then affirmed in reference to its substance in the conclusion,
and rice versa. This constitutes what is called the fallacy
of substance and accidents. Thus the examjile usually
given is. "We eat what we buy in the market; we buy raw
meat in the market ; therefore we eat raw meat," or eat our
meat raw. We buy our meat not because it is raw, but
rather because it is meat; the "rawness" is merely acci-
dental to the act of purchasing and to the premise, but in
the conclusion it is so placed as to make it essential to its
meaning. This is called the fallacy of accidents; but if we
should say of a certain man. in reference to his pecuniary
responsibility, " He is good," and should thus infer by means
of a major premise that he is a good " man." we should have
the fallacy in the other form, ajjplying what is said in refer-
ence to some accidental raode. proi>erty, or attribute to the
substance itself. This is called the fallacy n <ticlu secundum
quid ad dictum simpliciter. Of all the fallacies in diction,
those belonging to this class are the most subtle and diffi-
cult of detection and exposure.
Extra-logical fallacies are of two kinds — fallacies in mat-
ter and fallacies in method.
In regard to the matter, there are several forms of fallacy
that are to be noted. The first is what is called non vera
pro vera — the using a iiremise that is untrue as though it
were true. This applies as well to those i)roi)ositions that
are implied, and can be formed only in the ways of com-
pleting imperfect formulas already spoken of, as to those
that are expressly stated as i)remises. Of course, when a
premise that is false is used as a real premise the argument
fails to prove anything, and will be so regarded by all per-
sons that know its falsity. Then, again, we have what is
called non causa pro causa, which consists in using as a
premise a proposition which, though true enough, is not a
premise irrelevant to the conclusion. A jimposition occur-
ring in the course of an argument is always irrelevant, or
non causa, when it can not be connected witli the rest as one
in a series that makes a sorites by having one of its terms
in common with the preceding proposition and the other
common to it and the succeeding proposition. Thus if we
have " A is B. 15 is C, C is I), .-. A is D." the propositions
follow in logical order, and are logic'ally connected, but if
among theni should occur "C is II or M is I'," we could not
connect such a proposition with the other premises, and al-
though true it would be no premise to A is I).
Tile fallacies in method may also be of several kinds.
First, we have what is calle<l a begging of the ipiestion. or
petilio prinripii. As a general rule, one of the jiremises is
so evidently true that it may be assiinuil without |iroof and
without remark, while all clforl at proof should be directed
to the other. If an orator, however, assumes as true or as
conceded that which his auditors expect or desire to have
[iroved, they accuse him of begging the question ; that is,
of assuming the very thing they w'ant to have jiroved be-
fore they will assent to his proposition. Logically, Vioth
premises sliouhl be proved, but rhetoric recpiires that we
should spare ourselves the lal)or and the audience the an-
noyance of listening to proof of what nobody doulits. In
some cases this begging of the question takes the form of
reasoning in a circle — curriculum nefaa. Suppose we have
LOGISTICS
LOGOS
335
three propositions, 1, 2, and 3, and we use 1 and 2 as prem-
ises to prove 3, and then 1 and 3 to prove 2, or 2 and 3 to
prove 1, we are in such a case reasoning in a circle: that is,
we first deduce a conclusion from prcniises, and then use
that conclusion as a premise to prove one or the other of its
premises- — that is, its own premises.
The other recognized form of fallacy in method is called
mistaking the issue, or ignoratio etenchi. One lirst mistakes
the real proposition that is to be proved, and tlien, seeking
proof for his supposed conclusion, does not find the proof
that is required for the real conclusion which should be
established; and he is said to be ignorant of the proof or
to have mistaken the proof, because he ha<l first mistaken
the proposition to be proved. A case is cited from Greek
history : The Athenians were deliberating whether to put
the Mitylenians to death. One orator had tried to show that
it vras just to do so. Another replied that that was not the
proposition to be proved ; it did not answer the question,
for the question really was whether it was expedient to do
so: nobody doubted the justice of the measure.
At the basis of logic are certain principles called laws of
thought. These are identity and difference, and sufficient
reason ; the former governs by the deductive processes ; the
latter those of induction. These principles have both psy-
chological and metaphysical roots, the development of which
rests beyond the scope of this article.
BiBLioOBAPHY. — Whately, Elements of Logic (Boston,
1845) ; De Morgan, Formitl Logic. (London, 1S4T) ; Mansel,
Prolegomena Logica (London, 1S51) ; Venn, Empirical Logic
(London, 1858); Thomson, Laws of T/ioiigkt (Cambridge,
1859) ; Wilson, Logic (New York, 1859) : Hamilton, Lectures
on Logic (2 vols., London, 1860); Aldrich, Artis Logica (Lon-
don, 1862) ; Bowen. Logic (Boston, 1864) ; Uberweg, System
der Logik (Bonn, 1874) ; Aristotle, Organon (Bohn's Classi-
cal Library, London. 187T) ; Carveth Read, Tlieorij of Logic
(London, 1878) ; Atwater, Jlanual of Elementary Logic
(Philadelphia, 1879); Davis, The Theory of Thought (New
York, 1880) ; Fowler, Deductive Logic (Oxford, 1880); Je-
vons. Studies in Deductive Logic (London, 1880) : Wundt,
Logik (Leipzig, 1880); Bain, Logic, Deductive a/id Inductive
(New York, 188:5) ; Bradley, Principles of Logic (London,
1883) ; Jevons, Elements of Logic (Hill's edition. New York,
1884); Veitch, Listilutes of Logic (London, 1885) ; Keynes,
Fortnal Logic (London, 1887) ; The Port Royal Logic (Edin-
burgh, 1887) ; Bosanquct, Logic (Oxford. 1888) ; Lotze, Logic
(2 vols., Oxford, 1888) ; Mill, System of Logic (New York,
1888); St. George Stock, Deductive Logic (London, 1888);
Clarke, Logic (London, 1889) ; Hamilton, The Modulist (Bos-
ton, 1891); Erdmann (Halle, 1892); Hvslnp, Elements of
Jjogic (New York, 1892) ; McCosh, Logic (New York, 1892) ;
Sidgwick, Tlie Process of Argument (London, 1893) ; Sigwart,
Logik (Tubingen, 1893).
Revised by Alexander T. Ormo.vd.
Loffistics [from Gr. \oyiaTiK6s, skilled in calculation, fr.
Koyi^eaBai, to calculate, fr. \6-yos, word, number, reckoning] :
that branch of the art and science of war which deals with
transporting and supplying armies. It includes arranging
and timing marches, preparing and transmitting orders,
directing railway and water transportation, selecting and
regulating camps and cantonments, as well as the manufac-
ture, purchase, transportation, and distribution of arms,
munitions, and supplies of all kinds. It is intimately con-
nected with strategy in the location of bases and depots with
reference to collecting supplies; and in secrecy, in prepara-
tion of means of transport and destination of stores pro-
vided, etc., and with tactics in that the operations for col-
lecting information, foraging, arranging and timing marches,
locating camps, etc., should be so made that the best protect-
ive measures may be taken by the troops in accordance with
tactical principles and with the least labor and fatigue. See
War. James Mercur.
Logog'rai)liprs[Gr. \oyoypi<t>oi. literally, writers of prose]:
a name applied to the older Greek chroniclers who mark the
transition from the poetical narrative of the epos to true
historical composition. Ionia was the home of the earliest
Greek prose, and most of the logographers were Asiatic
Greeks. Their style was simple and inartificial, though
largely imbued with epic elements; there was no organiza-
tion of the material, and the only criticism was the criticism
involved in tlie incongruity of the legends recorded. The
period of the logographers begins toward the end of the sixth
century b. c, and straggling representatives of the class are
found down to the time of the Peloponnesian war. See
Hecat.bus, Hellanicus, Herodotus, and Pherecydes of
Leros. The scant fragments are collected in Muller's
Fragmenta llistoricorum Urwcorum. B. L. Giluersleeve.
Log'os [= Gr. 6 A6yos, the divine Reason or creative Word
manifesting itself, a special use of \6yos, word, discour.se,
reason (i. e. either thought as actively expressing or mani-
festing itself or speech as the direct active expression of
thought) ; deriv. of xiyfiv, ])ut, put together, recKoii, speak
(rationally), say, tell] : a term which has a peculiar signifi-
cance in Philo, St. John, and the early Greek Fathers, and
is important in the doctrine of Christ.'
(1) Philo, a Jewish philosopher of Alexandria, who en-
deavored to harmonize the Mosaic religion with Platonism
(d. about 40). derived his Logos view from the Solomonic
and later Jewish doctrine of the personified Wisdom and
Word of God, and combined it with the Platonic idea of
Nous. The Logos is to him the embodiment of all divine
powers and ideas (the &yyf\ot of the Old Testament, the
Svpdi^fis and ISeai of Plato). He distinguished between the
Logos inherent in God {\6yos ^vStdAeTos), corresponding to
reason in man, and the Logos emanating from God {\6yos
■irpo<popiK6s). corresponding to the spoken word which reveals
tlie thought. The former contains the ideal world (the
K6a-fio! TOTjTiJj) ; the latter is the first-begotten Son of God, the
image of God. the Creator and Preserver, the Giver of life
and light, the Mediator between God and the world, also the
Jlessiah (though only in an ideal sense — as atheophany, not
as a concrete historical person). Philo wavers between a
personal and impersonal conception of the Logos, but leans
more to the impersonal conception. He has no room for an ■
incarnation of the Logos and his real union with humanity.
Nevertheless, his view has a striking resemblance to tlie
Logos-doctrine of John, and preceded it as a shadow pre-
cedes fhe substance. It was a prophetic dream of the com-
ing reality. It prepared the minds of many for the recep-
tion of the truth, but misled others into Gnostic errors.
LiTER.iTURE. — Gfrorer, Philo vnd die Alexandrinische
Theosophie (1831); Piihne, JUdisch-Alexandrinische Re-
ligionsphilosophie (1834); Grossmann, Qucest tones Philon,
(1841): Keferstein, P/iiVo's Z.e/i;-e von dem Gottlichen Mit-
tehvesen (XHiG); Langcn, Das Judenthum zur Zeit Christi
(1867): and especially Eniil Schiirer, Lehrbucit, der Xeu-
Testamentlichen Zeitgeschichte (1874, pp. 648, seq; 2d ed.
under the title Gescliichte des jiidischen Volkes, 1890).
(2) St. John uses Logos (translated Word) four times as a
designation of the divine, pre-existent person of Christ,
through whom the world was made, and who became incar-
nate for our salvation (John i. 1,14; 1 John i. 1 ; Rev. xix.
13. The passage 1 John v. 7 is spurious, and omitted in all
critical editions and in the Revised English Yersion). Philo
probably suggested the use of the term (although there is
no evidence that John had read a single line of Philo), but
the idea was derived from the teaching of Christ, and from
the Old Testament, which makes a distinction between the
hidden and the revealed being of God, which personifies the
Wisdom of God and the Word of God, and ascribes the
creation of tlie world to the Logos (Ps. xxxii. 6, Sept.). There
is an inherent propriety in this usage in the GreeK language,
where Logos is masculine and has the double meaning of
thought and speech. Christ as to his divine nature beai-s
the same relation to God as the word bears to fhe idea. The
word gives shape and form to the idea, and it reveals fhe
idea "to otlicrs. The word is thought expressed (Kiyos
■!rpo(popiKis). tliought is the inward word (\6yos ivSiadcros).
We can not speak without the faculty of reason, nor tiiink
without words, whether uttered or not. The Christ-Logos
is the Revealer and Interpreter of the hidden being of (Jod,
fhe utterance, the reflection, the visible image of God, and
the organ of all his manifestations to the world (John i. 18;
comp. Matt. xi. 27). The Logos was one in essence or nature
with God (Aeif ^y, John i. 1), yet personally distinct from
him, and in closest ccnunuinion with him {nphs Thfdeii'. John
i. 1, IS). In the fullness of time he a.ssumed human nature,
and wrought out in it the salvation of the race which was
created through him (i. 14). John, in the Prologue to his
Gospel, prepared the Hellenic readers who were familiar with
the Philonic Logos doctrine, for the history of Jesus.
Literature. — See the commentaries of Luckc. de Wette,
Olshausen. Ilengstenberg. Mover, Luthart. Godot, Lange
(Schaft's ed.). Alford, Wesfcott, and Milligan on the Pro-
logue of John's Gospel; also M. Stuart's Kxnmiiintion of
Johni. 1-lS. in Bihliolheca Sacra for 1850 (pp. 281-;V27> :
Kohrieht, Zur Johanneischen Logoslehre, in the Theol.
336
LOGUONO
LOIRE
Sliiilifn und Kriliken for 1868 (pp. 299-315); and H. P.
Liiltlun, Hampton Lectures on the Dii-inity of Christ (Lon-
don, ft<67, li-ft. v., pp. 310-411).
(.'!) The Logos doctrine of the earlv Greek Fathers — Justin
Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen — is bused upon
Philo and the Prologue of John's Gospel, and was an im-
portant factor in the development of the Nicene Creed. See
especially Baur, History of the Doctrine of the Trinity and
Incarnation, &nA Doriwr. History of Christology ; also the
mouographs of Semisch and Engelhard on Justin JIartyr.
Philip S<'haff.
Lo^rofio. Io-gron'y5 : province of Spain ; situated between
Alava, Navarre, Soria, and Burgos, in the basin of the Kbro.
Area, 1,945 sq. miles. It produces an abundance of corn,
wine, fruits, and vegetables ; is also rich in ores and min-
eral springs. That part of the province which stretches
along the southern bank of the Euro is an undulating plain,
very fertile, especially in its western parts — the so-called La
Rioja — which produce excellent wine and oil. The southern
parts of the province, however, are very much broken up by
offshoots of the sierras which separate the basin of the Ebro
from that of the Ducre, and which in Pico Santa Ives rises
7,380 feet. The mineral wealth of the province is coni-
pletelv undeveloped, and the manufacturing industry is in-
considerable. Pop. (1887) 181,465.
Loffwood [named from being imported in logs ; also
called Campcat'liy Wood] : the red heart-wood of a legu-
minous tree (llirmatoxylon campechianum), from 20 to 50
feet in height. This tree is a native of Mexico and Central
America, but is naturalized to some extent in the West Indies.
Logwood is the most important dyewood known, and is ex-
ported in great quantities. It makes many shades from
Dlack to red and lilac, according to the mordant employed.
The extract or inspissated juice is largely prepared' in its
native countries, and is exported. In medicine, logwood is
a mild astringent, from the presence of tannic acid. For
use in the arts logwood is usually supplied in the form of
chips, powder, or solid extract.
Composition. — Logwood contains a peculiar principle,
hamutoxylin, a volatile oil, fatty bodies, resinous bodies,
tannin, or a body nearly allied to it. acetates, oxalates, chlo-
rides, sulphates, and phosphates of potassium, sodium, mag-
nesium, calcium, aluminium, iron, and manganese, with
some silica. Ilitmatoxytin, ChIImOj, discovered by Che-
vreul in 1811, is the characteristic principle of logwood ;
though it is not itself a dye, it readily yields by oxidation
(loss of hydrogen), the real logwood dye, which is hipmatein.
Utematein, Ci(,II„0«, is the result of the action of the air on
haematoxylin in the presence of bases, and exists, in combi-
nation with metallic oxides, in all fabrics dyed with log-
wood or its pre[)arations. It is easily prepared by exposing
to the air an ammoniat^al solution of h.-pmatoxylin and dry-
ing the resulting precipitate at 130° C. It forms colored
lakes with metallic buses ; blue or violet with alumina, cop-
per, and tin ; black with iron and chromium.
Dyeing with logwood is accomplished with the decoction
of the wood or with the extract. It is used for reddish, vio-
let, blue, and black shades, but chiefly for black. Log-
wood was introduced into England in the time of Elizabeth,
but, as the colors then obtained were very fugitive, its use
was prohibited under severe penalties, 'fhe use of indigo
was forbidden at the samctime,as it interfered with the use
of the native woo<l. A century later the restrictions on
the.se most useful dyes were removed.
Logwood blacks are the most important shades produced
by this dyewood. Cotton is dyed black by boiling in a
decoction of logwood, to which a little quercitron is added
to give a brownish shade to the black : it is then immersed
in milk of lime, then in a cold solution of ferrous sulphate
(copperas). It is then returned to the original logwood de-
coction, to which some soda-ash has been added in the
meantime. It is taken out, some copi)eras is added to the
decocti(m, and it is again submitted to the bath. Wool is
dyed black by first boiling it in a solution of coi>peras, blue
vitriol, and argol, then immersing in the logwoixl decoction.
Silk, after being freed from gum by boiling with Marseilles
soap, is mordanted with acetate of iron, washed, placed in a
solution of quenilron and alum, und finished in a decoction
of logwood, to which a little sou|i is added.
The iron WnrA« do not resist the action of acids, which
withdraw the iron, leaving the hn'mutein as a red spot; to
obviate this ilefect, potassi(r bichromate, in combination
with cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), is substituted. The re-
sulting black, which is a compound of hieroatein with the
oxides of chromium und copper, withstands both acids and
alkalies better than the iron compound. Cotton is first
boiled in the logwood decoction, with or without (|Uercitr<m,
then placed in the solution of bichromate and blue vitriol.
After adding some soila-ash to the original logwood decoc-
tion, the cotton is again placed in it ; finally, copperas is
added to this bath, and the cotton is once more suiunitted
to its action. Wool is first boiled in a solution of bichro-
mate, blue vitriol, argol, and suljiliuric acid, and then sub-
mitted to the action of the logwood. C. F. Cuanulek,
Loharda'gn. or Lohnrdii'gga : a district of the lieuten-
ant-governorship of Hiiigal, India ; between lat. 2'i° 20 and
24' 39 N. ; area, 12.044 sq. miles, with 1,610.000 inhabitants.
The central and southern portion of the district is an ele-
vated table-land with undulating surface, and the slopes be-
tween the ridges are cut into terraces covered with rice.
The northern and western portion is a tangled mass of insu-
lated peaks, j)resenting nowhere a level area of any extent.
The principal rivers are the North und South Koel. The
native Christians are more numerous in Lohardaga than in
any other Bengalese district. At the last census 60 per
cent, were Hindus, and 1 per cent. Christians. The two
missions are the German Lutheran and the Church of Eng-
land, which harmoniously and successfully work side by
side. The jirincipal town is Ranchi, on the Koel. with (1891)
20,306 inhabitants. Revised by M. W. Harrington.
Ldhe, lo e, or Loehe, JonN Conrad William : Lutheran
clergvman and author ; b. near Nuremberg, Germanv, Feb.
21, 1808; d. at Neuendettelsau. Jan. 2, 1872. Educated at
Erlangen, he became pastor of the Lutheran church at Neu-
endettelsau in 1837, where he founded an institution for the
training of missionaries, with especial reference to the supply
of German pastors for the U. S. In 1853 he founded a
deaconess institute, followed by a-sylunis and hospitals of
various kinds. He was the author of Drei BScher von der
Kirche (184.5), and of several volumes of sermons, but was
esi>ecially distinguished as a liturgical writer. See his
Agende fur chrislliche Gemeinden des luth. Bekenntnisses
(3d ed., revised by J. Deinzer, 1884). U. E. Jacobs.
Lohenstein,lo'fn-.stin,DANiELCASPAR,von : author; b.at
Nimptsch, Silesia, Jan. 25, 1635 ; studied law at Leipzig and
Tubingen ; was appointed syndic of the city of Breslau, and
imperial counselor ; d. Apr. 28, 1683. Lohenstein is a repre-
sentative of the utmost decay of (Jcrman poetry in the seven-
teenth century, a member of the second Silesian school.
He wrote many poems, a number of tragedies, and a novel,
the contents of all of which are shamelessly immoral and
rude, while their language can not be surpassed in bombast.
See Konrad Miiller, Beitriige zum Leben iind Dichlen Daniel
Caspar vo7i Lohenstein s (1882). Julius Goebel.
Loher, lo fr, Franz, von : historian and jurist ; b. at
Paderborn, Westphalia, Oct. 15, 1818; studied law, history,
natural science, and art at Halle, Munich, Freiburg, and
Berlin ; made extensive travels in Europe, Canada, and the
V. S. (1846-47); took an active i)art in the political move-
ments in Germany in 1848 ; founded the W'estphalische
Zeitung ; was imprisonecl by the Prussian {iovcrnmeiit for
political agitation, but shortly after acquitted by the court ;
became assessor at the court of appeal in Paderborn in
1849, professor at the University of Gottingen in 1853, and
was called to Munich in 18.55 as secretary of the academy
and professor at the university. His writings are partly
judicial — Das System des preussisrhen Landrechts (1852);
partly historical — Fursten nnd Stddte zur Zeit der Ilohen-
statifen (1840), Geschirhle der Deutschen in Amerika (1848),
.Idkobwa von Baiern (1801), and Kiilturgeschichte der
Deutschen im JUitlelaller (1891) ; partly sketches of travel —
Land nnd Leute in der A/ten und J^'euen Welt (3 vols.,
1857-58) and JSi'eapel und Sicilien (2 vols., 1864). D. Mar.
2, 1892.
Loir, lwu"iir [Fr. < Lat. Lide'rictis, the ancient name] : a
river of France; rises in the hills of Eure-et-Loir, (lows
S. W., and joins the Sarthe. an allluciit of the Loir, 5 miles
N. of Angers, after a course of about 200 miles, of which
aliout 75 are navigable. It is a river of sju'ings, [lure. deep,
lranc|uil, and very winding. It gives its name to two de-
partments, Eure-et-Loir and Loir-et-Cher. M. W. H.
Loire [Fr. < Lat. lAger, the ancient name] : the largest
and longest river of France. It rises in the ('I'vennes, and
flows in a northwestern und western direction through the
center of France to the Bay of Biscay, receiving from the
LOIRE
LOMBARD
337
right the Sarthe, and from the left the AUier, Cher, Indre,
and Vienne rivers. It is 620 miles in length, and is navi-
gable 450 miles from its mouth. It is conneoted by canals
with the Seine, the Saune, and the harbor of Brest. The
Loire is lined with high embankments, and has a lateral canal
completed in 1888 along its lower course, as it is liable to
rise considerably, occasioning destructive inundations. In
the volume of its water there is almost the irregularity of a
mountain-torrent. During the droughts of summer it
shrinks into thin and feeble threads winding their way be-
tween the sandbanks of the channel, and for about six
months of the year navigation is practically impossible.
At other times, and often very suddenly, tremendous floods
pour down and submerge large tracts of land. Attempts to
control the river were made at a very early date. At the
close of the Middle Ages the bed between Orleans and
Angers was inclosed by dikes, from 10 to 13 feet high, and
in 1783 a double line of dikes, 25 feet high, was completed
from Bee d'Allier downward. So much sediment has been
deposited by the Loire that the depth of water at its mouth
> at low tide is only 6+ feet. The basin of the Loire com-
prises one-fourth of the area of the republic, and is so fer-
tile that it is called " the garden of France." In several
wars carried on within the boundaries of France the river
formed an important strategical element — e. g. in the wars
with the Knglish in the fifteenth century, in the wars of
1814, and in the war of 1870-71 against the Germans. In
the last instance the Loire formed the boundary between the
territory occupied by the Germans and those parts of France
which remained unharmed by the invaders. The river is so
broad that its passages beoome very important military po-
sitions. The towns of Nantes, Tours, Blois, Orleans, and
Nevers are on its banks.
Loire: a department of France, comprising the old prov-
ince of Forez and portions of Beaujolais and Lyonnais, in-
cluding part of the basin of the upper Loire and spurs of
the Cevennes and Forez Mountains. Area, 1,838 sq. miles.
Iron is mined, marble, granite, pcirphyry, and flint are quar-
ried, and there are extensive manufactures of silk, ^cotton,
iron, steel, and flint glass. In the vicinity of St.-Etienne
are rich coal-beds, which vield some 3,000,000 tons unniuillv.
Pop. (1891) 616,227. Capital, Montbrison.
Loire-Iiif6rieure, Iwa'iirah'fari-er' : a department of
France ; on Ijoth sides of the mouth of the Loire. Area,
2,654 sq. miles. The surface is low, containing extensive
lagoons, but the soil is generally fertile. Wine and wheat
are produced. Pine horses, good sheep, and many bees are
reared. Salt, preserved meats, pickles, and sugar are ex-
ported. Capital, Nantes. St.-Nazaire is an important sea-
port. Pop. (1801) 645,263.
Loiret, Iwaa'ra' : a department of France ; situated be-
tween the Seine and the Loire ; consisting of a low, sandy,
and unproductive tract on both sides of the Loire, and a
more elevated and fertile plain called the plateau of Orleans.
Area, 2,614 sq. miles. The principal products are grain,
wine, hemp, saffron, timber, and apples. Far more wheat
and oats are raised than necessary for home consumption.
fSheep and cattle, both of good breeds, poultry aud bees, are
reared. Pop. (1891) 377,718. Capital, Orleans.
Loir-et-Cher, Iwaar •x-shar' : a department of France ;
situated on both sides of the Loire, and travei-sed by several
of its affluents, which form extensive lagoons. Area. 2,452
sq. miles. The surface is low and level, but the soil is gen-
erally fertile. Wheat, hemp, and vines are extensively culti-
vated ; sheep, horses (the Percheron breed is celebrated
both for strength and lightness), poultry, and bees are
reared, and some woolens, cottons, leather, and glass are
manufactured. Pop. (1891) 280,358. Capital, Blois.
Loja, or Loxa. lo'ha'a : a southwestern city of Ecuador ;
on the plateau of the Andes, 5.064 feet above the sea (see
map of South America, ref. 4-B). It is favorably situated
for commerce, the Cordilleras at this point being lower than
elsewhere, and offering a comparatively easy communication
from the coast to the Amazon valley, while the Peruvian
frontier is but a short distance away. Cinchona bark was
first obtained in quantity from the forests E. of Loja. and
for a long time the town had an active trade in this article ;
but little is now obtained, and communication with the
Amazon has almost ceased. Loja was founded in 1.540, and
was long the center of an important gold-mining region.
It is somewhat unhealthtul, and has suffered severely from
earthquakes. Poj). (1893) about 9,000. It is the capital of a
248
I^ovince of the same name, having an area of 3,706 sq. miles
and a population of about 66,000. Herbert II. Smith.
Loki : See Devil.
Lokllian': an Araljian fabulist of very early times, con-
cerning whose real epoch and life the traditions are con-
flicting aud untrustworthy. His fables were published at
Leyden by Erpenius in 1615, with a Latin translation, and
they have since been one of the commonest text-books for
learning the Arabic language — a distinction they by no
means merit on the score either of elegance or of originality,
as most of them may be traced through the Syriac to a
Greek original. Among moilern editions those of Caussin
de Perceval (Paris, 1818), Helot (Paris, 1847), and Deren-
bourg (Berlin, 1850) may be mentioned.
Lolif^in'ldse [Mod. Lat., named from Loligo, the chief
genus, from Lat. loU go, cuttlefish] : a family of dibranchi-
ate cephalopods of the sub-order Se piophnrn , with the eyes
covered by skin ; the internal shell horny and lanceolate ;
the body oblong, and with a more or less pointed terminal
fin ; the head is free from the front of the mantle ; and the
teeth of the radula are in seven regular longitudinal rows,
the median and inner lateral teeth being broad and fringed,
and the outer long and fang-like. To it belong the most
common "squids" of the eastern coast of the U.S. The
gigantic cuttlefishes of the North Atlantic (Architeuthis)
are nearly allied, but differ greatly in the teeth of the
radula. Revised by D. S. Jordan.
Lol'lards [probably from Germ, lallen, to sing in a mur-
muring strain -t- -hard, an aflix, signifying one who sings the
praises of God or funeral dirges and the like, and probably
connected with Eng. lullaby] : a term of reproach applied
at first to a half-monastic sect which originated in 1300
at Antwerp. The sect was designed to furnish ministrants
for the care of the sick. In 1374 and 1377 its members were
placed under the protection of Gregory XT. In 1472 Pope
Sixtus IV. recognized them as a religious order. Their proper
designation was CelUtes or Alexians. A few Alexian houses
still exist in Europe. The name was afterward applied
especially to the English and Scottish followers of Wycliffe,
who were sorely persecuted during the reigns of Henry IV.
and Henry V. in England, and in the same and somewhat
later times in Scotland, where they were called " Lollards
of Kyle." The chief center of Wycliffe's teaching was the
University of Oxford, and after the condemnation of his
doctrine of the sacraments, in 1382, Archbishop Courtenay
proceeded to silence the Wycliifite teachers in the univer-
sity. There was a strong party in the university which
tried to resist the archbishop's interference, but he was sup-
ported by the crown, and in the space of five months he
succeeded in reducing to silence the Lollard party in Oxford
and in securing the orthodoxy of the university. Wycliffe
used to send out itinerant preachers, who met with consid-
erable acceptance among the people ; and in that field the
contest threatened to become both more violent and more
protracted. Nevertheless in the course of time the most
famous of those itinerant jireaohers were compelled to re-
cant or were driven into exile — a result which was largely
due to a reaction against novelties which was produced by
the peasants' rising under Wat Tyler, in 1381. From its
very beginning the Lollard movement wore a political as-
pect, which it never lost, and which weakened its religious
significance in no small degree. It was an opposition not
only to the doctrinal system of the Church of Rome, but
also to her organization, such as was that planned and par-
tially carried through by Hildebrand and his successors. It
culminated early in the fifleent h century. See Stubbs, Con-
stitutional History of Eniilnnil, Oxford, vols. ii. and iii;
Lechler, ./o/iini ro« llYc/zYiEng. trans, bv Lorimer. ed. by
S. G. Green. London, 1884); .Slatlhew, A'nglisli Works of
Jo/iii Wyrtif.
Lom'banl, Peter [Petrus Lomhardns] : theologian ; b. of
humble parentage at Lugelogno. near Novara. in Lombardy
about 1100; studied theology at Bologna and Rheims, and
in Paris umler Abelard ; taught t lieology t here with great suc-
cess, and was appointed in 1159 Bishop of Paris, where he died
July 20. 1163 (or 1164). He was one of the founders of the
scholastic theology of the ,"\liddle .\ges. His principal work,
Scntentiariim Libri IV., from which he received the title
of Mayister Sententiarum (master of sentences), is a collec-
tion of passages from the Fathers, with accompanying com-
mentaries, bearing on the various doctrines of Christianity.
It was first printed in Venice (1477); an edition was pub-
33S
LOMBARniXI
LOM B A K I » I" N I \' K KSIT Y
lished in I'aris (1841). His worlss arc found in Mijjne. Pa-
trologia Lutina, cxi-i., cxcii. Until tlu' Kcforinaliim it was
tilt' most I'oiniiion liaiiilbook iiseil in all llii'ulo^ital schools.
See his Life hs F. I'rotois (Paris, 1S«1).
Lombardini, loni-limir-dee nw, Elia: liydrolopist ; b.
Oi't. 11. 1T'.I4; jriaJuatod at the rnivoisity of I'avia, and
di'votinl liiiiisvlf to the stuily of tliiviatile hydiolofiy ; in 1(^47
was a|>|)ointed director-jreneral of the publie works in Loni-
bunly. and held that position for nine years; in l!^GO was
nominateil senator of the kingdom. Among his numerous
and highly important professional writings, most of whieh
ap()ean'd in seienlitie journals, are: Crnni Idrografici : -l/c-
moria suW Importniizn ileijli studii sulla Statislica dei /'(«-
mi; Memnria xiii camjiamenti neW idraulica Vondiziune
del Po; Millie Inonduzioni arreiiiile nelln Francia: Dell'
on'ffine e del progregxo delta Seiema Idraulica in Italia ;
Saqgio IdrolOgieo siit Xilo ; Studii «ul gninde estuario
Adrialico; several essays on the hydrology of the I'o and
the Tiber, and the verv valuable Guida alio Studio dell'
Idrologia fluviale e del}' Idraulica prat ica, published sepa-
rately in 1870.
Lombar'do, Pietro: architect and sculptor; b. about
1438. eiilier at Venice or at Carona, near Lugano. His
school ]iredominated in Venice till I'alladian architecture
came into vogue. His first important work was the cloister
of the monastery of the Henedictine monks of St. Juslina in
Padua, the now destroyed Church of St. Christopher in Ven-
ice, the statues of St. Anthony and St. John the Baptist,
and St. .Jerome in St. Stephen's church. At Treviso in the
year 1474 he sculptured the lion at the door of St. Thomas's
church, and with the help of his sons Anthony and Tullius,
he enlarged the cathedral, which he enriched with several
statues of saints. He also executed two lions for the Church
of St. Nicholas, and designed the monument of the senator
Agostino Onigo. On his return to Venice he began the
building of St. Andrea alia Certosa, one of his finest works,
of which no trace remains. In 1482 Lombardo. having al-
ready erected two columns on the public place of Havonna,
the lion of St. Mark o4 Venice on the one. St. Apollinaris
on the other, received a commission for the monument to
contain the ashes of Dante. In 14N4. assisted by artists of
his own family, he executed the sjilendid monument to the
doge, Mocenigo, in the Church of SS. (iiovanni and Paolo in
Venice. His brother Martin co-operated with him in the
br.ilding of the Scuola di .San Marco (now a civil hospital).
The masterpiece of Pietro Lombanio's skill is the Church
of Santa Maria dei Jliracoli, begun in 1481 and <'ompletcd
in 14.s!l. He designed theChurch of Sta. Maria .Mater Domi-
ni which Sansovino completed; also the clock-tower of .St.
Mark's. In 149!) he became architect in chief of the Ducal
Palace, and for twelve vears directed all the architectural
work of the republic, l^hc Cathedral of Cividale in Friuli is
his work. He also designed the Procuratie Vecchie which
have been attributed to Buono, who superintended the
building. The chapel in St. Giobbe is also considered Jjom-
bardo's work. One hears no more of him after the year
1.511. He left three sons, a l>rolher, and nephews, all be-
longing to his school, who continued working in the manner
of their master Pietro. He is supposed to have died at Ven-
ice about 1.511. W. J. Stillma.n.
Lombards [from 0. Fr. Lombards < Lat. Langnbar'di,
ajipannlly from the Teuton, name, meaning long-beard. Cf.
Kng. long-lji'fird] : a family of the Suevic or Suabian branch
of the great Teutonic raci-. According to their own legends
they had once dwelt in .Scandinavia, but early emigrated to
Northern (rermany, and previous to the inviusion of Ilalv
were occupying the lands about the middle course of the
Danube. Like most of the other Teutonic tribes they be-
came Arian Christians, but in the middle of the sixth"cen-
tury were backward in civilization, having but recently
come in contact with the Konums. In .5.")2 .'i.OdO of their
warriors under their king, .\u<louin. joined Nacres in his war
against the O.strogotlis in Italy, but at that limegaineil no
foothold there for themselves, and for the next fifteen viars
the tribe was chiefly occupied in fighting the neighboring
(repida^ Alboin, the son of Audouin, having c<mi|uered the
(iepida' and killed Iheirking with his own haiuls, married
his daughter liosatuond. He was thus free to undertake
the conquest of Italy, and enlere<l the Venetian plains at the
head of the entire l/ombard nation. Kiicounlering but
slight resistance, except in the city of Pavia, whieh he took
after three years' siege, Alboin took possession of the val-
ley of the Po, and founded the kingdom of LombaVdy in
5(58. Ravenna under its exarch renii>ined Greek, but the
leiuainder of the country was divided into duchies. Al-
boin at the height of his power, while intoxicated at a
grand orgy, conipelh'd his wife to drink wine from her fa-
ther's skull. She revenged herself by inducing two soldiers
to murder him during his sleep, lie was succeeded by
Cleph (57"2). who during his short reign of eighteen months
greatly extended his dominion. After ten years of anarchy,
in which the Lombards under thirty-five dukes ravaged the
greater part of Italy, they chose Authari for king. Under
this leader the Lomlfard empire was extended, though dur-
ing his reign the Franks made ravaging expeditions into his
dominions. Freed from these invaders, Authari consoli-
dated the kingdom. After his death (.5!K)) his widow, Theo-
delinda. married Agilulf, who became a Catholic and in the
course of his reign was followed into the orthodox Churc'b
by most of his people. Adaloald. who succeeded him (015),
was deposed by the dukes, or ]ieers. who elected Ariovald of
Turin, his brother-in-l;iw. Rothari (()36) crushed the tur-
bulent aristocracy, which threatened the stability of the em-
liire, extended his dominions, and became famous by the
compilation of the great code of Londiard laws in 64:}, em-
bodying the traditional usages of the naticm. From the
reign of Rothari the royal succession presents the usual
scenes of murder, debauchery, intrigue, and dethronements
common to all governments of the time under weak mon-
archs, until the accession of the great Luitjirand (71'2). He
united the kingdom by suliduing the refractory aristocracy,
and would have united Italy but for the intrigues of the
Church of Rome, which then, as at all subsequent peritHls,
opposed the union of Italy. He greatly weakened the power
of the Eastern emperor in Italy, adding a large part of the
exarchate to the Lombard territories. Ratclds. who suc-
ceeded Luitprand (744), was so far infltienced by the pope
as to lieconui a monk. Aistulf. his brother, who became
king in 7411, endeavored to carry out the old Lombard ideas,
but was checked by Pepin, who twice forced him to sue for
jieace, and on the second occasion seized the exarchate and
transferred it to the pope. Desiderius or Didier, his succes-
sor, had for co-regent Ratcliis, who was taken from the clois-
ter. Getting rid of Ratchis, Desiderius ruled alone. His
daughter married Charlemagne, but as .soon as the latter
was on the throne he divorced his wife and sent her back to
her father. For revenge. Desiderius supported the claims
of the heii'of Carlonuin, Charleuuigne's brother, and marche<i
upon Rome, whieh had supported the outrage committed
by Charlemagne, leaving his throne in charge of his son,
Adelchis. Charlemagne invaded Italy (773) and conquered
Adelchis, who fled to Constantinople. Desiderius, who was
made prisoner, ended his days as a monk in the abbey of
Corbeia. 'J'lie Ijombard governmi'nt of dukes was replaced
by that of the Franks, but in the south the duchy of Bene-
ventum maintained a semi-independence. Thus perished
the Lombard rule after a duration of over 200 years. The
Lombard laws and architecture, art and culture, were of a
high order, and no race of the Transition or Romanesque
period developed greater energy or originality, or exercised
a greater influence upon the Teutonic races of Europe.
The name Luinbards also was given during the Jliddle-
Ages to a vast ninidier of shrewd and intelligent Italians,
princiiwlly from Loinbardy, who abounded in London and
Paris during the twelfth century. They were principally
brokers, bankers, and usurers, wlio advanced money on all
kinils of securities. Londiard Street in London derived its
name from them, and there is in Paris another, once entirely
occupied by Londiards. which bears the same designation.
That of Liindon still is to (ireat Britain what the Lombard
.Street of Paris was to France, the financial center of the
country. Both in France and England the Lombards were
regarded, though in less degree, like the Jews, as a despised
race, and were accordingly ojiiiressed tiv the sovereigns of
those countries. Reviseit by F. M. Colhv.
Lomhnrd rniversity: an institution which, as the Illi-
nois Liberal Institute, was founded at Galesburg, 111., by
Universalists. and was incor|ioraled in 18.'")1. In 18.").5 Ben-
jamin Londjard made a liberal doiuition to the institution,
and its nanu' was changed to Lombard University. It was
the second college in the U. S. to admit young women into
its classes on ei]»n\ terms with ycning men, Olierlin College
being the first. In its college of letters it olfei-s students
three coursi'S of study, classical, scientific, and literary, lead-
ing respectively to the degrees of bachelor of arts, bachelor
of science, and bachelor of literature. It maintains a pre-
LOMBARDY
LOMOND, LOCH
339
paratory department for students preparing for college or
for business. The Ryder Divinity School connected with the
university, gives the degree of bachelor of divinity to stu-
dents who complete the prescribed course of study. The
university possesses spacious grounds in the southeastern
part of the city of Galesburg. In 1889-90 it had 137 stu-
dents in all departments. J. V. X. Staxdisu.
Loiii'bardy : a territory of Northern Italy; extending
from the Alps to the Po, and from Lago Maggiore and the
Ticino, which separate it from Piedmont, to Lago di Garda
and the Mincio, which separate it from Venetia. It con-
sists of an alpine region to the N. covered with picturesque
mountain ranges and containing beautiful valleys, and a
large and exceedingly fertile jilain to the S., extending
along the Po. and watered by tlie Ticino, Lambro, Adda,
Oglio, and Mincio. This plain, with its rich soil and mihl
climate, is not only one of the most fertile, but also one of
the best-cultivated and most prosperous parts of the king-
dom of Italy. Large crops of wheat, maize, rice, and mil-
let are raised. Melons, oranges, figs, citrons, peaches, olives,
and mulberry-trees are extensively cultivated ; also vines,
though the wine produced is of inferior quality. The prin-
cipal industry is dairy-farming, which annually produces
about .50.000,000 lb. of excellent cheese. Tlie principal
manufacture is silk, which is produced in large quanti-
ties and of excellent quality ; the annual value of this sin-
gle product is estimated at $1.5,000.000. The hilly region is
rich in beautiful marbles. The territory, comprising an area
.of 9,075 sq. miles, with a population of 3,957,261 (1890), does
not form a political unit at present, but is divided into the
provinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Cremona, Milan,
Pavia, and Sondrio. It received its name from the Lom-
bards iq. v.), who in 568 conquered Northern and Central
Italy and established an independent kingdom, which flour-
ished till 774, at which time it was incorporated with the
Carlovingian empire. By the treaty of Verdun in 843, Lora-
bardy, together with a long but narrow strip of country
situated between France and Germany, and inhabited by
Frankish tribes, was formed into a kingdom under a ruler
of the Carlovingian house, and it remained a Frankish pos-
session till the death of Charles the Fat, in 888. After
this time several independent duchies arose in the eastern
portion of the old Lombardian dominions, and in 961 the
western and central parts, Lombardy proper, fell under the
feudal authority of the German empire. In the beginning
of the eleventh century it succeeded in separating itself
from Germany, and a number of small republics, generally
consisting of one city only, with a dependent territory, were
formed. This period of its history, which lasted to the
middle of the sixteenth century, is the most interesting
and prosperous. Twice united into powerful leagues, the
Lombard cities defeated Frederic Barbarossa in 1176 and
Frederick II. in 1225 ; and after the dissolution of the league
Milan {g. r.) still remained a power which commanded some
respect under the sway of the Viscontis and Sfobzas {gq. i:).
The duchy of Milan was the disputed prize in the long wars
between Charles V. and Francis I. (1521—14), but Spain
maintained her claim and held the country till 1706, when
it fell to Austria. During the wars between France and
Austria at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of
the nineteenth centuries. Lombardy successively belonged to
the Cisalpine republic, the Italian republic, and the kingdom
of Italy, but in 1815 it was restored to Austria, which ceded
it to the King of .Sardinia in 1859 by the treaty of Villafranca.
Loinbok' : one of the group of the Sunda islands ; in the
Malay Archipelago ; situated between Bali and Sumbawa,
and belonging to the Netherlands. Its area is 2,100 sq.
miles ; its population is estimated at 800.000, mostly indige-
nous Mohammedans. Its coasts are mountainous, contain-
ing several active volcanoes ; the interior is a low and fertile
plain. Rice and cotton are extensively cultivated. The
capital is Mataram ; the seaport Ampanam, much frequented
to obtain provisions. Lombok marks the eastern limit of
the Australian fauna, as Bali marks the western limit of the
Asiatic, though they are separated only by a narrow strait.
Revised by M. W. Harki.nuton.
Lom'briz [corruption of Span, lombrici. intest inal worms] :
a term used in the southern and western parts of the L'. .S..
including the Territories, meaning a disease of sheep and
goats caused by the presence of a small worm (Sirunr/t/liis
contortux). This parasite is of a reddish color, about a tenth
of an inoh long, and attaches itself to the mucous membrane
of the fourth stomach. When present in large numbers the
worms cause diarrhoea, anaemia, weakness, and death. The
eggs of the worm [lass from the host with the fasces, fall
upon the grass, and are eaten by the sheep or goats, which
thus become infected. Prevention is best accomplished by
keeping'sheep away from infected pastures until after freez-
ing weather, which destroys the egg. The most highly rec-
ommended treatment is to arlminister one or two drachms
of turpentine with twenty times the volume of milk.
Leonard Pearson.
Lombroso, Cesar : criminologist and alienist ; b. in Ven-
ice in Nov., 1836 ; from his early youth he was an ardent
and versatile student, turning his energies first to literature
and linguistics, and later to the study of Roman and religious
antiquities, and to the subject of medicine ; received degree
of doctor of medicine from the University of Turin ; entered
the army in the campaign of 1859 as a soldier, but was soon
made army-surgeon ; took professorship in Diseases of the
Mind in the University of Pavia (1862), and later l)ecame
director of an establishment for the insane at Pesaro, from
which place he went to the University of Turin as Professor
of Medical Law and of Psychiatry. He has written a very
large number of books and monographs, the most important
of which are those upon crinnnology, to the study of which
he has given a great impetus. His works are marked by
originality and suggestiveness rather than by critical dis'-
cernment or well-weighed conclusions. His theory of crim-
inality is fatalistic, and regards the criminal as chiefly the
result of atavism, or the result of heredity and climatic
environment. Among his many works some of the most
important are The Criminal, an Anthropological and Medicn-
legal Study (vol. i., 1875: 4th ed. 1886; vol. ii., 1889); Tlie
Man of Oeniiis (5th ed. 1888); Antlirometry of Four Hun-
dred Criminals (1812) ; Epilejitir. Insanity (1863); Psyrlii-
atrico-legal Investigations, by Experimental Methods (1867),
etc. F. .Sturqes Allen.
Lonifinie. lo'ma'nee', Lovis Leonard, de: author; b. Dec.
3, 1815. at St.-Yrieix, Ilaute-Vienne. France. He studied
at Avignon ; then went to Paris, where, after writing for
the Revue des Deux Jlondes and La Patrie. he began in
1846 the publication of the Galerie des Contemporaitis il-
lustres, par u)i Homme de Rien (10 vols., finished in 1847),
which attracted much attention. He was appointed Pro-
fessor in French Literature at the College de France in
1845, and at the ]&cole Polytechnique in 1864. Anather
series of biographies. Hommes de 'S9. was never finished.
In 1855 he published Beaumarchais et son Temps (2 vols.:
republished in the U. S.), rtch in original researches. Besides
this excellent work, he wrote La Comtesse de Rochefort et
ses amis. Etudes sur les mceurs en France au XYIIF siecle
(1871); Esquisses historiques et litteraires (1878); Les Mira-
beau (2 vols., 1879). He was elected to the French Academy
in 1871. D. at Menton, Apr. 2, 1878.
Revised by A. R. Marsh.
Lomnickf z Bnd6e,lom'iiits-ke"ez boodche, Simon (Si'/non
2ebrdk) : poet ; b. at Lomnice, near Budweis, Bohemia, in
1552: was educated at Krumlov (Kruinmau) : became head
teacher at Kardasova ftecice in 1571: retired in 1585. He
was a clever rhymester and a profuse writer, endowed, how-
ever, with but little talent. His first literary work, Pisne
nove, etc., a collection of Roman Catholic religious songs,
was printed at Prague in 1580. Then followed his best
work, Krdtke riaucenl mladimu hospoddri (Short Advice
to the Young Husbandman, Prague, 1586); Hdddn'i mezi
knezem a zemanem (A Priest's l^uarrel with a Nobleman,
1589); several religious dramas: and the Kupidova strela
(Cupid's Shot, 1590), in which he censured licentiousness
and other evils of his times. The poem so plejised the Em-
peror Rudolph II. that he ennobled the poet and bestowed
an annuity upon him. Governed by pecuniary considera-
tions Lomnicky usually dedicated liis works to rich aristo-
crats, and though himself a Koman Catholic, praised in his
songs the new Protestant king. Frederic (1618), in hope of
securing royal favors. After Frederic's defeat he bitterly
denounced him and his Protestjint adherents, the Bohemian
noblemen. In 1618 he removed to Prague, where he died in
poverty about 1622. J. J. KrAl.
Lomond. Loch, loAhld mond : the largest lake of Scot-
land: situated between the counties of Stirling, Perth,_and
Dumbarton. It is 21 miles long, and ha.s an area of 45 sq.
miles. It receives the F.ndricki Luss. and Fruin, and sends
its waters through the Leven to the Firth of Clyde, and is
studded with islands and surrounded by grand and beauti-
ful scenery.
340
LOMONOSOV
LOXDOX
Lomono'soT, Mikhail Vasilevich : surnamcd the I'etor
the Great of Kussian liteniture ; son of a jioor fisherman ; I),
on an island in the government of Archangel in 1711. He
acquired the rudiments of an education, lint having' heard
from the village pric.st that to be learned a man must know
liatin, at the a^re of seventeen he ran awav from home,
joining: a train of carts with fish hound for Moscow, nearly
l.lMX) miles away. After his arrival he fouml protectors,
who put him to school, first in Mo.scow. then in St. Peters-
burp. In 1736 he was sent to (Jermany on a scholarship,
studied in Marbur-^ and Freiburjj, married and fell into
debt, and into habits of intemperance, which clun;; to him
for the rest of his life, lu 1741 he lied back to his native
country. After this time his success was rapid, thanks to
his tireless energy and his many-sided talents. He nia<ie a
great reputation, but his violent tem[ier involved hiin in
perpetual feuds, especially with the (.lermaiis who then con-
trolled the Russian Academy. He died June 28, 1763. The
numerous works of Lomonosov cover many branches of
science, on each of which he wrote works of considerable
value. He was also the author of the beginnings of a his-
tory, several orations, two worthless tragedies, an unfinished
epic, and a number of short poems. His greatest service to
his country was as a reformer and purifier of the language
and literature. He wrote a Russian grammar, and it was
he that first drew the lines of the modern vocabulary,
formed by the mixture of the old church Slavonic and of
the popular dialect; besides which lie introduced modern
poetical forms, as his ode on the Capture of Khotin is usu-
ally regarded as the earliest example of tonic versifica-
tion in Russian poetry. There have been seven editions of
his works, the last in 1867. .Some of his writings have been
translated into German, and there are renderings of three
of the best of his poems in Bowring's liiissian I'uel/s (2d vol.,
1823). The best biographies of him are those of Aksakov and
Pekarskii. In Knglish, see Studies in Russian Literature,
by C.E.Turner (18,S2), and The Peasant Poets of Russia,
by W. R. Morfill (1880). A. C. Coolidce.
Lom'za: town ; in the government of Lomza. Russia; on
the Narev, a tributary of the Vistula; is 80 miles X. K. of
Warsaw (see map of Russia, ref. 7-A). It has a college, a
gymnasium, and was formerly one of the most important
towns of Poland, but was destroyed by the Swedes, and
never recovered. In 179.5 it became subject to Prussia; in
1807 to Russia. Pop. 1.5,000.
Revised by M. \V. Harrington.
London [of. Lat. Lomli nium, the ancient name, under
which it is first mentioned in history] : the capital of Eng-
land and of the Hritish empire; situated on both banks of
the Thames about 50 miles from its mouth, the center of the
City proper being in lat. 51° 30' 48' X.. and Ion. 0 5' 48' W.
(see map of England, ref. 12-J). London is not only a city,
but for administrative purposes a county, three-fourths of
which are in Middlesex, with the remainder chiefly in .Sur-
rey, while a considerable portion is in Kent, and' a small
part in Essex. The straggling county of London extends
from X. to S. about 10 miles, and from \Y. to E. about 14
miles. London stretches from X. to S. between two lines of
heights, of which the southern range rises to 370 feet and
the northern to 441 feet above sea-level. The surface of the
whole London district is mainly one of clay, with here and
there a superficial bed of sand or gravel.
Area and Population. — London [iroper and the City proper
make up thestatutory county of London. Thecounty, which
will be referred to as Lonilon simply, occupies, according to
the census of 1891, generally followc'd in this article, im area
of 75,442 statute acres, and eontains 4,232,118 inhabitants,
a population larger than that of Scotland, and nearly as
large as that of Ireland, having increased rather more than
10 per cent, since 18H1. This area and population include
tho.se of the City proper, which has a government of its
own, with an area 'if 671 acres and a population of 37,-
705. of the poiiulalioii somewhat less than two-lhirils were
born within its bomiilaries. The immigrants include ,53.390
natives of Scotland, 60.163 natives of Ireland, and 95,053
European foreigners. Of these last 26.920 are Germans and
10..360 natives of Kranee, while 26.742, from Russia and
Poland, are niosllv .lews. The .)< wisli populatiim is esti-
mated at from 60,000 to 70.000. In 1S91 there were 4,903
natives of the U. S., very evenly priiporlioneil as regards sex.
The death-rate in 1892 was 20() lo l,()(io persons living,
while in Paris it was 22'4, ami in Vienna 243. In 1891 the
annual ratable value of-property was £31,819,412.
Parliamentary and other Divisions. — For parliamentary
purposes Loudon is divided into 27 metronolitan borougli.s.
The more populous of the.se are subdivided into electoral
districts. Each undivided borough and each sulxlivision of
a borough returns one member to the House of Commons, in
which London is represented by .59 members or by 60 if the
one ineinber returned by ].,ondon Univei-sity is included.
On account of its wealth and commercial importance the
City proper returns 2 of these 60 members, all hough the un-
divided borough of Wandsworth, with thrive times the popu-
lation of the City, returns only one member.
The Thames divides London into two une'iual parts. North
London on its left and South London on its right bank.
In common parlance, Xorth London is subilivided intothive
regions, the West End, the City, and the East End. At the
West End, that part of London which lies W. of old Temple
Bar, are the residences of the aristocratic, fashionable, busi-
ness, and professional classes, with the shops and other estab-
lishments which minister to their wants. TheCity is the cen-
ter of the mercantile, conmiercial, and financial activity of
London. The East End is the home of vast masses of the
industrial population of Xorth London.
Government and Administration. — The City proper is gov-
erned by a corporation, consisting of its head, the lord
mayor, the court of alilermen. 26 in number, and a court
of common council, of which there are 206 members. The
lord mayor is elected annually by the liverymen, that is,
citizens free of the various City companies, themselves sur-
vivals of the trade-guilds of old London. He is chosen
from among the aldermen elected by the 26 wards into which '
the City is divided, an alderman for each wan], the electors
being citizens possessing the iiarliamentary franchise. The
lord mayor is the chief magistrate and ofTicial representative
of the City. He lias a salary of £10.000. and an oflicial resi-
dence, the .Mansion House, where, and at the Oiiildliall, the
great council hall of the citizens, he disjienses a hospitality
for the cost of which his .salary seldom or never sulliccs.
While the court of aldermen is the House of Peers of the
city, the court of common council is its House of Commons,
and does most of the hard work of the corporation. It dis-
poses of a revenue of nearly £800,000 a year, most of which
is spent on pulilic improvements. The whole of London
outside of the City|)roper is governed l)y the county council,
which in 1888 succeeded to the jurisiliction of the metro-
politan l)oard of works, the institution of which gave London
for the first time a central and representative government.
It was elected indirectly by the vestries, but the county
council is elected directly and practically by the ratepayers.
Women are allowed to vote, but their claim to be elected to
the county council has been disallowed by the courts of law,
after being sanctioned by the council itself. The area of
the councir,s jurisdiction is. on the whole, coincident with
that of the 27 metropolitan boroughs. Each sends 2 repre-
sentatives to the council, and the City proper sends 4, as
there are certain general funds to whiih both London and
the City contribute. Apart from the administration of these
funds the jurisdiction (jf the council and of the City corpo-
ration exclude each other. The county council has already
done much for the improvement of London by the exercise
of the verv important ]io\vers intrusted to it bv the imperial
Parliament. Its revenue in 1893 was about £2,000,000.
Thoroughfares, Streets, and Squares. — Out of the thor-
oughfares which connect the A\ est End proper with the
City [iroper, two may be selected as the most frequented and
the most interesting. The more northerly of 'the two, some
Smiles in length. startingnearthe Marble Arch. at the north-
east corner of Hyde Park, begins with Oxford Street, which
a mile or .so eastward becomes Xew Oxford Street, and this
merges into Holborn. whence by the Holborn Viaduct and
Xewgate Street Cheapside is reached. The other, shorter by
more than a mile, leads from Charing Cross by those busy
streets, the Strand and Fleet .Street, and lu-occedingup Lud-
gate Hill and through St. Paul's Churchyard also reaches
Cheajisiile. Thence i>y the Poultry is but a step to the very
heart of the City proper, where the Royal Exchange faces on
one side the Hank of Enghind and on the other side the
Mansion House. From the Hank ea.stward there arc two
principal thoroughfares to Aldgale. From Aldgale the
Commercial Road leads lo the West India Pocks, and the
Whitechapel Road to .Mile End.
One of the most attractive thoroughfares of the We.st End
proper is Piccadilly, running eastward from Hyde Park Cor-
ner trt Piccadilly Circus. For a part of its course it is
lined on one side by stately mansions and on the other it
^
c:
LONDON
341
looks on the Green Park. Three notable thoroughfares con-
nect Oxford Street West with Piecadillv : Park Lane, skirt-
ing Hyde Park from the JIarble Arch to Hyde Park t'orner ;
New and Old Bond Streets, noted for their sliops, and skirt-
ing the eastern boundary of the aristocratic region known as
Mayfair; and last, not least, Regent Street, the most fre-
quented shopping-ground of tlie dwellers at the West End.
A continuation of Regent Street, Waterloo Place, leads from
Piccadilly Circus to Pall JIall, whicli is also reached farther
west in Piccadilly by St. .James's Street. In Pall Mall and
St. James's Street are the principal clubs. The road from
Hyde Park Corner westward through Kniglitsljridge passes
Sloane Street (which leads to Chelsea) and tlien divides into
two, the more northerly conducting through Kensington to
Hammersmith, and the othcrthrough Bromptonto Fulham.
London is dotted with squares. At the West End are
Grosvcnor, Berkeley, St. James's, and Belgrave. The last-
named .scjuare gives its name to the fashionable region
known as Belgravia. These are S. of Oxford Street, N. of
which are Portman, Jlanchester, Dorset, Cavendish, and
Montagu Squares. Near the northwest corner of Regent
Street is Hanover Square, and near the northeast corner of
Oxford Street is Soho Square. Coventry Street, a continua-
tion of Piccadilly, leads into Leicester Square, in the vicin-
ity of which the foreign element is abundant. A little to
the S., and close to Charing Cross, is treeless Trafalgar
Square with its fountains and Nelson Monument. In the
middle-class peo|iled region between Tottenham Court Road
and Gray's Lin Road are Gordon, Bedford, Tavistock, Rus-
sell, Bloomsbury, Brunswick, and Mecklenburg Squares.
Pinsbury Square is one of the few in the City proper.
The Thames also is a thoroughfare, numerous passenger
steamers plying its course. At high tide at London Bridge
it is 800 feet wide. Below London Bridge is the Pool,
crowded with vessels up to 400 tons. Below the Tower, at
the great docks (see Docks), deep-sea navigation begins,
while vessels of any tonnage can ascend to Deptford, 4 miles
below London Bridge. Besides railway bridges, on one of
which. Charing Cross, there is a footway for pedestrians,
the Thames is spanned by more than twelve bridges, of
which the Westminster, Waterloo, and London are the finest.
A little below London Bridge there is a narrow subway for
foot passengers. The huge new Tower Bridge for vehicles and
foot passengers, formally opened by t he Prince of Wales, June
30, 1894, has its central span filled with a bascule or draw-
bridge which can be raised to allow the passage of large ves-
sels. Two miles below London Bridge is the Thames Tunnel,
utilized by railway trains, which connects North and South
London lines of railway. A new tunnel, to be both a car-
riage and footway between Blackwall and the vicinity of
Greenwich and Woolwich, is in course of construction. No-
ble thoroughfares bordering the Thames are the Albert em-
bankment, nearly a mile in length on the right bank of the
river; on the left the Victoria embankment, extending for
1^ miles from Blackfriars Bridge to Westminster Bridge,
continued farther westward liy the Chelsea embankment.
The Parks.— Uyde Park (388 acres), the chief recreation-
ground of the West End. stretches from Park Lane to Ken-
.sington Gardens. A road to these gardens from the main
(southern) entrance of Hyde Park is the favorite drive of
the upper classes. Another a little to the N. is Rotten
Row, reserved for equestrians. N. of this again is a large
sheet of water, the Serpentine. W. of Hyde Park are Ken-
sington Gardens (210 acres), the largest and most beautiful
pleasure-grounds in London. They were originally the
pleasure-grounds of Kensington Palace. The Green Park
(69 acres), the most open and least wooded of the West End
parks, fronts the western section of Piccadilly. S. of it is
the picturesque St. James's Park (91 acres). Its western
boundary faces the front of Buckingham Palace. Regent's
Park (472 acres) is the largest of the West End parks, but is
also more broken up than any of them by public roads and
Srivate villas. It lies to the N. of Oxford Street, and to the
i. W. of it rises Primrose Hill, laid out as a public ground.
Victoria Park (300) is modern, and is the cliief recreation-
ground for the toiling masses of such densely populated
regions of the East End as Bethnal Green and Spitalfields.
It includes two picturesque sheets of water. There are sev-
eral parks and commons in South London, of which Batter-
sea Park (180), on the right bank of the Thames, opposite
Chelsea Hospital, and also quite modern, is far tlic largest.
The sub-tropical garden in this park has a remarkalde col-
lection. The northern heights of London are crowned by
Hampstead Heath (240 acres), the park of all Londoners,
and unlike other London parks, a natural one with pictur-
esque undulations. It lies between 400 and ."500 feet above
tile sea-level. Greenwich Park (174 acres), with its line old
chestnuts, is an ancient royal demesne. On the summit of
a hill in its center, 180 feet high, is the famous Royal Ob-
servatory.
Palaces and Jinyol liexidenrex. — Fronting the western
end of St. James's Park is Buckingham Palace, an unat-
tractive modern building, where the (jueen resides when she
spends more than a day in London, and where she always
holds her drawing-rooms and gives her balls and concerts.
St. James's Palace, an irregular brick building at the foot of
St. James's Street, was a palace of the Tudors, among the few
remains of which is the Chapel Royal where the Queen was
married. Levees, at wliich gentlemen only are received, are
held here, usually by the Prince of Wales. Marlborough
House, built by Wren for the great Duke of Marlborough,
is E. of St. James's Palace, and is separated from it only by
a carriageway, in which is the entrance to Clarence Ilouse,
the residence of the Duke of Edinburgh (now the Duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha). Kensington Palace, the birthplace
and early home of the Queen, is now occuiiied by the Prince
and Princess of Teck. Gloucester House, in Park Lane, is
the residence of the Queen's imcle. the Duke of Cambridge,
Lambeth Palace, on the south side of the Thames, nearly
opposite the houses of Parliament, has been for five cen-
turies the residence of the Archbishops of Canterbury. See
Lambeth.
Public Buildings (secular).- — The Tower, originally a
royal palace, then a fortress, and afterward a pri.son with
which are linked numerous historical associations, is a
group of irregular buildings of many dates, on the northern
bank of the Thames, a little below London Bridge. Since
the time of the Conqueror its government has been in-
trusted to a high officer called the constable. The isolated
square keep in the center, called the White Tower, was built
by William the Conqueror about 1078. This is now sur-
rounded by a rampart and moat, with inner wall (the Inner
Bail), flanked by half-circle towers, each of which has a dis-
tinctive name, as the Bell Tower, the Beauchamp Tower,
Wakefield Tower, Bloody Tower, Bowyer Tower. The most
noticeable is the Bloody Tower, so called because it was sup-
posed to have been the scene of the murder of the two infant
princes, sons of Edward IV., at the instance of Richard III.
On its upper floor is a splendid collection of old armor. In
the Record or Wakefield Tower the public records of the
realm were formerly kept, and the crown jewels, valued at
three millions sterling, are now exhibited. The list of cele-
l-irated persons buried after execution in the Chapel of St.
Peter ad Vincula and the little cemetery attached to it is a
long one, ranging from Sir Thomas More (1.53.5) to Simon
Eraser, Lord Lovat (1747). So-called traitors were usually
beheaded on Tower Hill, N. W. of the Tower. The houses
of Parliament are on the northern bank of the Thames be-
tween Westminster Abbey and the river. The New Palace
at Westminster, as it is sometimes called, covers an area of
nearly 8 acres, and contains 11 courts, 100 staircases, more
than 2 miles of corridors, and 1,100 apartments, with 18 dis-
tinct residences for high ollicials of the two houses. Of the
three principal towers, the Clock Tower, on the north side,
contains the clock known as Big Ben, by which London
regulates its time. The Victoria Tower contains the royal
entrance, and the Central Tower a grand octagon hall.
From this corridors adorned with frescoes lead right and
left to the lobbies of the houses of Lords and Commons re-
spectively. The whole is so arranged that when the doors
of both houses are opened the Queen, sitting on her throne
in tlie Ilouse of Lords, can see in a direct line the speaker
of the House of Commons in his chair. The House of
Lords, one of the most richly decorated chambers in the
world, 97 feet long, 4.5 wide, and 4.5 high, is adorru'd with
frescoes and .statues. The House of Commims, 70 feet long
by 4.5 feet broad, is much more simple in character than the
liouse of Lords. The public entrance to the central octa-
gon hall is through St. Stephen's hall, which is lined with
statues of distinguished parliamentary statesmen. Beneath
it is the restored crypt of St. Stephen's chapel, which dates
from the thirteenth century. The entrance to St. Stephen's
hall is through Westminstir hall, the old hall of the jmlace
of the Kings of England, built originallv in the reign of
William Kufus. This nol)le hall is 290 'feet long, t!8 feet
broad, and 92 feet high. With the exception of the Hall of
Justice at Padua and of some railway stations, it is the larg-
est covered space in the world not supported by pillars. Tlio
342
LONDON
chief Govemraont offices are in the thoroughfare, Whitoliiill.
continued as I'arliiinieiit Street, which leads from Charin;;
Cross to the ln'iisfs of Parliament. Anionj; them are the
Admiralty, the hoadqiiarlers of naval administration, the
Horse Uiiards, the headquarters of the coinmander-in-eliief,
the Treasury, with the education and nrivy council oflices.
Then intervenes Downinj; Street, in wliich are the olVicial
residences of the First Lord of the Treasury (who until later
days was jjeiierally Prime Minister) and the t'hancellor of
the Kxchequer. lieyond Downirii; Street is a vast (;roup of
niixU'rn building's, couiprisinj; the India, Korei;;n, Home,
t'olonial, and Local (iovernment oflices. The War Ollice,
the headquarters of the Secretary of Stale for War, is in Pall
Mall. At Somerset House, in the Strand, are the ollices of
the Inland Revenue and of the registrar-general of births,
deaths, and marriages, with the wills office, the general de-
pository of testamentary writings, where they may be in-
spected by the public. The Patent Ollice, with its fine library
of technical and scientific works, is in Southampton Huild-
ings, I'hancerv Ijane. Hi the city, besides the Mansion House
and the Guildhall, are the General Post-office at St. Marlin's-
le-Grand, the Bank of England, and the new St. Paul's Koyal
Exchange. The Bank of England is an isolated building,
with only one story above ground, covering an area of nearly
4 acres. The Koyal Exchange is a (piadrangular covered
court surrounded by colonnades, .lust above London Bridge,
on the left bank of the Thames, is the custom-house, front-
ing the river, with a facade 4i)0 feet in length. The Koyal
Slint, where the coinage of the United Kingdom is pro-
duced, is on Tower Hill.
yalional and I'uhlic Institutions. — The- Imperial Insti-
tute, at South Kensington, projected as a memorial of the
(Jnecn"s Jubilee ami opened iiy the t^ueen in 181(3, is a vast
building, the prevailing style of which is a free rendering
of the Kenaissance. Its contents are mainly intended to
exhibit the natural and industrial proilucts of the British
colonies and foreign possessions and of the hulian em[)ire.
The Record Office, between Chancery and Fetter I^anes, is a
great fire-proof edifice containing the public records and
state papers of the kingdom. The British Museum, front-
ing on Great Russell Street, has been described under Brit-
ish MusEfM ((/. r.). Its great circular reading-room, with
accommodation for nearly 600 readers, is surmounted by
a dome 140 feet in diameter and lOti feet above the floor,
being slightly larger than the dome of St. Peter's at Rome.
The Natural History Museum, at South Kensington, is a
branch of the British Museuui, and contains the whole of
the collections illustrative of natural history and natural
science. The South Kensington Museum covers 12 acres,
and comprises costly collections of art and art manufacture,
with art and educational libraries. The Soane Museum, in
Lincoln's Inn Field-s, includes a collect ion of Egyptian an-
tiquities. The Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn
Street, Piccadilly, has large collections, with concrete il-
lustrations, of all the apparatus used in the working of
mines. The Guildhall Library, belonging to the corpora-
tion of London, contains 80,000 vohnnes, including a unique
collection of books on London, and in the (inildhall iMu-
scum are exhibited Roman, Saxon, and raedia'val remains
found in the city proper. The Bcthnal (ircen Museum was
instituted for the benefit of the toilers of the East End, and
from time to Vmw there are lent to it, by public bodies and
private individuals, collections of various kinds. Of public
art collections, the chief is the National Gallery, in '1 rafal-
gar Square, a magnificent collection of paintings ananged
according to schools in twenty-one rooms, five of which are
devoted to iirilish art. For the contents of the National
Portrait Gallery, a collection of portraits of royal personages
and distinguished nativesof the united Kingdom, a suitable
edifice has been built by the side of the Xatioual Gallery.
The Royal Academy is domiciled in Burlington House, Pic-
cadilly, in salons wiiere are held animal exhibitions of the
works of contemporary |)ainlers and sculptors. In Bur-
lington House are also located several societies of high repu-
tuition, among them the Royal Society, the most important
and one of the oldest scientific .societies of the kingdom,
with the still older Society of Antiqinirics. The Royal In-
stitution, in Albenmrle Street, combines the encouragement
of scientific nvseareh with tin' popularization of .science.
The Society of Arl-s, in the Ailelplii, established in \~~yA,
holds meetings at which leclures arc given ami papers read
and discussed on subjects relating to arts, manufactures,
and commerce. At the meetings of the Lnitcd Service In-
stitute, the members of which are naval and military men,
papers arc read on subjects of interest to both services. Its
museum contains memorials of British military achicve-
nu'uts on .sea and land, and interesting relics.
Churches. — There are .some 850 places of worship belong-
ing to the Church of England in the London districts, and
more than 000 Nonconformist, of which 240 are Congrega-
tional (or IndepemlenI), I.'iO Baptist, l.W Wesleyan, and
50 Ronum Catholic. Wkstminstkr Ahbev (7. v.), the archi-
tectural glory of ecclesiastical Loiulon, has been called
"English history in stone " from its numerous monumenta
to and memorials of distinguished personages. It stands
probably on the site of a church built by Edsvard the Con-
fessor. The oldest portions of the present aljbey church,
the choir and transepts, were built by Henry VII. and are
Early Pointed in style, while the aihlitions by Edward I.
are Early Di'coruted. Henry VII. 's chapel is Late I'eriien-
dicular, ami the ill-conceived western towers designed by
Wren are in a debased style of Grecian and Gothic. The
abbey is in the form of a Latin cross, the length 416 feet,
of transepts 203 feet, of choir 155 feet, height of roof from
pavement 101 feet, height of towers 225. A few yards N.
of Westminster Abbey is St. Margaret's church, flie church
of the House of Connnons, in which were interred Caxton
and Sir Walter Raleigh. The beautiful west window was
subscribed for by citizens of the l'. ."s. as a memorial of
Kaleigh, the founder, among other achievements, of the
State of Virginia. St. .lames's. Piccadilly, the fine interior
of which contrasts agreeal)ly with its uiuittractive exterior,
is the only West End church designed by Wren. The
Chapel Koyal, Whitehall, built by Inigo .lones, formerly the
bani|ueting-hall of the royal palace of Whitehall, is now
the museum of the United Service Institution. St. Paul's,
Covent Garden, where Butler, the author of Iluilitiras, was
buried, is .said to have been designed by Inigo Jones. St.
Bartliolonu'w's. Smithfield, or a portion of it, dates fnmi
the twelfth century ; oppo.site was the stake at which many
Protestant martyrs suffered during Marian persecution, ana
near it are a church and tablet to their memory. St. Clement
Danes, in the Strand, Dr. Johnson's church, was designed by
Wren. The Chai>el of the Savoy, lietween the Strand and
the Thames, belongs to the crown, and its walls date from
the thirteenth century. The Temple church, very much
altered since it was built for the Knights Templars, contains
fine specimens of Early English arcliitecture ; in its burial-
ground Oliver Goldsmith was interred. St. Bride's, Fleet
Street, is one of Wren's architectural triumphs. Further
eastward his colossal masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral,
towers over the city. It is in the form of a Latin cross, 500
feel in length, 118 feet broad, and the transept is 250 feet
long. The upper |)art of the exterior is of the Composite,
the lower of the Corinthian order. The vast interior is sur-
mounted by a double dome ; the inner dome is 225 feet, the
outer one from the pavement to the to]) of the cross 364 feet
in height. Nelson, the Duke of Wellington, and Sir Joshua
Reynolds, with Wren himself, were buried in St. I'aul'.s, and
a large number of the statues and monuments which it con-
tains are nu'morials of distinguished men. Among Wren's
city churches are such nuisterpieces as St. Mary-le-Church,
commonly called Bow church, in the belfry of which are the
proverbial "Bow Bells"; St. Michael's, Cornhill ; St. Ste-
phen's, Wallbrook ; St. Swithin's, Cannon Street, in which
Drydcn was married, and into the street walls of which the
fanuuis London stone is built. In St. Giles's, Cripplegate,
one of tlie oldest London churches, Milton was buried and
Oliver Cromwell married. On the southwest side of London
Bridge is St. Saviour's, Southwavk, which next to West-
minster contains the finest specimens of Early English
architecture to be fouiul in London. In it were buried Ed-
mund Shakspearo, the dramatist's younger brother, John
Fleti'her. the dramatist, and Philip ^lassinger. St. George's
(Roman Catholic) Cathedral is in Southwark, opposite Beth-
lehem Ilos|iital.
Cdurts of Justice, Inns of Cnurfs, etc. — For a period of
about 800 years the higher ailniinislration of civil justice
was centered at Westminster Hall ; in 1882 new law ouirts
in the Strand were opened. Their architecture is Gothic.
The building is a square of about 500 fci't each way. The
great central hall is 230 feet long, 47 feet wiih', and 80
fi^et high. On three siiles of it are grouped the eighteen law
courts. The Strand front has a nnussive clock-tower with a
projecting clock an<l gable summit, and at the west side
another tower of different design 160 feet high. There are
four Inns of Court, Inner Temple, Middle Temple, Lin-
coln's Inn, and Gray's Inn. To have been entered as a stu-
LONDON
343
dent at one of the Tniis anil to have dined a certain number
of times ■' in hall " are conditions that must be nerformed
before a student of law can be called to the bar. I'liey con-
tain numerous "chambers," chiefly tenanted by barristers,
some of whom reside in them. They are fjoverned by
benchers, who are chosen from the most distinguished mem-
bers of the bar. The Temple lies <>n the south side of Fleet
Street. The Temple church, the Temple library, and the
Temple gardens, which look on the Thames embankment,
belong to the Middle and Inner Temple alike. Both have
fine halls, used as dining-rooms. Lincoln's Inn has a very
old gate-house, giving entrance to and from Chancery Lane,
in which there are many firms of solicitors. The hall and
library of Lincoln's Iim form a noble structure in the
(lothic style. The chapel was built by Inigo Jones. Lin-
coln's Inn Fields is a long garden surrounded by houses.
Gray's Inn was Lord Bacon's inn. Its Elizabethan hall
was built in 1560. (See Inns of Court.) The central crim-
inal court, in the Old Bailey adjoining Newgate, is the chief
court for trial by Jury of offenses commited within 10 miles
of St. Paul's. For summary treatment of accused per-
sons there are twenty-two police courts in London prop-
er. The City has police courts at the Mansion House and
at the Guildhall, the lord mayor generally presiding at the
former and one of the aldermen at the latter.
Educational Institutions. — The L'niversity of London,
which has its headquarters in Burlington House, is not a
teaching body, but grants degrees to all who pass its rigor-
ous examinations. The universities of London which teach
while not empowered to grant degrees are King's College,
Somerset House, affiliated to the Church of Kngland, and
University College, Gower Street, a purely secular insti-
tution. To both of these day-schools are attached. The
chief public schools are Westminster, founded by Queen
Elizabeth ; Christ's Hospital, Newgate Street, commonly
called the Bluecoat School, founded by Edward VI. ; St.
Paul's, now at West Kensington, founded in 151'2 by Dean
Colet ; Jlerchant Tayhu-s' School, founded in 1.561 by the
Merchant Taylors' Company, and now at the Charterhouse
<the school at which, founded in 161'3 by Thomas Sutton, has
been removed to Uodalming, Surrey) ; and the City of Lon-
don School on the Thames embankment, founded in 1835
by the City corporation. To most of these schools exhi-
bitions to the universities are attached. Various technical
schools are affiliated to the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute at South Kensington. Of educational institutions
for the working classes the chief are the London Working-
men's College in Great Orinond Street, and the People's
Palace in the Mile End Road, opened in 1887. The latter,
besides furnishing rational recreation to the artisan class at
the East End, has classes for technical, scientific, and other
education, attended by some 3,000 scholars. There are some
twenty free public libraries, all having reading-rooms.
The London School Board. — Up to 18T0 primary educa-
tion in London, as elsewhere, was left to voluntary effort,
chiefly that of the Church of England and other religious de-
nominations, assisted by parliamentary grants. The conse-
quence was that in London and everywhere there was an
enormous deficiency of school accommodation. The Ele-
mentary Education Act of 1870 created school boards
throughout the country to provide elementary schools,
which were to be estalilished and supported maiidy by local
rates, and from which dcigmatic religious instruction was
to be excluded. The school boards are chosen by the rate-
payers, women being allowed both to vote and to become
members of boards, in the election of which cumulative
voting was sanctioned. The only difference between the
election of the London school board and of other boards
is that in the City proper the electors are those who elect
the common council. School fees have been abolished, and
the education given in board schools has by legislative en-
actment become gratuitous. Since the passing of the act in
1870, accommodation in permanent schools has been pro-
vided by the school board for 448,749 children. In 1892-93
the income of the school board was £2,718,789.
Hospitals and Charitable In.'ttitulions. — The nundier of
charities of all kinds is not less than 2,000. and Ihi'ir total
annual revenue from subscriptions, donations, and bequests
is estimated at five millions sterling. Of non-medical hos-
pitals, two are national : (1) Chelsea Ho.spital, nominally
founded by Charles II., and built by Wren, for olil and dis-
abled soldiers. It has 540 indoor and nearly 70.000 outdoor
pensioners. (2) Greenwich Hospital (on the site of an old
royal palace) was from 16U4 until comparatively recent years
a home for aged and disabled seamen, who had served in
the navy. They now receive outdoor pensions, and the hos-
pital has been converted into the Royal Naval College for
the instruction of naval oflicers. In and about London there
are a number of asylums for the aged, in connection with
the City companies and other bodies, such as the Licensed
Victualers and the Freemasons. In the Charterhou.se, at
the upper end of Alder.sgate Street, there are dondciled
eighty " poor brethren." The Foundling Hospital, in (juilil-
ford Street, founded by Cajitain Coram in 1769, maintains
and edncales about 500 children. The chief general medi-
cal hospitals are St. Thomas's, founded by Edward VI. and
now on the south bank of the Thames, opposite the houses of
Parliament : St. George's, Ilyde Park Corner, which <lates
from 17'23: St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield, founded bv Prior
Rahere in 1102 ; Guy's Hosi)ital, in Southwark. founded in
1721 by Thomas Guy, a wealthy London bookseller; and the
London Hospital, in Whitechiipel, which dates from 1746,
and ministers to the medical and surgical wants of the East
End. Bethlehem Hospital, in Lambeth, so well known as
Bedlam, has been a hosjjital for the insane since 1.547.
Places of Amusement and Recreation. — There are some
forty theaters, and perhaps four hundred music halls. It is
symptomatic of great changes of taste that, of two of the
largest and oldest of these theaters with a traditional repu-
tation as the homes of the legitimate drama,- Drury Lane
is now devoted to pantoiidme and sensational melodrama,
while Covent Garden, which when rebuilt in 1858 was de-
signed for Italian opera, has become an arena for variety
entertainments and promenade concerts. Italian opera,
once so fashionable, is without a domicile in London. I^x-
cept when Shakspeare is revived at the Lyceum, with a cer-
tain success greatly due to the 7nise-en-schie and spectacu-
lar effects, the legitimate drama has almost vanished from
the London stage. Not otdy has London become unable to
support a single Italian opera-house, but a very handsome
and well-appointed theater, built for the performance of
English o|iera. has from want of support, been transformed
into a music hall. Though of quite modern growth the
music hall is the most strictly popidar of all places of amuse-
ment. The so-called pojiular concerts at St. James's Hall,
Piccadilly, are very well att<;nded, though the music heard
at them is of a much higher class than their title would in-
dicate. Oratorios never fail to attract, whether given at St.
James's Hall or at the magnificent Albert Hall, South Ken-
sington, which easily holds 8,000 peopde, or at the Crystal
Palace, Sydeidiam. The grounds of this last, which with
the |ialace cover 200 acres, are a famous resort, and indoors
it offers besides permanent attractions, concerts, dramatic
entertainments, with flower shows and shows of live stock.
The Zoological Gardens, in Regent's Park, contain the larg-
est and most complete collection of living ainuuds in the
world. During the Londop season Lord's cricket-ground,
W. of Regent's Park, draws crowds on the occasion of such
stirring matches as those between Oxford and Cambridge
Universities and Eton and Harrow Schools. Kemnngton
Oval, in the South of London, is another important cricket-
ground.
Markets. — The Metropolitan Cattle Market, Copenhagen
Fields, from which is obtained most of the live stock re-
quired for the consumption of London, is the largest of the
kind in the world. More than 4.000.000 cattle, sheep, and
pigs are sold in it yearly. From the London Central Meat
Slarket, N. of Smithfield, 250.000 tons of meat are delivered
yearly. By its side are the Central Markets for poultry,
vegetables, and fruit. Leadenhall Market. Loadenhall Street,
is one of the chief marts for imultry, game, and hides. Bill-
ingsgate, a little E. of London Bridge, is the great fish-mar-
ket, as Covent Garden Market is for fruit, vegetables, flowers,
and herbs. The largest horse-market isTattersall's, Knights-
bridge Green, the headquarters of the racing and betting
world.
Cemeteries. — For the great majority of the 90,000 or so
persons who die yearly in London numerous cemeteries are
provided. The principal are Highgate Cemetery, where
Coleridge and tJeorge Eliot are buried, from which there is
a fine view of London: Kensal Green Cemetery. Harrow
Roa<l ; Brompton Cemetery; and S. of the Thames, Nor-
wood and Nuidiead Cemeteries. There is a crematorium'
at Woking, in Surrey.
Communications by Road and Rail. — In 1893 there were
upward of 11,000 cabs. The hansoms (two-wheeled vehi-
cles) were to the four-wheeled vehicles in the proportion of
about 7 to 4. There were about 200 omnibus lines in all
344
LONDON
directions, traversed by 1,100 fimnilmses, of which 1.000 were
owikhI by two i-oiiipanief. and carried more tliuii 150.00t).000
piissoiigers during the year. Souie 80 miles of tramway.-;
were traversed l)y .^uiieToO ears, carrying during the year
more tliaii 70.00tJ.000 passiMijcers. The'pressiire in accommo-
dation is lightened l>y railways, chief among them the
Metropolitan and Meiropoliiuii District Railways, which
mainly run in tunnels under the street or througli cut-
tings behind stone walls. Thus a complete belt of railway
is formed rouml the inner part of London, while various
branch lines from them ran to the suburbs. Some of the
great railwav companies with termini in London also run
suburban trains in connection with the metropolitan lines.
The whole number of passengei-s by railway in and about
London annually may be computed at 520,000.000.
Pulice. — The inelropolitan police district extends within
l."> miles of Charing t'ross. Exclusive of the City, its area,
442,(50 acres, and its population, 5.506.101, are larger than
those of the county of London. The metropolitan police,
alone in the kingdom, is controlled by the Home Secretary,
who appoints for its government a chief commissioner re-
sponsible to him solely. In 18!)3 the total force of all grades
numbered 15.044. whose pay ab.sorbed ,£l,280.i;{0. The num-
ber of the Cilv police, wliich is un<ler the control of the I'or-
poration of London, is IKJii, and its total annual cost is about
£320.000.
Banks and Banking.— The Bank of England is a pro-
prietary institution, but some of the functions which it dis-
charges are of a national kind. It is divided into an issue
department and a banking department. It is the only bank
of issue in London, and the only bank of issue in the king-
dom the notes of which are a legal tender. As a bank
S roper it receives the Government balances, pays the divi-
ends on the Government stocks, and makes advances to
the Government when needed. The issue of notes which
are payable in gold on demand, and none of which are of
less value than £5, is strictly regulated by the Bank Charter
Act of 1844. Against securities held by the bank nearly to
the amount of £16.450.000, of which the larger part is a
debt due to it tjy the (iovernment, it may issue notes with-
out a metallic b.-isis. but for every note issued above that
sum it must have in its coffers an exact equivalent in gold
coin or bullion. Kor its management of the public debt it
receives from the Government an allowance proportion-
ate to the amount of the national debt on which it has to
pay the dividends. It is administered by a governor, a
deputy-governor, and twenty-four directors, who are chosen
from commercial men of high stamling in the city, without
any ailmixture of professional bankers. Apart from its
issue departments, it performs all the functions of an or-
dinary baidi, receives deposits and discounts bills. Its prac-
tice differs, however, from that of most other Ijanks, inas-
much as it discounts only short-dated bills and allows no
interest on deposits of any kind. The majority of the Lon-
don joint-slock l)anks allow interest on deposits at short
notice, and therefore the amount of deposits of all kinds
held by each of several of the greater London joint-stock
banks is larger than the private as distinguished from the
public deposits of the Bank of England. In Oct., 1893, the
private deposits of that bank were £32,092.000, while those
of one London joint-stock bank were £34,405,116, and of
another £41,838,276. The Bank of England rate of dis-
count varies from time to time according to circumstances,
and changes are announced piil)licly. These changes are
much inlUienccd by the amount of the reserves in its bank-
ing department. When bullion is flowing out of the coun-
try, a rise in the Bank rate checks the flow. The London
joint-stock banks, having to pay interest on large deposits,
while the Bank of England pays none, are forced, as it
were, to discount more freely than the Bank of England,
anil this, with the keen competition among themselves,
makes the rate of discount in the London market generally
lower than the Bank rate. Therefore the greatest among
them do a larger discount business than the Bank of Eng-
laml. and their profits are in nome cases larger. In 1893 the
dividend of the Baiik of England was 10 per cent., while
one of the two Ijondon joint-stock banks already referred to
paid a dividend of 18 per cent., aiul the other 20 percent.
The Bank of England remains at the head of the banking
establishments of the nation, iiartly because the reserves of
the other London banks are directly, and through them the
reserves of the provincial banks are indirectly, deposited
with it. It hiusthus become the one holder of the banking
reserves of the kingdom. The importance of this position is
enhanced by the statutory obligaticm inclosed on it to issue
weekly an account of its a.s.sels and liabilities. The amount
and character of its as,sets are keenly scrutinized as the ba-
rometer of the money market, and tlie siiuillness, even at the
best of times, of its reserves is a suliject which has led to a
great deal of discussion. Thus on .Ian. 3. 1S!M, while its
private deposits were £34.152.5.50. it had in haml a cash re-
serve of £1.5.351.479. of which only £1.966.M69 was in gold
and silver coin, the rest being its own notes. It has hap-
pened on several occasions that during a iiioTielary crisis
Its rescTve has been so depleted that the Bank of England
has had to appeal to the Government, which has restored
confidence by sanctioning an infraction of the Bank Char-
ter Act, and allowing the Bank of England to issue an ade-
quate numlier of notes without a metallic basis. The mere
permission, whether acted on or not, has always had the
effect of putting an end to panic.
Of the London joint-stock lianks there arc nine which are
purely inetropolitan and nine others which, while also met-
ropolitan, have country branches. All of them have adopt-
ed the system of limited liability. These eighteen prin-
cipal banks, with five or six others, which from being
private banks have also adopted limited liability, constitute
the body of clearing biinks, that is. those which are admitted
to the clearing-house, a modern and most useful institution.
Formerly a bank hohiing checks and bills payable by an-
other bank ]ireseiited them for pa_\ment to that l)an]<, an
operation which caused a vast multiplicity of transactions.
Now all such checks and bills are daily settled at the clear-
ing-house, where the difference between each bank is re-
oeiveil or jiaid by a single check on the Bank of England.
The total amount thus settled in 1893 was £6,478.013,000.
I'lie Stack Exchani/e. — This " ready-money market of the
world " is hi'ld in a building in Capel Court, close to the
Bank of England. Its members buy and sell all stocks and
shares, dealings in which arc sanctioned by the committee
of management, elected by the members annually. The
number of members is nearly 3.0(10. Each pays an entrance-
fee of 300 guineas (reduced to 150 guineas in the case of
those wlio have for four years been clerks to members, and
such clerks need to be recommended l)y only two members
guaranteeing £300 each), with an annual subscn]ition rang-
ing from 20 to 30 guineas, according to the date of admis-
sion. No .stranger enters except at his personal peril the
room in which the members transact their business, but the
clerks of members are admitted.
Commfrre mid Slii/ipiny. — The commerce of London is
the largest of any city or port of the I'nited Kingdom.
Iion<lon lias the lion's share of the trade with France,
British India, Australasia, China, .lajian, and the West
Indies. The total value in 1892 of both the exports from
and imports into Liverpool, the commerce of winch ranks
next after that of Lonilon. was £212.(i62.149. and of Lon-
don £226.749,916. In the same year the amount of customs
duties levied on imports into tiondon was £9,138,767, on
imports into Liverpool .£2,958,408. The figures would tell
still more in favor of London if there were taken intoac-
count the value of the imports into Southampton, New
Ilaven, Folkestone, and Dover, as most of the foreign and
colonial produce received at these ports is consigned to Lon-
don. In 1H92 the im|iorls at thi'se four ports were valued at
£35.441,813. As Loiulon. besides supplying the demands of
its own consumiitioii, is a great emporium for distrilnilion,
il receives and ships the products id' vast
manufacturing and otherwise industrial districts, the iin-
while Liveriiool
ports of London are larger and her exports smaller. In
1892 the direct imjiorts of London were valued at £144,-
273,415, those of Liverpool at~£ 109.347,3.54. On the other
hand, in 1K92 London's exports were valued at £S2,476,.501,
those of Liverpool at £103.314..H45. Some of these exports
from London in<licate the use made of her as an emporium.
Nearly all the tea and cocoa exported from the United King-
dom in 1S92 was shipped from London. Of cotton-manu-
factures London exported to the value of £5.40I.S70; of
woolen-manufactures. £3,-532.756 ; of machinery, mill-work,
steel rails, etc.. £4.598,074.
The commerce of London employs great fleets of mer-
chantmen, anil the figures are largely in favor of the capi-
tal. The coasting trade, in which naturallv London far
exceeds Liver|iool, being excepted, in 1H92 tlie number of
British and foreign vessels which entered the port of Lon-
don with cargoes and in l)allast from foreign countries and
British possessions was 10.3.50. with a tonmige of 7.H66,946;
there cleared from it for foreign countries and British pes-
LONDON
345
sessions 7,850 vessels, with a tonnage of 6,040,,'in;i The fig-
ures for Liverpool were : Kntcred, 4,27^ vessels, with a ton-
nage of 5,9l:iH(i(), and cleared, 3,70(1, with a tonnage of
5,206,116. Liverpool employs more vessels than London in
the British eoninieree with the U. S. ; in lSi)2, however,
there entered tlie port of London from tlie LT. S. 609 vessels,
tonnage l,13o,4:!8, and there cleared to the U. S. from Lon-
don 463 vessels, tonnage !I4.S,44!1. For shi])iiing in the
Thames there is provided, eliiefly on the north side, a mag-
nificent series of docks, mostly with extensive bonded ware-
houses attached, where goods can be stored free of customs
duties until removed. Tliese docks stretch eastward from
the Tower, begiiming with St. Katharine's Docks (24 acres) ;
then come London Docks (120 acres), the West India Docks
(300 acres), the Jlillwall Docks (100 acres), the smaller East
India Docks (27 acres), and at Blackwall the noble Albert
and Victoria Docks, 2| miles in length, receiving vessels of
the largest size. To save miles of navigation on the Thames
large docks, chiefly for ocean steamers, have been con-
structed at Tilbury, nearly opposite Gravesend. On the
south side of the Thames, E. of the Thames Tunnel, are the
large basins of the Surrey and Commercial docks (3.50 acres),
chiefly used for timber and corn. Lloyd's subscription-
rooms (generally known as Lloyd's) occupy a first floor at
the east end of the Royal Exchange, and are the great cen-
ter for all interested in shipping, especially for the under-
writers who insure vessels against casualties. The members
form a corporation, in which some 460 are underwriters
and about 160 non-underwriters, besides annual subscribers.
(See Lloyd's.). A separate society domiciled in a court off
Cornhill is known as Lloyd's Register. It employs more
than 100 surveyors at home and abroad, among whose duties
it is to classify ships in course of building or when leaving
the yards.
Trade a)id Industry. — Publishing and bookselling are
very important factors in London's industry. According
to the census of 1891 there were in London 4.682 publishers,
booksellers, and librarians, 2,147 authors, editors, and jour-
nalists, and 35,009 persons engaged in the printing-trade.
In the same year there were published 5.706 separate works,
of which 1,271 were new editions, and 1,216 were novels. The
publishers are located chiefly in Paternoster Row and its im-
mediate neighborhood, but several of the most important
firms belong to the West End. The number of newspapers
published in London can not be much less than 700, upward
of thirty of which are issued daily. Of other periodicals of
all classes the name is legion. A very great industry is that
of the brewers, of whom there are about 170 scattere<i through-
out London. Of the beer and ale, valued at £1,651,486, ex-
ported from the LTnited Kingdom in 1892, quantities valued
at £730,460 were shipped from London. The necessaries of
life are dispensed by 14,365 butchers and 15,613 bakers.
The innkeepers, hotel-keepers, and publicans numlier 6,688,
and the coffee-house and eating-house keepers 4.60.5. The
building, fitting, and furnishing of houses occupy 600,000 of
the population, coach and carriage 9,001), watch-making and
philosophical-instrument making upward of 12,000, gold-
smith work and jewelry more than 7.000. An enormous in-
dustry is the cheap and second-hand clothing, the trade of
which is mainly in the hands of the Jews in Whitechapel.
Of the "apparel" exported from the United Kingdom to
the value of £4.874,091 in 1891, £3,096.152 was derived from
London. Whitechapel, too, is one of the principal seats of
the cigar-making industry. At Bermondsey, on the south
bank of the Thames, are tanneries and what are said to be
the largest leather-factory and the largest hat-manufactory
in the world. At Battersea are candle and chemical works,
while Lambeth is famous chiefly for its potteries. In ma-
chinery, engine, and boiler making, mainly by the river-side
on both banks of the Thames, 20.665 persons are engaged.
How vast is the demand for female labor in London is indi-
cated by tlie fact that, besides some 250,000 women servants,
there are upward of 120,000 women employed in millinery,
shirt-making, and tailoring.
History. — The name Loniion was derived, it is supposed,
from the Celtic Llyn-din, the Lake-fort, erected by the
Britons when the Thames at London was a great lagoon.
The Latinized form, Londinium. the name given it by the
Romans, is first distinctly mentioned by Tacitus, who says
that in a. d. 61 traders and their merchandise abounded in
it. During a brief period of the Roman occupation it was
called Augusta. In 809 it was in the possession of the Esist
Saxons, who had made it their capital. At the Conquest
(1066) London was the capital of England. William the
Conqueror gave London a special charter, and another, giv-
ing the citizens the right to elect their principal oflieials,
was granted by Henry 1. in 1101, and the first mayor was
chosen in 1189; but for centuries there was a struggle be-
tween London and the sovereigns of England for the free
exercise of rights nominally conceded to the citizens. AH
along the citizi'tis of London have proved themselves cham-
pions of ])ublic lilierty as well as of their own privileges.
I'hey adhered to the Reformation when yueeri Jiary was
persecuting the Protestants. They sided witli the Parlia-
ment against Charles I., and they powerfully aided William
III.'s accession to the throne. Though in the reign of Eliza-
beth the po])ulation of London did not, it is probable, exceed
150,000, she and afterward Charles I. endeavored but fruit-
lessly to arrest its growth. Thc^ migration of great noble-
men as far W. as Piccadilly had begun before the great fire
of London in 1666 led to the substitution of brick for wood
in the general rebuilding of the city. During the eighteenth
century London was greatly extended, but it was reserved
for the nineteenth century to sec it absorbing distant subur-
ban hamlets and open spaces, covering with houses what
were fields from Bloomsbury to Hampstead and Highgate,
and making integral parts of itself — Sydenham and Dul-
wich on tlie south side of the Thames, and on the north side
Chelsea, Kensington, Hammersmith, and Fulhara. So great
an extension of Londim has l)een partly caused by the mi-
gration of large numbers of the upper middle class to domi-
ciles in the suburbs. This migration is strikingly exhibited
in the statistics of the inhabitants of the city which swarms
by day with a busy ])opulation of l.OOO.OOl). while its resi-
dents, who even as late as 1861 were 112,069, had sunk in
1891 to 37,705.
Bibliography. — Books about London form a library in
themselves. Of those published up to 1881 a list is given
in the Book of Britisli Tupoyrnplnj, by J. P. Anderson,
which was issued in that year. The best modern account
of London and its growth from the earliest to recent times
is W. J. Loftie's History of London (1883), the historical
jiart of which is abridged in his London Citi/, its History,
Streets. 7'rfiffic, Buildinys. and People' (18QI). Walter Be-
sant's London (1892) and smaller History of Ijondon (1893)
are full of picturesque writing about the past of the great
city. Extremely copious and in popular style is Thornbury
and Watford's Old and Xew London, with maps (6 vols., il-
lustrated, 1879-85). Timbs's Curiosities of London is inter-
esting and instructive. Peter Cunningham's invaluable
Handbook of London, alphabetically arranged and there-
fore very convenient for consultation, has been excellently
edited and brought up to date of issue in JI. H. B. Wheat-
ley's London. Past and Present (3 vols., 1891). Augustus
C. Hare's Walks in London (2 vols., 1878) is very pleasing
and trustworthy. Since 1879 there has unfortunately been
no edition of P. Cunningham's useful Hatidbook of Jyondon
as it Is (one of the John Murray series), so that for contem-
porary London the recent issue of Baedeker is to be recom-
mended, with Herbert Fry's London in 1893. The Diction-
ary of London, by Charles Dickens, a son of the novelist,
issued annually, is less satisfactory than its title would indi-
cate, but has some good points. The article London in the
ninth edition of the Encyclopcedia Britannira contains an
immense mass of facts and figures. Great light is thrown
on the economic condition of the industrial clas.ses of Lon-
don in Charles Booth's various works on the subject, espe-
ciallv his Life and Labor of tlie I'lople in London (4 vols.,
1892). F. EspiNASSE.
London: city, port of entry, and capital of Jliddle.sex
CO., Ont., Canada: at the junction of the north and south
branches of the Thames river; on the Canadian I'ae.. the
Grand Trunk, and the Jlich. Cent, railways: 61 miles E. of
Sarnia (see map of Ontario, ref. .5-C). The site was selected
in 1793 by Gov. Simcoe for a city to become the capital of
Canada, but the home tiovernnicnt never recognized the
choice, and no attempt was made to improve it till 1826,
when the first building was erecte<l. The city is in a fertile,
cultivated region, is laid out with wide intersecting streets,
and many of its pulilic buildings, bridges, streets, squares,
an(l markets, an<i its inil)lic park (Hyde Park) arc named
after those in London. Englaiul. It is the seat of the An-
glican Bishopric of Huron and of a Roman Catholic bishop-
ric, and contains two cathedrals, Ilellniuth College, Hellniuth
Ladies' College, Huron College, a mercantile college, orphan
a.syhim, hospital, insane asylum, 6 banks, 3 libraries^ (Mid-
dlesex Law Association, Mechanics' Institute, and Western
346
LONDON
LONG
University) coiiUiniiij; over 10,000 volumes, anj 3 daily. 6
weoklv, 4 monthly, and 2 other periodicals. The industries
include the mauufiK-ture of furniture, aj;ricultural implc-
ments. engines, machinery, railway cars, oil, chemicals, hoots
and slnK's. cipirs, tolwco. stoves, and pottery. The city elects
one member of the Domiuiou Parliament. Pop. (1881) 19,-
763; (1891) J1,U77. Neil Macuo.nald.
London : city ; capital of Madison co., O. (for location of
countv. see map of Ohio, ref. o-E) ; on the Cleve.. t'in.. Chi.
and St. L.. and the I'itts., t'in., t'hi. and St. L. railways ; 20
miles K. of .Springrfield. 25 miles W. S. \V. of Columbus. It
is in an agricultural ref;ion, has been an important live-
stock market for years, and has a daily, a .semi-wceklv, and
three weekly newsjiapers. Pop. (1880) 3,007; (1890) 3,313.
Londonderry : county of Ireland, in the province of
Ulster, bordering on the Atlantic. Area, 816 sq. miles. The
surface is mostly hilly and rugged, with fertile tracts along
the rivers Bann, Foyle, Faughan, Roe, and Mayola, with
their numerous affluents. Oats, barley, jiotatoes, and flax
are the common crops; linen is the jirincipal manufacture.
A great part of the ground is held by the inhabitants by
lease under the Irish Society and the twelve London com-
panies. Pop. (1891) 151,666.'
Londonderry: city; capital of the county of London-
derry, Ireland; on the Foyle, which is crossed by an iron
bridge 1,200 feet long (see map of Ireland, ref. 3-0). The
city is built on a hill, on whose top stands the cathedral of
Derry, and was formerly fortified, has many breweries and
distilleries, and consideral)le manufactures of linen and ropes.
The salmon-fisheries of Lough Foyle are very productive.
Derry was the old name of the city, but in the reign of
James I. the resistance of its inhabitants to the royal author-
ity caused the forfeiture of the land on which it stood to
the crown, and its government was then administered by the
Irish Society in London, which rebuilt the city and gave it
its present name. In the revolution of 1688 it sided with
William of Orange, and sustained a memoral)le defense
against the forces of .lames 11. Under its governor. George
Walker, it held out against the besiegers for 105 days, en-
during the extremes of privation until a man-of-war brought
relief and the siege was raised. Pop. (1891) 32.893.
Londonderry, Second Marquis of: See Castlereagh,
RoHERT Stewart.
Londonderry, Charles William Stewart Vame, Third
Marquis of: soldier and statesman; b. in Dublin, Ireland,
May 18, 1778; served on the Continent both as a soldier and
a diplomatist during the wars of the French Revolution;
aided in suppressing the Irish rebellion of 1798; accom-
panitvl Abercrombie to Egypt in 1801. in which year he en-
tered Parliament ; became colonel, aide-de-camp to the king,
and under secretary for the war department in 1803 ; distin-
guished himself at the head of a brigade of hussars under
.Sir John .Moore in Spain (1808-09): was adjutant-general to
Sir Arthur Wellesley (1809-13). distinguishing himself at
Talavera and other battles, for which he received the thanks
of Parliament and the order of the Bath; went as amlmssa-
dor to Berlin in 1813, to Austria in 1814. and was a member
of the Congress of Vienna in 1815 ; was made privy council-
or, lieutenant-general, and Baron Stewart in 1814; assumed
the surname of Vane in 1819 on his marriage with the heiress
of that title ; succeeded his half-brother Robert as Marquis
of Londonderry in 1822 ; was made Earl Vaiie and Viscount
Scaham in 1823, general in 1837, colonel of Life Guards in
1843, Knight of the Garter in 18.52. I), in London, Mar. 6,
1854. Under his original name of Stewart he was author of
a niatory of the Pminmlar War (1808-13), and as Marquis
of Londonderry he edited the Correspondence of his brother.
Lord Castlereagh (1850). In develo|)ing the vast estates of
his wife in Durham he constructed at his own expense the
harbor of Seaham.
London. University of: an institution which owes its
origin to an agitation started in 1825 by the poet Thomas
Campbell for a university of e(iual rank with Oxford and
Cambridge, which should be free from (Uiiomiiiational con-
trol. The university wa-s incorporated in 1826. and the
corner-stone of University College was laid in 1827, but the
fact that the new institution made no provision for instruc-
tion in religion caused serious thought, which resulted in
King's College, foumleil 1829, opened 1831, in which provi-
sion was made for teaching religion according to the forms
of the Church of Englaml. The agitation continueil ; finally
in 1837 the University of London was incorporated by royal
letters patent as an examining body pure and simple, with
which King's ami University Colleges were atliliated. The
corporate body of the university includes the chancellor,
vice-chancellor, fellows, and graduates. The university
proper consists of a senate and a board of examiners. It
does not instruct, but examines, confers degrees, certiticates,
and i)rizes, and sends one member to Parliament. There
are now several colleges and schools in various parts of the
kingdom affiliated with the university. The chancellor is
(1894) Lord Ilerschell. ' C. H. Tiilrber.
Longr. Crawford \\'., M.D.: discoverer of ana\sthesia;
b. Nov. 1, 1815, in Danielsvillc, Madisim co.. Ga. ; educated
at the University of Georgia, graduating with honor in 1835;
graduat<'d at the medical department of the University of
Pennsylvania in 1839 ; soon after began to practice medicine
in JelTei'son, Ga. In 1842 he performed the first operation
on a jiatient fully etherized that the world has any account
of. Ills discovery of anaesthesia in surgery antedates the
claims of Horace Wells two years and eight months,
and those of Morton four years and six months. In
1790 Priestley discovered nitrous oxide gas. In 1799 Sir
Humiihry Davy experimented with it. and in 1800 he i)ub-
lished his Researches, Chemical and I'liilosophical. chiefly
concerning Xitrous Oxide Gas and its Respiration, in which
he distinctly announced his belief that it might be used as
an ana-sthetic in surgical operations. It is well known that
sulphuric ether was used sportively ever since the beginning
of the nineteenth century by the students in New England
colleges; and in certain sections of the South its use as an
excitant was at one time very common. In 1842 Dr. Craw-
ford W. Long had four students — viz., P. A. Wilhite, I). I.
Long. H. R. P. Long, and John S. Groves. They all occa-
sionally indulged in " ether frolics.'' On several occasions
Dr. Long became furiously excited under the influence of
ether, and coidd not be controlled. After recovering from
the intoxication he often noticed that his arms were badly
bruised, and he was not conscious of having felt any pain
at the time. From this fact he inferred that it might bo
used as an anaesthetic in surgery. Accordingly, for this
purpose he administered the ether to a young man named
Venable, putting him profoundly under its influence, and
then exsecled a tumor from his neck. The operation, en-
tirely jjainless, was witnessed liy the four medical students
above named and by others. His operations were known to
medical men in the neighborhood : but Dr. Long did not
communicate his discovery to any scientific body, nor did he
write it out for any medical journal till the year 1849, when
he .sent it to The Southern Medical and Surgical Journal,
which was long after the labors of Wells, Morton. Jackson,
and Simpson in this direction were fully recognized. In a
communication by Dr. Charles T. Jackson to The Boston
Medical Journal, .\pr. 11, 1861, he .sjiys: "From the docu-
ments shown me by Dr. Long it appears that he employed
sulphuric ether as an ana'sthetic agent — first, on Mar. 30,
1842, when he extirpated a small glandular tumor from the
neck of James W. Veiialile, a boy (.'Mr. Venable was just
twenty years old when the operation was performed], in
Jefferson, Ga.. now dead. .Second, on July 3. 1842. in the
amputation of the toe of a Negro boy belonging to Mrs.
Hemphill, of Jackson, Ga. Third, on Sejrf. 9, 1843, in the
cxtiriiation of a tumor from the head of Mary Vincent, of
Jackson, Ga. Fourth, on Jan. 8. 1845. in the amputation of
a finger of a Negro boy belonging to Ralph Bailey, of Jack-
son, Ga. Copies of the letters and depositions proving these -
operations with ether were all shown me by Dr. Long. He
also referred me to i)hysicians in Jefferson who knew of the
operations at the time." Revised by S. T. Armstrong.
Lon^, George: classical scholar; b. at Poulton. Lanca-
shire, England, in 1800; educated at Macclesfield .Seliool
and at Trinity College, Candiridge. In 1824 he was ap-
pointed Professor of Ancient Languages in the University
of Virginia, then being organized by the care of Thomas
Jeffer.scm. Returning to England in 1826, he wa.s Professor
of (ireek in Lonilon University until 1831, when he devoted
himself to the literary enterprises of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, editing for that association
The Penny Cyclopadia (183;!-46). the work by which he will
be best remembered. He was called to the bar at the Inner
Temple in 1837, became Professor of Latin at University
College, London (1K4"2^0), lecturer on Jurisprudence and
Civil Law at the Middle Temple (1846-40), anil Professor of
Cliussical Literature in the Proprietary College at Brighton
from 1849 to 1871. He was general editor of a liililiotheca
LONG
LONGEVITY
347
Classica. Among his publications are an edition of Caesar's
Gallic War, ot Sidl list, and some orations of Cicero; and
translations of Select Lives from Plutarch, The Thoughts
of the Einperur Marcus Aurelius, and Epictetus. D. Aug.
10, 187y. Revised by Alfred Gudeman.
Loii^, Stephen IIarriman : officer and engineer ; b. in
Ilopkinton, N. 11., Dec. :J0. 1784 ; graduated at Dartmouth
College 1809 : was appointed sei'ond lieutenant of engineers
Dec, 1814, and in the spring of 1815 was placed on duty at
the .Military Academy as A.ssistant Professor of Mathematics.
In the following year he was appointed topographical en-
gineer, and explored the Illinois and Arkansas rivers in a
flatboat or canoe. This led to his subsequent expedition to
the Rocky Mountains, which extended over a period of
nearly five years, and embraced the country between the
Mississippi river and the Kocky Mountains, oiie of the lofti-
est peaks of which great chain still bears his name. An
account of this expedition was published in 1823 by E.
James, and in 1834 W. II. Keating published in two vol-
umes the history of Long's exploration of the sources of the
Mississippi, both works being largely from notes of Col.
Long. lie had charge of the surveys and construction of
the Ualtimore and Ohio Railroad, and introduced great im-
provements in the construction of Hridoes (q. i\). In tlie
improvement of Western rivers and harbors he had a long
experience, and devised valuable plans for the removal of
obstructions. After serving on a board for the improve-
ment of the lower Jlississippi, he was in 1856 placed in
charge of that work, and unctcr his supervision the contracts
for deepening the mouths of this river were conducted prior
to the civil war. Col. Long was retired (.June, 1863) from
active service, but continued charged with important duties
until his death, Sept. 4, 1864.
Long Branch : town ; Monmouth co., X. J. (for location,
see map of New Jersey, ref. 4-E) ; on the Atlantic Ocean, a
branch of the .South Shrewsbury river, and the Cent, of N. J.,
the N. J. South., and the Pe'nn. railways; 11 miles S. of
Sandy Hook, 30 miles S. of New York. It was formerly a
fishery for the Indians and a resort for wreckers, but has
become one of the most noted summering-places in the U. S.
It is easy of access from New York and Philadelphia, and
during the summer has almost hourly communication with
the former by rail and water and with the latter by rail.
The town is famous for its magnificent beach, which extends
nearly 5 miles within corporate limits, and is overlooked by
a bluff averaging 20 feet in height. The main thoroughfare
is Ocean Avenue, which skirts the bluff for about 4'miles,
and is kept in excellent condition. Some distance back
from the ocean is the great Hollywood estate, laid out by
John Iloey, and kept open to the public. The town is
divided into several small places, such as North Long
Branch, West Long Branch, West End, and Elberon, and
has many fine driveways, leading to quaint suburban vil-
lages. The famous Jlonmouth Park race-course is about 4
miles inland. Long Branch contains nine first-class hotels,
many boarding-houses, and a large number of beautiful pri-
vate cottages. There are several churches, a U. S. life-sav-
ing station, a national bank with capital of .$.50,000, a State
bank with capital of |90,000, a public library and reading-
room, and a monthly and three daily periodicals. A street-
railway connects the town with Pleasure Bay on the Shrews-
bury river, a popular resort for fishing and yachting. Resi-
dent pop. (1880) 3,833 ; (1890) 7,231 ; (1895) 7,333.
Editor of " News."
Longet, lon'^ha', Francois Achille : physician and phys-
iologist ; b. at St.-Germain-en-Laye, department of Seine-et-
Oise, France, in 1811; studied medicine, and especially
physiology; gained twice the Montyon prize of physiology
at the Academy of Sciences : was Professor of Physiology
in the Faculty of Medicine at Paris ; member of the Acad'-
emy of Medicine, and consulting physician to Napoleon III
His principal works are Trnite d'Anatomie e.t de Ptnjsiologie
du Systeme nerveux (1842) and Trnite complet de Fhysiologie
(1850-59). D. at Bourdcaux in 1871.
Longevity [from Lat. longte' vitas, length of life, deriv.
of lo)ig(e viis, long-lived; longus, long (: Eng. long) + cFvum,
period of time, age, life (whence Lat. deriv. ce tas, for *ir vitas,
age, whence Eng. nge)\ : the length of time during which an
individual lives. The term is also often used to express the
more than usual prolongation of life, especially of liuman
life. The average longevity of a particular group of indi-
viduals is the average duration of life of all the individuals
in that group; this is what is called the expectation of life
at birth, and is usually considered in connection with the
subject of mortality. In sjjeaking of the longevity of differ-
ent specffes of living beings, we usually mean the potential
longevity— that is, the greatest length of life attained by
any individual of the particular group. This again is divided
by Ray Lankester into "normal potential longevity," or
that which belongs to the species in its normal conditiens,
and "absolute potential longevity," or that- which can be
obtained for a few individuals under special and unusual
conditions. This distinction is useful as ajiiilicd to plants
and the lower animals, but is not of much imjiortance as
applied to man. The longevity, whether average or fioten-
tial, of different species of living beings varies greatly, the
range being from a few hours or days for certain m'inute
plants or complete forms of insects to" 2,000 years and more
for a few individual yews and baobabs.
For the majority of animals, accurate information as to
longevity is wanting. Pike and carp have been known to
live 150 years ; tortoises about the same. Eagles, ravens,
and parrots, 100 years and over. The elephant lives from
100 to 150 years. The rhinoceros, 70 years ; the camel, ,50 to
80 years; the horse, 20 to 40 years ; the ox, 15 to 20 years;
the sheep, 12 years ; lion, 20 to' 40 years ; dog. 12 to 34 years ;
cat, 10 to 18 years. From the number of layers of whale-
bone found in the jaws of certain large whales, it is com-
puted that the longevity of this animal is at least 400 years.
In mammals Jhere appears to be some relation between the
duration of gestation and longevity, but to this there are
many exceptions. A more constant relation exists between
the period required for completion of growth and the lon-
gevity. Buffon supposed that the ratio of length of growth
to length of life was 1 to 7. Flourens gave it as 1 to 5, and
defined the end of the period of growth as being that when
the epijihyses form a bony union with the bones throughout
the skeleton. The most interesting questions in longevity
relate to man, and may be stated as follows: 1. What is the
greatest age that any human being has ever attained t 2.
Upon what does the great longevity of different individuals
depend? 3. What is the average longevity of different
groups of men ? 4. How can this average longevity be in-
creased ?
The greatest age ever attained by a human being in an
authenticated case is that of a man named Rives, who was
living at Tarbes, France, in June, 1888. and whose baptismal
certificate stated that he was born in Aug., 1770, thus mak-
ing him out to be 118 years old. The claims that Thomas
Parr reached the age of 152, the Countess of Desmond 145,
and other similar cases, are unsupported by satisfactory
evidence, and there is no proof that any one in England or
the U. S. has ever reached the age of 110 years. The longev-
ity of man is usually given as 100 year.s, but there are sev-
eral well-authenticated cases in which it has been between
100 and 108 years. There is no reason to suppose that the
potential longevity of man has diminished since he first ap-
peared upon the earth. Several investigations have been
made to determine the characteristics, habits, and modes of
life of persons attaining a great age, one of the most com-
plete of which is that nnide by the collective investigation
committee of the British Medical As.soc!ation, the results of
which — including data from nearly 900 persons, of whom
74 were centenarians — have been published by Sir George
Humphrey in his treatise on old age. The general result
of this, as of similar inquiries undertaken in the U. .S. and
elsewhere, is that the chief requisite for individual longev-
ity is a special constitution of the body, often inherited,
including sound and well proportioned organ.s, and sufficient
and persistent powers of reparative force and of resistance
to disturbing agencies. The fact that each individual has
his own potential longevity implies that there is something
in his structure which is an inherent and necessary cause
of death. The common idea is that each fertilized ovum
possesses a fixed and definite amount of a peculiar kind
of energy, or source of energy, known as vital force or
as the physical basis of life; that this maybe wasted by
exce.ssivc use in a given time, or may be partially or wholly
destroyed by accident or disease, but iliat it can not be
added to. If this be stated in the terms of modern biology
it would be that each essential unit of nuclear tissue has a
certain definile capac'ity for metabolism, growth, and multi-
plication, and no more; that this is true of the germinal
nuclear substance of each organ and tis-sue; that in most
men this capacity is less in some organs and parts than the
amount required to keep those parts alive for the same
length of time, as certain other parts which have a normal
34S
LONGEVITY
LONGFELLOW
or perhajis mi i-xci'ssive c«i«eity; and tliat in such cases
death occurs by failun' i>f the weak part before the vitiility
of all the [larts is exhausled — the chain snaps in its weakest
link, in this statement, nuclear substance is dislinfruished
from what is cimimonly called protoplasm. Aeconling to
Minot, the amount of protoplasm increases in proportion to
that of nuclear substance as aije advances, so that the pos-
session of a large n'lative quantity of protoplasm is a sien
of ape. His observations on guinea-iiijrs show that from the
priod of birth there is a steady loss of vitality as indicated
by the rate of growth; that is, that as the animal prows
older, the time it takes to add 10 per cent, to its weight con-
stantly increases. It would be a more accurate statement
from the fact.-* observeil to say that there is a loss of vitality
for a given weight of tissue, but there is no doubt that there
is an absolute progressive loss of vitality after the period of
reproduction sots in, if not from birth. In the centenarian
alltho parts had at birth a properly proportioned amount
of vitality, or at all events an amount not below the normal.
and unless a man begins life with this sort of physical
structure he can not attain extreme ohl age; but the pos-
session of such a structure at birth, or in growth, does not
guarantee longevity ; it is also necessary that the life of the
individual l)o such that he is not exposed to accidents or to
certain causes of disea.se. The greater longevity of women
than of men is probably due, in part at least, to the fact
that after lifty-tive years of age they are less exposed to
cau.ses of disi'jise or injury than men. The great majority
of centenarians have been persons of regular habits, not
large eaters, with gooil appetite and digestion, and good
sleepers; their arteries are usually comparatively soft, the
sostal cartilages are not ossified, and the joints of their
hands show no trace of gouty or rheumatic di.sease. Some
of them have used alcoholic drinks and tobacco freely, but
the majority have been temperate or abstainers. Tliey are
usuallv of medium height; the average pulse in the man
over eighty is 73. in the woman 78.
There is no definite evidence that there is any greater
tendency in one race or community than another to produce
persons capable of becoming centenarians if different lia-
tiilities to accidents or exposures to causes of disejuse be put
a-side, yet there may be differences in such tendency, since
they appear to exist in certain families and to be hereditary.
As regards average long('vity or <luration of life, it varies
considerably in different places and at different times. It
appars to have increa.sed in most civilized countries since
the beginning of the nineteenth century, but the positive
proof of this IS in most cases wanting, owing to the absence
of data from which it can be accurately calculated. Ac-
cording to the table of Ulpian in the Pander's of Justinian,
it was about 30 years among the Romans at the beginning
of the third century a. d. In Geneva during the first half
of the eighteenth century it was about 28 years. In Eng-
land from 18;J8 to 18.54 it was, for males, 35-9 years, and
from 1871 to 1880 it was 41-35 years; for females' it was, in
the first period, 41-8.'), and in the second 44'62 years. It is
noteworthy, however, that this increase in the average du-
ration of life was due to the fact '.hat more children sur-
vived to live lives of from l.j to 20 years' duration, but after
the age of 19 in the male and 4.5 in the female the average
expccuition of life was, if anything, less in the latter period.
The f(j|lowing table shows the expectation of life in Sl!ts,sa-
ehusctts as derived from the statistics of the years 1883-87,
inclusive :
AOIS.
Pmooi.
Uiila.
Femala.
40-87
49-77
68-87
63-03
6«-96
68-70
49-61
46-53
41 -»3
88-78
85-64
38-33
88-118
26-M
88 89
I8B5
15-98
18-01
10-74
8-47
7«
e-00
89 78
49-13
68-36
58-78
68-70
52-43
49-87
45-18
4141
88-8t
84-94
81-65
88-88
84-88
81-65
18-88
16-38
18-48
1087
8-18
7-03
691
4203
60-18
68-98
5:) -.11
UK- -a
.'.-,■97
«IK>
45 IM
48 45
3088
38 15
a;t (>2
8»T1
■26 41
83-01
lll-RH
10 W
13 no
10
15
W
»
ao
85 ;
40
«
SO
65
80
86 ;
70
78
8-N3
7-45
607
80
85
The expectation of life is greater in Jews than it is in the
.■\nglo-Germaiiic races, and is less in the colored peoi)le of
the U. S. than it is in the whites. For males it is in Massa-
chusetts 39-7, in New York city 83-3, in the Society of
Friends of England 453, in the colored people in Balti-
more 21.
If we take a large number of normal individuals who have
escaped the special dangers of infancy, such, for instance, as
those whose lives are insured in various companies, we find
that the tendency to death at different ages can be fairly
represented by mathematical formulas, which may be said to
represent the law uf mortality. The basis of this law, as es-
tablished by the investigations of Gompertz and JIakeham,
is that the liability to death at any age is a result of two
factoi-s, one being liability to accident, the other a progress-
ive necessary deterioration expressed by the staleincnt that
each person' losi's an equal proportion of his vital force in
equal times, and that the proportion of vital force so lost by
each is always tlie same. The result of this is that if we
know the death-rate for two or three age-groups, we can
calculate the death-rates for other age-groups with great ac-
curacy. For further consideral ions upon average deal h-rates,
see Vital Statistics.
The methods of increasing the average longevity in a
community are discussed under the head of IIyciknk. They
consist mainly in the prevention or removal of what may be
called accidental causes of death, for while it is theoretically
possible by careful selection in nuirriage to produce children
who will have few- w-eak points, and will be better able to
resist causes of disease, yet such selection is impossible for
any considerable proportion of a community, and, if made,
probably it would be necessary to combine with it an arti-
ficial limitation of the birth-rate to secure any marked
results. Whether the potential longevity of man could be
thus increased w-e do not know, and probably it would not
be desirable to do this if we could.
BiiiLiotiKAPiiv. — Turquan, Slatisfique des centenairen, in
Ret: Seieiil. (3 scr., xvi., 1888, p. 269) ; Lankester On Com-
parative Longevily in Man and the Lower Animalu (Lon-
don, 1870); Humphrey, OW^(/K (Cambridge. 1889): Flourens,
l)e la longt'riti- Imniaine (iid ed. Paris, 1856) ; Bailey, ii'ec-
ords of Lonyerity {ImuiUm. W!M); ()w-en On Loiiyevity, in
Fraser'n Mayazhie (Feb., 1872); llammond, 'I'/ie Prolonga-
tion of Human Life, in Popular Science Monlhly (\y.\i\\,
1889, p. 92) ; Jlinot On Certain Plienomena of (jruiciny Old,
Proc. Am. Assn. for Adv. of Science, thirl v-ninth meeting
(8vo, Salem, 1891, p. 271). J. S. Billinos.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth : poet ; b. at Portland,
Me., Feb. 27. 1807; graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825
in a class which iiiciuded Nathaniel Hawthorne and John
S. C. Abbott. During liis college days he distinguished
himself in modern languages, and wrote several short poems,
published chiefly in The United States Literary Gazette, at
Boston ; one of these was the well-known Hymn of the Mo-
ravian Nunit. After graduation he entered the law ollice of
his father, but in the following year accepted the professor-
ship of .Modern Languages at Bowiloin, with the privilege of
si)ciiding three years in Euro]]c in preparation for that post.
After studying iti France, Spain, Italy, and Germany, he en-
tered u|ion his professorship in 1829. and began to "publish
the results of his careful researches into European languages
and literature, both niedia-val and modern. His first vol-
ume tt-as a small Exsoy on the Monil and Devotional Poetry
of Spain (1833), which included translations of the Coplas
de Manrique and of several sonnets of Lope de \'oga. A
volume of prose sketches of travel appeared in 1835 under
the title Outre Mer. a I'ilyrimaye beyond the Sea, and nu-
merous essays and criticpies on literary topics were contrib-
uted to The Xorth American Review. In 1835 he was
elected to the chair of Jlodcrn Languages and Literature
in Harvard College, as successor to George Ticknor, and
sjient a year in European travel and study, especially in
Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland, cu Iti vat ing a Knowledge
of early Scandinavian literature. Entering upon his pro-
fessorship in 183(), he soon became a resident in the historic
Craigi^ House (Washington's headquarters), which he after-
wai-d ii;ii-chased and made his home. In 1839 he published
Hyperion, a Romance, and Voices of the JS'iyht. his first
volume of original verse, comprising the select edoroducl ions
of nearly twenty years ; it |irocurcd him imiiiediate recog-
nition as a poet, and the P.mlm of Life took raidv as a po]}U-
lar favorite, lialladu and (/t her Poems aiu\ a small volume
of Poema on Slavery appeared in 1842 ; The Spanish Stif
LONGFELLOW
LONG ISLAND
349
dent, a ilrama in three acts, in 1843 ; The lielfnj of linigeH
in 1H46 ; Krnngeline. a Tnle of Aeailie, iu 1«47, llie latter
boinf; a spirited introiliictinn of hexameter verse, ami gen-
erally consiilereil as Longfellow's niasterniece. In 1H45 he
nublished a large volume of The l'i>ttn and Poetry of Europe ;
in ISii) Kiimnayli, a Tale (in iilyllic prose); in 1850 Tlie
Seaside and the. Firexide ; in 1851 T/ie Golden Legend; in
1855 The Sting of Jlitiiratliii \ in 1H58 The Ciiurlxliip of
writes Slandish; in 18t>:i 'I'alen of a Wayside Inn; in IHGG
Flower de Lure; in 18<i7-T() a masterly poetical Iran.-lation
of Dante; in 18G'J Sew Kmiland Tragedies; iti 1^71 The
Divine Tra</edy ; in 1872 Three Books of Song ; in 1874
Aftermath ;"in 1875 The Masque of I'andora ; in 1878 Kera-
mos; in 1880 Ultima Thule; in 1882 In tlie Ilarlior; in
1883 Michael Angelo (posthumous). Prof. Longfellow re-
signeil his chair at llarvanl in 1854, hut continueU to reside
at Cambridge ; he traveled in Europe in 1841-42 and 1H(>8-
69, on which latter occsuiion he received the degree of
D. C. L. from the University of Oxford, and in 1874 received
a large complimentary vote' for the lord rectorship of the
University of Edinburgh. Some of his poetical works have
been translated into many languages; complete editions
have enjoyed wide circulation, not only in the U. S., Imt in
an equal degree in England, where their popularity rivals
that of the best modern English poetry. I), at Cambridge,
Mar. 24, 18Si. See Life of the jioct. edited by his brother
Samuel, and published in Boston 1880-87, and 'Final Memo-
rials. Kevised by II. A. Beeks.
Longfellow, Sami-ki, : clergyman and author; b. at
Portland, Me., .lune 18. 181!) ; brother of Henry \V. Long-
fellow ; graduated at Harvard College 18:i!), and Divinity
.School 1846; was first .settled in Fall River in 1848; in 1853
became pastor of the Second Unit.irian church in Brooklyn,
N. Y. ; resigned his pulpit in 1860. and went abroad. He
did not settle again till 1878. when he went to (iermantown.
Pa., and remained there live years. After that his resilience
was in Cambridge, Mass. In 184S, in association with Kev.
.Samuel .Johnson, he compiled .4 Book of Hymns, which was
afterward revised and called Hymns of the Spirit ; and in
18.5!) he published a book of Hymns ami Tunes for Congre-
gational Fse. and a small volume for tlie vesper service
which he instituted. His best essays were printed in The
Radical 1866-71. He edited in 1883 Lectures. Essays, and
Sermons of Samuel .lohnson. with a Memoir, and in 1886 a
Life of his brother Henry, in two volumes, to which a vol-
ume of Final Memorials was added in 1887, and in the same
year he published A Few Verses of Many Years. A com-
plete collection of his hymns and other poems is (1804) being
made bv his niece, Alice M. Longfellow. No other hymnist
among Unitarians has written so many favorite hymns. He
dii'd in Portland, Me., Oct. 3, 18!I2. "See his Memoir and
Letters and E.ssays and Sermon.i. eilited bv .Ii>seph May
(Boston. 1894). Kevised by J. \V. Cuadwick. '
Longford : county ; in the province of Leinster, Ireland ;
bounded by the counties of Leitritn, Westmealh, and Uos-
couunon. .\rea, 421 sq. miles, with a level or slightly hilly
surface, and a fertile .soil suited both for tillage and grazing.
Some linens and coarse woolens are manufactured. Long-
ford is the county-town. Pop. (1891) .52.553.
Longhi, lon'ge'e. Alessandro: painter; b. in Venice in
1733. His work, chiefly portraits, is only to be seen in Ven-
ice. He was distinguished also as an etcher. He published
the Lires of ]'enetian Painters of his own century, with
steel engravings of their portraits. He was oiu' of the orig-
imil members of the Venetian Academy. D. in Venice in
1.S13. ■ W. .I.S.
Longhi, GirsEPi'E : engraver ; b. at Monza, Italy, in 1766.
He sluilied for the priesthoixl, but as soon as he left the
seminary he devote<l himself to art, and soon became very
successful as a miniature-painter, but at the age of twenty-
five chose engraving as his spi'cialty. and studicil this art in
.Milan and Home. The plate of'Oalalea and a portrait
of Bona]>arte established his fame, and at the death of
Vangelisti, the sihool of engraving at .Milan was in-
trusted to him. He wa-s a most imiustriims engraver, ami
worked after Kembrandt, Hubens, Crespi, (iherardo dalle
Notti, Raphael, Correggio. .\mong his most famous plates
are Jexus in the Arms of St. Joseph, the Marrinfje of the
Virgin, a Holy Famitij after Raphael, and portraits of Na-
poleon, Michaelangelo, the Dogi' Dandolo, Oeorge Washing-
ton, and the artist's brother. Bona[i,irte commissioned him
to engrave certain pictures by .\pptani of Napoleonic cere-
monials while he was at Milan, of which he executed live.
He was also an excellent writer on the fine arts, and was
elected member of all the Eurojiean academies. When
about to begin a plate of Michelangelo's Last Judgment, ho
was stricken with apoplexy, and died at Milan in 1831.
W. J. Stili.ua.n.
Longhi, LucA : painter: b. at Ravenmi. Italy, in 1507.
He was successful with portraits ami hi.-itorical subjects.
His works are chiefiy to be .seen at Ravenna. He also painted
at St. Ik-nedict's in Ferrara, ami in Milan at the Abbey
[ahbazia). His son and daughter were painters, but did
not equal their father in merit. 1). at Ravenna in 1580.
W. J. S.
Longliins,CASsifs(in(!r.Aoyyr>'os): oneof themost highly
esteemed Greek rhetoricians of the third century after Christ,
called by Eunapius "a living library and a walking muse-
um." Alike distinguished as a philosoj)her and as a rheto-
rician, he counted Porphyry, the Neo-Platonist. among his
pupils, and his school at Athens enjoyed great reputation.
An intimate and a partisan of Zenobia's. he was involved in
her revolt, and was executed by Aurelian in 273. There are
extant under his name sundry fragments on meter and
rhetoric, of value disproportionate to his great repute, and
a famous treatise, On the Sublime (irtpX v^oui). which belongs
to an earlier periwl. and is evidently intended to supple-
ment and correct a celebrated work on the same subject by
Cn'cilins of Calacte, the contemporary of Dionysius of Ilali-
carna.ssus. This treati.se is a most valuable document of
antique a'sthetic criticism, and is interesting not only by
reason of its remarkable insight, but because of the wide
range of its illustrative quotations. The author compares
Cicero and Demosthenes, and draws upon Genesis for an
illustration of the subhme. No tru.stworthy conclusion has
been reached as to authorship, an<l the book is generally
assigned to the first century a. d. Editions : Weiske (18'20),
cum notis variorum ; Egger (1837), with valuable com-
mentary; critical ed. by Jahn (1867). re-edited by Vahlen
(1887). ' ' B. L. G1LDER.SLEEVE.
Longipon'nes [Mod. Lat. ; Lat. lon'gu.t. long + pen'na,
feather, wing): a group (sometimes called an order) of
swimming birds, including the gulls, terns, albatrosses, and
petrels. They are remarkable for their Ion" and often very
narrow wings', and their great powers of llight. They are
also good swimmers, are usually pelagic, but as a rule do not
dive under water. The group is not a natural one, and is
now usually divided into two, Gariie. inchuiing the gulls
and terns, and Tul/inares, containing the albatrosses and
petrels. F. A. L.
Long Island : the extreme southea.-itern portion of the
State of New York ; bounded on the N. by Long Island
Sound, E. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean, W. and N. W. by the
Narrows. New York Bay, and the East river, an estuary con-
necting New York Bay with Long Island Souml. It lies
between parallels 40 34' and 4r 10' N. lat., and 71° 51' to
74 02 Ion. W. from Greenwich, and on the line of greatest
length measures 118* miles. In shape it resembles a fish
with its head opposite New York city; grailually broaden-
ing from the west end eastward for 40 miles to its greatest
width of about 23 miles, and then gra<luallv narrowing for
about 70 miles to its point of smallest width of 12 niilcs,
opposite the head of Peconic Bay it again spreads in two
peninsula.s. the northerly one terminating in Orient Point and
the southerly one in Montauk Point. Area. 1,682 sq. miles.
Topography. — A range of hills called "the back-bone of
the island " extends for some 60 miles lengthwise of the isl-
and, varying in height from 150 to ;}84 feet, ami from 3 to 7
miles S.'of its north shore-line. From these hills the island
slopes gently southward toward the ocean, while toward the
north it is 'elevated, undulating and very broken, ending
abruptly in bold precipitous blufts at the shores of Long
Island Sound. A series of fiords, eight in number, of great
natural beautv, penetrates this north shore to the central
hills flanked on either side by highlands covered with fine
growths of oaks and pines, aiid alTording with their deep
waters excellent harbors for fi.shermen and coa.-^ting vessels,
and producing shellfish in great quantities. The central
part of the island is a vast nearly level jilain where for miles
the roads pa.ss over great prairie-like reaches covere<l with
forests of cedar and ]>ine. Along the south side of the isl-
and for nearly its entire length there is a series of remark-
able lagoons 'separated from the <K-ean by a broad belt of
sand broken through, here and there, by inlets. These are
navigable bv small craft and abound in fish. Along the in-
ner shore of these bays are inlets, bays, and coves; into them
350
LDXG ISLAND
LOXU ISLAND CITY
run numerous streams, and along them, in one almost con-
tinuous i-liain, are villages, once the quiet homes of farmers
and fishermen, now grown into prosperous seaside resorts
fiUinl with handsome villas and great hotels. The beaches
shutting them olT from the ocean are magiiificoiit and are
unsurpassi'd by any in the world ; they, too, are dotted with
great hotels aiid attractive cottages, and some of these, as
Conev Island, Kivkaway, and Long Beach, are visited daily,
duriiig warm weather by large numbers of people. The
surf bathing is excellent nearly the whole length of the
island. The city of Brooklyn occupies the greater part of
the west end of" the islaml.'the east end of which is bifur-
cated, so that it resembles the tail of a fish, by an inlet of
irregular shape extending from the ocean westward into the
island about 22 miles. Acro.ss the east end lies Gardiner's
island, 7 miles long, varying in width from 3 miles to a few
rotls. It has been owned by the Cianliiier family since 1640.
Several miles westwanl from this island lies Shelter i.slatul.
across the mouth of Peconie Bay. dividing it from Gardi-
ner's Bay, irregular in outline, with high cliffs and prom-
ontories, its shore broken into small bays and coves. The
southerly arm of the island terminates in Jlontauk Point,
a hilly peninsula containing about 9,000 acres. Its bluffs,
ranging from 50 to 100 feet in height, are exceedingly bold
and picturesque. At Fort Pond Bay is a magnificent har-
bor, and on the extreme point of the island stands .Montauk
light. On this peninsula Wyandance. chief of the thirteen
tribes of the island, resided at the time it was first settled
by whites.
Oeology. — Long Island is part of the terminal moraine of
the great North American glacier that in the ice age ex-
tended downward from the arctic regions, burying a part of
the continent under 4.000 or 5,000 feet of ice ; its geological
structure is glacial drift, the detrilus brought by the ice in
its downward movement, and filled with materials brought
from afar. The bed rock, a dark micaceous gneiss, is visi-
ble only at .\storia, and is the same as that of the opposite
shore. Common rocks like granite, trap, slate, schi,st, sand-
stone, limestone, and conglomerate, are abundant in differ-
ent parts of the island, and also many kinds of minerals are
fouml. The collection of minerals and rocks in the museum
of the Long Island Historical Society has 500 specimens
gathered from all jiarts of the island. Along the north side
the drift is umlcrluiil liy deep bods of clay and kaolin.
Among the drift many bowlders are found, some of them
very large, one, for instance, near Manhasset, being 54 feet
long by 40 broad and 16 high. These all have worn surfaces
without sharp angles or edges, and are many of them cov-
vered with glacial scratches. A peculiarity of the forma-
tion is the many bowl-shaped depressions which occur upon
the surface at diffen-nl parts of the island, tilled with clear
water, forming beautiful lakes and ponds.
Soil and Prodiirtitmn. — The soil of Long Island along
the slope S. from the hills is for the most, part modified
drift, sandy, easily cultivated, very productive. Portions of
it, as that called Hempstead Plains covering about 60,000
acres, are nearly level, and have a dark rich soil with a dee])
sub-soil, underlaid with hard gravel or sand. The ridge and
northern part lias a rich and fertile loam. The island has
many small lakes, and across it run many shallow streams,
while underneath the hard-jHin which forms the main body
of the island, especially in the middle and at the west end, is
foun<l an inexhaustible sujiply of clear, fresh water. From
these sources Brooklyn and many of the larger towns get
their water-supply. Long Island is virtually a large market
garden to the cities of New York. Brooklyn, and Ijong Isl-
and City, with a great and increasing demaml from the sum-
mer hotels and villas along its shores. Its farms cover an
area of 4«5,0()0 acres, valued at over lj!45.0(M).OfH1. and have
a yearly product aggregating about $7,500,000. (jueens
County leads in market stuff, producing nearly double that
of Kings anil ten tinu's as much as Suffolk; this county
produces about oiie-li.'ilf of the potatoes raised on the isl-
and. an<l also leads in (pumlity of rye. liuckwheat. an<l milk.
Suffolk County leads in hay and other farm crops. Large
quantities of apples, grapes, and other fruits, also of poultry,
eggs, and dressed meat, come from the island ; it is also
note<l for its fruit, flower, anil tree mirseries.
FiKheripii. — The fisheries of the island have always been
an important part of its industries. At one time Sag Har-
bor sent out from her docks seventy whaling-vessels, and in
1847 the whale oil and bone it nuirketed W!is valued at
|9n0.5OO. This industry came to an end in 18(12. The
mcidniden fishing employs 35 steam and sail vessels and
about 700 men. The annual catch is about 150,000,000,
valueil at fl.25O.00(). The shell-fi^hery gives work tu up-
ward of 2.01K) men ami about 3.')0 vessels. About 7sr),00()
bush, of oysters, 200,000 bush, of hard-shell and litW.OOO
bush, of soft-shell clams are taken annually. The most
comiilete and best-fitted fish-hatching station of the Fish
Commission of New York State is at Cold Spring harbor,
on the north shore of the island. It has idanled cm the
island over 35.000.000 fishes, including trout of various
kinds, salmon, shad, smelts, whitefish. lobsters, etc.
I'ulitical Divisiuiix, I'lipuhiliuii, etc. — Long Island is di-
vided into three counties. Kings County, with an area of
48.H(K) acres, occupies the west end ; Suffolk, with an area of
626.000 acres, the eiuit end ; and (Queens, with 2.53,100 acres,
the section between. The population and its growth is
shown by the following table.
CODNTY.
1790.
1810.
1830.
1850.
1870. 1 1880. \ 180O.
Kings. ...
Queens . .
Suffolk . .
4.495
16,014
16,440
8,803
19,330
21,752
20,5.35
22.400
26,7«0
138.882
36,8.33
36,922
419,921
73,803
46,9-^4
699,495
90,574
58.888
888.547
128,059
62,491
Totals .
,')6,949
48,752
69,775
212,837
540,648
743,957
1.029,097
The cities on the island are Brooklyn (Kings County),
with a population of 806,343. and Long Island City, 'in
t^ueens County, with 30.506.— Gakden City (q. v.), in (Queens
Cimnty. with its cathedral and schools, is about 19 miles E.
of Brooklyn.
Uislory. — The Dutch name of the island was Lange Ey-
landt, converted into Long Island by the English, who in
1693 changed it to the Island of Nassau, but this name never
came into popular use. Its Indian luimes were Panmancke,
Sewanhacky. \Vam])onomon. and Matouwacks. The island
was visited in 1009 by Ilendrick Hudson, who probably
touched at Coney l.^land. It was included in the grant in
1620 by James I." to the Plymouth Company of all the land
between 40' and 48" N. lat. between the Atlantic and Pa-
cific Oceans. The company granted a ]>atcnt of the island
to Earl Stirling, who died in 1640, and the same year his son
surrendered the patent to the Duke of York. Settlements
began at the east and west ends about the same time — at
Gowanus (Brooklyn) in 1636 ; Gardiner's island, Sonthold,
and Southamptonin 1639-40 : Hempstead, in Queens County,
in 1643. The island was at that time occupied by thirteen
tribes of Indians, all having the same general characteris-
tics and haliits. They belonged to the Algonquin nation
and were of the Lenni-Lenape subdivision of that nation.
But little is known of their language orcustom.s. They lived
maiidy on fish and shell-fish, and by hunting. The island
Indians in their pristine character are long extinct. A few
individinils renuiin. who show some traces of aboriginal
blood. About 100, called Shinnecocks. occupy a reservation
on Shinnecock Neck about 2 nnles from Southampton, and
the State supports a school among them. In the vicinity of
Forge are also a few families descended from the Poosepa-
tuck Indians, a sub-tribe of the Patchogues. There are some
evidences in renuiins discovered near Aquebogue that an-
other and different race had occupied the island earlier.
The ^\rA purchase of land on the island was of 930 acres in
the southern part of Brooklyn in 1636 by .laccpies Bentyn
and Adrianse Bennet, the latter of whom erected the first
liiiiise known to have been built. The first female child born
in Suffolk County was Kliza belli, daugliler of Lyon Gardiner,
(m Gardiner's island. Sept. 14. 1641. Many of the farms at
the east end keep their original boundaries and the greater
part of Queens and .Suffolk Counties remain in the posses-
sion of descendants of the early settlers.
The bailie of Long lslaii<l "was fought over the ground
now occupied by Brooklyn Aug. 26, 27. and 28. 1776. and Ihe
island suffered greatly by incursions from the mainland,
from British vessels, and by its occupation by foreign troops.
In the war of 1812 preiiarations were made in anticipation
of an attack on New York, and in the civil war Long Island
did her full duly. Kevi.sed by Gkrrit S.mith.
Long Island, or (tutor Heliridrs: a name given to a
group of Ihe Hebrides. .Scotland, einbraciiig Lewis. Harris,
Norlli and Soulli I'ist. Beiibecula. Harra. and a number of
small islands, all of which are su|ipiised to have been for-
merly uniled. Length, about 130 miles.
Lnng Island City : city (incorporatc'd in 1870). in Queens
CO.. N. Y. (for location, see map of New York, ref, 8-C); on
the East river. and the Long Island and the N. Y. and Kock-
away Beach railways. It is opposite that part of New York
l.ONU ISLAND SUL'NI)
LON'GITUDE, TERRESTHIAL
351
oity which ("xtcnils from Thirty-sec-ond Street Id Mott Ilnven,
HlackwelTs isluiiil Iviiif; butweeii ; is sefpurute<l from the city
of Brooklyn liy Newtown creek; Uhs ii wiiler-frorit of over
10 miles and iin iireu of about H sq. miles, and comprises the
former villages of Hunter's Point, UavenswoiHl. Dutch Kills,
Hlissville, anil Astoria. The census returns of 1M!«) showeil
that 3ia manufacturing establishments (representing -I!* in-
dustries) reported. These had a combined capital of ^0,H7I,-
62il: employed ;t,;i44 persons; paid ^2.yiH,8H!» for wa(;es an<l
!f:i,a;}:i.2ilC for materials; and had products valued at lj;7.(!!l4.-
3(i!(. The principal industries are oil-refiniiij;, terra-colta
work, and tiiu manufacture of pianos, car|iets and rup;, «.s-
phalt, and chemicals. The city has water-works, (jas and
electric li{,'ht plants, 3 hosijitals, a children's home, l:i public
s<'hools, with an enrollment of 6,(HK)pupil.s. 10 principals, and
126 teachers; H parochial schools, and a daily and (5 weekly
newspapers. The annual revenue and expenditure are about
$.570,000; annual expenditure for educational purposes,
ir-'0,000; pn)p.Tty valuation, |60,000,fJOO ; and bonded in-
debted tuss, $l.<iO0,()()0. 15olh Jamaka ((/. c.) and Loni; Island
t'ity claim to be the capital of (Queens County. In 1894 Ja-
maica had the olliccs of the county clerk and the surrogate,
while LouK Island City had the court-house and jail.and the
oOiccs of the sheriff and district attorney. Pop. (1880) 17,-
121); (1890)30,506; (18'J4) estimated, 48.()00.
lloKATIO S. Sankorii.
Ldiiir Island Sniind : an arm of the Atlantic Ocean be-
tween Long Island and the .Slate of Connecticut. 115 miles
long and j;''>it'rally 20 or 25 miles wide. A chain of small
islands extends N"". E. from Long Island across the Sound
to the S. W. of Rhode Island, 'fhe Sound is an important
thoroughfare for steamers and coastinj; vessels, and when
the channel of the East river at Hell (iate has been sulli-
ciently improved the largest ships will be able to reach New
York harbor through the Sound, thus saving many hours'
travel, and in heavy weather some danger. It has impor-
tant lisheries.
Loiigitiido, Torrestrial [liter., length of the earth, from
Lat. loiii/ilii (lu, length, deriv. of ton t/un, long, and lerrex Iris,
pertaining to the eartli, deriv. of /errn, earth] : The longi-
tude of a point on the earth is the angle between the merid-
ian plane through that point and the meridian plane
through some otlier point, taken for the origin of longi-
tudes. This angle is measured by the part of the equator
intercepted by the meridians, and may be expressed in an-
gular measure or in time, as we suppose the ecpnitor divide<l
into 360' or into twenty-four hours. The origin oftenest
used by English-speaking peoples is the Greenwich Observ-
atory. Any plane through tlie earth's polar axis cuts out
of the celestial vault (supposed spherical and very distant)
an hour-circle. If it passes through a point on tlie earth's
surface, it is the meridian plane of that point, and cuts the
eartfi's surface and the celestial vault in the terrestrial and
celestial meridians. The latter, moving with the earth's
rotation, sweeps from \V. to E. over the heavens every
twenty-four hours. The angle included at any instant be-
tween the plane of the meridian at a place and the plane of
an honrK'irde through anv point of the heavens is the hour-
angle of that point. If tlie point ))e the vernal equinox, its
hour-angle measureil toward the \V. expressed in time at
any place at a given instant is the local sidereal time ; while
if the point were one called the mean sun (which starts from
the vernal epiiiiox with the true sun, and moves in the equa-
tor with his mean motion), its hour-angle is the local mean
solar lime.
From these definitions it follows that at any instant the
difference of local times at two places is their ilifference of
longitudes, since eaidi difference is the angle between the
meridian planes of the two places. The problem of terres-
trial longitudes is then to hnd at any instant of absolute
time the difference of the local times of two places. It re-
quires, first, the determination of the lo<>al time at each
place ; second, the comparison of those local times at some
instant.
There are many methods of determining local time, hut,
as they will be considered elsewhere, oidy the one which is
theoretically simplest will be mentioned here. As already
indicated, it is Oh. Oin. Os. sidereal time wlu'n the vernal
equinox crosses the meridian, and a clock so adjusteil as to
mark Oh. Oin. Os. at that instant, and to count twenty-four
hours between two such cmssings, is a siden'al clock. Such
a clock will at any instant give the hour-angle of the ver-
nal cipiinox Now. I he angle Ix^tween an hour-circle through
any point in the heavens and the hour-circle through the
vernal eipiinox counted eastward from the eijuinox is called
the right ascensicm of the |Hjiiil. Hence, if the sidereal
clock is perfectly correct, when a star crosses the meridian
the chx'k-Iime will be its right ascension, since the latter is
then equal to the hour-angle of the vernal efpiinoi. TVic
.\autiriil Almanac gives for every tenth day in the year
the right ascensions of a number of stars. If the instant liy
the sidereal clock at which one of these stars cro.sses the
meridian be noted, the difference Iwtween that time and
the star's tabular right ascension is the error of the chx'k.
The local time or error of a clock being fourul at each
station, the problem proper of terrestrial longitudes reduces
itself to that of finding the ditTerence lielween the clocks.
A. If observers at different places note by their clocks
the occurrence of some instantaneous pheni>meiion visible
at thesfime instant to Ixilh. the difference of theclock-timei
corrected for dock-errors is the difference of longitude, (a)
Thus two observers many miles aiiart may determine with
precision by star transits the errors of their timepieces, and
then observe repeatedly at night the instant some |)owdcr is
flashed on a hill visil>le to both. From many flashes the
difference of longitude can be obtained with great accu-
racy. In the work of tlie V. S. I>ake Survey flashes niaiie
with a |iound of powder have been observed for longitude
at a dislance of 100 miles. (6) When in a lunar eclipse the
moon pa.s.sps into the earth's conical shadow and again
emerges, the phenomena are seen at the same time by all
persons to whom they are visible. Unfortunately, it is'dif-
ficult to fix the instnnt when the moon enters or leaves tlie
sliadow, as the earth's shadow is not sharply defineil on the
moon, and the errors in estinialing the time may amount to
a minute. The eclipses of Jupiter's satellites arc seen bv
all observers at the same instant, and that of the first, whicli
has a rapid motion, is best fitted for precise observation:
but the gradual disjippcarance of the satellite makes it difli-
cult to observe the time of disappearance with precision.
That time varies with the power i>f the teleseoj* used. The
Washington times of immersion and emersion are given in
The American yanfical Almanac. Shooting stars have
also been proposed as signals to be obsi'rved for difference
of longitufie.
H. There are several methotls of determining differences
of longitude, depending on the fact that the moon has a
relatively rapid motion among the stars. If observers at
two points determine some co-ordinate of the mixm's posi-
ti(m as seen from the center of the earth, and also their
local times, the change in this co-onlinate in pa.ssiiig from
one meridian to the other is determined; and from this
change and the known rate of change the time reiiuinvl for
so much change can be comjiuted. This time is the differ-
ence of longitude. It may be .sai<l here that while two ob-
servers are constantly spoken of. in practice one observer,
supposed to be stationetl at a fixed observatory, is rejilaced
by a nautical almanac, giving the results he should obtain
in all cas«'s save those in which the highest accuracy is re-
quired, (o) If at two places observers note the sidereal
time of the moon's transit, thus determining the miKin's
right ascension at those transits, then from the difference
of the right ascensions and the moon's known rate of change
in right ascension the time required for so much change,
which is the difference of longitude, can at once be found.
This is the method of moon culminations. The moon's av-
erage change of right ascension is alx>ut one second of time
in twi'ntv-seven seconds, so that an error of OMs. in its o\>-
st>rved right ascension would give 2'7s. error in the result-
ing limgitude. Instead of determining the moon's right
asi'ension by meridian transits, it may be obtained from
transits across a near vertical cinle, or by observing its alti-
tude or azimuth, ih) .Another method is that of lunar dis-
tances. The yauliral Almanac gives for every Ihne hours
Greenwich lime the distance of the moon from s<>verBl fixed
stars, some of the planets, or the sun as seen from the earth's
center. If an observer at any point measures one of these
angular distances with a sextant, ami also the altitudes of
the two Ixxlies, he can compute their distance at the mo-
ment of observation as seen from the center of the earth.
Should this competed distance agree with one in The A'nu-
lieal Almanac, the corn's|K)nding time in the Almanac is
the Greenwich time of his ol)scrvali<m. and the difference
of that time fmin his liK-al time is the longitude. .Should
his observed distance fall between two tabular distances, he
can find the corresponding (in-eiiwich time by interpola-
tion.
352
LOXGMONT
LOXGSTREET
C. If at any place on the earth whose position is ap-
proximately known the jiluises of a solar eclipse be ob-
serveil, tlie eorrtspontiin^ time at a known meridian tan be
computed, thus fiivin;; the difference of lonfjitude. The
same is true of occuUations of stars by the moon. Tliedata
for both are jjiven in The Xautical Almanac. Occultations
of Jupiter's siitellites by the planet, their transits across his
disk, and the transits of their shadows are similar phenom-
ena, and may be used in determining longitudes.
1). -Vnother methoil of determining; differences of longi-
tude is that by transportation of chronometers. If a perfect
timekeeper were compared with the true time at (irccnwich,
and then taken to any other part of the wDrld, from its
error and rate at Greenwich before startin;; the true Green-
wich time at any instant could be computed, and its differ-
ence from the local time of .the traveler's jjosition would be
the difference of longitude. So important iithis melliod to
sailors that the English Parliament gave £2*000 to Harri-
son, who first inaile chronometers with a toleral>ly steady
rate; but as no rate is perfectly con.stant, and as a travel-
ing rate usually differs from the rale when at rest, when the
greatest accuracy is required the chronometer is carried
back to tlie starling-point, so that its traveling rate becomes
known. By using many chronometers and making many
trips accuracy can he ol)lained if the distance is not too
great. Struve found tlie difference of longitude of Pulkova
and Altona to be Ih. 21m. ;J2'52s., with a probable error of
only 004s. by seventeen trips of 81 chronomelers. Bond
determined (184!)) the difference of longitude of Ijivcrpool
and Cambridge, Mass., from 17o chronometers, and again
(18.J5) from 52. The results differed by l-23s.
E. Of all methods of iletermining differences of longi-
tude, that by teli'graphic signals, especially over long lines,
is the most precise. The following is the simplest form of
the method. If the local time of pressing on the key at the
first station and of the click at the second station (supposed
to be produced instantly) be observed, the difference of
those local times is the difference of longitude. It takes a
few thousandths of asecomi for the signal to travel to a dis-
tant station, and a few thousandths of a second to make the
click, so that if the second station is W. of the first the re-
sulting difference of longitude is too small by tliese small
(juantities; but if, retaining the same adjustments and equal
battery strength, signals be sent from \V. to 10., the result-
ing longitude will be as much too large, and the mean of
the two values will be correct. This simple method, requir-
ing, first, the [irccise determination of local times, second,
their comparison (which should be repeated several times)
by the telegraph lini", gives a higher jirecision over long
lines than any of the preceding. .Still higher precision
is reiiched by causing the timepiece to make or break the
circuit at each Ijcat, instead of requiring the observer's fin-
ger to do it. The method becomes perfect when in a<klilion
each timepiece is made to write its own record of time on a
chronograph, thus avoiding the necessity of noting signals
received bv the ear. By tlie telegraphic method differences
of longitude can be determined so precisely that their prob-
able errors do not exceed a few hundredths of a seconil.
To show the errors which may still remain in longitudes
determined from many observations and with great care by
other methods than the telegraiihic one, the following val-
ues of the longitude of the Naval Observatory, VVashington,
are given. The telegraphic value is undoubtedly very near-
ly correct, having been obtained by the Coast Survey by
tnree routes, whose results agrees closely :
Longitude of Washiny/on.
Telegraphic .'ih. 08m. 12-09s.
Moon culminations 1846-60, .Ih. 08m. 11 es.
1862-6:1, 51i. 08m. !)-8s.
Bond, 17") chronometers 1849, .5)1. 08m. 12-26s.
53 •• 1855, 5h. 08m. 13-4!t.s.
Occultations of Pleiades, 1856-61, 5li. 08m. 13-13s.
Kevi.sed by S. Newcomd.
Longniont: town (laid <iut 1871): Boulder co.. Col. (for
location of county, mi- iiiap of Colorado, ref. 2-E) ; on the
St. Vrain river, and the liurl. and the Union Pac. railways;
35 miles N. of Denvir. It is in an agricultural region;
manufactures flour and canneil goods ; and has 6 churches.
2 public school buildings, an a<aili'iny, water-works, electric
lights, public lilirary and free reading-room. 2 imtiuiml lianks
with comliincil capital of iJllO.OtK), a private bank, and 3
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 773; (I8!i(») 1,543; (189;j)
estimated, 2,000. Editor of "IvEDuer,"
Longobards: See Lombards.
Long I'lirliunioiit : the name given to the fifth Parlia-
ment of Charles l.'s reign in England, summoned Nov. 3,
11)40, and continued I hrnughout the |ieriod of the Civil War.
The so-called Short Parliament had been dissolvcil after a
three weeks' session, and Charles's attempt during the next
few months to govern without a parliament had failed on
account of the war with the Scots. The body lliat met in
Xovember began at once to remove the accumulated abuses
of the king's iiersonal government, abolishing the Court of
High Commission, the Star Chamber, and the Council of the
North, checking the illegal exactions of the court, and im-
peaching Strafford, who was finally brought to the block by
a bill of attaiiiiler. .Stiiiiing out with leiiitiimitc reforms, it
soon became in effect a revolutionary body, while, on the
other hand, tyranny and duplicity continueil to mark the
course of the king, who at length by his violation of privi-
lege in the attempted seizure of the five members in Jan.,
1642, made war nievitable. With the defeat of the king
power passed into the hands of the army, which by the law-
less act known as "Pride's Purge" cleared the Parliament
of all members (lis])leasing to the military. The remnant,
called in derision the "Hump" Parliament, organized the
High Court of Justice, which condemned the king. It re-
mained in session till turned out by Cromwell, Apr. 20. 1653.
As the only body in the state having anything like legal au-
thority after the death of Cromwell, it reassembled, issued
writs "for a new election, and dissolved itself Mar. 16, 1660,
after an existence of nearly twenty years. F. M. Colby.
Longstn'?f , Augusti-s Baldwin : lawyer, clergyman,
educator, and author; b. in Augusta. Ga., Sept. 22. 1790;
graduated at Vale College in 1813. He studied law at
Litchfield, Conn., and was admitted to the bar in Georgia in
1815. He was in 1821 elected to the (ieiieral Assembly of
the Stale, and promoted to the bench in the Ocmulgce ju-
dicial circuit in 1822, a position which he soon resigned, re-
moving to Augusta; continued the practice of the law and
established the Augusta Snifinel. consolidated in 1838 with
the Augusta Chronicle. In 1838 he entered the Methodist
Episcojial ministry, and in 1839 was elected to the presi-
dency of Emory (!'oIlege at (Ixford, Ga., which position he
filled with great ability until 1848, when he accepted a
similar post in Centenary College. La., ami shortly after-
ward in Missis.sippi University at Oxford, Miss. He became
I)resi(li'nt of the South Carolina College in 1857, and just
before the war returned to the presidency of the University
of Mississippi. The best known of Judge Longstrect's writ-
ings was his Georgia Scene.i (1840). a series of humonius
sketches which gained a wide iiopularitv. H. at (Jxford,
Miss., Sept., 9, 1870. Revised by H. A. Beers.
Longstreot, James: general; b. in Edgefield district,
S. C.. Jan. 8, 1821 ; removed at an early age with his parents
to Alabama, from which .State he was appointed to the \j. S.
Military Academy in 1838; graduated in 1842. entering the
army as lieutenant of infantry: served in the war with
Mexico: in 1847-52 was on frontier duty in Texas; in 1858
was transferri'd to the staff as paymaster, with the rank of
major. In June, 1861, Longstrect resigned to enter the
Confederate army, and commanded a l)riga(le at Bull Hun
the following month. Promoted to be major-general in
1862, ho thereafter bore a conspicuous part and rendered
valuable service to the Confederate cause. In command of
the rear guard of the army falling back from Yorktown. he
hail passed through Williamsburg .May 5. 18()2. when ho
was called back to oppose the hastily advancing Union
forces, 11 battle lasting nearly nine hours resulling, thus al-
lowing the escape of the main iirniy to Hicliiiiond, himself
following rapidly under cover, of niglit. At Seven Pines he
directed the main attack, and in the subsequent figliling at
Gaines's Jlill. Krazier's Farm. Malvern Hill. etc.. his divi-
sion fought bravely, losing nearly one-half its nuiiibei's in
killed and wounded. .\t the second battle of Hull Hun he
skillfully made the passage of the Tlioiouglifarc Gap. and
on the second day held the right of the line and contributed
largely to the success of the day. At Anlietam lie com-
manded the right wing, and at Fredericksburg the left wing
and center, where the lussault was so fatal to the Federal
army. After the latter battle he was temjiorarily detached
with three divisions of his corps to operate below the James,
and in .\|iril attacked (ieii. Peek at .SiilTolk. Va., which
place he invested niilil reeiilled by lien. Lee after the battle
of Cliancellorsville. In the organization of the army with
which it was designed to invade the North. Longstrcet was
LONGSTREET
LONS-LE-SAULNIER
353
assiRnod to tlic command of one of its throe coriis, witli tlic
rank of lieuttiiaiit-t^enrral, and in the ensuing Iwittlc of (jet-
tysburi; commandiMl the rijjht of the hne (luring the second
and third days nf the fi};lit. The importaiiee of impendinf;
operations in the West eaused Lee, who felt secure apiinst
attack, to detach Ijon<;street a^ain, and on tliis o<ca>ioii the
chnnj;e was timely and precious, for lie arrive<l witli his
corps in time to decide tlie fortuiu's of the day at Chicka-
mau;;a. The followinj; montli HraKK assii,'ned Lon<jstreel
to h'ad a movement against Hurnside in East Tennessee,
and in Xovendier he conipelleil that ollicer to seek the in-
trenchments of Knuxville with his army, whiili phice Lonn-
street lieh-a^juered, but was compelled to aliandon the siejfc
upon (iraiit's victory at Cliattanoofja, and hastily moved
eastwanl to Vir;;iniu, where he rejoined the army of (ieii.
Lee. In the ensuing cam|)ai{,'n he was severely wounded by
his own troops in the Wilderness battle (May (5), and dis-
abled f<ir months, Keturning to duty in October, lie coni-
mande<l the defenses of Kichmond X. of the .lames, and was
partially engaged in the action around Petersburg the day
of evacuation. The war ended, (ien. Longstreet accepted
the result, and, having renewed his allegiance to the general
Government, labored earnestly to promote an era of good
feeling lietweeu all sections of the country. Taking up hLs
residence in New Orleans, he was appointed (in IHtii)) sur-
veyor of the jiort, resigned in 18T1 : wjis appointed commis-
sioner of engineers for Louisiana, and served four years. In
1875 he settled in Georgia, where he became iiispe<'tor of
internal revenue; wjis I'. S. minister to Turkey 1880-81,
and V. S. marshal of Georgia 1881-84.
Longstreet, William: inventor; b. in New Jersey in
17(50; in early life moved to Augusta, Ga. As early as
Sept. 2(>, 171K), he addressed a letter to Thomas Telfair,
Governor of Georgia, stating that his plan of applying
steam to vessels was completed, and expressing his "thor-
ough confidence in its success" if he had means to perfect
it. These he asked of the Governor or the Legislature, to
which the matter was submitted. No action, however, was
taken. This was three years before Fulton's letter to the
Karl of Stanhope announcing his ideas " res[)ecting the mov-
ing of ships Ijy the means of steam." Longstreet's plan was
very ditTerent from Fulton's. Failing to obtain public aid
at the time, several yeare afterward he procured funds
from private sources which enabled him in 1807 to ]>ut his
boat in operation on the Savannah river, and it moved
against the current of the stream at the rate of 5 miles an
hour a few days after Fulton's like success on the Hudson.
He also invented and patented the "breast roller" of cotton-
gins, which was of very great value to the growers of the
long staple or sea-island cotton. I), in Georgia in 1814.
Longiieilil, lon'gii/ : a town of C'harably co., (Quebec, Can-
ada ; on the right bank of the St. Lawrence, 4 miles below
and opposite .Montreal (see map of Quebec, ref. .5-B). It
contains many summer villas of the residents of Montreal.
Permanent pupulalion 4,000, mostly French-Canadians.
Longiieville, long vi'i 1 , Anne Gkxevikvk ue BouRnox-
CoxDE, Duchess of: one of the leaders of the Fronde in
France; b. at Vinceiiiics. 1619, an<l married the Due de
Longuevillc \M'i. Ilcr beauty and charm of manner won
her many admin'is; but her favorite was the Due de la
Kiichefoncauld, the author of the Jfiuiinex, whoso influence
drew her into the political strife of the time. Sharing in
the hatred of Mazarin, she sided with the Parliament, and
during the insurrection in Paris held the Hotel de Ville,
whence she aided the movement by her direction and ad-
vice. She consented to the |iea<-e with ^fazarin, but r)n the
imi)risonment of her husband ami luMther, thil to Steuay,
imluced Tiirenne to turn traitor to the court, and forceil
the Government to release the prisoners. After a lirief in-
terval of apparent reconciliation, she was again in revolt,
ai<ling actively in the defense of Bordeaux, but her party
was hopelessly divided in its counsels and was siK>n over-
thrown. After peace wjls made in ICi!) she ceased to med-
dle in iHilitics, and became a religious devotee, sjiending
much of her time at the cloister of Port Koyal des Champs.
Strongly sympathizing with .lansenisiu herself, she saved
this instituticin from lu-rsecution bv the orthodox Church.
Her last vears, «uldencd by the death of her son, were
passed at 'the convent of the Carmelites, where she died
Apr. 1.5, 167U. See Cousin, Madame de Longiierille (Paris,
lK,-)!»). F, M. Colby.
Longiis (in Gr. A6yyot) : author of the Greek pastoral ro-
niunce The Story uf DajilmU and Chluc in four books, one of
249
tlie most popular among the productions of the gcriplurts
erutici Clrifci. His time is uncerlain except that he must
have Ijclonged to the jiagaii world ; his very name has been dis-
puted, and his home can only lie divined from his familiurity
with llie island of Leslxjs, wliicli is the scene of his rumance.
Longus is the last of the bu(ip|i<' ptnls, for he is ev-.ntially
a poet in spite of the prose form, and his pictures of pii.'-toral
life, in the French translation nf Amyot {<f. v.), are largely
responsible for the revival of that species of literature in
miKlern times. Unfortunately, the iuyllic sweetness of his
narrative is a manufactured sweetness, and the simplicity of
his style is a manufactured simplicity. The trail of the
sophist is over it all, and the enjuyment of his tiiustoral
scenes is marred by passages of uiimitipited sensuality.
Editions. — Villoison, with a rich commentary (1778) ;
Courier, a famous edition (1810) ; .Seiler, cum nnlis variorum
(1843): Hercher, in the first volume of the Erotici Scrip-
tores Gritci (Teubner Librarv). There is an English trans-
lation by Kev, Rowland Smitli (The Greek Uomanetn) in the
Bolin Library, .See Rohde, Ver griechieehe lioman. p, 502
fol. B. L. GlLUEKSLEEVE.
Longview : town (incorporated in 1871) ; capital of (irt-gg
CO., Tex. (for location of county, s«'e niaj> of Texas, ref. 2-J) ;
on Sabine river and the Int. and (it. N., the Tex. and Pac,
and the Tex., Sab. Val. and N. W. railways ; GO miles W. of
Sabine. It is in a cotton and lumbering region, has numer-
ous saw-mills in its vicinity, and has liecome an imiiortanl
shii>ping-point. Pop. (1880) 1,525 ; (181K)) 2,0:!4.
Liinn'rot. Elias : Finnish s<holar: b. at .Sammatti, in
Nyland, Apr. U, 1802 ; d. there Mar. 19, 1884. Apprenticed
first to a tailor, then to a druggist, in 1822 he began the
study of philology and natural science at the University of
Abo. In 1827 he took up the study of nie<licine at the Univer-
sity of Helsingfors. and in 18:i2 he obtained a dcK'tor's de-
gree. In 18:t:! he began to jiractice as a pliysician at Ka-
jana. He had already, however, become deeply interested
in the language and popular [loetry of his native land, and
had published his hiiiitele, etc. (The Lyre, or Runes and
Songs, Ancient and Mixlern, of the Finnish Peojile, 4 |>arts,
Helsingfors, 182!t-;51). The piussion for collecting these
songs constantly grew uikhi him. and he traveled exten-
sively on foot throughout Finland, writing down whatever
he could get the popular poets (runojat) to recite to him.
The most important result of these labors was the Finnish
epic, the Kalkvala iq. v.). In the composition of this out
of the great mass of Finnish pojuilar songs, Ixlnnrot was
inspired first by the similar attempt of von Bekker ; then
by the example of the runoja, Vassili, whom he heard at
Vuonninen ('{ussian Cavelia) in 18;<3; and finally by the
theories in regard to epic pnetrv then generally accepted on
the authority of Wnlf ami Laclimaiin. The first versidU of
the Kalevata was submitted to the SiK-iety of Finnish
Literature, and published by it in 18:1.5. Subse<|uenlly
Lonnrot made use of extensive further collections of liis
own and of others, and in 184!t brought out the second and
final edition of the poem, containing fifty runes and 22,800
verses. In the meantime he had pulili>hi'il s<'Veral other col-
lec'tions of popular versi'. From 1S36 to 1S4() he edited a
little |M'riodical. Mrhilaiiien (Tlu- Bee I, devoted to such inat-
ters. In 1840 he issued his Kaiilelelar. etc. (Lyric Art), con-
taining a large iiuiuIkt of lyric and epic-lyric songs (ltd ed.
1887 : (ierni. trans, of the most interesting songs by H. Paul,
A'anteletnr. die Folkxlijrik der Finnen inx Drulnche uber-
traijen. Helsingfors. 1882>. In 1S42 apiH'ared Suoimn A'uh-
mii naiiaiila.'ikuja (Proverbs of the Fiimish People), cnntain-
ing over 7,000 proverbs. In 1844 was printed Siiomen Kanxan
nrircdVHA-.fiVi.f/c (Riddles of the Fiuni>h People; 2tl enlarged
ed.,wilh 2.224 ridille.s, l.'CiD. In lS."i:{ he was ap|>ointed Pro-
fessor of the Finnish Ijiiiguageand Litenitureat Helsiiigfiirs,
but gave up the place in lH(i2 and devoted himself to studies
and the preparation of his great FinKkl-Siriinkl hesiknn
(Finnish-Swi.<lish Dictionary, 2 vols.. Iy74-.S0: suppl. 18^61.
In ISSO he issued his important collection of Finnish magic
songs, Suomen Knnsnn loilsuninnja. (.See English tnins.
of many of the.se bv .\lK>rcromlpy, in" Folk-lore, i., 181Kt.t For
I^'iunriit's biograp^iv, M'C A. .\lili|Uist, Flias Liiririrnt hiog-
ratinkt uttkast tllelsingfors, 1884). A. R. Marsh.
Lons-le-Saillnirr, l"n Ic-sil ni-a' : town; in the de|>«rt-
ment of .Iimi, France ; Imiiitifully situated among vine-idad
hills at the confluence of the Si'ille. Vallierr. and Solman
(see map of France, n-f. .5-11). Its famous salt-works have
iieen converted into mineral l)aths. .\n iniiwirtant industry
is the manufacture of sparkling wines, 'flie town w«» the
3:.4
LONYAY
LOOM
birthplace of Rouset tic Lisle, the composer of the Marseil-
laise. Pop. (1«»1) liAil.
Lonray. Inwn'yt JIeixharo, Count : stntesinan : b. in
HunjraVv.'.lim. li. 1822 : ilost'endeil fmin an "Ul Miifryar fam-
ily: w!is ilrctcil a nu'inborof the Oict in 1S4:!. and afterward
appninti'd a soi-retary in the Ministry nf Finanee; Hed in
184!> when tlie llunirarian rebellion was put di>wn. anil lived
in London and Paris ; returned in 1850 in eonsei|uence of a
general amnesty, and devoted himself to questions of politi-
cal eeononiy and the relations of the t'hureh to the schools
in Ilnnsarv. lie was one of the most prominent members
of tlie l>iet' of ISO-) : was very aetive in 186(i and IHtiT for tlic
settlement between Ilunjrary and Austria aceomiOished by
Bcust. and accepted the .Ministry of Finance in tlie Hun-
garian cabinet wliieli .Xndnissy forme<l in 1807. He wjis
very successful in his financial policy, but disagreeing with
Anilnissy. retired in .May, 1870. and entered then the im-
perial cabinet as Minister of Finance. When An<lrassy be-
came prcsiilent of the imperial cabinet instead of Bcust
(Nov. 10. 1871), Lonyay was appointed president of the
Hung:arian cabinet, biit' (Nov. 18, 1872) lie was accused by
his advei-saries in the lower house, especially by Deputy
Csematony, of liavinc misused his ofTicial position for per-
sona! purposes, in consequence of which he resigned Dec. 2,
1872. He published Recent Works on Political Economy
(1863): Siirveij of the Finances of Hungary (1873); J'lte
Banking Qiiextion (1875) ; a colleclion of his speeches, etc.
D. Nov. 3, 1884.
Loorlioo Islands : known to the Japanese as Eiu-Kiu,
and pronounceil Dooehoo by the natives ; a chain o( small
islands, of coral formation, lying between 127° and 130' E.
Ion. and 20 30' N. hit. Tliey form the Okinawa-Ken of
Japan, and consist of four groups — the Linshotcn islands,
ten in number (frequently considered as an independent
group): the Northern Loochoo, nine islands: the middle
Loocnoo, twenty-five islands; and the Southern Loochoo,
fifteen islands, separated from the foregoing by a broad
straitand situateil near Northern Formosa; total area about
940 sf|. miles. The climate is singularly mild and equable,
though typhoons are frequent ; the soil so fertile as to pro-
duce two crops of rice yearly. In the twelfth century Japan,
according to its annals, had a Loochooan ruler. Shunten,
son of a famous Japanese archer. The Loochooans owed a
nominal subjection to the Princes of Satsuma, and sent pres-
ents to the Sliogun of Japan ; but at the same time paid trib-
ute to the Chinese court, and received investiture for their
rulers at Peking. When Japan in 1808 was restored
to a centralized im|>erialism, her rights to the
islands became a burning question. In 1879 the
king was brought captive to Tokio.and the islands
were thereafter organized into the Japanese pre-
fecture of Okinawa, an action which threatened
to prove a enxns belli Vietween China and Japan.
The inhabitants, akin in race to the .la pa nese. wear
their hair in a top-knf)t. fastened by a pin with a
star-shaped head, distinctive of their rank. Dr.
Guillemard characterized them as " a short race,
better proportioneil than the Japanese, with, as a
rule, extremely well-developed eliest.s. The face
is less flattened, the eyes are more deejily .set, the
nose is more prominent in its origin. The fore-
head is high, the cheek bones are somewhat less
marked than the Japanese ; the eyebrows are
arched and thick." In character they are ex-
tremely gentle, ami in manners particularly cour-
teous, so as to have earned for their countrv the
name of " The Land of Propriety." They have
long excludeil foreigners. 1 he people are Bud-
dhists in religion. Their mode of Iturial is pecul-
iar, the massive white funeral vaults scattered
everywhere being the feature of the islands. Here
the dead arc allowed to ri'pos<; two years, when
they are taken out and the bones washed bv the
nearest of kin, who de|iosits them in earthenware
urns. The urns are ranged round the interior of
the vault on shelves. The marriage customs also
arc peculiar. Loochooan ladies keep themselves in
the strictest privacy ; women of the lower cliusse.s,
however, go about freely and transact business.
Pigs are extensively reared, and pork is a favorite
article of diet. The islamls are infested with
deadly snakes of the genus TrimereKiirns. The language is
allied to Japanese closely enough to allow of the Jajianeso
syllabary being employed. Okinawa, the largest island of
the archipelago, has a [Hipulatioii of 125.000. It contains
the capital. Shuri, to which an excellent road, over 3 miles
in length, leads from Nala. its port. The total population
of the islands. 373,146. shows an excess of 288 females, while
the returns for Hie wliole Japanese empire show an exc-ess
of males. J. M. Dixok.
Loom [M. Eng. lome < O. Eng. geloma, tool, implement,
instrument]: a machine for weaving textile fabrics. The
two sets of threads or libel's of which a faliric may l)c com-
posed are known as warp and tilling ; the set running through-
out the length is the warp, and those threads extending from
side to side, and interlacing with it. the filling, or weft. The in-
terlacing of these two sets of threads is called Wkavino (q. v.).
This art is so ancient that its beginning can not be traced.
To Dr. Kdmund Cartwright, of Manchester. Kngland, be-
longs the merit and honor of originating and producing the
first practical power-loom, front which the present looms
have developed. This invention, the patents for which were
is.sued Apr. 4. 1785. and Nov. V.i, 1788. has proved one of the
greatest in textile manufacture. Cartwright recognized that
there were " three movements which were to follow each
other in succession," and he arrange<l his power-loom to
produce these movements in proper order and time.
Three Movements. — The first separates the threads of the
warp longitudinally into two sets, leaving a spaci> through
which to pass the weft : the second passes this filling
through that space: the third presses the thread of filling
up against the one preceding it.
_^ -^
Fio. 1.— Hand-loom.
Plain Loom. — The plain loom is built for producing the
simplest fabrics, and is capable of but two movements for
the warp-threads; it may be for weaving with but one color
i''io. :i.— Knd view of a inodern ptuiii povver-Iooni.
of filling, or for as many as six colors. Fig. 1 gives a rep-
resentation of u hand-loom for plain weaving. Fig. 2 is the
LOOM
355
end view of a nioilcm i>lain powor-loom. A comparison of
the two designs will show siiuilarity in the essential move-
ments.
Constmict iim nnd Operalinn. — Tho plain power-loom is
usually Iniilt with two parallel horizontal shafts extending
across the liiiiiu-friime fmni i-nci to <mi(I, one aliove, j\ and a
little back of I he- other, ij. 'I'he upper shaft is in most cits<'S
tho Urivin<j-slial't, and has a pulley, ;{. at one end. This
shaft is geared. -I-.5, to the lower shaft in such a manner
that two revolutions of the former must tie inaile to one of
the latter. The threads of the warp o are arranged, wound
upon the warp-beam a. and passed through the eyes of the
harness Uh ;;;/ , also through the reed /, before couiing to
the loom. Each harness, after the warp has been placed in
the loom, is fiustened to certain .straps which pass over an
elevalc^d roller, e; also connected with one of two levers be-
low, J d ; these levers are each in contact with revolving
cams, 1, 2, so placed on the lower shaft that, as the shaft re-
volves, one cam depresses the lever in contact with it, and
the lever in contact with the other is alloweil to rise. These
cams, as aforesaid, being connected directly with the loom-
harne.ss, and indirectly with each other by the straps piussing
over the top roller e. cause the harnc^-vi which they control
to Work simultaneously and in the same direction with them.
The threads of the warp, being some on one harness anil some
on the other, usually alternaling, are separated as the har-
nesses are brought into dilTerent relative positions, and a
space formed between the two sets of warp-threads; this
.space, «, is called tlic^ shed, and is produced by the first of the
three recognized movements. Through this shed the shuttle
containing the weft is |)a.ssed, leaving a .strand of the wc^fl
in its path, and the secfuid movement is complete. In most
power-looms the shuttle is thrown across the loom, through
the shed, on the shuttle-race, from a shuttle-bo-X at one end
to one at the opposite end by a lever, 10. hinge<l at or near
tho floor, 17. and called a picker-stick. This picker-stick is
usually i)ropelleil by the quick stroke of a cam. (!. on i he lower
shaft against the arm. 7. of a short rocker-shafl. 10. placed
at right angles to the cam-shaft and in a horizontal plane
several inches above it; a second arm, 8, on this rocker-
shaft is connected by a short rod and str.up. !), to the picker-
stick. The action of the cam on the rocker-shaft throws the
picker-stick toward the fabric, and at the same time the
shuttle through the shed previously formed.
The third movement, the beating up of the filling-thread,
is accomplished by the quick stroke of the lathe,/ — that
part of the loom which holds the ref'd — which is connected
with a crank, l:}, on the driving or the upper of the two
shafts; as the shaft revolves tho lathe receives a reciprocat-
ing motion, and, being connected with and movable on a
rocker-arm, 17, at the lower part of the loom-frame, swings in
a small arc, the chord of which would be twice the lengtli of
the crank before mentioned. As the lathe is propelled for-
ward the fiUing-thieiid is beaten up against that j)art of tho
fabric already produced.
The continued repetition of these three movements is
tho process of weaving complete.
Hand-loom. — The hand-loom (Fig. 1) in principle is the
same as the power-looms, but the harnesses arc controlled by
tho action of the weaver's feet on the treadles; the shuttle
is propelled by the hand, anrl tho stroke of the lathe or
batten, usually hung from an elevated stand, is also made by
hand. Great skill is required with such a nmchine to pro-
duce fine textures, yet some of the most delicate faljrics are
manufactured by hand-loom weavers.
Fannj Lnnm. — Ijooms which may have more harness ca-
pacity timii a cam-loom would allow of, used for weaving
fancy patterns, are called fancy looms. The cam-loom may
boused with a liinit<^l number of harnesses — from two to
five, anil occasionally with more. The fancy loom has often
as many iLs thirty-six harnesses, the tsventy to twenty-four
harness looms being most in use aside fnun the plain looms.
The looms have a " head-motion," so called, or a " heiul,"
which is composed of a revolving shaft over which pas.ses a
pattern-chain, so built that each bar of the chain will con-
trol the harness for one entrance of the filling; also certain
lifting or vibrating bars which raise or lower the harness,
the harness being connected to certain pieces of tho mech-
anism which are brought into contact with one or the other
of tho bars by rolls on the pattern-chain. Thi'se rolls may
be so placed on the bar of chain that any of the individual
harnesses may bo raised; whcii'vor no roll is placed on the
chain the liar'nes,s will lower. Thus the chains nuiy be built
to raise or lower anv of the harnesses and in anv order.
Box-motion. — The shullle-l)oxes of the power-loom aro
placed at each end of the lathe, and may be one box at each
end, one box at one end with from two to six at the oppo-
site, or with from two to four boxes ut each end. For ono
color of filling one box at each end is used; with si'Veral
colors, each is placed in a dilferent Ixix, which may 1»>
called when needed by the action of rolls placed on a chain
similar to the pattcni-chain, on certain fingers which in
turn engage the mechanism for raising or lowering tho
boxes.
Jacquard Mnchiiip. — This machine is used for such de-
signs as are so extensive that a suflicient number of har-
nesses could not be placed in the loom to priMluce the |>at-
tcrns. It is simjily a "head," which controls the shed, anil
may be applied to almost any nuike of loom. The machino
consists of a sot of knives. «.« (Fig. Hi, called a ■•grifTe,'*
Flo. 3. — Jacquard aiacliine.
capable of being raised and lowered ; a s<'t of ix-riH-ndicular
hooks. 1-2, in connection with and governed by a set of hori-
zontal needles, ;t, these hiniks having attached to them tho
leiLsh-strings 6. ti . mail 7. 7 . and lingo 8. 8— the mail being
the eye thmugli which the warp-thrcad is pa.ssed. the linpo
the weight which draws down the leash. The pattern is
controlled by a set of pallern-cards. '/.. '/.. fiislened togi'thcr,
which jiass over an iutcrmiltejilly nnolving. |>i'rfomleil cyl-
inder, .\. \. This cylinder swings in n small arc, and pn'ss«-s
against tho needlesi U. Whenever a hook is to l>e raised a
hole cut in the pattem-canl allows the neeillo to enter tho
iwrforation in the eylindcr, also the hook 1 to l>c engaged
by the knives as they lift. The capl. when no hole i.« cut.
will press against the needle, throwing tho hook which it
356
LOOMIS
LOI'K I)K AGUIKRE
governs back until the knives lift. The raising of a liook
raises also all tlic loash-stiini^ connected with it. which
may he from one to half a iluzen. A machine may liave
from 100 to 1,'JlX) hooks, ami each hook may be worked in-
dependently of tlie t>thers.
This machine was originated by Joseph Marie Jacquard,
a native of Lyons, France, born in July, 1752. lie first
came into prominence V)y perfecting a machine for making
fish-nets, for which he received li.OOO francs and a gold medal
offered by the Society of Arts. London, and with this came
an engagement in the Conservatoire des Arts, Paris. Here
he hati opportunity to study the inventions for weaving-ma-
chinery alreaily made. Houchon in 1725. Falcon in 1728,
and Vaucanson in 1745 had each improved on tlie looms
then in use, but none of their inventions, vvliilc in some re-
Sjx'cts similar to what Jac(iuard produced, proved practical.
•• He W!us an experienced workman, combining the best parts
of the machines of his predecessors in the same line, and
succeeded as the first person to obtain an arrangement suffi-
ciently practical to be employed." There was great opposi-
tion to the introduction of his machine as a labor-saving
device, and many of them were broken up. The model
from which the others were made was destroyed in the
S(iuare wliere liis statue has since been erected. It is said
that 30,000 Jaccpuird machines were in operation in his na-
tive city at the time of liis death, 18:!4.
Draw-loom. — This was the nearest approach to the Jac-
quard up to the nineteenth century, but required two per-
sons to attend it. The pattern was governed by a boy,
who raised the warp-threads by "drawing" certain strings
attached to the various groups of leash-cords. William
Cheape patented a mechanical " draw-boy " in 1779, l)ut the
loom was superseded liy Jacquard's invention.
Lonm-harnens. — This is usually a skeleton frame, on
which are placed wire heddles with eyes at the center for
the warp-threads. Cotton-harness, used mostly on the plain
or cam looms, consist of two parallel rods on which is a series
of cotton heddles. The frame or roils, with the attached
heddles, constitute a harness.
Loom-reed. — The reeds are two parallel strips, into which
are inserted at right angles thin strips of flattened wire;
these are spaced equally, and the reed is numbered accord-
ing to the munber of spaces per inch. The reed not oidy
beats up the filling, but keeps the warp-threads of the va-
rious textures at the require<l number to the inch.
See Ashenhurst. Wealing and Dexigning for Textile
Fabrics; Alexander Brown, Practical Treatise of the Con-
s/ruction of the Power-loom; Porselt's Jacquard Machine
Analyzed and Explained ; also Patent Office reports.
Louis W. Ci.ark.
Loomis, Alfred Lebbeus. M. D., LL. D. : clinician ; b. at
Bennington, Vt., June 10, 1831 ; entered Union College, from
which he gra<lualed in 1851, atul received the degree A.M.
in 185() ; graduated M. IJ. from the College of Physicians and
Surgeons, New York, in 1852; served two years in hospitals
before commencing general practice in New York city; in
1850 was appointed visiting physician to Bellevue Hospital ;
in 1862 was ajijiointed lecturer on Physical Diagnosis ni the
College of Physicians and Surgeons; in 18C0 was ajipointed
Adjunct Professor of Theory and Practice of Medicine in
the Cnivcrsity of the City of New York, and was promoted
professor in 1868; in 1874 was appoinled visiting ]ihvsician
to Mt. Sinai Hospital ; was president of New York Academy
of Medicine 188'.M)0 and 18!)l-92. and president of the con-
frcss of American physicians and surgeons 1894 ; received
;L. I), from the University of the City of New York 1886.
I). Jan. 23, 1H95. He was recognized as one of tlie foremost
clinicians and teachers in the U. S. Among his works are
LegHonH in Physical Diagnosis (New York. 1870); Lectures
on Fevers (New York, 1877); A Text-book of Practical
Medicine (New York. 1884); and he edited An American
System of Medicine (Philadelphia, 1894). S. T. A.
Loomis, Klias, LL. D. : astronomer; b. in Tolland co..
Conn., Aug. 7, 1811 : graduated at Yale College in 18;i0 ; was
for several years tutor in tluit institution (1833-36); made
important researches in astronomy, magnetism, and meteor-
ology, both in the U. S. and in Paris, where he resided in
lH3t!-37, attending lectures; l)ecame Professor of Natural
Philosoj>hy in Western Reserve College 1837; was called to
the University of the City of New York 1844, ami to Yale
College 186(J. He has made many contributions to the
exact sciences, most of which were communicated to the
American Philosopliical Society and to The American Jour-
nal of Science. The most important work of his later years
was liis series of Meteorological Researches, published in
the last-named jounial. He also jmblished a series of text-
books in the higher mathematics. an<l a genealogical work,
The Descendants of Joseph Loomis (1870), D. at New
Haven, Aug. 16, 1889.
Loon, or (ireat Nortlicrn Oivcr: popular name of a
swimming bird of the family I'riiiatoridie, (unuil in both
hemispheres. Its scientific name is I'rinator imber or
Eudyles torquatus. It is a large, solitary bird, 32 inches
long, very difficult to shoot. It is a fine diver, perfectly at
home in air or water, but l)y no means so on the land, its
feet being set so far back that it can not walk at all, but
scrambles along scraping its breast on tlie ground.
Loos, los, Charles Lofis: educator; b. at Woerth-sur-
Sauer, in the department of Basse-Alsace, France, Dec. 22,
1823. In 1834 he removed to the I'. S. and settled at New
Franklin, ()., where he studied Fnglish, ancl in 1840-43
taught in the common schools. He became identified with
the Disciples of Christ in 1838. and liegan to preach at the
age of seventeen. In 1S42 he entered Bethany College where
he graduated in 1846. He remained three years after gradu-
ation as teacher in the ])rimary deiiartnient. After serving
as pastor at Wellsburg. Ya., Somerset. Pa. (where he also
conducted an academy and edited The Di.tciple for two
years), and at Cincinnati. O., he removed to Eureka. III., to
take the presidency of the college. In the following year
he was elected to the chair of Ancient Languages and Lit-
erature in Bethany College. He filled this position until
1880. when lie became ]iresident of Kentucky I'niversity.
He was for seven years co-editor of The Millennial Har-
binger; is a contributor to the leading publications of the
Disciples ; has been for many years president of the Foreign
Christian Missionary Society. J. H. Garrison.
Loosjes. liJsyes. Adriaan Pieterszoox: novelist; b. in
1761 on the island of Texel. Holland. He was a bookseller,
thoroughly middle class in tastes and sympathies. His rejni-
tation as a writer also was mainly of the same kind. He
strove to render historical subjei'ts in a way to ajipeal to the
sentiment and patriotism of the average reader. He began
with historical sketches in dialogue, or, as he said, dramatic
form: Frank i<an Borseten en Jacoba ran lieijeren (1790-
91); Charlotte ran Bourbon [\7il'2); Louisede Coligny(lSO^i);
Johan de Witt (1805), etc. Other sketches of a more inde-
pendent kind appeared in 1804-05 under the title Zedelijke
Verhalen. He now attempted a longer flight, and adojiting
the English Richardson as his model wrote in eiiistolary form
his Ilistorie van Mejufrrouw Susanna Bronkhorst (6 vols.,
1806-07). This was followed in 1808 by his greatest success,
Maurits Lijnslager, an attempt to reproduce the life of a pa-
triotic Dutch burgher of the seventeenth century in detail.
Sulisequeiit novels failed to meet with the favor of this;
Jlillequniia Buisma/i (1808) ; Lotgevatlen ran den Ileere B. J.
ran (iolslein (1809-10) ; Leren van Robbert Ilellemans (1815) ;
Johan Wonter Blommesteyn (1816). Loosjes wrote also in
his youth love-songs, Minnczangen (1783) : an epic, De Buyter
(1784); and several plays. He died at Haarlem in 1818.
A. R. Marsh.
Lope (le Ag'llirrp, lo ^ui-df-ali-geerd : an adventurer; b.
at Oilate, Asturias, .Spam, about 1508. He early went to
Panama, and thence to Peru, where he led so scandalous a
life that he was known as Aguirre the Madman. It appears
that he was once publicly whipjied. and that he murdered
the official who had punished him. Alter engaging in sev-
eral rebellions he was outlawed and, like many other wild
characters, he joined the ex|)e(lilion of Pedro de drsna,
which was to search for Fil Dorado in the region watered by
the upjier Amazon (1.559). Descending the Huallaga in
lioats they reached the Amazon, where, near the )iresent site
of Tabatinga, Orsua was murdered by Aguirre and others
(Jan. 1, 1561). Fernando de (iiizman was then made general,
with Aguirre as his lieutenant ; the band declared them-
selves ri'licls and ]iirates, and pmceeded dciwti the river,
plundering Iii<lian villages, quarreling with each other, and
committing every possible crime. Near the mouth of the
Rio Negro Aguirre murdered (Juznian and made himself
chief; he killed many others whom he suspected, or from
mere caprice. The course taken after (iuzman's death is a
matter of dispute, some authors supposing that the band
aseendc'd the Negro to the Cassi(|iii;il'e. and thence descended
the Orinoco ; but it is mm-e jirobahle that they continueil,
down the .\ma7.on. Finally reaching tlie island of Marga-
rita, off the coast of Yeiiezuela, Aguirre murdered the gov-
LOl'E DE VEGA CAIUMS
LOPEZ
sr,
emor and Dthers niul rubbed the roynl treasury : thoiipc,
passiiiff til till' maiiiliirid, lir wriilv, from Vali'iuia, u Icltor Id
king Philip II., wliiili lias heen pre.siTvril, in which he tells
tho stDiT 1)1 his own erinics unil declares himself n rebel
until death. The authorities at the coast, in great alarm,
gatliered a force, which linally encountered him near IJar-
quisimeto ; many of his men at once deserted him. and
Aguirre, in despair, killed his own daughter "thai she
might not be ealle<l the child of a traitor." lie was cap-
tured the same day, ami shot (Oct. 27, 1.5(51). Aguirre's band
was the second company of Spaniards which defended the
Amazon, the first having In^en that commanded byOrellana.
See Markham, Ej-pfdilion of Pfdro de I'r.iua (1S61) ; South-
er, The Expediliun of Orsiin and the Crimen of Aijuirre
(1821). IIkkhkkt II". Sjilth.
Lnpe Felix de Vega Carpio: See Xymk Cahi-io, Loi-e
Kki.i.x, de.
L(»'pes, or Lopez, FernXo: historian: b. in Portugal
about 18H0; was made chief archivist of the kingdom by
King Doni Joito I. in 14;i4, and devoted his life to the col-
h'cti<in and stmly of materials for the history of his country
and the <'oni|>cisition of chronicles of several of her kings.
Like Kroissart, he personally visited the scenes of battles
and of other important events, ami conferred much with
eminent soldiers and statesmen who had particijiated in the
wars and other public affairs of Portugal. lie died «ftcr
14.ji). The chronicles of Lopes possess great literary and
critical value, and are probably surpassed in merit by no
historical works of the century in which they were written.
The field of action and the i>eriod of time embraced by the
narratives of Lopes are narrower than those covered by the
immortal work of Kroissart ; and <loubtless this is one of the
reasons for the much greater accuracy of Lopes in point of
date, detail, and attending cireumstanecs. The style of
Lopes is generally less pictures()ue than that of Kroissart,
but in some eases — as, for instance, in the description of the
battle of .Mjuliarota, known in Portuguese history as Die
battle, fought in the year KiSti — the Portuguese writer has
a decided superiority over the Krench chronicler. Lopes is
always animated with a patriotism which much enlivens his
annals. The works of Lopes are Chninini do Seiilior Rei
Doiii Pedro I.; Chronica do Senhor liei Dnm Fernando,
both printed in vol. iv. of the ('ollerriio de Lirro.t Ineditox
de Ili.storia Porluyneza (Lisbon. 1816), and the very rare and
important Chronica del Rey Dom Jodo I. (Lisbon, Ki+I, 2
nart.s, folio), with a third part or conlinimtion by Gomes
Eannes d'Azurara.
Lopez, C.vRLOs AxTONio: president of Paraguay: b. near
Asuncion about IT!*.") (the exact date is apparently unknown).
He studied at the schools of .\suncion, and acijuireil a repu-
tation for learning, especially in law. After the death of
Francia (Sept. 20, 1840) an irregular junta seized the gov-
ernment: this was deposed after three numths by another
junta, of which Lopez was nominally .secretary, but really
the leading spirit. A congress elected him first consul and
Ro(jue Alonzo second consul, Mar. 12, 1841 : the latter was
a cipher in the administration, and from this time Lopez
was practically dictator of Paraguay, though he never look
that title; the successive congresses simply olieyed his di-
rections. In Mar., 1844, the congress adopted a constitu-
tion which he had written, giving unlimited powers to the
executive: it then elected him [iresident for ten years, and
ho was re-elected for three years in 18.")4, and for seven
years, with the right of naming his successor, in 1S.')T. In
the main he continued Fraiicia's policy of isolation, though
he permitted a restricted foreign commerce, and allowiil a
few foreignei-s to enter the ciiuntry. Less cruel or more
timid than Krancia, he generally b.'inished suspected or ob-
noxious persons instead of imprisi>ning or executing them :
but there was practically no law exci'pt his will. Some im-
firovemeiits were initiated, and a short railway wius .started:
)ut much of the trade i>f the country was kept in his own
hands. He greatlv strengthened the army, fortified the
river Paraguay at lluniaita, and formed a small navy. His
ill-treatment of foreigners and insults to envoys and consuls
brought about quarrels with Great Britain, Krance, ami the
U.S., only the isolated position of Paraguay .saving him from
punishment. In I.8.1!) the l'. S. .sent a sijuadron to the Plata
to enforce claims against him. He consented to submit Hie
matter to arbitration, but subsequently eviuled it. Lopez
declared war on tlii' dictator Kosjis of Hueni>s .\yres, liiit
there was little actual fighting. D. at Asuncion, .Sept. 19,
1862. Herrkkt 11, Smith.
Lopez. Francisco Solaxo: eldest son and successor of
Carlos Antonio Lopez: b. at Asuncion, July 24, 1827. His
early education was almost entirely neglected: but after his
father attained [lower he was successively intrusted with
the most important offices. When only nineteen years old
he was made commander-in-chief of the Paraguayan armv,
then engageil against Kosjis; and though he saw little actual'
fighting, he doubtless obtained some ideas of the art of war
through a.ssociation with the Argentine general Paz, in Cor-
rientes. Later (18.J3-.")4) he s]M-nt eightt'cii months in' Euroixj
as s|M'cial minister to the courts of London, Paris, and Turin,
During this time he iiurchaseil larg.' (luanlilies of arms and
materials of war, with several steamers, contracted Utt the
building of a railway, and engaged the services of engineers;
he even sent a colony of Krench emigrants to Paraguay,
giving them promises which were shamefully broken. At
Paris he met Madame Lynch, an Irish adveiitiiress. who fol-
lowed him to Paraguay as his mistress, ami liad great infiu-
eiice on his future career. In 18.';.') he was made Minister of
War, a position which greatly stimulated his desire to make
Paraguay a iiiilitaiy power." On tin- death of his father
(.Sept. It), 1862) he assumed the executive by virtue of a will
in which he had been nominated vice-president, this strange
power having been granted to the ehler Lopez by his sub-
servient congress. Having convoked another 'congress,
Lopez was duly elected by it iiresident for ten vears((»ct.
16). Ambition to be a military ieailer was. from tlie first, thi-
motive-power of his rule. Large stores of arms anil ammu-
nition were secretiv imported, and the fortifications which he
had built when Minister of War were greatly strengthened.
Having thus prepared himstdf, Lopez took advantage of the
Brazilian intervention in the civil war of I'rugiiav to make
his power felt. In Sept., 1864, he summoned Brazil to wilh-
ilraw her troops from Uruguay: and before an answer to
this demand could reach him. he began hostilities by seiz-
ing at Asuncion a Brazilian mail and ]iassenger steamer
which was ascending the river Paraguay to Matto (iros-so.
Following this a powerful squadron was sent to Matto
Grosso, easily taking Coimbra and Corumba. where the in-
vasion came as a complete surprise. Another force was
sent into the Brazilian province of Kio (irande do Sul, and
as this had to pa.ss across Argentine territorv, it provoked
a vigorous protest from the government at liuenos Ayres.
On this Lo]iez sumnioned his obedient congress (the mem-
bers nominated by himself) and caused it to make a formal
declaration of war against Brazil and Argentina, receiving
at the same time the title of marshal (.Mar., 186.5). Before
this declaration could be known in Buenos Avres Ixijiez
seized several Argentine vessels, including two men-of-war,
and occupied C'orrientes ( Ajir. 14). ( tn May 1 the representa-
tives of Brazil, the Argentine Hepublic, and Uruguay signed,
at Buenos Ayres. a treaty of alliance against Paraguay.
The struggle which followed (the war of the Triple Alliance,
or simply Paraguayan war) lasted for five years, and was
one of the most important in Smith American history. Tho
Paraguayans who had invaded liio (irande do Sul were
speedily cut off. and 6,000 of them finally surrendered to tlie
Emperor of Brazil at Uruguayana (.S"pt. 18. 186,5). Tho
forces of Lopez were driven from Corrientes, which then 1m"-
caine the base of operations of the allies, but the isolateil
position of Paraguay, surrounded as it is by wide stretches
of forest or unsettled land, made its invasion almost im-
possible except by the rivei-s, and Lo|k'Z had prepared for
this by greatly strengthening his fortifications at Humaitii
and Giirupaity. on the Paraguay, just above its junction
with the Parana. These were the objective points of the
allied operations and of a long si'ries of battles, until .luly,
186.S, when they were captured. The Paraguavans tlien es-
tablished other lines of defense farther N., which were sue-
eessivelv tjikeii after much hard fighting. R'aten at all
points Lopez fied into Norlhern Paragiiav: but at the river
Aqiiidaban he was overtaken by a Brazilian force, and in
the milie was killed, with his eldest son (.\pr. I, 1870).
Madame Lynch was allowed to retire to Kuro[>c. During
the war she had acquirvd, by forced tuirchase or coiiMm'S-
tion. a large amount of proiMTty. muc!'. of which was never
recovered. See Washburn, Uixtortj of Piiracionii (2 vols.,
1871): Thoiniison, The War in Parnt/iini/ (IstHl): Master-
man, Seren Kvenlful Yrnr» in Piirniiunii (IS(5!l): Sidineider,
Der Krieg der Triple-. Mlianz (3 vols.. 1S72-7.5I: A ffiirrrn
dii Triphce Allianfa (Portugnest' tniii^laiion of S<'hneider'»
work, with notes by. I. M. da Silva Panintios. lf<7.V76): Bur-
ton, Letters from ihi- Hulllt-li, /,!.■< i.f /'.inic/i/riy (1871).
IIkrhert II. SMiTn.
358
LOPEZ
LORKTO
Lopez. Xarciso: soMior niul filitiiisitcr: b. in Voneziiola,
IT'JS ur IVM. lie fiiiii;lit with llic S|iniii.sli troops iiitiiiiist
tlic patriots of Vom'Ziii'l!i. iiml when thiit country nehieveil
its iiuleiKMidenie (I82;J) went to Spain, where lie .server! with
distinct ion airiiinst the I'urlists. In 1S;J!I he was nwuie ;H(tr('«-
eal He rampo ami jrovernor of Valencia ; in 1IS40 he was one
of the principal leailers of the I'miiresistn party, which then
came into power, and he was promoted to the rank of gen-
eral. The next year he went to rul)a. where, for a time, he
lield im(M)rtant military olVices. but snlwquently was neirhct-
cd by the };overnmeiit, and. lunlertakin^ private speculations,
became bankrupt. About 1848 he eiif;a};eil in revolutiotniry
idots, which were discovered, and in 184!) he fled to the U. S.
The same year he ori;ainzed a lilil>uslerinir expedition, which
wju> stopped l)y order of I'resideiit Taylor. In May. 1S.5(). he
left New Orleans in the steamer Creole, with Gilt men, and
made a descent on I'liba, but met with no support, and was
speedily forced to retire. A third attempt was made from
I«ew Orleans, Aug.. 18.il. in the steamer Pampero, with (iOO
men; among these wius a nephew of the U. S. Attorncy-
<ieneral, and the llunjjarian general Prajjay. The expedi-
tion resulted disastrously; a largo numiier of the jiartici-
pants were captured, and as the U. S. Government luul
<mtlawed them, they were executed by the Cuban authori-
ties; Lopez was shot at Havana, Sept. 1, 1851.
IlERUiiRT H. Smith.
Lophi'odon [Mod. Lat. ; Gr. K6(biov. dimin. of \6(pos. crest
+ hiovs, oS6vTos. loolli] : a genus of Tcrliary iiiainiMals. first
<lescribed by Cuvier from remains occurring in the l']occiie
of France. These animals were allied to the tajiir. They
derive their name from the structure of the true molars or
grinding teeth, which have their crowns crossed transversely
by two crests or ridges of dentine covered with a layer of
enamel. The last lower molar has also a small posterior
lobe. The premolars are more simple in structure, and com-
pressed, resembling the lirst premolar of the tajiir. Thi'
upper molars also resemble those of the tapir, but approach
in some respects those of the rhinoceros. The diastema or
toothless interval beween the canine and molar teeth was
much shorter than in the tapir. Several species of Lo-
phiudun have been found in the Eocene of France and (ireat
Mritain. but very little is really known of the skull or skele-
ton. The species of tapiroid mammals formerly referred
to this genus from the early Tertiary deposits of the U. S.
jirc now regarded as belonging to other genera.
0. C. Marsh.
Lophi'oniys: scientific name of a very rare and remark-
able rodent (Lupliiomijs iinhaiitii) from Northeast Africa,
the sole member of the family Lop/iium/jidd'. Lophiomys is
uniiiue amons nnimmals from the fact that the temporal
f<jssH is roofed over by bony plates, as in the turtles. The
thund) is opposable, and the animal climbs well. The gen-
eral color is blackish brown : the foi-chcad, a streak under
each eye, and the tip of the tail arc white. The hairs down
the center of the back and tail are about :i inches long, and
can be erected into a crest. The animal is about the size
of a large Norlli .\merican muskrat. F. A. Litas.
Lopliobraii'cliii [.Moil. Lat., from Gr. \6(pos. tuft -i- Ppdy-
X"o, gills]: an order of fishes distinguishiui by the fibro-
cartilaginous skeleton, the development of the bones of the
hea<l, and especially by the preseiuv of but a single large
operculum on eaidi side, and by the jiroduction of the snout
and lo-wer jaw into a tube, at the end of which is the mouth.
The lujiiie refers to the tuft-like form of the gills, which are
contracted to a brush-like form. The order contains the
sea-horses, pipe-fishes, and their allies.
• Kcvised by D. S. .Jordan.
L(i'(|imt [Chin., a corrupticm of Cantonese lukmil = Man-
ilarin Ink hinh. rush orange]: a handsome fruit-bearing
shrub (JCrloholrjia jitpiinica) of the order Jioaacfa; a native
of China ami .Japan, cultivated in parts of the U. S. and
other warm temperate rcglon.s. Its fi nit is very early, has
n yellow color, and resembles a very small apple.
Lorain: village; Lorain co.. (). (for location of countv.
see map of Ohio, ref. 2-G) : on Lake Kric, at the mouth of
the Hlack river, and on ihe N. Y.. Chi. and St, L.. aii<l the
Cleve., Lorain ami Whi el. railways; 20 miles W. of Cleve-
land. It has an exeillcMl harbor, is in a natural-gas region,
has considerable general trade and manufacturi'S of bia.ss
goods, and is an important sliipping-point for the coal of
Central (Jhio. There are three wceklv newHpatiers. Pop.
(1880) 1,.VJ.'3 ; (1890) 4,H(i;j. Ki.rroK of " Timks."
Lor'oa (ane. E/iacroca, or llorfuiii): city; in the prov-
ince of Murcia. Spain; on the Saiigonero — which is here
called the liiiadaleiitin — ;tt) miles S. W. of JIurcia (see map
of S[)ain. ref. 18-11). It is an old but well-built and pros-
iiering place, and hius large nianufactures of soap, dyestuirs,
leather, paper, cloth, and gunpowder. In the vicinity are
lead and sulphur mines. Pop. (1887) .58.327.
Lord Hone Island : a small isolated island under the
supervision of New Soulli Wales: in lat. ST 30 .S., Ion. 159°
K.. 400 miles E. of the .Australian coast. Area. 3 S(|. miles.
Pop. (IHiH) .55; in 18.59 the population \vas 300. It is vol-
canic and very fertile. Its flora and fauna are Australian.
Lord's l>av : a inunc for the first day of the week, de-
rived from Rev. i. 10. The ren<lering "Lord's Day" is
Wycliffe's (1380). In all of the editions of Luther's New
Testament previous to his revision of 1.541 he remlers ^Ihi
Sonliii/f. and Tyndale (1.52(5-34), Coverdale (1.534), Cranmer
(1539) follow liiiii, and tianslatc "on a Soiidaye." The
^Fthiopic reniU'rs it " the first day." The word KupicuoJj is
found also in 1 Cor. xi. 20; " tite Lord'.i supper." The day
of our Lord's resurrection was observed in the apostolic
times, and the title "Lord's Day" is applied in Ignatius,
h-ena'us. the Clenicntine Constitutions, and Terlullian, and
at a later period universally. (Suicer, Tlienauriis Eccltsiant.
iv/. .S'cc, 1728, ii., 184.) Sec Sabbath and Suxuay.
Lords. House of: .See Parliamkxt.
Lord's Slipper : Sec Ei<harist.
Lorelei. Ir>iv--li. The : an im|iosing cliff on the eiustern
bank of the Rhine, half a mile above St. Goar. It is 447
feet high, and is now jienetrated by a railway tunnel. At
its foot is a whirlpool and a famous salmon-basin. The
tradition is that a <'ave in the rock is the abode of the Lore-
lei, a wicki'd siren, wliose beauty ami sweet song distracted
the boatmen upon the river and caused I liem, through their
lu'gligence, to be wrecked in the whirlpool. The scenery at
this point is regarded as the most attractive on the Rhine.
Loreiizet'ti. A.mbrouio: painter; b. at Siena, Italy; the
year is unknown, lie studied iiainting with his father, a
painter known as Lori-nzo. Ainbrogio Lorenzetti was the
founder of the Sienese school as distinguished from the
Florentine. An important work of this artist is in the
town-hall at Siena. His frescoes and jiiclures are mostly to
be studied in his luitive city. The smaller ones are iiiar-
velously beautifid, and seem to be precursors in sweetness
anil feeling of the works of Fra Angelico, Lorenzetti was
already aged when the Florentines commissioned him to
paint for the Church of St. Procolo .some stories from the life
of St. Nicholas, which have been transferred to the alibey in
Florence. Pictru, liis brother, also a painter, helped him in
the fresco of the .Mrirn'iii/f of Ihe 1 iryin in the hospital
of Siena. Vasari mistakenly declares him to have been
a pupil of Giotto's, and calls him Ldunifi. In the Campo
.Santo at Pisa there are frescoes by him formerly attributed
to Orcagna. Pietro was still painting in 13.5.5. but the date
of his death is unknown. Ills son Lorenzo was a sculptor
who studied and worked in Pisa. W. J. .Stili.man.
Loreta. l»-rataa. Piktro. M. I).. Count: surgeon; b. in
Ravenna. Italy ; studied medicine iu the University of Holo-
gini in 1847, but the Austro-ltalian war inlerruplcd his
studies, and he did not graduate until 18.58; practiced in the
country until 18til. when he liecanie anatomical prosectiu' for
Prof. Calori in Bologna; in ls(i5toiik charge of the surgical
clinic in Hologna I'nivcrsity. but his work was interrupted
by Garibaldi's campaign : in 1868 became Professor of Sur-
gery in the university. He was a surgeon of great skill and
origiiudity, and the method of dilatation of the pylorus for
cancer was invented by him. Among his imblished writ-
ings are roK/'ov^/i^c rh'ii/clif xul/e hisMuiuiii /ruiiuKilirlie
(.\lilan, 1884); La diriilsiune dii/iliile del piloru (Uulojiua,
1884). I). July 23. 1889. " S. T. Armstronu.
Loreto: city of Italy; in the province of Ancona; 15
miles by rail .S. W. from the town of Anconn and 3 from
the sea (see ma]i of Italy, ref. 4-E). It contains a small
church called the Holy House, which for cenluries has been
the resort of pilgrims, amounting to about 800.000 annmdiy.
Tills building, according to a legend, is the house in which
the \'irgin .Mary was born and brought up. It is said that.
after having been consecrated by the apostles, it was trans-
ferred by the ministry of angels from the power of the
Turks — first to Dalmalia in 1291, and then to Loreto in
1294. The sole industry of the city itself is the manufac-
ture of rosarie.s, crucifixes, etc., which are .sold to the pilgrims.
LORETO
LOUNE
359
Loreto, lo-rufo: a il'-partnicnt of Peru, (icciinviiiK nil
tlie iiorllieastirii [pait of tlir iT|iulilic. Oil tin' \V., S. \V..
uml S. it Ijiircit-rs on l\n: depart iiu-iitsof Ainazomi-S, Liliertad,
Ancachs, lliianuco, Jiiiiiii. ami ('iizi-o; to ttu' K. it is sepa-
rated from Kra/.il and Bolivia l>_v tlu' riviT .lavary ami a
line of uncertain position (see J.wahv ami Pkki): to the
N. it iiu-ludes all tiie territory to ttie Marailon or Amazon,
and beyond that river claims a lari,'e re^jion which is dis-
puted by Ecuador, ('olonil>ia, and Ura/.il. With all these
uncertainties it is impossible to calculate tlie area, even ap-
proximately, but prolialily it is not less than 'i'i't.iXH) sq.
miles, or more than hair of Peru. Portions of this vast
territory are sometimes as*Tilied to Cu/a'o. .\purimae. Junin,
and other departments, thus tjrcatly iricreasinj; the con-
fusion. Even the settled districts of Loreto are very im-
perfectly known, and the eastern part is entirely unexplored.
The western boundary is formed by the main chain of the
Andes (Conlillera of I'irii), and Ihcro is a brancli cliain, the
Cordillera Oriental, farllu'r K. Tlio space between these
ranges is occupied by the broken and more or less moun-
tainous valley of the upjier IIuallaoa (</. v.), and the river,
emersiug from it, Hows over lower land to the Marailon.
.Fartlier E. the great river Ucavali {g. r.) crosses the de-
partment from S. to X., and also joins the Marafion. The
Uitayali tlows tliroujfh flat laml, and, so far as known,
these Hat lan<ls, portions of the .Vmazon depression, are al-
most continuous in the eastern ami mirlhern portions of the
de[>jirtmcnt. It would appear, however, that there are also
higher lands, probably outlying portions of the great Bra-
zilian plateau of no great altitude; such probably are the
so-called Conomamas Andes, which vague reports locate E.
of the Ucayali. From the base of the main .Vndes east-
ward avast forest stretches over Loreto; it is interrupted
by some tracts of grass-land in the upper Iluallaga valley,
aud on the PampiLs del .Sacramento, an extensive liut little-
known region \\. of the L'cayali: but E. of that river the
forest is prol)alily unbroken. Rubber and other forest prod-
ucts are obtained about the great rivers ; rich salt-beds ex-
ist in tlio Iluallaga, and are workeil on a small scale, and
gold an<l other minerals are rejjorted; but the future of the
department probal>ly lies in its fertile soil. At present
about 6."),lt()() inhaliitant^;. nutinly civilized Indians, acknowl-
edge the (tovernment of Peru. These are most ly gathered
in the upper Iluallaga valley and along the .MaraAon. The
remainder of the department is inhabited only by wild Ind-
ians, vaguely calculated at 30(1,000. Ijul probal^ly less than
half thai nuuil)er. The capital is Moyobamba. Steamers
a-sceud the Marafion to Xauta, and have explored the re-
gion above, the L'cayali and the lower Iluallaga. See .1. W.
de Maltos, Dicrinnario /upoi/ra/j/iiro ilo Ji'/iartaiiieiito de Lo-
reto (Para, Brazil, 1S74). ami the travels of llerndon, Smyth,
Mawe, Castlenau, and Orton. IIkhuert II. Smith.
Loreto, Sistors of, or " Friends of Mary at the Foot of
the Cross": a Homan Catholic religious order for women,
founded in 1813 in Kentucky by Charles Xerinckx (1761-
1824), a priest. They have many establishments in the
western parts of the U. S., and ilcvote themselves to the
cause of education and the care of destitute orphans.
Loretlc, 15-ret' : post-village of Quebec County, Canada;
7 miles from Queljec (see luap of Ijuebec, ref. 4-1)). It is a
beautiful [ilace, resorted to for the view of its waterfall, and
has some manufactures of paper and flour. The inhabit-
ants are part Iv Christianized Huron Indians. At this place
are water-works for the supply of t^uebec.
Lor^iips, Antoine PRANtois Felix Koselly, de : See Ro-
SELI.V UK LoRUUES.
Lorira'tn [.Mod. Lat.. liter., neut. plur. of Lat. loriea-
ius, cuirassed, deriv. of lorirn rf, clothe in mail, deriv. of
lori ca, cuirass, leather coi-selet, deriv. of to rum. thonir] : a
term applied to tlio.se reptiles which are " loricated." or fur-
nished with a coat-of-mail formed by an epidermal exoskele-
ton of bony scales, as in the crocoilile.s. The name was
originally given to the armadillos, and has been used for
very ditterent groups of animals, including some of the
ganoids and giirnanls among lishes, certain mollusks, and n
group of infusoria. The term is. however, generally used in
reference to the Crocodiliuns. llevised by F. A. LrcAS.
Lorieiit, Iwri-aaiV. or L'Orient : town ; in the depart-
ment of Morhilian, France: at the month of the Scorff, in
the Bay of Biscay (see map of France, ref. 4-U): foumlo.1 in
the middle of tlie seventeenth centurj- by the Fri'iich East
India Company, whence its name, Port de I'Orient. It at
one time had n very large trade. In 1770 it wa.s made one
of the four stations of thi- French navy, and has a capacious
anil safe harbor lineil with handsome quavs, and proleiied
with strong fortifications at its entrance. lltsd<^'kyards and
arsenals are extensive, and il< manufactures of all kinds of
naval ei|uipments are very im|Kjrtant. Pop. (IS'Jl) 42,116.
Lorillard City : .See Centrai, Amkkk a.v AxTn<rmEs.
Loring, Euward (Jreelv, M. 1>. : ophthalmologist ; b. in
Boston, Mass., in 18;i7: he studied medicine iu Italy, and
subsei|uently at the Harvard Medical School, where he gradu-
ated M. I), in iy64 ; subsequently studied iliscases of thtvcye
and ear for a year, then practiced in Baltimore one year;
settled in New York city in ln(i7. lie was one of the founders
of the Manhattan Eye and Ear Hospital. His chief work
is Texlbouk of Ophlhuhiwucopy (Xew Vork, 1880). I), in
New York city. Apr. 2:{, 1888. S. T. A.
Loriii^, Georoe Bailey, M.I).: agriculturist; b. at
North Andover, .Ma.s.s., Nov. 8. 1K17: graduated at Harvard
College 1838. and at the Harvard Medical .School 1842; was
physician t<j the Chelsea Marine Hospital for some years;
devoted himself after 18o0 entirely to siieiilific agriculture
and the preparation and dilivery of s|]cecht'S. lectures, and
occasional addresses upon political, historical, scientific,
eilucatioiial, and agricultural topics, and the writing of re-
ports and essays on similar subjects. He took up his resi-
dence at .Salem; represented that city for several terms in
the Massachusetts House of Uepre.sentalives and Senate ;
was for three years president of the latter txxly. and for
many years president of the State Agricultural Society.and
was a member of the Republican national conventions of
1868, 1872, and 1876. Dr. Loring had a wide reputation as
an orator, and was frequently invited to deliver addres-ses
upon memorial occasions. An address at the opening of
the scientific course of the American Institute. Xew York,
1870, was widely copied. lie contributed largely to Flint's
Agricultural Reports, to Murray's work On the Horse, and
wrote a serial for the IV)Ston d'tuie, called The Farmyard
Club of Jothaiii. dealing with Xew England life and modes
of thought. He wius a member of Congress 1H76-81 ; L'. S.
commissioner of agriculture 1881-8.J; U. S. minister to
Portugal 1889-90. D. in Salem, Mass., Sept, 14, 1891.
Loring, \Villiam Wish : general ; b. in Wilmington,
X. C.. Dec. 4. 1818 : entered the L'. S. army as private soldier
in a detachment of mounted volunteers, and served in the
Florida war 183.5-42 ; became second lieutenant in 1837,
captain of mounted rifles 1846. major in 1847, lieutenant-
colonel in 1848. and colonel in 18.56 ; commanded a regiment
in the battles in the valley of Mexico; was breveted lieu-
tenant-colonel for gallantry at Conlreras and Churubusco,
and colonel for gallantry at Chapultepec ; lost an arm at
the Belen gate of Mexico; commanded an expedition on
the Gila river, X'ew Mexico, 1857, where he fought the .Mo-
gollan Indians ; resigned his colonelcy May 13. 1H61 ; became
a brigadier-general, and suljseqiienlly a major-general, in
the Confederate army, serving in West Virginia 1862, at
Vicksburg 186;j, ami with Gen. Bragg at ChattaiUHiga aud
in the ensuing cjimpaign. In 1869 he went to Egypt, and
became i)asha ami chief of staff of the army of the kliedive;
returned to the L'. S. in 1879, and published .4 CoiiMeraU
Soldier in Egypt (Xew Y'ork, \>m). D. Dec. 80, 1886.
Revised by James Mekcur.
Lo'rinser. Karl Iunaz ; physician ; b. at Xiemes, in the
Bohemian Mouiilaiiis. .luly 24.1796; studied mi'flicine at
Prague and Berlin, where he tinik his degree in 1H17 ; held
several medical oflices in Pnissia. from which he relireil to
private life in 18.50. D. at Patschkau. in Silesia. l)ct. 2, 1853.
lUs Untersiifhungen iibrr dm JiiiKlerjiest (Be4lin. IStl)
proveil of great In-nefit to the farmers, and his Xiim Sc/tuti
tier Oesumlheit in Jen Schnlen (Berlin. 18301, which caused
a long and vehement controversy, occasioned the re-establish-
ment of Turn-places Hi the Pms.>iian s<hi><ils. — His son. Fkan'S
LoBl.vsER (b. ill Berlin. Mar. 12. 1821). has acqiiintl a name
as a Roman Catholic the<i|ogiaii,and as well v. - ' • ■ ^' in-
ish literature, from which he has made sev. ill
translations. He is author of .li(.« ii>:iiifm J. is,
1891).
Loris-Melikoff: .See Mbi-IKoff.
Lormian, Baoi-k: See Baoir-Lormiav, Pierre Maris
Fraxi/ois Loris.
Lome, John Georoe Edward Henry Doi-olas Sithkr-
LAND CAMPnKi.L. Manpiis of: b. in London, Aug. 6. 1845;
was educated at Eton, St. Andrews University, and Trinity
360
LORRAIN
LOSSIXG
College, Caiiibriilu'c. lie represt>ntcil Arsryllshiro ns n Lib-
eral member of rarliaiuciil 18(58-78 ; was niarriuJ to the
Princess lAUiise in 18T1 ; and was Uovernor-Ueueral of Can-
ada 1878-8;!. Holh he and the primess were popular in
Canada, and contributed niuih toward fostering and induc-
ing sentiments of loyally to the mother-country. The nuir-
(luis was an unsuccessful candidate for Ilampslead in the
Liberal interests in 1885; again defeated in 181I2. when he
stood for the central division of Uradford. He has contrib-
uted to American and British magazines, and has published
A Trip to the Tiopirx. and llomf l/irouyh America (1867);
Ouitlo and Lila : a Tule uf the Riviera, a poem (1875) ; The
Psalms Literally reutlrrril in Verse (1877). The Princess
Louise has displayed talerit as a painter and sculptor, and
drew the illustrations for one of her husband's works.
NiiiL Macdoxald.
Lorrain. ('i.Ai'i)E ; See Gklke.
Lorraine, lor ran' (Germ. /y«//i»-tH^p«): a territory between
the rivers Hhine, Saone, Meuse, and Scheldt ; forming a \)\n-
tcau from 500 to 800 feet high, which leans against the ^ os-
pes, with a northern and northwestern inclination. Origi-
nally it was tliat jwrtion of the empire of Cliarlemagne
which, witli Nnrtliern Italy, was assigned to Lothairc in the
treaty of Verdun, 84;i. It'tlien conslituted the border-land
between tlic eastern and Western Franks, and stretched all
the way from Switzerland to the North Sea. Its name was
derived from Lothaire IL, son of the P^mpcror Lothaire L,
who received this territory at the division of his father's do-
minions, and called it Ldtharii Reyniim (Lotharingia).
Under the C'arlovingian dynasty the country was an object
of perpetual strife i)elween France and Germany. Alter
the extinction of the Carlovingian house the Emperor Otho
1. gave it to his brother Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, who
divided it into two parts — Upper Lorraine, between the
Rhine, Saone, and Meuse, and Ijower Lorraine, between the
Rhine. Meuse, and Scheldt. The latter received the name
of the duchy of Braliaut, became a part of Burgundy, fell to
the house of Austria, and the greater part of it is now in-
corporated with Belgium. Upper Lorraine was ruled for
centuries by a dynasty of its own, subject, however, either
to French or to (jerman authority, but by the i)ea(-c of
Westphalia in 1648 the three bishoprics of Toul, Metz, and
Verdun were ceded to France. In 1733, in the Polish war
of succession, the duehy was comiuered by the French, and
in 1737 the legal lieir, Frantz Stephan IV., the husband of
Maria Theresa, exchanged it fur I lie grand ducliy of Tuscany.
Stanislaus, the ex-King of Poland and father-in-law to Louis
XV., was then made (hike, and on his ileath in 1776 Upper
Lorraine became a part of France. The inhabitants, how-
ever, although they became very much attached to France,
remained German in language and customs in the eastern
and northern districts, and this part of the country, with
the fortress of Metz. was ceded to Germany May 10, 1871.
It is now governed, in connection with Alsace, as a province
of the German empire. See Alsace-Lorbaixe.
Lorris, lo'rces', Guillai'me, de : poet; b. at Lorris, not far
from Orleans. France, soon after 1210; d. about 1"237. He
received an excellent education for his time, probably at
Orleans, then a center of classical studies. He is famous as
the aullior of the lirst part of the Romaxie of the Rose
[q. I'.), which he composed at the age of twenty-five. After
his premature death, his work was left for forty years in-
complete, until .lean ile Jleuiig continued it at great length
and in a very dilferent spirit. A. R. M.
Los Altos, los-aal'tos: a portion of Western Guatemala
whii^h. from Feb. 3, 1838, to .Jan. 29, 1840, constituted a
sixth state of the ('entral AmericHii republic. It was formed
of the departmi'iils of Sololii, Toloiiicapan, and Quezalte-
nango, embracing also (nearly) the present departments of
Huehuetenaiigo, San .Mari'o, Retalluilen, and Suchitepequez.
Dissatisfied with tlie eondition of affairs, the people of this
region seceded from liiiatemala ; a constilution was adopted
in May, 183i», and Maicelo Molina was elected first presi-
dent ; a treaty was i-ilchrated with .Salvador. Guatemala
at first pretended to he friendly to the new stale, but pre-
texts for a (iiiarrel soon arose. Carrera invailed the terri-
tory at the liead of Giiatemalcan forces, and defeated the
troops of .'Molina .Ian. 2!', 1840. Los Altos was then reincor-
porated with Guatemala. The secessionists were treated
with great cruelty. IIerhert H. Smith.
Los Aiiilos: a western state of Venezuela ; between Zu-
lia, Lara, Zaniora, Armisticio terrilorv, and Colombia, with
a short coast on the east side of Lake ilaracaibo. Area, 14,-
There arc 4 nalinnal banks willi combinecl capita! of *1,3!K),-
000. 15 state and savings banks with cipital of !i;2,3(i0.2O0.
719 .sq. miles. The Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, entering
it from the southward, traverses the state and juins the
Venezuelan coast range; these mountains, loeally known as
the Sierra Nevada de .Merida. are the highest in Venezuela,
some peaks attaining, it is said, over 15.000 feet ; many rise
above the snow limit. They iiu hide valleys and I'levated
plains iioteil for their fertility and delightful climate. The
chief products are coftee. cacao, and, in the lower valleys,
sugar ; maize and even wheat are grown to some extent on
the hifh plains. Pop. (1891) 336.146. Capital. Merida.
Other impdrtaiit towns are Trujillo, Bocono, La (irila, and
San Cristobal. Hekueht H. S.mith.
Los Angeles, los'aan'je-leez; Span. pron. los'aang luiJi-h/s
[Span., liter., the angels]: city (foun<led .Sept. 4, 1781,
"under the patronage of Our Lady, the Queen of the An-
gels," by eleven families of Indian, Negro, and mixed blood,
with whom a contract for that purpose had been nuule by
the Viceroy of Mexico) ; capital of Los Angeles co., Cal. (for
location of county, see map of California, ref. 12-F); on
both banks of the Los Angeles river, and the Los A. Ter-
minal, the S. Pac. and the S. Cal. railways ; 482 miles S. K.
of San Francisco. It is the center of a region characterized
by an excellent climate and a soil that iirodiiees in ]irofusion
many of the fruits of semi-tropical as well as temoerate
climes. The region is also ricii in gold, silver, coat, and
other minerals, and has productive veins of petroleum. Tho
city is 30 miles from the mouth of the river and 24 miles
N. of .San Pedro, its seaport. Ves.sels of the Pacific Coast
Steamship Company, while en route between .San Francisco
and San l)iego, touch at Wilmington, and the |)ort is visited
by vessels from all maritime countries. In the calendar
year 1893 the imports of foreign merchandise amounted in
value to ^517,453. and the exports of domestic merchandise
to ^100.s;!:i. The census returns of 1890 showed that 747
manufacturing establishments (representing 83 industries)
reported. These had a combined capital of .'j;6,807,088 : em-
ployed 4.9.50 persons ; paid ^3,474.618 for wages and $5,008,-
162 for materials; and had products valued at $9,877,905.
:ie(l capita'
c.'ipital of
and 5 loan and trust companies with aulliorized capital of
12.400.000 and paid up capital claimed of $1,300,000. The
city is lighted with gas and electricity, and has over lOO
iniies of cable, electric, and horse street railway. There are
68 churches, 32 public schools, a branch of the State Normal
School, 3 Roman Catholic seminaries, the Roman Catholic
College of .St. Vincent, the University of Soutlieni Califor-
nia, a pulilic library, 3 Imspilals, 2 orphan asylums, 6 ceme-
teries, a crematory, and 4 daily. 23 weekly, and 7 monthly
periodicals. The assessed valuation of all taxable property
in 1893 was $47,281,788, real estate being assessed at about
one-half of actual value. Pop. (1880) 11.183; (1890) .50.395;
(1894) estimated. 80,000. George Bl'tlek Griffix.
Los (iatos : town; Santa Clara co., Cal. (for location of
county, see map of California, ref. 8-C) ; orl the S. Pacific
Railway ; 10 miles S. W. of San Jose, the county ca|iital. It
is in an agricultural and an olive and grape growing region;
manufactures brandv and wines; ami has 2 weekly news-
papers. Po]). (1880) SOS; (1890)1,052.
Los R«>)C9, CiuDAD DE : See Lima.
Los Rios, los'ree'iis : a western inland province of Ecua-
dor, between Guayas, Bolivar, Tiiiiguragua, and Leon ; area,
2,295 sq. miles. 'Pop. (188!t) ;i2.80'o. It lies mainly on the
western slope of the -Andes, and Cliimbdrazo is on the east-
ern frontier. ,\grieiilture and cattle-raising arc the only
industries. Capital, Balialioyo; jiop. 5,000.
Los'sing, Benson .Toiin, LL. D. : historian; b. at Beek-
man, Dutchess co., N. V., Feb. 12, 1813 ; was employed as a
watchmaker in Poughkeepsic from 1826 to 18:i,5 ; was next
a journalist at that place for several years, anil in 1838 be-
came a wood-engraver in New York, where he edited The
Fiimili/ Mm/mine, an illustrated periodical. He conducted
The y'oiniy'Ped/ili's Mirrnr {\H4»-4'.\). luul fi i 1872 to 1875
eilited at Phil.'idelphia The Ameriran Ilixloriciil liiciird.
He wrote a largi' number of historical works, most of which
were illustrated by himself. Ami>ng them va-Ti' Pirlnrinl
Field-lmok of the Peroliilinn (185()-52); History of the
United States (1854-56); Mount Vernon and its Assoria-
lions (\Hrt>)); Lires of the Presidents: Pictorial Field-liook
of the War of /.S7,'' (18(18) ; The Ciril War in America (3
vols., 1860-68) ; The American Cenlenary, 2 vols., a work
illustrating American progress from 1776 to 1876 (1875);
LOSSINI
LOTTKKY
3C1
Cyclopipdia of United Slates IFi.slori/ (18S1) ; Ilinton/ of the
City of J\V«' i'or/i ('J vols.. 1884) ; 'j'lie 'J'wii Siu'rn : IN'iiV/kih
JIale (Did John Andre (188G) ; Manj ami Mtirtlia. Mother
and Wife of Ueorije Washinyton (ItitiH); The Empire State,
a ('ompendions JJintory of the Commonwealt/i of Sew York
(1887). I). June a, 18U1.
Lossini. los-seeiUH! [HhI., whence Germ, nniiie LuHxin]:
nn islaiiil in the Gulf of Quuniero, an inlet of the Ailriatio
Sea, beloiiKins tu the fjovernnient of 'Priest. Austria; 1!) miles
long and :i miles liroad, with (18!»0) 11,848 inhaliilanls. most-
ly eM;;H;;eil in ai,'rieulUiiv, lishiiif,', anil connni-ree. The priii-
einal town is hossini I'ieeolo, a Ihrivinj; place, with 4,!i7o
innabitants, an e.xeellenl harbor capalile of reeeivinn the
largest tnen-of-war ; hiis an active traile in wheat, wine, olive
oil, fruits, etc.
Lot: a tortnons river of France, which rises in Mont Lo-
Zere, in the (.'eveiines, becomes navigable at Kntraigues, and
joins the Garonne at Aigiiillon after a course of 270 miles.
Lot: department of France; on both sides of the river
Lot. Area, 2,lll'3 sij. miles. The surface is elevated and
mountainous, traversed by a range of hills, the sides of
which are covereil with vines, while the valleys abound in
wheat, hemp, tobacco, and fruits. Some iron is mined. (Jf
the entire area of the department, 6!H,'.)20 acres are arable
and 222,402 acres arc forest-land ; l()8.0;j8 acres are occuijied
by vineyards. Wine is the principal |iro<hict of the depart-
ment, that of Cahors being the most valued. Sheep arc the
most abundant live stock ; poultrv and bees are reared in
great quantities. Pop. (1891) 25:3,885. Capital, Cahors.
Lolbinierp, lot lu'e ni-iir', Michael Elstack Caspaud,
Marcpiis (le : Canadian oiricer; b. in Canada in 172:i. lie
was appointeil engineer to the French colony in 175;i ; soon
after the defeat of IJaron Dieskau in 1755 he constructed
Fort Carillon (Ticonderoga), with the object of preventing
the British from entering Canada, and contributed more
than any other person to the defeat of the British at that
f place. For this and other servi(>es he was appointed a eheva-
ier of St. Louis, and soon afterward a manpiis. lie was
a member of the Institute of France. I), in N'ew York in
1799. — His son, Fi'stack (iaspard Mriiaki. Ciiartii-:k, de (1).
in Canada; d. thii-e in 1821): was elected to the .\ssembly
and in 179:5 appointecl Speaker. An effort to abolish the
French language in the Legishiturc was defeated by his ef-
forts. Xeil Maiuonald.
Lot-et-<iaroniie, lot ii-gaarun' : department of Fran(;e,
extending along the Lot and the Garonne, and comprisinir
an area of 2,067 sq. miles. The soil is exceedingly fertile iii
the river ba.sins; hemp here reaches an extraordinary
height ; the wine is strong and rich, and eajiablc of being
transported across the sea without losing its line qualities ;
more wheat is raised than used, but outside of the river ba-
sins the soil consists of a ferruginous clay or of sandy tracts
which are entirely unproductive. Much iron is manufac-
tured in this department. The forges, high furnaces, and
foundries are important. Braziers ware is manufactured ;
also agricultural implements and other machines. Plaster,
lime, cement, bricks, tiles, etc., are made. Pop. (1891) 295,-
360. Capital, Agen.
Lothairo (Fr. pron. lo titr ) I. : Roman emperor from 840
to 855; b. almiit 795, a son of Louis le Debonnaire; shared,
together with his two younger brothers, Pepin and Louis, in
the government of the euqiire, and with them resisted the
claim of their half-brother l_'harles to a portion of the ter-
ritory. On the death of Louis in 840 Lothaire claimed the
whole empire, but his two brothers Louis and ('harles(P>pin
being dead) united against him, and Lothaire was defeated
in the battle of Fontenay .June 25, 841. In 843 the famous
treaty of Verdun was concluded between them. according to
which Lothaire retained the inqierial title and dignity. Italy,
and a strip of laud between (iermany ami France, stretch-
ing frym the Mediterranean to the Xorth .Sea, and extend-
ing between the Uhine on the one side and the Khone,
Saiine, Meuse, and the Scheldt on the other. Lothaire was
a weak, violent, and treacherous character, and utterly un-
able to defeml and govern his land. The Saracens attacked
him in Italy, the S'orsemen in the Netherlands, while the
clergy, the dukes, ami his own sons filled the interior with
violence and blooilshed. Dividing the country between his
sons, he retired to the monastery of Prilm in the .\rdennes,
where he died a few weeks afterward, Sept. 29, 855.
Lothaire II., The Saxon: Kingof tiermany and Roman
emperor from 1125 to 1137; b. about 1060(acfoi'ding to some
authorities in 1075) of a family not very conspicuous; mar-
ried in 1100 Hieheliza, the heiress of tlie wealthy house of
Brunswick, and received in 11(J6 .Saxony a.s a fief cjf Henry
V. At the death of the prince in 1 1 25.' I,olhai re was elect-
ed Kingof Germany, chielly through the intrigues of Bishop
Adalbert of Menlz. who hated and feared the Hohenstaufen
house. His reign was vigorous and fortunate. Bohemia was
again brought unilertiernuin authority; the refractory ilukes,
esoecially the Duke Frederick of Sua'bia, were compelled to
submit, and the two Italian campaigns undertaken in de-
fense of Innocent 11. were successful. Nevertheless, he
bought his crown and the assistance of the Church by the
concession of important imperial rights to the pope, and in
order to retain Henry the Proud of Bavaria and other dukes
in his party, he allowed the principle of heredity to estab-
lish itself with respect to the fiefs of the crown. Thus he
weakened the iuiperial i>ower, and made it incapable of con-
solidating and governing (urinany. D. near Trent on his
return from thesecoiul Italian campaign. Dee. 4, 1137.
Lo'tlliun : an old Scottish name now applied to Hadding-
ton, Edinburgh, and Linlithgow as Fast. Middle, and West
Lothian respectively. Though now confined to the south
shore of the Forth, it formerly extended S. to the Tweed
and W. to the Cheviots and Lowthers.
Loti, lo tee', PiEKRE. pseudonym of Julien Viand ; novelist ;
b. at Hochefort, France, .Jan. 14, 1850. He was educated in
the naval academy and entered the French navy, in which he
is an otliccr. His novels and sketches — Aziyad'e, Le Mariage
de Loti, Le lioman d'un Sjmhi, Fleurs d'ennui, Mon frere
i're.t, Pi'elieur d'L'ilande, Japoneries d'aiitonine, Projpos
d'exil, Miidame Vltrysniithime, An Maroc, Le Uonian (fun
Enfant, I^e lAvre de la pitii- el de la mort, Etmlonie d'Ori-
enl. Malelol — produced in rather rapid succession since
1877, are very sim|ilc in construction, often without plot,
dealing with few characters and choosing them from simple
sailors and fishermen, or from the representatives of the
exotic civilizations of the lands whose life and nature they
describe — .Ia|ian, Tahiti, Senegal, Morocco. His special
gifts are an extreme sensitiveness to sensuous iuLpressions,
and a rare power of recording aiul imparting these impres-
sions in a language whose charm is remarkably free from
literary reminiscences. He was elected to the Academy in
1891. An edition of his (Euvren completes was |iublisheil in
1893-94 (8 vols). A. G. Caxkiklu.
Lotopli'agi. or Lotns-ealers [Lotophayi = Lat. = Gr.
XioTo^dyoi', \(tyT6s, lotus -t- ^xxyiiy, eat]; a ]>eople first men-
tioned by Homer as feeding ujion the sweet fruit of the
lotus, the quality of which was such that all who ate of it
innnediately forgot their native land and lost all desire to
return. The ancient geographers placed the lotus-eaters on
what is now the coast of Tripoli, near the Lesser Syrtis, as
well as on the island of Meninx. At the present day the
cave-dwellers on that coast subsist upon jujubes, and drink
a sirup nuide of that fruit, perhaps the lotus-wine of tlie
ancients. See Lotis.
Lototen : See Atuapascax Indians.
Lottery [Germ, lollerie. from Fr. loterie. deriv. of lot, lot,
share (ultimately from the Teutonic word equivalent to
Eng. lot]: a game of chance ; a scheme for the distribution
of prizes by lot or chance, usually in return for a considera-
tion. The awarding of duties and privileges by lot forme<l
a<listinet feature in the political atul religious cuslomsof all
ancient peoples. The division of land among the children of
Israel by lot illustrates the religious usages, while the choice
of pid>lic officers in Athens by lot illustrates the [M^lilical
usage. The Kmperor Augustus is credited with having made
the lottery a feature in the Roman social life by the dis-
tributing of favors among the guests at the great public en-
tertainments, at which each guest received a sealed packet,
which contained a present. The packets were all alike, but
the contents would varv from a pea-bean to a iliainond.
The Lottery as a )iiisiiiess Enterprise. — Through the
social institution thus established, the lottery as a business
institution is saiil to have been deveh-ped. Certain it is
that the Italian meixhanis made use of the |>opular craving
for the distribution of prizes as a means of selling their
goiwls, and from Italy the lottery as a nutans of making
money was inlroiluceil into Northern Eun>pe. where it had
previously existed only as a religious and |K>litical institu-
tion. It Was in the s'ixtei'ntli century that the institution
thus spread, the first lotterv-drawing in France taking
place in 1530 and the first in Illngland in 156!). The Chtircb
362
LOTTEUY
used the lollery forlho l)iiiMiiip;of catlu'driils, tlio slutr usi-<l
itfortlic cuiisiruclion of public works, while iiriviite indi-
viduals fiiund thiit Ihore wus no lueiiiis so easy of inakiiii;
money as l>y luiiiistering to the oraviiij; for suddi'ii ciiriili-
meiit. The form of lottery {^-uendly most eominon consisti-d
in drawinjr from u whei^l of fortune as many uumliers as
there weri' prizes, nml then the prizes assigned to eaih.
This was known as the Dutch lottery. lhoui;li il oriirinaled
in Italy. The form of lottery most common in France liul
popular throughout Europe was what is known as the Ueno-
cse lottery. It had its origin in the custom at (ienoa of
solcctinj; the five members of the jircat council by putting
the names of ninety candiilates into a wheel of fortune and
drawing but live. Hets upon the names that woulil be
drawn became a popular form of gamliling. and as elections
did not take |)lace often enough to satisfy the demand
for this form of excitement, numbers were. substituted for
names. While there was but one chance in eighteen that
any one number named would be drawn, there was but one
chance in several humlreil that any two numbers named (an
ainbe) wouhl be drawn, and but one chance in several hun-
dred thousand that any four nundicrs named (a </««/c/vic)
would be drawn. Yet. by makiuglhe prize lor the ijiiaterne
60,000 times the amount risked (as in the Austrian lottery),
people were fairly crazed by the thought of the great prize,
and ignored tlie fact, plain to every one of them, that vastly
less money was returned to them than they dei)Osited. The
lottery was a kind of sjivings-bank which paid no interest,
and returned bnl a fraction of the principal. Yet such istlie
element of irrationality in our nature that the desire to in-
vest savings in these lottery banks became a mania. The
Genoese lottery was introduced into nearly all European
countries, and. the drawings were held as often as two or
three timesaweek. In the large cities in which the lotteries
were drawn a great [jortion of the iiopniation lived in a per-
petual excitement, which made nuMi unfit for serious busi-
ness, and generally eniled in thorougldy demoralizing them.
J^ree Lotteries, LicensKl Lolfei-ies, Uovernmnil Jjotfrries.
— In every country the lottery business was at first free, but
private lotteries multiplied so rapidly and were so frequently
fraudulent in their character, that government supervision
was soon of necessity introduced. In England from ITOit to
ISi'-i lotteries were annually licensed. Gencr.'dly the licensed
lotteries were conducted in the interest of some ]iarlly pub-
lic undertaking, beingnsed. forexample, for the foundiiigof
the British Museuuj and the building of the Westminster
Bridge. The evils resulting from such lotteries, however,
were so marked that Parliament, in 177b, partly for the sake
of revenue, but avowedly for the purpose of protecting the
people, levied an ainiual tax of i;.50 a year upon every one
conducting a lottery. This measure reduced tlie number of
lotteries from 400 to 41, but did not reduce the business in
anything like the same proportion. In 1823 it was decided
that the only way to protect the people wius to ]irohihit the
business, and lotteries were accordingly suppresseil. In
Prance the {iovcrnment very early imposed a slight tax <m
lotteries, and in 1700 Louis XIV. estalilished a national lot-
tery, which in 177(5 was made a monopoly upon the princi-
ple that the money taken from the public by means of the
lotteries ought not to go to the enrichment of private indi-
viiluals, but to the state. The edict establishing the royal
lottery did not, however, admit the evils that came to the
public. It ran as follows: "Mlis Majesty having noticed
the natural inclination of his subjects to vest their nioiu'v
in private lotteries, and desiring to afford them an agree-
able and easy means of procuring for themselves a sure and
considerable revemie for the rest of their lives, and even of
enriching their families by vesting .sums so small that they
can not cause them any inconvenience, has ju<lgeil it oppor-
tune to establish at the Hotel de Ville at Paris a royal lot-
tery." To the statesmen of the French Hevoluticm belongs
the credit of having first refused to raise a public revenue
through an institution so demoralizing to the |>ublie ami so
impoverishing to the very poor. On Xov. 12, 17!)3, the ("on-
vention abolished the lottery of France, "as an invention of
despotism to make men silent about their miseries and enslave
them with a hope which aggravates ihc'ir distres,s." A few
years later thc! lottery was restored for revenue purposes, and
with the re-enthroiiement of the Hourbons came to yield an an-
nual revenue of 1 1.000.000 francs. Afterthcnext democnilic
revolution in IHHl. however, this pecidiarly initpiilous method
of raising revenui's from the poor was again atlackeil. and
in lH:ifJ was prohibited. The Frenc^li Parliament has since
permitted lottery bonds to be issued, as in the scandalous
case of the Panama Canal Company: but ]aiblic sentiment
in France has come to believe with .). U. .Say. that "the
legislators who sanctioned such a tax vote a certain number
of thefts and suicides every year. There is no pretext of
expense that can justify pnivocation to crime." In the re-
maining countries of Europe this sentiment is rapidly gain-
ing, thiiiigh Prussia is still (in lbl)4) realizing a revenue of
10.000,01)11 marks from its lotteries, Austria a revenue of
40,f:<00.000 crowns, Italy a revenue of 7.>,;i00,000 lire, and
Spain (according to ex-Minister Curry) a revenue of 7o,(K)0,-
000 pesetas.
Ktiily Lulferies in the I'liiteil Statex. — In the American
colonies lotteries were very frei|uently resorted to as a
means of raising revenue. " It was with the money collect-
ed from the sale of lottery tickets." says McMasters. " that
Massachusetts encouraged cotton-spinning ami i)aid the
salaries of many of her olTicers; that the city-hall was en-
larged in New^ Yolk ; that the court-house was built at Eliza-
beth: that the librarv was increased at Harvard College;
and that many of tlie most pretentions buildings were
erected in the Federal city." Some of the buildings at
Yale rnivcrsity also were erected by the aid of lotteries,
and Columbia (Villegc al)out the middle of the eighteenth
century received aid from the same source. During the
Revolutionary war the ('<intinental Congress tried to raise
money by this means.and for a half century after the Hevcv
lution lotteries were frequent in the U. S. As early as IG!I!(,
however, an assembly of Boston ministers attacked lotteries
as cheats, and their agents as "pillagers of Hie people."
The fact that lotteries seemed to gain abmit the time of the
Revolutionary war was due to the need of public revenue.
The fact that lotteries continued to gain after the close of
that war. when the gi'owth of cities made easier the o])era-
tionsof the lotteries, was what awakene<i the public conscience
to the evil. In ]8:W appeared at Philadelphia Job R. Tv-
son's A Brief Siirvei/ (if the (rreaf J'^.rlint and Evil Ten-
denries of the Lotlerif Si/steiu ttf tlie I'niteil States, and a
society was formed in I'ennsylvania with the purjiose of
working for the abolition of tlie institution. It \»as indeed
abolished in Pennsylvania ami Massachusetts in the very
same year, in Connecticut in 1884. in .Maryland in ISUi, etc.
The Jiife i)f flie Ijniiisiinia Cumpani/. — At the beginning
of the civil war in 1801 the lottery business in the U. S. was
of slight importance, but in 1868 the liOuisiaiia Legisla-
ture granted a lottery charter for twenty-five years, and de-
spile serious opposition in several (|uarters the business
flourished during the entire period of the "carpet-bag" re-
gime. During (_iov. Nichols's first administration the Legis-
lature aliolished the lottery, but the act was invalidated by
a decision of a V. S. ilistrict court declaring it an imjiair-
ment of the obligation of contract, and consequently in vio-
lation of the Constitution. It was now a great social and
political power in the State, and having secured as inspec-
tors (!eii.s. Beauregard and Early, men of national re|iuta-
tioii. it becaini' known throughout the country. Having full
confidence in the fairness of the drawings all classes were
tempted to take chances, and the earnings of the poor es-
lieciidly were invested in the hope of securing prizes. Before
each drawing the company offered l*2S,000,000 wort h of tick-
ets, of which $14.7(i7.000 was promised in prizes ranging from
petty sums to .^l.'i.OOO. while the balance, or about 47 [ler
cent., was to be retained bv tlie companv. Thus the iniblic
paid 28,000.000 earned dollars in order td get back l.'i.OOO.OOO
unearned dollars, and recpiired no account i>f the balance.
While t he expenses of the company were very heavy, including
1,5 per cent, to the agents, who broke the laws of other States
in selling the tickets, and large sums devoted to advertising
the drawings, silencing the press, and contributing to cam-
paign funds, charities, etc.. its profits were enormous, enabling
dividends estimated at 170 per cent, to be declared in 188!t.
The Campaign of JC.rfenniiiafid/i. — The owners were nat-
urally loath to part with their profitable privileges, and in
the spring of 1800 it wasannounced that the company would
apply to the people of Louisiana for the renewal of the
charter. olTcring as the people's share of the iirofils the sum of
!?.")00.()00 insteiul of the $40,000 which had hitherto consti-
tuted their portion. Not until tliis offer hail lieeii increased
to .* 1 .250.000. however, could the re()uisitc two-thirds of the
Legislature be secured to vote that the company's proposi-
tion be submitted to the people. This was of the nature of
a bribe equivalent to ^ii for every legal voter in Louisiana
for each of the twenty-five years for which the new charter
was asked. It was. moreover, most skillfidly distributeil. so
as to .seem a grant in aid of the most worthy olijccls; but in-
LOTTO
LOT/.H
3»i3
steml of (IcstrnyiiiK the nnti-lottfry sontiini>nl, it stirrfil u|>
ail eiitlmsinslif laiiumi;;!! iif;uin.'>t tlu' n-clmiliriiiK nf lln'
compiiiiy. All miti-lolliTy li'iifnie whs foriiH^d in New Or-
Iciins: an iiiiti-luttery iiewtf|)a|>er wii.-i stiirteil in I lie fate of
the bitterest opposition, and the fliurehes tlirou^hoiit the
State took up the af^itation. In the following eaiiipui^n
the anti-lottery inoveiiient pithered such force that its sup-
porters claiiiud the majority ill the Deinoiratic State Con-
vention, Ijiit the niiiihiiiiry bciii;; in the hands of the reffii-
lar Democracy, who refused to insert an anti-lottery plank
in the plalforin, the iinti-lottery delegates withdrew. The
contest wiis then between the rejiiilar or McKnery Deiiioc-
ra<-y and the anti-lottery Democracy. Miunwhile interest
was aroused in the North. Mass nieetinjfs were held in New-
York and lioston, the great magazines and weekly news-
papers joined in the crusade, and the clergy vehement-
ly ileiiounccd the atteiupt to fasten the lottery anew ujioii
the Stale of Louisiana. Fearful of losing the ele(?tioii.
tlie company withdrew its demands for a re-charter, and
the regular Democracy now called upon the "bolters"
to return. The latter would only consent to new prima-
ries to determine which candidate W!is in reality the choice
of the party. The result was favorable to the iinti-hit-
lery interest, and the regular Deinocnits now iKcame in
their turn the" bolters." The elect ion gave an overwhelming
victory to the anti-lottery ticket, and the new Legislature
{iromptly passed an act declaring it a felony to conduct a
ottery in Louisiana after Dec. :!1. lH!»:t. With this act the
last refuge of the lottery business was lost, and it became
an outlaw in every State of the Union. C. B. Si-.viik.
Lot'to, LoKKXZo: jiainter; b. in the latter part of the lif-
teeiilh century. A X enetian. or perhaps burn at Treviso, in
the Venetian territory ; erroneously supposed to have been
a native of Hergamo. He wa-s a pupil of Uiovanni Bellini,
but successfully imitated all the masters of his day. He
established himself in Bergamo in l.">l:i, aTi<l exeruled his
best works there, of which the most famous are the altar-
piece in .San Bartoleinmeo and a .SViH (•liivaiiiii liitltisin in
the Church of Santo .Spirito. At Venice also there are three
important works by Lotto: .SV. Aiitoitiiw. at the Clnirch of
St. Giovanni and I'aolo; St. yicliulnx, at the Cariiiine; and
The Miiiloniiii irillt Tiro Aiii/i'l-s, at St. .Jaco|)o dall" ( h'to. In
his later yiars he painted at |{e<'anati. and at lioreto, when'
he ended his life about l.')54 or soon after, in the service of
the Ma<loMiia in her Holy House ((.'hiesa della Casa .Santa),
which he had adorned with his work. \V. .1. Srii.i.si.vx.
Lo'tiis, or Lotos [from Gr. \aT6s. lotus]: a name applied
in literature to many widely different |)lants: (1) To the Zhij-
phus loliui, a kind of jujube-tree of Barbary (family lilutm-
nareie). whose fruit is extensively gathered as food. It is
the subject of much -Vrabic |M)etry. (See JfJinK.) It is prob-
ably the tree whose fruit licguiled the LotoI'U.voi {i/. r.) (2)
The Mflilolitx iiii/utinriiiii.i, a valuable forage-plant of the
Levant (see Mki.ilot), ami of the family Lrr/iimiiiii^p. {li)
The ebenaceous date-plum or ))isliainin [Dinxpi/ron lotiix) of
Kurope and .\sia. much re.seiiiblingoiir persimmon, and pro-
ducing a valuable fruit. (4, 5) The fragrant blue and white
Nilotic water-lilies (f'aj</rt/iV/ rirrulra and ('. /o/h.s), which
were greatlv honoreil by the Kgyptians, and were every-
where woi-sliiped. They were mystically connected with
their mythology. The stalks and roots furnished f<M>d. ((>)
The Xi'liimlm xprcinsn, <ir sju-red Egyptian bean, another
beautiful pink waler-lily, mystically honored in China ami
India, as well as in ancient Kgypt. Its large si'i-ds ami roots
■were, anil are still, eaten. This is the lot us- flower (/)o</m»',
lily-pad) of India. (7) .\ North .\frican ami Kuropean liiu-k-
berry-tree, Ce/lix aiixlnilix. whose wood is prized iiy <arvers.
and whose fruit is edible. Most of the above, with other
trees, have been claimed as the source of the finwl of the
fabled lotus-ealers. (8) There is a large geliiisof dover-like
leguminous plants called I,oliix\>y Liiina'us. and still bear-
ing that name. It includes the bird's-foot trefoils and other
(tld World plant.s, which in Kurope are cultivated as forage-
herlis. The pods of some kinds are used as fiMMl ; others are
well known as garden flowers. (U) In the U.S. botanical
writers ajiply the name lotus to the yrlumho hiteii. It
closely resembles No. B of tliis article. It is known as the
WHter-cliini|uapin, and its seeds and root.s, if iiiltivated.
would yii-lil a valiiabli' supply of Um\. ^lany writers believe
that tiie Homeric lotus was Silrnria triilinliitn (family
XygophyUacftf), a thorny shrub of Northern .\frica.
Lotze, lots*. HER.MANN KiTMU.K: pliilosonlier ; b. nl Baut-
zen, Sa.xony, .May 21, 181T; studied medical science, natural
philosophy, and metaphysics at Leipzig, and was api"iiiit' d
Professor 'of .Mental I'liilosophy there in IMJt. In th.- fal-
lowing year he accejitcd a call to (iiiltingen, and in l.Sbl to
Berlin, where he diet! .lulv 1 of the same year. He very early
pnjiioiinced against the (icgeliuii phihr-iphy on the oiie side
mill materialism on the "other, anil joining the small circle
of tlieistic pliilosiiphers — Charles I'hilip l''is<her, I. li. Fichte,
Jr., 11. Weisse, I'lrici, etc. — he gradually develuiK-d his own
conception of theism. His principal works are .V/iroAom/i im
(lH5t}-»>4. :j viils.: Kng. trans.. M ed. Oxford, l»t<«); .S;/fUin
der I'hiltixiiphie (ISTl-Til, 2 vols.: Lngik. Kng. trans., 2d e<l.
Oxford. 18W. and Mrtnphi/sik. Kng. Inins.. 2d ed. t»xford,
1W7); Ilixlon/ itf .Juxllielica in h'rrmiiiiu (IHfJH); Muliciit-
ixclie J'xi/rliolu(/ie (lH^'i); Dirliiien from lectures (trapslateU
ill six small volumes iif Oiilliiifx. Bnstun, 1NH4. guj.).
His I'niLosoi'iiv. — In the devclopmenl of (ierinan philos-
x>pliy Lotze represented a reconstruction of elements drawn
from speculative idealism on one hand, and from natural
and empirical science on the other. The tiLsk of melaphv-
sies is to find what reality is, not "how it is made." This
amounts to an assumption nf reality as that which is, and
limits philosophy to the recognition of the real and the sys-
tematic arningeinent of all our Ihoughtsof reality — whether
drawn from objective st'icnce. from psychology, ur from Ii^g-
ic — ill a self-consistent system. The method of philosophy
is therefore empirical, as its main assumption is realistic.
In constructing his sisteni on this basis Lotze reached
several conclusions wliidi have strongly influenced contein-
|M)rary thought. Inquiring into the nature of external reality,
lie establishes by lines of argumentation of a.stonishing
subtlety and power, and with e(|iially astonishing mastery
of the niodeni sciences of mathematics, mechanics and bi-
ology, a theory of iminaneiit causation which jiostnlates
theoretical monism of wDrld-ground. togetlur with a form
of inonadology in the atomic constitution of the world. He
then banishes the thing in itself of Kant as well as the onto-
logical " reals " of Uerbart, finding in jihenoinenal change,
or " becoming." the mode of self-manifestation of the world-
principle. The reality of things consists in their "standing
in relations"; but this standing in relations gets its iwriiia-
neiit iiuaiiing in the ilynamic interplay — in and through
modes of relatioiislii|i — of ijualitative changes in regular and
recurring series, as apprehended by consciousness. Things
to be what they are must apjiear to a consciousness; but
what appears to finite consiiuusness is not the whole of
reality. " Kealily is richer than thought."
The theory of knowledge, therefore, is a critique of our
thoughts about reality. In this critique he reaches the sub-
jectivity of spa<-e. though rejecting Kant's proofs of it.
Space is our translation of the logical relation.ships of reality.
Time, lus universal form, is also subjective; but succession
is in the nature of reality. The logical timeless dialectic of
Hegel is thus replaced by a real progress, or becoming, in
the nature of the absolute.
The inquiry as to the nature of the world-principle leads
to the view that qualitative change with |K'niianencc of lieing
can only be conceived afler analogy with consciousness.
The ultimate beconies therefore a spiritual tlieistic principle;
all beings are spiritual, and the human s<iiil is the highest
fonn of finite reality. The eours4' of the world thus K-conies
the teleological plan of the realization of the tlieistic prin-
ciple, and the criterion of reality U'coiiies worth in this
plan. In the ethical consciousness, when' "worth" is the
criterion uf judgment, the essential teleolngy of the universe
liiiMinii's evident. So the dvnamic realism of natural science
and emiiirical evuliition is harmonized with the ethical ideal-
ism of Kichte.
Lotze thus combines in n coherent and organic system of
philosophy the leading philosophical and scientific conirjv
tions of the century. In the I . S. his influence is stnuigiT
in academic philosophy, perhaps, than that of any other
author; and in si-verai ways: (D lie gave inipulsi' to the
recent develupment of physiological i>svchol.igy both by his
doctrine of the relation of l«Hly ami mind and by his
positive contributions of jisycho-physicnl tln-ory (i. e. the
theory of "hx-al signs"); (2) his nbilosoi.hy has tended to
replace the theological natural n-nlism inlierili-<l from .S<iit-
land ; (H) his more adequnte treatment of |~"sitive science, as
affording basis for philosophical con-' ' ' 'it
metaphysics into ilosi-r touch withtL
HkkkrkxiKs. — Krdmann. llixlury . . :.,
pp. 2!K» tr. (London and New Vork.'lS'fJc l'al,kcnl«Te. y/i>-
tury iif MtMierii I'/iilusvpliy. pp. GO.") IT. iNew York. I««i.
.1. .Mauk Baldwin.
3G4
LOUDOX
LOUIS
Loudon, low'ili/n, John Clavdivs : writer on horticulture ;
b. at (.'amliuslauj;. Lanarksliire. Scotlanil, Apr. 8, 1783 ; was
eduoati'J at Kdiiiburgh I'uiversitv ; became a landsc'ape-
garilener near Loudon 1803; traveled extensively as an ob-
server and student ol horticulture, and became a practical
instructor in the art. The best of his numerous works are
the Enci/rlnpiedia^—ot Gardening (18-22), of Agriculture
(1825), of Plants (1829), of Architecture (18;i2)— anil the Ar-
boreliim el Fruticetum Britannicum (1838); was editor of
The Gardeners Magazine (1826-43), of The Magazine of
Natural History (1828-36). U. Dec. U. 1843.— llis wife.
Jaxk Webb Lov-don (1808-58). was an able and pleasing
writer, chiefly upon botanical and horticultural subjects.
Kevised by L. H. Bailey.
Loiidonville: village; Ashland co., 0. (for location of
county, see map oi Ohio, ref. 3-G) ; on the Mohican river,
and the Penn. Railroad system; about 20 miles from the
capitals of Ashland. Richland. Wayne, Holmes, and Knox
Counties. It is in a grain-growing and stock-raising region,
and has 7 churches, electric lights, and 2 weekly newspapers.
Pop. (1880) 1,497: (1890) 1.444. Editor of '-Advocate.
Lonis I. : King of Havaria. Sec LiDwiu I., Karl August.
Louis n. : Roman emperor from 8.>5 to 875; b. in 822;
the eldest son of Lothaire I. After the death of Louis le
Delionnaire. the empire was divided between his three sons,
Lothaire I.. Louis tlie German, and Charles the Bald, by the
treaty of Verdun. This division of the empire of Charle-
magne was carried still further on the death of Lothaire I.,
his part being subdivided between his three sons. Louis,
Lothaire, and Charles. Louis IL received Italy and the
title of emperor; Charles, Provence and Lyons: and Lo-
thaire IL the territory between the Rhine. .Saone, Meuse,
and Scheldt, called 'Lotharingia (Lorraine). Louis IL
fought successfully against the Saracens in Italy, defeated
them at Beneveiit'o in 848, and expelled them from Bari.
He also undcrstoo<i how to vindicate his authority over the
great Italian families, of which many steadily conspired
with the Byzantine empire. Charles died without children
in 863. and Louis II. and Lothaire II. divided his domin-
ions; but when in 869 Lotliaiie II. also died childless,
Charles the Bald and Louis the German took advantage of
the emperor's engagement in a new and less successful war
with the Saracens in Italy, and <livided Lothaire's dominiojis
between themselves. Louis II. died at Brescia. Aug. 13, 87.5.
Louis II. : King of Bavaria. See Ludwig II.
Louis 1 1 1.. The Child : Roman emperor from 908 to 911 ;
b. in 893; a son of Arnulf. and raised to the throne of
Germany on his father's death in 899 by Duke Otto of Sase,
Margrave Luitpold of Austria, and Archbishop Hatto of
Mentz, who wished to govern the country iluring his minor-
ity, but the state of Germany while uiider tlieir rule was
miserable; tlie Hungarians invaded the country, and dev-
astated it as far as Thuringia. In 908 Louis assumed the
title of Roman emi)iror, but he died in 911, and with him
the Carlovingian dynjisty became extinct in Germany.
Lonis IV., The Bavarian: Emperor of Germany from
1314 to 1347; b. in 1286 : a son of Duke Louis the Severe of
Bavaria and Matilda of Hapsburg. On the death of Henry
Vll.of Luxemburg in 1314 he was chosen emperor by a major-
ity of tlie electors, while a minority chose his cousin, Freder-
ick III. of Austria. A long and devastating war began be-
tween the two emperors, but Frederick was at last defeated
in the battle of Milhldorf Sept. 28, 1323, taken pri.soner, and
compelled to renounce his claims. Having supported the
■Viscontis in Milan against I'upe.Iolin .XXIL, a quarrel arose
between the pnpc and the emperor. Li>uis IV. was excom-
municated, but went in 1327 with an army to Italy: was
crowned in .Milan and Rome, ileposcd .Lihn XXIL, and es-
tablished Nicholas V. as antipope. In spite of his succes,s,
ho was soon compelled to leave Italy, anil .John XXII. and
his successors, supporteil by I'Vench intrigues, continued to
oppose and harass him; (iermanv wa.s placeil under inter-
dict. A diet at Rheiise im the' Rhine (.luly 16, 1338) de-
clared that an emperor legally chosen by a majority of the
electors neerlcii no confirmation from the pope, nor was he
in any way subject to his authority. Thus supported by the
German princes, and having strengthened his position by
large acquisitions of personal projierty. the enifieror pre-
pared for a new campaign against the [lope, when he died
suddenly at Filrstenfeld, near Munich, Oct. 11, 1347.
Louis: the name of eighteen kings of France; (1) Lor is
I., i.i: l)Ei>oNNAiRK(^. r.), Romunemperor, 814-840.— (2) Loiis
n., LE Beuue (877-879). b. in 846. a .-ion of Charles the Bald.
—(3) Louis III. (879-882). b. about 864, a son of Louis IL,
divided the country with his brother Carloinan, who inherited
the whole after his death. — (4) Louis IV., i>'t)UTREMKU (936-
954), b. in 921. a son of Charles the Simple; was educated
at the court of King .\lhelstane of Englaml. a brotlu-r to his
mother. Ogive. In 936. on the death of Raoiil of Burgundy,
he was called to the French throne by Hugh of Paris and
William of Xormandy, but his reign was only a scries of con-
tests with these two vassals, who in the war with Olho I. of
Germany even allied themselves with tlicenemv. — (5) Louis
v.. LE Faineant (986-987). b. in 966, a son of Lothaire and
Emma; was the last king of the Carolingian dynasty. — (6)
Louis VI., le Gros (1108-37), was b. about 1078, a son of
Philip I. The possessions of the French king were at that
time the cities of Paris. Orleans, ftlampes, Meluu, and Com-
piegne, with their territories, i*id the kingship itself was a
rank rather than a power, but Louis VI. declared that his
royal precedence among the princes of France involved a
public charge, and he began to act according to this idea.
Under him the orfV/dmmf was first used as a national ban-
ner, and a feeling of national unity became prevalent in the
population. — (7) Louis \'4I., le .Ieune (1137-80), b. about
1119, a son of Louis VI.. married Eleanor of Aquitaine,
thereby uniting this large territory to the iiossession of the
crown. He quarreled vehemently with Pope Innocent II.
and with Henry II. of England. In 1147 he placed himself
at the head of the second crusade, but was unsuccessful. —
(8) Louis VIII.. surnamed le Lion (1223-26), b. in 1187, a son
of Philip Augustus, was stopped by the pope in his progress
against the English, who at this time were nearly driven
out of Fiance. He twice invaded England, and then made
a crusade against the Albigenscs, which contributed much to
the develoiunent of the royal power by assembling the vassals
under the royal banner. -^(9) Louis IX.. Saint (1226-70), b.
in 1215, a son of Louis VIII.. was only eleven years old when
his father died : during his minority the country was gov-
erned by llis mother. Blanche of Castile, a woman of great
energy, sagacity, and virtue. In 1236 Louis assumed the
throne himself, and shortly after the Count of Marche rose
ill insurrection, supjiorted by Henry III. of England. But
Louis defeated them at Taillebourg and Saintes in 1242, and
after the victorv he treated the rebellious count with so much
magnanimity tliat he won not only the respect, but the good
will, of all his va.ssals. The most prominent trait in the
character of St. Lonis was his piety. His conscience, and
not llis ambitirm. governed his will. Religious enthusiasm
was the motive-)iower in most of his actions. When the
massacre of the Christian inhabitants of Jerusalem in r244
became known in Europe, St. Louis took the cross in spite
of all the remonstrances of his mother and councilors, and
in Aug.. 1248, he departed with an army of 80,000 men fnmi
Aigues-Mortes, on the Mediterranean, for the island of
Cyprus. In June, 1249, he landed in Egypt and took
Damietta, but when, after five months" postponement, he
began to push forward to Cairo, he wasstop]ieu by the Egyp-
tians in the battle of Mansoorah, and on Apr. 5, 1250, was
com|ielled to surrender himself and his whole army, whose
number meanwhile had been reduced to about 30.000. After
paying a large ransom he was liberated and .saih'd for Svria,
wliere he remained several years laboring to do somelliing
for the cause of Christianity in these regions. In 12.54 he re-
turned to France with aboiit 500 followers. The following
fifteen vears of his reign were marked with many wise and
vigorous reforms, such as "La t^uarantaine de Roi," by
which a truce of forty days was established from the com-
mittal of an offense, during which term the case was tried
by the royal courts, and any attempt at private revenge was
|irohiliiti'd ; " La Piiigmati'cnn' Sanction," by which it was
forliidilen to levy money in France for the pope without the
consent of the king, and those cases were defined in which
ecclesiastics were to be tried by the secular courts; the
foundation of the Sorbonne, of the library of Paris. The
University of Paris under his inspiration and direction now
acquired international fame. The general wisdom and energy
of his rule entitle him to recognition as one of the greatest
and noblest of French kings. In June. 1270. the king em-
barked with an armv of 60.000 men for a new crusade. He
laniled in Tunis, and formed a camp near the ruins of Car-
thage; but the plague broke out in the army, and he died
Aug. 25. He was canonizid by Pope Boniface VIII. in
12!I7.— (10) Louis X., le IIuTix,Tlie (Quarreler (1314-19). b. in
1289, a son of Philip IV. His reign, of less than two years,
was unimportant.— (11) Louis XI. (1461-83), b. in 1423,'a sou
LOUIS
365
of Charles VII. Ilis j>riviite cliiiructiT wius Imrsh. jiraspinR,
and suspicious, but his talent as a ruler was of a high order.
He consolidated the territory of France and the authority
of the Krencli cnnvn in this territory, and founded numer-
ous institutions which were of (iri'at Ijenelil to the public
in general ; but the means liy which he curbed the feudal
houses of France anil brought them into iib-iolute depend-
ency on the crown were witliout scruple. The Count of
Armagnac was murdereil in 1473; the Duke of Alen(;on died
in prison in 1474; the Count of Luxi'mbourg was beluaded
in 147.'); the Duke of Nemours whs ke|it for years iti an iron
cage, and beheaded in 1477; in all, he is said to have put
about 4,000 persons to death, most of them secretly. Hy in-
trigue he came into pos.session of Provence. Maine, Anjou,
I'erpignan, etc., but his principal acquisition was the in-
heritance of Charles the Bold. Charles was a member of
the league which was formed against Louis in the beginning
of his reign by all the principal vassals of the French crown,
among whom was the king's own brother, the Duke of ]5erry.
After the battle of .Mont rili-ry in 140.'), Louis made great
concessions to all the nuMulicrs of the league, but having
succeeded in disuniting some of the associates, he had the
whole treaty annulled in 1406 by the States-General of
Tours, and recommenced the quarrel. lie now invited
Charles to an interview at I'enmne, and while this took
place he incited the citizens of Liege to revolt against him.
As soon as Charles heard of this treachery he seized the
king, and liberated him only on very hard conditions. Louis
now allieil himself with the Duke of Lorraine and the Swiss,
and when Charles fell in (lie battle of Xaiicytin 1477) he at
once incorporated Cliaiiipagne, Artois, Picardv, and parts of
Flanders with France, and managed to keep tlieiu in spite of
the protest of Charles's heirs. In his internal policy lie
favored the lower and middle classes, especially tiie cities,
encouraged learning, art, manufactures, and trade, improved
public roads and canals, established the first post system,
made the administration of justice regular and cheap, etc. ;
nevertheless, he was feared and hated, not only by the feudal
lords, but by all, and he spent the last years of his life in the
fortress of I'lessis-les-Tours, where he died in 14S3. He did
much to break down the feudal nobility and centralize the
government. Though uiileanied, he favored the universi-
ties, and promoted general order. — (12) Loris XII. (1498-
1.51.5), b. in 14G'2. a son of Duke Charles of Orleans, suc-
ceeiled Charles VI 11. .\s a descendant of Valentina Vis-
conti he laid claim to Milan, and in 1.500 conquered the city
and took Ludovico .Sforza prisoner. In connection with
Ferdinand of Aragon he soon after conquered Naples, but,
disagreeing about the partition of their conquest, war broke
out between the two allies, and in 1.50:5 liimsalvo de Cor-
dova expelled the French from Southern Italy. In 1.508
Pope .Julius II. foriiu'd llie Leu'gue of Camliray between
Ferdinand of Aragon. Louis XII., aiuV the Emperor of
(iermany against the republic of Venice ; but Venice hav-
ing satisfied the pope by ceding several towns to him, and
the pope having become much alarmed at the progress of
the French in Italy, the league was suddenly dissolved,
and a new one, the so-called Holy League, was formed in
1.5U between the pope, the emperor, Venice, Ferdinand of
Aragon, and Henry \ 111. of Kugland against France. De-
feated at Novara, the French were driven out of Italy in
1.513. At the same time Henry Vlll. landed in France
with an army of 4.5,000 men, and having joined the im-
perial army pushing forward from the Netherlands, he
defeated the French at Guinegate. Thus hard pressed on
all sides. Louis began to negotiate, and succeeded in escap-
ing from the dillicult situation without any great loss. One
of his last acts was a marriage with Marv Tudor, the voung
sister of Henry VIIL of Fngland.— (i:f)Loiis Xlll. (1610-
43), b. in ItiOl, a son of Henry IV. and Marie de Medicis.
His education was much neglec',.ed. During his minority
the country was governed by his mother and her favorite,
Concini. who was made a mai-shal and Manpiis of Ancre.
but the government was only a mixture of weakness, vii>-
lenee, and intrigue. After the murder of Concini in 1617,
Albert de Luynes, a favorite of the king, who wa.s made a
iluke and jveer of France, grasped the reins, but his govern-
ment was little In'tler. After his death in 1621, Cardinal
KicuEME'j {q. I'.) arose into great prominence ; in 1624 en-
tered the council, and guided the atTairs of the government
for the next eighteen years. The king lived mostly in se-
clusion, occupied in hunting, drawing, and quiet s<Kual en-
joyments ; but the affairs of state both at home and abrotul
were conducteil by the great minister with such consummate
skill that the power and importance of France were greatly
increa.M^.d iluring the reign.— (14) Lofis XIV. (164;i-171.5),
b. at St.-Geriuain-en-Laye, St-jit. .5, 16:J8, a son of Louis
XIII. and Anne of Austria. During his minority his moth-
er and Cardinal Mazarin (9. f.) governed the country, and
brought to a final dose the contest between the royal pow-
er and (he wealthy and ambitious aristocracy, re'prest-nt-
ed at this periiMl by the league of the Fronde. To this
minister belongs the chief credit for the great gains secured
by France in the Peace of Westphalia at the close of the
Thirty Years' war in 164S. Maziirin died Mar. 1), 1661, and
the next day, when the chiefs of the different departments
of the administration asked the king to whom they had to
address themselves in the future on questions of business,
he answered, " To me." He was from this moment his own
prime minister, and in the dispatch of business he develoficd,
besides an almost Asiatic des))ot ism. great energy ami much
souiul judgment. He surrounded his person with a magnifi-
cent splendor, and guarded his dignity with the most mi-
nute forms of etiquette, but his haughtiness did not offend
|ieople; it dazzled them, and while his brilliant personal
gifts fascinated all who came in contact with him, and at-
tracted to his court all that was eminent in France, the ex-
traordinary [jrosperity of his government during the first
half of his reign made him the idol of the nation. Colbert
brought order not only in the finances, but in the whole in-
ternal administration, and under his leadership great en-
terprises were undertaken with signal success. The harbors
and ship-yards of Hrest, Uochefort. Lorient, Havre, Dun-
kirk, Cette, and Toulon were constnicted and fortified; the
Canal of Laiiguedoc, uniting the Atlantic with the Mediter-
ranean, was built, and other canals and public roads were
improved ; commercial treaties were concluded with Hol-
land and Italy ; manufactures of different kinds were estal>-
lished; and while the condition of the people improved, the
revenues increased and the king grew rich. No less suc-
cessful was Louis XIV. in the organization and develop-
ment of the intellectual life of the French jieople. The
Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres was founded in
1()63, the Academy of Sciences in 1666, the Academy of
Painting and Scufoture in 1667; nineteen new professor-
ships were founded at the Royal College; the Royal Li-
brary was greatly increased; an observatory was liiiilt at
Paris; and all these institutions were not only am[ily sup-
ported, but the interest the king showed for tlu'ni gave their
social position dignity and influence. A new taste was cre-
ate<l — not in the sense of a new fashion, but of a new ideal
of beauty — and this taste was actually impose<l on the whole
civilized world by Racine. Moliere, Boileau, Fenelon, Bos-
suet ; bv I.ebrun, Pou.ssin, Claude Lorrain ; by Perrault,
Mansard, Blondel, and others. To these successes it must
be added that Louvois. Vauban. and the Duke of Beaufort
createil a powerful army and navy, which under the leader-
ship of Turenne. Conde, Luxembourg, Vendome, Duquesnc,
Tourville, and others made any movements of the king with
respect to his foreign jwlicy most effective. His ambition
was fired by his imagination, not hy anv passion. The the-
atrical effect seemed to satisfy him. His first wars had for
their principal jnirpose the establishment of a safe fnmtier
to the N. and N. K.. and Fniiiee certainly neede<I a n-eon-
struction of her boundaries on these sides. They are blam-
able, nevertheless, on account of the arrogance and en-
tire disregard of all international rights with which thev
were begun, and the almost unexampknl barliarity witt
which they were conducted. In 166.5 Philip IV. of Sjiain
ilied. and Ivouis, who in 1660 had marritnl his daughter,
Maria Theresa, now claimed the .Spanish possessions in
the Netherlanils, and overran the country with a large
army. A triple alliance was formed between T-^ngland,
Holland, and Sweden for the puriiose of establishing peace
between France and Spain, but by the treaty of .\ix-la-
Chapelle (May 2. 1668) l^mis obtained the so-called French
Flanilers, besides a number of places along the frontier.
His first object after the jieace was to separate Kngland
from Holland; n ma.'iter 111 intrijrue. he completely suc-
ceeded in s«'ducing the weak Chark'S II.. and wiien in 1670
he began the war against Holland, England tii-s his ally.
In Ilollnnil, William of Orange was appointed stadtholder
and commander-in-chief, and by his diplomatic skill a new
league was formed against France between Holland, Kmo-
deiiburg, the Km|x>ror of (iermany, and S|>ain. By the
Peace of Xymwegen (in 1678) Louis nevertheless obtained
the whole of Fraiiche-Comte and Alsace. Not content,
however, with that which he gained by actual wars, he now
SCO
LOUIS
bpfrnn to seize cities and territories (luring time of peace
ami under the most futile pretexts. Thus in 1081 he took
StrasslMin;. in HiS4 Luxenibourf;, luul so on. In onler to
put iin end to such piiieeeilinj;s, i\ lonpue was fornioil ut
Aujrsburs in 16><0 between llolliind, Austria. Si>ain. Ifciva-
ria.'^anil Savoy, but althougli ttie kins opened the war with
his usual enerirv.overrunniMi; the I'alalinate and transforrn-
in>; this beautiful country into a desert, and allhou.i_'h his
armies sained one brilliaiit victory after the other, yel the
victories proved sterih'. anil by the' Peace of Kvswick (Sept.
20, KMtT) lie liad to s've up all the conquests lie had made
duriuLT the war. make considerable commercial concessions
to Holland, and. what was most humiliating to liis pride,
recosnize William III. as Kins "f Hnsland. A sreat chanse
had taken place durins this period in Kurope, in France,
anil in Louis himself. Tlie accession of William 111. to the
throne of Knshind indicates the turnins-point of the for-
tune of Louis XIV. William was his eipial in diplomatic
craftiness, and far his superior in statesmanship. In France,
Colbert died Sept. «. ItiS;!, Louvois July, lOill, and the gov-
ernment passed into the hands of Madame Maintcnon, whom
the king married secretlv in 168."i. The Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes (Oct. 23'. 1085) threw the internal affairs of
the countrN' into a most disastrous confusion. The build-
ing of Versailles and the expensive armaments for the re-
esiablishment of .lames 11. in Kngland completely exhausted
the finances: and while the means of realization became
more ami more limiled. the plans of the king became more
and more arrogant. His pride and egotism assumed the
most mlious forms. He mainlaineil a bloody war along the
whole frontier merely for the whims of his vanity. He
banished, persecuted, and ruined his own subjects merely
because they did not holil the same creed. He sanctioned
by his example crimes utterly de.structive of the very foun-
dation of civilized society, merely because they suited his
passions, and at last he dragged the exhausted and al-
ready suffering people into misery for a mere dynastic
purpose. The failure of his policy in the East seemed to
make him willing to stake everything upon an effort to se-
cure the succession in Spain. Anticipating the death of
Charles IT., Louis devoted the last years of the century to
pre|mrat ions for war. The question of the succession was
so complicated that it involved England as well as Ger-
raanv and Spain. The war of the Spanish Succession which
continued from the vear 1700 to the Peace of Utrecht in 1713,
is memorable not orrfy for the great victories of Jlarlborough
at Blenheim and .Mal]ilaqiiet. but also for the general im-
poverishment of France. The results of the war were in
every way disastrous. In point of territory France was
shorn on almost every siile. The glories that characterized
the first half of the reign were lost, and nothing less than
the great Kevolution would now restore France to its for-
mer place among the natiims. Overwhelmed during the
la.st years of his life with domestic calamities, he died Sept.
1, 1715. — Louis XV. (171.'J-74). a great-grandson of Louis
XIV., b. at Versailles, Feb. 15. 1710. During his mimirity
the country was governed by the Duke of Oiu.kaxs ((/. r.).
during whose regency the country was plunged into the
deepest financial embarra.ssment by the failure of the great
Mississippi scheme. (See Law, John.) After the death of
the duke in 172:i, Canlinal Fleury, who had been the teacher
of the young king, became Prime ^Minister, and his parsi-
mony restored some order to the finances, which had been
brought to the very verge of bankruptcy by the proiligality
of Louis XIV. and the wild schemes of the regent. The
young kins, who had married in 1725 .Maria Leszczynski, a
daughter of Stanislaus, ex-King of Poland, seemed to be a
nolile anil honest man, and the war with Saxony, Kussia,
and .\ustria, which France began in 1731) for the purpose
of reinstating Stanislaus on the Polish throne, was con-
du(ttr<l with succiss, and brought the country the beautiful
province ot Lorraine liy the Peace of Vienna (17;i8). These
encouraging prospects were .soon changed in the saihlest
nnmner. During the .\ustrian war of succession Car-
dinal Fleury died in 174;) at the ase of ninety, and in the
mean time the frivolous and corrupted court had succei'ded
in seducing the young king, whose profligacy and dissipa-
tion soon iLssiimed an exti'iil and openness hitherto nnheanl
of. Michelet aptly described the tendency of alTaiis by
saving that "to the government of an old priest succee(Ud
that of a voung mistress." Madame de Pompailour now
rose to power as the king's mistress. Her autnoiity, well-
nigh absolute, la-sted for twenty years. The pndligacy of
the court became the scandal of Europe. .Meanwhile for-
eign affairs were bceoming more and more complicate)]
through the claims and the energy of Frederick the (ireal.
In the first and si'eoml .Sihsian wai-s France was in alliaiicu
with Prussia; but i[i the third, or .Seven* Veahs" Wau (o. c),
the influence of Maria Thcre.sa and Kaunitz upon Madame
de Pompadour led the French Government to an Austrian
alliance against Prussia and England. The result was dis-
astrous, for France had to cope with the statesmanship of
William Pitt as well as with that of Frederick the Great.
The consec|fience was that France suffered the imnieasurablo
calamity of losing India and Canada. Thus the .scandals of
the profligate court, the feeble and unskillful administra-
tion of domestic atTairs, and (he failures of foreign under-
takings, conspired to weaken the power of the nation and
strengthen the forces of discontent. The king was con-
scious of the perilous state of affairs, but he thought, " Apre.s
moi Ic deluge." and went on. The popular o|pposition to
the horrible abuses of Hie royal authority began to .show
itself through 'he Parliament of Paris, whose privilege it*
was to countersign the royal tax-edicts, but which refused
to do so. The resistance, however, was curbed with vio-
lence. The Parliament was broken up, its members pun-
ished and re|>laced by more willing tools. Society was dis-
organized. The noliilily lost its courage and its love of
country by giving it.self up to the vices and frivolities that
had been encouraged by the example of the court. The
clergy was diviileil into two antagonistic interests; for the
higher prelates ha<l the rank of nobles and were able to im-
pose heavy burdens uimn the people, while they were ex-
empt from the necessity of bearing burdens themselves.
The lower clergy were generally devoted to llieir duties.
The burgher or citizen cla.ss had grown in prosperity since
the d<'alh of Louis XI\'.. but the peasantry was in a most
wretched conditii>n. About a quarter of the soil was in
their hands; but the burdens of taxation were so exce.ssive
ami the lack of capital so universal that every year thou-
sands of them were re<luced to the point of famine. Mat-
ters grew worse until I he king's death, which occurred May
1, 1774. His reign, which extended over forty-nine year.s,
was one uninterrupted calamitv to the nation. — (16) Loi"is
.XVI. (1774-!»:i). a grandson of "Louis XV.. b. Aug. 2:i, 17.54.
was a good-nalurcd, wi'll-ineaning, honest man, of pure
morals, and capable of making a sacrifice for the public
weal, but his will wsus weak and his inlellect narrow. Ho
was unable to comprehend the situation, and he was entirely
destitute of political instincts. Thus he hastened the ap-
proach of the devolution. The finances, burdened by a
new debt of 1.. 500,000,000 francs, contracted liy the partici-
pation of Fniiice in the war of independence in North
America, formed the point of issue. The annual budget
sliow.cd a deficit of 140.000,000 francs. There were two
remedies — restriction of the expenses, which the queen and
the court opposed, jind taxing the privileged chusscs. which
the Parliament oppo.sed. The king, iucaiiable of deciding
in such a dilemma, hoped to find a tliiril expedient by a|>-
pealiiig to the people; and thus it came to pa-ss that he
liimself ap|iealed to the Revolution. When he summoned
the States-tieneral. which had not met in 175 yeans, he af-
forde(l the opportunity for outbreak. When the represent-
atives of the TiiiRU Estate (q. r.) were refused a seat with
the other estates, they determined to take mattere into their
own hands. The As,sembly tiecame a prey to faction. The
hopelessness of the situation led to all manner of excesses.
The king was fiiiallv tried, condemned, and executed Jan.
21. 17!i:i. (See Fhaxci;— ///.s/»;v/.)— (17) Loi is XVIL, a s<in
of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, b. at Versailles. ;Mar.
27, 1785; shared at first the imprisonment of his parents in
the tower of the Tenijih^ but was after the deiap'tation of
his father separateil from his mother, and died of ill-treal-
ment and neglect in his cell (.lunc 8. 1705). A number of im-
postors pretended to be Louis XVII., and excited some at-
tention, but their claims were easily disproved. — (18) Loi:is
XVIII. (1814-24), b. at Versailles. Xi>v. 17, 17.5.5, a brother of
Louis XVI., received at his birlh the title of Count of Pro-
vence. In 1791 he fled, and lived in Coblentz, Verona. Milan,
and Kngland. After the death of Lcuiis .XVII. he a.ssumed
the title of King of France, but his pretensions elicited gen-
erally only a smile, and I he court of emigranis he a-s.semblcd
around him often excited disgust. Xevertheli'.ss, after the
fall of Napole<in he was ciilleil to the French throne. Hotli
the French people and tlie fi>n'ign powers wished peace, nml
there-establishment of the liourbonswas considered its only
safe guaranty. There was, however, only one fraction of the
French people with whieh the king was in full harmony —
Sk
C
LOUIS
LOUISIANA
307
nanioly, llii' i>lil ciuiiiiants, wlio lioix-d tlirou<;li liiin to pet
nol only ivslitiitiiin, hut al.<o vpiiffeuiui' ; nml even tlii-.se
partisuiis lio wii- coiiipflliil to ilisii|i|niiiil in order to |ire-
scrve his throne, liis rei;,'n was a time of confusion and
dullness, and in the aetuiil process of restoralion and reor-
Kunizalion. whieh went on silently and inslinetiveiy, he took
no part. Personally, he was indolent, upathelie,Vood-lm-
niored, and slirewd in a small wuv. I). Sept. IN. \Hi4.
iievised by {.'. K. .Vuams.
IjOiiis, I'iKitRK CiiAKi.Ks .\i.i:x.\Ni>KR. M. D. : elinieian; b.
at .\T. Chamipa^'ne, Kranee. .\pr. 14. 17H7: {frailuated >I. D.,
S<diool of .\ledieine of I'aris, in l.'<l:j; at the lime of the
Froneh Restoration went to l{Ms>ia, relurnin;; in 1820;
workeil in the Charite llopilal with his friend Choniel, there
coiiiluetinj; extensive investigations that pive the data
for Ills famous works Jiechfrclifx j)iilh(ilnai(jue>i el tlie-
rapeiiliqitrK siir la phthixie (I'aris, 182."i) and Reclierchesatia-
tomiqiit's, ptithnlogiqufA et tliem/M'ti/iuut's ^tir la malatlie
counue soiix leg noms de fievre lijphirHlf. niilride, etc. (Paris.
182!)). These researches served to establi>h the identity of
typhoid fever as a separate disease. In 1S2M he went to
S|)ain with Clierviii and Trousseau, commissioned by the
trench (ioverniuent to studv the elTects of an eijideniie of
yellow fever. On his return he was appointed a physician
to the Pitio Ilopital, an<l later to the Hotel Dieu. lie was
for years one of the foremost teaehei-s in the world, and .sci-
ence and humanity arc under the ffreatest obli^atiims for
his investigations. His writiiifjs have been translated into
most of the European lan^ua^es. I). Aug. 22. 1872.
S. T. Ar.mstroxo.
Lonisblirii: : a famous fortress built by the French soon
after the Peace of Utrecht (17l;i) upon tlie eastern coast of
('a|)e Breton island, in Int. ■}.')° ,W :iO' X., Ion. CO W'., re-
ceiving its name in honor of Louis .\IV. The works con-
structed here were of the heaviest and most complete de-
scription, and were built of stone (see map of (Quebec, ref.
l-D). A large and well-built town of some Ji.OOO inhaliit-
ants sprang up, favored by the s|)acious anit excellent har-
bor. Since the existence of so strung a place threatened the
colonial and Hritish fisheries, it was delermiued in 174o by
the Legislature of Massachusetts liay (France and (ircat
Britain being then at war) to strike a blow at the town.
Accordingly, a force of colonists, consisting of 3.250 Massji-
chuset^ militia, aided by 516 men from Connecticut and
304 from Xew Hampshire, sil sail in 100 vessels, and landed
near the town .\pr. :W, 174o. An active but irregular siege
(though the men were without tents and the proper means
of conducting such operations) was terminated June 17,
1745, by the ca|iitulation of the French under Duchambon
— an event that caused the greatest joy throughout the
British empire, but the Peace of Aix-la-t'hapelle (1748) gave
back all Caytv lircton to France. The town was invested in
1758 by tien. Andiei-st with 14,000 British troops, twenty
line ships, eighteen frigates, and other ves.sels. After a
tremendous bombardment, which quite destroyed the town
and lireached the walls badly, the garrison and French fleet
surrendered July 2(i, 1758. The ruins still remain.
Lonis d'Or, loo'eedor' [= Fr., liter., golden louis] : a
French gold coin, first struck in 1641 uinler Lonis XIII..
not coined since 1795, but the na>Me is often given to the
twenty-franc piece or gold Napoleon, and to certain Ger-
man five-thaler pieces. The value of the louis fluctuated
considerably, but may be roughly stated to be alxiut !f5 in
U. .S. money. .
Lou isiudo X rcli i pelag'O : a group of islands off the south-
east angle of New Guinea, of which they form an extension.
They have bchmged to Great Britain since 1885. The group
extenils about liDO miles, and eon.sists of three hirge islands
anil ininierous islets. The large islands are St. Rignani nearest
New tiuinea; area, 106 sq. miles), .Southeast island (area, 380
sq. miles), and Ho.ssel (area, 300 sq. mile.s). Total area of
group. 850 sij. miles. The inhabitants are Papuans. See
JIacgillivrav, Xnrrative of the Voyage of JI. Si. S. liattle-
snake (2 vols., 1851). IM. W. II.
Loiiisiniia, loo-ee'zw-aa'na : one of the U. S. of North
America (Snulh Central giiiup).
Siliuiliiin niitl Area. — It lies between 80' and 94' W. Ion.
and 28° 56 and -33" N. lat.: has an extreme length from K.
to W. of 2.08 miles, and from N. to S. of about 2M0 miles;
and is bouudi'd on the N. by .\rkans(us and Mississippi, on
the K. by Mississippi, on the S. by the Gulf of .Mexico, and
on the W. by Texas. It includes the entire delta of the
Seal of Loui5inna.
Missis.sippi river, and within its area of 48,720 s<). miles are
embraced l.OUti s<|. miles of landlocked bays, 1,700 sq. miles
of iidand lakes,
and 540 of river
surface, leaving
45,420 sq. miles of
land area.
I'hf)»iciil Fea-
ture». — Tlie geolo-
gy of the State P'-
veals the Cretace-
ous, Tertiary, and
post-Tert iary for-
mations. The Cre-
taceous underlies
the whole State,
and crops out from
N. to S. in St.
Landry, .Sabine,
Winn, and other
parishes ; the Ter-
liary embraces the
larger portion of
the upland; while the post-Tertiary is rejiresented in the
loess found in elevated ridges and in the alluvial hinds
which form from one-thinl to one-half of the entire an-a.
The highest meitsured ikiint is 387 feet above sea-level, and
is near Arcadia, Bienville ]iarish. The land surface has li<-<>n
classified by Commis.sioner Poole as. goinl upland, 5.2."»0.(KK)
acres; pine hills, .5,.')00.000 : bluff lands. l..j(KMiO0; prairie,
2,50(1.0110; arable alluvial. 2.250.000; pine flats. 1 ..ItKI.OOO ;
coast marsh, 3,500,000. From an agricidtural point of view
there is very little waste land in the State. The pine fiats
are generallv sandy and sterile, but, with irrigation and fer-
tilizers, yield fair profits. The tind)er upon them is of gri'at
and increasing value, and is now raiiidly marketed. The
pine flats are noted as res<irts in pulmonary eases for their
sanitary results. The only lands not susceptible of culture,
except at great cost, arc portions of the coast marsh-lands,
which, however, afford range and ]iasture for large herds of
cattle and innumerable flocks of water-fowl. The uplands
are fertile and healthful. The alluvial lanils are of an inex-
hanslible fertility, the sfiil varying from 10 to 40 feet in
depth. Lying, for the nio.st part, along the banks of the
Mi.ssissip[ii anil its tributaries, they are liable to overflow
unless protected by dikes or levees. Through the aid of the
general (ioverinnent in its efforts to improve navigatiim. ami
with the direct and vigilant care of the local authorities
under State laws, the cultivation of these lands is yearly lie-
coming more secure and reinimerative. The prairies on the
right, or .south, bank of the Bayou Tithe have, however, lieen
considered the most favored and attractive .section of the
State. In fertility, health, climate, and exemption from
overflow, they enjoy a peculiar combination of advantages.
HieerK. Lnke.<t, etc. — The great river of Louisiana is the
Mississippi, which traverses the .State from N. to.S. for nearly
600 mdes. Indeed, the State is the creaticm and priKiuet of
the river. In geological iK-riods the whole Stale was covered
by an arm of the sea. .\s the cdutinent was upheavc-d, the
waters of the inland sea to the N. were ilischanred thrraigh
a vast channel many leagues wide; but as the upheaval
continued, and the sources of sulkily were drained, tlie river
gradually shrank to narrower limits and cut a deeper chan-
nel to the gulf. Then jdong the lowered banks of its final
channel it deposited the fine Kmin whieh now constitutes
the alluvial lands. Ked river, one of the great triliutaries
of the Mississippi, after flowinsalongthe northeni iKmiidarr
of Texas and traversing aboiiL half the length of I/oiiisiana
diagonally from the N. W., discharges its waters into the
Mississippi. It is navigable for large steanilM>ats through-
out a great part of its cours«>. In s«'a.s<>ns of hith whIit its
floods an> diverted into the Atehafalaya river, thu
iiig with navigation and affording a pr<ibleiii tha'
baffled the best hydraulic enginc-ers. dlher navic -
arc the ttuaehita or Washita, the Bcriif, the Ti>n.sa.«, the
Pearl, the Sabine, and the Calcasieu. The bayous are,
properly speaking, oiiih'ts of lari:iT streams,
cla.ss the .Vtchafalaya Ijclongs. Thi^lmv"
into lakes, and again itmtraet to nam
their mouths are lost in the freipieiii
Baratariii. .V ' ' ' - o >.. . i •
bayous an' _
the coasl-lin ,
waterways, unsuriiBsscti in the L . s. i be total river fruul-
aiid to this
>ften hmaden
- uliieli at
r l'av«. as
..." Tl...
36S
LOUISIANA
age is cstimatetl at 4,258 miles. Several canals connect im-
portant streams.
Soil (I'll/ Pruduclioiis. — Witli its rirli alluvial delta and
fertile uplands, and a heavy rainfall well distributed, the
State presents an agreeable contrast to the arid appearance
of manv States in the South and West, both in the extent
and variety of its forest «;rowtlis and in the luxuriance of its
grasses. The conditions are hii;hly favorable to varied and
prixluctive agriculture ami horticulture. Almost all the
fruits of the temperate and sub-tropical belts llourisli. and
oranjte-culture, princinally carried on in Plaquemines parish,
yields about 4o0,000 boxes annually. The banana, •.oiava,
ami some other tropical fruits do well and bear in sheltered
spots. The palmetto and date palm are abundant in New
Orleans. More Xortliern fruits, as the apple, quince, and
war. are cultivated. The strawberry is grown successfully
for the Nortliern market, and the blackberry and dewberry
grow in profusion and are indigenous. Tlie principal crops
are sugar, cotton, and rice. Indian corn occupies a consid-
erable place in the agriculture of the State, with an annual
vield valued at from $13,000,000 to $16,000,000; but this is
insuflicient for home needs. Tobacco, also, of a very high
quality, known as pcrique, is grown, but in limited quanti-
ties. Sugar-culture is the most imjiortant industry in the
State, and is carrieil on in the southern belt. Under the
Sugar Bounty Act the number of producers licensed to
manufacture sugar in 1891 was 697, which was diminished
in 1892 to 618, and in 189;i to ,5.52, in both instances with a
large increase in the crop. These changes were due to the
establishnuMit of central factories and improved methods of
manufacture. re(juiring larger investments and better ma-
chinery. The prt>duction Inis lieen, in hogsheads of 1,000
lb. each, 1880, 218,314; 1890,420,426; 1893, 445,857; 1894,
640.000.
The cotton crop, which in 1879-80 was 508.569 bales from
864,789 acres, increased in 1889-90 to 659,583 bales from
1,270,885 acres; in 1891-92 to 780,000 bales from 1.28;!,000
acres; and in 1892-93 it was 4:^5,000 bales from 1,1.55.000
acres. The average value of a bale of cotton in 1891-92 was
$37.50, and in 1892-93 $42..50. In 1891-92 Louisiana was the
fifth among the ten cotton .States in cotton production, and
the second in yield per acre; in 1892-93 it was the seventh
in production, and the thinl in yielil per acre. 1891-92 was
the vinprecedented 9.000,000-bale year, and the year follow-
ing wa.s one of disaster. The average weight of a bale has
graduallv increased. Fornierlv it was estimated at 400 lb.;
m 1891-92 it was 49877 lb., and in 1892-93 .50037 lb. Kice-
culturc was seriously undertaken in Louisiana on plantations
that had failed in sugar from crevasses, low prices, or other
misfortunes after the civil war. In 1885 the rice crop on
the Mississippi and Bayou Lafourche amounted to 1.100.000
barrels, but in 1889 it had fallen to 477.000 barrels, owing
to the restoratiim of plantations to sugar-culture. In the
meantime, through the introduction of rice-culture in South-
west Louisiana by Western immigrants, the crop there
amounted to 302,(i00 barrels; in 1890 to 700,000 barrels;
and in 1891 and 1892 to three-fourths of the total output.
Low prices in 1893 somewhat depressed this industry. The
production of the State in 1893 was 1,972,946 sacks.
Timber. — Louisiana, next to Arkansas, is the most heavily
wooded State in the Union. The long-leaf pine lumber
standing is estinuited at 25.643.000,000 feet ; the short-leaf
pine at 20,978.0(K),000 feet. It is of very fine quality, aM<l will
average 4,000 feet to the acre, often running up to 10,000
and even 15.0()0 feet. The swamp cyjiress. a wood of the
very bust qualify, is becoming an im|)ortant industry. The
rough boards have a value about double that of white pine.
Live oak is found in abundance on the (rulf co.ist, and white
oak is extensively used in the manufacture of barrel-staves,
etc. The forests contain a great variety of valu.ublc tinilier-
trces, such as ash, sweet gum, hickory, bla<-k walnut, mag-
nolia, many varieties of oak, Cottonwood, willow, cedar, and
elm.
jMineraln. — There are marbles supposed to be of much
value, but its yet they are not quarried to any great extent.
A large and valuable dcqmsit of sulphur exists in Calcasieu
{)arish, l)ut the engineering dilliculties are so great that it
las never been successfully worked. The well-known salt
mine at .\very's islaiirl. in Iberia parish, is a deposit lying
about 20 feet beli'W the surface. It hius been bored for 1,000
feet in depth without linding any change in the character
of the deposit, which hius a purity of 9967 per cent. The
output has been about 3(),000 tons ]>er annum, but it is ca-
pable of yielding ten times that quantity without dilliculty.
Lignite, carneliuns, agates, fire-clay, and sandstone arc also
found on Avery's island, which is an isolated loess dejiosit
in the alluvium. Ocher, marl, fire-clay, gypsum, kaolin,
lead, sulphate of soda, sulphate of iron, and carbonate of
lime occur in considerable quantities in the Stale. Petro-
leum is found at various points, but not in quantities to give
it a commercial value. Copper has also been found, l^uartz
crystals, jasper, agates, camel ians, onyx, sardonyx, and feld-
spar abound in the Tertiary and loess.
I'auna. — The native fauna differs little from that of ad-
joining States. Black bears, wolves, wild-cats, and a few
panthers are still found in the woods and swamps. Kac-
coons, opossums, si|uirrels, and hares, and all the smaller
forest animals abound. The reptiles are very abumlant, but
hunters have rendered the alligator scarce. Bird.s, and
especially water-fowl, arc more numerous and of greater
variety than in any other State in the Union, tiaine birds
are found in great plenty, and attract many sportsmen in
the winter sea.son. The waters of the Oulf afri>rd an abun-
dant sujiply of the choicest varieties of fish. The ponipano,
.Spanish mackerel, sheeiisliead, red snapper, redfish, sea trout,
croaker, and many others are noted for flavor and abun-
<laiice. In Ihc inland waters a black bass is caught which
is much esteemed. The oysters arc of the finest quality, and
very abundant. Shrimp, crabs, crayfish, and other shellfish
are a common article of diet. The live stock does not con-
stitute so important an interest relatively as formerly, or as
it deserves. With some drawbacks, the country is favorable
to animal life, especially if it receives due attention. The
number and value of the live stock is as follows :
ANIMAIf.
N amber.
Valaa.
Horses . .
127.043
91.9(M
179.354
29S,68R
118.488
756,433
$6,562,341
Atules
7,514,451
Milch-cows
3.066,953
2.989,123
Sheep
191,240
Swine
2,300,328
Totals
2,391,910
822 714,336
Climate. — The climate is mild and genial and little ex-
posed to extremes in temperature. The greatest extremes
of temperature, with the least annual rainfall and earliest
and most frequent frosts, are naturally found in the north
belt, while Ihc coast district shows the greatest average an-
nual rainfall, the lowest summer and highest winter maxi-
iMuin temperatures, and highest winter ininimum tempera-
tures. The difference between the several sections amounts
to as much as twenty degrees in the annual range of tem-
perature ; for while the Gulf section has a highest maximum
on record of 97 , Ihc interior parishes have 103' ; and while
the minimum of the coast district in 1888-94 was 26°, for
the interior and northern sections it was 13° and 11° re-
spectively. The coast district has an average annual rain-
fall of 5650 inches; grouped with the remainder of the
.southern section the average is 54'19: while the northern
section has 48'20, or 6 inches less. The average for the
State is 51 inches. The average precipitation at New Or-
leans in 1872-94 was 61 '56 indies. The average date of
the earliest frost in New Orleans, Dec. 19. is a month later
than in the northern section. The annual range of tem-
perature in the Gulf district is 62 and in the interior |iar-
ishcs 83°. Wliile the rainfall greatly exceeds that of the in-
terior States and the Northwest, the Slate has a very large
percentage of clear days, 200 of the 305, or nearly 55 per cent.
On only eighlv-fivc days does rain fall at all. The |irevailiiig
winds of .\prii to August inclusive are from the S. In October,
December, .lanuary. and February N. and N. K. winds pre-
vail. In February. March. .September, and November they al-
ternate, at the turn of the seasons. Cunsicleringthe low levels,
extent of swamp-lands, and moist, warm almos|jlierc, it is gen-
erally assumed that the climate is necessarily miasmatic and
unhealthful. These conditions do not apply at all to the up-
lands, and in the southern belt the malarial influences are
largely modified, even at sea-level, by the Gulf breezes,
which blow constantly. The .Acadians. French ]iea,sant.s,
who have been settled on this coast fcir more than a century,
arc a stalwart race, an<l the other white inhaliitants have
health and strength above the average |ieople of the coun-
try. By a rigid and continually improved system of quar-
antine and disinfection, luononnced by experts the mo.st
effective in the world, the yellow fever has been almost en-
tirely excluded. There have been but two epidemics since
1859 ; one in 1867, the other in 1878.
LOUISIANA
309
Fur lulmiiiislralivc purposes Louisiana is <li-
sliL's (wfiieh corros))oii(l with the
DirisioiiK.
viiied irit<i lirtv-iiiiii' pan
counties of ollior Status), Ht> follows
PARISHES.
•B.f.
Pop.
laao.
Pop.
IKW.
PARISH-TOWNS.
Pop.
ISW.
Acailla
10-C
i3,!ai
Crowley
420
Ascension
lO-E
16,Wtt
19,.^4S
DonaldsonvlUe
S,12I
Assuinirtion
Avovelles
11-K
17,010
19,629
Najioleoiiville
723
D-D
10,747
25.112
Marksvilki
S40
Bifiiville
7-B
6-B
lo,<4a
16,012
14,108
2O,:i30
862
Uo>csirr
Benton
<'a.l.lii
6-B
■X.-iiXi
3I„V.5
Shrevenort
I^ke Charles
11.079
(•(ilfiisieu
10-B
vj.-m*
20,176
a. 442
CaWwcll
7-U
5,707
.5,814
Columbia
852
Cameron
lO-B
2,416
2,828
Cameron
Catahoula
g-D
10,277
12,002
Harrisonburg
359
Claiborne
6-C
18,837
23,812
Homer
1,132
(Nmcordin
8-E
14,914
14,871
Vidalia
821
lie Siito
7-B
l.'i.OOT
19,861)
Maiislleld
908
K liaton Rouge..
10-E
liMitki
2.->,922
Baton Kouee
10.478
Ka.-ii Carroll
O-E
I2,i:)4
12..i62
Ljike Providence..
tM2
B-E
7 D
15.i:«
6.40,1
17,'.K>3
6{>tH)
974
Witinsborough
Col fax .
<iraiit
8-C
10-D
6.188
16,676
8,270
20,997
161
llR-ria
3.447
Iherville
10- D
17.,VI4
21,818
Pla<|ueniine
Vernon
(iretna
ff"
7-C
11-K
,'i,3i8
13,ll«l
7,4.V3
13,221
JflTerson
3,3,32
I-afayette
10-D
i3,a:«
15.906
La Fayette
Thibodeaux
2,100
Lafourche
11-F
10,113
22,095
2,078
1, ill. -..In
7-C
IKW.'i
ll,7.Vt
Huston
707
Liviiitrston
10-F
b.-i-M
5,709
Springville
Mn.lison
7-E
w.im
14,1.35
Tallulah
Morehouse
0-D
14.2(Xi
16,786
Bastrop
Nalihitoclies
H-B
1«,707
25.H:i6
Natchitoches.
1.820
( irlcaus
10-11
216.090
242,039
New (.trleaus
242,039
< luuchita
7-D
ll-tJ
14,IW5
n.r,rr>
17,9.85
12,.541
Monroe
3,250
Plaquemines
I*.>inte a la Haclie.
Pointc Cou|)#e...
«-D
17,78,5
19,013
New Koads
Kjipiiles
0-U
as,.^)
27,642
.\lexandria
2,861
K.-,l Kiver
7-B
8..173
11,318
Coushalla
619
Kichland
7-D
S.440
Hi,2:i0
Kayville
.306
Sal)ine
8-B
7.314
4, 10.')
9,390
4,320
Many
183
St. Bernanl
St. Bernard
St. Charles
11-F
7,161
7,7:r
Hahnville
447
St. Helena
O-E
7,,'ilM
8,002
llreensburg
280
St. James
10-E
14,714
15,715
Convent
St. Jvilin Baptist.
10. F
in-D
a.BSfi
4I1,1X)1
ii,r>9
40,250
Edgard
St. Lanilry
Opelousas
l.!>Ti
St. JIartiu
10-D
r,>,iiM
H,8S4
St. Martinville
1,814
St. Mary
U-D
I'.I.KOl
22,416
Franklin
2,127
St. Tanunany
10-F
0,887
10,160
Covington
976
Tatn:ipahoa
9-F
9,6.1.8
12,1155
Amite City
1,510
Tensas
S-E
I7.81.'>
16,047
St. .losepll
478
Terrebonne
li-E
6-0
17,957
13„VJ0
20,167
17,:i04
1.280
Union
Farinerville
4W
Yerruilion
10-D
8,728
14,234
Abbeville
6.37
9-B
.MtiO
5 90:i
Washington
9-F
5,190
6,700
Franklinton
97
Webster
6-B
10-E
10,005
7.667
12,466
8,.36:i
1,298
W. I:{aton Rouge.
Port Allen
West Carroll
6-E
2 776
3,748
Flovd
West Feliciana . .
9-E
12,809
15,062
St. FrancisTiile...
950
Winn
8-C
5,»t6
7,0S2
Wiiinfieid....
Totals
g.%,»46
1,118.587
* Reference for location of parisbes. see map of Louisiana.
Principal CilieH and Towns, willi Population in lfl90. —
New Orleans. 242,03!!: Shrevcporl. ll.llT!); Union IJoiiko.
10.47.S: New Iberia. 8.447; Lake Cliarlcs. 8.442; (iretiia.
8.:W2: Monroe. 3.2.56; I'la<|Ueinine. :^,222; Donalilsoiiville.
3.121 ; Alexandria. 2.8t)l ; and lloiffan Cilv. 2.2!ll.
Population and l{nri:i.— h\ IWHO, 7OX.n02 : 1S70. ?26.!)1,5;
1H80, !l3!).!l4r>; lUllf). 1.I1S„-,M7 (white. .5.JS.:i<l,-) ; cohireil. .-ifiO.-
1!)2, incliiilinfr 333 Chinese, 3!l .lapanose, an J 1)27 i-ivilized
Indians; native, 1,00.^,840; foreit;n. 411.747 : males. .5.5!),:}.50 ;
females. .5,")!l,237).
hiiluxlnm anil Iinsineti.i Inten-sl.t. — In 1,S!)0 there were
2,613 iiianufaetiirinf: I'stalilisliments reporti'd in the eensiis
which eniiiloyed ^34,7.54.121 capital and 31,!HH persons who
received ^13.1.5!l,."i()4 as waj;e.s. There were 7 larfje mills
employed in sawinp swamp cypress, l.'iit in .sawim; other
lumlier. i;t2 planin^-mills. 43 shingle-mills, and many other
estalilisliiiienis employed in dressini: lumlier. The mills
have a capaeilv of iicarlv .■i.(MHl,(KI() fed per dav. ami saw
lumlier to the value of ^S,22.").00tl annually. The total for-
est products amount in value to f l.5,y7M.(KK) annually.
Finanrf. — The asse.sseil valuation of ta.\nlile pro|MTtv was
reported at $23."),7<iS,!)li!l in l.sltO; ij;234.!ll."),170 ni 1S!»2; and
wasestimaled al $247..'i(MI,(KI0 in l.l!t;i. In the latter year
steps were taken to olilain a more unifoiiii and correct as-
sessment. The State dclil in IS'Kt was ^1 l.Si74,S(KI. ami the
treasury held :j;420,00O available fur the retin'iuent of State
bonds. The Slate tax-rale was 6 mills.
Bankimj. — In 1H!»4 there were 20 national banks with
combined capital of <!3.93.").000 ; 24 State banks with capital
260
of f 2,0.'?2,.')00 ; 6 private and .5 ini.scclluncoiis buDkii; and 2
loan and investment companies.
]{ailwayii.—'V\n- leadiiif; railway systems are the Illinois
Central, the .Southern I'acific, tlie'L.."iii.sville and Nusliville,
the Texas and I'acilic, the New l.lrleans and Northeastern,
and the Vicksburjj, Shreveport and I'acilic. In IN.'H) the
railwav niileaRe was HO; IKtMJ, ;);)"); IH70. 4.50; ISHO. 672 ■
18iM), l,7.3y ; 1H!»3. 2,0.53. In the latter year there were als.i
115 miles of street-railway, all of which' was either o|ieruted
or iiein},' eiiuipiii'd for operalion by cle<tricitv.
CliiirclieK. — i'lic hVcncli who si.tiled Louisiana brought llie
Komaii Catholic relijiion with thcin.and that wils the onlv de-
nomination there till the cession of the territory to the V. S.
The first relij;ious exercises under the auspices lif MetlKxIisin
were held in 1H04 ; the first Protestant church in New Or-
leans was founded by the Kpisc<ipalians in 1805; the first
Haptist church in the State was eslalilished in 1812; and the
first I'resliyterian in 181'J, The census of 1800 (jave the fol-
lowing statistics of the princifutl religious UMlies:
DENOMINATIONS.
Honmn Catholic
Baptist, colored
Ba|)tiHt
Meih.Klist Kpisc.ipal South. .
Melh.i.lisl K|iisi'..pal
African Mellio.liNl Kplseopal .
Coh.red Melh.Mlist Kniscopal.
Pr..tcslant Episcopal
Presbyterians in the t*. S
Onnnla-
Cbaidm
■iMa.
ulUU.
206
«04
876
885
482
477
816
318
218
»6
81
lis
1.38
188
85
70
6«
M
211.788
68,808
27,736
24.874
15.078
18,631
8,075
6.I62
4,926
$1,568,200
616.890
88.3.B77
488.470
808,802
193.I15
184.135
387.950
4,«.9(«
While an occasional congregation is found dissenting from the
principal organizations representing I'rotestantism, Loui-
siana has piobalily fewer small sjm-Is than any other .Slate.
Sclioolx. — The first educational institution was a Human
Catholic convent and s<-hool for girls, established in New
Orleans in 1727 by a parly of I'rsuline nuns who were M'nt
from France for the purpo.M. at the reiiuest of Bienville. In
1804 the College of Orleans was opened. This was in o|>era-
tion till 1S25, when it was superseded by the College of
Louisiana, which has since become Centenary College, un-
der charge of the .Methodist Kpis<.opal Churdi South. The
.State was quite liberal in appropriations to litcrarv inslilu-
tions in 1812-45. granting them over ^l.(>0().(¥)(i, and to
1804 probably lf3.000.(K)0. The instilutioiis of real college
grade for white stinlenls are TiLANK I'xiversity (a. r.). the
Louisiana Slate I'niversily and .Agricultural and Meclian-
ical College, the Stale Normal ScIkmiI. Centenary College,
and .IcfTerson College (Koman Catholic). There are four
universities in NewOrlcans for colored students: the South-
ern (State institution); Straight (Congregational); Leiaiid
(Haptist); and the New Orleahs(Methodist Kpis<-o|ial North).
The State University al Baton Hoiigc is endowed with the
national laml grant, was originally established in Ifapides
parish in 1860. under the suiK'rinteiidence of Gen. \V. T.
SluTinan. and is doing useful wurk after many reverst~i.
The .State Normal School at Nalchitoches wa-s opened in
1885. I'ndcr the present conslilution, the Legislature is n--
quireil to provide public .schools free fur all children six to
eighteen years of age. The State school fund was s<ild at nuta-
tion and virtually confi.s«>ate<l iliiring the n-constnictioii |k>-
riod. but the pri'sent constitution recognizes a free s< hool
fund of :f 1.130.867. ln'aring 4 per cent, inten-.st. and the
seminary fund of ifl;i6.l)00. The funds derived fnun the
poll-lax. from the inleresl on sjih's of public lands and Ihe
priK'ei'ds of olher n'al estate coming to the State, as well as
from the general taxation for educational pur|M)ses. an- s<'t
apart for the supixirt of the public s».|hkiIs. Theenrollnuiit
in the publii' s<-liools in 1.'<!M1 was — white children. 70..582:
colored. 4!1.671 ; total, 120.2.53. The disbursements for the
schiKil year wen- ^817.1(i!i. (.f which the teachers r>^ei\ed
^.5211.405. There wen^ also 6 high s<-hools, with 31 leachirs
and 8;t7 pupils; 23 endowed academics. s..minarics. and
other private .secondary s<-hiKi|s, with 00 teachers ami 1,124
students; 3 colleges for women, with 22 teai-hers and 2.5;{
students; and 4 business and conimerx-ial colleges.
LibrarifK.—Xu 18!r2 there were 32 public lilirarii.s of I.ntK)
volumes and upward each, which contaimsl 2tKl,618 Umnd
volumes and 2.5.284 |iainphlets. They ». - ' ' ! .-i..
follows: (ieneral. 4 ; scIoh.I. 4; collep., 14; .iv.
3; law, 1; medical, 1; public insliliition. 1 . : _ M.-n'^
Chri.slian .\s.s<M.iation. 1 ; s<.ienlille. 1 : art. I ; and s«« idy,
1. The State Library. foiindi.<l in ISIS. rt.nlain«.<l 41,0<'lO
viiliiiiies anil 3,.5(I0 |iamphlets. oblainnl chiefly by exchange.
370
LOUISIANA
The llowarJ Momorinl Lilirnry was foiiiuled in IHHi) liy
Annie T. llowiinl, witli a luiililin-; valiu-d at $UtO,lKH). an
cmlowiuent of !t;115,0(»0, ami 8,t>00 vulunies, valued at ^M.-
000, and lias since received liberal ilonations fmni the How-
ard family. Tlio libraries of Tulauo University contain
27.000 voliiines.
Cliariltilile and Penal IiiKtiliilinns.— The charitable nisti-
tutious of the State an<l of New Orleans especially, founded
and supported in whole or in jiart by private charity, are
very nuniennis. Among the public institutions are the
Louisiana Institution for the Deaf and Dumb at Baton
Ro\ii;e. f.>unded in 1852. and reeeivin? from the State an
annual appropriation of ^14,000: the State School for the
Blind at Haton Uoui,'e, established in 18."il : the Stale Insane
Asvlum at Jackson^ established in 1847, and receiving an
annual Stale approorialion of «!H),000: the Soldiei-s" lion\e
at New Orleans, authorized in 186(j and in operali<m since
1883 ; the State I'enitentiury at Baton Kougc, established in
1832, and conducted on the leased-lalwr plan; and the
Touro Infirmarv, established on a bequest of Judah Touro,
supported chieilv by Israelites, with buildings valued lit
JIOO.OOO, unsectiirian in its benevolence, and costing annu-
ally for maintenance about $;W.IX)0. One of the most noted
ins'tilulions is the Charity Hospital in Xew Orleans, founded
in 1786 by Don Andres Almonaster y Rosas, and receiving
an annual appro] irial ion from the State of $80,000. In
fifty-eight consecutive years, excepting 1863, its admissions
aggregated 449,4.j3, disc'harges 374,864. and deaths 66.134.
"Polilical Orijaiiization. — The political organization of
the State closelv resembles that of its sister States. Still
the constitution "adopted in 1879 presents some peculiarities.
The cxecutiyc department consists of the Governor, lieu-
tenant-governor, auditor, treasurer, and secretary of State,
all elected for four yeai-s. The Governor has the veto
power, subject to a reversal by the Legislature : has the
pardoning power, on the recommendation of a board of
pardons; has unusually large powers in the appointment of
officers; apixiinis the five judges of the Supreme Court, who
hold oliice for twelve years, and also appoints all otBcers
whose selection is not otherwise provided for in the eousti-
tuti<m, and the [Mitronage under this clause is immense.
Five courts of aiipeals. with two judges each and a juris-
diction of from into to $3,000, were created, but have been
found cumljrous and useless. The judges are elected by the
General Assembly in joint session. There are twenty-sis
district courts, with original civil jurisdiction of all matters
over $.50, and unlimited original jurisdiction in all criminal,
probate, and succession matters. They try appeals from
justice in cases involving more than $10. District judges
arc elected by a plunility of qualified volei-s in their respec-
tive districts. The legislative power is vested in a Senate
of not more than 36 nor less than 24 Senators, ami a House
of Itepreseiitativcs of not more than 98 nor less than 70,
elected for four years, which causes some anomalies in I he
election of U. .S. Senators. The General Assembly has no
power to contract, or authorize the contraction of, any <lebt
or liability on behalf of the .State, except to resist invasion
or insurrection ; and it can not pass any local or special law
except for a few specified objects, such as general appropria-
tions for the ordinary expenses of government, for interest
on the public <lel)t. and for pulilic schools and charitable
institutions. All other appropriations are made by separate
bills, each embracing but one object. A liberal liomestcad
exemption is provided for.
lliKlonj. — The first Europeans who set foot on the soil of
Louisiana were Alvarez de Pineda and his companions,
who in l.jli) entered the mouth of the Jlississippi, and spent
six weeks on its banks. They found thc> Indians friendly and
living in large towns. Ten years later tlie ill-fated expedi-
tion of I'aMi|ihilo de N'nrvai>z touched at the mouth of the
Mississippi. In 1-")41 Hernando de Sola, after three years"
wanderings, crossed the Mississippi to perish, after incredi-
ble hardships, in the wilderness. This was the end of Span-
ish exploration. Robert Cavalier de la Salle made .several
allempis to explore the great river, lait it was not until
16.82 that he succeeded in rlescending it to its mouth. Then
he look possession of the land for his king, Louis XIV. of
France, and named it in liis hiuior. La Salle's success
gained him such credit thai \\\r king grained him the- right
to found a colony, and furnisheil him four ship-i and 280
colonist-s for his expedition. (In New Year's l)ay, 168.5,
they came in sight of land, but their bearings had been too
far to the \V'., and a hmding was made in Matagorda Hay.
The eX[>edition wholly lailecl in its purpose. In 1698 the
CounI de I-ontcharlrain. Minister of Marine to l..ouis XIV.,
and his son .leroine. Count de Manrepas, projected an expe-
dition to colonize Louisiana, which was placed in charge of
Pierre le Jloyne d'Iberville. D'Iberville, with his younger
brother, .lean Bapliste Le Moyne, .Sieur de Bienville, maile a
landing at Pensacola Bay, \vhieh he fipiiiul occupied by the
Spaniards, whence he proceeded to explore Moljile Bay and
the shores to the \V. of il. and on Fell. 27, 1699, entered the
mouth of the Mississippi and established a cidony at Biloxi.
Ilc'i-e the history of lx)uisiana reallv begins. For years
Iberville, and after him his lirolher liienville. maintained
the infant colony against dilliculties and embarrassments
beycmd the usual iiH'asure of colonial selllemeiit. In 1718
he founded the cily cif New Orleans, named in honor of the
Duke of (Irleans, regent of France. In 1712 a royal charter
granted Louisiana to a rich merchant. .A nioine Crozat, as
a trading establishment, but he surrendered his charter in
1718, anci another was granted to the Company of the West,
a monopoly under the control of .lon.v Law (c/. v.), who ol)-
taincd various privileges of trade and colonization, which,
however, finally inured to the benehl of the colony. In
1722 Bienville was aulliorizecl to remove the capital from
Biloxi to New Orleans, and in 1724 he was recalled to
France. In 1731 Louisiana was declared a royal province;
in 1733 Bienville was again made Governor, and in 1743, at
his own reciuest, he was relieved and returnecl to France 2
after forty-hve years of service to the colony. He was sue- I
ceeded by the Marquis de Vaudi-eiiil. In 1703 France, by
thcTreaty of Paris. surrendered to Great Britain all her ter-
ritory E. of the Mississippi, except New Orleans and the ad-
jacent district. On the same day. by a secret treaty, France
ceded to Siiain all the rest of" her territory in America.
When the latter fact became known in Louisiana the colo-
nists sent petitions to the king imploring him not to expa-
triate them, but without avail. Noxious regulations, pro-
inulgaled by Don Antonio de Ulloa, the Spanish govenior,
who landed in 1767. led to ojieii revolt, a second petition to
tlic> king, and the sudden appearance of Count O'Reilly,
lieutenant-general of the Spanish army, with a strcmg fleet
and military forcre. New Orleans was seized, a Spanish
code substituted for existing forms of government, and a
vear of tyranny ensued. O'Reilly was succeeded by Don
Luis de Unzaga, who gave the colonists a mild and judicious
administration from 1770 till 1777. He was followed by
Don Beriiaiclii Cfiilvez. who. alter the declaration of war by
Sjiain against (iivat Britain, cap! uivd Baton Rouge. Natchez,
Mobile, and PeiisacHila, and secured the surrender of all
West Florida to S|)ain. In 178.5 Miro became Governor,
and in 1792 Baron Carondelet, who remained till 1797. The
wealth and culture of the province were greatly increa.sed
under both of these administrations. From 1797 till 1803
Gayoso de Lemos. Don Francisco Bouligny. the Marquis de
Ca.sa Calvo, and Don .luan JIanuel de Salcedo succeeded
ejich other as Governoi-s.
On Oct. 1, 1800, Napoleon made a secret trcatv willi
Spain by which Louisiana was restored to France, with its
former boundaries, and on A])r. 30, 1803. he sold the prov-
ince to the U. S. for $ 15,000.000. The territ ory was formally
transferred cm Dec. 17 following; the part now known as
Louisiana was organized by Congress as the Territory of
Orleans on Mar. 2(>. 18114, aiid it was admittcMl to the Union
as a Shite on .\pr. 30, 1812. (For the military operations in
Louisiana in the war of 1812-15. see Xhnv Ohlkans.) In
1845 a new constitution was ado]ited, abolishing the prop-
erty ciualiiication for voters and introducing othcM- important
features, inc'luding an anli-duelling clause, which ^vas made
more stringent in the constitution of 18.52.
At the beginning of the civil war the ini|)ortancc of New
Orleans as a stiiitegical point was self-evident, and its pos-
session was one of the earliest objects of the Federal Gov-
ernment. (For the naval operations, see Fahhaoit, David
Glascok, and Portkr, David Dixox; for military opera-
tions, see Banks, Natiiaxiki. Pkkxtiss; Br-ri.KU, Bkx.iamiji
Fkanklin: and Tavi.or, Ric uaki)). During the reconstruc-
tion period New Orleans was the sccMie of long-continued
excitement, of conllicls belweeii the White League and the
melropolilan police, and of Federal militiirv inlervc'nlic?n. In
1877 Pri'sideiit Hayes withdrew I lie support of the V . S. troons
from the Slate government, hcadc'd by Stephen B. Pack-
ard, whcreiipcui the governnicnt, headed by Francis T. Nich-
oUs, assumed the acliiiiiiistration of Slate affairs. In 1879 a
new conslilulioii was adopti'd. the chic'f jirovisions of which
are given above. In this year also Jamks B. Emis (</. ('.)
coniplelcd his jetties in the .South Pass, which have opened
LOUISIANA
LOL'IS I'll 11,1 1'PE
371
the mouth of the Mississippi to vessels of tlie heaviest
drauf^ht. The levees, whieh had U-cn greatly iie-jlected
and broken, were taken in hand, and inueli pro(;ress was
made ; but in 1 W2 a jireat flood produeivl 2h4 crevasses, and
swept away f)!) miles of levees. Unusual efforts were, liow-
ever, [)Ul forth by the localities direetly allecte4l and the
State, and aid was liberally ffiven by the U. rt (tovernmeut,
so that in the IliKid of ISHO, whieh was higher than that of
188i, in l.KKJ miles of levees there was only a breakaf^e of
4+ miles. In 1878 4,0(K) |>ei-s<)iis died of yelhiw fever iu
Louisiana. This wa-s the last epidemie. A sanitary system
of disinfietion of vessels was established by l)r. Joseph Holt
at the ouarantine station at the mouth of the Mississippi
river, which has since effectually excluded this pestilence,
aii<l is considered the best in the world. In 18H4 a centen-
nial exposition, to celebrate the export of the first shipment
of cotton in 1784, wa-s held in New Orleans. Tliough its
plories pale before those of the World's Columbian Kxposi-
tion, and the season was the most unpropitious on record, it
contained notable features and had vahuiblc results. In
18'Jl a very bitter political eonlcst occurred over (rranting
a renewal of charter to the Louisiana Lottery (.'ompany.
When the U. S. tiovernment refused the use of its mads to
the h>ttery company, that corporation withdrew ils offer to
pay a larue sum for ils privileges, ami the anti-lottery party
elected its candidates.
OOVKRXORS OK LOflslANA
Territory of Orleans.
W. C. C. Claiboiiie WM-li
GeDrRe F. Shepley l«63-«4
Sliehael Ilaliii IStH-CS
JniiiHS M. Wells ISd."!-)'!?
Benjaiiiiii K. Flanders 186r-««
Joshua Baker I8«iH
Henry U Waruiotli 18«»-;a
J. McEliery I claimant) ... IRTS
I Wni. I'itt KfWngg Mir facto) 1873
' Wm. Pitt KelliiCK IRTS-Ti
Steplien B. Packard 1KT7-T«
Francis T. Nicliolls l(CS-)«)
I.ouis .\. Wiltz IKWO-Kl
S. I). McKnen- IH8I-8S
Francis T. Nicholls 18K8-92
5lnrpliv J. Foster 18!)2-96
Jlurphy J. Foster I(!S)C-
State.
W. C. C. aaiborue 1812-10
Jaquiz Villere I8It)-2n
TtlKUins B. Knbertson .... 1820-34
H. S. Tliibodeaux (aetinc) 1824 ' Wm. Pitt Kelliiiri;
Henrv .lohnson 1821-28
IVier Dcrliii^'ny 182S-2!)
A. Bnuvais (actinel lK2!)JtO
Jaciines iJupre (acting). . . IK30-.S1
.\ndr.- B Kcmian lS:tl-:i5
Kilward I(. White IKiV.lil
Andre H. Konian 18:)9-43
Alexander Mimton I84:j-I6
l.siuic .Ichnsiin 1846-50
J.is. ph Wiilker IS-W-M
Paul II ll.-hert 185.•^-.^6
R. C' Wickliffe ia'i«-BO
Tbonias O. Moore 18tiO-62
AiTiioKiTiKS. — Tlie earliest history of Louisiana is that of
Le Page du I'ratz. who lived in the colony in 1717 (Lon-
don, 1774). For oripnal authorities, see I'ierro Mar-rry's
Mhnoirex et Dnriimenh (6 vols., Paris); also Xo/es ef Docu-
nirnl-<, in MSS.. l)eloufrinc: to the Louisiana Ilistorioal Soci-
ety : and li. F. French's ilixlnriral Col/rclioiix of Louixiana.
The most extended history is that of Charles Gayarre (4
vols.. New Orleans, 187!)). wliich is very full as far as 181."(.
and contains the annals of Louisiana to the civil war.
Another valuable work is F. .X. .Martin's The lUxloAi of
Liiuixiana from the Ettrllext Period (2 vols.. New Orleans.
18->7). It extends to 181.1. The latest work is .t Ilixloni of
Louixinna, hy tirace Kin? and J. 1{. Picklen (New Orleans.
18!):!). For complete bibliojrraphv of works on certain pe-
riods of Louisiana history, see Snrrafire anil Dexrri/ilire
Ilixlonj of Amerirn. William Prkston JonxsTox.
Lonisiaiia: city: Pike co.. Mo. (for location of county,
see map of Mis.souri. ref. 'A~\) ; on the .Mississipiii river, and
Burl, and the Chi. and Alton railways: 1I."( mdes N. W. of
St. Ijouis. It is in a friiit-Krowinf; ami lunibiT region: has
steam Hour, planing, anil lumber mills, machine-shops, to-
bacco-factories, stone-quarrii's, lime-works and nurseries,
and contains MeCune College (Baptist, ofionecl 1880). high
schiMil, public-school library, gas and electric light plants,
and a weeklv and twosemi-weeklv tiewspa|(ers. Pop. (1880)
4.:i->r): (bSiM)).-),!)!)!). ' KlilToK oK " I'rk.ss."
Loiii.s le l)<>lioiiiiair<>, looee'lf-diilw ni!r ,or Thk Pious:
Roman empi-ror from 814 to 840: li. at Casseneuil in 778: a
son of Charlemagne by his third wife. Ilildeganl. His elder
brt>thers having died, he succeeded his father. Ian. 28, 814.
and the first years of his goverinueiit wWe quite .successful,
but in 817 ho yieldeil to the wishes of his son.s, and gave
each of them a share in his dominions, and hence arose
complications which n\sulte<l in the dissolution of the em-
iiire. Ijolhaire re<'eived .VustriLsia and the titli- of emperor:
'I'pin. .\(piilania: and Louis, Havana. Bohemia, and the
Avarian districts on the eastiTii frontier. IternanI, n
nephew of Loui.s, who hail inherited Italy after bis father.
received nothing, and n'volted, but the emi)eror alliire<I him
to Chalons, t<Mik him pris<iner, put out his eyes, and gave
Italy to Lothaire. .\s soon as done the atrocity of the deed
struck the mind of the emperor with horror: he went to the
Church to be comforted, and from this [K-riiMl he was merely
a t(«)l in the hands of the elergv. In 81!» he married a sec-
ond wife, Judith of Bavaria. In 82;J she bore him a son,
Charles, who later received the surname of TnE HalI). and in
82!l he propose<l to undertake a new division of the empire
in favor of his youngest son. The three elder brothers were
unwilling to lose anything, and a war broke out which,
often stilled, always reo|i<-neil, and lasted to the di'ath of
the emperor. Twice the father was defeated, taken prisoner,
deposed, and subjected to various indignities by his threo
.sons, but liotli tiim-s the avarice and ambition of Lothaire,
who wished to reign alone, disunited the brothers, and Loin's
and Pepin again raised their father to the throne. Pepin
died in 8:i8. and the emperor iirojtoscd to give his dominioas
to Charles the Bald, thus excludnig his .s<jns from thiir in-
heritance; but when he at the same moment gave Italy and
Australia to Lothaire and nothing to Louis, the latter re-
volted immediately, together with the sons of Pepin. Dur-
ing this war the unhappy emperor died at Ingellieim, near
Meiitz. June 20. 840. and was tiuried at Metz.
Loiii8 Nnpolpon : .See Napoleox III.
Louis Philippe: King of the French from the revolu-
tion of July. 18:i0. to that of Feb., 1848: b. in Pari.s, Oct. 6.
17~i : the eldest son of Duke Louis Philippe Joseph of Or-
leans, known as Philippe figalite. From his father ami
govcriu'ss (Madame de Uenlis) he imViibed the revolutionar\-
ideas of the period, entering the Xatiimal Guard and the
Jacobin Club, and renouncing his titles for the name of
Citizen Kgalite. lie great Iv distinguished himself as Gen-
eral de Chartres in the battfe of Jcinappes. ami. what is not
so well known, made the journey to Paris to dissuaile his
father from voting for the death of Louis .XVI. Though
the edict whieh banished the Bourbon family exemiited him
and his falher. his position became difficult. espe<'ially as
his commander. Dinimuriez, was susjiected by the Conven-
tion of intriguing to place him on the thnme. Orders of
arrest were issued Imtli against him and Dumouriez. and on
Apr. 4. 170M, they fled across the .\ustrian frontier. For
more than twenty years he was an exile, often contending
with very hanl circumstances, as shortly after his flight his
fatlier was executeil, his mothiT banished from France, ami
all the i>roperty of the fandly confiscated. He liveil for
some time in Switzerland, where he taught mathematics in
a school; passed soiiu' time traveling in the north of Eu-
rope : lived from 17!»G to 1800 in the U.S.: from 1800 to
1807 at Twickenham near London : and after 18011 at the
court of Ferdinand I. of Sicily, whose daughter, the Prin-
cess Marie .\melie, he married. He twice alti'inptetl to join
the adherents of the BourlKni family in .Spain, but was both
times foiled by British diplomacy. After the fall of Na|i:>-
leon he returned to Paris, was rein.-tated in the [Hisst-ssion
of the immense property of the Orleans family, taking up
his residence in the Palais Uoyal : but. although a reetin-
eiliation had taken place between him ami the elder line
of the Bourbon family, the king. Louis .Will., disliked,
.suspected, and feari'd him. The Duke of Orleans, as was
now the title of Louis Philifi|>e, was a man of gn-at gifts
and of great attainments, eloquent, accomplished, fascinat-
ing, witii vivid instincts and large views, shrewd and s<miiil
in his judgment of persons and things. Alexander of Uussia
marked him out u.s Ihe most prominent memU'r of the
Bourbon family, and although he lived in a rather retired
manner in Paris and took very litlle part in |M)litics, he soon
l)ecame very itopular. On the outbreak of tlie revolution of
July, 18:10,' the ChamlM-r of Deputies, after de|Meiing tho
king, chose him lieutenant-general of the realm. Chnrli-s X.
re<-ognizing him as such and hoping through \r'
serve the I hroiii' for the Count of Bonleaux. W '
could have U-en done is doubtful: the crxiwn w.. .. ,. ;
by Ihe Chamber of Depulies to I^uis PhilipiH', who ai--
ceptinl it, though henceforth he was i-on-idenil by the puro
legitimists disloyal to Ihe cause of legitimacy. His reign
of eighti-en years shows a series of c<'nimotipliw<> (•vonl-*,
but Franw ivceived s<ime subslanlial li
eminent. The foumlation of the kinirl
firotecteil the northern frontier, and ;. ^•^■ -■ ■.' ;i..
nrge and beautiful colony of .\lgeria an' among Ihe most
notable, and may well be s«'t off again-t what have been
considcrttl tho reproaches of his n-igii. I^mis Philippe
37-2
LOUIS THE GERMAN
LOUISVILLE
vras both a statesnmn and a shrewil n<lriiini$trator, but liU
government wju-; too little in sympathy with the feelings of
the Frfneli pi'ii|ile; many causes of ilistonteiit arose, ac-
eorapanieil with charges of corruption in the ministry. An
extension of the elective franchise was ilenianded. Ke-
sisted by the king, the revolution broke out which deprived
him of iiis throne and banished him from the country. As
the revolution was without adequate reason, it paved the
way for lawlessness and discontent and the consequent ad-
vent of Xapoleoii HI. I), at t'lermont, near Lomlon, .\ug.
20, l(<iO. The best authorities on the reign are Guizot,
Jlemuirs: Hlanc, History of Jen I'eani: Llillebrand, (le-
srhichle Franknichx; I^martine, JJistory of the Jievolu-
iion of 1S4S ; Normanby, A rear of lie volution.
Kevised by C. K. Adams.
Louis the (Jennnn (Germ. Ludtrigder Deutsche): b. about
805; a son of the Kuiperor Louis le Debonnaire ; received
by the first division of the empire of Charlemagne (in 817)
Bavaria and the Slavic countries on the eastern frontier,
but by the treaty of Verdun in K4:i, which ended the war
between the heirs of Louis le Debonnaire, he o!ilaijie(l the
whole territory K. of the Khine, and became the founder of
the German emin're. Invited by the discontented vassals of
Charles the Bald, he broke into France in 858, and con-
quered the country, but the difference between the Eastern
and Western Franks — that is, between the Germans and the
French — were at this period so great that a union of the
two tribes proved impossible, and Louis was compelled to
give up his conquests, .\gainst the Bulgarians in (lie south-
east and the Normans in tlie northwest he fought with valor,
though not always with success; the bishopric founded at
Hamburg in 8:54 lie was compelled to remove to Bremen in
8.58. as the pagans burned down the former city. After his
death in 8TU his sons divided the enqare between them.
Louis the (Jreat : King of Hungary from l:i42 to 1383 ;
b. iy26 ; a son of Charles Robert of Anjou ; was one of the
most successful of the elective monarchs of that country.
Although he failed in his expeditions to Naples for the pur-
pose of avenging his brother .\iidrew, who had been mur-
dered by his wife .Joanna, (jueen of Naples, he extended the
boundaries of Hungary to the S. E., and united Poland to
it on the death of i'lisimir the Great in 1370. He expelled
the Jews, but by decreasing the duty on merchandise he
greatly encouraged the commerce of the country. On the
general development of civilization in his i-ealm he exer-
cised great intluence. He founded a rich college in Fiinf-
kirchen, and Buda became one of the most splendid capitals
of Europe. 1). in 1382.
Louisville; the chief city of Kentucky and capital of
Jeffei-son Countv : situated at the falls of the Ohio river, in
hit. 38 14 57' S'.. and Ion. 8 45 .52' \V. from Washington
(for location, sec map of Kentucky, ref. 3-G).
Situation and Area. — The city has an area of 13 sq.
miles. It stands on the south bank of the river, 70 feet
above low water, and beyond the reach of hurtful inunda-
tions, in a rich agricultural country, kept perennially pro-
ductive bv the decay of underlying .Silurian and Devonian
rocks, and within easy reach of"inc'xhaustil)le forests of tim-
ber and mines of coal and iron.
I'lan and General Appearance. — Viewed from the Indi-
ana shore its river-front jiresents a graceful crescent, 8 miles
in length, and from a central elevation on its northern
boundary the perspective of brojui streets lined with hand-
some houses and beautiful shade-trees for 4 miles to the
S. is very striking. Its plan is that of a series of named
.Mreets parallel with the river from E. to W., and numbered
streets culling them at right angles from N. to S. Except
Broadway, wiiich is 120 feet wiile, and Main, Market, and
.lellerson, each of which is !(0, nearly all of the streets are
00 feet wide. The jirincipal streets are well paved with
granite blocks or asphalt um, and electric cars run to all
parts of the lily.
Louisville is one of the most healthful cities in the world.
The death-rale in 18!)3 was sixteen to the thousand, and it
has not been more in a long series of years, while in some
years it has been much less.
I'arks and S(/nures. — The original plan of Louisville cm-
braced parks and public s(|uans, l>ul I he early trustee.; sold
all of them except enough for the court-house ami jail. In
18!»3 a wiser policv prevailed, and grounds were purchased
for parks and public .scpmrcs. In the E. is Chi>rokce I'ark,
containing 300 acres; in the W., Shawnee I'ark with 107
acres; and in the S., Inxpiois I'ark, endiracing 550 acres.
Shawnee Park is a level plain on the bank of the Ohio,
Cherokee Park is riven by waterways into plains, undula-
tions, and ravines, and Iroquois Park lifts its primeval for-
ests 300 feet high. Baxter and Bo<iiie Stpiares and Kenton
and Logan Places are in the thickly settled parts of the citv.
Public Buildings. — A characteristic of the bidldiugs Is
the anq>le ground on which they stand and the shade-trees
which adorn the grounds of the private resiliences. Among
the public buildings, the court-house in the Classic, the city-
hall in the Gothic, and the post-ollice in the mixed style of
architecture are iuqiosing structures. Among the more not-
able buildings may be mentioned the Commerce building,
the Kentucky Natioind Bank, the Louisville Trust Company,
the Louisville Medical College, and the Louisville Female
College.
Churches. — Louisville has 176 churches. Of these, the
Baptists have 41, the Disciples 1 1, the E[iiscopalians 17, the
Evangelical Associationists 2, the Israelites 5, the Luther-
ans 8, the Methodists 32, the I'resbvterians 22, the Roman
Catholics 24, the Spiritualists 2, and the Christadclphians,
Seventh-dav Adventists, Unitarians, United Brethren in
Christ, anil Congregational isis one each. Some of them,
especially the Warren Memorial, the Calvary, the Cathe-
dral, ami the Broadway Baptist, are line sj)ecimens of eccle-
siastical architecture.
Educdiiiiii. — The city maintains 42 public schools in
large brick buildings, attended by 25.000 pupils, at a cost
per year of *550,000. The male high school and the female
are really colleges of a superior order. Others are the Nor-
mal School and a manual training-school. There are as
many i)rivate schools as public. There are also 5 medical
colleges, 2 theological seminaries, a law school, a school of
dentistry, 2 schools of iiharmacy. an art sc-hool, a number of
music salons, ami various other schools.
Libraries. — The oidy public library is that of the Poly-
technic Society, which has about oOjWO volumes. There are,
however, such libraries as that of the Baptist Theological
Seminary, the Louisville Law School, and the medical de-
partment of the University of Louisville, which almost serve
the purposes of ]Hdjlic collections. There are several private
liliraries which are large and valuable, one of which has in
the aggregate .50,000 books, jjainphlets, periodicals, papers,
maps, and numuscripts.
Ilu.ipitals, Asylums, etc. — Louisville is well provided with
hospitals, asylums, inlirmaries, or])hanages, homes, etc., hav-
ing no fewer than thirty-five.
Finitnce. — The propertv within the citv limits was as-
sessed for 1804 at ^!)l,U20."77(j. A tax-rate 'of $1.88 laid on
this sum yields *1.71I.l!t0 lor the expense of the city gov-
ernment. In tulditiun to this tax a considerable sum is
raiseil from licenses, etc., for the sinking fund. This in-
come, addeil to the cash assets already accumulated in the
sinking fumi, to the amount of ^2.243,!I52. enables it to
meet the annual interest of the bonded debt of the city,
amounting to $9,103,000, and to liquidate the principal as
it falls due.
Manufacturing and Business Interest.-!. — The census of
1800 showeil that 1.G22 mainil'aeturing establishments (rep-
resenting 131 industries) rcjiorled. These had a condiined
capital of $30,542,047 ; emploved 24.807 persons ; paid .*1 1,-
034.028 for wages and 122,870,000 for materials; and had
prtMlucts valued at $45.4.52.200. In one year the Deimis
Long Foundry uses 00,000 tons of iron iii making water
and gas pijies; the .\very Works manufacture 400,(l00
plows; the Keutu<'ky Works make ;'0.(ll)l) wagons: and the
IJallard .Mills make an average of 1,00(1 barrels of flour each
day. The tanners use in a year 320.0t)0 Kentuekv hiiles,
out of which thev make 12,80d.(K)0 lb. of leather, wiih Ken-
tucky bark; the 'distillers make 28.000,000 gal. of Bourbon
whisky; the mills make 2.000.(K)0 barrels of hydraulic
cement; the looms weave 7. .500.(100 yards of jeans; and
the warehouses handle 100.000 lioi.'sliea(ls of tobacco.
There are 10 natir.iial banks with a lapital of $4.401,.500,
and 9 State lianks with a eapilal of $4.874,.S00. The surplus
of the national banks is .*l.O32.OO0 and of the State banks
.$3,387,035. so that if the surplus be added to the capital the
total capital of the'lO banks will be $13,(i05.035.
J/eans of Continuninttion. — Two bridges across the Ohio
connect Loinsville with the iieighlioring cities of .lelTei-soii-
ville and New .Mbaiiy. while a third was being built in l.'<04;
and a I'anal around the falls, 2J mili'S long, removes all seri-
ous obstructions to the navigation of the Ohio river. Its
positi(m on the bank of the Ohio connects it with 2.000
miles of navigable rivers in Kentucky, and the five railways
LOUNSBL'KY
LOL'VOIS
873
that enter it on the Kentucky side f;ive it eonneotion with
lifii'J miles of railway in this State, while the four that enter
it from the ln<liana side extend its connections to the great
railway system of the I'. S.
Uintori/. — On May 27, 1778, Gen. George UoRers Clark, on
his way to the conquest of the Illinois country, lamled on a
little island in the Ohio river, at the falls, fortv-nine white
men, women, and ehililren. and one Negro, who [ia<l come on
his l)oats from Hedslone as emigrants to Kentucky. In the
fall of 177S and the spriii;,' of 177!) these families moved from
the island to the shore, and on Apr. 17, 177!), with others who
had joined them, estahlished the town of Louisville, and
place<l it under the pnerninent of seven trustees. The Le;;-
islature of Virginia, in whoso county of Fincastic the new
town was located, passed an act which took effect May 1,
1780, rccojrnizing this town of Louisville and giving it cor-
porate existence. The town continued to be governed by
trustees until 1828. when the Legislature of Kentucky granted
it a charter, which lodged the governing power in a mayor
an<l council. This first charter lasteil until 18-51. when it wa-s
superseded bv a second, and this second, in 1870. was abol-
ished by a tliird. A fourth charter which made radical
changes in all previous organic law went into eflect under
the new constitulinii of Kentucky in 1802. By it was inau-
gurated a board of public works and a l)oard of public safety,
which will take much of the power of the c:ty heretofore
vested in the mavor and council.
Populdlion. — The l'. S. census of 1700 does not give the
population of Louisville, and that of 1800 gives it oidy :t.")0.
Its population from other sources is reliably estimated at 100
in 1780, and ())X) in 1800. The census of 1830 gives it as
10,341. of 1880 as 123,7.>S, an<I that of 18!)0 as 161,129, while
the local census, conducted by the C'aron Directory Com-
pany, makes it 201,.j9!). R. T. Durrett. ,
Lounsblirr, Thomas Ravxesford : scholar and author;
b. at Oviil, >f. Y., .Ian. 1, 1838. He graduated at Yale in
IH.")!). and was engaged upon The Amprirtin Cijrloptedia until
IH(i2. In the latter year he was commissioned first lieuten-
ant in the 120th Keginient of Xew York Volunteers, and
served until the close of the civil war. In 1870 he was ap-
pointed instructor and in 1871 Professor of English in the
Shetlield Scientific School of Yale University. Among his
publications are editions of Chaucer's Parliament of Fnules
(1877); a biography of James Fenimore Cooper (1883); a
Jlixlorij of tlie hnylixh Language (187!)); and exhaustive
Studies in Chaucer (3 vols., 18i)3). H. A. Beers.
Lniirdes, loord : a town of the department of Ilautes-
Pyrenees, France ; the capital of a canton, the seat of the
civil court of the arrondissement of ArgCdes; 12 miles S. \V.
of Tarl)es, on the Gave de Pan (see map of France, ref. 9-1)).
Marble and slate (juarries are extensively worked in the vi-
cinity. The town is chiefly noted for the grotto of Ma-ssa-
vielle, in which Roman Catholics believe the Virgin Mary
revealed herself freiiuently in 1858 to a peasjint girl. A
large church has been built above the grotto, and the place
is visited by pilgrims from all parts of the world. The town
has considerable trade in rosaries and in the water of its
miraculous fountain. See Zola's Loi(r</ejj (Paris, 1894). Pop.
(1801)0,182.
IjOiireii<;o Marniips, Ioo-rens5-maark(is: the most south-
ern settlement of the Portuguese in K)i.st Africa (see map of
Africa, ref. 9-G). The present town was founded (1867) on
the site of an old village of the same name on Delagoa Bay,
which affords the best harbor on the east coast S. of Zanzibar.
It is a regular port of call for .steamers from Lisbon, Ham-
burg, and Dartmouth, is connected with Kurope by the cable
laid along the Fast African coa.st, and is the terminus of
the Delasjoa Bay and Fast .\frican Railway, completed in
1887 to tlie Transvaal frontier, .")7 miles, and extemled by
the South .Xfrican Republic, 2t)0 miles farther west to Pre-
toria, in the summer of 189.';. C. C. Akam.s.
Louse [M. Fng. lorts < O. Eng. lua : 0. U. Germ. I Ha >
Mod. Germ, laiix, louse]: any wingless insect that infests
animals or plants. The plural of louse is Lice (7. v.).
Louth, lowth: county; in the province of Leinster. Ire-
land ; liounded E. by t}io Irish Sea ami S. by the Boviie.
Area. 316 sq. miles. The surface is mi>slly level or slightly
undulating, except in the northern part, where it is trav-
ersed by a mountain range ending in Mt. Carlingford, 1,93.')
feet high. Wheat, oats, barlev, and iiotatoes ari' rais<-d, and
cattle of a good breed are reared. Pop. (1891) 7I.0;W. The
seacoast is mostly low and sandy. The most importaDt
rivers are the Fane, Lagan, Glyde, and Dee. all of wliich
flow ea-tward. The iirincijial' towns are Drogheda and
Dundalk.
Loiivuiii, loo' van' (FIcm. Leuren; Germ. Lliiren ; anc.
(Lat.) name Lovn'nia): city of Belgium; in the province of
Brabant, on the Dyle; 19 miles bv rail K. of Brussels(see map
of Holland and Belgium, ref. KJ^E). In the fourteenth cen-
tury it ha<l 200.000 inhabitants, and was one of the largest
manufacluriiig cities in the world, employing l.'>,0()0 work-
men in cloth-manufacturing alone, but it.s'attempt to vindi-
cate its indeneiidence with (he other towns of Flanilers was
defeateil. and it lost most of its wealth and importance. In
the sixteenth century its university, atlemleil by 6.INmJ stu-
dents, was one of the first scientific' institutions "in Euroiie,
celebrated especially for its deiiartment of Roman Catholic'
theology, but during the French Revolution the university
was suppressed, atid although it was reconstituted in 1H17 ft
ha.s not regained its pa.st glory. It has about 1,600 students.
Mmn- buildings attest the former splendor of the city; as,
for instance, the town-hall, one of the richest existing struc-
tures of Gothic architecture, and the cathedral. Generally
speakiiig, Louvain is a quiet place, but it has im|)ortant
breweries, bell-foundries, paper-mills, and tanneries. I'ou
(18!I1)40.6!I8. ^
Loiiverture. or L'OiiTerture, Toussaist : See Tors-
SAIXT LolVKElTlRK.
Loiivet de Conrray, loo' va'df-koov'rS', Jean Baptiste:
politician and author; b. in Pari.s.June 11,1760; reieived a
very insufTicient education, and was clerk in a InMikseller's
store when his romance, Les Avenlures dii Chevalier Fan-
bias (13 vols., 1787-89), suddenly made him famous. In 1790
followed another romance, A'milie de I'drmwH/. dealing with
the question of divorce— less frivolous than Faulilas, though
more radical. I'nder the ministry of Rolainl he began the
miblication of a |)eriodical. La Seutinelle, noted for its vio-
lent attacks on royalty. Having lieen electeil a member of
the Convention, he proved one of the greatest orators of that
assembly. He attacked Robespierre with eminent courage
as the originator of the September massacre, but after the
defeat of the Girondists, his allies, he was compelled to flee
and to hide himself till the fall of his great antagonist. Ho
then returned to the Convention, and was member of the
Council of Five Hundred. He liad macle many enemies,
however, and these attacked him with great virulence, Inith
in his public career and in his private life. An espe<iai
haniUe against him was made of his relations to a beautiful
wonum, whom he called Lodoiska, who deserted her hus-
band for him, and whom he subsequently married. Before
he died he wrote an autobiographic account of the most
perilous part of his life: (^uel<jues notices pour Fhieloire et
le rent de mes perils depiiis le 3J mai. /7.W ( 1 79.')). D. Aug.
'2ii. 1 797. H is wife, who was much devoted to him, attempted
to poison herself, but was saved.
Revi.sed by A. R. Marsh.
LonTois. loo V wall', Frax(,ois Mmukl lk Tellier, Mar-
quis de: statesman; b. in Paris, France, Jan., 1639: bought
the right of succeeiling his father in the ofTice of .Se<retary
of War; apjilied himself with treat energy and assiduity to
the study of^all the details of the business, and took charge
of the wiiole department in 1668 ; in a few years crejittnl the
largest, most effective, and most brilliant anny mo<Iem
Europe had seen, introduced perfwt discipline, established
regular grailes of rank in the command, ami gave each of
the dilTerent arms its perfect develoiunent bv founding sepa-
rate schools of engineering, artillery, and cavalry. His
genius showed itself .still more brilliantly when this army
came to be used in war. .Ml its movements were accom-
plished with an order, rapidity, anil prwision which doubled
its effect and led to astonishing successes. He was extreme-
ly ambitious : to keep himself in oflice. and to make his of-
fice the most important in the kingdom. wa.s his .«ole aim.
and the advice, political and military, which he offered in
the king's council was exclusively governeil l>y this aim, of-
ten to the great <letriment of the country. Still more de-
testable Were the means he applie<l. Tin devastation of the
Palatinate, one of the greatest barlmrilies of mcHlern times,
was his plan, as also the idea of using ilrsgoms for I'onvcrt-
ing the Huguenots, .\fter the death of Coll>ert in 16IS3 he
also assumed the adminislmtion of the finances, but. know-
ing no other ex|H'dients than exlortii>ns and loans, he soon
ruined the finances anil exhausteil the country. The last
years of his life were spent in great anxiety. He had lie-
come very exacting and overbearing, and the king, who waa
374
LOL'VHK. Tin
LOA'E
easily irritated by any want of submission, treated liiin
coldly and even slifclitinfjly ; and had just made u|> liis
mind' to ihniw Louvois intotlie Hiistile when the latter died
suddeidy, July Iti, lti!tl.
Louvre, Kwvr, The (transl. of Fr. Palais dii Lourri-) : an
aneienl palace of the Kinj,'s of France, which througlioul
the nineteenth century has been used chietly as a museum
of art, in Paris, dose to the north bank of the Seine.
Throuf,'hout the Middle As^i'S tlie Louvre was a stronjr cas-
tle, which owed its cliief character to the Kings Pliilip Au-
gustus and C'hiirles V. Francis I. destroyed the old keep,
«nd his successors began and carried on a structure on all
sides of a square court, and four times the size of the old
castle, besides some galleries carried soutliward anil west-
ward along the river. The palace of the Tuileries stands a
third of a mile farther \V'.. and the kings from Uenrv IV.
on were always mmiiig at the extension of tlie one Imilding
to connect with the oilier, hut this was difficult on account
of the crowd of small houses, churches, and narrow streets
which were in the way. and it wsis only compleled under
Napoleon 111. Puring the Coninumisl revolt of 1S71 tlie
buildings of the new galleries were very seriously damaged
by fire.
The museum of the Louvre is the most extensive and
varied of Europe. It includes almost everything that has
ever been considered material for a public cullectinn of
works of art; paintings both ancient and nuiilern. and in
immense number and great variety of schools and epoclis ;
a splendid collection of drawings by the greatest masters;
sculpture, Egyptian. A.ssyrian. (ireek (though not very rich
in this), Roman and Gra-eo-Hoinan. mediie%'al. Renaissance,
post-Renaissance, and modern ; Greek and Etruscan vases
in great numbers ; vases and cups of rich material and
in splendid mountings (the finest collection in the world);
an immense Egyptian collection ; majolica, carved wood,
bronze, ivory, furniture, and tapestries. It is open free
every day in' the year exceiit Mondays, when the galleries
are closed for cleaning. '1 he catalogues are very incom-
plete, but some of the volumes are of great utility as books
of general reference. Russell Stukgis.
Lovat, Slmo.s Frazkr, Lord : b. in Scotland about 1667.
grandson of the ninth and cousin of the tenth lord, by whose
will he succeeded to the title and estates; but in order to
strengthen his title he endeavored to get possession of the
sister of the late lord, and failing in the attempt seized upon
the widow, whom he compelli'd to marry him. Tliese dar-
ing acts ijrovoked reprisals, and Lord Lovat was for several
years obliged in self-defense to maintain an attitude oi in-
surrection against the constituted autliorities. On the ac-
cession of tjueen Anne he was outlawed and forced to flee
to the Continent, where he led a mysterious life for twelve
years. On the outbreak of tlie Jacobite insurrection of 1715
lie was invited by his clansmen to espouse that cause, but
preferred to take the opposite course,. iii<lucirig them to fol-
low his guidance, for which service he was restored to his
estates. In the insurrection of 1745 he sent his clan under
his son to fight for the Pretender, while he protested his own
loyalty to the house of Urunswick. This double dealing was
unsuccessful, and made him especially obnoxious to the Gov-
ernment, which Ijnniglil him lo trial for treason, and he was
executed on Tower Hill, London, Apr. 9, 1747.
Love [Anglo-Sax. lufn : Germ. Liebe] : the sentiment or
emotion of strong attraction toward persons or other ani-
mate things. Psychologists divide the great niovemi'iits of
the emotional life into two great classes, called respectively
emotions of attraction and emotions of repulsion. The pojm-
lar word "love" covers the former, as "hate" covers the
latter.
Tlieoriea of Attractive Emotion. — Two great classes of
theories have arisen having reference especially to the ex-
planation of personal atlaclimcnt or love. The first of
these, led by Prof, haiii (h'/milions and Will, 3d ed. New
York, 1888), holds that the origin of all attachment is sexual,
that all love arises by a.^social ion, through many refining in-
direct infiiiences, of the object of attachment with the repro-
ductive iimiulse. This theory is open to very evident ob-
jections. In the first place, it is dillicull to see how the re-
productive instinct itself could have arisen except on the
basis of earlier sensibility to altraclivi! qualities in other
individuals. Again, the phenoiiii'iia of emotions of aliiac-
tion generally extend into the ideal life so thoroughly, and
these sentiments attach .so directly to objects with which no
sexual ussuciation can be traced, that all presumptions arc
in favor of the second general view, i. e. that emotions of
attraction and repulsion represent the opposite modes of re-
action of the orgiinism and of consciousness upon all objects
which are pleasure or pain giving. These emotions then
become exponents of the value of certain olijects in experi-
ence, both physical and mental, and of coui-se the repro-
ductive life which dictates a large part of what may be
called sensuous attractiveness is incliuled in this formiUa.
Conseipicntly the phrase e.rpressiiT emotion serves best to
distinguish all the feelings of this cla.ss. They are an cx-
[iression of the reaction or behavior of consciousness when
given objects are presented. They represent the reactive,
outgoing side of consciousness, as the allective emotions or
feelings of self represent the rcceptiveor i-eMectivc side.
Looked at from this point of view, emotions rest upon
impulses and exhibit the two great directions which appear
in impulse, i. e. toward or from an object as fitted to satis'lv,
or the contrary. Careful distinction in lerniinology — more
careful and exact, no doubt, than the facts warrant — gives
over the active, impelling factor in a slate of high emotion
to Imi'CLse ((/. v.). and reserves for emotion only the mental
excitement, agitation, felt dislurbaiice of consciousness.
This, at any rate, serves to cover both aspects of the case,
and gives us a terminology which may be consistently main-
tained.
It is in view, therefore, of the direction of the im|)ul.ses
which the expressive emotions accompany that emotions of
love are distinguished from emotions of hate.
2'/ie Ihvelopment uf Emiifions of Attrartion and Remil-
aioii. — Under the general head of aitraclion we may include
all tendencies toward an object or individual, or satisfaction
in its presence; from the slight feeling of a)iprovnl to the
boisterous expression of social enjoymcnl. or to tlie quieter
but stronger moviiigs of all'ection and love. The progress of
this emotion in degree and closeness of attachment is an in-
teresting and typical eliaiiter in the natural history of feeling.
Beginning with interest, an object becomes attractive as
it comes into clear relation with one's self. Both simple
association, by its egoistic reference, and increasing knowl-
edge of attractive qualities in the person or thing in ques-
tion tend to increase its attracting force. Further, any
effort which may have been put forth in connection witli
such an object increases its hold upon us, and, by strength-
ening our interest, makes its presence a matter of need. We
get interested in persons by assisting them.
In this increased attractiveness of an object, however, we
discriminate clearly between persons and things. Famil-
iarity with things always leads to attaelimi-nt to them sim-
ply by association and interest. If the thing is useful we
become further attached to it; if it turn out useless, we
simply neglect it ; but it still has its place in its interesting
environment. Things never arouse in us the opposite, re-
pellent emotion excejjt by some kind of association with
persons.
In the case of persons, on the other Imnd. the simple at-
tachment which now becomes, in its larlii'sl form, («/;«ira-
tiiin, passes over, on further acquaintance with the pei-son,
into a more positive and vigorous emotion. Strengthen the
ties of a.ssociali<m and self-relation (kinship, partnership,
etc.) siifliciently and the emotion of attaclmient becomes
nffection and love. There is a line in the growth of the emo-
tion of attraction beyond which all revelations of character
or action, however damaging, only deepen and strengthen
the earlier tie; but if this line has not already bei'U reached
when damaging discoveries are miule — if tlie attriu'tive emo-
tion has only reached the stage of adiiiiration arising from
intellectual " interest and casual a.ssocialion — then there
comes a revulsion to emotion of repulsion.
Around these three stages in the growth of emotions of
attraction tlii^ varieties of such feelings may be grouped.
Admiration, the feeling of deep interest in piTsmis. is cc/t-
eratiuii when its object is elderly, superior, or of high rank;
awe when it is obscurely grand ami imposing. Atlncluntnt,
the feeling of close lussociation with and dependence upon
persons and things, has dislinct colorings when felt toward
inanimate objects, animals, inferior or sujjerior persons, etc.
Affectiiin, the feeling of profound aitraclion toward pei-sons,
arising from the deeper ties of family or common life iiiler-
ests. ]ianillcl upinioiis and aims, or congenial disjiosilions.
takes on iiiiiunierable forms known by name as distinct
eiiiol ions— feelings of conlhlrnce, patience, wrurity, help,
(•oniiriitiiliition, self-surrender, self-denial, te?nlerness — in
short, all the infinite emotional phases of past, present, and
future rcl'erence which potts have sung and women have
LOVh^-HIKI)
1-OVE, {'(Jfin'S OF
375
felt since one liuinati heiirt first Icnrnod lo enlar{,'e its bor-
ders to ilicliiile lUiotlier. Il is llic iiii|Mjrtnnt funulioii of
liftion and tlie dniiiia lo di-piit the Militle nioveiiients of
such emolioiLS and llie social siliiatioiis lo wliiih tliev fjive
rise. Syniputhy is al>o an interesting; and extremely inijior-
tant element in the whole development.
The reiiellin-f im|>uls»'s also supply us with » irroup of
emotions of enormous raii;;e and importance. What has
been said about the ilevelopment of the feelinfjof attraction
applies with some modification lo this chis-i al.-o. Simple
interest ami some kMowl(<l;;e is necessary to induce the fcel-
injf of HHri//r((c/i ifncnx in the fii-st instance; it jfrows tn l«
objeeliiinablftiess in Ihinj^s (niuiidy) or persons. The fecl-
iiiKS lowaril thin','s do not piuss into stron(;er emotion except
throuj^h association with persons; liut with persons it passes
into dmlanlf., a positive feelins; which Ijecomes intense in
abhorrence. At any slajfe, except thai of exlremi' repul-
sion, an attracting motive — kinship, pride, intellectual ad-
miralioM, et<'. — may assert itsidf so strongly as to cause a
revulsion iif fcelii];; over to the attractive side ; and attach-
ments thus furmi'd are often most lastiuff an<l intense.
Many modifications of the so-calleil feelinj; of nbjeclion-
ableness mif;ht be mentioned : feelinjis of inferiurili/, of
pour breed iny, of bud faith, dindaiii, distrust, etc. So r)osi-
tive dialagte nmy take form us impatience, scorn, rebellion,
impertinence, malice, venijeance. prexent fear, anger, haired,
etc.; and abhorrence has varieties in deteitalion. rnnlempf,
dinyust, loathiny. etc. L'f. Baldwin, Uandbuok of Psychol-
ogy, vol. ii., pp. IHO ft.
Social Considerations. — The importance of this topic in
its s(jcial bearings 1ms never been overlooked. It is evident
that in theory love must lie viewed very larjjely as the ex-
pression of instinct. Uecent Italian writers (Lombroso,
Forri, Mantegazza) have developed the theory timt woman
is in her constitution less developed than man, and so more
instinctive. While woman's love is undoidjlcdly more in-
stinctive than man's, il is also more iileal. Men calculate
more — that is, are more reasonable — in the life of allection;
but just in so far tlie claim of lower indulfjence is more apt
to be recoitnizcd by them. Tliis is shown both by the fact
that men make more suitable marriages us respects wealth,
social standing, etc., and by the fact that they are oftener
than women faithless to the lie of matrimony. The in-
stincts by which women are moved in this matter are gen-
erally those which respond to moral character, calls for
sympathy, pity, and iiirect service or self-denial, while
among the "reasonable" cimsiderations which ajipeal to
men the claims of social or jwrsonal self-indulgence are
more apt to be influential. At the same time it seems to
be proved that in women in whom the ideal instincts of re-
fined affection are weak the lower life of jiassion reveals
itself in greater excesses of moral degnidallon. It seems
also to be true that the restraints of a purelv social kind —
public opinion, custom, etc. — are stronger with men. Woman
IS more a law unto herself, more whimsical, impulsive, in-
dependent— and unreasonable. The deeper social problems
which arise about this class of sentiments will probably be
among the gravest questions of the future, both to social re-
formers and to religious teachers.
Kkferksces. — On the general nature of these emotions,
see the "general works'' cited under I'svcmiLociV. On the
social side, Plato, liepiiblic; Ibsen, VollecteA I'toys; Man-
tegazza, Fisiologia di Amore ; Lombroso, La donne delin-
quente. J. M.1EK Baldwin.
Love-bird : a popular name for the small Old World par-
rots nf the genus Ayapornis, given them on account of Incir
affection for one another. "Tiiey are among the smallest of
the parrots, being only 5 or 6 inches in length.
Love, Tonrts of: institutions of mcdin-val France, in
which offenses against the laws of chivalric love were tried
before judges (generally ladies), whose dwisions were bind-
ing upon all knights, and upon the ladies in who.sc service
they were. The belief in tin- existence of such courts has
been prevalent since the appearance in l.')75 of the pleasjint,
fantastic book of .Fohn of Nnstradamus (brother of the fa-
mous impostor Michael Nostradamus), entitled Les ries des
plus celrnres el anciens poetes proven-snnx, etc. This work
first called the attention of the post-Henaissanco world to
the poetrv of the Irouluidours. and its popularity was wiile-
spread. Its entire untrustworthiness, however, made it a
most fruitful source of all kinds of fantasli<' notions about
the French Middle .Vges. Perhaps no other of these notions
lias been so generally accepted as that of the courla of love.
Ft)r a long lime there was no rpustion as to their reulitv,
and even whi-n in the rationalistic eiglitfenlh cenlurv some
few scholars doubled them ■)n grounds of inherent improba-
bility (cf. .\I)W de Sude. Mi'inoi res pour la \'ie de Franrnis
Petrarque. vol. ii., p. 44. n.. and p. m. n. Ci vol.-... 17(H-J(1T),
and also The ['lays of I-'hilin Massmyer. ed. by W. (Jifford,
lyu.'!, introductory note to 'J'he J'arliaint^nt of l]ure.\u\.i\.,u.
i'.Vi), .still no one made a critical examinutioii of theevidence
with a view to disproving their existence. It wa.i still pos-
silile for the Presicient Kollaiid, in his Rerherrhes sur les pre-
royatives des ] lames rhez les (/aiilois. les ('ours d" Amours,
etc. (1787), lo treat them as iiidiiliilable, and for von .\relin,
in his AuKspriirhe der Miniieyerirhle, etc. (lH(),<j). to give lus
authentic a collection rif riciisions pronounced in them.
Indeed, they seemed grailuully lo be gnitiing in substantial-
ity. In 1817 Kaynouaiil piiliiished in the secoml volume of
his famous Choix des poesies oriyinales des Troubadours (p.
Ixvii., if^.) an essay uikhi I hem, in which he made use of new
and .seemingly conclusive dortimeiils in Itu'ir favor, notaldv
the Latin treatise rjf a certain .\ndrc. a chaplain at the
French royal court in the twelfth century, entitlecl filler de
arte amandi et de reprobatione amoris. which contains a
large number of judgments purporting to have been given
at such courts, presided over by Eleanor of .Aijuitaine (later
wife of Henry II. of Knglanil); her daughter, Marie, Coun-
tess of Chami>agne; Krmengard, Vist'ounless of Nurbonne;
the Countess of Flamlers: and ladies of Gascony. The first
serious note of critical i)rotest came from the great scholar
Frikdkii II I)ii:z ((/. !■.), who in his essay I'eber die J/inne-
biife (ISS,")) undertook to destroy the whole fabric raised by
Haynouanl and his pi-edeces-sors. He concluded that courts
of love ill a formal sense had never existed; that the work
of .\ndre le Chapelain was c<unfioseil in the fourteenth in-
.slead of the twelfth century; and that the most that can lie
admitted is that in Provence and France il was a social di-
version to discuss questions of amorous casuistry in the
manner in which the contemporary theologians were disput-
ing ab<iut points of philosojihy. Quarrels of lovers also, he
thinks, were at times submitted lo the arbitration of others.
The formal spirit of the time gave the conclusions or d<'cis-
ions tlius arrived at the appearance of judicial decrees. .Since
the publication of this work of Diez, many scholars liave
occujiicd themselves with the (|Uestion, notably Trojel, in
his J/iildelalderens Klskiivhoffers (Copenhagen. 18X0); (Jas-
ton Paris, in the .Journal des Savants (1888); Pio Hajna, Lt
( 'orti d'' Amore (Milan. 1890) ; Viriceiizo Crescini, Per la (jues-
tione delle corti d'amore, Padua. 18U1 (extract from vol. vi.
of the Atti e Jlenwrie of the .\cademy of Padua). In its
main lines, however, Diez's conclusions have remained firm.
It has been shown conclusively that on certain points he
was in error, the chief lieiiig his view of the date of the trea-
tise of Andre le Chapelain. (Cf. P. Hajna. Tre studj jwr la
storia del liliro di Andrea Cappellatto, in Sludj di yHohyia
Romanza (Fa-sc. 13, 181KI), and Andrea* Capellani . . . l)e
amore Uhri Ires, Kec. K. Trojel, Copenhagen, 1892.) This
was certainly written very early in the thirleeJith, if not in
the end of the twelfth, century. In spile of this deductiou,
nevertheless. Diez's theory hius not suffered serious harm.
Some explication, however.will be exfiecled by the reader
of the manner in which a notion at first sight so preposter-
ous as the old romaiilic one of the courts of love could for
so long a time maintain itself. Something of apt>arent evi-
dence there must have been to mislead a scholar of the
erudition of Kaynouard. Such there really is, and of two
iliflferent kirnls. In the first place, the name courts of love
is not to be charged as a mere invention against Nostrada-
mus. It had existe<land Inen abundantly employed for more
than three centuries Ivfore he wrote. We even know the
work from which he dire<'lly got it. This was the Arrests
d'Amours of Martial d'Anvergne. a writer of the second
half of the fifteenth centnrv; but the court of love of
which Martial il'.Xuvergne tallis is something verA- different
from what Noslradamns imaginiMl or iIescrilK>d. Ilismendjr
an allegorical court of the gfwl Love him.self, ami h«> nothing
to ilo with human inslitntiiiiis. Furthermore, it i« not pri-
marily a court of justice, but rather a royiil ...nr; liLc any
other, though natundlv the decrees of !»v. .»hut
the appearance of judicial decrees. The n -uch
an allegorical court of love during the fourwiiitli iind fif-
teenth centuries are innnmeralile, not only in French, but
in other litenitures of Kuro|H'. Nothing culd tn'tter illus-
trate the passion for allegory whiih afler tlie npixaninoe of
the liomance of the Hosr ran riot among the pin-ts. On
occasiuQ this passion was felt by others than the poets, and
37t".
LOVEDALE
LOWE
tlie court of love seemed to be realized on earth. We have
seviTiil accounts of festivals in which the court was ac-
tually instituted, and Love was ri'i)ri'scntcd in the person
of a president or lord. Such was the famous festival de-
scribed by Giovanni Villani (Ciunaca Florenlina, vii., oh.
89) as lasting for two months at Florence in 1283 — a festival
in which a Siynore Jtir Amore, surrounded by a l>aud of
moR' than a thousiind white-clad followers, spent tlie time
in uninterrupted feasts, balls, and pleasures of all kinds.
Clearly, however, it would be wrong to infer from such
amu.'k'nients as these the existence of courts of love with ju-
dicial functions.
These, however, were not the only evidences on which
Raynouard relied. In his reading of Proveni;al and Old
French literature he had found that nothing was more com-
mon among poets and in society than the discussion of in-
tricate ([uestions about love. For reasons that need not be
given here, this was the all-engrossing theme of mediaeval
knights and ladies. From the poets we have numerous
examples of such discussions in poetical form (the len.sos, or
temoiie), in which after each poet has defended his side of
the proposed question appeal is made to a third part v, com-
monly a lady, for a decision as to which has attained a vic-
tory. Who was this third party V Was she not a formal
president of some tribunal i And then there is the indubi-
table fact that Andre Ic Chapelain gives us a series of de-
crees, which he declares to have emanated from tlie noble
ladies mentioned above. Were they also not formal deci-
sions of organized and well-recognized institutions? A
detailed study of the documents shows us nothing of the
kind. The inherent improbability of such institutions is
borne out by the facts. What does seem clear, however, is
that in the society in which these great dames moved the
discussion of the truenatureand practice of love was treated
with the greatest seriousness, and the conclusions arrived at
in particular cases were eagerly passed from hand to hand,
so that there finally established itself a kind of code upon
the subject {dreg d amor), which all true knights and ladies
felt bound to recognize and adopt. In short, we have here
a manifestation of the manner of development of media'val
and modern social ideals, which on the one side can not be
regarded as too ridiculous, but which on the other has the
most serious interest for tlie student of culture. From the
confusion and misinterpretation of these phenomena pro-
ceeded the fantastic, romantic notion of the courts of love.
A. K. Marsh.
Lorednle : a town in the division of Victoria East, Cape
Colony, Africa, wholly given up to the literary and indus-
trial training-schools of Mritish missionaries. Natives from
far and wide are taught various trades and fitted for mis-
sionary service. The IJiljle and other books are printed by
native craftsmen in various languages, and have extensive
circulation in South Africa. C. C. A.
Love-feast : a modern restoration of the ancient Aqap.e
ig. v.). The Moravian Brethren, the denominations of Meth-
odists, and some other bodies of Christians observe this cus-
tom. In some places the love-feast is a simple meal, at which
prayer, singing, and religious conversation aid in onler.
Generallv. among the Methodists, breail and water alone are
used, ami all church members are allowed to participate. The
Sandemanians have a weekly love-feast, eaten on Sunday.
Lovelace, Kkiiard : poet ; b. at Woolwich, Kent, Eng-
land, in l(il8 ; graduateil at Oxford in 1636; became cour-
tier of Charles I., and colonel in the royal army during the
great rebellion ; served also in the French army ; was twice
imprisoned in England, and solaced his lonely hours by the
composition of amatory verse.s, the most familiar of which are
the line lyiics 7'o All Uten, from Primn, aiul 2'o Liicrixtii, on
going ti> tlie Wnrx. 1). in London in IG.W. An edition of
Tiis i'lieinx, edited by W. C. Hazlitt, was jiublished In 1864.
Lovell, .Iamks: educator; son of " Master Lovell " ; b.
at Boston, Mass., Oct. 31. 1737 ; graduateil at Harvard n.^G ;
wiLS assistant teacher of the Latin School under liis father
1757-7.5 : delivered the olTicial a<ldress before the city autlior-
ities Apr. 2, 1771, in commemoration of the '• Boston mas-
sacre," thus inaugurating a custom which Inus continued to
the present lime, lie was imprisoned by Oen. Cage after
the battle of Bunker Hill : exchanged in Nov.. 1776; wius a
membiT of the Continental Congress Dec, 1776-H2 ; receiver
of taxes 1784-88; collector of the port of Boston 1788-8!) ;
and naval officer 1700-1814. He was at one timi' nnisler of
the North (irammar School, Boston, and published some
tracts. D. at Windham, Me., July 14, 1814.
LoveU, >ToHX : educator ; b. at Boston, Mass., Juno 16,
1710; graduated at Harvard 1728: became usher of the
Boston Latin School 172i>, and was its master from 1734 to
its suppression by the siege of Boston, Apr. 19, 177.5. Dur-
ing this h)ng period " Ma-ster Lovell" wsis the instructor of
numv men eminent in the Kevolutionary annals, but he
wius himself a loyalist, and embarked with the ISrilish troops
Mar. 14. 1776, for Halifax. Nova Scotia, where he died m
177H. He was an excellent cla.ssical.M-holar. and, though rigid
in discipline, waspopular for his genial disjiosltlon. lie de-
livered the address at the dedication of laneull Hall, Mar.
14, 1743, and was the author of miscellaneous publications.
Lovell, ManskuxI) : general ; b. at Washington, T>. C,
Oct. 20, 1822: graduated at West Point 1842, and entered
the artillery ; served under Gen. Taylor in the war with
Mexico, and was wounded at Monterey: transferred to the
army of Oen. Scott, he wjis aide and assistant adjutant-gen-
eral of Quitman's division, and was severely woumled in the
assault on the city of Jlexico; resigned from the armv In
1854, settled in New York, and was (18.58-61) superintendent
of street improvements and deputy street commissioner; in
the civil war serveil as major-general of the Confederate
army, aiul was in comnumd of the department of the South
at the time of the capture of New Orleans ; subsequently
served in the North Mississippi and Georgia campaigns; at
the close of the war was in command in South Carolina.
After spending a few years on a plantatiim In Georgia he
went to New York city, and assisted Gen. Newton In remov-
ing the obstructions to navigation in the East river. D. In
New York city, .June 1. 1884. Revised by Ja.mes Mi;ri tr.
Lov'cr. Saskel: author; b. in Dublin, Ireland, Feb. 24,
1797 ; early attained some distinction as a painter, poet, ami
singer. Ilis earliest work, excepting contributions to the
journals, was Legend/i and Songx of Ireland ; in 1828 he be-
came a memtier of the Hoyal llihernian Academv, giving
successful attention to portraits and miniatures. Ilis Horg
O'Mare (1837). Iltindg Andy (1842). and Treasure Trove
(1844). comic Irish tales, widelv extended his fame. Songs
and Balladx (1839), Lyrics 'of Ireland (1858). Metrical
Tales (1859). and several successful dramatic works were
written by him. He also gave public exhibitions and lec-
tures in Great Britain, Ireland, and Ncu'tli Anu'rica with
nnich success. D. at St. Helier's, island of Jersev, .lulv 6,
1868. Revised by H. A. 'BtiiRs.
Lover's Leap, The : See Cape DrcAio,
Low: a barbarous substantive used in connection with
weather-maps as an abbreviation for an area of low pressure.
It is ei|uivHlcnt to cyclone, without the popular associations
of violence connected with the latter.
Low, Setu, LL. D. : educator ; b. in Brooklyn, N. Y.^
Jan. 18, 18.50 : received his earlv educatlim at the Brooklyn
Polytechnle Institute, and graduated at Columbia College
in 1870 at the head of his class. During his last year in
college he attended lectures at Columbia Law School, al-
thougli he did not regularly complete the course. He en-
tered the tea-im]iorting house of liis father, and finally be-
came a nu'mbcr of the firm and of the Chamber of Com-
merce, serving upon some of its most iniporiimt committees.
He was also a member of many other important commercial
bodies, and was very prominent in the organization of the
Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. He was elected mayor of
Brooklyn in Nov., 1881, and was re-elected Nov., 188;i Ilis
endeavors to purify and elevate the government of Brook-
lyn gave him a mitional re]iutation. He was elected presi-
dent of Columbia College in l.'^90. and at once lifted that
venerable institution into new life, adding much to its pros-
perity by personal gifts and through his influence.
Low, Will IIicock : figure and genre painter; b. in Al-
bany. N. Y., Jlay 31, 1S.53: pujiil of Canmis-Duran, Paris;
member of the Society of American Artists 1878; member
of the Architectural League, New York; National .\cade-
mlclan 1890; was awarded .second-class medal for drawings,
Paris Exposition, 1S89. The subjects of his pictuns inelu<ie
classical figures and scenes of Anu'riean life. Mr. Low is
widely known as an illustrator, especially for his drawings
for Keats Lamia and Odes and Snunels. He has executed
decorative work in various buildings in New York, and de-
signs for stained-glass windows, lie designed the dlphuna
of awanls for the World's Fair, Chicago. 1H93. Studio in
New York. William A. Coifin.
Lowe, Sir Hudson; soldier; b. at (Jalway, Inland. July
28, 1769; entered the army; served In the expedition to
LOWE
LOW GERMAN
877
Egypt, in the Peninsular wiir, in Xaples, and Sicilv : aided
in llio L'onijuust nf lUr Imiiun islumls ; liec-uniu tlieir lirst
govuinor ; was eiiipluyed in secivl iiji>sions to Portugal and
Sweden ; was presiMit at the biillle i>( Bautzen, and carrieil
to London the news of the ahdiealioii of Xapoleon, to which
circumstance he was iicrhaps indebted for being knighted
and i)ronioted to the rank of major-general; served during
the lollowitig year as ((uarlermasler-geniTal of the army of
the Netherlands, until removed by the Duke of Wellington ;
is now rcniemlieied chiilly us governor of the island of St.
Helena during tlie whole iui|irisonment of Napoleon ; after-
ward served in India; became lieutenant-general in 1H30;
and died in Lomlon. July 10, 1H44. A llislurij uf the Cap-
lirity itf Xiipoli'im from Lowt'a Journal was published iu
185a.
Lowe, HonERT, D. C. F;., LL. I). : statesman; b. at Bing-
ham, Nottinghamshire, Englaiul. in IHll ; graduated at Ox-
ford in 18.'i;i ; became a fellow of .Magdalen IH;i5, and private
tutor 18;i6 ; was admilled to the bar, and settled in Australia
in 1842, taking a prominent part in the jiolilics of that col-
ony; returning to I'lngland wilh a consiilerable fortune in
1851, he entered Parliament as a Liberal, and rose to high
office, becoming t'huncellor of the Kxcheciuer in the second
Gladstone ministry 1868-73, and Home Secretary 1873-74;
raised to the House of Lords as Viscount iSlierbrooke in
1880 ; G. C. B. 1885. 1). in London, July 27, 1892.
Lowell : city ; one of the capitals of Middlesex CO., Mass.
(for location of county, see map of .Massachusetts, ref. 3-H);
at the junction of the Merrimack and t'oncord rivers; on
the Boston and Me. and tlu' Olil Colony railways; 26 miles
N. W. of Boston. It derives a large waiiT-power from Paw-
tucket Falls, in the Merrimack. In 1823 the lirst mill was
built, and the industry has since grown to such proportions
that the city ha.s a world-wide reputation for its textile
manufactures. The census returns of 1890 showed that
828 manufacturing establishments (representing 94 indus-
tries) reported. These had a combined capital of ij;40.457,-
399; employed 28,086 persons; paid $1U,695..")45 fi>r wages
and 1^31,613,680 for materials ; and had products valued at
139,638,062. The textile imluslry, which included the manu-
facture of cotton, woolen, felt, hosiery, suit, an<i worsted
goods, and of carpets and rugs, ami the dyeing and finishing
of various textiles, had 31 establishments and 4^33,491,997
capital ; emplovcd 20,2.53 persons ; i>ai<l !f6,71 1,488 for wages
and *16,()86.684 for materials ; had $16,7.50,578 invested in
nlauts ; and had prodiuts value<l at $27.2.53,026. The next
largest industry was the numiifacture of foundry and ma-
chiiu'-shop products, which hail 37 establishments, and
|2,.536,025 capital; emploved 2.100 persons; paid $1,107,-
618 for wages and !j;l,050,s61 fiu- materials; had $888.-
389 invested in plants and had products valued at $2,5.54,-
111. Another important industry was the manufacture of
patent medicines, which had 12' establishments, $.589,334
capital, and $1,278,087 in value of annual products. The
city has 8 national banks with combined capital of $3,300,-
000, 7 savings-banks, 5 libraries (Mouse of Kmployment and
Keformation, Middlesi'x .Mechanics Association, City, Hec-
tor's, and Young Men's Catholic As,sociation), and 9 daily,
7 weekly, and 3 monthly perio<licals. It owns the water-
works, which cost $2,387^673, real estate valued at $2,042,-
324, and other property, total holdings $5,109,384 in value,
and ha<l in 1H!M) an assessed property valuation of $62,3.53,-
612. Pop. (18S0) 39.475 ; (1890) 77.096 ; (1S95) 84,367.
Lowell ; village ; Kent co., Mich, (for location of county,
.see map of Michigan, ref. 7-II); at the jiuiclion of the
Flint and Grand rivers, and on the Det., Or. Ilav. an<l Mil.,
and the Low. and Hastings railways; 18 miles E. of Grand
Hapids, the county-seat, 139 miles W. of Petroit. It is in
an agricultural region, and ha.s excellent water-power, two
dour-mills, a cutter-factory turning out 20,000 cutters per
anmnu. saw an<l planing mills, furniture-factories, barrel
and ox-bow factories, and electrical wiuks which generate
by water-[)ower 5.0(10 horse-power of elect riial energy and
ti^ansmils it to (irand Haiuds. I'op. (IKSO) 1.538; (1890)
1,829; (1894) 1.863. EuiTOR ok " Jot rxal."
Lowell, Charles Ri-ssell: officer; b. at Boston, Mass.,
Jan. 2, 1835 ; son of Kev. Charles Lowell ; was eilucated at
the Boston Latin School and at Harvard rniversity. gradu-
ating in 18.54 with the highest honors ; after a time iias,scd
in European travel and study, returiu'd to the V. S. and en-
gageil in business pursuits; at the outbreak of the civil war
was superintendent of iron-works in .Maryland ; immediately
tendering his services to the Government, he was apjjoint-
ed (May, 1861) a captain in the Third U. S. Cavalry,
transferring to the .Sixth Cavalry in August; served with
his company in the Peninsular campaiL'n in Virginia, and
subs<'queiuly in Northern Virginia and Maryland on the
staff of (ien. .McClellan ; on the recruitment of the Second
Massachusitts Cavalry wius ap|>ointed its colonel, and sta-
tioned in the vicinity of Washington, and afterward as-
signed to commanil a brigade, and rendered valuable serv-
ices against Mosby's guerrilla i>ands, and in the repulse and
subsequent pursuit of the Confederate army under Gen.
Earlv from before Washington 1804 ; assigncil to Gen.
Sheridan's command, his military services in the .Shenandoah
valley were conspicuous and brilliant in all the engagements
of that army, including the battle of Cellar Creek, where ho
was wouniled while in advance of Getty's division, but
would not leave his command, remaining until the final at-
tack wius made, in which he was mortally wounded at the
moment of victory. In recognition of his services he was
appointed brigadier-general of volunteei-s, to date Oct. 19,
1864. D. at Middletown, Va., Oct. 20, 1864.
Kevised by James Merccr.
Lowell. James Ri-ssell: author and diplomatist; b. at
Cambridge, Mass.. Feb. 22. 1819; son of Rev. Charles Low-
ell (1782-1861) ; graduated at Harvard College in 1838 as
class poet, and at Harvard Law .School in 1840; began
practice in Boston, but soon devoted himself entirely to lit-
erature. He printed in 1841 a small volume of poems en-
titled .4 Yearx Life\ edited with Robert Carter in 18*^
Tlie Pioneer, a Literary and Critical Magazine (monthly),
which reaclie<l only three numbers; published in 1844.4
Liflinit of liiitliini/ ; in 1845 Convernatiims on gome of tlie
Old I'ihIs and The Vision of Sir Launfal ; in 1848 A i^able
for Crilirn.a literary satire, and The Biglow Papers, satiri-
cal es.says in dialect noi'try directed against slavery and the
war with Mexico, which acquired wide popularity both at
home and in England ; a cidlective edition of Poems was
issued in 1K49. In 1851-.52 lie travele<l in Europe, residing
for a considerable time in Italy; delivered in 18.54-.55 a
course of lectures on the British j)oets before the Lowell In-
stitute, Boston ; succeeded Longfellow in Jan., 18.55. lus Pro-
fessor of Modern Languages and Literature at Harvard Col-
lege, and spent another year in Europe, chiefly at Dresden,
in (jualifving himself for that post. From 1857 to 1862 he
was etliti'.r of The Atlanlir Monthly, and fn.m lt<63 to 18?2
of The S^ortli Americnn Herieir (quarterly), in both of which
many of his miscellaneous writings appeared. He published
in 1^(54 Fireside Travels; in 1866 a new series o{ Hi glow
Papers ; in 1869 Under the Willows, with which was included
his noble Commemoration Ode in honor of the alumni of
Harvard who had fallen in the civil war,and The Cathedral;
in 1S70 and IS71 two volumes of essays. Among my Hooks
and My Study Windows. He again visited Euro|H' in 18r2-
74, rei'civing in jierson the degree of I). C. L. at Oxford and
LL. D. at the University of Cambridge, England. A new
c<iition of his complete works was published in 18.S1. He
was V. S. minister to Spiun in 1877, and V. S. minister to
England 1880-85. He was elected lonl rector of St. Andrews
University, Glasgow. Si'otland. Jan. 2. 1884, but S4K)n after
resigned the position as incomjiatible with his office as U. S.
minister to the court of St. .lames. Democracy and other
Addresses was published in 1887 : Heartsease and Hue and
Political Essays in 1888; American Ideas for English
Readers, Latest Literary Essays and Addresses, and Old
English Jiramatisis Were issued posthumously in 1892,
Mr." Lowell having clieil at Cambridge. Ma-ss.. in ISill (Aug.
12). His collective writings were published in 18!KM.(1 (10
vols.).— His wife, Maria White lyOWELL (b. July 8, 1821 ;
d. Oct. 27. 18.53). wrote verse of considerable merit. A pri-
vately printeil volume of her |ioenis was issued in 18.5.5.
Revised by U. A. Ukers.
Lower Cnlifornla: See California. Ix)web.
Low'estoft : town; in the county of Suffolk. England; 118
miles N. E. of London; on the German Ocean (see map of
Eiiglami. r<-t. 10-Mi; is much visited during the summer for
its excellent sea-bathing, and carries on .^iine ship-buihling-
and fishing of herrings and mwkerel. It has a cihmI hart>or,
two piers 1.300 feet in length, a hospital, large fish-markets,
ami a park. Pop. (1891) 23.347.
Low German: those Germanic dialects spoken on the
continent of Euro|H\ which, in distinction from High Ger-
man and Miillaml (ierman, have not undernone a se<'<u)d
shifting of I'onsonants. I^iw (iennan is divided into I.,<)w
Saxon ami Low Fraukish, the latter being confined to the
37S
LUWKIE
LOYOLA
Netherlands (see Dutch Lanqi'aoe) and to the northern
i)art of IWfjium (sve Flkmish Language and Litekatire).
In Germany I he term yitjrrtltul.icli (i. e. Low Cierman)
is often used for Low Saxon or l'i,ArTDEiTSiu («. r.) alone,
in distinction from Niederliindisch (i.e. Netherlandish, or
Low Frankish) : while in Eni^land (and oeeasionally in Ger-
many) it is sometimes apnlied also to Ki'isian and Anj;l<)-
Saxon, so as to include all of the West Germanic dialects
except Ili^h German. Hoth of these usajics, however, are
better avoided. The former is ohjeitionable, because it is
too narrow. There is need of a common name t« desijjnate
those continental dialects, which were closely connected
with liiffh German until their separation by the second
shifting of sounds; and Low German is the only one which
covers this whole field. This term, on the other hand, onjfht
not to be extended to Frisian and Anf;lo-Saxon, since both
of these are distinguished from Low Saxon and I.,ow Frank-
ish by several inipiu-tant peculiarities (e.g. the change in
many Frisian and Anglo-Saxon words of original gutturals
into palatals). The nun-existence of the second shifting of
consonants in Frisian and Anglo-Saxon is not sufficient to
justify the extension to these dialects of the term Low Ger-
man, as the second shifting is lacking also, e.g. in Gothic
and Norse. Hersiann Collitz.
Lowrie, .lonx Cameron, D. D. : Presbyterian minister; b.
at Butler, Pa., Dec. l(i, 1808; graduated from Jefferson
College in 182!t, and from Western Theological .Seminary in
1832, antl studied at Princeton Theological Seminary, lie
was a missionary in Upper Lidia 18;{;J-36; returned in
broken health to the U. S. ; was assistant secretary of the
Iward of Foreign Missions 1838-51 ; corresponding secre-
tary 1831-91; and was then made secretary emeritus. In
1845-51 he was in charge of the Presbyterian church in
Forty-seconil .Street, New York; in 18(i5 he was moderator
of the Old School General Assembly at Pittsburg. He was
editor of T/ie Foreiyn Mi.is-ioiKtri/ Chronicle (1838-49), of
'J'/ie Foreign JieairU (IH^tO-ry.i. 1801-86), and of 2Vie Foreign
Mi.i«ionary (1842-(>5), and published Travels in Norlhern
India (18'12; 2d ed.. Two Years in Upper India. 1850);
Mimual of Foreign Missions (eds. of 1854-55-68) ; J/('.<.s»;/i-
ary Papers (1882); Fresbi/lerian Missions (New York, 1893);
and many pamphlets and review articles. C. K. IIoYT.
Low Saxon : See PL.vrfi)i;uTsrn.
Lowth, Robert, D. D. : biblical scholar; b. Nov. 27, 1710,
at Winchester, Hngland, where his father, Kev. William
Lowth, a distinguished theologian (1601-1732), was chaijlain
to the bishop and prebendary in the cathedral ; was gradu-
ated B. A. 1733, il. A. at New College, Oxford, in 1737; took
holy orders 1735; in 1741 became Professor of Poetry at
Oxford, and delivered a course of lectures on the Sacred
Poetry of the Hebrews, the foundation of his later work on
the same subject ; after filling numerous minor benefices
became Bishop of St. David's in 1766; was translated to the
see of Oxford the same year, and was appointed Bishop of
Londim in 1777; declined the arehbisliopric of (^.'aiiterbury
in 1783. D. at Fulham Palace, London, Nov. Z, 1787. Hi's
principal works were Pnrlectiones de Sacra Poesi Ihlrteo-
riim (Oxford, 1753; Kng. trans. London, 1787; 3d ed. 1847)
and a jmetical Translation of Isaiah (1778; 11th ed. 1835),
both much esteemed and frequently reprinted. See the Me-
moir of the Life and Writings of Bishop Lowth (1787).
Lowther, James ; politician ; b. in Leeds, England, in
1840; was educated at Westminster School and Tritjity Col-
lege, Cambridge (B. A. 1862); was called to the bar 1804;
was a (Conservative) mendjer of Parliament 1865-80 and
1881-85; Chief Secretary for Ireland 1878-80, in Lonl Bea-
consfieliTs Government; again returned to Piu-liamenl in
1888 and 1892.
Lowville: village (settled 1707, incorporated 1847); capi-
tal of Lewis CO., N. V. (for location of county, see map of New
Y'ork, ref. 3-H); near the Black river, on the Rome, Water,
and Ogdensburg Railroa<l ; 26 miles .S. K. of Watertown. 59
miles N. bv W. of Utica. It is in an agricullund and dairy
region, and contains 4 churches, improved water-works, elec-
tric lights, public school, 2 national banks, and 3 wc'ckly
newspapers. It has large butter, cheese, and hop interests.
Pop. (1880) not separalelv reported in the census; (1890)
2,511 ; (1893) estimated, 2,700.
Editor ok "Journal and REruBLicAN."
Loxa : See Loja.
Loy, Matthias, D. D. : theologian ; b. in Cumberland co..
Pa., .Mar. 17, 1828; studied at Columbus, O. ; was pastor at
Delaware, O., 184!M55: editor of The Lutheran Standard;
and from 1865 Professor in the Lutheran Theological Semi-
nary at Columbus. He has editeil 'I'he t iilumliits Thnilogicul
,l/<i(/«2i'ne, and, besides being a prolific author of articles,
has published a volume of sermons; The lloetrine of Jiisti-
Jicalion (Columbus, 1862); Life of Luther {\raiis. 1869); and
L'ssay on the Ministerial (Jtlire (1870). .lulian's Dirlionary
of llymnulogy gives the titles of twenty hymns of w hich he
is author. II. E. Jacohs.
Loyal Temperance Leg:ion : an organization of children
formed under the direction of the Woman's Christian Tem-
perance Union. Previous to 1886 the various local juvenile
societies were at liberty to select their own local names, and
there was no very definite plan of work ; but in that year a
uniform organization was decided upon, and they were con-
solidated into one great armv. They are organized in every
State and Territory of the I'. S.. ami the work is extending
into other countries. The U. S. division has some 200,000
l)ledged members, besides many who are in training but are
not yet pledged. The aims arc to train children in temper-
ance jirinciples, grounded upon scientific knowledge of the
ellects of alcohol, tobacco, and other narcotics upon the hu-
man system, and among means for accomplishing this end
is a course of study. The graduates are organized into State
legions, with full corps of juvenile officers, holding annual
State conventions.
Helen G. Rice, national siperintkndent.
Loyalty Islands: a chain of islands about 60 miles R.
of New Caledonia, running parallel to the latter; a depend-
ency of the French Government of New Caledonia. The
larger islands (l)eginniiig at the N. W.) are Uvea, or Halgan,
which forms one part of the circmnfercnce of a lagoon
about 20 miles across — it is about .'iO miles long, and in some
[daces 3 miles across; pop. 2,.500 — Lifu, or Chabral, 50
miles long by 25 broad — jiop. 7,000, but decreasing — and
Jlare. or Neugono. triangular and about 80 miles around ;
pop. 6,000. The islands are of coral, surrounded by reefs,
have a thin soil, and are not very fertile. The climate is
mild and salubrious; rains occur from Decendier to April,
but in the other months the climate is dry ; fresh water can
be obtained almost anywhere by digging down to sca-level.
The primitive race is negrito (dark Mclanesian), but the olive
Polynesians have migrated to the islands in considerable
numbers. The first named are superior, and make excellent
sailors. The French took possession of the islands in 1864.
British nussionaries have been established there for some
years, and attempts by the French to interfere with them in
1864 and 1875 have led to Briliih protests. See Macfarlane,
Story of the Lifu Mission (1873). JIark W. Harrinoto.v.
Loyo'la, Ignatius, de : founder of the order of Jesuits
(q. v.)\ b. in Guipuzcoa, Spain, in 1491, in the castle of
Loyola, w'hencc his surname, his original name being Inioo
Lopez de Recalde ; was of a noble .Sjianish fandly, and the
youngest of eleven children. In his youth he served as a
page in the court of Ferdinand the Catholic; afterward
entered the military service, remaining till his thirtieth
year, always giving proof of a valorous, chivalric, and ad-
venturous spirit. Having been wounded in the leg at the
siege of Pamplona by the French in 1.521. while feeble and
sulTering he read a life of Christ and various sacred legends
(among them probably that of St. Francis d'Assisi, the be-
ginning of whose history is very like that of Loyola), and by
(legrees the man of the world was transformed into the
Christian disciple. When scarcely recovered he divided his
goods among tlie poor, made a pilgrimage to a shrine of the
Virgin JIary, to whom he deiiicated his armor, declaring
himself at the same time her knight, and then retired to the
hospice of Manresa, There, and in the neighboring caves, he
so macerated his body that one day he was fiunul insensible.
Ten months Inter he embarked frojn Barcelona for Pales-
tine, but being maltreated by the guardian of the .Sepidchre,
the provincial of the l'"raneiscans, he returned in 1524, by
way of X'enice. to Barcelona, where he applied himself to
the study of the Latin grammar. Two years afterward,
having entered the superior schools, he prepared himself for
giving popular instruction. Being accused of witchcraft
before the Inquisition, he was arrested ; on his release, in
1528, he went to Paris to study theology. There in 1534.
together with several more, both Frenchmen and Simniards,
such as Laynez. Bobadilla, Rndriguez, I'ierre Lelevre. and
others, he fonned the project of founditig a new Calholie
religious order. .Some of his companions not having fin-
ished their studies, he retiu'iied to .Sjiain and waited for
LOVOLA
LUBECK
379
them. In 1537 the coin|iany met iifriiiii in Venice, and
theuce Ignatius miwle his first joiiriiey to Koine to obtain
permission to estalilish the new order anil receive a Ijlessin;;
upon it. Aeoonlin;; to sonie legends, Ignatius was favored
ut Storia, near Home, with a vision, in whii-li t'hrist, bear-
ing a banner, ajppeared to him and siiid. " I'Var not I I will
befriend thee hi Home." Others stale, more simply, that
Loyola, as he was drawing near to the Kteriial City, iiml in
uncertainty as to the reception that awaited him, felt his
heart fail him. Stopping before an old chap<d which stoinl
by the wayside, he entered it and im[ilored the Divine pro-
tection ; after which, full of courage, he said to his com-
panions. " 'I'ruly, dear lirelliren, 1 know not how Uod nuiv
see fit to dispose i>( us — whetlur we shall be hung, tortureil.
or in any other way sutler martyrdom in Rome — but what I
can tell you certainly is. that Christ Jesus will be gracious
and merciful to us in whatsoever straits we may be." He
and his frienils resumed the pilgrim's stalT, and with their
books of theology on their shoulders and huge rosaries
about their necks continued theii' jourm-y. and liiially
reached Uome. I'ope I'aul 111., '• thinking that the pious
zeal of these Fathers for the general good of souls would be
of no small advantage and honor to the harasseil Church,"
received them with kindness, and on Sept. 27. 1.J40. gave to
Ignatius and his companions the provisory, and in lo4:i the
definitive, a])probation of the order of .Jesuits. Loyola was
named first general of the order in 1.541, although his fel-
low worker, Laynez, had not been less ellicient in founding
it. The head of the new company soon gave himself to the
religious training of the young, anil he was very successful
in bringing Jews over to the Christian faith and in reform-
ing erring women. He die<i July :51, l.j.'jC, was beatified in
1.5'J9, and canonized by I'ope Gregijry XV. in 1623. His
feast is celebrated by Roman Catholics on July 31, the anni-
versary of his death. Although Lovola met with much
persecution in his own time from bad men wlmse faith he
peacefully sought to quicken and whose moi-als he tried to
reform, yet posterity has never ipiestioncd the sincerity of
his professions nor the purity of his life. He wrote two
small works in Spanish — T/ie Cunstilutiun of the Order of
Jesus and Spiritual Exercixts. His Tyife has been written
many times, but those of Rosweide, Mailei, and Bonhours
are specially quoteil. The most elaborate Life in English
is by Stewart Rose (Xew York. 1891).
Revised by John J. Keane.
Loyola. Martin Garcia O.^ez, de: cavalier; nephew of
Ignatius Loyola; b. in (iuipuzcoa. Spain, almut l.">48. In
1508 he Went to I'eru with the viceroy Toledo, and was
there intrusted with various important commands. During
the campaign against Inca Tupac Amaru (1572) he led the
vanguard, pursued the Inca into remote fastnesses, and
eventually captured him. After the execution of the Inca,
Loyola married his niece, and through his influence she re-
ceived large grants as heiress of the Inca family. In 1.592
he was appointed captain-general of Chili, taking possession
of the post Aug. 6. He brought strict orders to prosecute
the Araucanian war with vigor, but his resources were very
inadequate, and he was still further hampered by the de-
scent of the English corsair Hawkins on the coast (1.594).
He relieved Arauco in 1593, and established forts in the
Araucanian country. In Nov., 1598, while at Im|ierial, ho
was warned of an Indian uprising; starting for Angol
with sixty oHicers, he was set unon at a night camp and
killed with all his companions (S'ov. 22, 1.59S). A general
Indian rising followed, and all the Spanish towns S. of the
Biobiu were destroyed. Herbert U. Smith.
Loyson, Charles : See nvAri.vrnE, Charles Lovscs.
Loz^re, lo'zar' : department of Franco ; comprising an
area of 1,996 sq. miles, and consisting mainly of an elevated
filaleau resting on the Cevennes, whose central mass, the
so-called Margaride Mountains, covers the whole southern
and western part of the department ; the highest iM?ak.
Mont Lozere, rises 4,H84 feet. These mountains are rich
in iron, lead, silver, copper, and antimony, and their south-
ern slopes are covertKl with vine.s, mulberry, and olive trees.
The soil is not generally fertile or suited to tillage; sheep
and cattle are extensively reareil, and large quantities of
chestnuts are raised. The general character of the depart-
ment is pastoral. .Silkworms are reared in the vallevs. Pop.
(1891) i;i5.527. Capital, .Meude.
Lualaba River : a river which rises on the southern
frontier of the Congo Free .State, a little \V. of 26° E. ion.
Irom Greenwich. It was lung thought that it might be the
heafl source of the Congo, but the exjilorations of Delccjm-
mune anil Bia (1892) show that the more eastern Luapula
has its head fountains much farther from the mouth of the
C<uigo and eontrilmtes to it a nmch larger volume of water
than the Lualaba, which is regarded (18U4) merely as a tribu-
tary of Mie Congo. CCA.
Liiangr-Prahan^. loo-ilng'[)ra-Utng' : a semi-indeiiendent
Shan state of Imlo-China ; lying on the middle Mekciiig, unJ
inclosed by the French territories of .\Tinam anil Tonquin ;
lat. 18' to 22 X., Ion. 101 to 104 . It is u mountainous
country peo^ilcd by I.jios, with many wild tribes and nu-
merous immigrant Bunnans. SiameV, Tonquinese, and Chi-
nese. Population about 1,50.0(J0. The capital is Luang-Pra-
bang, or simpiv Luang, on the left bunk of the Mekong, in
lat. 19 54' N.. Ion. 102 5 E. Pop. lo.OtJO to 2<J,tK)0. It was
fonncrlv much larger. Pallegoix, in 1830, estimated its
[wpulation at 50,000. M. W. H.
Lubbock, Sir John, M. P., D. C. L..LL. D.,^I. I)., F. R. S.,
F. S. A. : scientist ; son of .Sir John William Lubbock ; b. in
London, Apr. 30, 1834 ; educated at Eton ; became a banker
in liondon, honorary secretary to the London bankers, and
introduced improvements into the system of banking, esj*-
cially the "country clearing" and the publication of the
clearing-house returns; bi»;ame early interested in ethnology,
physics, and natural science; was one of the first scholars
who elucidated the significance of the lake-dwellings of
.Switzerland and the " kitchen-middens " of the Danish
coast concerning which he wrote several articles in the
reviews about 1860: succeeded to the baronetcv on his
father's death in 1HC5; in the same year juiblished Prehia-
torir Timen, as lUustraleil by Ancient Jtemains and t/ie
Milliners and Custiims uf Modern Savages (.5th ed. revised,
1889), a Work which was translated into many languages,
was republished in the L'. S., and which was truly charac-
terized as epoch-making in the anthropological sciences.
In 1870 he i.ssucd the complement of the former work. The
Origin of (,'ii-ilizatiun and the Primitive Condition of Man,
which had a similar popularity, and made good its author's
claims to be regarded as one of the chief exiKHients of the
great modern science of which it treat.s. It is not alone in
anthropology, however, that .Sir John Lubbock has rendered
distinguished services to science ; his Origin and Mttainor-
plioses of Insects (1874), On British M'ild Floirers con-
sidered in lielation to Insects (1874), Monograph on the
Tliysnnura and t'ollembola. Ants. Bees, and Wasjis (\V>i'2),
The Senses and Instincts of Animals (1888), and more than
fifty memoirs in the Transactions of various learned socie-
ties, bear witness to the versatility of his researches. The
Pleasures of Life, a volume of essays (1887 ; 20th eil. 1^90),
was followed by a second series in lf<89. He hiLs Ix-en jiri'si-
dent of the Ethnological and Entomological Societies and
of the Anthropological Institute, vice-president of the Brit-
ish Association and of the Royal and Linna-au Societies, is
an active member of the Society of Antiquaries and the
Geological Society, and of the commissions on international
coinage, public schools, and the advancement of science,
and was vice-chancellor of the University of London 187"^-
80. In 18G5 and 1868 he was an unsuccessful candidate for
Parliament in the Liberal interest ; was elected for Maid-
stone in 1H70; lost the seat in 1880. but was immediately
returned for London I'liiversity, and still represents it —
since 18H6 as a Liberal-l'nionist. He has spoken on finan-
cial and educational topics, and procured the |iassage of
several acts, one of which, the Bank Holiday Act, added four
statute holidavs to the two previously existing. — Ladv Liu-
lioiK (Kllen Prance* Hordern) participated in the scientific
tasks of her husband, and wrote admirable articles in the
scientific and lilerarv |>eriiMlicals, esjiecially The Academy.
D. (.)ct. 20, 1879.
Lnbbock, Sir John William, F. R. S. : astronomer and
mathematician; b. in Lonilon. Mar. 26. 180^! -d
M. A. at Trinity College. Cainbriilp'. in 1825; l> ^.
in 1829 ; iH-came a baronet by inheritance in a
successful banker, and sheriff ami licutiimnt .1
his fame wiLs won by astronomical ri'si unlns : y
valuable pa|M'rs U|K>n lunar ami plaiietarv i
ujion lide.s, ecli|>«<>«. etc.. Hnd h!-> piil^M^li'-l /.' n
Physical Astr.. , , /
I film an Kiioirl y
of the Miiiin {\>;-- . ,,■■,,,.■; ./,. J ,.,...,,...-..,.. i.cr
works. D. June 20, ls65.
Ln'beck ( — Germ. Liibrek) : a free Han.«e town and an im-
purtant commercial jHirt of the German empire ; situated on
380
LUBICZ
LUBRICANTS
the Trave, 10 miles from its entrance into the Baltic (see
map of German Empire, ref. 2-E). It is iilniost whoUv sur-
rounileil with water. To the \V. ami X. the Tnive makes a
largo curve, foniiing an extensive harbor; to the S. ami E.
runs llio Wakenitz, joining the Trave to the S. of the city.
It is still partly surrounileil with walls, and contains many
old-fashioned houses and churches, which remind one of
the Middle Ages. It is egg-shaped in its ground-plan, and
dividinl into four quarters — that of Jacobi to the X. E., of
Maria ^lagdalena to the N'. W'., of Maria to the S. W., and
of Johannis to the S. E. The suburbs, consisting of sepa-
rate groups of houses, stand on the other side of the rivers.
The most important square is the market-place, situated in
the center of the city. Here stands tlie town-house, a large
structure built of red and black glazed brick, with five tow-
ers, finished in 1517. This building contains the Ilunse-
hall, in whi<h in olilen times, when Lubeck stood at the
head of the- llansa, the representatives from eighty-five Ger-
man cities held their assemblies, but which is now divided
into a number of smaller rooms; and the town-cellar, built in
144:{ and stocked with excellent wine. Among the churches
(9 Lutheran, 1 Reformed, and 1 Roman Catholic) the Luth-
eran Marienkirche is the most striking, built between 1286
and l;ilO. in a severe Gothic style, with three naves and two
tall belfries. The whole structure is;i54 feet long and li)7feet
broad ; the middle nave is 134 feet high, the towers 430 feet.
In contains a very ingenious clock and several remarkable
chapels,one with a Trance o//)«j^/i (1463), and another of black
marble (1607). The cathedral, built between 1170 and 1341,
the .lacobikirche of the thirteenth century, and the Petri-
kirche from the beginning of the twelfth, are interesting.
The Katharinenkirche, built in the earliest Gothic style, is
nut used now for worship, but contains a collection of art
and antiquities. Xotcwortliy among the other buildings
are the hoiise of the Jlerchants' Company, with excellent
wood-carvings ; the Hospital of the Holy tihost, with a beau-
tiful chapel in the earliest Gothic style; the theater, the lu-
natic asylum, the Katharineum, an educational institution,
the school of navigation, the mercantile aea<lemy, etc.
Breweries, manufactures of tobacco, clotli, linen and cotton,
and silk-weaving factories are in operation. Still more im-
portant is the commerce, on account of the location of the
city, between Hamburg and the Baltic ; about 2,300 vessels,
of 443.000 tons burden, enter the harbor annually. The
principal items of importation arc wool, potash, tar, hemp,
copper, and tallow from Russia; timber, iron, copper, and
steel from Sweden ; corn and spirits from Prussia ; wine
from France. The wine-trade is very important.
Lubeck has a democratic constitution. Its government
consists of a senate of 14 members and a municipality of
120. This government rules a territory of 113 sq. miles,
with 76,48.5 inhabitants, which forms a separate state, an in-
dependent member of the German empire. Luljcck has a
budget of 3,.J64,846 marks, and a debt of 9,843,361 marks.
It carried on an important commerce as early as the begin-
ning of the twelfth century, and the culmiuaiion of its pros-
uerily falls between 1200 and 1.500. The Emperor Frederick
II. made it a free city of the realm in 1226. It waged suc-
cessful wars against the Danes, and defeated them in 1227,
1234, and 1249. It was the head of the llansa, and its fleets
swept the Baltic during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fif-
tiH-nth centuries; but its power deerease<l with the llansa.
The burgomaster WuUenweber succumbed when he tried in
1.530 to restore to Lubeck its old influence in the affairs of
the Scandinavian countries. From 1.563 to 1.570 it wagecl
its last war, against Sweilen. The Thirty Years' war almost
crushed it. In 1806 the French captured and sacked it.
In 1810 it was incorporated with the French tlepartment
of the BiiUches d'Elbe. In 1813 the Russians expelled the
French, but the French returned once more, and held it
for u short time, until Bernadotte, the Crown Prince of
Sweden, liberated it. .Since 1.H1.5 its juoMierity has devel-
oped once more. In 1S()6 it sided wnh Prussia, and sent
one battalion to the army of the Main. On June 27. 1867,
it concluded a militarv convention with Prussia. .May 15,
1868, it cntercif the Znllverein, atid in 1M7I the Gcrnnin" em-
pire. Pop. of city (1890) 63,590; of territory (area, 115 sq,
iiiile.s> 76,485.
Lnblcz, loo'bits : See Bbodv.
Llihko, lilp kf, WiLnEi.M : writer on art ; b. at Dortmuml,
Westphalia. .Ian. 17, 1826; studied at Bonn and Berlin;
published in 18.53 Die milleliillerlirlii' KiinM in \V<:ilfnleii',
and in 1855 Geschichte der Archilektur (6th cd. 1884); was
appointed Professor of Architecture at the Building Acade-
my of Berlin in 1857; traveled in 1858-60 through Italy,
France, and Belgium; was Professor of .\rt History at Zu-
rich in 1861-66 and at Stuttgart 1866-85, wheii he ac-
cepted a similar position at Carlsruhe. His Oruudriss der
Kiinslj/eschichle (Outline of the History of Art, 1861) and
6Vic/iic/i/e (/er P/n.'./iA- (1863) have been often republished,
and are very useful handbooks. His Ilislury of Art vas
translated into English by Clarence Cook (New Yiirk, 1880).
In 1891 he published an aulo\i\itj;ravh\ {fyebtnsi-rinnrnaii/en).
Ill' completed the (iesc/iirlitr di r J}'fiii/;)innl of Fkanz TueO-
DoK KioLEH ig. r.). I), at Carlsruhe, Ai)r. 7, 1893.
Lublin, loob lin : town; in the government of Lublin,
Russia; on the Bistritza; 96 miles by rail S. E. of Warsaw
(see map of Russia, ref. 8-A). It is an old town, and, next
to Warsaw, the handsomest and most important in Poland.
Among its buildings are notable the Church of .'^l. Nicholas,
founded in 986; the Sobieski palace, tin' cathedral, anil the
town-hall. A considerable trade in cloth, grain, and Hun-
garian wines is carried on, and three annual fairs are held,
each lasting one month. The chief manufacture is woolens.
Po)). (1891) 48,475. The government of Lublin has an area
of 6,499 sq. miles and a population of 996,551,
Liibowiiki, lo'o-liov ski, Edward: drannitist and novel-
ist; b. at Cracow;, Poland, in 1839; was educated in that
city; was a regidar contributor to the journals Dziennik
Lihracki. (Itizetti yandmra. and yeiviasla. In 1865 he
removed to Warsaw, and has since devoted himself exclu-
sively to literature. He wrote a number of dramas and
novels. His early dranuitic efforts, Karyery (The Careers, a
comedy in live acts. 1S63), Pnifif/oirniiy (The Protege, com-
edy iu four acts, 1864), Zi/d (The Jew, 1S67), and lliodzy v
salnnie (The Unhappy Ones in the Salon, 1867), attracted little
attention ; but the satiristic comedy Xictoperze (The Bats,
1875) made him famous. It is based upon the conflict of
per.sonal dignity and public opinion, and exposes the slan-
derers. His other drauuitic works are mostly character
comedies: e.g. Gonittry (The Races); Przenndy (Prejudices,
1876) ; Pogodzeni z losem (Reconciled to their Fate, 1878) ;
Sqd honorowy (The Court of Honor, 1880); JiiaiA (1884);
Ohxaczony (18S6). Of his novels, the best are .S'(7/n' i' slabi
(The Strong and the Weak, 2 vols., Cracow, 1865, under the
pseudonym S/n'rydion) ; Akinrka (The Actress, Warsaw,
1869), showing the influence of French models; A'a pochy-
loici (On the Decline, 2 vols., Warsaw, 1874), which |)ortrays
Galician noliilily living above its means and wasting its
estates; Krok dalrj (One Step Farther, 1885). He also pub-
lished essays on Mary Stuart, Don Carlos, Wallenstein, the
Borgias, Alfred de Musset. etc., and translations from Shak-
sjieare (Timon of Athens, 'Die Taming of the Shrew), Du-
mas, Weilen, etc, J. J. Kbal.
Lubricants, or Ungnents [tuhricnnt is from Lat. lubri-
ra n-, make slippery, deriv. of In bricun, slippery ; unguent is
from Lat. unyuen finn, (v. un'ynerif, un'yere, anoint]: mate-
rials used to lessen the friction of the working parts of ma-
chinery. As a solid lubricant, plumbago, graphite, or black
lead is the only material in common use. It is carefully
prepared for use by the removal of all earthy or other for-
eign substances, and is usually applied mixed with tallow
or oil. It is best adapted for lubrication of bearings mov-
ing slowly under very heavy pressures. Tallow alone, or
mi.xed with ])lund)ago, or with red or white lead, is an ex-
cellent lubricant under similar conditions. Lard is some-
tinu's applied in such cases. All of the animal and vege-
table non-drying oils are good unguents. The best organic
oil for heavy pressures is summer-strained sperm; winter-
strained spertn oil is a good lubricant. The cost of sperm
oil. however, usually makes it inqiraeticable to employ it on
ordinary machinery, or even in adtnixture with petroleum,';.
Lard oil, although not capable of withstanding such ex-
ffeme pressures as the preeeding. is excellent for the bear-
ings of machinery, and its comparative cheapness has
brought it into common use. Neat's-foot oil is also used
as an unguent. Of the vegetable oils, olive is one of the
best, and is very extensively used in European countries,
and sometimes fuis been imjiorled into the I'. S. for this
purpose. Colza and rapeseed oils are good lubricants. The
siccative or drying oils, of which linseed oil is an example,
can not be used as unguents. .Mineral oils are iji extensive
use as lubricant.';. They have less body than the best vege-
table, and particularly than the best animal oils, but have
enough for onlinarv purpo.ses, and possess the great ad-
vantage of neither ilrying like the siccative vegetable oils*
Ll'DRICATORS
3S1
nor absorliiiij; oxyjipn from llie atmospluTf anil bpcoiiiinK
>;umiiiy like the other animal as well as ve),'etaljlo oils.
They are |ire|jiireil I'speeiuUy for tliis purpose, unii are
fowiiil exiie.iiiiLTly well adapted to the appliialion. They
are freipienlly mixed wilh the heavier luljrieants. and the
resiilliii); fon'P'"""^' is found belter adaiited than either of
its constituents to the use for whieh it has been prepared;
posse.s.sing at the same time the required body ami the
necessary lubricity, as well as the power of retaining: its
properties indefinitely in the presence of (jxyjien. The best
mineral hiliricaliiii,' oils are those which, liavim; been sub-
jected to fractional distillation, have been freed from all of
the more volatile constituents. These are at the same time
tho Siifest illuminating oils. Crude |)etroleum is a Rood un-
guent inider light pressures. Tlie majority of the lubricat-
ing oils siilil undi'r trade-names or trade-marks are mixtures
of oils having a good body with others of less value. A
mixture of mineral and lard oils is very commonly used,
and is a good luliricator. A solid unguent, composed of ;{
iiarts tallow. :i parts palm oil, J lb. caustic soda, ami a gal-
lon of water, thoroughly mixed at a temperature of 140 F.,
is recommended for car-axles. A mixture of 2 parts paraf-
fin, 1 of lard, and li of lime-water is said to work well under
heavy pressures in rolling-mills. The organic oils of com-
merce freipieiilly contain traces of the acids used in their
purification. When this is the case, they are likely to in-
jure deliiiile machinery if applie<l as a lubricant. They
may be purific<l by chemical treatment, or they may be
clarified by placing in the ve.ssel containing them a quantity
of rusty iron or of other neutral absorbent of acids. Soap
is used as an unguent between surfaces of wood ; water
may answer a good purpose in dissolving any glutinous or
mucilaginous substance, but it is not itself a true unguent.
See Frirlion and I^nst Work in JlacJtinirj/ and Jlill-imrk
(New York). ' H. 11. TiiunsTON.
Lubricators [from Liit. htbrica're, make slippery, dcriv.
of hi bricH.'i, slipjieryj : apparatus by means of which lubri-
cating materials are applied to rubbing surfaces in machin-
ery. Lubricators intended for applying solid lubricants,
such as Sallow, lard, or axle-grejise, consist frequently of a
simple box above the part to be lubricated, with a hole of a
size which is greater or less, according to the greater or less
viscosity of the material employed and the freedom with
whii-h it is desired to apply it, leading down to the bearing,
through which the lubricant gradually finds its way. With
hard tallow it is sometimes
found ailvisable to apply a
plate above the mass, which,
being pressed down by a
spring, forces the lubricant
downward more rapiillv; as,
for example, in the Weston
box. On car-axles, where a
peculiar compound of grease
and lime-water is often used,
the latter form is not re-
ipiired. A plain tallow-box,
with a small oil-hole, answers
for an unguent of slight vis-
cosity, rig. 1 exhibits a
simple form of lubricator in
which it is intended to use
tallow or suet. The cock at
A is used as a means of ad-
justing the rate of supply.
This is only used ui)on steam
cylinders, where the heat of
the steam nu^lts the miguenl.
For the animal and vege-
table oils, which are the most
common lubricating nniteri-
als. an enlirelydilTerenI stvle
of lubricator is useil. For
ordinary journ.il-bearings the usual form consists of a bni.ss
or glass vissel (Fig. 2), of a capacity varying from less than
a gill to sometimes a quart. It is screwed upon the cap of
the journal-lKix or otherwise conveniently attached. At the
bottom is a hole of from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch
in diameter, into which is secured a vertical tube rising
nearly or quite to tho top of the oil-cup. A chamnd of
]iro]ier size leads from the cup ilown to tlip l^aring to be
<jiled. Tlie cup is filleil with oil, and n leader (.\) maile of
loosely twisted lamp-wick is inserted partly in the vertical
Kio. J.
Fio. -i.
tube, and the remainder is allowed to fall uito the oil with-
in the cup. This wick thus acts as a siphon, <lrawiiig the
oil up, and leading it then down into the tuU-, from which
it finds its way tu the bearing. This is the most generally
used form of lubricator. Hy benci-
ing a small bit of wire into the
form of a fl. anil lapping the wick
around it, a removable siphon is
nnide, which, being taken out when
the journal is not moving, permits
a considerable saving of oil in
many cases, as on marine engines.
These siphons are quickly rein-
serted.
Where continuous lubrication
over the rubbing surface is de-
sired, an oil-pum|i is employed,
drawing the oil from a reservoir
anil forcing it in a continuous
stream through the journal ; other
engineers have attached to the re-
volving shaft a piece of mechan-
ism operated by the movement of
the shaft it.self. which bv means of
small spoons dips up t)ie oil and
pours it upon the bearing. In
these arrangements a reservoir is
required, from which the oil may be taken, and to which it
may return as it drips from the bearing.
.Many ingenious and some very useful devices have been
invented, having for their object the convenient and eco-
nomical distribution of the lubricant. In the crank-pin lu-
bricator of Howe the oil-cup is screwed into the strap of the
connecting-rod from beneath; a wick is carried up to the
surface of tlie pin, and keiit in contact with it liy a small
wire or stick, around which it is wound, and which is held
up against the bearing by a sjiring. Theoil is drawn up by
capillary force, and, reaching tlie bearing, lubricates it
freely; the excess flows back into the oil-cup. In the needle
oil-cup of Dreyfus (Fig. .1) there is
no inner tube, but a small rod or
needle (.\) is inserted into the hole
through which the oil descends,
filling it so closely that no oil can
flow past it when at rest. When-
ever the machinery is in motion,
however, the jar and the friction
of the shaft, against which the
needle bears at its lower end,
causes a slight but a suflicient tre-
mor of the needle, and the oil is
fed to the bearing uniformly and
unceasingly so long as the ma-
chinery continues to move.
For lubricating the interior of
the cylinders of steam-engines,
where the unguent must be forced
in against the pres.surc of the
steam, two classes of lubricators
are largely used, tine consists of a small fone-pump, some-
times with, and .sometimes without, an attached resi-rvoir.
In the first case the pnmj> has sullicienl capacity to contain
the full charge which it is desired to force into the cylinder
at one time ; in the othercase the pump draws from the reser-
voir one or more charges as may be nquired. 'I'he ,s»'cond
kind of lubricator consists nunly of a reservoir for oil, con-
nected at the top wilh the steaiii-pi|>e, and at the bottom
wilh the steam-chest liolow it. Kadi small pi[ie is provided
Willi a small cock, which may be useil to close the i-oiiimuni-
cation with the sleam-pi|>e. Tliesi' civks being clos«'d, the
reservoir is filled with oil, and the civks arv then again
opeiieil. Steam-pressure then comes ujmhi Ix^th ton and Uit-
tom of the oil in the cup, but no motion of the fluid takes
place, as the lower pipe is at its highest [Hiiiit on a level with
the surface of the oil. (iradually the steam condenses in
the up|MT part of the reservoir. and, beir.gof greater si)ociflc
gravity than the oil. it settles to the Uitlom. displacing it
and slowly filling the ctip. It raises the oil until the latter
flows out "at the top of the n-servoir, Ih: ' '' I'ilH- for
that purpose, and trickles down into the
On shafting reservoir-lKixes are s<inn:... 1. Thi-se
" s«'lf-oiling boxes." as ihey are also called, have a reson'oir
formi-il within the journal-lmx. in which is place<l > quan-
tity of oil. tin the shaft is a collar which di|>s into the oil,
I
A
Klu. 3.
382
LUCAN
LUCERA
and, as the shaft turns, takes up a portion, and this, trick-
ling; back over tlie sliaft, projuces a consliint lubrication
of the rubbing surfaces. Thesi' Iwxes only require SUiiif: at
long intervals, as the oil is usetl over and over agjiin. These
eonTpositions often contain plumbago, and thus substitute a
solid for a liquid lubricant. Sec Friction and Lout Work in
JUmhinery and Jlill-iiork (Xew York) H. II. Tlil'RSTOX.
Lin-an. CiKoRoE Ciiakles Bingham. G. C. B.. Third Earl
of: b. in L.imlou. .Vpr. Iti, 1^00: educated at Westminster;
entered the armv in ISlti; accompanied the Kussiau army
as a volunteer iii ttie Turkish war of 1828-29 ; succeeded to
the title and large estates in Ireland in 1839 ; became a re])-
rescntative peer in 1840 : was commander of a cavalry divi-
sion in tlic Crimea, and made himself memorat)le by his
connection with the charge of the light brigade at Hala-
klava, Oct. 2."), 1854. He. became lieutenant-general in 18.58
and general in ISOri ; field-nmi-shal 1887. D. Nov. 10, 1888.
Luca'liia: an ancient division of Magna Gripcia; ex-
tended from the Tarantine iiuU in the E. to the Tyrrhenian
Sea in the \V. The nuist remarkable of its cities were Syb-
aris. rieradea. and IVstum. It now corresponds to the
provinces of liasilicata and I'rincijiuto Ultra.
Lucil'niis, M.tRCfS .Vnx.ki's : [)oet ; b. at Cordova. Spain,
in 39 A. 1).; a nephew of the philosopher Seneca; went early
to Ronu;; received an excellent education; distinguislied
himself l)y his poetical talent, and became a favorite with
Nero, but liappened to excite his .jealousy, and was forbid-
den to recite in public. Thus stopped in the midst of a
brilliant career, he joine<l the conspiracy of Piso. was be-
trayed, turned informer in order to save his own life, and
began by denouncing his own mother : but was nevertheless
ortlered to be put to death by the emperor, and committed
suieiile in 65 a. d. (Jf his works, only the PharsaJia, or Df
Bella f'ivili, a lu>roie poem in ten books, is still extant, but
it is either unlinished or in<'omplete : it treats of the civil
wars l>etween Ca'sar anil Ponipey, and begins with the pas-
sage of the Kubicou, breaking off abruptly in the midst of
the Alexandrian war. The lone is very uneqtial, first flat-
tering and tlu'ii reviling the emperor, and the style seems to
indicate that it needed a last revision by tlie poet. The first
book was translated into Englisli by Christopher Marlowe
in 1G(M); the whole by Rowe, in verse, and by Riley in 1853.
There are French and German translations in verse and prose,
and the poem has founil warm admirers. The best editions
are those by C. Fr. Welier (Leipzig, 1821-31, 3 vols.) ; Ilas-
kins, with notes an<l an introduction by Ilcitland (London.
1887) ; C. Hosius (Leipzig, 1892). Revised by M. Warken.
Lucaris, Cybillus : See Cyril Lucar.
Lucas, Fr. pron. Iii kaa', Paul : traveler ; b. at Rouen,
France, Aug. 31, lG(i4 : son of a goldsmith ; visited Greece,
Asia JliiKU', Syria, and Egypt as a dealer in precious stones;
engaged in the naval service of the Venetians; participated
in tlie siege of Negroponl 1688 ; became captain of an armed
ves-sel which cruised against the Turks ; returned to France
1698; again visited Egypt, and ascended the Nile 1700;
went by sea to Tripoli ; joined a caravan which traversed
Armenia and Persia ; was taken prisoner liy a Dutch priva-
teer ; reached Paris 1703; ptd)lislied Ids adventures under
the title Vnyiiiji- nu, Li-nml (1704); traveled again in the
East; ptddished a second Volume of his travels 1714; was
sent by the Government on new antiipnirian expeditions to
the East 1714 and 1723 ; went to Spain 1736 ; was employed
by Philip V. in arranging his cabinet of antiquities. D. in
Madrid, May 12, 1737. Besides his principal work he pub-
lished a Voyiuji' ilnnx la (trice, etc. (1710), a Voi/aye dans la
Turquie, etc. (1719), anil left a M.S. lu'count of his last
journey. His works are valuable in many respects.
Lucas van Lcydeu : See Leyukn.
Lucuyos : an old name for the Bahama Islands (j. v.).
Luccu. Ilal. pron. loo ka'a : formerly a duchy, which at some
periods formed an independent repid)lic and at others was
flven as a kind of pension to royal or senu-royal persons,
t is now a provime of the kingdom of Italy, comprising an
area of .57t> sq. miles, and keeps exactly its old boundaries,
between Tuscany. Modiiia, .Massa. and the (iiilf of Genoa.
Its soil is exceedingly fertile, and probably better cultivated
than anv other part of Italy. The j)rincipal products are
wine, oil, and silks. Paper, glass, linens, and cottons are
largely manufactured. Pop. (1891) 289.053. Capital, Lucca.
Luccn : city of Central Italy, the ehief town of the prov-
ince of Lucca (see Italy) ; on the Sereliio, about 15 miles
N. E. of Pisa (see map of Italy, ref. 4-C). Lucca is situated
in a most fertile plain, surrounded, except on the E., by
spurs of the Apennines, and the views from the ramparts of
the town are charniiiig. The streets, generally narrow and
crooked, are well paved, and the private dwellings are often
spacious and (degant. The public liuildings. highly inter-
esting in themselves, contain many choice works of art, es-
pecially pictures by Era liarlolmneo and other great mas-
ters, 'riie cathedral was erected in the eleventh century;
the rich favaiie was added in 1204. The town is sup|>lied
with water by a sui>erb aqueduct, about 3 miles in length,
begun in 11^23 and finished in 1834. Lucca, originally
Etruscan, [lassed first to the Ligiirians, then to the Romans
(about 180 years u. r.) ; it was governed by a duke under
the Lombards, became a free state in 1055. was again under
a duke (the renowned Castruccio Ca-stracani) in 1327, and
in 1370 once more recovered its liberlv. Its territory then
embraced a great part of what was the later duchy of Lucca
— namely, the fertile district, abounding in grain, grapes,
olives, chestnuts, etc.. lying between MiMlena on the N.
Tuscany on the E. and S., and the sea on the W. Though
for the "most jiart an iiide]ieiiilent republic until 15.50, the
history of Lm-ca iluriiig the Middle Ages is inlinmtely con-
nected with Hint of I'isa and Florence. In 1805 Napoleon
made it a principality fur the lieiiefitof his sister Eliza, who
had married a Bacciocchi, and in 1815 it fell to .Maria The-
resa of Spain, wlio.se sim ceded it to Tuscany. In 1860 it
was annexiul to Sardinia, and is now one of the fairest iior-
tions of the kingdom of Italy. Silk was manufactured here
as early as the latter part of the eleventh century. In 1300
the republic had her emporiums of silken stults at Paris,
Lyons, Bruges, etc.. and somewhat later 30.000 of the inhali-
itants of Lucca, already known as the Jnihistriosa. were said
to live by this manufacture. Even to this day the silk and
olive oil of Lucca are especially prized. Beautiful villas
abound in the neighborhood, and the celebrated Bagiii di
Lucca, about 15 miles farther up the valley of the Serchio,
in the midst of the most picturesque scenery, though no
longer much frequented for medicinal jnirposes, are a favo-
rite summer resort for foreign residents in Italy. Pop. of
the commune (1893) 76..500.
Liiflta, PAt;LiNE : o])ern-singcr ; b. in Vienna, Austria,
A]u-. 2.5, 1842. The origiiud name was Lucas. Her parents
were .Jews of liumblc origin and condition. She owed her
musical instruction to the kindness of a professional singer,
made her first engagement at the Kiirnt liner Thor theater,
and assisted in the choir at the Karls Kirche. In 1859 she
appeared at the Olmiitz theater as Elvira in the opera of
Ernani, ami at once became famous. At Prague she ap-
peared as Norma, and as Valentine in 7>i.s- lliiyinnols: she
was the fii'st to sing, at Berlin, the part of Selika in L'Afri-
caine. In 1863 and 1865 she was enthusiastically received
in London. She was particularly successful as Cheriibino in
Le JS'ozze di Figaro, Zerlina in /''<•« Diarulo, and JIargaret
in Fau.it. In Nov.. 1865, she married Baron von Rliadeii.
who was killed in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, and
thenceforth diviiled her time between London and Berlin.
In Sept.. 1872, Lucca aiipeured in New York at the .Acad-
emy of Music, and coiitinuod her triumiihs. Her second
husband was a major in the Prussian Life Guards. She
had an illness in 1886 which imiiaired the quality of her
voice, and her farewell performance in Vienna, in L'Afri-
caine, in Jan., 1889, was a failure.
Revised by B. B. Vallentine.
Luce, Stephen Bleecker: rear-admiral U.S. navy: b. in
Albany, N. Y.. Jlar. 2.5, 1827: entered the navy as midship-
man Oct. 19, 1841 ; was in action several limes in 1864 and
186.5, while commanding the monitor Nantucket and the
steamer Pontiac of the South .Mlanlic blockading squad-
ron ; from .Ajir. 2.5, 18S1, to .Iiiiie 30, 1884, was in comniand
of the U. .S. naval training squadron; Sept. 20. 1.884. presi-
dent of the U. S. naval war college. Coaster's Harbor island,
R. I. Was appointed to the command of the North ,\tlan-
tic station .luiie 18. 1886; retired .Mar., 1889. In 1892 he
was commissioned by President Cleveland commissioner-
general of IlieU. S. for the Ciiliunliian Historical Exposi-
tion in Madrid. He is the author of a work on ,seamaiislii|),
which is used as a text-book in the Naval Academy.
Lncern, loo-chiiniii fital. < Lat. T/iice'ria, the ancient
naiiiel : a large town of Southern Italy; in the province of
Foggia: 12 miles by rail N. W. of the town of Foggia (see
map of Italy, ref. fr-G). The public and private buildings
are handsome. The cathedral, erected by Charles 11. on the
LUCERNE
lCckk
3 b. J
ruins of a tsplt'iKliil Suraccn mosque, is a fine Hvziiriuiif-
OoUiiu (•hunli. Lucerii is au industrious anil colniULTcial
town, the traile in home producls beinj; very ailive. The
town possesses a lur^e library, containing s<jiiie rare books.
Luceria was a town before the l'elas;;ie iMiiul;;ratioii. It
retained its imporlnnee under the Londiards, llie (irceks,
ami the Xornians; and under Frederick 11.. who brnufrht
thither the .Saracens from Sicily, its iiopulalion rose to 77.-
(HK). It continueil to tlourish even after (harlis Land II.
of Anjou drove out the Saracens, but Cliarlis \'. destroyed
the prosperity of the town by his cruelty. Top. 14,070.
Lu'ccrne [ef. Fr. luzerne], or Pnrple Medii-k [meilick
is from Lat. me'dica = Gr. pLr\Sutij (sc. trod. ;rrass), medic,
liter., >Iedian prass or elr>ver, .so called be<>au.se introduced
from Media]: a lef^iiininous forage-plant (J/ct/iVv/i/o^n/i'rrt);
a native of Europe, where, as in the U. S. and other regions,
it is extensively sown. It shoidd be iihinled in drills, and
hoed to keep down the weeds. Considerable cure is reipiisite
in the early stages of its growth, but when well established,
if .sown on good but light soil, it will proiluce a greater
amount of green forage than ahnost any other plant, and
the quality is unsurpassed. It is perennial, and is cut .sev-
eral limes in the season. In California it is known by the
Spanish name of alfiilfa, and is much prized.
Liiecriie, Fr. pron. loo'silrn' : canton of .Switzerland ; situ-
ated nearly in the center, bordering on the Lake of Lucerne
and traversed by the Keuss. It comprises an area of 579
S(j. miles, and is covered with mountains, whidi, however,
rise onl • to the height of 6.!»00 feet. 'I"he soil is generally
fertile, and much grain and more fruit are produced, but
rearing of cattle is the main industry of the inhabitants,
and is carried on to a greater extent in this canton than in
any other part of Switzerland. Pop. (1S88) 13.^.360. most
of whom are of German descent and speak the German lan-
guage ; they are almost all Homan Catholics.
Lucerne (Germ. Luzern, or Lnceru) : one of the most beau-
tiful cities of Switzerland ; capital of the canton of Lucerne ;
on the Ifeuss; at tlie northern end of Lake Lucerne (see
map of Switzerlaiul. ref. l-F). Li the middle of the city
rises an old tower which is believed to have been once a
lighthouse, litcerna, and given name to the town. It has
some remarkable churches and a celebrated moniiment^lled
the Lion of Lucerne, carved in the solid rock after a rao<lel
of Thorwaldsen, in remembrance of the Swiss guard l>utch-
ered in Paris, Aug. 10, 1792. A very brisk transit truile is
carried rm here. ^^.p. (1S8«) 30,314.
Lucerne, Lake of (Germ. Viehealdstddter See, liter..
Lake of the Four Forest Cantons): a lake of Switzerland:
indo.sed by the cantons of I'ri, Unterwalden. Schwytz, and
Lucerne. It is 22 miles long, from i to 2 miles broad, and
perhaps the most beautiful sheet of fresh water in Europe.
Lueia, St. : See St. Lucia.
Lu'ciau, Sai.nt: b. at Saraosata, in Upper Syria, alxiut
250; became a Christian teacher at Ede.ssa ai'.dfcVnlioch.
incuh'aling a doctrine similar to that afterward known as
Arianism ; was three times e.xcommunicated as a heretic;
ultimately retracted his heterodox doctrines, and dieil a
martyr at Xicomcdia in the persecution of Maximin, in 312.
He was the author of a revision of the Scptuagijit much
valued by the Eastern churches.
Luciail (in Gr. \ovKuuiis): Greek wit. humorist, satirist.
es.sayist; b. at Samosata. in .Syria, about 125 a. i>. Little
is known of his personal liistury except what can lie gath-
ered from his own writings, lie was first apiirenliciil to
his uncle, a sculptor, and tiiough he abandoned the handi-
craft for letters, he never lost interest in matters of art, and
some of his e.s.says show remarkable insight in that domain.
Greek was not his native tongue, and had to l)e accpiired
before he could enter upon the legal profession, whiidi he
practiced at .\ntioch. I'rom law he turned to rhetoric and
became a "sophist," or lecturer, traveling from city to city,
through Asia Minor, Greece. Italy, and Gaul, and gaining
both raiiie and fortune. At the age of forty he grew weary
of this al.so, and betook himself to the stuily of philosophy,
of which ho appropriated only the negative side, contempt
for the shams of lite. " Vanity of vanities" is the bunlen of
the dialogues and ess<iys and' sketches by whii-h he is In-st
known. His temper is Epicun^an, but he belongs to no
8<hocl ancl rmx'ks at them all. It is as a free-lance that he
"shoots folly as it Hies" with mis<-hievous gh-e and un-
equaled deftness, and his airiness, joyousiu'ss, sparkling wit
and lambent humor, his mocking grace ami inexhaustible
Miviiiiivene^s. make him the most tno<ieni of all the writ-
ers of antiiiuilv. The impres>ion of originality is doubt-
less heighteneil by the lo.»s of his models and .sources, by
the loss of .Menippus, by the loss of the Attic ]»H?t» of the
middle and the new comedy; but after making all [ussible
deductions, Lucian is a reiiiurkalile figun- in the hislorr of
literature. In his old age hi- returned to the futile sophi'stic
business of his earlier career, and finally be<ame an tjflice-
holder under Comnioilus. ami died in Egypt fnward the eml
of the century. No Greek author has laen more coj.ied than
Lucian, and modern literature, from Kabehiis to the iire>-
ent day, is full of imitations and u-hiptations of his work.
Once much u.sed asa school-lHHik. Lucian is regaining ix.i.u-
larity, but his Greek is not a faultless pattern. Of the
eighty-two pieces attributed to him, among the best and
iiest known an- The Dreum, The Cuck, The Dialogueis uf
(he Dirid. The l)ialoyue.s of the (lodx. fhiimii, Timun, The
AnrlidH of 1'hiluKopher.t, The Dmlh of J'enffrinim, Alex-
iindir the Fal.se Prophet, The Ilireliiit} J'hilojiopheni, How
to Write History. The True Story. The famous novel Lu-
cius, or the Ann (see Apl-lkics) is not accept e<l as his by most
Lucianic scholars. Collected editions of his works by Ilein-
sterhuis and Keitz (1730-45. 4 vols.); Lehmann (ls22-2y);
Jacoliitz (1836-41). also in the Teubner .Series; W. Dindorf
(1840). Fritzsche"s great critical edition (1»«2-K5) is incum-
iilele. Sommerbrodt's is in progress (I8U2). There are Eng-
lish versions by Francklin (1781) and by Tooke. and then- is
an admirable German translation with notes and introduc-
tion by Wieland. The best recent book is by M. Croiset,
Exudi sur la vie el leg veuvres de Lucien (1882).
13. L. GiLUEBSLEEVE.
Lu'cifer [= Lat.. liter., light-bearer; lur, lu ris. light -^
fer re, hear]: primarily, the planet Venus, as the inoniinir
star. By an error of the commentators the name has Ir-cu
often applied to Satan. The prophet Isjiiah (xiv. 12) ad-
dresses the IJabyloiiian king its the morning star, and com-
miserates liiin on his fall. Some of the early Christian
writers imagined that reference was had to the fall of
Satan, w hence the error.
Lucifer: religious leader: was Risliop of Cagliari. .Sar-
dinia : api>eared at the t'<iuncil of Milan in ;{.")4 as the legat«
of Pope Lilierius. but opposed the Ariuns in so violent a
manner that the Eiuperor Constantius, much offended,
threw him into prison and carried him from place to place
for several yi'ars. After the death of Constantius he was
liberated, anil took up his residence in Syria, but here too
he deepened, instead of healing, the controversy which limk
place in the Church of Antioch lK>tween the Catholic Church
and the Arians. Disapproved bv his own former friends, he
left Antioch and retired to Sanliiiia, where he founded the
.sect of the Luciferians. and where he ilied in 371. He held,
iu opposition to the Synixl of .Mexandria (3.52). that no
bishop who had in any way yie|i|e<l to the Arians ci^uld
enter the liosum of the Church without forfeiting hi» ci-.Iim-
astical niiik. even though he repeiiteil and confes.sed his
ernirs ; and that all who admitted the claims of such per-
.sons to a full restoration of their privileges liecame Ihein-
selves tainted and outca.sts. The Luciferians. never numer-
OU.S. died out soon after the death of their leader.
Hevistil by .S. .M. Jaikso.v.
Lucifer Matches: See Matches.
LllcM'ius. Gaii"s: Human |i<>el ; b. at .Sucssa of the Au-
niiici in 180 h. i-.; served in the Niimantiiiewar under .Scipio ;
lived on familiar terms with Afriranus and I..ielius. and diiil
at Naples in 103 i. i: He wa.-. the founder, if not the in-
ventor, of the Kiitira. that [leculiarly Uomiui form of |>in-try.
in which Horace. Persius, and .luveiial excelled, and was
highly ap])reciateil in olden time>; but of his thirty b.«.ks of
Satinp only about 940 small fragments, mostly consisting
of single lines, have come down to ii.«. They wi'n> e..||i-ii.-.l
by K. and II. Stephens in \!iM. in /"
X^tenim Liilinonim. See also the •
(Leipzig. 1872): Ijachniann and ValiK n m
Haehrens's Friignifuin I'orl. Jlotn.. |ip. 1
ISHfii : also I,. >lueller. I.rbeii und Wirk' ,!■
(Leipzig, 187(1). Kevi.sed by .M. W akk»..v.
Luri'lia [= Ijtt.. deriv. of luj-. luriit. light] : the godile5(
of light, almost invariably ustil a.* an epilh.'t of Juno its the
giMldess presiding over women in childbirlh. .See Jixo.
LUrke. IQ k«. (Jottkbiku Curistun Krikhrk-u. I>. I). :
theologian : b. at Egi'ln. near .Mai.ileburu'. in the Prussian
province of Saxony. Aug. 24. I71I1 : studied theologr at
3S4
LUCKNER
LUCRETIUS
Hallo aiiil Giittinsen, ami became professor at Bonn in 1818,
and in 1*27 at Uoltiii;ri'n, where lie died Feb. 14, l.s,j,">. His
most prominent works are (iriimlrins einer neutexlamfiit-
lieheu llermeneiitik (Giiltinijen, 181T) and Commenlar uber
die Srhriflen <les £vani/eti.ilen Johannes (Bonn. 4 vols.,
1820-32), "which has beeii in part translated into Kndish
under the title Commentary on the Epistles of St. Jolin
(Edinburgh, 18;jT). His fine theological library was pur-
chased for llarvanl College.
Luckner, look ufr. Xicolai's, Count : marshal of France :
b. at Kampen. Bavaria, Jan. 12. 1722; adopted very early a
militarv career, and served first in the Bavarian army, then
in the "Prussian army, distinguishing himself in the Seven
Years' war, especiallv in the battle of Rossbach, and at last
in the French, whicli he entered in 1763 as a lieutenant-
general; in 17!)1 was made a mai-shal of France, and in Feb.,
1702, was appointed ciunmaudcr. first of the army of .Msace,
then of that of the North. In .June he took .Meniii and
Coiirtrav, but retired then suddenly to Lille, none under-
stooii why. In July he was appointed ooraraan<ler-in-cliief
of the corps of Uiron and La Fayette, and fought success-
fully against the Austrians at Loiigwy (Aug. IS)), but a few
days afterward he was replaced by Kellermanu, for reasons
unknown, and called before the bar of the Convention, be-
cause he had not punished (ien. Jarry. who, when evacuat-
ing Courtray, had set fire to the city. He was ordered not
to leave the city, and lived ipiietly for sometime; but in
Sept.. 1793, the payment of his pension of 36.000 francs was
suspended, and when ho made demands for his money, he
was dragged before the revolutionary tribunal, convicted of
conspiring with Louis XVI. and the foreign foe against
France, and guillotined Jan. 4. 1794.
Lncknow [from Hind. Ldksmanavate, the native name] :
citv of British India : I lie capital of the province of Oudh ; in
lat".26 53 N'., lon.so .58 K. ; on the Guinti. an affluent of the
Ganges. 610 miles from Calcutta, at an elevation of 360 feet
above the sea (see map of X. India. I'ef. 6-F). At some dis-
tance the city presents a magnificent aspect, but it disap-
points on a nearer approach. The whole central part of it
consists of narrow and crooked streets, sunk several feet into
the ground, and lined with huts of mud or bamboo, thatched
with straw or palm-leaves. The commercial part of the city
along the river, which here is 100 yards wide, navigable for
large boats, and crossed l)y three bridges, is better built ; it
has brick ln)uses surrounded with gardens. In the east quar-
ters are several mostpu'S and palaces, among which tlie Im-
ambara is the most remarkable ; it is an extensive structure,
containing a mos<pie, the sepulcher of Asof-ud-Dowla. a col-
lege, etc.; but several parts of it are of a most beautiful
architecture. The buildings erected under the auspices of
Claude Martin, a Frenchman, wlio went to India as a jjoor
soldier, but rose to great power iti the former kingdom of
Oudh, such as the Constantia, Jlartiniere, etc., are very gor-
geous. Lucknow manufactures much gold and silver bro-
cade, and its muslins and other fabrics are held in high es-
teem. Its jewelry was once famous, and its glass-work is still
prized. It is a railway junction. From 1775, and to the in-
corporation of the kiuird'irn of (ludli with the British domin-
ions, Lucknow was the cajiital of the country. The mutiny
of 1857 broke out at Lucknow early in May. and from July
1 to Sept. 25 the feelih' garrison of Kuropean forces under .Sir
Henry Lawrence withstood the large besieging party of muti-
neers, during which tiiiu' Sir Henry was killed. On the lat-
ter date they were relieved liy the forces unilcr Gen. Outram
and (Jen. Ilavelock, who cut their way in, but were in turn
themselves besieged by tlu' still greatly superior force of the
natives; and it was not until Nov. 17 that Sir Colin Campbell
arrived to their relief with le-eiiforcement.s. The city, how-
ever, could not be held, and was secretly evacuated on the
22d. Three days later (Jen. Havelock died of dysentery.
It was not until Mar. 1!», 18.58, and after much hard fighting,
that the citv, which had been fortified bv the insurgents,
was repossessed by the British. I'oii. (1891) 373,090.
Revised by Mark W. Harrinoton-.
Liicre'tin ; a daughter of Spiiriiis liucretius Triciptiiuis,
and tile wife of Lucius Taniiiiuius Colhitiiuis; celebrated
as much for her virtue as for her beauty. Se.xtus Tarquiniu.s,
a son of Tarquinius Snperbus, the King of Rome, and a
kinsman of her husbanil, becanu' pa.ssionately enamored of
her, and once, having been hospital>ly received in her house
during the absence of Collatiiuis, he entered her be4lcham-
ber in the night with a drawn swonl, thrcateiu'd to lay a
slave with his throat cut beside her, and say that he had killed
him in order to avenge her husband's honor, thus com]ielling
her to yield to his wishes. As soon as he had departed she
sent for her father and husband, told them what had hap-
iwned, made them swear to avenge her, and then stabbed
nerself. When the infamous deed liecame known it aroused
the whole people, and Lucretia's funeral became the occasion
of a general revolution, by which the Tarcpiins were exiielled
from Rome and the republic was established,
Liif rc'tins. Titus LrcRETirs Carus : poet ; b. probably
in 97 II. c. and <lied .53 B. c. His death seems to have been
suildeu, and is supposed to have been by suicide, through
derangement occasioned by the effects of a [ihilter adminis-
tered to him. (For the current theory on the motives of
this, see Tennyson's poem. LitcrftiuH.) Very little is known
in regard to his education, career, residence, or fortune.
He was a Konian citizen of noble extraction, and probably
studied at -Athens, obtaining there his inlimate acquaintance
with the Greek poets and philosophers. His poem. De
lierum yatun'i, which received Cicero's revision, has come
down to us entire, although apparently unfinished by its au-
thor. It h.-is been called the greatest of didactic poems, on
account of the scientific ]irecision and clearness of its state-
ments and the grandeur and beauty of its poetic dress.
The poem contains six books, with upward of 7.000 lines in
all. and is dedicated to C. Memmius, pra'tor 58 n. c, as a
personal friend of the author. It is regarded as the com-
pletest exposition of the |)hysical system of Epicurus, and
embodies the theories of Democrilus, together with the
hedonic doctrine of Aristippus. Lucretius was the rc])re-
sentative a|iostle of eclaircixsemeiit in the ancient world,
and he has remained the favorite poet of rationalism to this
day. His great object was to free mankind from the fi'arof
death, arising, as he thought, from superstition inherent in
the popular religicm. He fills with poetic fire the dry atcuu-
istic physics of his master, and there naturally arises an in-
consistency between his scientific conviction and the form
of his exposition. This has been pointed out by Bnyle.
Montaigne, and others. He denies all design in nature, and
accounts for the universal prevalence of law and arrange-
ment in the universe through the so-called " theory of natu-
ral t^lection " ; " Atoms wrought on by impulse and gravity,
and excited in every mode to cohere, and having been tried
in all jiossiblc aggregations, motions, and relations, /f// at
last into those tluit could endure." His sublime poetic feel-
ing, however, led him on from the use of trope and meta-
phor to the eiiqiloymcnt of mythological machinery and ■
allegory. He apostroj]hizes Venus as the personsification
of nature, but docs not forget her mythological relation to
the Roman I'.eople. lie also recognizes the other gi>ds as
existing, although ditferent from the popular representati(m
of them. The following brief analysis of his jioem will in-
dicate to the reader his chief views: Book I. o|iens with an
invocation of Veinis, and is followed by an invective against
superstition ; the logical consei|uence of his doctrine is the
destructirm of mythology and allegory — in fact, of all sensu-
ous emboiliment of ideas. The princiides of his cosmogony
are (a) nothing comes from nothing; (i) matter is eternal;
((■) its elements are the atom and the void; he repudiates
Ilcniclitus with his doctrine of fire, and also Empcdodes
and .Anaxagoras. Book II. treats of atoms, their form,
nmnliir. and development into life and generation, growth,
and decay. Book III. treats of the soul, making it to l)e
iilcutical with the body, exiilicilly denying immortality, and
offering his consolations thereon. Book IV. treats of sensa-
tions and perceptions, explaining their origin in physical
emanations from bodies, causing images to arise in the sen-
sory of the one who perceives; slee]), dreams, and love are
explained. Book V. gives his views of the origin of the
world, and of the rise of the in.stitutions of human civiliza-
ticui ; («) marriage and the family, {l>) society, (r) the state,
((/) religion, (e) music and poetry. This l)ook is the most
impressive part of his poem, inasmuch as it deals with
human relations. Book VI. treats of meteorology, ]ihe-
nomena attributed directly to the agency of the gods being
shown to have a natural causi — e. g. thundi'rbolts. instead
of being the weapons of Jove, are developed by the friction
of clouds, and the thunder is the noise occasioned by their
(i. c. the douils) llap]iing together, etc. A poetical reniler-
ing of the story of the plague at Athens, as told by Thucyd-
ides, closes his work. Lucretius was greatly admired in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and traces of his infiu-
ence are fouiwl in the works of the best English jioels ; for
example, .Siienser in the fourth book of his Faerie (^iieene
LUCULLUS
i.unwio II.
385
paraphrases the addross to Venus already monlioiioJ. His
iiillueiiie upon (iionlano Urnno was extraordinary ; also
upon Iniuianiiol Kant, notwillistanding the contrast Ih>-
twocn the ethical theory of Kant and that of Kpicunis.
The cilition of this poeui with notes and prose translation
by H. A. .1. Miiiiro (fanil)rid<;e, 18«6). is especially to lie
mentioned. See also I.a(hniann"s ed. (Berlin. 1871); Mar-
tha's Le. puFmr (If Luenr,- (I'aris, 1885); and Sclianz, Mm.
Lit. Oescliirlile, pp. Vir>-14\ (Munich, 18!)()).
William T. Hakris. Kevised by M. Wahuk.v.
Liinirilis: the surname of a plebeian family of the gens
Licinia, which first aiipears in iiistory at the close of the
Second Punic war. Tiie most famous member of this family
was Lucius Licinins LucuUus. the concpieror of Milhridules.
The exact dates of his birth and death are not known, but
he was still a yonnf; man when he distiiifruishcd himself in
the Social war and piincd the favor of Sulla, whom he ac-
companied as qua'stor to Greece and Asia on the breakinR
out of the P'irst Mithridatic war, in 88 D. c. On the return
of Sulla, in 84, he was left in charjje, and for four vears ad-
ministered alTaii-s so successfully that Sulla, on h'is death-
bed, confided to him his Citmmentaries and appointed him
(juardian of his son Faustus. In 79 he was made curule
a-dile, in 77 pnefor. and in 74 consul. Although the new
province of Bitliyniaand the conduct of Kastern affairs had
fallen to Cotla. the colleague of Lucullus. the latter was
called in to sliare these rcsiionsiliilities on the renewal of the
conflict with Mithridates. etc. .Mithriilatcs, who had in-
vaded Bithynia, defeated Cotta and besieged him at Chalce-
don. Lucullus. who in an astonishingly short time had
reorganized and thoroughly disciplineil his armv, hastened
to the support of his colleague, threw Mithridates back into
Pontus, routed his army at t'abira in 72 B. c, and his fleet
at Tcnedos in 71 B. c, took Eupatoria. Amisus, and Sinope,
compelled the king to seek refuge with his son-in-law, Ti-
granes. King of Armenia, and brought his country under
Roman authority. The troops were tired of tlie war, and
intrigues at Rome secured a decree placing Acilius tilabrio
in command; but Glabrio was inefficient, and Lucullus was
subjected to the mortification of seeing Mithridates once
more in possession of the territory. In 66 he was recalled,
and the credit of bringing the war to a successful close 'was
given to Pompcy; but Liiculhis was given a triumph in 68,
though he never again entered into the active affairs of po-
litical anil military life. He had amassed enormous wealth,
and now gave himself up to a life of luxury. His gardens
in the suburbs of Rome were fitted up with extraordinary
splendor, and his villas at Tusculuni and Naples were o"f
such magnificence as to become proverbial. He collected a
valuable library, and was the generous patron of letters.
I), about 57 B. r. Kevised by €. K. Adams,
Lu'den, IIeixrich : historian : b. at Loxstedt, near Brem-
en, Germany, Apr. 10. 1780; studied theology, philosophy,
and history at tJ.iltingen, ami was appointed Professor of
Philosophy in 18U6, and of History in 1810, at .lenh. where
he died May 2;{, 1847. His AiLiic/i/m cle-t liheiiibiimles
(1808) attracted much attention, and exercised some influ-
ence on public opinion in Germany concerning Xapoleon"s
jKilicy. Ilis later and larger works, AUyemeine Geschichle
des Al/er/liumx (1814), Allaemeine Oexcliichle rff.f Miltel-
allers (1831-22), and (lexrhichle. des deutsehen Volkx (12
vols., 1825-;J7, reaching oidy to 12;<7), have also had influ-
ence, though the views which they propound have led to
nuich controversy.
LU'ders, Alexander Xiroi,A.iF.vicn, Count: general; b.
in 17!KJof a German family settle<l in Russia; entered the
Russian armv in 1807; was uuide a brigadier-general in 1826;
<listinguislie(l himself in I8;)l at the storming of Warsaw ;
fought in the Caucasus from 1811 45 against Schamyl, and
took Diirgo; put down the revolution in Rounumia in 1848;
fought in Hungary in 184!), and won a complete victory over
Beui. which rapiclly led to the pacification of the cmuitry;
wascornmauilcr-iii-chief in the Crimea when Sevastopol was
taken; and was ajipointed lieutenant-general of Poland in
1861, but was recalled in 1862, on account of his too s<'vere
disposition. Before he left Poland an attempt was made to
assassinate him, but he only rii'eived a severe wound. lie
retired from service, was made a count, and died at St,
Petersburg, Feb. i:{, 1874.
Lndhiana, loo-di'e-aa'na: district of British India; Um-
balla division, Punjaiib; on the eastern bank of the ."^utlej ;
comprising an area of 1,:}75 sq. miles, with 620.000 inhab-
itants. Its capital, Ludhiana, lies in lat. 30 S,") N. and
261
Ion. 75 54 K. ; has large manufactures of shawls of an
inferior quality, ami carries on a consiilerable banking busi-
ness anil transit trade. Pop. almut 44,00«J.
LiKliiigtoii: city; capital of Ma.son co., Mich, (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Michigan, ref. .5-H) ; on Ijike
Michigan, and the Flint and P.re Marq. Ifailroad: 84 miles
N. K. of Milwaukee, with which it has regular steaml«.at
connection. It is in a fniit and sjilt region, and lias an ex-
cellent lake harbor, numerous lumber-working establish-
ments, fininilry and machiin'-sliop, union «-lir«il library,
and a daily and four weekly newspaiiers. Pop. (1880) 4 I!>6'
(1890) 7,517; (18!M) 8,244. ' i / . .
LikIIow, IfidlS: town; in the county of Shropshire, Eng-
land: at the conflnence of the Corve'and Teme ; 28 miles
.S. of Shrewsbury (see map of England, ref. 10-F). Its
castle, fornierlyan important stronghold against the Welsh,
was the residence of Henry VII. (148.5-1509). and of .Mary
Tudor before her accession to the throne, and is still more
memorable as the scene of the representation of Milton's
Comim. It was held for Charles I. (1646), but surrendered
to the parliamentary forces, soon after fell into decay, and
is now a ruin. There is a grammar school, founded in 1282
Pop. (1H9 1)4,460.
Lildloiv, EiiMr.ND: statesman and soldier; b. at Maiden-
Bradley, Wiltshire, England, in 1(J20; was educated at Ox-
ford ; entered the parliami'iitarj- army ns a volunteer on the
outbreak of the civil war ; becaine a colonel of cavalrv ; was
one of the members of the high court which condemned
Charles I.; protested against Cromwell's assumption of the
|)rotectorate, and agitated against him in favor of a republic;
retired to Switzerland at the approach of the Restoration,
and spent the remainder of his life there, returning to Eng-
land only for a brief iieriod in 1688 ; resided at Vevay, where
he wrote his valuable MmwirD {S vols., 1698-99), and died
in 1H!»;1.
Ludlow, .Iame-s Meeker. 1). I)., L. II. H. : minister and
author; b. in Elizabeth. X. .1., Mar. 15, 1841 ; was educated
in the College of New Jersey and Princeton Theological
Seminary; was pastor of the" First Preslivterian church of
Albany, X. V., 1865-69: of the Collegiale"Keformeil Dutch
church of Xew York lS6!t-77: of the Westminster Presbv-
teriiin church. Brmiklyn, 1877-86; and since 1886 of the
First Presbyterian church. East Orange. X. J. He devist-d
and constructed the Concfutric Chart of IIiKtnrrj (Xew York,
1885), and has published The Ctip/nin of the Janiznriea
(1886): ,4 A7HVf,/7'./r«>(1891): That Angefie Homon(1891);
Ml/ Saint John ; adilresses. and many contributions to ]>eri-
odicals. ■ C. K. Hoit.
I>iidol'|)liiis,.ToB: Orientalist: b.atErfuri. in the Prussian
province of Saxony, .Ian. 1.5, 1624; studied languages in his
native place and at Leyden ; traveled in 1647 in France and
England : accimipanied l^ueen Christina of Sweden in 1649 to
Rome, where he made the a<'quaintance of some Abyssin-
ians. by whose aid he studied the Ethiopic language: visited
.Sweden and Denmark; .settled in 16.52 in (iotha; and died
Apr. 8, 1704. at Frankfort. He wrote Hixtnria .Ethiopira
(1681, and often since); Anihnrir (irammar and IHrlionary
(1698); Lexicon .Elhioniciim (2d ed. 16!I9): auil^Kthiopisfhe
(frammalik (1702). He was the founder of tlie study of
Ethiopic in Euroju'. Revised by C. 11. Toy.
Lndn'i^ (lood virh) I.. Karl Aioist: King of Bavaria;
b. at Stnissburg. Aug. 2.5. 1786; wils highly educated, and
while prince gave his time and attention to literatim- and
art instead of politics. The famous collection of sculpture,
the Glyptothek, was made by him. and many of the finest
buildings of ^Iiinich were constructed under his dirtvtion.
He came to the throne in 1825, and. though he intHnlucol
some economic reforms and C'>ntimied his [latronage of fine
arts, his subjection to ultramontane influence, his disrepinl
for constitutional rights, and the scandal caused by his
liaison with Lola Monlez maije his rule most unpojuihir.
After the revolutionary disturliances in the sjiring of 1H48
he resigned in favor of his son, Maximilian Joseph. D. at
Nice, Feb. 2!t, 1868.
Liidwiipr II.. Otto Frederick William : King of Bavaria;
b. at Xyiuphenbiirg. Aug. 2.5. 1845; succH-eiieil his father.
King MaximilLan II.. Mar. 10. |H((4. He was a man of m-
mantic nature, an artist, with very fantastic ideas of his
personal dignity ils a king, and rather capriiious opinions
concerning [oilitical questions. In the nlTairs of Germany,
however, lie playiMl an im|>ortant and tiolile |uirt. At the
outbreak of the Franco-German war in 1870 he sided imme-
386
LUDWIG
diately with Prussia, ami during the negotiations concerning
the new organization of Gennaiiy he spoke with cntliusiasin
for the cstablisliuient of tlic Herman imperial tlirono. He
showed considerable insight into internal politics, but he
disliked to devote himself steadily and with consistency to
the dailv business of governing. He showed himself very
seldom to his people, and public festivities were disagreeable
to him. He lived mostly in solitude in his magnificent pal-
aces, of which he .seemed to prefer Ilohenschwangau, situ-
ated amid beautiful mountain scenery, and here he busied
himself with art, csnecially with music. On account of this
Sassion for music no became the patron and admirer of
lichard Wagner; but tliere broke out among the people
frequent riots against Wagner, and in 1S66 the king was
compelled to send the composer from the court. Another
peculiarity was his enthusiasm for Louis XIV. After the
war with Vrance he visited Paris and Versailles, in order to
study their works of art. and especially the remembrances
they contain of Louis .\IV. ]Ie also sometimes arranged
great theatrical performances in the most expensive style,
at which lie liimselt was the sole spectator. At length it
became evident that lie was insane. He was deposed, June
10, 1880, and drowned himself three days afterward.
Llldnig. Kari,. JI. I).: physiologist; b. in Witzenliansen.
Germany, Dec. 29, 1810; was educated in the Universities of
Marburg and Erlangen ; became professor in the University
of Marburg 1846, of Zurich 1849, of Vienna 1855, and of
Leipzig 18()5; and published several investigations of great
importance. I). Apr. '.'5, 1895. His chief work is Lehrbuch
der I'liysiolugie des Jlenschen.
Lil*i>vig. Otto : dramatist and Shakspearean critic ; b. at
Eisfeld, in the principality of Saxe-Meiningcn. tlerniany,
Feb. 11. 1813; studied niusic at Leipzig under Mendelssoliii-
Bartholdy, but was compelled by ill-health to give up his
career; devoted himself to literature, and settled in 1855 at
Dresden, where he diid Feb. 25, 1865. His tragedies, Der
ErbfurslerilSii'.i), Die Mdkhdba'er (\8'>i). Ami Agnes B(rnaui>r
(1857), were enthusiastically received, since they disclosed a
poet of unusual dramatic power, who had carefully schooled
nimself by tlie study of Shakspeare. Ludwig was e(|ually
successful as a writi-r of liction, his tale Zwischen Ilimmrl
und Erde (1856) being one of the best stories in the tfcrinan
language. The results of his studies of Shakspeare are em-
bodied in a .series of essays under the title Shak.speare-
Studien (1871), and contain probably the best analysis of
Shakspeare's dramatic art that was ever written. See Gustav
Freytag, OemtmmeUe A uf.sdlze, i., 20 ; Adolf .Stern, introduc-
tion to the t/esamme/Ze iichriffen ron 0/fo Ludwig (heip/.ig,
1892). Revised by JuLtus Goebel.
Lildwigsburg. loodvichs-boorch : town of Wiirtemberg,
8 miles from Stuttgart ; with an immense palace, beautiful
parks and pninieiiades, a military academy, and barracks
(see map of German Kinpire. ref, 7-1)). It is the second
royal residence i>{ Wiirtemberg, and wa-s founded in the be-
ginning of the eighteenth century, as a rival to .Stuttgart,
by the Duke Klierhard Ludwig. It was greatly enlarged by
his successor, Duke Charles, who resided there from 1764 to
1785, but it never acc|uired very great importance beyond
that of being a royal residence and a military depot. Some
manufactures, however, of woolen and linen cloth, of ja-
panned tinware, picture-frames, organs, etc., are carried on.
Pop. (1890) 17,418.
Llldwigshafen, -hnn {en : town of Germany, in Rhenish
Bavaria, cm tlii' left bank of the Rhine, opjiosife JManiilieim ;
founded in 184;{ by Louis I. of Bavaria (see map of German
Empire, ref. 6-1)) ; has direct railway communication with
Pans, Jlentz, and Frankfurt. In 1802 it was simply the
tf,te-du-pont of .Mannlu'im and grew up very slowly. In 184:!
it received its presi'Ul name, and in 1859 it wa.s made a town.
It is a rapidly growing manufacturing and commercial place,
producing wagons, aniline dves, soda, tartaric acid, alum,
artificial manures, and lime.' I'op. (1890) 28,768. In 1892
the commune was enlarged, giving a population of yu,216.
Lugano, loo-gaa'n» : town; in the canton of Ticino, Switz-
erland ; on the northern shore of the Lake of Lugano, whose
southern pari stretches into Italy. It is one of the three
alternating capitals of the cant<m. and carries on a consider-
able transit traile Ijetween Switzerland and Italy (sec map of
Switzerland, ref. 8-II). The inhabitants, nuuiberirii; (1888)
7,097, are Italians liy descent, and Italian is tlu' language
exclusively spoken. During the Italian struggle for inde-
pendence (1848-66) Lugano was the headquarters of Mazzini.
LUKASZEWKZ
Liignno, Lake of: a body of water situated on the fron-
tier between Switzerland and Italy, and between Lago Mag-
giore and Lago di Conio. It is of a very irregular shaiie, 20
miles long, but nowhere more than li miles tiroad. The
surrounding scenery is grand and wild. The lake is fed by
a number of short torrents which issue from the surrounding
mountains, and through the river Tresa sends its wutere into-
L.'igo Maggiore, which lies 200 feet lower.
Lugo, loo gw : a town in the ])rovince of Ravenna, Italy;
about 14 miles W. of the city of Ravenna (see maj) of Italy,
ref. ;i-l)). It lies in a very fertile plain l)etween the Senio
and the Saiiterno, and is connected by gond ri>ads with the
chief towns of the Komagna. The great scpiareof the Fadi-
glione presents a lively appearance during the annual Se]!-
tember fair, when dealers from every part of the Romagna
gather to trade in grain, wine, cattle, hemp, silk, etc. It
possesses a savings-bank, and a town library partly com-
posed of books from supjiressed convents. I'op. 9,200.
Lugo: jirovince of Spain, bordering N. on the Atlantic;
comprises an area of :i,787 sq. miles, with (1S87) 4:il,644 in-
habitants. The northern part is momilninous, rich in iron
and lead, and covered with forests; the southern part is a
large and fertile plain, producing wheat, wine, fruits, etc.
Lugo: capital of the province of Lugo, Spain; on the
Mifio; 72 miles by rail S. E. of Corunna (see map of Spain,
ref. 12-B). It is an old but regularly anil substantially
built town, with a fine cathedral of the twelfth century, and
celebrated sulphur springs. There are manufactures of
linen and leather. Pop. 19,9.52.
Lngworin. or Lobtvoriu : a popular name for the worm
known to science as Arenicola mcirina. which is found in
European waters and upon the northeastern coast of the
U. S. In Europe it is used extensively for bait.
Lnini, loo-ee'nc'e, Bernardo : Italian painter ; b. at Luino,
on Lago Maggiore. in 1470; erroneously said to have been a
pupil of Leiiimrdd da Vinci. He is supposed to have visited
Rome, because at Santa Croce in Lombardy frescoes of his
have been discovered, representing the story of Eurojm, quite
Raphaelcsque in grace and .style, and also some mono-
chromes, which show a knowledge of Roman statues, of
which some are represented, the Laocoiin, for instance. His
must important frescoes are at Lugano, in the Capucin
church, at, SaniniKi. and the Jlonastero Maggiore in Milan.
Many f rum other cliurches are niiw to be seen in the Brera
(iallery of Milan. He worked with less ease in oil, but th&
Magdalen, iit the Ambrosiana, the Madonna, and also a Sf.
John CaresKing a Lamb, are masterpieces. There are many
of his easel-pictures in private collections in Milan. His
Madonna of llie Ji'oeliX. in the Brera. as also his Jlerodias. in
the Louvre.' and J/o(/c.s7v onrf UoHiVy, lately in the gallery
of Prince Seiara, Rome, have been erroneously ascribed to
Leonardo da Vinci. He was a poet and wrote a treatise on-
painting. His fame was not great in his own time, as he re-
mained in Lombardv all his life, and Vasari writes of him
briefly. lie was still living in 1530. W. J. Still.man.
Luitpnld, lw("et polt. Prince Charles .JosKPn William
LuDWiu: regent of Bavaria; b. at Wiirzburg, Mar. 12,
1821; married Apr. 15, 1844. Princess Augusta, Archduchess^
of Austria; was appointed recent .lune 10, 1886, on the de-
posititm of the insane King Ludwig II. Prince Otto, the
nominal successor of Ludwig, was also insane, and Luitpold
continued as regent.
Lukaszcwicz, loo-ka'a-shev'itch, .Iozef: historian; b. at
Kri\plewo. Poland, Nov. :i0. 1799; studied at the gynimusium
of I'oscn ; 1829 became lil)rarian to the Count Raezynski,
for whom he exaniine<l the archives and libraries of Warsaw,
Cracow. Breslaii, Konigsherg. Dantzic, Thorn, etc., and cs]ie-
cially the arc'hives of the Bohemian Mrethren at Leszno, in
search of rare books and ;\ISS. Feu- several years he taught
Latin at the gymnasium of Poscn, and, with Popliiiski,.
edited two jourtials, Ti/qodnik Literacki (18;i8-40) and Or^-
downik- Xaiik-otn/ (1840-46). He became, in 1852, owner of
the Targoszyce estate, to which he retired, giving up his
i)osition as librarian, yet continuing his litiTary lalxirs until
his death, Feb. 18. 18"73. .Most of his works are devoted to
the history of Protestantism in Poland. They are Wiado-
mosf lii.'tlon/rznn o l)i/n/<i/dentarli w miexrie I'oznanin w
XVI i XVil wieku (The Protestants of Po.xen in the Six-
teentli and Sc'veiiteenth Centuries, Posen, 1832; tierman
trans. Darmstadt, 1843); O ko.iciolach liraei Czeskich w
dawnej I'ohre (Churches of the Bohemian Brethren in An-
cient I'oland, Posen, 183.5); Dzieje ko.wioloiv wyznaniu hel-
LUKK
387
weckiego na Lilwie (History of Culvinist rimrchps in Lithu-
ania, 2 vols.. Poscn, lH41-4;5; Gorman truns. Ijfipzig, 1848;
same, in Little Poland, \H't,\). His history of the Catholic
(,'hurch in Poscn is given in h'roiki opig Itinloryciny koicio-
luw parochiulnych . . . w dawnej dyecezyi poznarUkieJ (2
vols., 1858-6:!). His inustur-work is u history of schools in
Poland and Lithuania. Ilistorya Mzkul w Kn'ronie i W. Ks.
Lit. od nnjduwnieJHzych cziuiow do H'Ji r. (2 vols., 1849-51).
He also wrote an historico-statistical sketch of Posen, Ohraz
hiatoryczno-statystyczny miasta I'oznania (2 vols., 18;W;
German trans. Leszno, 1845); a Keofjraphy of ancient Po-
land, (iengrafia starotitnej Pulnki (1842, under the pseudo-
nym J. Andryszowicz) ; and translated Pliny's Natural His-
tory (1845). J. J. Keal.
Luke, Saint Ffrom Lat. Lu'cas = GT. AouKas] : the au-
thor of the third Gospel. He was the only author of Gen-
tile descent who took part in the composition of Holy
Scripture. In the Epistle to the Colossians (iv. 10-14) Paul
distmguishes him, together with Epaphriun iinil l)ema.s. from
all his assistants of .Ji'wish descent, Aristanlius, Marcus, and
Justus. An old tradition, mentioned by Ku-sehius and Je-
rome, maintains that he was from Antioch, the cai)ital of
Syria, where for the first time Christianity took root in a
heathen country, which became the cradle of the mission
to the Gentiles. It has been assumed, though unjustly, that
this tradition was only a misunderstanding of Acts kiii. 1,
in which a certain Lucius, with whom Luke might have
been confounded, is mentioned as one of the prophets and
teachers of Antioch ; but Kusebius and Jerome must have
written carelessly, in order thus to confound the name of
Luke (Lucas, abridged from Lur.anns) with that of Lucius
(derived from litj-), and still more so to conclude from a
passage, in which Lucius is mentioned as descending from
Cyrene, that Luke was from Antioch. The narrative of the
foundation of the church of Antioch (.Vets xi. 19-26) is writ-
ten with so much vividness and freshness that we seem to
recognize the emotion of a personal renuMnbrance ; and it
is quite remarkable that in a work of the second century,
which probably still contains some authentic traditions, "the
most excellent Theopliilus," to whom the two writings of
Luke are dedicate<l, is mentioned as a num living in Anti-
och: "Thus Theophilus, the most powerful man of the city,
consecrated to the worshi|> and under Uie name of a church
the palace which he inhabited." Paul calls Luke (Col. iv. 14)
" the beloved physician." This expression proves that Luke
belonged to the lettered class of the {>eople, and was pos-
sessed of a certain amount of scientific knowle<lge. It is,
indeed, certain that at this epoch there existed in the em-
pire a medical superintendence quite severe. A supreme
authority, colhtjium archintrorum, awarded the diploma of
medicine, and examined in every city those who exercised
the medical art. The cures were rigorously scrutinized, and
grave mistakes were punisheil by the loss of the right of
practicing. Of all Paul's companions Luke was probably
the only one who was possessed of a scientific and literary
education.
Some old writers maintain that Luke had been a disciple of
Jesus, and was one of the seventy disciples whom the Lord
sent to the places of Galilee in order to prepare for his own
visit (Luke x. 1, seq.) ; but the introduction to the Gospel
is not in favor of this supposition. In i. 2 Luke ranks
himself among those who owe their knowledge of the gospel
history to the teachings of eye-witnesses, which proves that
he was not an eye-witness himself ; but it is possible that,
in accordance with an old supposition, he was one of the
two disciples whom Jesus accomi)anied to Kmmaus on the
day of his resurrection. One of them is mentioned by
name, Cleopas. The anonymity of the other may indicate
that he is the author himself; and this circumstance would
correspond well with the dramatic character of the whole
narrative, and especially with the following words, which
seem to refer to a [)ersonal experience : " Did not our heart
burn within us, while he talked with us bv the way, and
while he opened to us the Scripturest" (fjuke xxiv. 32).
If, as the whole tradition testifies, Luke is the author of the
Acts, and if he always speaks of himself in this book when
ho says "we," we meet him for the first time at the mo-
ment when Paul, having arriveil atTroius on his second mis-
sionary voyage, prepares to cross over to Europe and un-
dertake a missionary journey through Greece, beginning
with Macedonia (.\ct's xvi. 10): ".And after he hml seen the
Tisi<m, immediately we endeavored to go into Macedonia."
It is improbable that Luke thus should have placed himself
as immediately co-operating with the mission from the very
beginning, and the suj)|M)sition has been made that the au-
thor of the Acts here inserts a fragment of a journal of one
of the companions of Paul : as, for instance, Timotheus or
Silas; but it is not probable that the author of the Acts,
who shows himself an able writer in both his b<x)ks. should
have committed such an awkwardness as to insert in bis
own work a passage from another one in this way, though it
would be very ea.sy for him to change the " we to "they."
He who speaks thus in this passage is evidently the same
as he who calls himself " 1 " in the first words of the book :
"The former treatise have I made, 0 Theophilus" . . .
(Acts i. 1). The exact stuily of the style of the Acts has
proved that this Ixxjk was written from the beginning to
the end by the same hand, ami that this hand is the same
which composed the third Gospel. The objection raised
falls if we admit that Luke was originally from AntiiK.h,
a member of the church of that city, and long acquaint-
ed with St. Paul. It seems as if, afier the foundation of
the church in Pliilippi, Luke remained in that city, prob-
ably in order to take care of the young church, while Paul,
Silas, and Timotheus continued their journey ; for the "we"
disappears in the narrativeof themission from this moment,
and until the epoch when toward the end of his third jour-
ney St. Paul passed once more through Philippi, on his way
to Jerusalem. At this point it reupjiears. " 'I'liese going be-
fore," it reads in the Ads xx. 5, with reference to the depu-
ties of the churches of Greece and Asia who accompanied
Paul to Jerusalem, "tarried for u» at Troas." The "we"
then continues until the arrival at Jerusalem ; and as it be-
gins again at the moment when Paul, after two years' im-
prisonment at Co-sarea. departs for Home, it is natural to
conclude that Luke had remained in Palestine during these
two years of Paul's captivity. It was during this time that
he gathered on the very theater of the evangelical history
the information and the materials with which he composed
his two works. He alludes himself to this information in
his Gospel (i. 1-4). Aftertliese two years he went with Paul
to Home, and participated in the shipwreck, which he has
described in a graphic manner in Acts xxvii. ; and he ar-
rive<i Ht Koine with the apostle in the spring of 62. In the
Epistles to the Colossians ami to Philemon, which proba-
bly are the first letters written bv Paul from Koine, he ad-
dresses salutations which prove tiiat Luke lived with him
during the first peri>«l of that captivity, with which the biK)k
of the Acts ends. The Epistle to the Philippians, written
toward the close of these two years, contains no salutation
from Luke to this church, with which he was so closely con-
nected ; from which circumstance we must inferthat he had
left Paul and returned, for the time Ijeing. to the Orient. We
find him once more in company with Paiii, and as a prisoner,
in the Second p'pistle to Timothy (iv. 11), where the apostle
says of him : " Only Luke is with me." Probablv the second
captivity is here referred to. whi<h Paul suffered in the year
66 or 67, and which terminated with his martyrdom, the first
having ended in the beginning of 64. According to a
tradition mentioned by Jerome. I>uke preached the gos[«'l in
Achaia ami Hu-otia. Gregory Xazianzen sjieaks first of his
martyrdom, and NicephorusCallistus in the fourteenth cen-
tury asserts that he wius hanged on un olive-tn'C in Greece at
the age of eighty years. From the testimony of Jerome it
seems certain tliat his ashes, as well as those of Andrew,
were brought from Achaia to Constantinople by orders of
Constantius in 3.56. Thus we may consider I.iUke as an edu-
cated Greek, and as one of St. Paul's most faithful assistants
among the (ientiles of Greek nationality.
Works. — Christian antiquity has ascril>e<l to Luke the
Acts of the Apostles as well as the third Gosjiel. As these
writings have never borne the name of any other author
than that indicated by the title given them by the primitive
Church, there is no reasim for doubting the tradition. As
Luke is for us one of the most conspicuous and most fre-
quently mentioned of Paul's companions, one might |nTha|>9
tliink that on this point the Church has proceeded by way
of supfKjsitioii. This is not .so, however. It is onlv tin ac-
count of his works that the name of Luke is so well known
in the Church. The rarity of this name in the writings of
the New Testament speaks in favor of the truth I'f the tra-
dition. It is incontestable that the author of the thinl Gos-
pel and the Acts must lie sought among the a-ssistaiits of St.
Paul. To prove this the striking analogy suflices lietwwn
the form of the institution of the Lord's SupjuT in Luke and
in Paul (1 Cor. xi.). There is. furthermore, the closest rela-
tion between the enumeration of the appearances of Jesus
388
LUKE
LUL
after the resurrection in Luke (xxiv.l and in Paul (1 Cor.
XV.). Tlie whole history of Jesus by Luke is a ilenionstra-
tion of the reality of those two great princiiiles whiih form
the basis for nil of St. Paul's preachinj; — namely, the univer-
sality of the salvation ami its entire gratuity. ' That is the
rea*<in whv Luke Iraoes the genealogy of Jesus to A<lam, the
father of inankiml. and not only to Abraham, the father of
the Jews, as Matthew does; why he loves to tell the |)ara-
bles of grace (eh. xv., the lost sheep; the piece of silver; the
prodigal son) and other narratives of a similar bearing, as.
lor instance, the forgiven sinner (ch. vii.) and the Pharisee
and the publican (ch. xviii.); why, furthermore, he has
completed the narrative of the Gospel by a picture of the
foimdation of the Church by the apostles, especially by St.
Paul, whose grand missionary labor among the ({entiles he
follows until his arrival at Rome, the center of the empire.
From the fact that the writings of Luke give a supjjort to
the ideas of Paul it has been inferred that in several points
he has modified the teaching of Jesus in favor of this par-
ticular aim, but that is to lower the intention of tlie sacred
writer in a strange manner. In his two writings he defends
a cause much higher than that of St. Paul : he pleads the
cause of God himself. In chaps, ix. and xi. of tlie Kpistle
to the Romans we are told that the Jews even claimecl that
God had not the right to withdraw the salvation from them
and give it to the Gentiles, since he ha<l bound himself to
them by inviolable promises. The aim of the whole work
of Luke is to demonstnite that God has faithfully accom-
plished his promises, by the apostles preaching first to the
Jews and then to the Gentiles, and that, consecpientiy, it is
not God who has broken his engagements with his people,
but the people who have rejected their God.
Among all the assistants of .St. Paul, Luke the physician
was probably the only one who was able to write such a
work. The introduction, contained in the four first verses
of ch. i., presents a striking analogy to the introductions of
the great Greek historians; as, for instance, Herodotus and
Thucydides. The style of these verses is classical, but from
verse v. Araraeanisms abound, whicli show from this point
that the author is reprcxhuMng certain documents in that
language, and reproducing them with scrupulous exactness.
The pure Greek of the aulhi>r, although always with certain
forms of language of his own, does not reappear until the
second part of tlie book of the Acts, where it comes in quite
naturally, as at this point he begins to narrate what he has
seen and heard himself. All these traits corres])ond per-
fectly with the character designated by tradition — a friend
of Paul, and a Greek of classical education. Luke must
have composed tliis Gospel for the Gentiles at nearly the
same time when St. Paul founded the Church of the Gen-
tility. This circuuKStance also proves the purity of the tra-
ditions which are given here, and which in no point re-
semble those legends which we meet in the Fathers even
from the beginning of the second century; as, for instance,
in Papias. Most admirable is the manner in which Luke
knows how to jilace the words of Jesus so as to make them
striking — a (piality which proves the exactness of the infor-
mation he had gatliered concerning the circunislaiices un-
der which the wonls were spoken. Clemens of Alexandria
places the composition of the Gospel of Luke even before
that of the Gospel of Mark, acconling to a tradition due
to the ancient presbyters. With respect to the locality in
which the composition took place, we have only a tradition
stated by Jerome, according to which it was in the conn-
tries of Acliaia and Hu'otia, but this tradition has nothing
certain; Macedonia or Antiocli would be as probable a sup-
position, as Greek literature and language reigned in both
countries. The question has often been raiseil why Luke
ends the book of the .\cls with the two years' captivity of
St. Paul in Rome. Whv dicl he not relate the martyrdom
of the apostle if thus liis captivity terminateil. or if not.
then his liberation < To these questions it has been an-
swered that he may have treated this subject in a third
book, which has not come down to us, or that he died before
finishing his work. More generally it has been supposed
that the reason why he did not continue his narrative fur-
ther was that ho finished his book just when the itnprison-
ment of the apostle terminated. This supposition is the
least improbable. It is nevertheless not certain. The idea
of the book of the Acts is by no means to give the biog-
raphy of Peler or Paul, or any other man. Like the whole
Scrripture, the book refers to the great suliject of the reign
of God. It contains the history of the apostolical founcia-
tions: (1) the foundation of the Church among the Jews by
St. Peter (i.-v.); (2) the providential preparation for the
jireaching among the Gentiles (vi.-xii.) ; the foundation of
the Church among the Gentiles by .St. Paul (xiii.-xxviii.) ;
and these foundations had been no doulit accnniplished at
the pnd of St. Paul's first ca()livity, with which the Acts
end. Thus the plan of the two works is — from Nazareth to
Capernaum ; from Capernaum to Jerusalem ; from Jerusa-
lem to Antioch ; and from Antioch to Koine. As a true
historian Luke traces the )irogrcss of the faith in Christ
from the individual tn the Church, and from the Church to
the center of the world's scene. Frkuekic Godet.
Lnl, Lnll.orLnlly, RAiMON(iti Lai. Haimi-ndus LuLUfs);
philosopher and jioet ; b. at Palma, in Majorca, in 1235. His
father (of the same name) had acc(unpaiiied Jaime I. of Ara-
gon in 1229 on his expedition for the con(|uest of the Mos-
lems of Majorc.H.and when this was accomjilished had received
as a fief lands confiscated from the ,\ralj possessors. The
peculiar conditions of life in tlie midst of a large conquered
out still unconverted popidation without doubt had a con-
siderable influence upon the development of the son's mind.
The young Raimon, however, received an imlitTerent edu-
cation, and to the end of his life, and after his death, his
ignorance of Latinity wius used as a reproach against him.
Up to the age of thirty, as he himself tells us. he was disso-
lute, to put a stop to which his parents married him to a
certain Dofla Blanca Picany. Kven this, however, did not
check him, and it was not until he had five times seen a vision
of the crucified Christ that he turned from his evil ways.
From this time on (anno 126t)) the facts of Lull's life are
known to us in the main from a brief autobiographical
piece, which seems to have been prepared liy him shortly be-
fore the Council of Vienne (1311). and which has been sev-
eral times printed (best edition by Salzinger. Lulli Opera,
i.. prol.). In this he tells us that convinced of his iniquity
he sold most of his possessions, and gave himself to Christ.
For nine years he devoted himself to ascetic practices and
to the study of Arabic, buying a Saracen slave for the latter
purpose. At the end of this time, as a curious document
shows us, he had entirely ceased to interest himself in the
affairs of ordinary life. This document is a petition of his
wife for the aiipoiiitineiit of ail ailmiiiistrator of his property
for her benefit anil that of her children. This was in 127S,
an<l the petition was granted. At this very time Lull was
formulating the two dominant ideas of his life. The first
of these was the conversion of the Moslems to Christian-
ity through an apjieal to their own higher reason, in pur-
suance of which we find him in 1276 obtaining the estab-
lishment of a college for thirteen Minorite friars at Mira-
niar, in Majorca, in which thev should be taught Arabic and
fitted for missionary work, 'I'he second i<lea was the inven-
tion of a universal and infallible intelle<'tual method, bv
means of which doubtful questions in regard to the faith
might be solved. This was no other than the famous j^lr*
Major (later Ar.t generalis). which Lull believed to have
been revealed lo him by God npon the Mount of Handa, to
which he h;id retired for conti'Miplation. To the exposition
and (lifTusii'ii of this a large part of his later life was given,
and his nanu' is indissolubly connected with it still. It is
impossible here to give even a faint idea of its character,
but the curious will find an outline, of it in Prantl's Oe-
Kchieh/p der Litflik (vol. iii., p. 145-177, Leipzig, 1867). >Lull
himself believed it lo be destined to sujierscde the puerilities
of scholastic logic; but he had had no real inlellcctual train-
ing, and failed to see that he had essentially kept all the
fundamental notions of the schoolmen, but made confusion
worse confounded by his juggling methods.
For about ten years he seems to have remained at Mira-
mar. writing much in Catalan. Arabic, and perhaps Latin.
He has left a description of his spiritual joys in the curious
romance in Catalan, Ji/niK/ueniii. Now also he began lo
compose those devotional jioems in Catalan which are per-
haps the <mly abiiling part of his enormous production (ed.
by G. Kossello. llhiax lUiiutdd.t de Rnmon Lull. Palma,
lH.")n); but at last he began to dream of a larger field, and
about 1285 we find him setting out for Rome, in order to
persuade Pope Ilonorius IV. to establish other colleges like
Miramar. The po|ie hiid just dieil, however, and so Lidl
went to Paris to expound his Art. Now began that in-
cessant wandering that was to (ill the rest of his days.
.\fter two years in Paris (12S7-S',)) we find him at Montpel-
lier; then at Genoa (12!ll), whence he maile an unsuccessful
expedition (o Tunis, to convert the Moslems. Leaving
Tunis in 1292 he went to Najiles, whence in 1294 he was
LULLY
LLNA
3!?0
called to Rome by the election of Celosiiiie \'., whom he
hoped to iiili-rest in his seheiiie for eollofjes. lie tarried in
Komo till VM6, trying, after C'elestine had made 1/ gran
rifialo, to win Bonifaee VIII. to his plans. All was in vain,
as we learn from the pathetic poem /texeminri ; so, by way
of Genoa and Majorca, ho returneil to Paris (12W). only to po
back to JIajorca in 12!)!). In i;iOO events stirreil in him the
desiit! to visit the East ; and from this time till his death his
journeyinpi heeomc too intricate to follow, lie visiteil Cv-
prus, Armenia, then Genoa a;;ain, Majorca, I'aris.Vienne (dur-
ing the council of l:ill), Montpellier, Mcs.>ina; and finally
in im5, having ventured once more to try the conversion of
the Moslems in .\frica, he was stoned to death by a mob at
Tunis or at Hougiah, in Algeria, June 2!) of the same vear.
The number of Lull's works in Arabic, Catalan, and Latin
is enormous. In vol. xxix. of the //ixluire lilleriiiie. tie la
France (Paris, ISSo) no less than 3l;i arc analyzed, though
many of these are undoubleclly spurious. Those dealing
with alchemy, in particular, were almost certainly of later
composition, and simply issued by their authors under cover
of his name, as was tlie ease with many similar works liear-
ing the great names of the MidiUe Ages. The authentic
treatises, however, are very numerous, tiiough they fall into
comparatively few groups. The chief of these naturally has
to do with the exposition of the wonderful Ar.i Magna.
Then we have a group dealing more directly with theology
proper, though always with reference to the Art. Next
come treatises u[X)n various aspects of logic and the dis-
cipline of the sehool.s. me<licine, physics, etc.; then edifying
works of a more popular kind ; then the devotional works in
Catalan already nicnlioned : and, finally, a ninnber of very
curious books in Catalan, showing the results of Lull's fa-
miliarity with Arabic literature. Among these last the most
remarkalile is the Libre ile les maravellex, based largely upon
the Kalilah and Dimnah (ed. by Aguilo in the Jiibliuteca
cnlaiana, and in part bv K. llofmann, Ein Kalalanifches
Thierepuf!. Munich. 187-2). The Latin works of Lull, col-
lected and edited by Salzingcr, were printed at Mayence,
1721-42, in an edition which was to contain ten folio vol-
umes, but the seventh and eighth seem never to have been
issued. A new and complete edition, editeil by O. Rossello.
is being issued at Palma, in Majorca (IHM6. sec/.). For the
bibliography of the Catalan works, see A. JIorel-Fatio, A'a-
talanigche Lileratur (in Gniber's Ontndriss tier roman-
ischen Philologie, ii., 2, p. 105, xeq., Strassburg, 18113).
Besides the works already citeci, see Helfferich, R. Lull
U7id die Anfdnge der Kalalanixrhen Lileratur (Berlin,
1858); F. de P. C'analejas, Las doctrinas del Doctor ilttmin-
ado Haimundtt Lnlin (.Madrid, 1870); Enlmann, (frundriss
der Geschichte der Philo-wphie (Bd. i., § 20t), 2d ed. Berlin,
1869). A. U. Maesh.
Lully, lU'lee', Jean Baptiste: composer; b. at Florence
in l(5;j;i: went early to Paris as scullion in the household of
the Princess of Mont[)ensier ; made himself noticed by his
skill on the violin : received some regular instruction by the
aid of the princess, and obtained a place in the orchestra of
Louis XI\ ., the famous bande de vingl-quti/re. Having
gained the favor of the king by some airs he composed, a
new orchestra, les petiLs rinlonn, was organized and placed
under his direction, and he managed it so well that it soon
entirely eclipsed its elder rival. Ile was made director of
music at the court, composed all the ballets, a sort of enter-
tainment for which Moliere often wrote the text, and in
which the king himself often performed, and gained such
an ascendency over the taste of the king that no other mu-
sic was heard at the court than his. In 1672 he obtained
the privilege of opening an opera theater at Paris, .\cademie
Koyalc de Musique, and by the success of this enterprise he
became the founder of the French (Jpcra. lie wmte nine-
teen large opera.s, to which (juinault generally furnisheil
the text, and for nearly a century — np to the lime of Gluck
— he was considered the greatest opera composer. At pres-
ent his music is practically never heard — not becau.se it lacks
musical inspiration, but because the technics of the art have
so developed that his manner of instmmetilation. harmon-
izing, etc., would appear awkward. His .Mi-terere, written
for the funeral of .Scguicr, his lii.mgnti Morire. peecniore.
and some minor pieces of sacred composition, are still heard
in France occasionally. I), in Paris, Mar. 22, 16H7, leaving
an immense fortune. ' Revised by DfliLKV BicK.
Liimha'go [= Lat., deriv. of lumbu.t. loin, whence Kng.
loin (via (). Fr. logne < Lat. "lum hen)], or Crick in the
Back : a very painful ailment ; a kind of subacute rbcuma-
lism, often very severe, ami scaled in the lumbar region.
.Strong linimenl.s, rubbing with the hand, the application of
the electrical brush, and cupping are all useful. A mild
diaphoretic often affonls relief.
Liiniiiiaix. ItVmi'enfr, F.variste Vital: genre and his-
torical painter; b. at Nantes. France, l>ci-. 14. 1822: pupil
of Leon Cogniet and of Troyon : was awarded third-da.'sa
medals at the Salon IS-VJ, and Paris Kx[M>siiion 18.'"m; deci>-
ration of the Legion of Honor 1S6!I; first -cla.ss medal. Pari*
Exposition, 18.8!). Manv of his subjects are taken fronx
early French history ami from legends of the Gauls. His
style is vigorous and brtiad. Works liy him may be seen
in the muscmns at Angers, Nantes, Biirdeaux, Laval, and
Nancy. Studio in Paris. William A. Cofkun.
Liiliiini : See Salisha.v Lndia.ns.
liiimniczer. loom nits-fr, Alexander, M. D. : surgeon; b.
at Kapuvar, in the county of .Sofron. Hungary-, in 1K21 ;
pursued his professional studies in the Universities of Buda-
pest and Vicniui. and in Berlin. Paris, and London ; becamu
surgeon in the Hungarian revolutionary arinv, and event-
ually dircctor-in-cliiff of the field hospitals.' In ]S01 ho
was appointed secoml surgeon to the Rochus Haspital in
Budapest, and in 1864 chief surgeon. In 1868 he be<;nmo
docent, in 1872 professor extraordinary, and in 18X0 full
Professor of Surgery in Budapest University. In 1880 ho
was chosen president of the Royal Medico-Chirurgical S<K;i-
ety of Budaiiest. In 1885 he was appointed a memlier of
the House of .Magnates. In 1869 he was elected chief physi-
cian of Budapest. His most imjKirtant publication is ( lii-
rurgische Erfahrungen (Budapest, 187S). I). Jan. 30. 18i»2.
S. T. Armsteono.
Liiiniinsli. or Lump Sucker; also called the Sea-owl,
or Cock-paddle: a fish (Ci/cloptentx lumpun) found ni
the North Atlantic, from Long Islanil and France north-
ward. It has an elevated ridge along the back, which is
covered with a notched and tubereulated skin not unlike the
comb of a cock. It is of clum.sy shape, and has its ventral
fins formed into a sucker, by means of which it can cling to
any solid substance so firmly that it can with dilTuulty Ixs
removed. Its tlesh is edible. It is asserted bv fishermen
that the lumpfish makes a kind of home, clearing out a
hollow in the stony bottom, in which it dejKisits its eggs,
and that it renuiins hovering about the spot until the eggs
are hatched, for the purfH)se of guanling them against ene-
mies. When tliiis engaged it becomes combative. |H'rmitting
no other fish to pass near its charge, and in cases of neces-
sity biting fiercely with its short but sharp teeth. When
freshly taken from the sea the colors of the Inmpfish are
very bright. Revised by D. S. Jordan.
Lumpkin. Josepu Henrv, LL. D. : jurist : b. in Ogle-
thorpe CO.. Ga.. Dec. 2;{. 17I»9: graduated at Princeton in
1819; was admitted to the bar in Oct.. 1820. and ojiened an
office in Lexington, (Ja.; in 18'25 was a memlier of the Leg-
islature, and sustained (iov. Troup in his controversy with
the Federal authorities growing out of the conflicts U'tween
the " old " treaty and the " new," as they were termed, with
the Creek In<lians. He was most successful in his pro-
fession, and in 1845 was electe*! associate justice, and after-
ward chief justice, of the State Supreme Court, which was
then for the first time organized. The term of oflice was
six years, but rreeiving three successive re-elections without
opposition, he continne<I to hold this jxisition as long as ho
lived. Ile was for nnmy v*ars a trustee of the State Uni-
versity, and founded the Lumpkin Law School, coniiettiil
with the university. In 1860 he was elected chancellor of
the university, but declined this position owing to his strong
attachment to the Supreme Court, over which he had so long
presidetl. D. at Athens, Ga.. June 4, 1867.
Lu'na [= Ijat. for earlier lur'no, deri v. of lux. litris, light :
. /»u«- > Goth. /i'h/i(i|' : Eng. light]: ''■■ 1 ■'"■ ••■■■■e
Teut
for the inixin. and in Roman mythology t!
moon. Her worship was common to the !;■ r
Italic peoples. At Rome there were two old Uiuple^ t«
Luna, one on the Palatine, ealleil A'or/i'/i-r/i (i.e. which is
illuminated by night), ami another on the .Vvi 1 w
the Circus .Maximiis. founded apparently by Ser*
As the gtxidess of the nionth.s, Luna was worsbii ■ , .. lim
last day of March, which was the first month of the old
Roman year. G. I^ Hi NtiairKsos.
Luna. .\LVARo, de; courtier and pilitician; b. in Spain
about i:<!iO:was e<lucated with the infant king. John II.,
with whom he escajted from the custoily of the Infante of
390
LUNA
LITNE
Aragon in 1418: headed a successful revolution in behalf of
the rijjhtsof the crown ; was made constable of Castile 142;i ;
received ample endowments, and became the favorite minis-
ter of the kin^; was temporarily driven from court in 1426,
and again in 14;!U, by the efforts of his enemies; was vic-
torious in a war apiinst the Infantes of Arajron 144.5, and
was rewarded with the grand-mastership of Santiago, which
he helil in addition to the dukedom of Truxillo and the lord-
ship of sixty towns and fortresses. The powerful favorite
was at last overthrown by means of intrigue, condemned to
death, and executed at Valladolid in June, 1453. He was a
patron of lettei-s, and wrote poetry and jilays. .See his his-
tory by an anonymous writer. La Ciunica del Cundestahle
Don Alvaro de Luna (ir)4()).
Luna. Pedro, <le: antipope. See Bexedict XIII.
Liinucy: See Insanity.
Liinnlilu. loo-naa-lec'lo : King of the Hawaiian islaii<ls
1873-74; b. in 1835. With his cousins, Kamehameha IV.
and Kamehameha V., he received a good education, but
afterward his dissipated life made him unfit for oflices of
trust. His tendencies were to great liberality in govern-
ment— greater than the intelligence and general condition
of his people titled them for. Soon after the establishment
of his administration his health failed, and he became indis-
posed to give much attention to important business. 1). Feb.
3, 1874, without an heir and without appointing a successor.
Lunar Caustic: See Niti{ate ok .Silver.
Lund. loond : city of Sweden; 25 miles E. of Copenhagen
(see map of Norway and Sweden, ref. 14-1)). In 1060 it was
made the seat of a bishopric, and in 1104 of an archbishop-
ric. It has a cathedral, built in 1145, a university, foundi'd
in 1668, a library of 150,000 volumes, and a gvninasium.
Pop. (1891) 10,023.
Lund, loont, Jonx Reinhold : musician ; b. in Hamburg,
Germany, Oct. 20, 1859; was educated at Leipzig Conserva-
tory ; was chorus-master at the Opera-house, Bremen, ( Jcr-
ma'ny, 1880-83; musical director. Opera-house, Stettin, Ger-
many, 1883-84; assistant musical director, German opera.
Metropolitan Opera-house, \ew York, 1884-85 ; director of
Orpheus Singing Society and Symphony Orchestra, Buffalo,
N. Y., 1886; is author of several songs and pieces for or-
chestra and piano.
Lund, Troels: historian; b. in Denmark in 1840. His
Danmarks og Norges ITixlorie i Slutningen af del Hide
Aarhundrede (History of Denmark and Xorway at the Close
of the Sixteenth Century, Copenhagen, 12 vols., 1880-92) was
at first viewe<l with siis[iicioii by criti(-s, but it is now general-
ly recognized as the most valuaiilo contribution to the Culiur-
historie of that period. It combines keen insight and careful
investigation with a finished and brilliant style. I). K. I).
Lundgren. loondgren, Eoron Sellik: painter; b. in
.Stockholm, Sweden, Dec. 18, 181.5. He studied in France,
Italy, and Spain. In Spain ho began painting in water-
colors. The sail! of some of his aquarelles in Kngland led
him to visit that country in 1851. He executed several
works for Queen Victoria, and in 1858 was urged by her
personally to go to India to paint .scenes from the war being
waged there. He consented, and accompanied Lord Clyde's
army to Luckncjw, returning to England the following year
with about ."iOO sketches. In 1860 he was elected one of the
thirty members of the Society of Painters in Water-colors.
Nearly all of Lundgren's works are in England. I), in
Stockholm, Dec. 16, 1875. He was the author of an autobio-
graphical work called En JUdlaren Auleckningar (Notes of
a Painter), published after his death. K. B. Anderson.
Lundy, Ben.iamin: anti-slavery agitator; 1). in llaidwich,
Sus.sex CO., N. .1., .Ian. 4, 1789. His jiarcnts, as also their
ancestors, were members of the Society of Friends. After
receiving a limited education he served an apprenticeship
at the saddler's trade in Wheeling, Va. ; and the frecpient
spectacle of slavc-cofHcs driven through the place impelled
him to consecrate his life to the work of abolishing chattel
slavery in the U.S. He .settled in St. Clairsville, ()., where
he pursued his trade lus a saddler for a little more; than four
years, accumulating a competency for his growing fandlv;
but the thought of the wrongs of (he bondmen in IIr. .South-
ern .Stales <(intinued to destroy his jieace of mind. He
accordingly formed, with five others, the I'nion llunuine
Society, which in a few months enrolled nearly ,500 mem-
bers. This was followed by an appeal from his jien to the
philanthropists of the U. S. on the subject of slavery, recom-
mending the formation of kindred societies for mutual con-
ference and action. Soon afterward he became a contributor
of original and selected anti-slavery articles to a jiajier |iub-
lished at Mt. Pleasant entitled Tlie I'hitanthrupisl. In the
fall of 1819 he took his entire business stock to St. Louis,
Mo., that by its sale he might give himself to the cause
which he had so disinterestedly espoused, but he lost by the
venture nearly all the jiroperty he had accumulated. It was
at that time that the Missouri question was agitating the
nation, and he devoted himself to an exposition, in the news-
papers of Missouri and Illinois, of the evils of slavery, in the
nope of averting the impending calamity. Returning to
St. Clairsville, he removed to Mt. Pleasant, and there began
a monthly publication. The (leniun of Vniversal Emanci-
padon (.Ian., 1821), then the only anti-slavery periodical in
llu' U. .S. It was afterward transferred to .lonesbcjrough,
Teiin., and thence (in 1824) to Baltimore, Md., where it be-
came a weekly. In the latter part of 1825 Lundy visited
Haiti to make arrangements with the Haitian Government
for the settlement of such manumitted slaves as might be
sent thither. In 18'28 he made a pedestrian tour in the
Middle and Eastern States, partly to increase his subscrip-
tion-list, and especially by lecturing to awaken an interest
in behalf of the oi>pressed. In the winter of 1828-29 he was
assaulted and nearly killed in Haltimore by one Austin
Woolfolk, a slave-dealer, for an editorial reproof of his con-
duct. In the spring of 1829 he went a second time to Haiti,
taking with him a number of slaves emancijiated for that
purpose. On his return he invited William Lloyd Garrison
to become associate editor of The Genius, but the ensuing
spring the latter was imprisoned in the city jail for denounc-
ing the domestic slave-trade and its abettors: and as it was
found impracticable to continue the weekly issue of the
p.iper, the connection was dissolved and Lundy restored
The Oenius to its monthly form, making Washington, I). C,
the nominal place of its publication, but printing it as
opportunities presented in divers places while traveling.
The next winter he visited the Wilberforce colony of fugi-
tive slaves in Canada, and then went to Texas to provide a
similar asylum under the Mexican flag, renewing his visit
in 1833; but he was ballled by the events that led to the
annexation of Texas. In 1836 he started a weekly anti-
slavery journal in Philadelphia entitled The yational En-
quirer. In 1837 he relinquished the charge of Tlie Enquirer,
intending to go to one of the Western States; but previous
to his leaving Philadelphia all his papers, books, clothes,
etc., de|>osited in one of the rooms of Pennsylvania Hall,
were destroyed by the burning of that building — an act of
pro-slavery incendiarism. In the winter of 1838-39 he re-
moved to Lowell, La Salle Co., 111., intending to publish The
Genius in that locality, but died on the 22d of the ensuing
October. See The Life, Travels, and Opinions of Benjamin
Lundy (Philadelphia, 1847). Revised by C. K. Aua.ms.
Luno [from Lat. hi'tia, moon, named from its resem-
blance, in perspective, to a crescent. See Luna] : in spher-
ical geometry, the portion of a spherical .surface included
between two great semicircles. Tiie two semicircles are the
sides of the lune, and the angle of the lune is the angle be-
tween the planes of its sides. This angle may have any
value between 0° and 360 . In plane geometry a lune is the
jjortion of a plane included be-
tween the arcs of two circles that
intersect. The lune of Hippo-
crates is famous as being the first
curvilinear space whose area was
exactly detennined. The con-
struction of the lune of Hippo-
crates is as follows : On a line A B
as a diameter describe a semicircle
A 1) B, and in it inscribe a right angle A I) B; then on the
sides A I) and DB as diameters describe the semi'circles
A G D and D II 15. The two figures A G F D ami I) II B E
are lunes, and the sum of their areas is equal to the area of
the triaugU' A D li. For the areas of any two semicircles
are to each other as the squares of their diameters, and
from the right-angled triangle A D B we have A B' = A D'
+ D B' : hence the sum of the semicircles on A p and D B
is etiual to the semicircle on .V B; diminishing bolh mem-
bers of this equality by the sum of llie segmenis A F D and
D E B, we have the sum of the lunes equal to the triangle.
If we nnike A D= D B, the lunes will be equal to each
other, and the triangle will be eijual to half the scpiare on
either. Revised by R. A. Rohkrts.
lOnebukg
LURAY
391
LUncblirir, lii'ne-boorch : a town of Prussia, Hanover;
on the left liiinkof the Ilnifnau,14 miles fr ilscoiillucncc
with the Elbe, ami at the foot of a small hill ealled the
Kalkberjf (see map of Oermaii Kni|iirc, ref 3-K). It is an
olil town surrounileil with walls, oontains many eliaracter-
islie buililiriKS, and was an important member of the Ilan-
seatie Ijeat;iie. It still has a considerable trade. The Kalk-
berg is remarkable ijn aeeonnt of its lar^e );ypsum and lime
quarries, and still more on aecount of the salt-springs at its
base, from the waters of whieli 20,000 tons of salt arc yearly
mannlaitLin<i. Pop. (ISitO) 20,605.
liii'iicnburg: a town on the cast coast of Nova Scotia ;
cajiital of Lunenburg County and terminus of a branch
railway from MidiUeton (see map of tjuebec, ref. 3-H). It
is a thriving (iernian town of n.OOO inliiiliitants, and, though
settled in 17"):!, the tierman language and customs still pre-
vail. The chief interests are ship-building, nnning, and fish-
ing. The gold-field of Ovens Head Peninsula is about 10
miles distant. Ovens Head is a sea-face with remarkable
caverns, called the t)vcns. M. W. H.
Llin^vHIe, liinaveel : town of Franco: in the depart-
ment of Meurthe; at the conlluence of the Vezouse and
the Metirtlx' (see nuip of France, ref. S-H); Li one of the
largest cavalry stations of France ; the former palace of the
Dukes of Lorraine has been transformed into cavalry bar-
racks. It is historically notable from the Peace of Luiieville
(Feb. 9, 1801), by which the Rhine became the frontier of
France. Aug. 1.5, 1870, it was the hea<l(juarters of the Crown
Prince of Prussia. It is noted for its manufactures of gloves
and cotton, and has an extensive trade in corn, wine, brandy,
and hemp. Pop. (1891) 20,!I0().
Lling-cliow: a town of Kwangsi, China; on the frontier
of Toni|uin ; opened by treaty to foreign trade June 1, 1880.
Pop. 20,000.
Lung Fever: Sec P.nkimonia.
I.iiiigttshes: See Dii'.voi.
Lungs [plur. of lung < O. Kng. lunge : Icel. liinga : Germ.
lunge]: the organs by which, in air-breathing vertebrate
animals, the blood is aerated and certain gaseous impurities
are rernoveil from it. In the Invertebrata and fishes and
the larva' of Batrachia the lungs are functiomdly repre-
sented by Gills {<]. i;) and by other analogous organs. In
many fishes there is in addition to the gills a "swim-blad-
der,' which structurally represents the lungs, and which, in
a few species, appears to share in the function of the true
rcsf)iratory organs. In the perennibranchiate batrachians
there are both gills and lungs. The true reptiles all have
sacculated lungs, and many of theui breathe by gulping
down a large ((uantily of air by a kind of swallowing proc-
ess not much like the breathing of mammals. The left lung
of serpents is either wanting or very rudimentary. In birds
the respiratory function appears to be shared by the lining
membranes of the extensive air-chambers in the bones, etc.
The lungs of all the Mammalia are in plan much like those
of man. The human lungs (pulmones. pneumones) are two,
one being pliR'ed in each of the lateral cavities of the tho-
rax, and tluy are separated from each other by the medi-
astinum and its contents. The apex of each lung extends
above the lii-st rib. The right lung is larger and broader,
but shorter, than the left. It has three lobes— the left but
two. The blood-vessels, air-tubes (bronchi), nerves, lym-
phatics, etc., enter each lung at a point called the hilum;
and these structures, with the connective tissue, constitute
what is called the root of the lung, a part of the mediasti-
num. The lungs are of light, spongy texture. The outer
covering is a reflection of the pleura, and is a serouti mem-
brane. The i'/iHcr membrane of the air-passjiges and cells
is embryologically derived from the alimentary camil, and
hence is a mucous membrane. The substance of the lungs
is composed of a parenchvma consisting of lobules, each
containing a branch of the bronchial tube and a cluster of
air-vesicles or a/renli. The function and minute structure
of the lungs are further illustrated in the articles Histol-
oav and RtisriK.^rio.s- (qq. v.).
Lungwort, or Oak Lungs: a lichen found in North
America and Kuiopi' on trunks of trees in mountainous
regions, sometimes almost entirely covering them with its
shaggy, leathery, spreading thallus, which, when fresh, has
an olive-green color, but becomes brown when dry. Its sci-
entific name is Uticta pulmonnria. It derives its name
from a fancied resemblance of the spotted thallus to dis-
eased lungs, for which reason, upon the doctrine of signa-
tures, it was fr>rmerly employed as a remedy in pulmonarv
diseases. It is nutritious, and when properly prepared af-
fords a light diet capable of being used as a'substitutc for
Iceland moss; yet it is bitter enough to be used as a substi-
tute for hops. There is another plant (J'ulmouana ofji-
ciiiaUn) with the name lungw<jrt, a perennial flowering
herb of the borage family, also found in the northern parts
of Europe, where it is used as a pot-herb. It is cultivated
in gardens, has a creejiing root and rose-coloreil flowers
changing to blue. It is nmcilaginous and slightly emol-
lient. It contains niter in considerable abundance. ' It, too,
was at one time extensively used as a remedy in i>ulinonary
diseases. Kevi.sed by CiiARLts K. IJtssKV.
Lu|iorea'lia [= Lat., liter., neut. olur. of lupercn li«, per-
taining to LupereuK (who as guardian <leity of shepherds
kept the wolves from the flock); /u/»u«, wolf) : an ancient
Roman festival, celebrated on Feb. l.'j, in honor of a god
whose name is given variously as Faunus. Inuus. and Lii-
pereus, with ancient rites of p'eculiar chanicter, the signifi-
cance of which is for the most part a matter of conjecture,
though in general it may be sjiid that they are those of a
jirimilive pastoral people, performed for the sake of secur-
ing fertility to human beings, flocks, and lands. On the
day of the festival the members of the two colleges of the
Luperci met at a cave on the Palatine called the Lupercal,
and there offered sacrifices of goats and young dogs and
cakes, made of the first fruits of the last harvest. Then the
foreheads of two young men were smeariil with the fresh
bU)od of the victims, which was wiped away again with a
piece of wool dipped in milk, whereupon the voune men
were rcauired to laugh. The sacrificial feiust followed, after
which the Luperci, naked, ran around the Palatine hill,
striking women who placed themselves in their jiath with
thongs cut from the skins of the slaughtered victims — a rite
eflicacious, it was believed, to remove the curse of barren-
ness. The.se thongs were called februa (from an olisolcle
verb, fehruare, to purify), and hence the month was called
Felpruary. ' G. L. HE.NDRirK.so.N.
Lu|iiiip [from Lat. lupinux, lupine, deriv. of lu'piis,
wolf. Cf. {ierm. u-olfshohne. lupine, liter., wolf's bean] : any
herb of the large genus Lupinus of the family Leguminosa.
There are numerous species in the U. S., chiefly found W.
of the Rocky Mountains. These species are prized mostly
in cultivation for their handsome papilionaceous flowers.
Many of the Old World species are cultivated as forage-
plants, and their seeds are used as food for man. The cul-
tivation of the lupine in Portugal {Lupinus albus) has
proved a national blessing, and has regenerated great tracts
of worn-out land. It is given to cattle as fo<Hl, and also
plowed into the ground as a fertilizer.
Liipiilino, or LiipiiHtp : See Hops.
Lu'piis [from Lat. /» //ha, wolf : Gr. Xuxot: Enp. trolf]:
a term comprising two distinct diseases of the skin, which
most commonly attack the face, and U-gin as red and
slightly or consiilerably elevated spots, afterward growing
slowly to consi<lerable dimensions. Both forms are found
most frequently in youthful females. The benign form,
Lupus enjlliemntosus. occasions red and well-defined areas
of slight elevation, and causes little local or general disfmler.
It is amenable to treatment. The severer disease. Lupus
vulgaris, is now known to be simply tuberculosis of the
skin, but its effects on the general health are far less severe
than arc those of tuberculosis of internal organ.s. It is
characterized by dull-red nodules, which later break down
and cause destructive ulcers. The treatment in both cases
consists in the use of tonics and the application of stimu-
lating remedies to the diseased areas in the milder, or of
caustics in the severer. In the severer form it is often ad-
visable to scrape out or remove the diseased tissues with the
knife, Wiluam Peiteb,
Lupus SprratuB : See Servati's Li-pus.
Liiriiy : village ; capital of Page co., Va, (for location of
county, see map of Virginia, ref. 4-(i) ; near the Shenandoah
river, on the Norf<dk ami Western Railroad : 100 mihs.S. W.
of Washington, 136 miles X. W. of Richmond. It is in a
pieture-S(pie valley ; has become a noted summer ri'S4irt ; and
contains two seminaries for girls, an academy for boys, a
large sole-leather tannery, wo<ilen-faetories. ami three week-
ly newspajH'rs. Almut a mile W. of the village is a ri'raark-
a'blc caviirn, discovered in 1878. The whole area occupied
by the cavern, with its innumerable chambers, often ar-
ranged in tiers, is about 100ai'n's,of whieli, however, only a
3l»2
LUKGAN
LUTHER
coiii|)iirativrIy siimll piirt liiLs been fully explored ; but such
parts lis liiivf bi'cn opened to I he publie are illuniiuuteii by
eleetrif hiinps. uiul the effect of the stiiluclilic display is
very line. The leiiiperature is uiiifonnly 54" P.. and the air
is pure. Thoufih there are no streams or true springs, there
are hundreils of l>asins. varyini; from a foot to 50 feet in di-
ameter, and from (i inches to 15 feet in depth. The water
is pure, but destitute of life. A few l)ats, rats, mice, spiders,
flics, anil small centipedes are found in the chambers; and
when first entered the floors of the cavern showed thou-
sands of tracks of raccoons, wolves, and beure, probably
made centuries ago. A sinjjio human skeleton was founil,
embedded in stalajfinite; also some pieces of charcoal, flint,
etc. Pop. of village (1880) 032 ; (18!)1)) 2.809.
Kditor ok •■ Page Courier."
Lureran: town: in the county of Armagh, Ireland; 20
miles S. \V. of Helfust by rail (see map of Irehuxl, ref. 5-1).
It is a neatly built town, and has e.vtensive manufactures of
linens, muslins, and damasks. Pop. (1891) 11,447.
Luristaii' (i. c. country of the Louri): a Persian province,
adjoining Turkey, with Kurdistan on the N., Khuzistan on
the S., and Irak-Ajami on the W. Area, 15,100 si], miles.
Pop. estimated at .'!()0,t)00. The capital is Burujird, on the
borders of Irak-Ajami. The chief element of the popula-
tion is the Luris, a people closely related to the Kurds.
The country is niountainous, but grows less rugged toward
Mesopotamia. M. W. H.
Llisa'tia (in Germ. Lauxilz; Fr. Lusace) : an ancient
territory of Uermau)', bounded by Bohemia, Saxony, Bran-
denburg, and Silesia. Originally it formed two independ-
ent margraviatcs, Upper and Lower Lusatia, which in
1635 came into the possession of Saxony, but by the Con-
gress of Vienna in 1815 the greatest part of the territory
was transferred to Prussia, Saxony retaining only the por-
tion which forms the present circle of Bautzen.
Liislliiigtoii, Stephen, I). C. L. : jurist ; b. in London,
England, Jan. 14, 1782 ; was second son of Sir .Stephen
Lusliington ; was educated at Kton and Oxford ; called
to the bar at the inner Temple in 1806 ; admitted advocate
at Doctors' Commons in 1808; appointed judge of the con-
sistory court in 1828, and of the high court of Admiralty in
1838. He sat in Parliament many years between 1807 and
1841. in the Liberal interest ; was counsel for t^ueen Caro-
line in 1S20. and legal adviser of l^ady Byron upon her sepa-
ration from her husband the poet. He retired from the
bench in 1867, and died Jan. 19. 1873. He is not to be con-
founded with his relative, Stephen Kumbold Lusliington,
1). C. L.. governor of Madras, b. 1776, d. Aug. 5, 1868.
Lusitii'niu; the name of the southwesternmost of the
three provinces into which the Iberian Peninsula was
divided bv the Romans, comprising the present Portugal
S. of the t)ouro and a considerable portion of the adjacent
provinces of Spain. It derived its name from the Lusitani,
who dwelt between the Tagus and the Douro, and were tur-
bulent and warlike.
l/usk. William Trompson. A. M., JI. D. : obstetrician ; b.
at Norwich, Conn., May 23, 1838; entered Yale College in
18.)9, but remained only one year ; studied medicine" in
Heidelberg and Berlin 1858-61 ; returned to the V. S.. and
during the civil war served in the Union army 1861-63;
graduated M. 1)., Bellevue Hospital Medical College, in
1864; subsequently studied in Edinburgh, Paris, Vienna, and
Prague; began to practice in New York city in 1865; was
Professor of Physiology in the Long Island College Hospital
from 1868 to 1871; was lecturer on I'hysiologv. Harvard
Medical School, 1870-71 : apiminted Professor of" ( llistetries
and Diseases of Women in BuUevue Hospital Medical Col-
lege in 1871 : was visiting physician to Charily Hospital
1870-71 ; has held a similar position in Bellevue Ilospital
since 1871 ; was coeditor of 'J'/ie Xew York- Medical Journul
1871-73. He is a member of various medical societies in
the U. S. and Europe. His principal work, 'I'lie Scirnre and
Art of Midu'iferi/ (New York, 1SS2). has passed through
several editions, and has been translated into several foreign
languages. Yale College conferred the degree of A. M. on
him in 1873. S. T. Armstro.su.
Lustration [from Ijat. lustralui. purification. lustration,
deriv. of lii.tlra n\ purify, deriv. of Ins Iriiiii, lustrum, a puri-
fication] : among the ancient Romans, ceremonial purifica-
tion by water, blood of sacrificial victims, or oilier means.
Similar rites were performed by the (ireeks ((«{3opffis) and
other peoples of antii|iiity. Such symbolical puriliiatory
rites have their origin doubtless in the requirements of
bodily ablution, a relation which appears very clearly in
some of the most important forms of lustration, such as were
undertaken after bloiKlshed. burial, or childbirth. Of the
various occasions of lustral riles reported by (ireek and Ro-
man writei-s, some of the most ini|)i>rlant were purifications
from blood-guiltiness, purificatory riles performed at mo-
mentous epo<lis in the individual or family life, such as
marriage, tiirth. death, as well as purifications of people,
city, and fields by oflicers of the state (see jA'.-iTKr.M) or by
individuals. ' G. L. Hkxdrickson.
Liis'triiin f= Lat. Cf. Ia'stration] : a ceremonial puri-
fication (see LrsTRATiON) of the Roman people, performed
by the censor every five years with peculiar rites, as follows;
All men of military age were collected in the Campus Mar-
tins, and about them was carried on spears a sacrifice con-
sisting of a boar, a sheep, and a bull {stiorelaiirilia), which
was then olTered to .Mars by the censor in fulfillment of the
vows made by his predecessor. The completion of this rite,
including the deposit of a register of citizens in the public
treasury and the driving of a nail into the wall of the tem-
ple of jiars as a record of the event, was looked upon as
necessary to give validity to the acts of the censor. From
the fact that the luslruni was performed every five years
the word came to mean a similar period.
G. L. Hendricksos.
Lute [from 0. Fr. lent {> Fr. hilh) : Ital. liulo : Span.
lai'id : Poring, alaude. from Arab, al'ud ; al, ihe + 'ud,
trunk, wood, stick, lute] ; an ancient instrument consisting
of a table, a body, a neck (for fingering) with frets, a heiul
with screws for tuning, and a bridge on which ran the
strings, from six to twenty-four in number. The frets were
touched with the left hand, the strings with the right. It
was long a favorite instrument in nearly all jiartsof Europe.
Lutes [from Lat. liifa re, liedaub with mud, deriv. of lit -
litm, mud. clay, whence Eng. litle. kind of clay cement] ;
compositions used for two purposes — the one being the mak-
ing gas-tight or vapor-tight joints in apparatus used for
holding or conveying gases or vapors, as in processes of dis-
tillation ; and the other the coating exlernallv of fragile
vessels that are to be exposed to high heats, f'or the first
use modern chemists are enabled to substitute almost alto-
gether tubes, bands, and sheets of India-rubber, so that lut-
ing compositions are .'^eldom used. There is one highly im-
portant ca.se. however, in the arts in which they are still
employed. This is lor the lids of gas-retorls. (See Gas-
LioiiTixii.) In the laboratory, in cases in which the heat
to be applied is below 400 or 500 F.. linseed meal is much
used; with water it makes a very plastic adhesive mass;
with glycerin, instead of water, this mass will not dry and
crack. If pressure is to be resisted, the composition may be
a|iplied in some mass to the joint, a band of cotton cloth
rolled around it. and the whole then bound around with
twine. Clay and glycerin make a useful lute also. Great
numbers of similar coiiipositions are known in the labora-
tory. .See the United States Dispensatory of Wood and
Bache, pp. 928. 929. for comprehensive and reliable infor-
mation on this head.
Lntlinrdt. loot haart. Christopher Ernst. D. D. ; Lu-
theran theologian; b. at Maroldsweisach. Bavaria, JIar. 22,
1823; studied at Erlangen and Berlin; after beginning his
career as theologiial instructor at Erlangen, was for two
yeare professor extraordinary at JIarburg, and in 1856 be-
came Professor of Systematic Theology and New Testament
Exegesis at Leipzig. lie is editor of the Allyemeine Kr.
Luth. A'irrlienzeitiing and the Tlteoldf/iscli-ljiteratiirblalt, is
distinguislied as a ))opular lecturer and preacher, and is a
voluminous author of sermons and works on exegesis (es-
pecially on the Gospel of John), apologetics, dogmatics, and
ethics. H. E. Jacobs.
Luther. Germ. ])ron. looter. Martin : religious reformer;
b. Xov. 10. 1483, at EisleVien, Saxony. He has liim.self stated
that all his ancestors were peasants. His father was a
miner of the belter class, who aci|uired some ]iioperly. and
was one of the council of the town of Maiisfeld. Both
father and mother were severe disi-iplinarians. The st rail -
eneil circumstani'es of his father during Luther's youth
rendered his eiliu-ation a matter of no little .-iacrifice and
struggle. He attended school in Magdeburg in 1497; the
next year he was transferred to Eisenach. His iv.sort to sing-
ing at the d<M)rs of citizens in order to gain the necessary
support, and his introduction thereby into the house of the
LUTHER
393
Cotta family, belong to this periuil. In 1501 he ontorcd the
University of Krfiirt, where he devoted himself chiefly to
philosopliy and the study of the classics, Trutvelter having
been his chief instructor, ami Spalatin, afterward one of his
most faithful colahorers, one of his fellow students. At the
same time he cnltivuled music, which was almost his sole
recreation. Ilis first degree was taken in I'lii'i, and his sec-
ond, or the miustcr's degree, early in 130.'). lie (hen Ix'gan
the study of law, but was interru|>ted by a change in his
inner religious life, and, without his father's <onsenl, en-
tered the Augustinian monasterv July 16, 150.'). His two
years' course there was distinguished by his rigid observ-
ance of every rule, his conscientious cfTorts to meet every
demand of the confessional, the diligent study of Holy
Scrijituro under the impulse of the Vicar-Oeneral Slau[)itz,
and the still further reading of later scholastics, espciially
Occam. He was ordained priest in 150T. The next year lie
was called by Staupitz, then dean of the recently (1502)
founded University of Wittenberg, to a professorship of
{jhilosophy. In 15i)!1, after becoming bachelor in theology,
10 was called to the University of Krfurt ; but eighteen
months later returned to Wittenberg as Professor of The-
ology. In 1511 he wius sent to Rome on business connected
with the Augustinian order, and remained there for one
month. In 151"2 he became Doctor of Theology, and instead
of lecturing, as was the custom, on the School Theology, ex-
poundeil first the Psalms, and afterwanl the Epistles of St.
Paul to the Romans and Galatians. Besides performing his
professional work, he lici'amc in 1515 provincial vicar of his
order for Meissen and Thuringia, having the supervision of
eleven convents and conducting the customary visitations,
preaching regularly in the convent at Wittenberg, and dur-
ing the disablement of the town priest, preaching a course
of sermons on the Lord's Prayer and the Ten f'ommand-
racnts in the town chapel. His reading brought him at this
period uniler the intliience of such mystical writers as John
Tauler and the author of The German Theologtj.
His conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities was not
self-determined. The Dominican Tetzcl, acting as the
agent of Archbishop Allicrt of Mayeiice and Magdeburg,
had been pushing the sale of indulgences at Jiiterbok, on
the borders of Saxony, where the elector forbade his en-
trance. Among those who confessed to him Luther found
persons who had bought indulgences. He preached against
the practice and he protested to the bishops, but in vain.
Then |)roposing a public discussion, Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed
ninety-five theses to the door of the castle church in Witten-
berg. Their moderation, and the media'val dogmas they still
approve, must surprise all who know their history, before
undertaking to read them: but the result was as uncxpecteil
as it was important. In fourteen days they were diffused
throughout all (lermany. finding advcx^ates everywhere, and
also encountering just as violent condemnation. The dis-
cussion was more public than Luther intendeil. Ass)iiled
not only by Tetzel, but by Prierias, he promptly replied,
growing still more confident, and receding further from the
inedia'val principles as the controversy [)rogressed. Ilis re-
ganl for the pope was as yet not shaken, when May 30, 1518,
ne wrote a humble letter of apology, without receding from
his position ; nor even, Mar. 3, 1519, when he wrote a second
letter. The Elector of Saxony interposed his authority
against his citation to answer at Rome for his course, de-
manding that he be tried on (icrman soil. The breach
widened with the Diet of Augsburg of Oct.. 1518. where
Luther appeared before the papal legate ~<'ajetan, ami
with the Leipzig disputation, where Luther an<l Kck were
pitted against each other from July 4 to 13, 1519. Then in
l5'20 (June 16) came the excommunication, and the buniing
in various places of Luther's writings, followed on Dec. 10
by Luther's burning of the bull in the presence of his stu-
dents near the Elster gate at Wittcnl>erg. On the succeed-
ing .\pr. 17 and 18 he appeared before the Emperor t'harles
V. at the Diet of Worms, and refused to recant, ending
with the words: "Here I stand. I can not do otherwise.
God help me." On his return from Worms (May 4) he was
seized by friends in disguise and carried to the Wart burg
Castle forsecurity, where he employed his time in preparing
various works for publication, chiefly his lectures on the
Gospels ami Eiiistles. until Dec. 1, when he appeared among
his most intimate friends at Wittenl>erg fur inueh-nceded
conference, and remained for three days. On his n'tiirn to
the Wartliurg Castle he dcvotc<l himself to the translation
of the New Testament, finishing it before he loft in the lie-
ginning of March. .V fanatical outbreak hod occurred at
Wittenberg in consequence of the rmlical mea.'iures of Carl-
stadl and the arrival of " prophets" from Zwickau. Luther,
feeling that his presence wa.s neces.sary, reached Witten-
berg Mar. 5, 153'2, and, after preaching every day, succeeded
in (luelling the disonh'r. liosides resuming his duties in
the university, he devoted himself diligently, with Melanch-
thon's aid, to the revision of his translati<in of the Xew Tes-
tament, the first edition of which »us published Sept. 21 ;
but before it had left the pri'ss Luther was at work on the
tninslation of the Old Ti-.stament. finishing the Pentateuch
before Christniius. During the .same time he wrote his vig-
orous answer to the attack that was made uijon him by
King Henry VIII. of Englanil. In 1523 began Luther's ef-
forts for the reformation of the mas.s, itr public church serv-
ice, which are embodied in his Formula Mi/uup, published
that year. This was followed by his publication of hymns,
translated and original, for public worship, twenty-four out
of his thirty-six hymns having apfK'ared in 1521. The next
year he was occupied in suppressing more outbreaks of
fanaticism and in opposing the war of the peasants. He
married Catherine von Bora (b. 1499), who had been a nun,
June 13, 1525. The plague at Wittenberg, during which he
remained, although tne university was removed to Jena, and
the visitation of the Saxon churclies under the direction of
the elector were prominent events of 1.527. The visitation
was the occasion of new literary work. Xew volumes of ser-
mons were pulilished as models for the pastors, as well as
for the edification of laymen. The two catechisms orig-
inated from Luther's discovery of the great ignorance among
both pastors and [wople. The "large" catechism was first
written, but it was unwieldy, and the short catwhism era-
bodies the liest effort of Luther in this sphere. Both were
published in 15"29. In Oct.. 1529, an unsuccessful attempt
to form a union between Luther and Zwingli took place at
Marburg, (."see Makriku, The Co.nferknte of.) Luther
eo-operateil with liis colleagues in the Wittenberg faculty
in the preparation of the memoranda to lie presented at the
Diet of Augsluirg (Torgau Articles). During the Diet he
remained at Coburg in close communication with Melanch-
thon at Angsburg,aml revised the confession during the prog-
ress of its preparation. In succeeding years repeated nego-
tiations were held among the Protestant parties, in which
Luther ()articipated. Prominent among these wore the
negotiations with Bucer and others at Wittenberg in 1536,
resulting in the so-called Wittenberg Concord, in which
Bucer acknowledged the doc-trine of the real presence, but
not the communion of the unlH-lieving. There were also
conferences with the .Anglican theologians Kox. Helh. and
Barnes, at Wittenberg in 1536. which, while attaining no
immediate result, powerfully influencoil both the confession
and reformation of worship in the English Church (see
Jacobs, The Lutheran Movement in England. Phila<iolphia,
1890); and at .Schmalkald in 15:{7, in anticipation of the
promised general council, resulting in the Schmalkald Arti-
cles, in which he disi-arded all ironic methixis. and deter-
mined to dispel forever any ho|ies of reconciliation with the
papacy. He continued ince.ssiunlly active until the end of
his life in the completion and revision of his translation of
the Bil)le (the Old "Teslamcnt having been completed in 1334,
and a thorough revision of the entire translation having
been made in 1.541, with other correi-tions in 1545). in the
preparation of Church orders, in the writing of various
practical, exegetical, and controversial treatises, and in ad-
justing various Church dilliculties and ilispules. Ho died
Feb. 18. 1546. at his birthplace. Eislelien. while al>sent from
home, acting as arbitrator Ix'tween the Counts of Mansfold.
His HMuains are buried in front of the pulpit in the castle
church at Wittenberg.
The leading principles of Luther's theologv arc: (1) The
entire corruption of huinHii nature by sin, the consequent
<livino wrath and condemnation, and natural inability for
s«'lf-n'<'overy or res[Hins»' to the first approaclios of divine
grace. (2) God's g™<-o ami mercy nriK-ei-d entirely from his
free will, and not from any preceding dis|Kisition of sinful
man. In his earlier years Luther laughl absolute prctlcsti-
nation. (3) The vicarious sufferings of Christ as the price
of man's redemption, the suffering of the hum:. ' iv-
ing acouin-il infinite etiicacy l)y its union »i no
nature in the one divine human |>orson. (4) .1 i is
not an iiitenial change in man. Init is an on ' of
Gixl alone, whereby, for tlio sake of Christ's m- >i-<l
by faith, he forgives sin ami pronounces sinful man right-
eous. (5) Faith is a work of the Holy (ihost in man wrought
through the means of grace, and its essential factor is fcr-
394
LUTHERAX18M AND THE lATllKUAN CIIURCH
sonal foiifitlonce in the merits of Christ. (6) The moans of
grace are the Word and sacraments, which are inse|mral)ly
attended bv the llolv Spirit ; so tliat they are never witliout
efficacv. although tliis efficacy does not work so as to save
those wlui repel the Spirit's approaches. (7) Bajitism is a
means both uf reseneratinn and renewal. Those who, after
baptism, fall from baptismal graee, return by faith to the
covenant lirst made in baptism. All rciientance is a return
to baptism. (S) The presence of the body and blood of
Christ and its reception with the bread and wine are the
surest pledge of the accomplished fact of redemption and
its application to the individual believer. Like absolution,
its eflfeel is the imtividualizalioii of the general promise of
the Gospel ; only the Lord's Supper accompanies the indi-
vidualization, with the elements, and with the heavenly
gifts attending them, as seals and [iledges of the f)roniise.
(See Eucharist.) (9) The Holy Scriptures of the Old and
New Testament are the final judge of all controversies ; but
everything in the constitution and worship of the Church
not contrary to Scripture is to be retained and thankfully
used. (10) In the New Testament, besides the priesthood
of our High Priest, Jesus Christ, there exists only the spir-
itual priesthood of all believers since they have access to
Christ directly and without the mediation of saints, angels,
or any priestly order. (11) The ministry and the priesthood
are tlierefore distinct institutions. The ministry belongs
to the whole Church, but its duties are to be exercised only
by those who are duly called and set apart to this ]iurpose.
In exceptional cases," however, the power inherent in any
Christian cimgregation may admit of the ministry arising
anew from within.
The principal editions of his collected works are that of
J. G. Walch (1740-53), 24 vols. 4th ed. (German), which is in
process of reprint at St. Louis, Mo. : the Erlangen (13mo),
the German portion of which in 67 vols, was completed in
1857, l)ut the Latin portion, of which 33 yols. have been
published, is not yet complete; the Weimar edition (large
4to), which is very critically edited, and is being published
in a luxurious form, by the generosity of the King of Prus-
sia. The best edition of Luther's Letters is that edited by
de Wette (Herlin, 1825, 5 vols.), to which a sixth volume,
edited by Seidemann, was added in 1856.
The best biography of Luther is that by Julius Kostlin
(Elberfeld, 1875; 2d ed. 1883; 3d ed. since but unchanged).
A briefer and more popular Life by the same author, pro-
fusely illustrated, was published in 1883. Two translations
into ilnglish appeared the same year, one in London and
New York, and the other, by Dr. i. G. Morris, in Philadel-
phia. See also Krauth's Conservative Reformation and its
Iheology, and vol. vi. of Dr. Schaff's History of tlie Chris-
linn Cfiurc/i, both for biographical data and also for the
literature of the sul)ject. Prof. Kostlin has written an ex-
cellent and thorough treatise on Luther's theology (2 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1863 ; 2d ed. 1883). Th. Harnack lia-s also writ-
ten on the same subject (vol. i.. Erlangen, 1882 ; vol. ii.,
1886). Monographs on particular doctrines treated by him
have been written by Kostlin, Weisse, Luthardt, Moncke-
berg, and DieckhofT. The Luther jubilee in the U.S. es-
pecially called forth the eloquent oration of Dr. J. A. Seiss,
published in book form, Lutlier and the Heformatinn (Phila-
del]ihia, 1884). and a very interesting volume of Triliutes to
Luther, edited by Hev. P. C. CroU (Philadelphia, 1884).
H. E. Jacobs.
Lntheranism and the Lutheran Church : The result
of the union of iIh> conservative wilh tlie progressive in re-
formation, OS distinct from revolution, was the Lutheran
Church, whose essential characteristics constitute Lnlhi-ran-
ism. Lutheranism is the sy.stem of faith and life taught in
God's word and confessed in the Augsburg Confession and
in the creeds consonant with it. The Lutheran Church has
never by any general odicial act taken the name Lutheran.
Art, history, and popular usage have practically delerniined
its title. Said the .Mari|uis of HrHmlenburg when ridiruU'd
as a Lutheran: "If I l>e asked whether with hi'arl iiiid lip
I confess that faith which God has restored to us by Luther
as his instrument. 1 have no scruple, nor do I feel a disposi-
tion to shrink from the mime Lutheran. Thus understood,
I am, and shall to my dying hour remain, a Lutheran." This
is the only sense in which any Lutlieran tolerates tlie name.
DlSTIiNCTlVE CllAHACTEKISTICS OF Ll'TllERANISM AND OF
THE Lutheran Church. — The distinctive characteristics of
Lutheranism, as over against the ('hurch of Home, belong
to Protestantism (q.v.). A searching analysis of the ele-
ments which characterize it in opposition to the Reformed
or Calvinistic portions of Protestantism has been made by
both friend and foe.
They may be stated and numbered thus:
1. The material principle or foundation of the matter of
Lutheran Protestantism is the saving truth of Christianity
as it lies centered in the doctrine of justification for Christ's
sake alone (propter . . . urn «'i7/eH), by faith alone {per . . .
durch).
2. The formal principle, that which prescribes the form
in accordance with which the material is shaped, is the sole
authority of IIolv Scripture as the rule of faith and guide
of life.
3. The Lutheran method of using the rule of faith is his-
torical. The pure Church catholic, or Christian Church, is
the living witness of the truth.
4. The doctrines of God's word, the means of establishing
which Holy Scripture contains within itself, and of which
the Church is witness, shape the individual assurance of
faith and the confession of the Church, and originate and
develop her polity, worship, and practical life.
5. The Protestantism of the Reformed or Calvinistie
Churches, on the other hand, has laid as its fundamental
doctrine the absolute and sole primary causality of God. In
it there is but one real cause of whatsoever comes to pass,
the foreordi nation of God. Election is therefore the ma-
terial principle. "The Lutheran doctrine," says Schneider,
"comes, through the Gospel, to God — the Reformed, through
God to the Gospel."
6. While Calvinistie Protestantism holds with the Lutheran
Church that Holy Scripture is normative, it has yet isolated
the Scriptures from the historic development of the Church,
and subjected its interpretation far more to an undefined
subjectivism.
7. "In Reformed Protestantism the formal principle is
controlling — in Lutheranism, the material. In the Reformed
system Scripture is regarded more as the exclusive source of
doctrine — in the Lutheran system, as the norm of the doc-
trine, which grows out of the analogy of faith. In conse-
quence of this, a pure tradition possesses in Lutheranism a
greater validity.' Goebel (Reformed), Die relig. Eigen-
thumlichkeit, 1837; Nitzsch (Consensus), Prakt. Theolog.,
1847, i., g 74, seg. ; Heppe (Melanchthonian Reformed), in
Studien u. Kritiken. 1853, 3.
8. " Lutheran Protestantism is the antithesis to the Ju-
daism of the Roman Church, and thereby the doctrine ob-
tained a Gnosticizing character; the Reformed is the an-
tithesis to the paganism of the Romish Church, and thus the
doctrine received a Judaizing ethical character." Uerzog
(Reformed).
9. " Reformed Protestantism is the protestation against
all deification of the creature. Hence it emphasizes the ab-
soluteness of God and the exclusiveness of His will — its
material principle — with which coheres the exclusive em-
phasizing of Scri]iture as the positive normal principle."
Schweizcr (Mediating Reformed), (jlauhenslehre, 1844.
10. "The material principle of Zwingli is the glory of
God; his formal principle is the Scripture, yet in such
sense that he explains that the internal wonl is independ-
ent of the external, and denies all creaturely causality on
the part of the creature in salvation." Dorner (Mediating
Lutheran), I'rinzip., 1841; History of Protestant Theology,
1867.
11. "The Reformed system begins at the top, and goes
downward : the Lutheran begins below, and asc'ends." . . .
The center of gravity in the one was the objective, in the
other the subjective. . . . Calvinism is the proper Protestant
cciunlerparl of Catholicism. The whole system of the de-
pendence of the individual on a power which absolutely de-
termines him in his willing and doing, the system which is
set up by Catholicism in its doctrine of the Cluircli, is bound
up by Calvinism in its absolute decree. In the one every-
thing .saving and salutary lies in the Church; in the other,
it lies in the decree. The Lutheran system, wilh its faith
rejiosing on the historical fact of the redemption, holds the
mean between t'alvinism anil Romanism — between the tran-
scendent idealism of the one, the external realism of the
otlu'r." liaur, F. C.
12. "All these diverse presentations," .says Luthardt,
"have as their basis the common supposition that the diller-
ence is not merely an external one, is not one which turns
merely on particular doctrines — a,s, for example, the Lord's
Supper — but pervades the systems and is a difference in
principle. The essential part of the difference hinges upon
LUTU KUAN ISM AND TllK lAITlIEHAN CIIUKC'II
395
the elmiuMits of the Reformed doetriiic, which recifinx-iillv
ooiulitiim each other: the ahsolute ouusality and the sole
primary causality of God, which excludes means of (.'race in
the strict sense, on the one side, and on the oilur side an
assurance of a state of salvation, grounded jn an ins<'rutable
decree — an assurance reached by the individual actual life
as the result of the divine operation." llundeshagen, Dtr
Veulsche ['rottxtantismus (1847; 3d cd. 1800); Lilcke (f)n
the True FormiiliitiiK/ of the Dixlinction and Union of the
Jjitlheraii and of the lirformed Churches), Deiil.irhe /Ceilnchr.
(185:3, SS-flii) ; Sehneckenburger, Vergleirli. Diirxtell. d. Lu-
ther, u. reformirt. Lehrbeg. (Gilder, 1855); Uaur, V. C,
Lehrb. d. hogmengesch. (2d ed. 1858. g 92, 284) ; Hciss, Eccle-
sia L'itherana (1868); Krauth, Conservat-Jieform. (1871,
122-128); Luthardt, A'onin. d. Dogmat. (4th ed. 187:{, S U);
Kurtz, Lehrb. d. K. (f.('l\\ ed. 1874, § 140); Kahnis, Innere
dang d. DeuLsch. Proleslanlixm. (IJd ed. 1874, i. 20-;!'.));
Kahnis, I'rincipien. (1865) ; Kahnis, Christenlhum u. Lu-
MeW/ium (1871).
Rise and Early History ok the Luthkran Cni'ucii. —
The earliest annals of the Lutheran Church are interwoven
with the personal and official history of Luther. His in-
ternal conflicts, his theses, the meetings with C'ajetan and
Miltitz, the Leipzig disputation, the attraction of Melanch-
thoii into his mighty orbit, his era of storm and pressure
(1.520-21), tlie bull, the efforts of Charles V. at repression,
the Diet of Worms, the hiding at the Wartburg, the out-
break of railicalisin at Wittenberg under Karlstadt (1.522-
25), the Peasant war and Anabaptist sedition (1529), the
controversies with Henry VIIL and Erasmus (1523-26) —
all ha<l within them potencies for the future of the Church,
on which Luther's name, in the face of his protest, was to
be fixed. The Ijutheran Reformation showed its unfolding
strength in the empire at the Diet of Nuremberg (1522-2;i) ;
in the extension of the evangelical doctrine (1.522-24); at
the second Diet of Nuremberg (Jan. 14, 1524) ; at the con-
vention of Ratisbon (1524), called to resist it ; in the grow-
ing decision of the evangelical states (1.524); in the Torgau
confederacy (1.526). With the year 1.526 the estates began
to use the right, successfully claimed at the Diet of .Spires,
to regulate ecclesiastical matters in their own territories.
In the years following (1.52()-2il) a niiiiiber of the Lutheran
state churches began to be established and organized. Elec-
toral Sa.'coiiy, by Luther's advice, began with a thorough
visitation of the churches. The church constitution and
Luther's two catechisms (1529), which grew out of this vis-
itation, became guides in the organization and training of
other state churches. The first martyrs were two young
Augustinian monks of Antwerp (1523), whose memory is
kept green by Luther's hymn.
Early Ecclesiastical Conflicts. — The Reformation in
German Switzerland, under the leadership of Zwingli. had
been advancing with many elements of generic afTinity
with the work of Luther, and with no few marks of specific
diversity from it. It was not the purely personal peculiari-
ties of the two leaders, but the origin and internal tenden-
cies of their systems, which led to the sacramental contro-
versy (1525-29). The Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's Sup-
per is one whiih depends upon methods of interpretation
with whose validity the whole distinctively Lutheran sys-
tem, and indeed the entire biblical churchly system, stands
or falls. (See Eucharist and Lutder.) The Catholic party
hoped at the Diet of .Spires (1529) to regain what they had
lost three years before. The bitter anger which had been
uroused by the affair of Pack (1527-28), the excitement of
their fears by the rapid progress of the Reformation, the
stimulation of their hopes by the improved political pros-
pects of the emperor — which he largely owed to tlie Luther-
ans, to whom he was about to show himself so ungrateful —
encouraged them to revoke the decision of the Diet of 1526,
and to roll back the wave of Reformation as completely as
the new decision of a diet could do it. Against this the
evangelical (Ijutheran) princes made their solemn [irotesla-
tion (.\pr. U), 1529), which gave them the name of I'rolex-
tanl.i. and appealed to the emperor, to a free council, and
an assembly of the German nation. For the Diet of Augs-
burg and the confession which resulted, see Acosbpro Con-
fession.
Political and State Movements (1.530-55).^Tho Prot-
estants now formed a defensive alliance at Schinalkald
(1.5;W) to last six years. This aided in bringing aliout the
religious Peace of Nuremberg (.Iiilv 2;{, 15:t2). WUrtenilxTg
became Lutheran 15:14-35. The Reformation was carried
through in Anhalt, Pomerania, and Westphalia in 1332-34.
The .Schmalkald League wils enlarg<>d fo as to embrace the
new Lutheran states; sidiscription to the Augsburg Confes-
sion wiLS the indispensable condition of reception into the
league. Hucer brought the Oberlanil cities to subscribe.
The way for this had been prejmred by the Wittenberg
CcmcorJ (.May 25. 1.5:J6). Paul III. (1.5:>4-49) (.rofcssed to
call that general free council wliiih had been so ardently
desired. It was coiivoke<l for May 23, 1537, at Mantua.
In anticipation of the rnissibility of a council there or else-
where, Luther, by order of the elector, drew up certain
articles of the points which were not or were to be held
above all concession — the Lutheran ultimatum. These
were consiiiercd at SchinalkaM, and take their name from
it (Feb., 1.537). The .Schmalkald Articles form the third of
the distinctive confessions of the Lutheran Church. The
council was never held, and was never meant to be held.
The Nuremberg Holy League (.lulv 10) of the Catholic
priiK'cs might have brought on a bloo<|y war had not the
political difficulties of the emperor made !t absolutely neces-
sary that he should conciliate the Protestants. There is no
diMiyiiig that the Turk, who threatened Christendom, was
often the best friend Protestantism had on earth. All proc-
esses against the Protestants were arrested for eighteen
months by the Frankfort Suspension (1539). A profound
confidence in the ability of Protestantism to maintain itself
began to fill the ininjsof men. The Reformation in Al-
bertine .Saxony had been violently held in check bv Duke
(ieorge (1.500-39^. On his death without issue, his brother
Henry was received with jubilation, and the Reformation
swept all before it. The March of Brandenburg and sev-
eral of the neighboring territories received the Keformation
in 15:39.
All hope of a better understanding, of a possible union
between the conflicting parties, had not yet vanished.
Many coUoquies were held (Worms 1.540, Ratisbon 1541),
but they served only to show more clearly the invincible
character of the cause of separation. Politically, the pros-
pects of the Lutheran states were very brilliant (15:39), but
the guilty pa.ssions and follies of .some of the princes were
preparing the way for their own humiliation and for deadly
injuries to the cause of truth. Under the lowering of the
great storm which was coming Luther died Feb. 18, 1.546.
The pope had finally iimsented to call a general council in
Trent, a German city, but as little German as possible. The
emperor was earnestly desirous of a Reformation in some
important particulars, but was determined that it should I*
in B<-cordance with his own ideas. He used the rivalry and
unholy ambition of some of the Protestant princes to sepa-
rate them from the .Schmalkald confederacy. The power
which would have been ample to overthrow him was divided.
The war of Schmalkalil was sprung upon the Protestants.
The campaign on the Donau (1.546) left the cm|K'ror master
of all South Germany. Hermann of Cologne was deposed,
and the country of the Rhine was lost (1547). The cam-
paign of the Elbe (1.547) ended in the overthrow and im-
prisonment of John Frederick and the landgrave Philip.
Then came the imposition of the humiliating and distra<t-
ing Interim (1.548). and the political prospects of the
Lutheran Church in tiermany nached their liour of pro-
foundest darknes.s. At this hopeless crisis deliverance eume
from the man who more than any other was res|K>nsible for
the evil. In the heart of the Elector Maurice, the betrayer
for a time of the Reformation, the slumbering sense of
honor was aroused. The tiernian and Protestant feelings
to which he had been so treacherous again asserted them-
selves. He was indignant at the continue<I confinement of
his father-in-law. Hreaking from the Ixmds of the emjieror,
who had u.sed him as his right hand in the repression of
Protestantism, he turned fiercely U[H>n him. Like a hunted
fox the emperor fled for his life', in darkness, through lilt-
ing rain, on the snow-covered mountains. The treaty of
Passau (1.5.52) guaranteed the Lutheran states • ' ■'
with the Catholic till a new council should b
The religious Peace of Augsburg (.Sept. 25. \'>.'>'> v
the limitations as to time. The Lutheran Reformation had
proved itself incapable of repression alike by the arts and
arms of Rome, by the sagacity of its foe, and the follies of
its friends. See Walch, O'exchirhte (History of the Kvan-
gi-lical Lutheran Religion as a Proof that it 'is the True Ri^
ligion, 175:t); Koecher. Wahrheit. cha|«s. xix.. xx. (Tnith
and Perfection of the Evangelical Lutheran Religion, 1755);
Ranke. Jhulxrhe (ienchichte im Zrtliilttr d. JO fnrmatwn
(4th ed. 1867-08. 6 vols. Bvo); Weber. l>nji Xrilalirr dtr
Reformation (1878) ; Horn, TKe Three Intenmt (1893).
396
LUTHERANISM AND THE LUTHERAN CHURCH
The Iatheran Reformation Outside of Germaxv. — Hud
the iMiitlic't been one of purely moral means, the Hefornia-
tion would have triumphed throughout Kurope. Even the
resources of courts and the terrors of persecution could
not prevent its wide acceptance. In Northern Europe (he
Lutheran Confession found a home amonjj the Scandinavian
races. In Eastern Europe Lutheranism and Calvinism
reached the Slavic and Majjyar races tofrether. The causes
of the preference for the one or the other type of reforma-
tion were partly personal and local, but were far more asso-
ciated with national, race, and political characteristics,
which corresponde<l with the more radical tendency of Cal-
vinism on the one side, anil the more conservative character
of Lutheranism on the other. The Lutheran Reformation
was triumphant in Sweden (l.WT) under the influence of Gus-
tavus Vasa. In Denmark and Norway the Lutheran organi-
zation was confirmed by the Diet of Odense (1539), and by
the middle of the century the lands of the Baltic coast and
Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia were embraced in the Rreat
Lutheran family. See Miinter, Kirchengeschichte v. Dane-
mark iind Xorivegen (18;}4); Frvxell, Ouslav Wasas Leben
(18:iIU Weber. ^ei7(i/^er rf. /^f/. "{5:!0-57:i).
Doctrinal Co.vTRovERsiEs in the Lutheran Church in
THE Sixteenth Century. — See articles xVdiaphorites, An-
tinomians, Crvpto-Calvinists, Major, Osiandek, and Pre-
destination. For literature, see Kurtz, A', (r., 1874, S 141,
and sec the works of Dorner (1867), Frank (1863-6:5), Heppe
(ia")3 s.). Planck (1791-98), Loescher (1722-24). Thomasius
(1848), Walch (1730-39), Krauth. C. lief.. 147. The internal
questions which acitated the Lutheran Church were deter-
mined in the Formula of Concord (lo77), which closes the
collection of the confessions which appeared umler the title
of Book of Concord (lo80). See both these articles.
Church Polity. — In her ecclesiastical constitution the
aim of the Lutheran Church was to avoid the hierarchical
subjection of the State to the Church, and the Ca'sareo-
papal lordinp of the State over the Church. The former,
which depended on herself, she perfectly secured; in the
latter, which was influenceil by state plans, she was not
always so ha|)py, and in various ways the political compli-
cations of the time embarrassed the practical application
of her principles. (See the articles Consistory and Kpis-
coi'AL System.) Consult also Vie Kirchenordnung (The
Church Order of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Ger-
many in its First Century, 1824); Kichter, Oeschi'chte (His-
tory of the Evangelical Church Polity in Germany. Leip-
zig. 1851); Stahl. Die Kircheyiverfaiisung (Erlangen. 1862);
Haupt, Der Episcopal der deutschen Reformation (Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, 1863).
Worship and Art. — The worship and the range of art
in the Church were meant to meet the wants both of the
judgment and of the emotions. A perfect freedom was
claimed for the Church in all the purely human regulations
of worship. She could add. drop, or change, prudently and
in love, according to her judgment of what was best. Her
essential unity was that of faith, not of forms; but the
spirit of her faith pervaded all her forms. A thorough
conservatism was ol)servcd. The legitimate results of the
historical growth of the Church were treasured. The ex-
pressive ornaments of the altar and tlie innocent usages
dear to the people were retained. The Koniish perversion
of the ma.ss, all rites that taught or insinuated unsound doc-
trine, were thrown out, and the »vangelical mass, the pure
communion service, remained. The |>ulpit became a- power.
The people took part evcrywere in worship, which as of
old was re.sponsive. They heard (jod's Word and uttered
his praises in their own tongue. The biblical festivals of
the Church year were retained. Painting (Cranach. the
Holbcins, Diirer) and statuary hallowed their gifts for the
sanctuary. Sec Jacoby, Liliirgik d. Reformittion (1871);
Kliefoth, Vrxprangl. Qotte.Hilieitstiirdnungen in I. K. (1847) ;
lAturg. Ahhandlimgen (18.')4. Keq.)\ Sehiiberleiu, Au.tbau
(1850) ; Krauth, Erangelical Mans and /{ornish Jfaji/i: Sun-
day Seruicen according ti> the LilitrgieK iif the (churches of
tlie Jie format inn \ Jubilee Si-rrice (18(37); Kiistlin, (Je-
Kchirlile des rhristlichen fiolleKdien.iles (Freiburg, 1887);
Jacobs, The Lutliiran Mnvement in JCnijland (1890) ; Horn,
Outlinex of Liturgies (1891); also articles in Lutheran
Church Hi'view and Lutheran Quarterly (1890-93), by Horn,
Wenner, ami others.
Hymns. — The hymns for the people were one of the grand-
est ai'liievements of the Luth<'ran Kef<irmation. They are
full of simplicity, iinclioii, and divine objectivity. Holy
song was as wide-reaching, as incapable of exclusion, as soft
and wooing, as mighty and irresistible, lus the air on whoso
pulsations it spoke heart to heart. Among the greatest
tivmn-writers arc Luther ; Speratus. d. 1554; Decius ; Eber,
d! 1.569: Spengler. d. 1534; JIathesius, d. 1565; Alber, d.
15.53; Weisse, d. 1540. of the first half of the century; in
the latter half we have Hingwaldt, d. 1597; Selnecker. d.
1592; Herberger. d. 1627: Nicolai, d. 1608. "In worsliip
the austere Old Testament psalmody of the Refornicd pre-
sents a striking contrast with the cordial internality of
the Lutheran Church song, gushing from the living spring
of the spirit of poesy." (Baur.) See Ko<'h, Ueschichte
(History of Hymns and Church Song, especially in the Evan-
gelical Church, 3d. ed. 7 vols., 1866, seq.): Wackernagel,
German Ilr/mus from Lut/ier to Hermann (1841); From
the most Amieut Times to the Beginning cf the Seventeenth
Century (1867, seq.).
Church Music. — The congregational singing was a re-
vival of the Ambrosian choral over against the priestly
Gregorian chant. It was choral, for the peojile and the
choir blended into one in this noble form of song. Among
the composers of this era are Luther and his familiar
friends Khaii and Walter. Eceard (d. 1611) did much for
church music.
Practical Life. — The Christian life was one of humble,
joyous assurance. The clergy were marked by devotion to
the pastoral work, and by fidelity in the pulpit an<i in the
religious instruction of the young. Without a severe Church
discipline they trained the people in the fear of (iod, in per-
sonal honor, and in the domestic and civil virtues. " In
the administration of Church disciplinethe Lutheran Church
is beyond dispute very much behind the Kifornu'd: on the
other hand, the moral life in the Lutheran Church has a
character of greater freedom, of more heart and soul, rest-
ing more on internal motives." (Baur.) " That there were
painful exceptions is not only the necessary general result
of the common infirmities of human nature, but is connect-
ed with this fixed law, that the times following great strug-
gles, warfare, and change, even of the most hallowed char-
acter, are times of reaction and relaxation. The immediate
sequence of a successful war fortruth and virtue is a revival
of the potency of many elements of falsehood and vice."
Theolookal Science. — The nature of the times gave
great prominence to polemic theology. Whatever part of
theology was taken up was handled with s]iecial reference
to its availableiiess as a means of defense or enlaigenient of
the re.storeil truth. The plowshares were beaten into swords.
Luther, Melanchthon, Flacius, Brentius, Chemnitz, and the
co-workers in the Magdelmrg Centuries are .still unforgot-
ten names. The centers of theological culture were the
Universities of Wittenberg. Tubingen, Strassburg, Marburg
(1.527), and Jena (1557). See Dorner. Frank, Gass, Heppe.
Transitions of Lutheran Established Churches in the
Sixteenth Century. — The Cryplo-Calvinistic designs had
conteni|ilated a general removal of the Lutheran Church
from its first foundations. Crypto-Calvinisin was concerned
mainly with the sacramental doctrines. It was really fur-
ther from what is now considered as by pre-eminence Cal-
vinism than Lutheranism itself had been. It was unionism,
deriving its special features from the times. Its (lesigns
were thwarted, vet the Palatinate under Frederick III.
(15()()), Bremen (1562). and Aidialt (1597) were transferred
by their civil rulers to the Calvinistic communion.
The Lutheran Church in the Seventeenth Century. —
1. Ilesse-Cassel (1604), the earldom of Lipjjc (1602), the
court (but not the people) of the electoral house of Branden-
burg (1613), became Calvinistic. Various attempts at union
(Leipzig, 1631; Thorn. 1645; Cassel, 1661) accomplished
nothing. The ardor for union was so great that its repre-
sentatives drove Paul Cierhardt and others from their tloeks
into poverty and exile for declining to treat the distinctive
faith of the Lutheran Church as a thing indilTereiit.
3. The peril of peace is the peril of stagnation. The
Lutheran Church had undergone the ordeal of a war of po-
lemics; she was to undergo the trial of a comparative inter-
nal repose. She now reached her media'val period, rich in
construction, comparatively poor in originalion, not by de-
ch'tisiou. but by the ordinary law of hisloric jirogress.
Within the determined orthodoxy rose various (piestions,
but in many of them the interest was confined to theolo-
gians. The controversy on syncretism originated in the
views of George Calixlus. Willi pietism in its early stages
are associateil the names of Spener and Franckc.
3. in theological literature are found among the names
still treasured Glassius, Pfeiller, the Schmidts (Erasmus
LUTHERANISM AN!) TlIK I.ITIIKKAN ciiriuil
397
anil St'lmstiiin), liiiicr, Calovius, Ilutter, Gi-rlmrd, Qiienstedt,
lliinnius, and Miisii-us.
4. The aj^e is Ijrightcned also by the works of ninny of
the noblest represcntutlvos of a livinj;. internal ('hristiaiiily.
AnioiiR them are Arndt (True ('hrixlinnili/), UiThnni (Mrd-
Hatitinx and Srhala Pieliitis). lleinrleli .Mlillcr, S<'river,
and Andreas. The lovers of mysticism and tlieusojihy treas-
ure Jakob JJiihme and (JotI fried Arnold.
5. The eentury was rieh in hymn-writers. Those of the
earlier part were marked by the old objeetivitv — those of
the later, by the prowinjf tendeney to siibje<livlty. There
was an intermediate sehool, whose gri-atest repri'.sentative,
I'aul Gerliardt. harmonizes both tencleneies. t'tiureh musie
was nol)lv ri'jiresented bv the frreat composers Cruder, d.
1682: Kosenmliller, d. itiSG ; llammersehmidi ; Ahle. d.
1673.
The LrTiiKRAN Church in the Eiuhtekxth CK.vTtav. —
1. lifforr "(lie llluminalion." After the death of Spener
(1705) and Francke (1727) pietism degenerated very rapidly.
That this was not the absolutely necessary outgrowth of the
principles of the (jreat leaders in the pietistic movement is
shown by the fact that out of Halle there also went forth
forces into the Church the l)eneticeiu'e of which is beyoml all
dispute. Tliere arose a generation of Ijiitlicran ilivinesas
pious as the pietists, as orthodox as their opponents — who
neither arrayed piety against orthodoxy nor ortlio<loxy
against piety. I)ut showed by pen and life that true piety is
orthodox, and that true orthodoxy is piou.s. Of this sehool,
though not in efpial degrees, may be named llollazius,
Starck, Buddeus, Cvprian, .1. C. Wolff. Weisniann. Devling,
J. (i. Carpzov. J. H'. and C. B. Miehaelis, .). (;. Waleh. I'fair,
Mosheim, Bengel, and C. A. Crusius. Of tJie philosophical
Ijeibnitzo-Woltian school were S. J. Bauingarten, Keinbeck,
Car[H)v.
2. ('/lurch Pulih/. — The (politico-) episcopal system of
polity had <'lainied at first to be simply a necessity. This
transmuted itself into the assertion of a principle (Carpzov,
1645). It was supplanted by the territorial system (Thonia-
sius and Bohnier, beginning of the eighteenth century). A
third system, tlie collegial, was the outgrowth of S|)ener's
views, and found an able exponent in I'fatI (171!t). (See
Polity, Ecclesiastical.) Also see Richter, desrh. d. ev.
KirchetiftiMi (1H51, 208); Leehler, Oexch. d. Prexbyt. and
Si/nod. Verfaxsung (1854, 228) ; Stahl, Die. Kirchenver-
faxsunq (1862).
3. \Vi)rxhip. — The hymn-writers of this era sliow the in-
fluence of the spirit of Spener in the earnest pii'ty which is
their strength, and in the individualism which is their weak-
ness. The early hymns were hymns for men to sing to
getlier — the later hymns were hymns to be sung by men in
.separatenes.s, and sometimes of the .sort that men are not
likely to sing at all. The degenerating pietism corrupted
the music of the Church. This tendency was met by .lolin
Sebastian Bach, who in many of the highest attributes of
his art was " the greatest master of all times." the lover and
the gloritier of the ancient choral. Handel (il. 175!t)gave
his ripest years to oratorio, and in his Mexxiah reached by
the inspiration of music a height Milton had (ailed to attain
in Pariiilixe Iteijained.
4. Misxionx. — The new life of the purer pietism showeil
itself in establishing missions among the heathen. At the
Danish mission at Tranipubar (1704) laliored Ziegenbalg
(d. 171!)). From Halle \\,-n[ forth Si-hwarz (d. 17"J0). Cal-
leiiborg founded at Halle (1728) an institution for the con-
version of the .lews. Hans Egede (1721) went to (ireeii-
land. anil when in 1736 he returned to Denmark and estab-
lished a mission seminary for (ireenland. his son I'aul t<Kik
his place. On IjUtheran missions, see Francke. /f/TiVA/c d.
diin. Misx. in Ostind. (1708-72); Egi-dc, Dexcriptioii of
Greenland, transl. from the Danish (jyondon. 1745); Wig-
gers, Gexch. d. evnng. Misx. (2 v.. 1845): Wiggers. Stnlixlik
(2 v.. 1842-43); I'litt. Kune Oe.fch. d. lulli. ilixx. (1871).
5. The Ratiimnlixtir " JI!uniinati(m."—\-'r<m^ the miildle
of this eentury rationalism, claiming the title of "Illuini-
nation," or enlightment. made rapid progres.s. Hntionali.sm,
arising from the aluise of the freedom of investigation de-
manded by t he nature of Christ ianity, and enunciated as a vital
principle bv Protestantism, luis coexisted in soniesha|>e with
the Church" from its lirst hour to the present. In the eigh-
teenth century il was intcnsitieil l)y causes of wide extent
and great potencv. and revealed itself in every great <-om-
niunion of Western Christendom. Lutheranisni had Iwen
charged bv Rome with giving undue weight to human rea-
son—not indeed as over against the WonI, but as again.sl
Chureh authority — and Rome was assaileil through the whole
Reformation, by ImjIIi the great I'roti-stanl parties, as ra-
tiimali.stic and I'elagian in many of her iloctrines. The
great leader in rationalistic criticism of the eighteenth cen-
tury was the Roman Catholic Oratorian. Simon, who died
1712, nearly ten vears before Seuiler, the father of rational-
ism in the Liittieran Church, wiis bom. The Reformed
tendeney wa'i resi.sled l>y Lutheranisni as unconsciously ra-
tionalizing: but the une(|uivi>eal tendency had been sliown
first in .Sicinianism, and afterward in the advanced I'ela-
gianism of Arminians of the sidicMil of I<e Clerc (d. 1736).
Kngland conlrlliuted her deistic writers. In France, nat-
uralism and atheism iM-iame fiLshioiialile, and Frederick the
(ireat Iwlped to domestii-ate them in (iermany. Freema-
sonry as it hail been transfi'rnd from Kngland' in 1733, the
Woliian philosophy, and the perversions of philostiphy in
general, the later pietism, and the separatism it engendered,
aided in the work of mischief. Rationalism is inlidelily in
various degrees, under the forms of Christianity. The su-
pranaturalism which met it wius more or less under the la-
tent inlluence of the thing it combated, as the English apol-
ogeti<'S of the century showed tinges of the deism with
which it fought. The'higher |ihilos<iphy and national lit-
erature, though in seeming aflinily with rationalism on the
surfiu-e, were yet in their antagonism to its prosy doctrines,
its plausible shallownes.s, emptiness, and sidf-sufTiciency. its
invincible foes in their deepest and final workings. See Ra-
tionalism and PllILOSOl'IIV. (iKKMAN.
6. Oppimentx of lidliiiniilixm. — In the darkest time some
were "ajiiong the unfaithful faithful found." Imperfect as
was the work of the supranatuntlists, the best of them did
noble provisional service. They at leiust kept a polar twi-
light where there might have lieen a midnight. Outside
of the ranks of the theologians, Claudius. Hamnnn. and
OI)erlin. the pastor of the Ban de la RikIib, are among the un-
forgotten names. I'nder a ci>inmoii pressure the faithful
hearts of the separate communions were drawn cU>ser to
each other.
7. Jiitlumr.e of Hntinnnlixm. — I'nder the baleful influence
of lationalism every sacred interest ileclined. The jmlpit
lost its power: no living hymns were producixl. and the
old were unsung. In music the ancient beauty and glory
of the choral vanished ; men sought the concert-nxim and
the theater, for which the music of the time was l>etter
suited than tor the church. The oratorio gave way to the
opera. The conservation of Rome itself yielded, and I'al-
estrina's noble .school sank liefore the self-sulliciency of
operatic organists and choirs. The liturgies which were
offered, too freipienlly with success, for the historical serv-
ices of the Church, are beneath the ludicrous. They are
too dreary to awaken the smile which their absurditv seems
to challenge. Rationalism had shown that its pro^ilem is
not as between forms of religion, but as between religion
andjrreligion.
Tilt: LlTIIKRAX ChCRi H IN THK XlXtTKKNTH Ce.VTI'BY. —
1. lii(i<lion of Church Lift-. — The revolutionary excessi-s of
France, and the awe-inspiring providences growing out of
them by development or counteraction, which marked the
fifteen opening years of the nineteenth century, had tendetl
to solM-r men, to turn their eyes to Hod. and io show them
how iioor are the substitutes which had iH-en offered for the
simple, deep, and earnest faith of the ohlen times. All deep
thinking tends as a tinality against skepticism. Reason is
the cure of unreji-sori. Kant, Fries, the Fichtes. S<-helling,
Hegel, Herbert, Si'hopenhauer, I'Irici, l^otze, von Hart-
niaiiii. in simple virtue of helping to earnest thinking, work
ill one schiHil. The earnest thinking instantly showed itself
as a U'tter tliinking. I'ietism reneweil its UMIer voiith.
The ninety-five theses of Clans Harms (1817. the dose of
the third centenary of the Lutheran Chunhi n'<'allnl the
Reformation to the minds of all. to the heart.s of many.
2. Union and Srparnlion. — Freileriek William III. U'gan
in 1817 the movements liNiking to the union of the I.ii-
theran and Reformed in one slate Chun-h. .Strong, i
tion m.se on the side of iiiaiiv earnest I.uthenins. .\
them may Im' mentioned S«-lieil>el (d. in rxile. 18431. II ~
fens (18;M). Kellner. whosi- church was ojx'ii.-d by m
force for the Agenda (I8;)4), (iuerieke (INri). Fr.-.!:. :.
William IV. releast-d the clergyiui'ii who were inipnsone<l.
and a fn-e Luthenin Chiinh »«.* organized 1841. and n^
ceiveil the royal concession 184.5. S'juiralion al«<' nr.^.-
within the separali><l,on questions affwling the constiti ■ . n
of the Chureh. A dei'ision of the general synod of 18.'iti ad-
verse to the view of Dicdrich leil to his si|«inilion from the
398 LUTHEKANISM AND LUTHERAN CHURCH LUTHERAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES
synod (1861). A free Lutheran conference of the friends of
separntion from the unionistic state churches was held Oct.
28, 18T4, at Eisenach, the object of which was to promote a
better understamUiii; and a more perfect sympatliy and mu-
tual support. In the discussion of the questions raised by
the union, see Kudelbach, Reformat. Lttlh. u. Union (1839);
MiUler. Evang. r/iio't (1854);'Nitzsch, I'rkundenlmch (1853);
Stier, t'nluthnrisehe Thesen (18.')4) ; Schenkel, Unionsberuf
(1855) : Schulz, Die Union (1868). See citations under S II.
of this article.
3. Confederations. — Various confe<lerations attempted to
co-operate with or supplement the union, so as to brinp into
practical co-working the elements which had been joined
but not united in it. Among them are the Oustavus Adol-
phus Association (Oct. 31. 1841), the Evangelical Church
Diet (1848), at whose meeting in Berlin (1853) the Augsburg
Confession received a qualified recognition as the common
confession of Protestant Germanv ; the Eisenach Confer-
ence (1846. 1852).
4. Dinlinctice Luiheranism within and without the
Union. — Within the union distinctive Luthcranism still re-
mained a great and active power. Many Lutherans re-
mained within the union to fight the battle for truth there,
and to obtain, if possible, a restoration of the solemnly
guaranteed rights of the Church. Lutheranism outside of
the union was represented in the general Luthernn confer-
ence, among whose distinguished names are Uarless, Klie-
foth, and Luthardt. Its chief organ is Luthardt's Kirch-
emeilung (1868).
5. Hi/mn-1 and Music. — The awaking consciousness of the
Church led to noble and successful efforts to correct the
wretched state into which the rationalistic Vandalism had
brought the hymns, the music (the choral has been the pulse
of the Church), the service, and the popular religious litera-
ture. Moritz Arndt, von Rauraer, Bunsen, Stier. A. Kiiapp,
Daniel, Layritz, the Eisenach Conference (18.53), and Wack-
ernagel have labored in the revival of hvranologv. Xatorp,
Thibaut, Gruneisen (1843), Winterfeld (1843), and V. Tucher
(1848) have done valuable service in restoration.
6. The theology of the nineteenth century could only
have risen in a land which had received the ineffaceable
impression of Lutheran life and thought. The grandeur of
the wildest perversions of this theology and the ruins of its
most unsparing destructiveness were only possible on the
Presupposition of eras of gigantic building. The ancient
lUtheran theology, after the storm of war had swept over
it, stood like Tadmor in the wihierness. Its ruthless foes
could not buiUl, and could only destroy because the greater
generations had budded; but they could not perfectly de-
stroy— they could only dismantle what was too massive to
be overthrown. The Protestant theology of Germany is
represented (1) m the older and in the historico-critical ra-
tionalism ; (2) in the old supranaturalistic schools, embrac-
ing rational supranaturalisin, the stricter or suprarational
supranatura'.ism, and the pietistic sunranaturalism ; (3) the
mediating theology whose father is Sctdeiermacher. Among
its representatives from the Lutheran side have been Liicke,
Bleek, N'itzsch, Muller, Ullmann. Twesten, Dorner. Lieb-
ner, Martensen, Ehrenfeuchter, licysclilug, and Kiistlin ; (4)
Lutheran Theologians of the Confession. The i)atriarch
among the.se was Clans Harms (d, 1855). Among its repre-
sentatives in what might be called a first generation have
been .Sartorius, Rudelbach of Denmark, and Guericke. The
divines of a second generation show certain divergencies
of view on parts of the theory of the ministerial ofTice and
of the Church, and on the construction, s|)iritualistic or
realistic, of prophecv, especially on the parts in which Chi-
liasm is involved. In a first group may be placed Ilarless,
Iliilling, Thomasius, Keil, Caspari, Kralibe, Philippi, Dieck-
holT, Ziickler, Wuttke, Harnack, Oettingen, Frank, and
Grau. In a secoml group, distinguished by its strong views
of the Church and ministry, have liecn Liihe. Vilmar, Klie-
foth, and Zezschwitz. In a third group, distinguished by its
realistic tendency in t he interpretat ion of nroplucy, are jiliiced
C. K. v. Hofmann, Drechsler, Delitzsch, fjuthardl, i\I. liaum-
garten, and Oehler. In their earlier position Kahnis and
Thiersch were strict ly confessional. See German Thkoi.oov.
The great jurists Gcischel (d. 1862) and Stahl (d. 1861)
were also theologians of the Lutheran Confession. The
works of the great writers on Church polity. Kicldiorn (d.
1854), .lakobson, Puchia, Iticliter (d. 1804), 'Dove, Bickell,
anil others, are of great importatuc in, nniny of the di.scus-
sions which, have been specially cliaracteristic of the Lu-
theran Church in the nineteenth century — whose problem is
the embodiment of the soul of her doctrine in a souml
polity, a constitution which shall as adequately conform to
tier common life as her confessions to her common faith.
7. Practical Life. — With the reviving diKtrinal life came
the spirit of missions. The outgrowths of the life of inner
missions are so numerous that their names would (ill pages.
Wichern founded the Haulie Haus 1833, the institute for
girls at Berlin 1858, ami has been the father of a great num-
ber of beneficent institutions and reforms. With the dea-
coness institutions are associated the names of Fliedner,
Lohe. and Th. Schiitler. Among the associations and schools
for foreign missions niav be mentioned the Society of the
Rhein (182!)), the North German (1836), .Jiinekes (1800), and
Gossner's, all of which have a predominantly Lutheran
character. The Dresden Missionary .Society Inus a positive
Lutheran character (1836). It transferred its seminary in
1848 to Leipzig, to give its pupils the advantages of the
university. It has taken up agaui the ancient mission-work
of the Lutheran Church in India. All the Lutheran lands
have mission societies. The Ilennannsburg Mission Insti-
tute, under the direction of Louis Harms (d. 1865), has
developed great energy. See Missions.
8. Statistics. — The total number of Lutherans is proliably
about 52,000.000. including the Lutherans in the union
churches. The purely local history and statistics of the
Lutheran Church properly belong to the different countries
and states in which the Church exists — America (North anil
South), Anhalt, Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium. Bohemia,
Bremen, Brunswick, Carinthia. Carniola. Darmstadt, Den-
mark, England, France, Hamburg. Hiinover, Hesse-Ca.s.sel.
Holland, Hungary, Iceland, Lippe, Lubeck, Moravia, Meck-
lenburg. Norway. ()klenburg, Poland, Prussia, Russia, Sa.\-
ony, Styria, Silesia, Sweden, Thuringia, Transylvania, West-
phalia, Wiirtembcrg. In all these the Lutheran Church
has a historical record. For confessions, see the article
CoNTORD, Book of, and the creeds there enumerated. For
special doctrines and controversies, see Concomitance, Sac-
ramental; CoNsrnsTANTIATION, ElCHARIST, SaCHAMENT,
Syncretism, Svneroism, etc. See also the articles Polemics,
Protestantism, and Reformation.
Revised by H. E. Jacobs.
Lutlierau Church in tlie United States: The Era of
Begimiings. — The earliest Lutherans in America came from
Holland, and were among the first settlers of New Am-
sterdam. Their worship was at first in private houses, and
their nonconformity with the Calvinistic religion of the
large majority of their countrymen subjected them to severe
penalties. J. E. Gdtwater, their first pastor, was proin|)tly
sent back by the city authorities, in 1657, to Holland. 1 hey
obtained religious freedom only with the capture of the city
bv the English in 1664. They had congregations along the
Hudson and in New Jersey, where some of their descendants
are still found in the English Lutheran churches. There
were Dutch Lutherans on James Island, S. C, in 1674.
Swedish Lutherans followed in 153(>-;i7, in connection
with the Swedish settlement on the Delaware. Torkillus
was their first pastor (d. 164U. His successor, Campanius,
began mission work among the North American Indians,
and translated Luther's Catechism into the Delaware lan-
guage. Ilis laboi-s enabled William Penn, in after years,
to carry out his pacific policy. The first Lutheran church
in Pennsvlvania was built in 1646. For a century and three
quarters the six Swedish Lutheran congregations on the
Delaware were .served by thirty-five pastors, tlie last of whom
died in 1831. As the Swedish was replaced by the English
language, they were gradually transferred to the Episcopal
Church. The most prominent of these churches is Gloria
Dei, built in 1700 in Philadelphia, and the church at Wil-
mington, Del., built in ]6!l!). Three of the Swedish pastors
in 1703 ordained Rev. Justus Falkner, a minister of German
congregations in Montgomery County.
The German emigration to Pennsylvania began in 1680.
Lutheran Palatinates settled at Ncwburg. N. V., in 1708,
and Newbern. N. C, in 1710. Others .settled about the same
time in Schoharie, N. V. Three of the congregations in
Pennsylvania sent a deputation to Germany in 1733, in
order to procure pastors. The result was the sending in
1742 of Henry Melchior Muhleid)erg, who is very appro-
priately called the patriarch of the Lutheran Church in
.•\merica. Meanwhile, in 1734, a large number of Salzburger
refugees had colonized I'^benezer, Ga. By the middle of the
eighteenth century a foothold had also been gained in the
Shenandoah valley and in Madison co., Va.
LUTriEKAN CHURCH IN' THE UNITED STATES
399
Era of Si/7ioilical Organization. — Muliloiil)i>rf;'s arrival
was followe<l by a siiccession of faithful colahonrs from
Halle (Bninnholtz, Kurtz, Schauiii, lluruUclmh, Hartwic
Eager, Uelinuth, Sclmiidt, Kuiize), uiid an era of great ac-
tivity among the scattered churches. An attempt had been
made by Berkcnmeyer to found a synod, and a session, with
three pastors and representatives from nine congregations,
had been held, beginning Aug. 2(1, IT:!.'), at Kuritan, X. J.,
but it had failed to become a permanent organization. The
Lutheran Synod of North America, afterward known as
The Evangelical Lutheran Ministerium of Pennsylvania
and adjacent States, was organized in Philadelphia, Aug.
14, 1748, comprising in the beginning both Swedish and
German pastors. .Another synod was founded in New York
in 1785. The entire number of synods now in existence is
61. Their sizes are very unequal, from the .Joint Synod of
Missouri with 1,237 ministers and ;{;tO,0()0 comnmnicants in
1893, to the Uocky Mountain .Synod with 11 ministers and
297 communicants. The .Synod of Missouri has had a most
significant influence in the development of the Lutheran
Church in the U. S. It originated in a eolonv of Saxon
Lutherans who emigrated in 1839 to Perry co., Jfo., in order
to carry out the separalistic Church ideas of their leader,
Martin Stephan. He wius accompanied by six earnest and de-
vout pastors and followers, who sincerely believed that they
were following a Divine call in leaving their old home for
conscience sake. When Stephan W)is found to be a deceiver,
there was no hesitation in cxiommunieating and renouncing
him. C. F. W. Walt her. one of the young Saxon pastors,
was next regarded as their leader, and, with wonderful
ability as preacher, theologian, author, debater, and church
organizer, guided the synod througli an unparalleled career
of development until his death in 1887. The synod is di-
vided into 14 districts, extending from Canada to Texas.
The Joint Synod of Ohio, with 353 mini.sters, founded in
1818, as the result of missiim work by the Synod of Penn-
sylvania, is also divided into districts extending over many
States, from Washington to Nortfi Carolina. The German
Iowa Synod, with a similar organization and nearly 40()
ministers, was founded in 1854 liy German missionaries sent
from the seminary of Lohe at Neuendettelsau, after an
estrangement had occurred l)etween Lohe and the Missouri
Synod. The three Norwegian synods in the West have to-
gether 566 mini.stcrs, 1,748 congregations, and 171,595 com-
municants. The Norwegian emigration to the U. S. began
about 1835. Their oldest synod was founded in 1846, and
for years was closelv connected with the (Jerman Synod of
Missouri, their stuJcnts having been educated at the semi-
nary of the latter svnod. The largest of the Norwegian
bodies is the recently formed United Norwegian Church,
the result of a union of three synods. It has its center at
Minneapolis. .Minn., and numbers very nearly 100.000 com-
municants. Swedish immigration began about 1845. The
Swedes first belonged to an English Synod (Northern Illi-
nois). Afterward, with Norwegians and Danes, they formed
in 1860 the Augustana .Synod ; but it was finally deeined best
for the nationalities to be separate, and the Norwegians and
Danes withdrew. The Swedish Augustana Synod, with its
chief institutions at Rock Island. 111., extends over the entire
country, and numbers 370 ministers, 719 congregations, and
9.5,068 members (1893). Besides these, the Danes, Finns,
and Icelanders have their own synods. The last named
have over 7.000 members in North Dakota and Manitoba.
Efforts at General Organizatimi. — Most of these synods
have united in general organizaticms. Of these the oldest
is the General Synod, formed by the elTorts of the Min-
istcriura of Pennsylvania in 1821, of which it has been a
member only for two short periods (1821-23, 185;J-66). Its
strength is maiidy in the Middle States. Its congregations
are mostly thoroughly Anglicized. It has theological semi-
naries at Gettysburg and Selinsgrove, Pa., Ilartwick, N. Y.,
Springfield, O., and Chicago, 111. (German). It accepts the
Augsburg Confession, but with a diversified degree of strict-
ness in adhering to it. The latest .statistics give the Gen-
eral Synod 1,046 ministers, 1,441 congregations, and 16.5.346
communicants — i. e. alxiut one-eighth of the whole number
of Lutherans in America.
The General Council wasorganized in 1866,and includes the
twooldest synods in the U.S.. viz., the Minisleriumsof Penn-
sylvania and New York, the Pittsburg, Texas, Detroit, Ohio,
Swedish Augustana, Canada, Indiana, and Northwest Synwis.
Its congregations are almost e(iually divided among the
three languages, German. Swedisli. and Engli>h. Its theo-
logical seminaries are at Philadelphia, Hink Island, 111., and
Chicago, 111. Its d<«trinal position is set forth in its
Fundamental I'rinciplen of Eaith and CIturrh ["olily. "The
unaltered Augsburg Confession in its original ^ense " is
declared to be "throughout in conformity with the pure
truth, of which Go<rs W ord is the only rule,'' while the other
confessions included in the Hook of Coneord are indorse<l
as "in the r>erfect harmony of one and the same st-riptural
faith" witli the Augsburg Confes>ion. There has U-en
some controversy concerning the degree, according to whicji
consistency with this subscription required a renumeratiou
of all pulpit and altar fellowship with other ilenominations.
anil a succession of declarations on the subject which are
mutually interpretative was adopted at Pittsburg (1868),
Akron (1872), Galesburg (1875), and Pittsburg (188!»). The
General Council has been the center of protracte<l dist-us-
sions, largely from its attempt, to bring into one body the
representatives of difTerent nationalities who had to jearn
to know and to resoect each other, and the historical devel-
opment through wiii<'h each clement has iiassed. As a con-
sequence the General Council lost in 1869 the Illinois and
Wisconsin, in 1871 the Minnesota, and in 1886 the .Michigan
synod — all (ierman bodies — because of alleged dissatisfac-
tion with the exceptions permitted within the other syniHls
to the strict confessional position cf the council. For the
same rea-son the German Synod of Iowa has held only an
advisory relation. Of late years much missionary activity
has been develo[>ed. It embraces 1,055 ministers, 1,777 con-
gregations, and 307,523 comnmnicants (including congrega-
tions in the Dominion of Canada), about one-fourth of the
membership in the country.
The SyiuHlical Conference, organized in 1870, consists of
the large synods of Missouri and Wisconsin, with the small
synods of Minnesota, English Missouri, and Michigan — all
German. It is the most rigid in its confessional require-
ments. A controversy on the subject of predestination, in
which the Missouri Aynoil maintained tiiat U'lievers are
"elected to faith" ami not "with respect to faith," occa-
sioned the withdrawal from the conference of the .loint
.Synod of Ohio and the Norwegian Synod, and the separa-
tion of the latter body into two sections. It embraces 1.519
ministers, 2,165 congregations, and 441,129 communicants,
about one-third of the sum total in the U. S.
The United ."^ynod of the .South, formed in 1886, is com-
posed of the English-speaking synods of the .St)uth that
were cut ofT from the Northern (ieneral Synod by the civil
war, together with the Tennessee Synod. Its confessional
basis is the same as the General Council, with less consistency
in practice. The United Synod has 205 ministers, 405 con-
gregations, and 36.518 communicants.
A movement was begun in 1878 in the General SjTiod
South, the predecessor of the United Synixl, to provide a
common order of service for all Lutherans who use the
English language. After considerable diflieulty the Gen-
eral Synod and General Council accepted the pro(H)sition,
and the service appeared in 1888. Since then other bodies
have joined in the work of providing ultimately one com-
mon book of worship. At the last meeting of the joint
committee in Sept., 1892, there were representatives present
from all the general binlies and the chief Indepenilent synod.s,
thus securing a practical co-o[K'ration, and in so far bo-
tokening an harmonious understanding between the various
synods.
' C/iiirch Work. — All these bodies are active in various
forms of benevolent and missionary work. Thirty-three
orphans' homes, with 1.6:{4 inmates, and 42 hospitals and
deacone.'-ses' institutions were reported in 1892. The chief
of these is the Milwaukee Hospital, under the directorship
of Rev. Dr. Passiivant, and tlie inagnificently e<iuip|H-d
Mary .1. Drexel Hi>me, erected and furnisheil by John D.
Lankenau at an expense of over half a million. Thirty
colleges with over .5.(HHI students were rt-^Kirti'd. The Gen-
eral Svnod sustains a very prosperous mission among the
Telegu's in Inilia, foumled' in 1842 by Rev. C. F. Heyer, as
well as a mission on the we.st coast of Africa. The General
Council has a missiim-tield in India among the Telegus. a<l-
jacent to that of the General SvuikI. The t'nil.ii .Synml has
two missionaries in Ja|>an. The Synodical Conference, in
adilition to an enormous work among the liennun immi-
grants, is prosecuting missions among tin- NegriKS.
Organization. — The organization «>f tin- <i>ngn"(r»lion.s
diders somewhat in the various Ixulies. Onlinarily there is
a church council. com|M>sed of lay elders and de««Mins. or
deacons alone, and the jiaslor, who are ch«rge<l by the c-on-
go'gation with the administration of its affairs. The lay
400
IXTKE
LUXEMBOURG
eldership was accepted by Mulilenberg and dcfendeil by
Waltlier, but reJK-tod bv"the General Council, un<lcr the
leailership of Kriiuth. In the Synoilieal Cimferenees the
government approaches that of the purer forms of ( 'onfrrega-
tioualisin. while in the General Syno<l, United .Synoil, and a
large [mrt of the General Council it has more points in com-
mon with Presbyteriauism. Synods have, acoordinjr to the
Missouri conception, a purely advisory power; but outside
of the .Svnodical Conference "greater weiglit is placed upon
their decisions. The ovci-sight of the pastors and congrega-
tions belongs to the president of the syniHl. ami is exercised
in manv of the synods through visitors whom he ap|>oints,
and who report tlie result of their visits. Missionary super-
intendents and missionary presidents are charged by some
synods with the care of home missions.
Worship. — The worship is approaching a higher degree of
uniformity than has previously been found. Ttie Lulhenin
churches on the continent of Europe exhibit great diver.-iity,
which was intensified l)y the induence of other denomina-
tions in the U. S. Muhlenberg provided a full liturgical
service, even for the country congregations in their rude be-
ginnings, and diligently followed the Church Year, as his
letters in the Ilalle Jiep'orts show. During the beginning of
the nineteenth century there was an almost universal disuse
of all liturgical forms except for ministerial acts; but since
1850 a movement has gradually progressed, until the com-
mon service has practically united the various Lutlicran
bodies in the formal adoption of the "consensus of the pure
Lutheran liturgies of the sixteenth century." The imme-
diate use in all congregat ions of what has been thus adopted
can not, in the nature of the ease, be expected, especially
as it is well known that in parts of (iermaiiy (e. g. \V iirtem-
berg), from which many of the Lutherans in the U.S. come,
there is much antagonism to read prayers.
The following table exhibits the growth of the Lutheran
Church in Xorth America :
YEAR.
MinliUn.
CoogTtptlonj.
Commttnlcanla.
1862
1.366
2,175
3,299
5,302
2,575
3,S!6
5,865
9,069
270,780
1872
458,607
J882
838,302
1888
1,293,163
Historical Source.'^. — The chief sources for the early his-
tory of the Luthcmn Church in tlie U. S. are Acrelius's His-
tory of New Sweden (1759, translated by Reynolds, 1874) ;
the Halle Reports (1728-JS7; reprint with extensive notes
by Mann, Schinucker, and German. 1886-92) ; the L'rlsperger
Reports, from tlie Salzburg pastors in Georgia (1744); Mann's
1^1 fe and Times of Miililenberg (\S87): Xicura's Hisfon/ of
the yew York- ilinisterium (18S8). The history by Wolf
(1889), and its translation into German with extensive a(hii-
tions by Nicum (1891), and the extensive work of Prof.
Graebner of St. Louis, of which the first volume appeared
in 1892; the Danish history by Andersen (1890); the
History of the German Settlements in North and South
Carolina (1872); the History of the Ten7ie.isee Synod, liy
Henkel (18!Ht): and numerous articles in The Evnnyeliral
and {tiifirterly Reriews of Gettysburg and The Lutlierrm
Church Review of Philadelphia, an(i the I'roceedinys of
the First and Second Ijutheran Diets (1878-79) contain
much information. Cf. History of Lutheran Church in
the United Stales, by Jacobs (189:j).'
Revised by H. E. Jacobs.
Liitke, IQfke, Fedor PETRD\iTcn : explorer; b. in Russia
in 1797; was educated in the Russian navy; accompanied
Capt. Golownin on his circumnavigation of the earth 1817-
19, and undertook from 1821 to 1824 four expeilitions to
Xova Zemlila. of which he published a description in 1828.
From 1826 to 1829 he made an exploration of Hering's
Strait and the Sea of Kamchatka, of which he gave a de-
scription (1834-.'16); in 18;)5 was made an admiral and ap-
pointed tutor to the Grand Duke Con.stantine ; in 1850 was
made military governor of Revel, and in 1853 of Cronsladt.
He was the founder of the Russian Geograjihical Society,
and attained the seal in the French Instllule wliiili had
stood vacant since the death of Franklin. D. Aug. 20, 1882.
A biography in Russian of Liitke, bv Bcsobrasow, was pub-
lished in 1889.
Ln'ton : t^wn; In Bedfonlshire. England; on llie Lea.
near Its source, and 31 miles N. W. of London (sec nuip of
Englami, ref. 11-J). It has a fine Gothic church, dating
from the fourteenth century, and is the principal seat of the
straw-plait manufacturing industry in England. Pop. (1890)
30.000.
Lutti, lootee, Francesca : poetess; b. at Campo, near
Trent. In the Italian Tyrol. In 1831. The daughter of the
Cavaliere Vincenzo Lultl. she tjegan early to write, though
with more impetuosily than correctness. Later, however,
she fell under the influence of her fellow Tyrolese, Andrea
MafTei, and the beauty as well as the jiowerof her work gave
her an honorable place in Italian literature of the nineteenth
century. She publislieil first, under the title Cantiche, the
poetical tales Giovanni, .1/nr(«, and Rosa e Stella. Then in
1851 appeared the charming narrative poem Allierto, with an
introduction bv Maffel. Later she published Novelle e Liriche
(2 vols., 1862) and Un Proivrltio (1874). D. at Brescia, Nov.
6, 1878. A. R. Marsh.
Luttringhaiisen, loo tiing-how-zen : town of Rhenish
Prussia : 5 miles S. K. of Klberfeld (si'e map of German Em-
pire, ref. 4-D) ; manufactures silk, woolen, linen, and cotton
fabrics, cutlery, hardware, and brandy. Pop. (1891) 10,498.
Lutiianiian Indians: a family of Xorth American Ind-
ians, so named from tlu- Pit river or Achoniawl word lutu-
anii, lake, because the Modocs had their habit.it on Modoc
or Tule Lake. There are but two tribes in this family — the
Klamath Lake Indians or E-iiksliikni, E-iikshikni maklaks,
and the Modoc Indians or Modoknl, Moatokni maklaks,
which signifies Southern Indians. They live in Southwest-
ern UregDii, E. of the Cascade Range and N. of the Cali-
fornia boundary, the Klamath Lake Indians upon upper
Klamatli Lake and In Sprague river valley, the Modocs in
the same valley on Lost river and the lakes south of it. Some
Modocs, who took part in llie revolt of 1872-73, were exiled
to the Indian Territory. They are a healthy, warlike nation
of mounlaineers. who in former times held in terror several
of the circumjacent tribes. The Klamath Lake Indians are
taller and of lighter complexion than the Modocs. The
most important event in their history is the Modoc war
against the C S. Government in 1872-73, which ended with
their defeat. Including the 140 Snake Indians upon the
Klamath reservation, the whole iiopulalion amounts to
abdut 1.000. (See Ixwa.ns of North AMtKiCA.) S*'e Gat-
sehet. The Klamath Indiaiis of Southwestern Oregon (2
parts, quarto, Washington). A. S. Gatschet.
Liitzeil. liit sen : small town of Prussia; about 10 miles
S. E. of Merseburg, province of Saxony : famous for the two
battles which were fought in its vicinity (see map of Ger-
man Empire, ref. 4-F). On Nov. 16, \<a!M, the Swe<llsh
king Gustavus Adolphus fell here in a batlle with Wallen-
stein. the general of the imperial army ; the Swedes were
victorious. (See (i. Droysen, Die Schlacht bei Lutzen in
Forschuugen zur deutsehen Geschichte, Giittingen. 1862.)
On May 2. 1813. Napoleon defeated the Prussian and Rus-
sian armies near Liitzen. Pop. (1890) 3.564.
Luvcrne: village (founded 1872); capital of Rock co.,
Minn, (for location of county, see map of Minnesota, ref.
11-A); on the Rock river, and the Chi., St. P., Minn, and
Om.. and the Burl.. Cedar Rap. and N. railways; 30 miles
E. by N. of Sioux Falls, S. I). It is in an agricultural re-
gion, has several quarries of l>uihlliig-st(me, and contains 7
churches, high school, .several [niblic schools, water-works
and electric-light ]ilant, owned by the village, and a month-
ly and 2 weekly newspa|wrs. Pop. (1880) 679 ; (1890) 1,466 ;
(1895) 1,890. Editor of "Rock Couxty Herald."
Luxation : See Dislocation.
LuxemlKdirsr, li'ik'saan boor'. Fras<;ois IIexri de Mont-
MoRENiv-BorTEvii.LK. Duke de : marshal of France; b. In
Paris, Jan. 8. 162.8; the posthumous son of Francois de
Montmorency. Count de Bouteville, who was beheaded June
27, 1627; was educated by his aunt, the Princess of Conde;
entered early on a military career under the auspices of the
great Conde, and distinguished himsi-lf so inucli in the bat-
tle of Lens (.Vug. 20. 164S) that Anne of Austria made him
a marechal-de-canip. In the wai-s of the Fronde he sideil
with the aristocracy and fought against the court, but after
the Peace of the Pyrenees (Nov. 7, 1659). which ended these
wai^s, he was pardoned, and through the me<iiation of the
Prince of Conde he married (Mar. 17. 1661) the heiress of
the hou.sc of Luxembourg, who.se mime he assumed. In the
wars against Spain and llolland he fought under Turenne :
was made a lieutenant-general; and ilisplayed great military
talent, though also great severity. He was one of the eight
marshals created after the death of Turenne in 1675, and,
having received an independent command, captured V»-
LUXKMBURO
LL'ZERNK
401
lencieeines iiiul Caiiilinii. iiiiil dcfiati'il William of Oninfjo
at Mont ('u«iel, Apr. 11, l(i77, uuil at St.-Di'iiis, mar Moiis,
Aug. 24, 1678. After tliu IVac-e nf Nvinwugi-ii, hnuvois, who
was j(.'alnus of his talent, anil still more of his inlhienoe, re-
iiioved him from service, and aecuseil him of having sold
himself to the ilevil and attempting to |ioison his wife. 'J'ho
case lasted foiirleen months, during whieh time the marshal
was treateil with the utmost harshness, and although he was
acquitted (May 14, l(iM(J). yet he wius banished from the court
and from I'aris. After nearly ten years of disgrace he was
appointeil commander-in-chief of the army of Klanders (Apr.
lit, KittO). and made three brilliant campaigns, defeating the
Prince of Waldcck at Fleurus,.luly 1. l(i!)(),and William 111.
of England at Steciikerke, Aug. -i, Ki'M, and at Neerwinden,
.July 2!», l&.y-i. The campaign of Iti'.H brought no great re-
sults, and on Jan. 4, IG'J.j, he died at Versailles. With him
ceased the victories of Louis XIV.
Lnx'eiilbnrg : a territory situated between Rhenish
Prussia, France, and Belgium ; consisting of an elevated
tract on the slope of the Ardennes, with a rugged surface
covered in many places with dense forests of oaks, and
with a soil not very fertile. The region is rich in miner-
als; coal, iron, copp<'r, and lead arc mined; nnirble, slate,
and freestone are ipiarrieil. Toleralily good crop< of corn,
flax, hemp, hops, and wine are raised, and hui-ses, cattle,
and sheep of good breed are reared ; cloth, earthenware,
nails, and leather are manufactured, and much cheese, oak-
bark, and timber exjiorted. This territory formed oriiri-
nally a duchy which alternately belonged to Burgundy,
Sjiain. Austria. France, an<l Holland. By the Congress of
^ ienna. in 181.5. it was nnide a grand duchy, and, forming
a part of the (icrm.-inic confederation, it was given to the
King of the Xelhcrl.inds as a compensation fi>r Nassau.
When (in lS;iU) Belgium organized itself into an indejiend-
ent kingdom, a large part of the territory was transferred to
this kingdom, of which it now forms a province. The Bel-
gian province of Luxemburg contains the three districts of
Arlon, Xeufchateau, and .Marche. and comprises an area of
1.71)6 si|. miles, with (18!H)) 212,041 iidiabitants, most of
whom speak French. The grand duchy of Luxenil>urg
comprises an area of i)'.l8 sq. miles, with 211,0^8 inhabitants,
most of whom speak tierman. It was joined to Holland by
a personal union, the King of the Netherlands being also
Grand Duke of Luxi'uiburg. On the death of William IIL,
Adolphus, Duke of Nassau, became {jrand Duke of Luxem-
burg. It is governed by a chamber of deputies consisting
of forty-two members elected directly by the districts for
six years, and by a governor appointed by the king. For
commercial purposes it is inchnled in the tierman Zollver-
ein. In military respects it was declared neutral territory
by the Treaty of Lomlon in 11^7. In 18!)1 the revenues
amounted to 11,.")I'.(.!I24 francs, and the expenses to 9,000,-
824 francs. There is a public debt of IG.170,000 francs.
Luxemburg : capital of the grand duchy of Luxemburg:
on the Else or Alsetle; 42 miles by rail N. of Metz (see map
of German Emiiire, ref. O-C). It was at one time the
strongest fortress in Europe, next to (iibraltar. The main
part of the city stands on a rocky table-land which rises
abruptly 200 feet from the valley of the Alsette, while the
modern sul)urbs, I'fallcnthal. Clausen, ami Grund, are situ-
ated below, on the shore of the river. This location, so re-
markable both for its natural bi'auly and for its military
strength, was early used for fortificati<ms — probably from
the tenth century — and since the days of Vauban all the re-
sources of modern engineering art have been employed to
make it impregnable. By the Treaty of London in 1867 it
w;ls declared neutral ground, the fortifications were demol-
ished, and the s|]ace was laid out in .streets and promenades.
The city has cotton-manufactures, distilleries, tanneries, and
trade in leather and woolen g(Mxls. Pop. (18U0) 18,187.
Lnxeinlnirg. .\i)oi.pni-s Wii.i.hm Ceiarles AfOf.sTfs
Fri;i)Kkic K. Grand Duke of: b. at Biebrich. July 24.1817.
He wivs Duke of Nassau and became (irand Duke of Lux-
emburg on the death of William III. of Holland in l**!*!!.
He is one of the wealthiest princes in Europe. His chil-
dren are Prince William .Mcxander. the only son. born in
1852, and Princess Hilda, nuirried in 1885 to the Crown
Prince Frederick of Baden.
Luxor f.Vrabic, el-Kasr, plur. el-Kii^r. the castles]: a
considerable village in Cpper Egypt, on the wist bank of
the Nile, at which steamei-s stop'to allow tourists lo visit
the site of ancient Thebes. It contains one of the live large
temples for which Thebes was noted, but its splendor is
2:12
overshailowed by its greater neighbor at Karmik, 2 miles to
the N. E. Both teuiples were dedicated to tlie giul Anion,
and are the results of the art-liiteclural labors of several
Pharaohs. To this fact and to rea.s<ins of symmetry in the
case of the temple at Luxor is due the irregularity of its
plan, seen in the three axial directions u|ion w hich it is con-
structed. The north extensions of the original building are
inclined away from the river in order to bring them more
into line with the temple at Karnak, with whieh Luxor was
connecteil by an avenue of sphinxes. The sanctuary at the
south enil of the temple at Luxor was built ori^'inallv by
Amenhotep III. (eighteenth dyna-sty). and, having been ilam-
aged or destroyed, it wius restorc<l in the reign of Alexan-
der. Next to the N. is a hyposlyle hall, 20 yards deep and
lio wide, containing two sphinxes, bearing the name of
Sebekhotep (thirteenth dynasty). Adjoining is a |a-ri.style
hall, 48 yards long by 58 broad, with a double row of columns
on three sides. At this i>oint the iirst change of direction
occurs, and the succeeding colonnade, 58 yards long, turns at
an app_reciable angle toward the E. It also dates from the
eighteenth dvnasty. The most tiorthern imrtion is the
great peristyle court, 185 feet long, built by Ramses 11.
(nineteenth dymisty), and it inclines still more to the E.
It contains a douiile row of columns, and formerly the obe-
lisk now in Paris stood in this court. Inside the same in-
closure stands a mosque. At the entrancr to this court is a
great pvlon 75 feet nigh, with a doorwav in the middle 55
feet higli. The whole edifice is 284 yards in length. The
outer wall of Ramses's court is inscribed with the fo-calle<l
Pofin of Pmtdvr, which records thi- valiant deeds of the
Imildcr in his war against the Hittites and the cajituri-of
Kadesh. The same epic is found on the ti'mphs at Karnak
and -Vbydos. and in two papvri. one in the Louvre (Haifef)
and the other in the British Museum (Sallier JJ.).
ClIARLKS R. GiLLKTT.
Lujnes. li'i ecn', Charles d'Aliik.kt. Duke <le: b. at
Pont SL-EsjuMt. department of (iard, France. Aug. .5, 1578;
was descended from a Florintine family, AllH'rti by name,
which having bought the estate of Luynes in Touraine had
assumed its name and title. Having been educated as a
page at the court of Henry IV.. he became the favorite of
the dauphin, afterward Louis XIII., and it was at his insti-
gation that the young king gave orders for the impri>on-
nicnt of Marshal d'Aiicre and the queen .\pr. 14, 1617.
After this court revolution Luvnes was nuide a duke and
peer of France. He married tlie daughter of the Duke of
Slontbazon. was made constable and chancellor, and exer-
cised for a .short time absolute control over the whole Gov-
ernment. He was fortunate enough, however, to die Deo.
15, 1021, before the king became aware of liis inca|iacity
and avarice. — Due of his descendants, Honork Tiikodokic
Paii. Joseph d'Albert, Duke de Luvnes (b. in Paris, Dec
15, lS(r2. d. in Rome Dee. 14, 1867) became celebrated for
the liberal and judicious support he pive to science and art,
of which he was himself a cultivator. He wrote Metiiuottle
(1836): Descriplioii de queh/neK Vinvx priiiln {\><i{\): A'^iMii
Kiir III XiiiiiiKniiiliqiie dex Salrn/>ie.i et de In J'/ieiiicie (1S48) ;
Voi/iiy( d'Expliiration a In Mer Miirle (pul)lished after his
death). I" 18.54 he superintended the j^iublieation of the
catalogue of the National Library of Pans.
Luys, lUee'. Jtles Bernard. M. D.: alienist ; b. in Paris,
France, in 1828; griuluated at the Paris Schixil of Medicine
in 1857; passed the concunrs in lH(i2 for the |M>sition of phy-
sician to the hospitals; in 186:1 iM'came physician to Sal-
|>etriere hospital and to thi> Ivry a-sylum. At thos*- institu-
tions he paid imrticular attention to the structun- of the
brain, and published in 1872 an atlas. Irnniiyni/ihif plinlo-
(/rii/tliique des cenlreg ni-rfrns. In 1881 he founded a jour-
nal of nervous and mental di.soascs, L' Eitreplmlr. and wiis
one of its editors until 1888. Among his works are AVh./m
de phyxiologie et de palhnliHjie crrihriiUs (Paris. lS74i: L*
cerveau el .iM/i/nr/i'wH.? (Paris. 1878), a work that has Iw'.'n
translated into English and German; and Traili clinii/iie el
uraliuue des maladies mentales (Paris, 18.S1).
.S. T. Armstro.vo.
Luzerne, in zflm'. Chevalier AxvE CK-iAR. de la, LU D.: b.
in Paris, France, in 1741 ; educated for the military M-rvii-e,
and wa-s aide-<lo-camp to his relative, the Duke lie Broglie.
during the Seven Years' war. att.nnini: the rufik "f iimi.>r-
genenil of cavalry (1762). with 1 1 ™
de France. He afterwanl al.i ■ >■
for diplomacv; wa-s .sent as mini-n r 0. 1 "oi ■ . ■..•.■iiia
1 776, and lo the U. S. as successor to tiernnl after the recog-
402
LUZ, LA
LYCEUM
nition by Franco of the independence of the iinitwl colonies
in 1778.' He arrivcil at I'hihulelphia Sept. 21, 177!), where
■ pn)ofs of iinulence and friend-
nists, whieli were hi^hlv apprc-
he resided four years, fjiviiijr
, ship for the striit,'};ling: coliunsts, wnieli were liiKlilv appr
ciated, and pave iiiin a considerable influenee in tlie direction
of affairs. In 17f<0 lie contracted on his own responsibility
a loan for the relief of tlie army then sufferinfr the utmost
destitution. In 1782 he obtained the postponenicnt of the
ratification by t'on^ress of the treaty of peaie with Great
Britain until that between Great Hrilain and France should
be sinned. On his return to France in 1783 he bore with
him tlie most honorable testimonies of esteem from t'ongress
and from individuals. Harvard Collefie conferred upon him
the dejiree of LL. U., and Pennsylvania gave his name to
one of her counties. On the organization of the Federal
Government (178!)) the Secretary of State, by direction of
Washington, addressed a letter to Chevalier Luzerne con-
veying the thanks of the nation for his services. He died in
London, Sept. 14. 17!)1. being then French minister to the
British court. — His elder bnaher, Cksar Gi'ILL.4L'mi; (b. July
7, 1738, d. June 21, 1821). became Bishop of Langres 177(),
and Cardinal 1817; was a distinguished theological writer,
and defender of the liberties of the Galilean Church.
Luz, La, Guanajuato, Mexico : See La Luz.
Luzon, loo-zon', or LiK^oii : the largest of the Philippine
islands, in the Malayan Archipelago, belonging to Spain;
situated between the Chinese Sea and the Pacific Ocean, be-
tween lat. 13° 30' and 18^ 40 X., and between Ion. 11!)" 45
and 124° 10' E. Area, liO.GoO sq. miles. Like all tlie Philip-
pine islands, it is of volcanic origin, having several active
volcanoes, among which is Mayoii : carlli(iuakes are frequent
and destructive ; the city of Manilla was nearly destroyed by
one in 1863. The ground is mountainous, several ranges of
a height from 4,000 to 7,000 feet traversing the island from
N. to S. The soil is of exceeding fertility, and the climate
being hot and moist, the luxuriance of "the vegetation is
almost unequaled. Immense forests of ebony, cedar, gum-
trees, and iron-wood, interspersed with orange, citron, cocoa,
breadfruit, and tamarind trees, cover the mountains to their
very tops. Myriads of climbing plants and parasites wind
from tree to tree, cover every twig, and form a forest grow-
ing on the forest. Rice, wheat, maize, sugar, cotton, indigo,
tobacco, coffee, ginger, pepper, and vanilla are raiseil in con-
tinuous crops witliout dilliculty an<l in great aliumlance.
Luzon is entirely free from beasts of prey ; oxen and bulfaloes
are employed in agriculture; sheep, goats, and swine are
reared. Pheasants, ducks, and brilliantly colored birds
swarm all over the island, and fish are abundant both in
the rivers and the surrounding sea. Of minerals, gold, iron,
copper, coal, aiul marble are found. Mother-of-pearl, amber,
coral, and tortoise-shell are ex[)orted, together with rice,
sugar, hemp, and tobacco; the last article is a Government
monopoly, and yields a clear annual profit of nearly $5,000,-
000. The population of Luzon, which numbers 13,400,000,
consists partly of Negritos, who live a.s nomades in the
mountains of the interior in a savage state. They are idola-
ters, and are believed to be the original inhabitants of the
island. Around them are the "Indios" or Indonesians (the
Polynesians of Malaysia). These people are Roman Catho-
lics, and form the bulk of the population. Around them on
the coasts are the Malays (Tagals, Bicols, Ilocaiios, etc.).
These are industrious, hospitable, and open to progress and
civilization, and, besides beiiig good agriculturists, possess
some manufactures: they build ships with which thev sail
to Spain. Many Chinese have settle<l here, but compara-
tively few S|miiiards. The trade, which is verv considerable
and increjising every year, is mostly in the hands of English
and American merchants established at Manilla, the princi-
pal town of the island. Luzon was <liscoveied bv Jlagallanes
in 1521 ; Manilla was built in 1581. See Piiili'im'Inks.
Kcvised by Makk \V. HAitRi.sdTON.
Ln'zilla [Mod. Lat., from 0. Ital. luzzioln, glow-worm
(whence Ital. Incciiiln. firefly)] : a genus of perennial pseudo-
glumaceous plants, commoiilv called wood-ruslies, belonging
to the family </i(HC«e«r, anil dilfering from tlio t/»»CMS, or
rush proper, in the form of the leaves, which arc flat, soft,
usually hairy and grass-like, and in the three-seeded capsule.
Numerous species are found in the woods of Kurope and
nine' in the C. S., among which are A. /)ilnsa and L. pnrvi-
fliirn or Difltiiiiinirixi, wiiicli have the llowers loosely long-
peduncled, umlielled, or corymbed; L. caiii/jcHlrin, L. arcu-
ala, an<l Ij. npicala having the flowers crowded in spikes or
close clusters.
Lnzzatto, loot-saa'to, Samuel David : Old Testament
scholar; b. at Trieste, Austria, in 1801, of Jewish descent;
received a brilliant education, and became the most |>opular
historian of his iieople, bringing to light the forgotten epi-
sodes of Jewish history. He was liberal in his views of Old
Testament exegesis, of which science he was professor in the
rabbinical school at Padua from 182!) to his death .Sept.
2!l, 1865. He wrote Hebrew, (iernian, French, and Italian
with great elegance, and is justly regarded as one of the
chief restorers of Hebrew literature. He wrote a J/ebrew
(i mm III in; (Irammnr (if JiibJicid Aramaic, t'lench Koles
uii It<aiii/i (\m4). JMi-fie J\'uli:s on tlie J'liifateucli (18.50),
and Italian translations of Job (1844) and of l.saiah (1850),
with a Hebrew coiniuentary, besides i>i'rt/o(;i(fA' on die Cabala,
tlie Zohar, and file Aiiliquity of the Votvel-points and Ac-
ceiifs of the liihle (1852), and a work on the Aramaic version
of Onkelos (1830). See Griitz, llistori/ of the Jeirs, vol. xi.
Revised by C. II. Toy.
Ly'all, Edna : pseudonym of Miss Ada Eu.kn Bayly ; b.
and educated at Brighton, England ; author of Won hy
Wailing (187!)): Ihmoran (1882); He Two (1884); In the
dolden Days (1885) ; Knight Errant (1887) ; Autobiography
of a Slander (1887); Derrick Vaughan, JVovelist (1889);
A Hardy ^'ol■«elnaH (188!)) ; Doreen (1894).
Lycaiithropy [from Gr. XoKovflpamla, lye.mthropy : Xvkos.
Wolf + &vBpwTro!. man] : a kiiul of madness in which the pa-
tient fancies that he is a wolf. The old and very widesiiread
belief in the existence of man-wolves possessed of the devil
has in many instances led deluded pereons to fancy them-
selves thus possessed ; and in not a lew instances this fancy
hivs become epidemic, and hundreds of persons have become
cannibals, going upon all fours, living in the forests, and
howling like wolves. In 1600 hundreds of people in the
Jura were executed for lycanthrojiy. Likewise jiersons may
imagine themselves dogs, and go about snarling at every
pas-ser. In some ca.ses they bark and froth at the nioutli,
and simulate rabies in their actions. This spurious hydro-
phobia is in nowise related to true rabies, but is simply a
form of mental perversion. Revised by William Pepper'.
Lyea'on[= Gr. Au(c<i<i)>', cf. Aukos. wolf] : in Greek mythol-
ogy, (1) a King of .Arcadia, whose fifty sons were personifi-
cations of .\rcadiaii citii's, and surpassed the rest of man-
kind in insolence and impiety. In order to test them Zeus
assumed the garb of a beggar and accepted from them an
invitation todinner, at which, on the suggestion of Jhenalus,
they served up to him, along with the .sacred offerings, the
entrails of a boy murdered for the purpose (the .story points
to the olferings of human sacrifice to Zeus Lycieus in an-
cient times). Zeus detected the crime and slew Lycaon
and all of his sons except Nyctinus, the youngest, whom
Gaia (Earth) saved by seizing the ii[ilil'led hand of Zeus.
Nyctinus became King of Arcadia, though the vengeance
of heaven still pursued him, for it was in his reign that the
flood of Deucalion was sent to devastate the world. (2) The
father of Pandarus, who led the forces of Zelea to the sup-
port of the Trojans against the Greeks. (3) A son of Priam
and Laothol', half-brother of Hector. He was slain by .\cliil-
les. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lycao'nia (in Gr. AvKoovta) : a province of Asia Minor,
situated between Galalia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Pisidia, and
Phrygia. Its boundaries changeil often, according to the
fortune of war or the caprice of I lie Koinans, and it was not
until 321 A. D. that it became a fixed ami .separate province.
In Byzantine limes it was included in the .\natolic Theme.
It afterward became the center of the Seldjuk empire. Its
principal town was Iconium (now Koniah). Other impor-
tant towns were Lystra (near Khatyn Serai), Derbe (at Gii-
delissin), Laranda (at Karaman), and Laodicea (Calscei'au-
nu'iic, now Ladik). The country is for the most part a
plain whose soil is impregnated with .salt, but supports vast
nerds of fat -tailed sheep. Salt is the chief prociuct of the
country, it is gained from Lake Talta (now Tuz Giiil).
J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lycc'inn [= Lat. = Gr. t!> AuKfioi/, nameil from the neigh-
boring temple of Apollo Lyceus ((Jr. 'A-ir6\\uv AvKtios, liter.,
the wolf-slayer), deriv. of \vkos, wolf. See WoLi'] : the
largest of tlie three great gymnasia of ancient Athens.
None but well-borfi youlh. whose jiarentage on both sides
was Allieiiian, were allowed to lie trained here. In 335 B.C.
Aristotle was permitted to make use of the Lyceum as a
place for teaching philoso|ihy. His instruct inn was given
while ho walked in the groves which surrounded the Lyce-
LYcnxis
LYCOPODS
403
nm ; hence his philosophy was calletl Peripatetic (walking
about). Tlie Lvfcum stoiul on the cast side of tlie city, out-
side the K'ltes, just S. of the t'yiiosarfjes, and near tlie foun-
tain of I'anops. It was surrounded by a grovo of lofty
plane trees. — In France the public schools for secondary in-
struction have the name of lyceuin (lijcre).
Lychnis, lik'nis [.Mml. Lat., from Ivat. lychnis, a kind of
red flower = (ir. Kvxi>is: cf. xixyos, liirno] : name of a genus
of annual or perennial pkmts founil in huropc and the L'. S.,
the commonest species of which is the corncockle (//. ffi-
thago). It belongs to the pink family, and received its
name from a scarlet or llamc-coloied (irecian species. Sev-
eral species are cultivated lus garden-flowers in the U. S., the
best Known being the scarlet lychnis (L. chtitniionica),
sometimes called the Maltese cross, a native of Northern
Asia, the tints of which vary from scarlet to rose-color and
white. The common mullein pink or rose-campion (Ij. coro-
naria) is of this genus. The genus dillers from Sileiie, or
catchtly, only in having five (rarely four) styles, and a pod
opening by as many or twice as many teeth. The cornciwkle
is too common in wheat-fields, the black seeds being injuri-
ous to the (juality of the flour.
Lycia, lis'i-a (in Gr. AvkIu) : an ancient region of Asia
Minor of small extent, lying on the Mediterranean, between
Mts. Taurus on the X., Climax on the E., and Du'dala on
the W., the adjoining regions across the mountains being
Phrygia, I'amphylia, Pisidia, and Caria; the chief rivers,
Xanthus, Limyrus, and Glaucus ; and the most noted cities,
Xanlhu.s, Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra, Tlos, and Tel-
missus. The most ancient name of the country, according
to Herodotus, was Milyas, the inhabitants being of two
races, .Solymi and Termihe or Tremihe. Kxtemleil accounts
of Lycia have been given by the Greek poets, historians,
and geographers. It was a favorite region with Homer,
who assigns to the Lycian heroes, Glaucus and Sarijcdon,
the place of honor among the Trojan allies. Apollo was
often called Lycian Apollo, from his temple at Patara,
second in renown only to that at Delphi, and reganled by
some as the place of his birth. The .Solvmi, doubtless the
earliest inhabitants, and of Semitic stock, were con(iuered
by the Treraihc, who are said to have come from ("rete and
took the name of Lycians. They a|)|)ear as Leka, a sea-
faring people, in the Egyptian inscriptions of the fourteenth
century B. o. It is to bo noted that the only mention of
writing found in the Homeric poems is in connection with
the Lycian h'gend of Bellerophon. The Lycians were con-
quereil by Ilarpagus, the general of Cyrus, notwithstand-
ing the heroic and memorable resistance of the inhabitants
of Xanthus, who burned themselves with their wives, slaves,
and treasures in their citadel. They took part in the revolt
of the Asiatic Greeks, were sulwlued and made a satrapy
of Persia, and furnished fifty ships to Xerxes for his inva-
sion of Greece. Alexander the Great subdued the country
almost at the outset of his Asiatic career ; it was afterward
attached to the Syrian empire, and was given to the Kho-
dians by the conipiering Komans. Soon afterward it be-
came independent as a republican confederation of cities,
but ultimately became a Roman province, with Myra as the
capital. In the great civil war on the death of Ciesar.
Lycia espouscil the cause of Octavius and Antony, and wius
conquered l>y Urutus after a des|)erate resistance, in which
the city of Xanthus repeated its jict of self-immolati<m by
fire. In modern times Lycia hail fallen into complete
oblivion, no traveler hail explored it, and the sites of its
celebrated cities were unknown, when in 18;i8 and 1840 it
was visited by Mr. (afterward Sir Charles) Fellows, who
found there vast ruins of temples, fortresses, and tombs,
and inscriptions in an unknown character. An expedition
under his leiulcrship was sent in a British vessel of war 1H46,
which conveyed to London the ri'inarkable sculptures now
occupying the " Lycian room " of the British ^lusiMun. The
Lycian alphabet consists of twenty-five single and several
double letters. A few of the characters are pecidiar; thir-
teen are identical with the Cypriote in form, aiul conse-
?uently related to the Pluvnician, while three were lM>rr<iwed
rom the Greek. The inscriptions in this collection are
chiefly from tombs cut in the rix;k,the Lvcians having In-en
remarkalile for the honors shown to the ilead, as well as for
the Cyclopean character of their architecture, which in its
later periixl showwl traces of (iriiian influence. See Sir
Charles Fellows, Account of Di.irnrerieK in Lycia (IXtl)
and Coins of Ancient Li/cin (IS."!."!); Benndorf and Niemann,
Iteiaen in Lykien und Karien (Vienna, 18S4) ; Petersen and
von Luscimn, Reixen in Lykien. Milyan und Kibyratiit f\'i.
enna, 1««S) ; Kie|H-rt, Lykia (Vienna, ISHT); Benndorf and
Niemann, Das llenion von (ijollmtelii Tryna (Vienna. 1>SN«);
Treul)er, Oewhiclite der Lykier (Stuttgart, 1H87), and his i»
Beilrdge ziir (iexcliiclile der Lykier ('i'abingen, 1888);
Ilirschfeld, Ueber die Griechiselien (Iriibischriften irelelie.
Oeldslrafrn anordnin (Konigsberg. 1W7). and his Gebiel
vonAperlai, in the Arc/iitol. Kpigntpli. Mitlliril.aiisOeKlrT-
reieli. ix., pp. 1!»2-2()1 ; von Warslierg, JJ,im Utictt de» Sar-
pedon,ili his Ilomensclie LanJ.tc/iaflen{\'uuiin,lHH4); 1',^.
rot and Chipiez, History of Art in I'liryyia, Lydia, Caria,
and Lycia (London and New York, 1HU2).
Kcviscd by .J. K. .S. .Sterrett.
Lycian Language: the ancient language of jAcia; pre-'
served in a fi-w insiHptions, which have iK-en as ve't but jiar-
tially deci]ihereil. 'Iliough some scholars, notablv .Savels-
berg and Deecke, have sought to establish for the'lanpiage
a place among the Indo-Kuropean tongues, no such relation
has been satisfactorily demonstrated. Savclslterg attempted
to prove a close coniicction with Avesfan, and Deecke. con-
necting the language closely with the Cariaii, asserts for the
Carian-Lycian an intermediate position between the Iranian
and Hellenic groups. Schmidt, Corpus of Lycian Inscrip-
tions (1808); Savelsberg, Beitruge zur Erklarung der fy-
kisclien Sprache (187r>-78); Deecke, Lykisc/ie Sludien;
Bezzenberger's Beitruge (xii., xiii., xiv., 1887-80).
Besj. Ide Wheeler.
Lycon (in Gr. AiKay): one of the successors of .Aristotle
and Theophrastus as the head of the Peripatetic school of
philosophy, over which he presided from 270 to 226 B. r. He
was born in the Troad, was distingui>hed for health of iKMly
and mind, while the charm of his language was so great
that he was <-alle<l rKixay. He was courted by the kings
Antigimus. Aniioehus, Attains, and Kunienes. Though h.-
was the immediate successor of Strato, he imitated Theo-
phrastus in character sketches. .1. R. .S. .S.
Lycoper'don [Mod. Lat., from Gr. xixos. wolf + wtpStirecu.
to break wind] : name of the principal genus of the Pl'FK-
BALLS (q. v.).
Lyc'ophron (in Gr. AvK6ippo!v): grammarian and poet; b.
at Chalets in EulMi'a: lived at the court of Ptolemy Phila-
dclphus, who intrusted him with the arrangenu'nt of the
works of the comic pwts contained in the .Uexandrian li-
brary. His extensive work on comedy and his many trage-
dies have been lost. Only his Cassandra or Alexandra, a
monologue of 1,474 iambic verses, is still extant. It has the
form of a prophecy uttered by Cassandra relating to the
later fortunes of Troy, the Trojan and the Greek heroes, and
winding up with a reference to Alexaniler the (ireat, who
should unite Asia and Europe in one universal empire. The
style is overwrought and the expressions enigmatical, and
even in antiquity the poem was considered verv obscure. It
swarms with obsolete words and long-windol compounds,
and seems to have been written for the purpose of display-
ing the author's mythological learning. By reastin of its
learning and obscurity it was much studied in the Byzan-
tine perio<l, nor is one surprised to find that in iniKlern
times it has been carefully conned by scholars, notalily by
Milton. There is a considerable iKidy of scholia, aiul sundry
paraphrases have been preserved. Anatdironous references
to the domination of Rome are clearly later interpolations,
and do not affect the genuineness of the work as a whole.
Editions: Baihnuiini (1820), Scheer (1881), and Kinkel in
the Teubner Library (1880); an English translation by Ix)rd
Royston. Revised by B. L. Giloersleeve.
Lvcopo'dium [Mod. Lat., liter., wolfs foot: Gr. ^iwof,
Wolf + *iro$(oK. dimin. of vovt. irot^i, foot]: a genus of Fek.v-
woBTS (y. c). In Irotany, the name of tlie typical genus of
the family /yi/row/rfiVirop, several species of which are [Hipii-
larly <-alled club-moss. The |K)wder called lycopo<iiiim is
composed of the spori's of Lycopodiiim clanitiim (which is
common in both the Old and the New World) and of other
species. It is extremely inflammable, is used in fireworks
for making a white fiame, and in theater.- for artificial Iii:lil-
ning. In pharmacy it is used as a pill-i>o»d>-r. an<l in tli.'
nursery as a dressing-jMiwder for infants. The s|Kin - i-f
many s|M'cies form a |K)wder which is iHMieficial in uliem-
tions. etc. The species are evergreen, and two or three aro
extensively sold at Christmas-time for dwonitive purix>»«~<,
esi>ecially in the U. S. the "ground-pine " (A. drndrvideum).
Lycopods: the common name of the highest class (Lyeo-
podiacea-) of the Fer.nwortS (f. i'.).
40i
LYCOPOLIS
LYELL
Ljcop'ol is (Egypt. Saul ; sjicred name Pa-Anub, place of
Auiibis; iiioilern.'Siut or Assiut): a city of Miildle Kiiypt
{27' 15 N. lat.) of jrrcat antiquity, the scat of ])owciful
princes of the Middle Kingdom, and to-day one of the most
important places in the Nile valley. Of ancient structures
little is left except some fra,i;rnents of columns. The inter-
esting remains are the tombs cut in the Libyan liills, which,
with those at Uersheh and Hetii-llasan. are our main sources
of iufi>rmation concorninj; tlie history and conditions of the
Midille KiuKdom (say 2l6o-l!»(«) u. d). One of them con-
tains a peculiar contract made by a nomarch of Siut for the
iiiakinj; of funeral olYcrinipi for liimself in perpetuity. Op-
posite Siut are other toinbs constructed during the sixth
dvnastv. The local god was Anubis, to whose emblem, the
jackal, the ttreeks applied the name of " wolf," whence the
name Lycopolis. A peculiarity of the temple service at Siut
was the' employment ot lay priests as late as the Micldle
Kingdom. Siiit was the birthplace of Plotinus, the Neo-
Platonic philosopher, and here Christian hermits and ascet-
ics were found as early its the beginning of the fourth ccu-
turv. ' CUARLES R. CtILLETT.
Lyciir'gus: Spartan legislator: lived, according to the
most common tradition, in the ninth century n. c, and was
a son of King Kunomos: ruled the country for some time
during the minority of his nephew, C'harilaos, but was after-
ward compelled to" emigrate; visited Asia Minor, where he
became acfpiainted with the Homeric songs; Crete, where
lie studied the laws of .Minos; Egypt and other countries;
and became on his return the founder of those institutions
by which one of the most striking types of national charac-
ter which history contains was developed in Sparta. All de-
tails of his life are very uncertain, however, and some mod-
ern scholai-s even consider him a mythical persoti ; but the
Spartans themselves built a temple to his nonor, and said
that he brought his laws from Crete, and introduced them
with the sanction of the Delphic oracle. The most [uomi-
nent feature of Spartan society was the division into two
classes or castes — the slaves, helots, who performed all the
labor and had absolutely no rights: and the citizens, Spar-
tans, who were comiiletely exempted from labor, and owned
and ruled the land. The most prominent feature of tliis
privileged class was its military discipline. The individual
was absolutely subordinate to the state, and lived only lor
the state. The Spartan had no talent, no passion, no filan
of his own ; he was merely a tool. Only strong and well-
formed children were allowed to live ; the weak or deformed
were exposed to die on Mt. Taygelus. At the age of seven
years the boy was taken from his mother and educated by
the state, which subjecte<l him to the severest discipline.
When he was thirty years old he was allowed to marry, but
the slate chose his wife, and, although rnarrie<l, he contin-
ued to live in garrison till his sixtieth year. By the estab-
lishment of this social order Lycurgus succeeded in trans-
forming the Spartans from one of the ruilest and wildest to
the most quiel and digiiilied of all the Greek peoples, and
was worshiped by them as a god.
Lycurgus (in CJr. \vKovpyo!) : one of the ten Attic ora-
tors; flourished in the second half of the fourth century
B. c. ; was an eminent statesman and patriot of the Anti-
Macedonian party, and closely associated with Demosthenes.
He was especially distinguished for his administration of the
finances of Athens (;i;iy-32() B. c.) and for his exertions in
beautifying the city. As an orator he was active in prose-
cuting defaulters and traitors, and the only extant speech
of liLs — that against Leocratcs (331) — is a prosecution of a
man who forsook Athens in her time of need (338). Lycur-
gus was highly honored by the Athenians, who refuseil to
surrender him at the demand of Alexander. 1). some time
before Demosthenes. The ancient critics had much fault to
find with the bad arrangement, the harsh style, the exces-
sive digressions of the speeches of Lycurgus, and modern
critics see a conlirmalion of those strictures in the only
oration we have; and yet all agree that this speech against
Leocrates is instinct with exalted patriotism, ami that the
interest ot the matter far outweighs the defects, real and
imaginary, of the manner. Editions: Miltzner (183(1),
Kiessling and Meier (1847), liehdantz (1876), Thalheim, crit-
ical (1880). Sec, further, Ulass. Allixche BereJmmhi'il, vol.
iii. H, pp. 1-72, and Dilrrbach, L'uruteur Lyrurijue (IH'.Hl).
B. L. UlLUKRSLEKVK.
Lyd'dn (in (ir. t4 AuSSa): an ancient town of Palestine;
williin the tribe of I'lpliriiini : <in the road from .lerusalem
to Joppa, U miles E. of I lie lalUr. In the Old Testanu'Ut it
bears the name of Lod, as also in tlie Apocrypha. It was
the scene of Peter's miracle of healing ^Eneas (.\cts ix. 32,
35): was destroyed by Cestius liallus in his nuirch against
Jerusalem, rebuilt as capiud of one of the nine toiiarchies
of .luda'a, and became the scat of a celebrated .lewisli school
of the law. Later it received the name of Diospolis; was
one of the principal places of Palestine forseveral centuries;
was the scat of a bishopric, and the birthplace of the cele-
brated martyr St. George, the patron of England. It figured
largely during the crusades, and is still an extensive town
under the name of Liid.
Lyd'gatp, .Iomn: poet; b. at Lydgate, Suffolk, England,
about 1370; studied at Oxford; traveled in France and
Italy, ami became the head of a .scIkhpI at Bury St. Ed-
munds. He wrote several poetical works — 'J'lie Fall of
l^rlnces, The Storie of Tlitbes, und The Jli.ilnrie, Siege, and
Distruetion of Troye — which are chiefly valuable as monu-
ments of the English language in that obscure period. D.
at Bury St. Edmuncrs about H.'JO.
Lyd'ia (in Or. AuSlo) : a country of Asia Minor, whose
boundaries varieil much in different jieriods, though it may
be bounded by Mysia, Phrvgia, Caria, and Ionia (or the
^Egean Sua). Of the three dyiuisties of Herodotus, the
Alyada'. the lleraclida'. and the Mcrmnaihe, the first two
are' imrely fabulous. With the Merninada' (founded by
Gyges (187-053 ii. c. according to Gclzer), the last of whom
wiis Cra'sus (overthrown by the Persians in 546 b. c), we
begin to touch historical times. Lydia was famous for its
wealth, which was gained not so much from the gold sands
of the cclebrate<l Pactolus (now Sarabat) as by trade, for
which they had a natural aptitude which clung to them for
centuries "after the colhii)se of the-empire of t'ro'sus. The
name of Cra'sus is proverbial to this day, because he was
benevolent as well as wealthy. "The loving kindness of
Cro'sus fadeth not away," ssiys Pindar. The gifts pre-
sented by Cricsus to theshrine of Apollo at Delphi are esti-
mated at $6,000,000, and even the private citizen Pythius,
of Cehcna', was worth ^16.000.000. The Lydiaiis invented
coined money liy imprinting upon the rude ingot of gold or
silver tlie ollicia'l stamp of tlie state along with the mark of
the king. The capital of Lydia was Sardcs (now Sart), other
cities ot importance being Magnesia ad Sipylum (now Ma-
nissa), Thvateira (now Ak llissar), Philadelphia (now Ala
Shehir), and Hypaipa (now Birghe). The country is still
verv icrlile. and" produces a fine (quality of tobacco.
LnKRATiui;. — Perrot and Chipiez, llinlunj of Art in
Phn/yia, Lydia, Caria.'and Lycia (London and New York,
1892, pp. 232-;i01) ; Curtius. Jiiitnige zur desehichte und
T(ipo(/raphie Kleinasiens (Berlin, 1872); Stark, iX'iicA dem
Grie'chischen Orient (1874); Sayce, ^otes from Juurneys in
the Trixtd and Lydia. in tlie Joiirn. Hell. Studies (1880) ;
Schmidt. Aus Constantinople und Kleinasien in the Athen-
ische Mitlheiluni/en (1881); Gregorovius, Kleine Schriften
zur (ieschiehte und Cultur (Leipzig, 1887, vol. i., p. 1-47);
Tchlalchell, Le liusphore ct Constantinople (lS_(i4, pp. 232-
342); Lenormant, La Jlonnaie dans I'Antiouite (i., |ip. 93-
124) ; llead, 27(6 Coinage of Lydia and Persia (London,
1874-77). J- 1{- ^- Sterrett.
Lvdiiin [from 7yy(?m] : in music, the designation of one
of tlie ancient ec<-lesiastical modes. Its .scale is that of F,
and it differs from the modern scale on that letter by having
B natural instead of B-?,
Lydiuu Stone: a siliceous slate or flinty jasper of a vel-
vct-iilnck color, used as a touchstone for testing the quality
of gold and silver. Sec Jasper.
Ly'ell. Sir Charles; geologist: b. at Kinnordy, Seot-
lancl, Nov. 14, 17!»7; studied at Exeter College, Oxford, and
gradual eil in 181!) ; prepared himself for the practice of law,
which he soon abandoned for scientific research, esjiecially
in geology. Ilis first studies were in Great Britain, but lie
afterwanl traveled much in Europe, besides visiting Canada
and Ihi' U. S. in 1811-42 and lS.15-4(i. He became Professor
ot Geology in KiugV College, London, in 1832 ; wius president
of tli(^ Geological Societv of London in 1836 and 1850 ; was
knighted in 1848 and created baronet in 1864. D. in Lon-
don, Feb, 22, 1875. Ilis great work Principles of (leoloyy
(1830-4S3) piusseil through eleven editions, receiving its final
revision in 1870. Otiier important publications were the
Student's Manual of Geology (is:is to IS70); Travels in
North America (\S4'>); A Second \'isit to the I'nited Stolen
(1840) ; atid (leoloyical Lvidences of the Antiipiily of Man
(1863 to 1873). Though his direct 'contributioiis_ to knowl-
LYRNCEPHALA
LYMAX
405
edge wcro of pr«at viihie, he is most widely known as tlie
apostlo of " uiiiforinilariunisni," the doetriiie that the stu-
pendous changes demonstrated by the structure of the earth's
crust were accoinplished slowly Sy the cumulative action of
agencies still at work with undiminished energy. This theory
dill not, indeeil, originate with him, but tx'fore his time it
was little known, and most geologists explained the revolu-
tions of the earth's surface, whereliy mountains wen' uplifted,
valleys were openi'd, ocean lieds were desiccated, provinces
were submerged, and fauims were destroyc<l, as the results
of suddi'n and violent catastrophes. The substitution of a
more rational view was so largely duo to the al>illlywith
which he discussed the subject and the great Ixwly of observ-
ations by which he illuniinate<l it, tliat the geologic phi-
losophy of modern times is often characterized as Lyellian.
G. K. GiLBlCRT.
Lyenpojih'iila [Mod. Lat., from Or. \i!«ii', loose -t- iyK(<pa-
Xoi, brain]: in llwenSi classification, a class of mammals so
named from the loose connection of the two hemispheres of
the brain, which are united by the round and hippocarapal
commissures, the corpus callosum being nidinuMitary or ab-
sent. The cereliral hemispheres arc usually without folds
and leave the cerebellum, olfactory lobes, and i)art of the
optic lobes exposed. This class includes the Monotrcmes
and Marsupials. The term is contrasted with Lissenceph-
ala, (iyreiueplmla, and Arehencephala. P. A. Lucas.
Ly^oMilllil r;Mod. fjat., from Gr. \vywS-ns, flexible, liter,
willow-like ; Airyot, willow twig + sullix -wSris, having the
form of] : name of a genus of climbing ferns found in Xew
Zealand, .Japan, and America. One species only, L. palmn-
tum, is found in the U. S., from JIassachusetts to the Gulf
States. It is much prized for purposes of decoration. Oue
or two species are cultivated in greenhouses.
Lykons : borough (incorporated 1871); Dauphin co.. Pa.
(for location of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. o-G) ;
on the X. (^'ent. Railway ; 43 miles X. E. of Ilarrisburg. It
is in a coal-mining region, and has 7 churches, 10 schools,
pulilic library, several manufactories, and a weekly news-
paper. Pop.' (18S0) 2,154; (1890) 2,450; (18!)3) estimated
with suburbs, 4,500. Editor of "I{e()1sti;r."
Lyl'y, or Lilly, John- : author ; b. in the Weald of Kent,
Englanil, in 1553 or 1.554 : was educated at Magdalen College,
Oxford, and gradinited in 1573. His Kiiphue-i. or llie Anal-
omij nf Wit (1579) and Euphites and his Enqland (1.580) at-
taineil great popularity in his own times. 'I'hey are novels
of that half-sentimental, half-didactic description which the
time adored. It was, however, not so much their contents
as their stylo which made them popular. This " new style "
became extremely fashionable. Its characteristics depend
more upon syntax and construction than upon phraseology,
and consist in "a peculiar combination of antithesis with
alliteration, assonance, rhyme, and play upon words, a love
for tho conformity and correspondence of [larallel sentences,
and a temlency to accumulate rhetorical figures — such as
climax, the rhetorical question, objections and refutations,
the repetition of the same thought in other forms," etc. (see
Landmaun, Der Euphuimnus, nein UVstn, seiue Quelle, geine
(iesr/iichfe, Giessen. 1881). The books ran through thirteen
editions before 1IJ3G. and then fell into utter oblivion. In
18(!S, however, they were again edited among tho Arber re-
prints. Prof. Rusliton, of Cork, discovered that Euphues
and his Eiiphiebux. the most valued portion of the Euphues,
is a rather close paraphraso of Plutarch On Eduratian.
Lyiy also wrote nine court-plays, which contain fine passjiges
and songs. He was perhaps the author of Pap with an
Jta/rhelti'. a once famous pamiihlet. His life was mostly
spent at Elizabeth's court. Burgh ley seems to have been his
special patron ; he obtained, however, no substantial patron-
age either from him or from the queen. D. in Xov., ItiOO.
Lyiiinii. Chkstkr Smith : astronomer and physicist ; b. at
Mancluster, Conn., Jan. 13, 1814: studied astronomy ami
the kindred sciences in boyhood without a teacher, construct-
ing astronomical anil optical apparatus with his own haiuls,
and computed complete almamics for 18-"!0 and IKJl, and
tables of eclipses for fifteen years ahead. He graduated at
Vale College 1837, taught sihool at Ellington two years,
studied theology at I'uion Seminary, X. Y., and at Xew
Haven 1S40-42 • wius pastor of a Congregational church at
Xew Britain, Conn., 1843-45 ; went to the .Sandwich islands
on account of failing health in 1S45 ; taught the Hoyal
School, having as pupils four of the subsequent (K'cupants
of tho Hawaiian throne ; became a surveyor in California
1847 ; was one of the earliest to send to tho Eastern States
authentic accounts of the discovery of gold ; settled in Xew
Haven 1850, where he engaged in scientific pursuits, and
was one of the revisers of \\'el)ster'ii Dictionary (edition of
1864), taking charge of the scientific terms ; iHK'amc in lS5i)
Professor of Industrial Mechanics and Phvsics in Yale Col-
lege, and took an aitive part in organizing the Shefiield
Scientific School, in which he also taught iL<trononiv, Inith
theoretical and pra<'tical. From ls7l to 18»4 his on'ife.ssor-
ship was that of astronomy and |ihvsics. In 1H84 he was re-
lieved of the charge of physics, anil in 1«.S9 was made emer-
itus professor of a.stronomy. He nublished articles in The
American Juurnal of Science, The Xew Enylander, and
elsewhere, and made various useful inventions: e. g. his
wave apparatus, his pendulum apparatus for acoustic curves,
etc. lie was an honorary memU'rof the British .\ssociation
for the Advancement of Science, and filled positions in sev-
eral scientific bodies in his own country. 1>. in Xew Haven,
Jan. 29, 1890.
Lyman, Henrv Munson, A. M., M. D. : physician ; b. in the
Sandwich islands. Xov. 26. 1835, of Xew England pan^nts ;
was educated at Williams College, where he graduated in
1858 ; studied medicine at Harvard Medical School and at
the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Xew York, gradu-
ating M.I), in 18(il ; was interne in Bellevue Hospital
1861-62; acting assistant surgeon U. S. army 1SG2-63 ; went
to Chicago to practice in 1863 ; was Professor of Chemistry
1870-76. Professor of Xervous Diseases 1870-<M. Professor
of the Theory and Practice of Medicine 1885 to date, in tho
Rush College, Chicago. He is an able teacher, and clinician,
and has been a frequent contributor to current medical
literature. Among his more important works arc Iniuim-
nia and other Diseases of Sleep (Cliicago. 1HM5) ; Practice
of Medicine (Philadelphia, 1892). S. 'T. Armstro.no.
Lyman, Piiix?:as: soldier; b. at Durham, Conn., aliout
1716; graduated at Yale College in 1738; was tutor there
till 1741 ; became a lawyer at Sullield, and was influential in
securing that town to Connecticut; was ap]K)inted major-
general and commander-in-chief of the Connecticut forces
in the French war ; Iniilt Fort Lyman (since called Fort
Edward), X'. Y. ; succeeded Sir William Johnson in com-
mand at the battle of Lake George; was engageil in the
attack upon Ticonderoga, the capture of Crown Point, tho
surrender of Montreal, and the expedition against Havana
(1762); spent several years in England as agent to solicit
lands for a colony in Florida, and died in West Florida
(iiow Mississippi), near Xatchez, Sept. 10, 1774.
Lyman, TiiiioiioRK : philanthropist; b. in Boston. Mas.s.,
Feb. 20, 1792; graduated at Harvard College 1810; in-
herited an ample fortuiu-: visited Europe 1812-14; wrote
a small volume. Three M'eekx in Paris (1*<14); made a
seconil Europian tour 1817-19. on returning from which
he published The Political Slate of Italy (1.H20); studied
law; delivered the Fourth of July oration at Boston 1820;
wrote an Account of the Ilartfurd Conrention (1823), in
defense of that celebrated political demonstmlion ; and pul>-
lished a useful work. The Diplomacy of the I'nited Stales
with Foreiyn Xalions (1826). He took an active part in
politics, served in both liranihcs of the Legislature, became
brigadier-general of militia, and was mayor of Boston 18^54-
35. In the latter year he was jirominent in disapproval of
the early pojiular meetings of the abolitionists, and incurre<l
obloquy on that account. I), in Boston, Jidy 18, 1849. He
was a liberal beiu'faetor to the State Horticultural Society
and the Farm School, and was tho founder of tho State
Reform School at Westborough, to which he gave $72,500.
Lyman. Tiieodork: naturalist; b. at Waltliam, Ma,»s.,
Aug. 23, 18;j3 ; son of Theodore Lyman, philanthropist;
graduated at Harvard College 1855; studii'd ziK'ilogy and
geology under Iit>uis Agiu«siz at tiie Ijiwrence Scientific
School, where he griuluated U.S. 1M.5M; afterwanl tH>ntin-
ued the pursuit of science in the I*. .S. and in Euroiio, ami
since 1860 has boon a.<sistant in geology at the Museum
of Comparative Zoology. His principal attention ha- Iveii
given to the Radiata. on whu-h he has publi-!
pai)crs. His chief work is Dphiurnidni of llf '
Exixdition (4to. 400 pp., and 4.'< plat.-. lss-,> ' -u.-
S2 lie was commissiiiner of inland fi>herie-. • .tts,
anil made the first siientifie eX|H'rimeiit-; in • ■ un-
dertaken by any State. Fn>m S'pt. 2. is«;i. to .\pr. 20, 1865,
he serveil as lieutenantK'olonel and vnluntier nido-ilo-camp
on the start of .Maj.-(ien. Meade, commanding the Army of
the Potomac. He is a meuilHT of the American Acailomy of
40G
LYMAN
LYNCHBURG
Arts and Sciences and of tlie National Academy cif Sciences.
lie lias also Iwen interested in the udniinistration of diuri-
ties. is president of the Boston faiiii-school, a truslee of
the Peabody education fund, and of the Peal loiiy Museum
of ArelucoloKV. He was one of the overseers of Harvard
Univei-sity in" 1868-SO and 1881-87. and was a member of
tlie Forty-eiKhlli Congress.
Lyman. Tukodore BENEmcT, D. D., Lli. D. : bishop; b.
at Hrifrhton, near Boston, Mass.. Nov. 27, 1815; j;nuluated
at llamiltim Colleiie, Clinton, N. Y., in 1837. and fmni the
(ii^neral Theological Seminary in the city of New York in
1S40; was oi-dained deacon in Clirist churcli. Baltimore,
Sept. 20 of the same voar. and early the next nionlh became
rector of St. .lohn's church, llagerstown, Md., where he re-
mained until he entered u|)on the rectorship of Trinity
church, Pittsburg, Pa., in Apr., 1850 : continued in charge
of that parisli until Jlav, 18()0, when he went to Europe, ami
remained there nearly "ten years. During that time he liad
charge for a short period of an .\mericaii cliiirch in Flor-
ence, and later was for several years rector of llie .-Vmerican
Episcopal church in Rome. Upon his return to America,
in 186'.l, he became rector of Trinity church, San Francisco,
and was in charge of that church when elected assistant
Bishop of North Carolina in May, 1873. He wjis conse-
crated to that olTice in Christ churcli, Raleigh, Dec. 11. in
the same vear. On the death of Bisliop .Vtkinsoi!, in 1881,
he became Ilishop of North Carolina. He received the de-
gree of D. 1). from St. .lames's College, Md., and that of
LIj. O. from his a/ma maler. Hamilton. He published a
few occasional sermons and addresses. D. at llaleigh, N. C,
Dei', i:!. 1893. Revised by W. S. Perry.
Lyniington. lim'ing-tHn (in Doomsday Book called Lcn-
tiiiii'. whii'h was afterward changed to LimeiUum) : a seaport-
town of Hampshire, England; on the Lym, lu'ar its con-
fluence witli the Solent, just, opposite the isle of Wight, and
94 miles S. ^V. of London (see map of England, ref. 14-H).
Its manufactures of salt and Epsom salt were once imi)or-
taut. It is much frequented, however, as a summer resort
and for its sea-liathing, and from its yards some of the best
racing-vachts have been launched. The parish church dates
from tlie time of Henry VI. Pop. (1891) 4..5.J1.
Lymph [from Lat. hjmpha. clear water] ; the clear, faint-
ly st'raw-coiorecl fluid contaiiu'd within the system of lym-
phatic chaiuiels which, in addition to the blood-vessels, per-
meate all parts of the body, either as clefts or as definite
vessels. Since the relation between the lymphatic radicles
and the tissues and the organs is most intimate, the terms
"tissue juices" and "white blood" are often applied to
designate the lymphatic fluid. The lymph resembles the
blood in beingcomposed of two parts — the clear limpid
plaxina. or lujuur hjmplioe, and the small gramUar cells, the
li/mp/i curpuHclcs, which float about in the fluid. The
Ivmph-plasma closely corresponds in its constituents with
blood-plasma, from which it really is largely derived, since
as the blood circulates in the capillaries a certain amount
of the liquor xniujuinis ditTuses through the thin walls of the
vessels, and thus directly su|)plies inilrition to the elements
of the tissues. This escaped fluid collects within the tissue
spaces as lymph, arul thence it passes to the larger and
more definite lymphatic channels. Certain extensive cavi-
ties within the body, as the peritoneal, the pleural, the peri-
cardial, the cerebro-spinal, anrl the intra-articular, very
closely related to the lymphatic system, are occupied by
various accinnulations oi' lymph. When the amount of this
flind becomes excessive, as in certain forms of disesise, the
condition is known as drojisy.
Lymiih possesses a specific gravity of between 1,012 and
1,022, being essentially the watery exuded blood j)lasm ; its
chemical composition closely resembles that of the liquor
samjuinin; it is, however, less rich in organic constituents
(except urea, which is increased) and in fibrin. Tlie com-
position of lymph-plasma is as follows;
Water 93-99
Fibrin 0-0.5
Other proteids 4-27
Fats, etc 0-38
Extractions 0-r>7
Salt 0-73
The morphological elements of lym|ih, the li/mpli-ciir-
punr.len, present the same af)pearances as the colorless cells
of the blood (see HisToi.oiiv and Bi.oon), willi which they
are identical ; the lymph c<j|lectcd fi-oni the entire body is
poured by the great lymphatic trunks — the thoracic duct and
the right lymphatic duct — directly into the venous blood-
current, the lymph-cells thereafter being known as the col-
orless Ijlood-corimscles. The lym]ih-cells are irregularly
rimnd, nucleated imisses of protoplasm about tti'ou of an
inch in <iiameter, whose principal .source of origin is the
lymphatic tissue through which the lymphatic current
passes on its course (o larger channels. The lymph con-
tained witliin the absorbent vessels of the digestive tract
during certain stages of digestion becomes mingled with
the particles of oil taken up from the intestinal contents;
the emulsion thus formed produces the temporary milky
appearance of the fluid williin the intestinal lym]ihatics,
which, in recognition of this coiulition, is designated as chyle
and the vessels often as lacteals. After the digestive proc-
esses are completed, the milky appearance disappears and
the lymph within the absorbents of the intestines returns
to its usual limpid condition. See Histolohv.
G. A. PlERSOL.
Lymphat'ics: See Histology.
Lynch, Patricio ; naval olTicer ; b. at Santiago, Chili, in
1824. His father was an Ii-ish merchant. He studied at
the Chilian Militarv Academv. served with the Chilian iiavv
in Peru 1838. and" from 1839 to 1847 was in the British
navy, taking part in the Chinese war 1841—12. Re-entering
the Chilian service 1847, he rose to be commander of frigate,
but retired 18.J4-()."). In the latter year he .served against
the Spaniards. In 1880. during the war with Peru, he com-
man<leil a flotilla and military force which ravaged the
coast regions from Callao to I'ayto in the most ruthless
manner, doing a great- amount of wanton damage. In the
atta'ck on Lima he <-oinman(led one of the Chilian divisions,
and on May 4, 1881, was appointed inililai-y commandant
of the captured city, and piacti<-ally of all the conquered
district in Northern Peru. By his orders the provisional
Calderon government was deposed .Sept., 1881. and Calderon
himself was sent a prisoner to Chili, an act which provoked
a vigorous protest from the U. S. minister. .Subseiiuently
he directed operations against Caceres, and finally, having
invested Iglcsias with supreme power, evacuated the citv
Oct. 22, 1883, taking a vast amount of plunder. In 1884
he was made minister to Spain, and wliile returning died
at sea May, 188G. Hkriikrt H. .S.Mrrii.
Lynch, Patrick Wilson, D. D. ; bishop; b. at Cheraw,
S. C'.. Mar. 10, 1817; studied theology in Ihc Roman Catho-
lic Seminary at Charleston and in the College of the Pro-
paganda at Rome; was ordained priest in 1840; became
]irincipal of the collegiate institute at Charleston, vicar-
general of the diocese in hSoO, and Bishop of Charleston in
1858. He built several churches, including the fine cathe-
dral of St. Michael; founded an Ursuline convent, an
iirphan asylum, and many schools. Some of these estab-
lishments having lieen destroyed during tlie civil war, he
chiefly devciled himself to their restoration, for which pur-
pose he made extensive tours through the Northern States,
preaching and collecting funds. He wrote some theological
and scientific essays, and participated in the Vatican Coun-
cil of 1809-70, supjKirting the dogma of infallibility. D.
in Charleston, S. C, Feb. 26, 1882.
Lynch, Thomas, .Ir. : one of the signers of the Declara-
tion of Independence; b. in Prince Gccu-ge parish, S. C,
Aug. 5, 174!!; was eilucatcd at Eton and Cambridge, Eng-
land, and studied law in the Temple, Lunibm. In 1772 he
returned to South Carolina; became in 1775 a captain in
the provincial troops; was sent in 1776 to Congress to suc-
ceed his father, who died in that year, but, his own health
failing, lie soon left Congress. In 1779 he .sailed for the
West Indies, intending to proceed to France, but the ship
never reached its destination, being probably lost in a storm.
Lynchburg: city (laid out 1786): Campbell eo., Va. (for
locatiipii cif county, see map of Virginia, ref. 7-F) ; on the
.lames riv<-r, and the Clies. and O., the Rich, and Dan.,
and the Norfolk and West, railways; 147 miles E. by N. of
Richmond. It issituateil on the sides of a hill rising ab-
ruptlv from the river, and ])resentsapicturcs(pie appearance
with Its numerous terraces and ornamental villa-residences,
which command a splendid view of the Blue Kiilgc anil the
Peaks of Otter. 20 miles distant. It is a central point for
an extensive shipping and distriliuting business, has numer-
ous manufactories of tobacco, several iron-fouiulries, rail-
way mmdiine-shop.s, cotton and flouring mills, and jiosses.ses
a magnificent water-power, while in the immediate vicinity
vast deposits of coal and iron are found. The reservoir
LYNCH LAW
constructed in 1H28 is sitiuitod 25;J feet almvc tlie river.
There are 4 iialiniial banks with combined capital of !i:705.:MK),
3 Slate banks willi capital of ^;i50.ll00, a"trnst ami sjivin-pi-
bank with lajiilal of .'^lod.ooo, a private bank, and 2 duiTy,
3 weekly, and ;j other jieriiidicals. 'I'lie city was an impor-
tant biuse of supplies fur the Confederates'durinj; the civil
war, but early m l«l»o Gen. Sheridan deslroyeil tho canal
and the railways lea<linf,' into it, Pop. (lSH())'l,"i,i),5<j ; (18'JO)
19,709 ; ( 1892) estimated, 25,000. Euitok ok " News."
Lyncli liiiw: the prsictice of trving and punishing men,
by unauthorized persons, without due process of law, and in
violation of the right of the proper legal authorities to liring
allegeil olTenders to trial for alleged crimes ami ollenses with
which they are charged. In times of especial turbulence
and disorder, wln-n the iluly constituted legal authorities arc
powerless to enforce the laws, there may be some justifica-
tion for a resort to lynch law, but. whiU^ in some such in-
stances lytu'h law has been productive of advatitagc, it is or-
dinarily an unmi.xed evil. The legal safeguards which serve
to protect an ituioccnt man from unjust conviction are
almost invariably disregarded, and the excitement and pas-
sion under which the self-constituted judges usmiUy labor
render conviction almost a certainty in all ciuscs, and often re-
sults in the indict ion of inhunuin cruelties by way of punish-
ment. The origin of this phrase has been variously accounted
for, but it is usually derived from a Virginian faruur named
Lynch, who is said to have exercised unauthorized judicial
functions in the early history of the State. This origin is
very doubtful, however. Revised by F. SrURCiKS Allen.
Lyndliiirst. liml hfirst, .Tohx Singli:ton Copley, Baron :
statesman: b. in Moston, Mas.s., May 21, 1772, son of the
artist .John Singleton Co|)ley ; went to Knglan<l in 1775;
graduated wit h high honors at Cambridge University in 1794,
and became a fellow of Trinity College ; visited the U. S. in
company with Volncy ; wius called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn in 1804: becameasergeant-at-law in 18l:i : chief justice
of Chester 1817; entered Parliament as a Tory in 1818;
was knighted and nuide solicitor-general 1819 ; was counsel
of (leorge IV. in 1820 in the trial of yueen Caroline; be-
canu' attorney-general in 1824; sat in Parliament for
Camlfridge University 1820, and was made master of the
rolls; opposed Catholic emancipation; was raised to the
peerage as Haron Lyndhursl and appointed lonl chancellor
in 1827, holding that office until 1830, a secniul time from
18.'{4-;i5, anil again from 1841—16; was chief baron of the
•excheipier 1830; and lord high steward of Cauduidw Uni-
versity 1840. He originally entertained very advanced views.
Uefore he liecauie prominent in politics he' was a republican
and a Jacobin, imt when, in 1M17, he was taken up by the
leaders of the Tories, on account of his brilliant ilefen'se of
Dr. Watson, who was on trial for his participation in the
Spa Fields riot, and when he shortly after entered Parlia-
ment by their support, he became a steady, and often a
violent, opponent of all liberal measures. He was j)osses.sed
of great eloquence, and continued to astonish the House b\
his speeches up to his ninetieth year. His denunciation of
the aggressive policy of the Einneror Nicholas in 1853 cre-
ated a European sen.salion, and in 1859 he attacked the
policy of Napoleon III. with equal elTect. D. in London,
Oct. 12, 1863. See Lives of the Lord Chancellors (1869).
Lyiiilsay, lin zi.Sir David : statesman and \mxX ; b. about
1490. probal>ly in the old mansion-house of the Lyndsjiys.at
(iarletou, near Haddington, in East Lothian, Scotland ; en-
tered the University of St. Andrews in 1.505; traveled in
France and Italy 1509-11. and received in the latter year
some position at the court of James IV. When .lame's V.
was born, in 1512, he was appointed his personal attendant,
and he remained with the young king until the Douglasses
came into power, in 1.524,'when he was banished from the
court. He was recalled, however, in 1529, and afterward
often served in important diplomatic missions to the Nether-
lands, to France, to Demuark, etc. He <lied early in 1555.
It is, however, not as a courtier and a statesman! but as a
poet, timt he acquired his great fame. Indeed, he wius for two
<'enluries and a half the most popular p<K'l Scotland pro-
duced. His principal works are The Dreme. a half-didactic
poem, and 77ie Siilire of the Three A'.s/u/cs. The poetical
merits of these pmductions are not so very great, but a vig-
orous spirit of reform, especially in the domain of the
Church, is alive in them and gives them a considerable in-
terest. The best editions of his works are those by tieorgo
Chalmers (3 vols., London, 180(5* and David Laing (3 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1879).
LYON
4U7
Lynn; city (settled l.v the English in 1629; ineoriwrated
as a city in 18.50) ; Es.sex oo., Mass. (for IcK-ation of county,
sec nwip of Ma-ssiuhusctts, ref. l-I) ; on .Mitss)icliu.setts Hu'y
and the Boston ami Me., and the Bo.stoD, Hevere Beach and
Lynn railways ; !» mihs N. E. of Boston. It has an area of
Hi s<i. miles, a coast-line of al«)Ut 3 miles, and a shallow
but Well-sheltered liarlMir ; is built mainlv on a plain ; and
is noted for its manufactures of boots aiiif shoes. The cen-
sus returns of 1890 showed that 1.34;! uuinufucturing estal>-
lishments (reiiresenting 85 industries) reported. These had
a combined capital of $12,930,755; employed 19,792 iwr-
sons; paid |11.328,7»7 for wages and #20.210.000 for ma-
terials ; and hml products valued at :ji38,3I0,.")N.5. The boot
and shoe imlustry had 323 establishments and if 1 0,569.470
capital; employed 12,816 persons; oaid $6.M32.938 for wages
and ^14.757,389 for nniterials, ami had [ipMlucts valued at
$25,850,005. The next imliistr)- in importance was the
manufacture of morocco leather, which hacl 23 establish-
ments and $1,868,276 capital; emidoved 1,210 persons; iwiid
$748,829 for wages ami $2,009,529 for materials ; and had
products valued at $3,343,5;J3. The city has 6 national
banks with combined capital of $1.300,(MX), 2 savings-banks,
2 libraries (free public, founded 1862, and a subscription cir-
culating, founded 1881), and 2 daily, 4 weekly, and H monthly
periodicals. It owns pronertv valued at over $1,. 500,000, and
Its water-works in 1H!)2 had'cost over $2,000.(KKt. The as-
sessed valuation of taxable property in that year was $47,-
052.914. and the net debt $3,445,500. Pop. (1880) 38,274 ;
(1890) 55,727; (1895) 62,354.
Lynn Re'eis. or Kind's Lynn : town ; in the county of
Norfolk. England ; 100 miles N. ..f London, on the estuary
of the tireat ( )use, 9 miles from its mouth (sec map of Eng-
land, ref. 9-K). It is well built, has a good harlM>r, a line
church of the twelfth century, and bt>autiful public walks,
and carries on a very extensive traile with .Spain, the Baltic,
and North .\nierica. Coal, timber, anti manufactured goods
are imported ; corn, wrjol, and oil-cake exported. It has also
large breweries, iron-foundries, ship-yards, and manufact-
ures of tobacco, cork, and rope. Pop.'(I891) 18,265.
Lynx [Mod. Lat. = Lat. = Gr. Xiryf, Ivnx] : the common
as well as generic name for sevend good-sized members of
the cat family (Felitl<t), distinguished by the absence of the
first upper premolar, by their tufted ears, and, with one ex-
ception, by their short, tnincated tails. The fur is soft,
gray, or reddish gray, more or less spotteil and marbled,
very thick and soft in northern specimens. With the ex-
ception of the Car.\cal (o. ('.), the lynxes are all inhabitants
of the northern hemisphere. They climb well and prey
Til.- Ij iix
uj>on birds and small mammals. The exact number of spe-
cies is still in dispute, but two well-marked ap(H>ies, At/nj-
borenlis and L. pdrdina.wcur in Euro|)e and two in North
America, the bay lynx {L. riifiis) and the Canada lynx (/>.
caiiniietisis). Exceiit that it is snmller. measuring aU'Ul 3
feet in length, this last is very similar to the animal found iu
Northern Europe. F. A. Litas.
Lyon. David Gordon, A. B., Ph. D. : Orientalist and A»-
syriologist ; b. at Benton, .Ma., May 24. 1H.52; wa» edu<'ated
at William Jewell College (Missouri), llowani College (Ala-
bama), Southern Baptist Theological .Seminary, and the
University of Ix'ipzig; has U'cn Ibillis Profi-ssor of Di-
vinity in llarvanl Vniversity since l.'<'<2. and re«"<inling stv-
relarv of the .Vinerican t Iriental Soi-ielv simv 1886. He has
408
LYUN
LYONS
publistietl Keilschrifltexle Sargons Koenigs von Assyrien
(Leipzig, l!*i;j); An Assijrinn Manual fur the Use of Be-
ginnerS in the Sliidi/ of the Asm/ritin Language (Morgan
Park, 1886; now fd.New York, I'S'J-.').
L)°on, Mary: oilueator ; tlie founder of Mt. Ilolyoke
Seminary ; 1). at BiickUuul, Mass.. Feb., 28, 1797 : beoame a
school-tcaehei: at Slielburne Falls, Mass., in 1814; taught
1821-34 in the acaileiuy at Byficld, Ma.ss. ; 1834-28 in the
Female Aeadomy at Londonderry, X. II.: and then until
1834 in the liulies' seminary at Inswifh, Mass. Her great
work was the founding of the Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary
at South Hadley, Mass.. of which she was iiriniipal from
18;57 to 18411. lier praolieal sagacity was as remarkable as
her iincon(iuerable energy and sublime faith. 1). at South
Iladlev, Mar. 5, 1849. See her Life, by President Hitchcock
(Xortliampton, Mass., 1831), and Recollections of Mary
Lyon, by Fidelia Fiske (Boston, 1860).
Lyon, Matthew : politician ; b. in Wicklow co., Ireland,
in 1746 ; emigrated to New York in boyhood ; worked on a
farnj in Connecticut for some years ; removed to \'ermont ;
became in 1776 lieutenant in a company of "Green Moun-
tain Hoys": became paymaster-colonel of militia, member
of the Legislature, and assistant judge; founded the town
of Fairhaven in 1788: built saw and grist mills; established
a forge ; made paper from basswood ; niaimfactured types,
and issued a \nx\KV called The Scourge of Aristocracy and
Repository of Important Political Truth ; took an active
part in polities: was elected to Congress in 1797 as a.Teffer-
sonian ; was in Oct., 1798. convicted of libel again.st Presiiient
Adams, fined $1,000. and imiirisoned four months in Ver-
gennes jail, during which time he was re-elected twice; nar-
rowly escaped expulsion, first as a convicted felon, and
afterward on account of an altercation on the floor of the
House with Roger Griswold, of Connecticut, resulting in
blows; removed to Kentucky in 1801; was immediately
elected to the Legislature, and to Congress from 1803 to
1811 ; built gunboats on speculation for the war of 1812,
and became bankrupt; was appointed by President Monroe
in 1820 L'. S. factor among the Cherokee Indians in Arkan-
sas, aiul was electe<I delegate to Congress from that territory,
but soon after died at Spadra Bluff, Ark., Aug. 1, 1823.
Lyon, Nathaniel; U.S. soldier; b. at Ashford, Windham
CO., Conn., July 14, 1819 ; graduated at West Point in
1841; served honorably in the Mexican war; was stationed
in Kansas during the period of the slavery agitation, and
remained actively engaged on frontier duty until Feb., 1861,
when he was placed in command of the U. S. arsenal at St.
Louis. Here lie distinguished himself by surrounding and
capturing the ".State guard," and was appointed a briga-
dier-general of volunteers May 17. Soon after this he leil
his army to Springfield where he was compelled to remain
by the superior force of the Confederates who were now
overrunning Southern Missouri. After vainly waiting for
re-en forcemen Is he learned of the advance of the Confeder-
ates in two columns. II()j)ing to ilefeat the column from
the S. before it united with that coming from the W., he
moved out from SpringfieW, Aug. 1, and in the following
morning defeated McCuUoch at Dug Spring, who retreating
now united with the other wing, and the whole body ad-
vanced toward Springfield, to which plac^e Lyon had fallen
back. Arriving at Wilson's Creek on the 7th, Tjyon pro-
posed to suri>i'isc them here: but this plan faileii, and on
the 9th he again moved out from .S|>ringfield ami fought
the battle of Wilson's Creek on Aug. 10. This battle is said
to have been fought against his own judgment; but the evil
to be apprehended from abandoning Southwestern Missouri
without a battle being strongly reiiresented, determined him
to risk the engagement, throughout which he displayed the
most daring courage, and it was after being twice woundeii
that, placing himself at the head of a regiment whose colo-
nel had fallen, he was struck by a niinie ball and almost in-
stantly killed. The Union forces were repulsed, but retired
in good order. By will (Sen. Lyon left almost his entire
property to the U. S. Government to aid in preserving the
Union. A series of able letters written by him during and
subsequent to the Kansius troubles was [mblished in 1862.
entitled The Last Political Writings of Oen. Niitha}iitl
Lyon.
Lyon Kin^-of-nrms ; the chief herald of Scotland.
When the oOice is held by a nobleman Cerlain of its duties
must be performed bv Ijyon depute, one of his subordi-
nates. Lyon also appoints messengers-at-arms for I ho court s
and counties of .Scotland. He is the chief officer of Jjyon
court, the heraldic college of Scotland. His subonlinates
are Lyim depute, Lyon clerk, Lyon clerk-depute, the pro-
curator-fiscal, a herald painter, and a niacer. The proper
heralds and pui-suivants of Scotland perforin duties which
are chiefly ceremonial, and do not relate to the blazoning of
arms. These last duties are performed by the Lyon court,
anil are even more elaborate and formal than those of Eng-
lish heraldry.
Lyonnnis, h^'o nil' : an ancient province of France, which
is now divided into the departments of Loire, Uaute-Loire,
Puy-de-I)oine. and Rhone.
Ly'ons, Fr. ]u-on. lee oji' [from Pr. Lyon, Lyons < Lat.
Luydu num,X\\e ancient name]: next to Paris the largest
city of France, and the most important manufacturing
place of the country; .situated in lat. 45' 45 44' N., Ion. 4'
49' 43' K., at the confluence of the Saone and the Rhone.
315 miles by rail S. S. E. of Paris (see map of France, ref.
6-11). It consists of a central [lart, covering a peninsula
formed by the two rivers, and a number of suburbs scat-
tered over the hills on the right bank of the .Saone and on
the left bank of the Rhone. It is the capital of the depart-
ment of Rhone, the headquarters of the seventh military
division of France, and is very strongly fortified. Eighteen
detached forts which defend and command it form a circle
around it 16 miles in circuit. The quays along the Rhone
and the Saone are surprisingly beautiful ; they are planted
with magnificent trees and lined wit h elegant houses. Twelve
bridges span the Saone, seven the Rhone. .Some other quar-
ters of the city and several of the many ])nblic squares
are also han<lsome. Place Bellecour is one of the largest
squares in Europe; on Place des Terrcaux stood the guillo-
tine in 1794: from the summit of the hill of Foiirvicres, on
the right bank of the Saone, where stands the Church of
Notre Dame de Fourviferes, a most magnificent view is pre-
sented of the city, the Alps to the one side and the Cevennes
to the other. Other parts of the city contain nothing but
narrow, crooked streets, lined with lall gloomy houses, and
have a squalid and dismal appearance. Among the public
buildings the most remarkable are the plotel de Ville, one
of the most interesting and beautiful buildings of its kind
in Europe; the Palais des Beau.\-.\rts, on the Place des
Terreaux : the cathedral, on the declivity of the hill of
Fourvieres, in Gothic style of the time of Louis XI. ; the
Church of St. Nizier, of the fourteenth century, etc. The
educational and benevolent institutions of the citv are nu-
merous and good. The Royal College was_ ftmnded in 1519,
and enjoy.' a great rei>utation. The School of Drawing and
the Veterinary School are model establishments. In the
JIartiniere 220 sons of artisans receive gratuitous educa-
tion. There is a public library with over 66.000 volumes, a
botanical garden, several scientific associations, etc. The
dye-works, foundries, glass-houses, )iotteries, tanneries, and
breweries of Lyons are very extensive, especially the latter.
Its manufactures of jewelry, hats, fine liqueurs, and chemi-
cals also are important, and its trade in its own inanufac-
tiircsandin the produce of the surrounding country, espe-
cially in wine, is very brisk; it communicates by canals
with Bordeaux, I'aris, I\larseilles, Geneva, and the Rhine.
Its [)rincipal business is its silk manufacture, in which
branch of industry it is hardly surpassed by any other place
in the world. The average annual value of raw silk im-
ported is estimated at $60,000,000: of manufactured silk
exported, at $76,000,000. Silk-weaving was first started
here in the reign of Louis XI. by artisjins from Florence,
Lucca, and (ieiioa : in the latter part of the seventeenth
century between 9,000 and 12,000 looms were in operation,
but the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes bereft the city of
manv of its most skilled workmen, and the number of looms
decreased to al)ont 4.000. In the latter part of the eigh-
teenth century it had risen again to about 18,000, but tho
Revolution interfered sadly with the industry. At present
more than 100,000 looms are worked in and around Lyons.
An international exposition was held here in 1894.
The citv is very old. The ancient Liigdunum, on the hill
of Fourvieres (Forum fetus), was colonized in 43 B. c. by
JIunatius Plancus. Under Augustus it became the capital
of the province of Gaul, and the center of the dilTerent
roails which the Romans built in the country. Germanicus,
Claudius, Marcus Aurelius, Caracalla. and Geta were biu'ii
here. During the early Mi<ldle Ages it belongeil to tho
.Vrclibishop of Lyons, and was very much dislurlied by
fen<ls between its inunicif>al council and its ecclesiaBlieal
ruler, but in 1312 it was incorporated with the kingdom of
LYOXS
LYUE-BIKl)
409
France by Philip tlic Kuir, and its prosperity increased very
much al'ler Ihiil period. iJuriii;; trie Revolution it suffered
terribly; its insurrection a^tain^t tlie Convention was pun-
ished by C'ollot d'llerbois and Fouche with an uidicard-uf
cruelty. A (^reat many of its biiildirifrs were demolished,
and its very name was changed fn>m Ly(jns to VtUe-Afran-
chie. Of its inhabitants many lied, while their property
was contiscated, and many more perished on the scaffold or
were mown down by gnipeshol. After the fall of Robes-
pierre the horrors were rc|ieatcd. The terrorists and their
adherents were drowned in the Khune. Again in 1814,
1815, 18aO, 18:JI, and finally in 1870-71, it was much dis-
turbed by riots. Hero Presi<ient Carnot, while leavinir a
banquet piveii in his honor at the lixhibition of Arts, Sci-
ences, and Industries, was assassinated ou June 24, 1894, by
an Italian anarchist.
Lyons has sulTered severely by inundations, especially in
1840 and IHM, the result of the injudicious fellinfj of the
forests of the Vosges Mountains. Since 18o(i, however, ex-
traordinary precautions have been taken, and the city is now
free from danger of this character. I'op. (1881) 376,613;
(1891) 416,0:21). Itevised by C. 11. Thurbek.
Lyons ivity; Clinton co., la. (for location of countv, see
map of Iowa, rcf. 5-L) ; on the Mississip[>i river, and the
Chi. and X. \V. and the Chi., Mil. and St. P. railways; op-
posite Fulton, 111., with which it is connected by a steel
tii^hway bridge. It is in an agricultural and nursery re-
gion; has an electric railway connecting it with Clinton,
the county-seat; and contains saw, flour, and wrapping-
paper mills, stcamlioat-ways. Tnachinc-shops, and sash-fac-
tories, several public parks. '2 liliraries ((ierinan .Association,
founded 18."i!). and Young Men's Association, founded 1863),
and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 4.0!)5 ; (1890) .5.799;
(1895) 0,002. Editor of "Cli.nto.n Coi-ntv Advkktiser."
Lyons: city; capital of Rice eo.. Kan. (for location of
county, see map of Kansas, i-ef. 6-F): on the Atch., Top.
and S. Fe, the .Mo. Pac. and the St. L. ami San Fran, rail-
ways; 21 miles E. of Ellinwood. 2.">0 miles \V. of Kansas
City, Mo. It is in a highly productive salt region, is an im-
portant supply-point fur the miners in Colorado and New
Mexico, and has a inonlhlv. a semi-weeklv. and three weekly
newspapere. Pop. (18Hi)) 009: (1890) l,7r;4; (1895)1,44.5.
Lyons: village ; capital of Wayne co., X. Y. (for location
of county, see map of New York, lef. 4-E) ; on the Erie Ca-
nal, and the Fall Brook, the X. Y. Cent, and II. K.. and the
W. Shore railways; midway between Syrqcuse and Roches-
ter. It has excellent water-power, manufactures silverware,
Seppermint oil, and agricultural implements, fans, tool-han-
les, and various iron goods; and contains a large union
school, the library of school district No. 6, and three weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,820 : (18IK)) 4.475.
Editor of •• Repi'BLIcak."
Lyons. Gnlf of: a large bay formei\ by the Mediterra-
nean on the southern coast of France. It receives the
Rhone. Marseilles and Toulon stand on its shores.
Lyons. Edmund: fii-st Baron Lyons of Christchurch ;
naval lifTicer and diplomat: b. at Burton, Ilanipshiie, Eng-
land, Xov. 21, 1790; wjus descended fiMin Gov. .John \Vin-
throi) of Massachusetts: entered the British navy in child-
hoo(l; became a midshipman in 1803; served in the East
Iixlies; became commander in 1812, and post cajitain in
1814. In 1828 he was engaged in the blockade of Xavarino,
Greece, then held by the Turks, and conveyed King Otho to
Athens on the formation of the new kingdom ; was knighted,
and resided there as minister (ur fourteen years. In 1849 Sir
Edmund became minister at Berne, and in 1851 at .Stock-
holm. At the outbreak of the Crimean war he was appointed
second in command of the Black Sea squadron, became com-
mander-in-chief in Jan., 18.5,5. and distinguished hims«df by
brilliant services, which procured him a peerage in 18.50 un-
der the title of Baron Lyons of Chrisi church. In 1857 he l>e-
caine successively vice-admiral and admiral. D. Xov. 24, 18.58.
Lyons. RiciiAitD Bickkrtox Pemei.i., G. C. B., D. C. L. :
second Baron Lyons; iliplomat ; b. at Lymington. Eng-
land, .Apr. 20, 1817: educateil at Winchester .S<diool and
Christ Church, Oxfonl : appointeil allachf at .Athens I8:t!t,
at Dresden 1852, at Florence (residing in Rome) l.S5:J: sec-
retary of legation there 1856, and envoy to Tuscany 1858;
was envoy at Washington Kec 18.58-05; Iterame amlnissa-
dor at Constantinople Aug., 1865, ami at Paris .luly, ls<l7:
resigned in 1887. He was sworn a memlior of the privy
council 1865. D. in London, Dec. 5. 1887.
Lyra, le'eraa', Xn holas, de : Hebrew scholar ; b. at Lvre,
Normandy, France, about 1270: studied in the Franciscan
college at Yeriieuil and at the University of Paris; Ijecame
a doctor of theology ami an eminent lecturer up(rn biblical
interpretation. He hehl the most imjiortant posts in th«
Franciscan order, ami his comnieiilaries upon the .Scriptures
were' approved and used by the Reformers, whence the pun-
ning couplet —
.^1 L)/ra non lyrotaet,
Lutherus nun sallajttfl —
"If Lyra had not pipeil, Luther would not have danced."
His great work was the I'uslilitt pyrpeluw in iiiiirrrmi liiblia.
printed very early at Rome (5 vols. f<ilio. 1471-72). which
earne<l him the title of Doclur phiniig et tililin. In it he fol-
lows Rashi, and adopts the four Jewish modes of interpre-
tation, the literal, the allegorical, the mond, and the anagog-
ical or mystical. It is the only exegetical work of auv merit
produced by the Middle Ages before the revival of letters.
His knowledge of Hebrew gave him a great advantage over
the expositors of his time, although he maile a moilest plea
for indulgence in the prologue to hiscommenlary,"because,"
he said, " I am not so well skilled in the Hebri-w or Ijitin
language as to prevent me from failing in many jiarticulars."
He also wrote a work in defense of Christianity and against
Judaism, entitled Traclatus fratrin yicolai de Lyra de Mex-
sia ejKsgue adrentu, una eum responsione ad Judieomm
argumenta quatuordecim contra verilalem Evanyeliorum
(1309). Whether lie was a Jew by birlli is disputed. I), in
Paris, Oct. 23. 1340. See Davidson, .SV/frcrf Ilermeneutics;
Graetz, Ueschichte der Juden. Revised by C. H. Toy.
Lyre [via 0. Fr. from I^at. ly'ra = Gr. A^ lyre] : a music-
al instrument of unknown origin and antiquity, famous in
mythology and poetry. I)i<Mlorus a-scrilx-s its invention to
the Egyptian Hermes (.Mercury). According to the tradi-
tion, the Nile in its subsidence left on its bank a tortoise-
shell, the contents whereof were so dried by the snin that the
hard-strained cartilage was like stretched catgiit. This gave
the hint of an inslruinent. The Greek tradition does not
materially differ from the Egyptian. The inifimvemenls in
the lyre were made by the (ineks, who increased the capaci-
ties of the instrument by adding to the numlwr of the strings.
The most ancient lyre had three ; the lyre of Terpander (B. c.
680) had .seven ; the lyre of Pythagoras (B. c. 600) had eight.
The number was afterward increased to eleven, and even to
thirteen. In its perfected form the lyre con.sisled of two
side-pieces set upright, like horns, connected together near
the top by a wooden cross-piece; the strings were attached
to this, and stretched per|>endicularly, the lower end U'ing
fastened to the bottom of the resonant shell. They were
struck either with the fingers or a ple<-triim, a stick i>f |hi1-
islied wood or ivory. When played, the lyre was held lielwecn
the knees. The form of the instrument variwl slightly, as
can be imagined, in different ep<Kdis and among different peo-
ples. It was used chielly as an acc<>m[>animent to the voice
in passionate, pathetic, and heroic song. For this re«.son it
has given the name li/ric to a class of |H)ctry that expresses
the moo*l of private and |)ersoiial enioli<>n. Literature cele-
brates the lyre of Sappho, the Lesbian lyre, and the lyre of
Apollo. The Abyssinians anil neighboring |>eopli'S of the
present day use an instrument of seven strings that closely
resembles the lyre of ancient Greece.
Lyre-bird : a name ^ivcn to three .Australian binis (3fe-
niira siipertm, M. vieloniF, and JI. a/berti) f>n account of the
peculiarly shaped tail of the male. The outermost feather
on either side curves outwani like the sides of an ancient
lyre, while the effect is heighteneil by the fact that the two
inner tail-feathers are little mori' than mere shafts, and the
twelve others have very sjiarse. slender barbs, thus >.i..,-. .ti.^
the strings of the instrument. The lyri'-binl ■
size of a small fowl, has long, strong legs, and - \
wings. The general color is (dive brown. It has a sinking
song, is very shy, and inhabits the den«> thiekets of New
.South Wales. The Menuridir, the fai ' ' ' 's
to which the lyre-birds belong, are
peculiar form of the vomer, which, a. . .. _ s
"brf)a(l ancl rounded off in front and deeply .
The mnxillo-iialalines ar»' long and slender. I' i
has a well-<lovelo|)o<l and forkeil ninniibrium. bnl. iL-
rior edge is .strongly convi>x. and only i-xhibii." n
notch on each side. The fiiri'iiln li i
and its scapular ends an* comi>arat
The bill is niotleralely slender and i»-.i,-.. .... i,.,|~ .,,..;«
well cleft; the nostrils linear, and advanced b<<yond the
410
lAKE-TURTLE
LYRIC POETRY
nidiUe of tlie bill. Owing to numerous anatomical pocul-
iarilies, the lyre-birds have boon by some authors oousiUereJ
I,yre-bird.
as a super-family, or even as forming a separate order,
Menurm. ' F. A. Lucas.
Lyre-tiirtle : a name applied to the largest of the sea-
turtles, Di'rmorhelijs coriacea, on account of its somewhat
lyre-shaped outline, the strings of the instrument being sug-
gested by tlie doi-sal keels. The peculiar leathery appearance
of this species and its liigh, arched carapace liave earned for it
the names of Icatlierback and trunk turtle. The carapace
of the lyre-turtle is broad and high in front, and tapers to a
point behind ; there is a well-marked ridge or keel (town the
center of the back, on either side of which arc two others.
The neck is short, head large and rounded, front flippers
long and narrow, hind flippers short and wide. The skin is
tough and leathery; the color is black above, white, mottled
with black, l)elow. There are no nails. This turtle dilTers
from all other living species in the fact that the carapace,
insteiul of being composed of large, regular plates of bone,
related and united to the vertebra" and ribs, is formed of
large numbers of thin, irregularly shaped pieces of bone,
having no relation to the skeleton. 'I his turtle attains a
weiglit of 1,000 11). It is very oily, and the flesh is said to be
poi.sonous. It is an inhaliitant of tropical seas, and is occa-
sionally brought to the shores of the Eastern and Northern
U. S. b'y the Uulf Stream. F. A. Lucas.
Lyric Poetry [lyric is from Lat. ly'ricti.i =Gr. KvpiK6s.
liter., perlaining to the lyre, hence to songs or poems in-
tended to be accompanied by the lyre; deriv. of Kvpa, lyre,
whence Eng. lyre]: a kind of noetry which in modern usage
can hardly be more exactly (Icfined than as that which is
most closely relaliMl to music. In classic Greek the word
lyric seems always to have been used literally. Finding
favor in Latin and in modern languages, the term has per-
sisted with great extension of meaning and corn'S]ion<ling
loss of precision. It is now used to cover a range of litera-
ture wide enough to include not only all verses written to
be sung under any conditions, but also poetry so diversified
as thel'salms, I'iiiiiar, Horace, Petrarch, Villun, Burns, and
the libretti of the operatic stage. Little as at first sight
they seem to have in common, it will appear on reflection
that their relation to aitual music is far closer than that of
distinctly epic or dranuitic poetry. It .seems |)robable in-
deed that all poetry which may pro|>erly l>e termed lyric,
may be classified under one of four heads, whose relation to
music is traceable. The lirst incluiles all verse which is
written for musi(.'al accomi>animent of any kind, such as the
■'salms, the odes of I'indar. or one of t_iill>erl's libretti. The
object of this primary lyric poetry is clearly to phra.se in
words certain aspects of that great variety of human emo-
tion which is properly the subject also of purely musical ex-
pression. The second includes all verse, such as an ode of
Gray or of Wordsworth, or any modern sonnet, whose con-
ventional form is traceable to the musical conditions of
former times. Here, too, in this secondary lyric poetry the
inherent nature of the form involves some attempt on the
part of the poet to formulate in words phases of emotion
that at least once were held to lie tirimarily within the prov-
ince of music. The third, which involves a less precise use
of the term, includes all pa,<.sages in poetry generally of an-
other character — epic, for example, or dramatic — wliich im-
press the ear as subtly musical in sound. One hoars much,
and properly, of the lyric l)eauty with which many speeches
in Snakspeare's plays are permeated. In this tertiary lyric
oetry it is clear on reflection that the poet, perhaps with no
conscious effort to conform to actually or historically musical
conditions, has been to some degree influenced by emotions
which under other circumstances might have found prima-
rily musical expressicm. The fourth, which involves a dis-
tinctly modern use of the term lyric, much in favor among
the Germans, includes all verse, whatever its form or sound,
whose object is to express the personal emotion of the poet,
as distinguished from the impersonalities of epic poetry or
dramatic. Lyric poetry indeed is sometimes defined as sub-
jective poetry, in distincticm from objective. A little con-
sidi laliiin will show that this quaternary lyric poetry, like the
(■ther kinds, has distinctly musical traits. Without detailing
any theory of pure a-sthetics. we may safely say that music
enerally the vehicle of that great, unformulated body of
hunum emotion which, in spite of its general existence, pre-
sents itself to the individual as primarily personal. In this
sense such poetry as that of Heine is conspicuously lyric.
Under these four heads all lyric poetry nniy probably be in-
uded. In each case, as we have seen, there remains a per-
ceptilile trace of that aspect of the original meaning of the
term lyric which cnnnects it, not with a specific musical in-
strument, but with music in general. So far, then, as any
effort to phrase thought and emotion in written words en-
deavors, either in sidjstance or in form, to phrase that indefi-
nitely subtle range of emotion whose normal expression is
purely musical, tjie result of that effort may be said to pos-
sess lyric quality.
If this view of the essential nature of lyric poetry be ac-
cepted, we may see at once why so many efforts to classify
lyric poetry — as sacred, patriotic, erotic, convivial, etc. — are
confusingly unsatisfactory. Whatever is properly the sub-
ject for musical exj)ression is properly also the subject of
lyric verse ; and this clearly includes the whole range of
emotional experience. Anything approaching a complete
topical classilicalion of lyric jioetry, then, would amount to
a ciinijilele tatiulation of emotional psychology. In a very
gcneriU way. however, we nuiy say that at certain periods of
human hisfory certain phases and forms of lyric poetry have
so developed as to be historically characteristic. Among
the earliest |)hases of einf)tion to seek lyric expression was
certainly the religious. In the Vedic hymns, in the Psalms,
and by far the greater part of other biblical jioetry, this fact
clearly appears, ll is perhaps ty|iical of the essentially lyric
nature of religious emotion that to the present day religious
poetry is still actually associat eel with music. The IValms
are chanted still ; so "are the Latin hymns of the mcdia-val
Church: and Luther's hymns, and tliose of Dr. Walts, and
Cardimil Newman, and .^Ir. .Moody are known as familiarly
by their tunes as by their names. Perhaps quite as early
came that sort of national lyric, in English generally called
Hai.lae) Poktrv ((/. I'.), which has everywhere existed as the
liredecessor of formally epic verse. So, too. the folk-song,
the inimein<irial nursery rhyme, the war-song, and the love-
songcmerge from the highest antiquity. In no literature that
survives has atiy general Ivric subject been i|uite neglected.
In the great literatures that still consciously influence us,
however, certain kinds of lyric poetry have from time to
time developed .so highly as permanently to survive in their
LYKIC POETHY
LVSIAS
411
(iiiKiiiil form. In this sense certain kimlsiniiy lieoalleil peciil-
iarlv tvjiieal of certain of these literatnres. In (his sense the
ty|iual Hebrew lyric — in spite even of so superb an erotic
\vorl< us the Cunlicles — must be proiionnceil llie spiritually
religious. The typical tireek lyric — in spite even of the
iihilosuphie choruses of classic tra^eily and what elsc^must
be pronounced either the passionately local, occasional odes
of I'indar, or the frankly erotic sonfjs of Sappho ami of
Anacreon. The typical Latin lyric — in spite of all the rest —
must be pronounced the urbanely convivial odes of Horace.
The typical lyric of the early Middle A^es — for all lluir bal-
lads and folk-son<js — |iroj5ably remains the rhyniin^j hymn
<if Latin Christianity, no lonjier spiritually but now cln;;-
matically reliffious. The typical lyrics of the later Miildle
Ages or of the early Reiuiissance may perhaps be pronounced
the canzone and I'etrarehan soiinet.no longer frankly erotic
but now idealized and ronuintic love-songs. The typical
modern lyric, in all Kuropean lan{,'uages is — for all the vaga-
ries of the o|ieralic stage — the consciously subjective.
From the middle of the sixteenth ci-iitury Knglish litera-
ture hius been exceptionally rich in lyric poi'try. In I'al-
grave's Golden Treasury there exists a remarkably compact
iind typical collection of Knglish lyrics. This anthology is
useful ijoth as a general exam[ile of the range and nature of
lyric poetry in modern times and as a guide to the develop-
ment of this kind of literature in Knglish. It is divided into
four books, roughly corresponding to the sixteenth, seven-
tcenlh, eighteenth, and niiu'leenth centuries, and roughly
grouping themselves about the work of Shakspcarc. Milton,
(iray, and Wordsworth. Very geiu'rally we nuiy say that
the lyric poetry of the sixteenth century in England, which
groups itself about the sonnets and the songs of Shakspcarc,
deals cither with idealized love, or with simple and elemen-
tary emotions, jovous or sorrowful, such as are ajit to coiiuide
with alert intensltyof personal alTeelion. In equally general
terms, wi' may broadly describe the three successive periods.
The Knglish lyrics of the seventeenth century, which groui>
themselves about the lesser poems of Milton, are distinctly
more various. With decidedly less spontaneity, they are more
dcliuite. The uuxxis expressed by such poems as L'Alteyro
and // Pensoro-to are more mature than those expressed by
earlier poetry, or at least far more modern: the songs of
the cavaliers, the sternly Puritan sonnets of Milton, express
specific, not general, phases of intense emotion ; while such
an elaborate ode as I)ryden"s Alexander's Fe.asi exhibits a de-
liberate nuistery of technical composition very <lillercnt from
that shown in such earlier occasional verse as the nuptial
poems of Spencer. The general term for this period, then,
IS perhaps articulate. The English lyrics of the eighteenth
century — which group themselves about the odes and the
Eteqij of Gray — may perhaps be most comprehensively de-
scrilM'd as conscious. Amid considerable variety, they are
apt at first to be sentimental, always to be deliberate, aiul,
fimilly to show marked traces of the spirit which in our own
time is called romantic. The English lyrics of the early nine-
teenth century — which group themselves about the verses of
Wordsworth — exhibit romantic feeling to the full in the
verses of .Scott, of Hyron, of Shelley, of Keats, of Coleridge.
These very nanu'S. however, will have suggested other mo-
tives, too, far less evident in any of the earlier periods. The
most notable of these are jjerhaps the profound sc^nse of Na-
ture so characteristic of \\ onlsworth, and a growing si'use of
philosophic insight which gives this perioil a far more valid
claim to the term metaphysical than is possesse<l by the period
so termed by Dr. Johnson. The best single mime for the
poetry in question, then is perhaps the broadly general
\n\nw, philosophic. To sum up, we have said that in four
successive stages, Knglish lyric poetry has been first spon-
taneous, then articulate, then conscious, finally philosophic.
In comparing the work of these four iieriods, one can
hardly fail to remark a palpalde. though hardly definable,
difference between the earlier work, which we have called
spontaneous, and the work which follows. The earlier work
has a subtle quality of its own, more inevitably, essentially
musical than any (If the rest. .\ comparison of Elizabethan
music with that of our own time, then, beionies very sugges-
tive. In the sixteenth century musical art was not s) de-
veloped as to drown in emolii>nal sound the wonis which tbe
singer uttered. In our time the art of music has rea<died
such a stage that whoever wouhl Ihoroughly appreciate
verses that are sung must consider llietii again a|>art from
their musical setting. The lyric poets of the sixteenth cen-
tury, in short, were forced to make in their verses a great
part of their own music. The lyric poets of the later |HTiods
have been forced, by the very growth of pure music about
them, either consciously to adapt their work to the changed
conditions of musical art, or constuously to write iiidi'|iond-
ently of musical considerations. In the I'arlier work, then,
the ipiality we have calli'd s|H)ntani'ity is probably due to the
fact that the older piM'ts were called uiMin to express phases
of emotion that in our own day have long been recognized
as more pro|icrly subjects for musical conipos«TS. If this is
true, it goes far to cotifirm the definition we have given of
lyric poetry.
In moclern English there are various conventional lyric
forms — balhides, rondeaus, triolets, etc. There are only two,
however, which have so fully developed, and which have
lasted so long as to be surely permanent in our literature.
These are the so-called Piiularic ode and the s<mnet. Like
the ballad and the hymn, however, the ode and the sonnet
demand more specific discussion than is here |)ossible.
IJARKirrr Wk.s'dklu
Lys, lees: a river which rises in Prance, in the depart-
ment of Pas-de-Calais, Hows in a nort hi^astern direction
into Helgium, and joins the Scheldt at Ulient after a course
of 125 miles, of which ATt have been changed into a canal.
Lysan'dcr (in fir. Aiaavlpoi) : a Spartan general: re-
ceived in 407 II. c. the icpmmand of the Spartan fleet, and
defeated the Athenians off the promontory of Xotiiim. liis
term of command having expired, he was replaced by Calli-
cratidas, but Callicralidas was defeated in 4(X) B. c. in the
battle of the Arginusje; and as it was against the Spartan
laws that the same person could hold an otlice twice, Aracus
was nominally placed at the lieiul of the fleet, while in real-
ity Lysamler held the command. His campaigns were very
brilliant. He routed and captured the Athenian fleet at
^'Kgosiiotami, and early in tlie next year (404 n. f.i took
Athens, thus ending the Peloponnesian war. At this mo-
ment he was the most prominent man in Greece, but his
arrogance and enormous ambition made it impossible for
him to hold any ollice. When in 395 B.C. he was sent at
the head of an army against the Bceotians, during which
campaign he was killed while besieging Ilaliartus, it is said
that he was deejily involved in a conspiracy for the subver-
sion of the dynasty of the ileraclida' in Sparta. It seems
very probable that at the time of his death he was deeply
implicated in various revolutionary schemes, but he had,
nevertheless, committed no overt act. lie was buried on
the road from Delphi to ChaTonea, and a monument was
erected on his tomb. Keviscd by J. R. S. .Sterbett.
Lys'ias: a Syrian nobleman of the blood-royal, whom King
Antiochus Kpiphanes. on setting out for Persia, ai)|X)intea
guardian of his son and regent of the kingdom, ana as suck
he waged a formiilable war with the .lew.s. His vast forces
were (U'feated by .Judas Maccabanis near Kmniaus(n. r. 166);
he was himself repulse<l near Hethstira in the following year,
but took that fortress ii. c. IC;!. and laid siege to Jerusalem,
but by an insurrection at Antiix-h was forced to treat with
the Jews. Shortly afterwani Lysias was i>ut to death by the
populace of Anlioch, who had rebelled in favor of Demetrius
.S.ter. Ilevisi'd by J. K. S. Stkkrett.
Lysias: one of the ten canonical Attic orators, model of the
"plain style"; son of Ceiihalus, a wealthy Syraciisan, who
hail .settled in .Athens. The year of his bi'rth'is a matter of
ilispute. The earliest date given is 4,'i!> B. r. ; the latest ad-
vocated makes him only a little older than Isoi'rates (b. 4^).
He went in his vouth to Tliurii, where he studied rhetoric
under Teisiius. fn e<uisequence of the is.sue of the Athenian
expedition to Sicily he returned to Athens in 412; but dur-
ing the Ueign of 'Terror (404-10;!) the thirty (s«>e TniRTV
Tyrants), whose cupidity was stirnnl by the wealth of the
heirs of Cephalus. put Polemarchus, the brother of Lysias,
to death, and Lysias himself had a narrow esoai* to
Mepira. Lysias returned with the victorious demoiracT,
and though' not a full citizen had a privileged |>osition,
which (|ualified him to prosiH'Ule Eratosthenes, one of the
thirty, lus the munlerer of his brother. 1>. not long after
;t«(l B.C. With the exception of this s|H-e(li against Knil<is-
thenes and the show-jiieces, all the extant speeches. if Ly.sias
were coin|Kise<l to be spoken by others, and the adaptation
of each sjK'Cch to the cliamcter and circumstances of the
siieakcr is an imiHirtanl element in the studv of his omiory
The excellence of Lysias lies in the simplieily, clearness,
vividness, point of his narrative, in the ktvmiess of his argu-
ment, and in the consummate art with which he wins the
interest and sympathy of the jury by the subtle. self-<leline-
alion of the siH'akers who however else they differ, are all
412
LYSIMACHUS
LYTTELTON
frank and candid souls. The autliorship of the funeral
oration attributctl to Lysias is much disputed. If not his,
it is a {;ix>d saini>le of the other side of Lysias's profession,
the making of show speeches for public occasions. There
are editions by Koiske (17T3). Kekker (1828), Baiter and
Sauppe (1850). Cobet (18G3) with an interesting critical
preface, and Schoilx> (in the Teubncr Series) ; selections with
German notes bv Kauchenstein-Fuhr in the Haupt and
Sauppe Series (U'oidiuann), and by Frohberger, and with
Kiu'lish noles by Shuckburgh, American school editions by
Whiton, Stevens! and Bristol. The English translation by
Gillies is loose. See Blass, Atlisclie Beredsamkeit, vol. i.,
;«8-044 (2d ed.) ; Jebb, Allic Orators, vol. i., 142-312 ; Girard,
£fudes siir I'iloquence altique, pp. 1-91.
B. L. GiLDERSLEEVE.
Lysim'aclins (in Gr. Au<r(/jaxos): b. at Pella, Macedonia,
about ;i60 B. c. : si rvcd as a general in the army of Alexan-
der the Great, and received Thrace on the division of the
empire at the death of Alexander in 323. In 306 he as-
sumed the title of king, and having defeated Antiochus in
the battle of Ipsus in' 301, he united a large part of Asia
Minor to his dominions. An expedition he undertook in 292
against the Geta', X. of the Danube, was very unfortunate;
he was taken prisoner with his wliole army, and received his
freedom only by giving his daughter in marriage to the
king of the detii: After the niunlor of his son Agathocles,
who was much loved, the populjition of Asia Minor rose in
insurrection, and was supported by Seleucus. and in the
battle of Corupedion (281) Lysimachus was defeated and
killeil. Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lysip'piiS (in Gr. Aivnnroi): statuary; originally a copper-
smith of Sicyon, who by his careful study of the human
form and of the canon of Polyclitus became one of the
most celebrated artists. Uis aim was to make his statues
as beautiful as possible without detracting from their charm
as portraits, and so he elaborated a new canon, according to
which the figure became taller and more slender, while the
head became smaller than was natural, and thereby added
to the impression of height and slender proportions. He
claimed to represent the human figure as it seemed to be
to the eye, and not as it actually was. He attained great
distinction by his statues of Zeus, Heracles, and Helios. In
fact he created a new type of Heracles. He became espe-
cially celebrated for his statues of Alexander the Great,
whom he represented in every conceivable way, beginning
with his youth. Alexander would sit for but three artists:
Lysippus (artist in bronze), Pyrgotiles (sculptor), and Apelles
(painter). Lysi[>pus worketl only in bronze, in which he
fashioned no less than 1,.500 statues, all of which have
perished, thougli we have an antitpie copy in marble of at
least one of his works, the A/toxi/oinenos in the ^'atiean.
The colossal Heracles of Lysi|ipus was taken to Rome after
the conquest of Tarentum, and stood for centuries on the
Capitol, whence it was removed to adorn the Hipi)odrome
of Constantinople. It was melted down in 1022 A. D. Other
celebrated colossal statues of Lysippus were the statue of
Helios in Rhodes, Zeus in Tarentum. Poseidon in Corinth,
and Kairos (an allegory representing the Favorable Moment).
J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lyskander, Klai-s : historian : h. in Skaane, Denmark,
1507 or 1558. His Datishe Koni/ers Slceijtebog (Chronology
of the Danish Kings, 1622), which attempts to trace the royal
line back to Ailam, is absolutely unreliable, but De Scrip-
toribus Danicis, the first attempt at a history of Danish lit-
erature, is still of great value. 1). 1623. See H. F. Kdrdam,
Lijskiinders Levuril, etc. (Copenhagen, 1868). D. K. D.
Ly'sons, Daniel, F. R.S.: antiquary; b. at Rodmarton,
Gloucestershire, Fnghmd, -Vpr. 28. 1762; graduateil Jl. A. at
Oxford in 1785; took holy orders, and became curate of
Putney about 1790, rector of Uodmarton 1804; published,
under the patronage of Horace Walpole, The EHvirona of
London, being an J/inlorirril Arrnunt of the Tomui, Villdgen,
and Hamlets wilhhi Tii'eire Miles of that Capital (^y vols.,
1792-1800), and in conjunction witii his brother .Samuel,
Magna Britannia, being a ('onrise Topographical Acronnt
of the Several Counties of (/rent Britain (6 vols., 4to, 1806-
22). a eolos.sal work, left unfinished, cfintaining the counties
in alphabetical order u]! to Derby inclusive. The materials
collected for this vast enterprise are now deposited in the
British Museum, forming sixty-four MS. volumes. I), at
Uodmarton, Jan. 3. 1834. — His son, Maj.-Gen. .Sir Daniel
IjVsons, C B., b. 1816, a dislinguishecl ollicer, became com-
mander of the northern military district of (Jreat Britain.
Lysons, Samtei.. F. S. A.: antiquary; b. at Rodmarton,
England, May 17, 1763; aided his brother Daniel in the
preparation of i\\c Magna Britannia, tnn\ published several
si)lendid works on British antiquities, among which wero
.4n Account of Roman Antiquities discovered at Woodches-
ter (1797, colombier folio), lieliquiiv Britannico-Iiomancr,
containing Figures of Roman Antiquities discovered in
Various parts of England (1813-17, folio, with 156 colored
plates), and The Ilistorg and Antiquities of Devonshire (2
vols., 4to, 1822). in which he was aided by Dean Buckland,
the Bishop of Cloyne. and other distinguished archa;ologists.
He was called to the bar in 1798; became keeper of the
records in the Tower 1803, and vice-president of the Society
of Antiquaries 1812. D. in London, June 29, 1819.
Lyssa: See HvDROPnonu.
Lys'tra (in Gr. to Avirrpa): an ancient city of Asia Minor;
placed by Pliny in Galalia and by Ptolemy in Isauria, while
in the Ads of the Apostles it is placed in Lycaonia. It be-
longs naturally either to Isauria or Lycaonia, whose confines
varied greatly at different epochs. It was the native place
of Timothy, the scene of Paul's miracle of healing a lamo
man, of the attempted worship of Paul and Barnabas as
Jupiter and Mercury, and of the stoning of St. Paul (Acts
xiv). The site of Lystra, which was placed by modern
travelers at different localities, has been fixed definitely by
the writer of this article at Zoldera, a short distance above
the village of Khatiin Serai. The site was identified by
means of tlie following Latin inscription: Divu7n Aug(ustum)
Cul{onia) Jul(ia) Felix Gemina Lustra consecravit d(ecreto)
d(ecurionum) on a pedestal upon which once stood a statue
of the Emperor Augustus. The pedestal is still in situ, but
the city has entirely disappeared. Lystra was turned into
a colony by the Romans, who gave it the composite name
seen in the Latin inscription quoted above, and on coins of
Lystra, four of which are in existence. See Sterrett, Wolfe
Expedition to xisia Minor (Boston, 1888), p. 142 ff.
J. R. S. Sterrett.
Lyte, Henry Francis: hymn-writer; b. at Ednam, near
Kelso. Scotlan<i. June 1. 179;i ; was educated at Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin : ordained in 1815, and appointed to the curacy
of Lower Brixham, Devon, in 1823. D. at Nice, Nov. 20,
1847. He published Tales Illustrative of the Lord's Prayer
(1826); Poems, chiefly Religious (1833); Miscellaneous Po-
ems (1868), etc., and is the author of many popular hymns,
among them the favorite, " Abide with me ; fast falls the
eventide," etc.
Lyt'teltoii, Edward. D. C. L.. Baron ; jurist ; b. at
Moiinslow, Shropshire. England, in 1589: graduated at Ox-
ford 1G09 : became chief justice of North Wales 1621 ; en-
tered Parliament 162G : recorder of London 1631 ; solicitor-
general and knight 1634 ; chief justice of common pleas
1640 ; lord keeper of the great seal 1641 ; raised to the peer-
age Feb. 18, 1641 ; escaped with the great seal to Charles I.
at York May, 1642 ; required by Parliament to return it or
lose his place 1643 ; first commissioner of the treasury Mar.,
1644 ; commissioned to raise a regiment of foot-soldiers Mav,
1644. D. at Oxford, Aug. 27, 1645.
Lyttelton, George, First Baron : statesman and man
of letters ; son of Sir Thomas Lyttelton, Bart. ; b. at Hagley,
Worcestershire, England, Jan. 17. 1709; was educateil at
Eton and at Christ Cliurch, Oxford ; traveled in France and
Italy; entered Parliament in 1735: joined the young " Pa-
triots." who eventually drove \Val|iole from power, and
soon figured by the side of Pitt and Pulteney among the
most formidable opponents of the ministry; took part in
most of the debates, exhibiting great fluency of sjieech and
elegance of expression ; wrote Letters from a Persian in
England to his friend at Ispaltati (1735-36), an imitation
of Montesquieu, wliicli had an immediate success; became
secretary to Frederick. Prince of Wales, when that prince
formed his little court as head of the opposition ; was inti-
mate with Pope and his literary schofil. and proved himself
the official patron and jirivate benefactor of Thomson.
P'ielding. and Mallet ; married, in 1741. Lucy, sister of
Ijonl Fortcscue, and on the fall of Sir Kobert Walpole in
1744 became one of the lords of the treasury. He is said to
have been a skeptic in early numhood, and in 1747 produced
his celebrated Observations on t/ie Conversion and Apostle-
ship of ISt. Paul, which was consiilered a inasterlv treatise
U[)on the evidences of Christianity, and as such lias been
frequently rejirinted. The death of his wife, to whom ho
was tenderly attached, in the preceding year, gave oeciisioii
LYTTELTON
LYTTON
413
to liis pathetic Munoili/ lo the Memory uf a Larhj lately
Decerned (fulio, 1747), fonsidereJ the best of his poetic ef-
forts. On the lieuth of his futlier in 1751 he succeeded to
the baronetcy and to the vast family estates, when he gave
free scope to his artistic tastes, and made Ilajcley one of tlie
most beautiful scat^ in Knjiland. lie iH'came successively
cofferer of the kin;i,''s household, privy councilor, and Chan-
cellor of the Kxche<pier (17.>5): in 17"i() save up theollieeof
Chancellor ami was raised to the |)eerai;e with the title of
Baron Lyttelton of Krankluy. In 17(50 he published his
Dinliiguex of the DeaJ.mxi in 1764-67 his llistury of Henry
II. (4 vols.), a work upon which he had been engaged more
than twenty years, and which was highly commended for
accuracy and research, but is now forgotten. D. Aug. 22,
177:J. ilis Miscellaneoua Workx (2 vols.) appcare<l in 1774.
and his Poetical Works in 178.5. See also Memoirs and
Correspondence of Lord Lyttelton (1845).
Lyttelton, Thomas, Lord : son of George, the first Baron
Lyttelton ; b. in 1744; exhibited extraordinary precocity in
vouth ; at the age of sixteen was regarded almost as a prod-
igy by several of the ablest writers ami most erudite scholars
in Pjiigland ; became dissipated and dissolute in his habits;
lost the favor of his father; an alienation between them en-
sued ; his marriage proved to be unhappy, and a separation
followed. He was returned to the House of Commons in
1768; lost his seat on a contest early in Jan., 1769, and on
the death of his father in 1773 took his seat in the House
of Lords. While in the House of Commons, as well as in
the House of Lords, he was greatly distinguished for vigor
of thought, elegance of language, and for the force and
power of his speeches. His style, tone of political senti-
ments, and other points of coiiicidence have led to the
hypothesis, entertained by many, uiat he was the author of
the Letters of Junius. A strong article sustaining this
view was published in the London Quarterly for Dec, 1851.
A very important fact, however, in support of the hypothe-
sis was not presented with its due force in that article. It
was that during the life of Lord Lyttelton he was voted out
of his seat in the Commons by the 'fory administration early
in .Ian., 1761), and just before the appearance of Junius's first
letter to I'he Public Advertiser. 1). in 1779.
Revised by C. K. .\d.\ms.
Lyttleton, Thomas : See Litteltox, Thomas.
Lytton. Edwakd Geokge Eakle Lytton Bclwer, First
Baron : See Bulwer.
Lytton, Edward Robert Bl'uver-Lvtton, Earl: poet
and statesman; eldest son of the eminent novelist; u. in
England, Nov. 8, 1831 ; was educated first at Harrow, then
under private tutors, ami afterward at Bonn, Germany,
where he devoted liimself especially to modern languages;
entered the diplomatic service in 184it ils (i//(if/i^ and private
secretary to his uncle. Sir Henry Bulwer, ininister at \Va.sh-
ington ; was transferred in the samecapacilv to Florence in
18.52. and to Paris in 18.54. As paid attache he was sent to
The Hague in 18.56, to St. Petersburg in 18.58. to Con-tanti-
nople in the same year, and to Vieinia in 18.59. He was
acting consul-general at Belgrade in 1800, and was em-
ployed on a special cnnfiilential mission for preventing the
renewal of hostilities l)etween the Turks and the Servians
(1862). He was in the same year miule second secretary of
legation, and in .Jan.. 1863. was sent to Constantinople as
first secretary ; vias churye d'affaires for brief intervals in
186;{ and 1864 ; secretary of legation at Alliens in 18«4.and
at Lisbon in 1865. where he was charge d'affaires several
times, and at Madrid in 1868 ; became secretary of embassy
at Vienna in the same year; at Paris in 1872, where he
acted twice in 1873 as charge d'affaires; received the ap-
pointment of ambassjidor at Lisbon in Dee., 1874; in May,
1875, declined the governorship of Madras, and was Vice-
roy of India 1876-80. He married in 1864 a niece of the
Earl of Clarendon, succeeded to his title as Banm Lytton
on the death of his father Jan. 18, 1873, and was promoted
to an earldom on his return from India. His first apiienr-
ancc as an author was under the pseudonym of Oiren
Meredith with Clytemnestra and other Pueins (18.55). The
^^'anderer, a Collection of Poems in Many Lands (18.59),
and Lucile (1860), a novel in elegant verso, established liis
reputation as a popular poet. In 1861 he [>ublished anonv-
mously Tannhduser, or the Battle of the Bard.i. in cullalj-
oration with an intimate friend, whose biography he wrote
in 1871 under the title Julian Fane, a Memoir. In 18(51
he issued Serbski Pesme, a translation of the national songs
of Scrvia; in 1863 a prose romance. The Ring of Amasis
(rewritten 1886); in 1868 Chronicles and Characters: in
1869 Orral, or the Fool of Time, a dramatic poem [mra-
phraseil from the Polish, with imitations of authors in sev-
eral other languages; in 1874 Fables in Hong (2 vols.) and
Speeches of Edward, Lord Lytton, u-ith some of his Po-
litical Writings hitherto Unpublished, and a I'refatory Me-
moir ; in 1883 Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of Ed-
ward liulwer. Lord Lytton ; in 1885 Olenaveril (2 vols.) ; in
1887 After Paradise, or Legends of Exile. In 1867 a col-
lected edition of the Poetical Works of Owen Meredith ap-
peared. Without attaining the mark of creative genius, all
the poems of Lord Lytton are fluently ami elegantly writ-
ten. He became British ambassador at Paris in 18S7. D.
in Paris, Nov. 24, 1891. Revised by 11. A. Beers.
M
the thirteenth letter of the English al-
phabet.
Form. — Tlie form is derived through
the Latin alphabet from the Greek, where
it was M or f/v.retrograde ^. the last l)eing
essentially the Phoenieian form. With the
discontinuance of the use of the sibilant
satn M anil the general adoption of sigma
5! in its place, the fifth stroke of \f^ was omitted as no longer
necessary for discrimination.
Name. — The Greek name miJ (also mo), following the anal-
ogy of the next name, nu, replaced the inherited Plurnician
name mem. water, which expressed jiroliably the supposed
resemblance of the letter to the ripples of water. The
English name em comes through Old French from the Latin
name em ; cf. el. en, er. es.
Sound. — It denotes a labial nasal, the voiced breath being
diverted through the nasal cavity by closing the lijjs. It is,
however, often pronounced as labio-dcntal before /, as in
symphoni/, nymph. It is written double in the middle of a
word after a short vowel, summer, hammer.
Source. — The sound has been a peculiarly permanent one,
and in general represents in genuine English words a Teu-
tonic and Indo-European m ; thus mother: Lat. mater:
Skr. miltar-i smile: Skr. y'smi-; mm may represent //« as
in women, earlier spelling like present pronunciation wimmen
< 0 Eng. unfmenn, Lammas < hldfma'sse; mp may repre-
sent an -jiyj, )is in hemp < 0. Eng. liwnep. The m often de-
velops an excrescent b before liquids, as in gamble, timber,
embers.
Value as Symbol.— 'M represents in Roman notation 1.000.
In Latin M. = JIarcus, M'. — Manius. In French M. = Mon-
sieur. Also M.A. or A.M., Master of Arts; A.M. ante
7neridie7n. forenoon ; M. C, member of Congress ; M. P.,
member of Parliament; M.E., Methodist Episcopal. See
Abbreviations. ISenj. Ide Wheeler.
Man: Egyptian deity. See Mat.
Mnurtens, iMaarte.n: pseudonym of .1. van der Poorten-
SCIIWARTZ (q. v.).
Maas : See Meuse.
Maas, Hermann, M. D. : surgeon; b. in Stargard, Pomer-
ania, .Ian. d. 1842 ; entered the I'niversity of Greifswald in
1861 and of Breslau in 1863, graduating from the latter in
186.5 ; from 18G6 to 1868 was a.ssistant in I\Iiddledorpf's sur-
gical clinic in llreslau ; in 1869 was appointed docent in
surgery: in 1876 was appointed Professor Extraordinary of
Surgery in Breslau University; in 1877 became ProfessoVof
Surgery in the I'niversity of Freiburg; in 188;i succeeded
von Uergmann as Professor of Surgery in the University
of Wiirzljurg. He was one of the most popular teachers iii
Germany, his clinical lectures being models of scientific
work. Among liis publications are De sarcomote mela-
niJde (Breslau, 1865); Krieg.vhirurgische Beitrdqe aus dem
Jahre ISnr, (Breslau, 1870); Mittheiliingen aus der chirur-
gischen Klinik in Freiburg; and he was the author of the
section entitled Die Krankheiten der Ham- und Oeschlechts-
organe in Koenig's Vhirurgie. D. July 2:i, 1886.
S. T. Armstrong.
Maltillon', .Tean: b. at St.-Pierremnnt, in Champagne,
France, Nov. 2:i, 16;i2 ; educated at the theological seminary
of Kciins, and entered in 165:5 the oriler of the Benedictines.
1). in Paris, Dec. 27, 1707. His collections and editions of
historical dncuinents, Vetera Analec.ta (4 vfjs., 1675-85) and
MuHiFum Ilaiirum (2 vols., 1787-8!)), gathere<l in Germany
and Italy, and based on critical researches, are very valu-
able; and his Ue He Diplmitalica (16S1), in whicli'he set
forth and defended his mc^tliod, and which was violently at-
tacked by the .lesuit.s, exercised a wholesome inlluence ori the
study of history. He also wrote Acta Sanctorum Ordinis S.
Benedicti (9 vols., 1668-1703) and Annales Ordinis S. Bene-
dict i (6 vols., 170:i-39).
Mnl>inogion : the name commonly but inaccurately given
to all mediicval Welsh tales or fairy -stories. This use of
the word has been general ever since Lady Charlotte Guest
published under this title her translation of the tales in the
famous manuscript of .Jesus College. Oxford, known as the
Bed Book of Hergest (The Mabiuogion from the Llyfr Coch
0 Hergest, etc., 7 parts, 1838^9, containing both text and
translation; reprint with translation only. London, 1877).
The word has even been adopted into modern Welsh in this
sense. More accurately, however, mabinogion signifies not
tales for children, but the body of knowledge imparted by a
professional bard to his»mft/H«(/, or ap|)rentice. Etymolog-
ically,it is either the )ilural of mabinog, meaning " pupils of
hards" and "things concerning such pupils," or it serves as a
plural for the alistraci noun mabinogi, signifying"condition
of jiupilage" or "matters reserved for pupils." According
to Welsh usage, each professional bard must take three of
these apprentices and train them in all the essentials of the
bardic art. When the mabinog had so mastered these
essentials as to be able to coiupier in three |)ublic competi-
tions, he became a bard and could take impils in his turn.
Apparently there were certain special themes reserved for
the use of such pupils, who probably had the privilege of
reciting them at a price fixed by law or custom. In the
Bed Book of Jleryest. -Khk-h is a kind of corpus of later
bardic material, only four of the tales are really mabinogion,
as the manuscript itself clearly points out, calling each of
them a "branch of the mabinogi." These talcs are I'wyll,
Prince ofDyved; Branwen, Daughter of Ltyr; Mannwyd-
an. Son of Llyr; and JIath. Son of Mathoniry. The re-
maining tales have no title to the name mabinogion, nor are
they indeed even all Welsh in their origin. The manuscript .
was written in the latter part of the fourteenth century, when
the Welsh poets had come to borrow extensively from the
French, and accordingly many of the themes are of French
and even indirectly of Oriental origin. This is an extremely
important fact for those who have to use the so-called
Mabinogion for the elucidation of the intricate and difficult
Arthurian cycle. Besides Lady Guest's edition, we havo
the fine diplomatic edition of the text of the .Mabinogion,
by John Rhys and J. G. Evans (2 vols., Oxford, 1887-90). A
more complete and reliable translation than hers is the
French one of J. Loth (2 vols., Paris, 1889, being vols. iii.
and iv. of the Cours de Htterature celtique of d'Arbois de
Jubainville and Loth). See also John Rhys, Studies in the
Arthurian Legend (Oxford, 1891); A. Nutt. Studies on the
Legend of the Holy (irail (London, 1888), with the review by
ll.Zimnier in Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen (1890, p. 488);
G. Paris, Histoire litth-aire de la France (vol. xxx., 1888, with
the review by H. Zinimer in (Ibtt. gel. Anz., 1890, p. 785,
sea.). A good but not entirely complete bibliography of
other works on the subject is given by H. 0. .Sommer in his
edition of Sir Thomas Slalory s Morte d' Arthur (vol. iii., pp.
4-5, London, 1891). A. K. Marsh.
Mably, nniii blee', Gabriel Bonnot, de : author ; a brother
of Condiilac; b. at Grenoble, France. Mar. 14, 1709; was
educated in the college of the Jesuits at Lyons; serveil for
some time as secretary to his relative, the minister-cardinal
Teucin, but gave up this position, and lived afterward in
retirement, solely oceujiied with literary pursuits. I), in
Paris, Apr. 23, 1785. lie was an enthusiastic admirer of the
ancient republics of Greece and Rome, as is shown by his
works, Oltservations sur I'Histoire de la (Irece (1766) and
Observations sur lis Bomiiins (1751), but his understanding
of their social and moral order was incomplete, and the con-
clusions he arriveil at with respect to modern societies in
his Barallele des Bomains et des Frangais (1740) were very
erroneous and superficial. He enjoyed a great reputation,
however, with his contemporaries, ami he was invited by the
Polish Diet to prepare a code of laws for Polaml. Du (lou-
vernement de Pologne (1781) emliodied the results of his
study of the subject, and Oliserrations sur le (/ourer~neme7il
el les Lois des Klats-i'nis d'Amerique (1784)suinmarizeil his
views relative to self-government in the U. S. The singular,
often ludicrous, enthusiasm for anlif|ue ideas and forms
which |>revailed during the Revolution was largely due to
him, and later i)liilosophers have generallv agreed in tracing
(4H)
MACABRE
MACAQUE
4i;
the riuliinontary ideas of nioilrrn comiiuinism in liis Entre-
tiena tie. I'lmcitm (176;i), Dk In Li'ijinlnlion (I77(!), mnl I'rin-
cipcs de Murale (1784).
Macabrp : See Dance of Death.
Mnoad'nill, John Lol-don : inventor of the system of
roail-makinf; calleil macadamizing; b. at Ayr, i^cotland,
Sept. 21, 1750; went to New York in 1770 to reside witli an
uncle ; during the Revolution was a loyalist : made a con-
siderable fortune ivs agent for the sale of vessels brought
into port as prizes, but lost most of it by his forced with-
drawal at tlie peace of 17.Si; returned to Avrsliire, S(Mjt-
land ; became a magistrate and dei)wly lord-lieulenant of
the county, and a trustee of roads, lie wius engaged for
much of thi^ lime during many years in traveling at his own
expense through (ireat Hrilain to examine the coniiition of
the roads, adilressiiig in 1«U a memorial on the subject to
the House of Commons, which led to the adoption of his
system ami to his own appointment as surveyor of roiuls in
the Bristol district, where in IslG he began to improve the
highways. Within a few years he had ]>ersonally supervised
the roail-making in twentv-eight counties of Kngland. No
patent was soliciled for his system, which consists in the
application of a layer of broken stones to the center of the
road, and no remuneration asked beyond the payment of
the expenses of his personal supervision ; he refused an of-
fered kniglitliood — which he declined on accoiuit of liis age
— but acc('|)ted a testimonial of .f,'.0()() voted him by Par-
liament. 1). at JIolTat. Scotland, .\ov. 20. l.S:i6. Ile'wrote
A Practirdl A'.tmiy on tlic Si-ientilic Jtc/idir mid I'reserva-
tiim of Public Hoiid.i (1819); Pf marts on t/ie Pretunt Stale
of Road-making (X^-iO); ancl OO.in-ra/ionx on Poad-t (Wi2).
McAII, RoHKKT Whitakek: founder of the JlcAll Mis-
sion; b. in Macclesfield, Kngland, Dec. 17, 1821; son of a
Congregational minister; took his 15. A. degree at Lonilon
University in 1817, and was for twenty-three years pastor of
Congregational churches in Kngland" (at Manchester, Bir-
mingham, anil elsewhere). While visiting Paris after the
downfall of the Commune, in .\ug., Is7l, he was assured by
a workingman that the common [)eopIu of France were
rea<ly to hear a gospel of true belief, and, with his wife, de-
cided to undertalic a mission to this people. With the ap-
proval of prominent Protestant pastors, they began their
labors on .Ian. 21. 1872, in a small shop in an obscure street
in Belleville, the communistic quarter of Paris, and devoted
their energies to the work, without compensation, until Mr.
McAlTs death, .May 11, IHlCi. Mr. M<'A1I was an accom-
plisheil musical critic, and in collaboration with his wife he
gave to the French Protestant Church a hymn-book of great
value. A few years after the founding cjf the mission the
French Society for the Promotion of Kducation and the So-
ciety for the Encouragement of Well-doing bestowed gold
meclals upon Dr. .Mc.VII, and in 18!)2 the French (iovcrn-
ment conferred upon him the cross of the Legion of Honor.
Mr. McAll was a skilled botanist, and was for years a mem-
ber of the Linnean .Society.
The mission now (181)4) has 119 halls— .19 in Paris and its
suburbs and 80 in the departments, Corsica, and .Vlgiers —
and a mission-boat which plies on the inland waterways of
Prance. The work is carried on in small halls, where fun-
damental religious instruction is given, highly evangelical
in chara<'ter and strictly undenominatiomil, with the a<ldi-
tion of dis[)cnsiu'ies, soldiers' reading-rooms, and industrial
schools. \ olunteer workers are largely employed, the thor-
ough vet fle.xilile organization making this practicable to a
high degree. Five-sixths of these workers are French; the
rest are from (treat Britain, the U.S., and other countries.
Twenty-two of the mi.ssion stations are carried on in con-
nection with some one of the five great missionary societies
of France. The mission foun<ls no churches and ailministers
no sacraments, but sends its converts to strengthen the
neighboring churches of their own choice. Kxcrcpt for a
brief pi^riod in Corsica, the Roman Catholics have never
been hostile to tlie movement; indeeil, in several instances
Roman Catholics have provided halls or contributed money
toward the support of stations. The prefect of the Seine
and mayors of provincial towns weh'ome the opening of
new halls, as experience ha.s proved that where there is a
Mc.VII station fewer police arc rer|uired. The mission is
managed by a board of directors — French, Knglish, and
American — sitting in Paris. The ollice of honorary presi-
dent is now held by Louis Sautter, a banker, and the execu-
tive head is the Rev. Charles E. Greig. The exiiensos of the
mission are met exclusively by voluntary contributions. In
1883 the American .McAU Association was founded for Iho
collection of fiimls. It now has about sixty auxiliaries, and
sends to Fratice about if.'iO.OOO annually.
LiTKRATL-RK. — A quarterly journal, 'y/ic Me All Mimiion.
is published in Paris, and The American McAll (^narlerlyUl
Philadelphia. Also sec 7'/ic H7i(7e Fieldn of Francr. by
Rev. lloratius Bonar; Among Hip French Polk, bv Miss
E. H. Moggridge: Tlie. Mr All Mimion and tin Workern;
and I'/ie Cruine of l/ie Mi/sttri/ in McAU Mission Work, by
Mrs. L. S. Houghton. Louise Seymour Hououto.v.
McAlpiue, William .Iarvis: engineer; b. in New York
city in 1812 ; received his education in New York, and liegan
engineering in 1827 under .John B. .Jervis, with whom he
remained until 18;!9. having been employed upon the Dela-
ware and Huilson Canal and Railroad, and upon the Statu
canals and other hydraulic works planne<l and constructed
by that engineer, and incidenlallv on the St. Lawrence
canals, under Benjamin Wright. lie succeeded Mr. Jervis
as engineer of thi' Erie Canal enlargemetil, continuing until
1846. when he was called u|ion to construct the drv-dock
at the Brooklyn Navy-yard; in 18.';i wiis elected Slate en-
gineer of New York ; in 18.'i5-.'")7 was railroail commissioner
of the State, and made a valuable rejiort on the principles
and practice of railway coiLstruction and management; for
two years was acting president and engineer of the Erie
Railway, and later engineer of the (iaiena and Chicago
and of the Ohio and Mississippi railways; constructed the
Albany and Chicago water-works, and plarnieil those for
Brooklyn, New Bedford, and other cities; in 1870 presented
plans for the improvement of the cataracts of the Danul>e
("the Iron Gates "), which were adopted by the Austrian
(government. In 187;i-74 he was superinlendcnt of the new
State Capitol of New York at .\lbany. During 1809 he was
the president of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
In 1879-MO. as engineer of the department of parks, he con-
structed the Riverside drive in New York and made jilans
for the Washington bridge at 181st Street. D. at New
Brighton, Staten Island, Feb. 16, 1890.
Macao, maa'kow' (known to the Chinese a.s Ngao-mfin): a
Portuguese seltlenu'ut and port on the south coast of China;
40 miles W. of Hongkong, and situated like it in the estu-
ary of the Chukiang or Pearl river; area, 4j .s<|. miles; lat.
22" 11 N., hm. 113 33 E. (sie map of China, ref. 8-1). It
occupies a tongue of land which was formerly an island,
but is now connected on the north with the island of Hiang-
shan by a narrow .sand-spit, across which a barrier has been
built by the Chinese. The town, which is defended by
several forts,, occupies an irregular table-land which con-
nects several low lulls (200 to 3(K) feet in height) on the ex-
treme south with other low hills of similar height on the
north and northeast. Pop. about 68.000. The settlement
dales from 1."m7. when certain Portuguese nierchanls who
had established themselves at Lampaeo received permission
from the Cliinese (iovernment to remove to A-ma-nuao,
the port of the goddess Ama, as the place wa.s then culled.
It is conveniently situated for trade, and down to the ces-
sion of Hongkong to the British in 1842, and the opening
of the treaty-ports, it enjoyed a monopoly of the Kuro|H'an
trade with China. Its traile, which is now insignificant, is
mostly with Hongkong and is chiefly in the hands of the
Chinese and Parsees.
Macao has never been a pos.«ession of Portugal, though
many attempts have been ma<le to have it recognized as
such. L'ntil 1880 an annual ground-rent of 500 taels was
paid to the Chinese (iovernment. In 1846 the custiini-housc
which the Portuguese had established was abolished, and
three years later the Chinese custom-house was forcibly
closed and the Chinese mandarin ex|ielled. Since that ilalo
the settlement has tjeen governed exclusividy by Portuguese
ollicials. Its chief soune of revenue is a tax on the gam-
bling-tables for which it is noted. Until 18?3 it was the
central depot for the coolie trailie.
Camoiins resiiled in JIacao for eighteen months, and a
grotto is pointed out where he is said to have com|K.sed part
of the Liisiad. Here al.so is the lombof Robert .Morrison,
the first Protestant missionary to China. R. LiLLiU'.
Mara(|il0, ma-ki\k : a common name for various Old
World monkeys of the genus MarnriiK. chaniili'ri/i'<i by a
projecting muzzle, cheek-iKiuches, and largi- iM'hIal callosi-
ties. In some macaqueslhe tail islongerthan the b(«lv, but
in many it is very short, while in the Barbarr ape. tnuuii
ecniidalii*. it is entirely wanting. Thisspecies is n nntivrof
-Vfrica, but a few arc found on the Rock of Gibraltar, being
416
MACARONI
MACAULAY
the onlv monkeys fminil wild in Eurojie. These apes, which
probably were inlrmliui'il by the Mnors. were, aliout 18G0,
rediieeil til I hive, when others were briiUKlilover from Afrieu.
In \S'Xi the eolony nuinbereil sixty. All other iiiaeaciues are
fouml in Asia or the adjacent islands. The most northern
monkeys belontr to this {;rou|). and the Tibet ami Japanese
luacaqiies (.)/. libefianiis and JI. specioiiiig) may be seen
ganibolins about in the snow, the odd etTect being hcigfhtened
by the animals' briijlit red faces. About thirty speeies have
been reeoi^nized, but some authorities place certain species
under othergenera, such as Inutis, Cynopithecua, and Tlieru-
pitheciis. y. A. Lucas.
Macaro'ni [Ital. riiacrare. to bruise or crush], Vernii-
cel'li. Ital. jiron. var-MK-e-cliellee [Ital., liter., little worms],
Fedelini, and Itiiliau Paste : articles of food made from
very white and glutinous varieties of wheat, such as are
grown in Russia, Italy, and t'alifornia. The wheat is ground
by a peeidiar process, being first wet and then heated. The
flour resulting is very coarse. It is mixed with warm water
and carefully worked into a uniform paste. This paste is
forced by a press through holes in an iron plate. If the
holes are very small, vermicelli is thus formed. A still finer
and smaller sort is fedelini. Large |)ipe-shaped cylinders of
this paste constitute macaroni. When the paste is rolled
thin and cut into various shapes, Jtalian pa.'i/e is the result.
After molding the macaroni is partially baked. Italy is the
principal seat of this manufacture. France and England
proiluee a considerable quantity, and a few firms in the
U. S. produce an article equal to any of the imported kinds.
Macaroii'ic Versp [for etymology of macaronic, cf. Fr.
macaronitjue and Ital. mncehfrnnico, liter., pertaining to
macaroni (orig. a mixed dish), hence mixed, confiiseil, med-
ley. Cf. macaroni in sense of a medley] : a kind of humor-
ous verse in which Latin and Latinized words are mixed
with the vernacular. This kind of literature is very old,
but apparently the name was first used in its present sense
by Teofilo Folengo (1401-1.544), called Merlino Cocca.io, a
Benedictine, who published in 1521 a satiric poem entitled
Maccnrunea. republished as Opus Macaronicum in 16.51.
See Delepierre, Macaroneana (1852); De la Litteralure
Macaronique (1856); and Morgan's Macaronic Poetry (New
York, 1872).
Mc.\rthur, Di-ncan': frontiersman and soldier; b. in
Putchess CO., N. V., June 14, 1773; removed in cliildhood to
Western Pennsylvania; was a volunteer in Ilarmar's and
the succeeding Indian campaigns in Kentucky and Ohio
from 1790 until Wayne's victory (1704), after wliich he set-
tled near Chillicothe, O., as a surveyor; acquired largo
property in land; was chosen to the tjcgislature 1805, be-
came major-general of militia 1808, colonel of Ohio volun-
teers May 7, 1812; was second in command at Hull's sur-
render; made brigadier-general in the U. S. army ,Mar. 12,
1813; was second in command of the Army of the West
under Gen. Harrison, whom he succeeded in 1814, when he
projected and partially executed a plan for the conquest of
Upper Canada ; was joint commissioner with Gen. Cass to
treat with the Ohio Inilians for the sale of thoir lands with-
in the Stale 1816-17; served in the Legislature 181.5-21, was
Speaker 1818; member of Congress 1823-27. and Governor
of Ohio 18:iO-;32. I), near Chillicothe, Apr. 28, 1830.
Mac.\rthiir, Kohkrt Stuart, D.I).: clergvman, editor,
and author; b. at Dalesvillc, P. Q.. Canada, July 31, 1841 ;
was educated at the Canadian Literary Institute, Wood-
stock, Ontario, at the University of Hoehester, and at Koch-
ester Theological Seminary. In 1870 he was chosen pastor
of Calvary Baptist elnirch. New York city. Dr. MacArthur
also is connected editorially with The Clirislinn Inquirer
and The liaptisl QnarUrli/ Hiview. In 1800 he published
a volume of sermons entitled The Calvary Pulpit. In con-
nection wilh Kev. Charles S. Hobinson, I). P., he edited the
Calcary Seleclion nf Spiritual Songs (1878) and Laurles
Domini (1801). With Jliss Kate S. Chittenden he edited
7'he Calvary Hymnal (ISi(l). W. II. Whitsitt.
Macartnoy, Gkoroe Macartney, Fii-st Earl of: states-
man; b. at Lissan(vire, near Helfast, Ireland, May 14, 1737;
educated at Trinity College, Dulilin, and graduateil 1757;
studied law at the .Middle Temple, London; was appointed
envoy to Uussia in 17l'>4; sjil in the English Parliament,
and in 1709 became chief secretary to the Viceroy of Ire-
land, where he t<Mik a prominent part in the debates of
the Irish Parliament for the ensuing period. He wrote A
Sketch of the Political lliatory of Ireland (1773). Ue was
governor of Grenada from 1775 to 1779, but in the latter
year wsis forced to surrender the island to d'Est«iug and
was himself carried as prisoner of war to France. Securing
his release, he was appointeil political resident at Madras
1780; governor of that jirovince June 21, 1781, and after-
ward, on account of his distiiiOTished services. |iromoted to
the office of governor-general, an honor which ill-health
forced him to decline. He returned to England in 17M>. A
few years later he was selected as first British amba.ssador
to China; sailed from Portsmouth with a brilliant suite
Dec. 20. 1702; was received by the Emperor of China, Sept.
14, 1703, and opened negotiations at Peking for a commer-
cial treaty, demanding the right to establish factories at
Peking and three other cities, free trade between Macao
and Canton, and a fortified post in the latter port. Of-
fended at the pressure put upon him, or jierhaps (accord-
ing to French authorities) acceding to tiie advice of the
Jesuit missionaries, the emperor suddenly broke off the con-
ferences and ordered the British embassy to leave the capi-
tal witliin forty-eight hours. After experiencing some dan-
gers the embassy reached Portsmouth Sept. 26, 1794. Lord
JIacartney was made an earl in the Irish peerage Jlar.,
1794; was sent as minister to Italy 1705 ; became a baron
of the United King<Iom 1796: went as fir.st Briti.sh governor
to the Cape of Good Hope 1797; returned in feeble health
1708, and lived thenceforth in retirement until his death at
Chiswick, Surrey, Jlay 31, 1806. An oflicial account of
Earl Macartney's embassy to China was published by Sir
George L. Staunton, his secretary (2 vols., 17i)7), and was of
great value in diffusing more exact information upon the
history, political and natural, and the social condition of
the Chinese empire. Macartney's Jouriial of the limbassy
and a selection of his other writings was edited by Sir
John Barrow, with a memoir (2 vols., 1807). C. K. Adajis.
Macartney Plioasant: See Pheasant.
Macas'sar: town of Celebes; on the southern shore of
the island: on the Strait of Macassar; in lat. 5° 7' S. and
Ion. 110 24' E. (see map of East Indies, ref. 8-G). It is the
cai)ital not only of the government of Macassar, but of all
the Dutch possessions in Celebes and of many neighboring
islands. Next to Batavia it is the most important Dutch
center in the East Indies. The residence of the governor is
surrounded bv walls and ditches, and defended by Fort
Kotterdain. Its harbor is sfiacious and safe, and its trade,
cspeciallv in tortoise-shell, edible nests, ebony, sandal-wood,
rice, and spices, is large. The native inhabitants of the
town and government of Macassar arc Mohammedans, and
are considered the most gifted anil civilized tribe of the
Malayan race. They carry on agriculture, commerce, and
ship-building with success. Pop. of town, 15,000 to 20.000.
Macassar, Strait of: a passage of water separating Bor-
neo from Celebes, varying in breadth from 50 to 150 miles.
Its navigation is difficult on account of shoals and rocks.
Macaiilay, Sir James Bithanan : jurist ; b. in Niagara,
Ontario, Dec. 3, 1703; was educated at Cornwall. Ontario,
and joining the Ninety-eighth Regiment as an ensign fought
during the war of 181'2. He was admitted to the bar in
1822; was an executive councilor during the administration
of Sir Peregrine Jfaitland; became judge of the court of
queen's bench in 1829 ; was chief justice of the court of com-
mon pleas 1840-56. and shortly before his death, which oc-
curred in Toronto, Nov. 26. 1850, was appoiiitnl judj;e of
the court of error and ap|iejd. The slatnfes of I pper
Canada were consolidated in 1858 under his supervision and
largely by his aid. He was knighted in 18.50.
Neil Macdoxald.
Macaiilay. Thomas BAnTSOTox, Baron Macaulay of Roth-
ley : historian ; b. at Rolliley Temple. Leiei'slershire, Eng-
land, Oct. 25, 1800; son of Zachary Macaiilay, eminent as
a philmithropist, and grandson of the Rev. John DIacaulay,
a Pu'sbyterian minister at Invermy in the Scotch lligh-
lanils. The family was originally from the islaiul of Lewis,
Outer Hebrides. The mot her of Lord Macaulay was Selina
Mills, daughter of a bookseller at Bristol, of Quaker de-
scent. His early education was of an auslere religious type,
but this influence was modified by frequent visits to the
celebrated authoress. Hannah More, who took great interest
in the precocious boy. of whose early traits of eharacler and
literary tastes she gave valuable notices in her Ijrilers to
Zachary Macaulay (published in IHIKI). At the age of twelve
years he was placed under the tutorship of a Mr. Preston at
Shelford, made surprisingly rapid progress in the classics,
MACAULAY
MACBETH
4i:
and in I81fi cnlercil Trinity College, ('iinitiri(ij;i\ where lie
tliiinwl the cliani-ellDr's inediil in 181!) fura |M>eni on I'oinptii,
luiil iiK'iin in ISliO for a poem im Eivning; took the seeond
Craven schohirship in IH-^I, and bore off the palm at the
Union l)cl]utin;; Soeiety from many hriUianl competitors,
amon;; whom were his intimate friends, W. M. I'raed and
Nelson Coleridfje. llavinj; a dista,ste for matheniaties. he did
not complete for honors in scliolarship. Imt the extent and
variety of his classical and literary reailiiiK while at collejie
was prohiihly never surpassed by any underffradnate. lie
took his bachelor's deforce in Wi'i, was eho.sen to a fellowship
the same year, and passed his time until IH'26 alternately at
London and Camliriilf;e, enj;a;,'ed in addinj; to his stores of
miseellani'ous informal ion. His i/i'/mt as a writer was made
in the cohimns of T/ie (^iKirti-r/;/ .)l<i(/muir, published bv
Cliarles Knight, and edited by his college friends I'raed
and Coleridge, to which he ccmtributcd his fine poems Ivry
and 7Vi<" Spanish Armada and several prose articles (1824);
but his brilliant essay on Mitton, pul>lishe(i in The Edin-
burgh l{rvieu< ioT Aug., 1825. first revealed him to the world
as an asjiirant for the highest honors in the modern science
of criticism. For twenty yeai^s thereafter he was a con-
stant writer for the lierieii; chiefly upon subjects involving
a wide range of historical knowledge, as well as an almost
iine.xampleil mastery of ancient and modern literature, and
his cs.says were soon regarded as the leading feature of u
periodical which counted many celebrated names among its
contributors. Macaulay took his master's degree in 1825 ;
was called to the bar at liincoln's Inn Feb., 1820, but seems
never to have practiced law, and soon devoted all his s|ilen-
diil energy to the service of the Whig parly, to whose doc-
trines he adhered with a fervent convii-tion which quickly
advanced him to a place in its councils. In 1828 he was
appointed by the Whig government a commissioner of
bankruptcy, and in 18:J0 Lord liansdowiie procured his
election to Parliament from the pocket borough of Calne.
His first public appearance as an orator had l)een made
in 182(i, at the annual meeting of the Anti-.Slavery Society;
his first speech in Parliament was in favor of the repeal
of the civil disabilities of .lews (.\pr. 5, IKJO), and his see-
ond against slavery in the West Indies (Dec. bi). In the
great ilebates on the Heform Mill Macaulay took a promi-
nent part, making eight speeches on the subject, and in the
flection to the reformed Parliament was returned for the
town of Leeds. As a parliamentary orator he took high
rank for real eloquence and for the exhaustive manner in
which he treated liis subjects, though his delivery was too
raiiiii ami monotonous to produce upon the audience the
full argumentative effect of his speeches, which was better
unilerslood when they appeared in print. In 18*} he was
appointed .secretary to the board of control, but in 18;i4 re-
signed that office and his seat in Parliament to ac<vpt the
post of legal member of the supreme council of India. One
of liis letters gives an interesting account of the motives
which led to the acceptance of this position. He states that
it is impossible to be independent lus a member of Parlia-
ment so long as one is indebteil to personal favor for posi-
tion. He had not an independent fortune. The position
offered was accompanied with a .salary of i'lO.OOO. As a
bachelor he believed he coulil live in India on fo.OOO a year,
and by remaining five years accumulate a competence of
i,'25.(K>0. Ilis object was attained .sooner than he had an-
ticipated, and conseiiuenlly he remained at Calcutta only
three years. While there he was chiefiy engaged in the
J)reparation of a new penal code, which embodieil the most
iberal principles. It established in many respects an equal-
ity of rights bi'tween natives and F.uropeans, and was there-
fore unpopular with the latter. This code was published in
18.'i8. but never put in operation, though later many of its
features were adopted with good results. During his resi-
dence at Calcutta he continued the main line of his histor-
ical studies, writing several of his most brilliant essays
upon Kuropean topics, his only Oriental c.ssiys, those on
Loril Clive and Warren Hastings, not having iieen written
until some years afterward. Ueturning from India in 18;JS,
he waselecteil to Parliament from Edinburgh, and was Sec-
retary of War in the Melbourne ministry, with a s»'at in the
cabinet (18;j!(— 11), taking, as before, a prominent part in the
parliamentary debates, but fin<ling leisure to write his Lat/tt
of Ancient Home (1842). An imperfect collection of his
essays having been printed in the U. S., where they attained
an enormous circulation, he issued an authorized etiition in
1843, and thenceforth directed his stuiiies to the higher task
of a history of his native country. He was an active niem-
263
ber of the opposition during the five years of Tory suprem-
acy (1841-46), and on the return of the Wliigs to imwer
(IH46) receiveil the lucrative post of payniu-sterof the fones,
but having incurred the disfavor of his Kdinburgh constil-
uency by his course in support of the Mavnooth grant, he
was defeated at the election of 1847, and thus found him-
self at leisuije to give definite form to his long-proje<'l(il
Hiatiiri/ (if h'ni)land. Two volumes Hp|>eare<l in 1K48. and
were immecliatidy solil by .scores of thousands. Ixjlh in Kng-
land and the l'. S., and hailed as the great work of the age.
The third and fourth volumes did not appear until 1855]
when they had an equal success. In 184!) .Macaulay was
chosen lonl rector of the University of (jlasgow, and an-
nounced his retirement from political life, but was returned
to Parliament in 18.52 by his former constituency of Kdin-
burgh. Owing to feeble health he twik no part in debate.
In 1857 he was made a peer of the realm under the title of
Baron Macaulay of Kothley, and in the same year was
chosi-n a foreign associate member of the French Academy
of Moral and Politica Sciences. He died at his residence.
Holly Lodge, Kensington, Dec. 28, 185!t. and was buried in
We.stmiuster Abbey. As he was never married, the title
expired with him. A |>os1humous volume of his J/iiilury
brought it down lo the death of William III., but the great
work was destined to remain a mere fragment of that origi-
nally projected, which was to have included the reign of
George III. A collection of Loni Macaulay 's Speeches first
appeared in the U. S. in 185:^, and an authorized edition
followed in 1854. Hiographies of Dr. Johnson, Atterbury,
Punyan. and Goldsmith, contributed to the eighth edition
of till' Knriirlopadia lirilannica (1857-58), were among the
latest proiluctions of Macaulay's pen. Ilis characteristics
as a historian are well known, ana his interesting volumes
will remain one of the English cla.ssics; but the view of
English history which they present will re<|uire constant
correction by the perusal of annalists of humbler name, less
governed by partisan interests. The mind of this brilliant
essayist was .so peculiarly constituted, and so devoteil to anti-
thesis and paradox, that it is a rare (M'curreiice to find any
speculative opinicm in his pages which can maintain itsidf
intact against a searching criticism. His Letters, edited by
his nephew. Sir George Otto Trevelyan (2 vols., 1876), are
among the most delightful in the English language. In se-
lecting an eilition of .Macaulay's works care shoulrl be taken
not to procure a reprint of an early issue. In revising his
work, the author made many changes of importance.
Keviscd by C. K. Adams.
Macaw' : a name applied to the large parrots of the genus
Ara or Sillnrr. forming the sub-family ArintF, a group
peculiar to .Snulh .\meriea. With one or two exceptions
they are readily distinguished bv their size, their enormous
beaks, long tails and gaudy colors, in which brilliant nil,
blue, and yellow are conspicuous. Their voice is loud and
harsh, and they do not learn to talk well. The gn-at blue
macaw (Ara araraiina), which is about 3 feet long, bright
blue above and equally vivid yellow below, is a well-known
example of the group. F. A. Licas.
Ma(;ayo: See Maceio.
Macbeth', or Machoathad MarFinlp^li : a Kingof S<<ot-
laml in theeleveiilh ciiilurv; immortalized a* the hero of
one of .Shaksjieare's tragedies. Little is positively known
concerning him. He was the son of Finlegh, a chieftain
from whom he inherited the rule of the provini'e of Moray,
and married (iruoch MacHoedhe. a granddaughter of King
Kenneth MacDuff. In a war with King Duncan MacCrinan,
Macbeth defeated and killi'fl that prince at Mothgouanan,
near Elgin, in 1040. after which he was proclaimed King of
Scotlanil. probably as a va.ssal of Thorfinn of Norway. His
reign is chronicled as a time of plenty and prosperity. He
made grants to theCuldivs of Lixh Leven, and made a pil-
grimage to Home in 10.50. In 10.54 Malcolm MacDuncan
(or Ceaninore). eldest .sou of King Duncan, invaded Scotland
with a fi>rce collected by the aiil of Siwanl. VmtX of North-
uinberlaud, anil defeated Macbeth near Dunsinane. He
fleil north of the Grampians, and resisto.l nearly three yi'ars
longer, until he was kilh'd at the battle of Lumphanan. Al>er-
deenshire, Aug. 15, 1057, by .Malcolm and MaeDuff ; in i-on-
sequence of which Malcolm was crowned king at Scone in tlio
following April. Many fabulous cin'iimsiano's attributed
to Macbeth were rompile<l from early chmnicles by the
Scottish historian Hector IVxH-e or Ho«'thius (1526), from
whose pages they were taken by Holinslied, and thus became
known to .Shak.s|iean-.
418
McCABE
MACCABKES, BOOKS OP
McCabp, Charles Caldwell, D. D. : clerfryniHii ; ''■ nt
Athfiis. O., Oct. 11, 18:{6: wiis ediioaled at Ohio Wosleviin
I'liiviTsit y ; joined the Ohio conference in 18G0 ; entered the
Union army as chaplain of the 122d Oliio Volunteer In-
fantry in IStii; \V!is captured at the battle of Winchester
in 180:3. and spent four months in liibby prison at Hicli-
raond. Va. ; returned to the army, but was soon sent by
tho Christian commission to speak in its belialf in the
large cities of tlic Northern States. In 1865 he resumed
the pastorate, but was selected as agent of the centenary
cause (1866) for the Ohio conference and afterward for the
State of Ohio. From 1868 to 1884 he was assistant .secre-
tary of tho board of church extension, and since 1884 he
has been tlie corresponding secretary of the missionary
society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. A. Osborx.
Miic'cnltees : a family consisting of the father, Mattathias,
and Ids live sons. .Jochanan, Simon, Juda, Eleazer, and Jona-
than, who were the first to make a deternnned stand against
the attempt of Antiochus Epiphane.s, the Syrian king, lo de-
stroy the Jewish nation. The name .Maccabee was originally
fiven to Juda, and is probably derived from Jiakkdb/id, a
ammer. (Cf. Carl .Martel ; but see Curtis, The Same
jl/afA(i6pe. Leipzig, 1876.) (ireat dissjilisfaction had arisen
in Judipa because of the manner in which the olTice of high
priest had been bought and sold. Antiochus fell upon Jeru-
salem in 16!) A. D., and in order to break all opposition or-
dered the Jews to refrain from the observance of their re-
ligious ceremonies. The temple was given over to the serv-
ice of the Olympian Ju^iiter: Mattathias, of priestly family,
revolted in Modiim. \\ ith his five sons and a few followers
he fled to the mountains. He encouraged others to join
him and to obey the laws of their religion. When he died
Juda (106-100) assumed command of the small army. He
defeated Apollonius, then Seron at Heth Choron (IG.5). He
was successful against Ptolemiius, Xicanor, and Gorgias at
Emmiius. with 0,000 men against 47.000. In 164 he again
defeated the Syrians under Lysias at Heth Zur. Juda now
pressed forward to Jerusalem, purified the temple, and on
the 25th of Kislev. 164. celebrated for eight days the re-dedi-
cation of the temple (Fea.st of Chanukkah). The cause of
the Jews was largely assisted by disturbances in Syria which
took the leaders away from the seat of war. .luda was able
to subdue some of the neighboring tribes. He sent Simon
to Galilee, while he and Jonathan went to Gilead. Antio-
chus Eupator and Lysias made a last attempt (162), with a
force of 120.000 men, to quell the rebellion. The outcome
of the battle of IJeth Zur would forever have silenced the
Maccabean cause had not Antiochus been ciim|>clled to re-
turn to Syria to defend himself against Philip. In 101
Juda had to defend himself against Xicanor, the general of
Demetrius. He even made a treaty with the Roman senate.
He met his death at Ada.sa, fighting against great odds,
under the leadership of Bacchidcs. Jonathan succeeded as
commander, and kept up the guerrilla warfare. In 15!)
Bacchidcs returned lo Syria, and shortly afterward was
willing to make peace. In 1.52 Jonathan entered Jerusalem
and assumed the office of high priest. He lost his life in
142, being involved in the quarrels concerning the Svrian
throne. Simon (142-135) completed the work of his broth-
ers. He finally drove out the Syrian garrison from the
citadel of Jerusalem, and renewed the treaty with the Ro-
man senate. He turned his attention to internal atfaii-s,
and succeeded in securing the right to coin monev in his
own name. He was declared hereditary high jiricst and
prince, thus founding the Ilarmonean dynastv. Simon was
murdered by his son-in-law in Dok nearJeric'ho.
Richard Gottheil.
.Maccnboes, Hooks of [frf.m Lat. Jraernb(e'i = Gt. Mioc-
Ha0aioi, plur. of Mamta$atos ; from Ilcb. name, proh. deriv.
of maqqdbhd(h), a hammer, or perhaps ileriv. of makln, the
extinguisher] : are four in number. The first two are re-
ceived as canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, and are
found also in liUther's translation, as well as, at times, in
Protestant Bibles. The first three are regarded as canonical
by the Greek Church. None of tho books are received as
canonical by the Jews.
The First Bonk of the Hfdrrahees is generally regarded as
trustworthy, an<l is our authority for the hi.story of tlie Jews
from 175 to 135 n. c. It relates in well-chosen language the
history of the persecutions set on foot by Antiochus IV.
(Epiphanes), the uprising of the Jews under Mallalhias ami
his five sons, and their successful struggle for independ-
ence. It ends with the death of Simon Maccabee. The
chronology is fixed according to the Seleueid era. It was
probably written in Hebrew, by a Jew of Palestine, U-lween
the death of John Hyrcanus (b. c. 106) and the ca[)ture of
Jerusalem (B. c. Oli). It has come dnwn to us in a Greek
translation, which was probably km.wn to Josephus. Ac-
cording to Origen, the title was'2ap3}|9 So/Saj-aitX, the mean-
ing of which is not clear. Of this we have two Iranslalions
in Latin, and two in .Syriac, one contained in the Polyglots
and the other in the Andirosian MS. of the Peshilla. (See
Grimm, Ihis KrMe liucli der Miiccabder erkldrt (-Leipzig,
1853); Bissell, The AjMJCn/jiha of the Old Testament (New
York, 1880); Reu.ss, Gesch. de's Alten Testaments (1881,
§501); SchUrer, Oesch. der Jiulen zur Zeitalter Christi
(ii., pp. 57!), *(/.); A;jocnji)lia (ed. Wace, ii.. pp. 373, sq.).)
The iSeeond Book of the Jfaccaliees is of a little later date,
and is evidently an epitome (2 Maec. ii., 26, 28) of an histor-
ical work in five books written by Jason of Cvrene. Be-
ginning with the year 175 n. c, it "gives the his'tory of the
Maccabean uprising, and carries the story down to Juda's
victory over the Syrian general Nicanor(160 n. c). Though
it runs |)uralkl to the account contained in the first lK)ok,
it suiiplies us with numerous details which bear evidence of
being founded on facts. It was, however, written with a
more religious or didactic design. At the beginning are
added (i.-ii. 18) two letters, in which the Jews in Egypt are
invited to join their brethren in Palestine in the celebration
of the Feast of Dedication. (See Griitz, Das Sendschreiben
der Baldsiinenser an die dgypt.-jud. getneinden, JJunats-
schrift Jur O'escUichte). This epitome was known to Philo,
but the exact date of its author can not be determined. It
was originally written in Greek. There are two ancient Latin
translations and two in Svriac (see above). (See Grimm
(1857); Bissell (1880); Rens's (1881. § 583); Schurer (ii., pp.
73i). sq.): Apocri/pha (ed. Wace. ii., pp. 539, «^.).) The Third
Book of the Maccabees (so called) was probably written in
Greek by a Jew of Alexandria. It has nothing to do with
the JIaccabees. but gives a marvelous and distorted account
of the sufferings and deliverance of the faithful Jews of Al-
exandria during the reign of Ptolemy IV. (Philopator), 217
B. c. The historical ba.sis may be found in a sinular event
which took place in the reign of Ptolemy VII. (Physkon),
and which is mentioned by Josephus (Contra Apion, ii., ,5).
Schiirer places the date of its comiiilation between 100 b. c.
and 100 a. d. It seems to have been received into the Syr-
ian Church, as it is found in their M.SS. of the Old Testa-
ment. (.See Grimm ; Bissell ; Reuss. tj 074; Schiirer, ii., pp.
743. sq.) Ttie Fourtli Book of the Jltaccabees is an ethical
treatise written probably during the first century a. i>. by
an Alexandrian .lew. It is cited under the title irtpl aiiTOKpi-
T05 \oyi<Tnov, and has for its theme the Stoical idea auroSfir-
tror6s itni Tuy va6(Ji)v d (vffi^rjs Koyifffiis (i.. 1). The author
dwells upon this tlii'ine. taking his illustrations from the
feats ]ierf(irmed by the Maccabean brothei-s. He is a strict
Jew, with a leaning toward Phariseeism. Eusebius and
others say that Josephus was the author, and the work is
found in most of the JISS. and printed editions of that his-
torian ; but there are weighty internal rea.sons for doubt-
ing this. Scholars agree in placing its composition during
the first century A. u. See es|)ecially Freudenthal, Die
Flai'iu.^' Josephus beigeler/te Schrift luber die Jlerrschaft
der Vernnnft (lirv^lau. 186!t); alsg> Grimm (as above); Reuss,
§ 570 ; SchUrer, ii., pp. 766, sq.
Reference is made occasionally to a Ftfth Book of the
Maccabees, a title invente<l by Cotton. It is sometimes
called Secotid Book of the Maccabees. It is a compilation
treating of the history of the Jews from the time of Helio-
dorus to that of Herod (184 B. c.-6 B. c). It thus runs [lar-
allel with the First and Second Books of the Maccal)ees and
Josephus. Antiq. (xiii.-xvi.). It is evidently ba-sed upon
earlier works, and its historical value is not great. It exists
only in an Arabic translation, which is incorporated in the
Paris and Lonilon Polyglots, together with a Latin render-
ing. Griitz identifies it with an Arabic chronicle written
about the year !K)0 a. d., and which he thinks formed tho
basis of the Hebrew Josippon bv Joseph ben (Jorion. A
French translation has been made by ile Sary and others,
(.^ee Cotton, 7'he Fire Books of the Maccabees (London,
1832); Griitz, Geschichte der Juden (v., p. 281); Davidson,
Introduction to the Old Testament (iii., p. 466); McCliidock
and Strong's Biblical Cyclopirdia, v.. p. 614.) In the Am-
brosian Peshitta there is also a Fifth Book of the Macca-
bees, but that is a Syriac translatii>n of the sixth book of
Josephus's Wars. See JJebraica (1887. p. 137); Stiiilia Bi-
blica (iii., p. 22!)). Ricuaru Gottheil.
MACCALUBBA
McCLINTOCK
419
Macraliib'ba [Araliii-]: h mud-volcano 6 miles X. of
Gir{;uiiti, Sicily ; rises I'M feut above the plain ami H04 feet
above the sea; has numerous small craters, and occasionally
casts up stones and mini. (las is conlirnially pouring out,
and there are sij,'ns of petroleum. Sulphur, salt, and petro-
leum are obtained near by. Karthciuuke-sliocks are not un-
frequent. Soliuus is the earliest known writer who men-
tions this remarkable volcano.
McCurthy, Ji-stix: i)olitical leader and author: b. in
Cork, Ireland. Xov. 23, 1M80: received a liberal eilucat ion ;
became connected with a Liverpool newspaper 1853; parlia-
mentary reporter for the London <S7ar 18(50; was its chief
editor 18(54-68; spent three years (18(58-70) traveling and
lecturing in the U. S., where he became connected edito-
rially with the Xew York Independent, and wrote much for
the leading magazines, as he had previously done in Kng-
land. Keturning to London, he became a railical writer,
novelist, and historian ; wa.s elected to Parliament in 1880,
and became a leailer of the Irish Home-rule party. lie was
re-elected to Parliament in 1886, and became vice-president
of the Irish National League of Great Britain. Upon the
breach in the llorne-rule party he became theoflicial leader of
the Anii-Parnell group, but resigneil this leadei-ship in Feb.,
18!)6. lie revisited the U.S. in 1886. Among his works are
Con Amore, essays (1866); Critical Xotice of George Hand
(1870) ; Prohibitory Leyislation in the United States (\S~2) ;
Modern Leaders (187'2) ; History of Ireland from the Union
to the Introduction of Mr. Gladstone's Bill ; A History of
our own Tim^s (4 vols.. 1879-80) ; The Epoch of Reform
(1882); History of the Four Georges (4 vols., 1889, et seq.)-
Ireland's Cause in England's Parliament (1888); besides
several novels, including Lmli/ Juditli (ISll); Vear Lady
Disdain (1875); Maid of Athens (1883); and with Mrs.
Campbell-Praed, he is the author of The Right Honourable
(1886), and other novels.
MeClieyne, mac-chfin', Robi^rt MfRRAV : jircacher and
hymn-writer; b. in Edinburgh. .Scotland. >lay 21, 1813;
studied at the University of Edinburgli, and prepared for
the Presbyterian ministry under Dr. t'halmci-s; was licensed
in 183."); preH<hcd for some years at St. Peter's, Dundee,
until his health failed, wlien he umlertook with three other
ministers, a " mission of inquiry" to the Jews in Palestine,
and on his return was engaged as an evangelist in the north
of England until his death. Mar. 25, 1843. He had fine lit-
erary tastes, and was learned in the sacred languages. See
his Life and Remains, by Rev. A. A. Bonar (New York,
1844 and 1857), and his complete works (3 vols., Xew York,
1847). Revised by C. K. Hovt.
MaochiavollI : See Macbiavelu.
McClcllnii. (iKOROE Brixton: soldier and scientist; b. in
Philad.lphia, Dec. 3, 1836: son of Dr. George McClellan ;
passed two years at the L^niversity of Pennsylvania; gradu-
ated from \Vest Point 1846, and commissioned brevet .second
lieutenant of engineers; served in the Mexican war at
the siege of Vera t'ruz and in the battles of Cerro Gonlo,
Contreras. Churidjusco, Molino del Hey, and C'hapultepcc,
and capture of city of Mexico, winning the brevets of first
lieutenant and captain for gallantry. At the close of the
war he returned to West Point, where he remained until
1851, when he was assigned to duty in the construction of
Fort Delaware; subsccMiently, in his engineering capacity,
accompanied the expeditions to explore the sources of the
Red river and the Xorthern Pacific Railway; promoted
first lieutenant of engineers 1853, and captain of cavalry in
1855 ; in the latter year he went to Europe as a member of a
military commission to visit the seat of war, ami upon his
return prepared an olTuial report upon the Organization of
Euni/ieiin Armies and Operations tn the Crimea, which was
publi.NJied by order of the Government. In 1857 he resigned
from the army, and was chief engineer and vice-president of
the Illinois Central Railway 1857-60, being chosen presiilent
of the St. Louis and Cincinnati Railway in the latter year.
On the outbreak of the civil war in 1861 his services were
enlisted by the Governor of Ohio in organizing the volun-
teers called for by the first proclamation, and he was placed
in command of the department of the Ohio, ami commis-
sioned major-general of Ohio volunteers Apr. 23, 1861. On
May 14 following the President appointed him a major-
general in the U. S. army, and directed him to disiwrsc
the Confederate force occupying and threatening to over-
run West Virginia. By a well-execute<l movement he met
and defeated the enemv, and on .Inly 14 reported his
task accomplished and W'est Virginia dear. The thanks of
Congress were tendered him for these sor^-iees, and after the
battle of Bull Run he wius called to Washington and (July
25) pla<'ed in command of a division comprising the depart-
ments of Washington anil of Xorlhea.stern Virginia; three
weeks later he was assigned to commaml the Department of
the Potomac, ami Aug. 20 the Army of the Potomac. U]>on
the retirement of Lieut. -Gen. Scott the command of the army
of the U. S. fell iipcm him, whi<-h he retained until Mar. 11,
1862, when he wius relieved from (tommand of all military de-
partments except that of the Potomac. On Mar. 6 he hail
made an ailvance uj)on Manassas, only to find the enemy
gone, and, returning, embarked his arniv for Fortress Mon-
roe ; the siege of Yorktown lasted until May 5. when followeil
the disastrous campaign known as the Peninsular campaign,
resulting in the retreat of the army to the James, June 26
to July 2, 1862, and its final withdrawal the following month
to the relief of Gen. Pojie in Xorthea.slern Virginia, leaving
McClellan for a short time without anv distinct command.
After the defeat of Pope (Aug. 29-;50), JlcClellan was (Sept.
2) placed in command of the capital and the trofips for its
defense, which were reorganized by him, and followed Lee
into Jlaryland, the battles of South Mountain and Antietam
ensuing Sept. 14-17. The delay which followed again cre-
ated much dissatisfaction in Washington, and on Xov. 7, just
as he had moved into Virginia with apparently a well-devis4'(l
plan of operations, he was relieved of his command at War- '
renton, and Gen. Burnside ordered to succeed him. Pro-
ceeding to Xew Jersey, he took no fifrther part in the war.
On Aug. 31, 1864, he received the nomination of the Demo-
cratic national convention for the presi<lency. The election
occurred on Xov. 8, when Lincoln was almost unanimously
re-elected by the States ])articipatiiig. JlcClellan receiving
only the votes of Xew Jersey, Kentucky, and Delaware. On
the dav of election he resigned his commission as major-
general, and in the spring of 1865 sailed for Europe, where
he made an extended stay. Returning in 1868 he superin-
tended the construction of the Stevens floating battery ; and
from 1870 to 1872 was chief engineer of the department of
docks of Xew York citv. Authorof various military reports,
text-books, and manuals: Governor of New Jersey 1878-81.
D. Oct. 29, 1885. McClellan's Own Story (of the war for the
Union) was published in 1887. Revised by Jauius Merccr,
Mnc'clesflold: town; in Cheshire, England; on the Ikil-
lin ; 15 miles S. S. E. of Manchester (see map of England,
ref. 7-G). Its silk fabrics are of the finest quality, and
more than 8.000 operatives are employed in this branch of
industry; its cotton-manufactures are also considerable. It
has a grammar .school, a modern free school, a s<hiH)l of
science and art, a technical school, a [uiblic library, an in-
firmarv. and a |)ublic park. Its vicinitv is rich in coal.
Pop. (1801) 36,009. JIacclesfield received 'its first charter in
1261. It did not attain its importance a-s a manufacturing
town until the beginning of the nineteenth century.
MeClintock .Sir Francis Leopold. D. C. L., LL. D.. F. R. S. :
explorer; b. at Dundalk, Ireland, in 1819; entered the navy
at the age of twelve; accompanied Sir James Ross in his
Arctic expedition of 1848; was engaged in Capt. .Austin's
expedition of 1850 in search of Sir John Franklin, with
the rank of lieutenant, and made a sleigh-journey of 760
miles along the north shon'of Parry Sound: was made com-
mander the following vear, and si'iit on the ex|ie<iition of
five vessels under Sir Edward Belcher; rescued Capt. Mc-
Clure from a three vears' imprisonment in the ice near Mel-
ville island, but subsequently had to abandon his own ship
and three others; returned to Englaiul Se|it., 1854, and in
1K57 to<ik command of the expedition <iispatclied by l>ady
Franklin to ascertain the fate of her hiisl>and. for which he
received many des4'rve<l honors, lie was knighted in 1800,
was employed in 1861 in surveying a route for a Xorth At-
lantic telegraph, liecame a rear-admiral Oct., 1871, and a vice-
admiral in 1877. He was<'ommander-in-<'hief in West India
waters 1879-82; Iweame full admiral 1K84: received an ad-
miiars pension 1887. He published 77ic Voyage of the Eox
in the Arctic Seas to Disconr the Fate of Sir John Frank-
lin and his Companioun (\^60).
McCIIntock, John, D. D.. LL.D. : educator; b. in Phila-
delphia, Oct. 27. 1814; gniduated at the University of Penn-
svlvania 1835, and began preaching as an itinernnl in the
>sew Jersey confen-nce of the Methodist Episoopal Church;
was Professor of Mathematics in Dickinson College at Car-
lisle, Pa., 18;t6-;t9. I'rofe.ssor of Ancient Ijingnaires 1R'W>-51;
aided in translating Xeander's Life of Chrifl (1847); pr<»-
pared (in connection with Prof. G. K. Crook.s) several cie-
420
McCLOSKEY
McCOOK
mentary classical text-books upon the system of •■imitation
and rt'iK'tition"; was editor of The J/itliodint Qnartrrly
/;?ci>M' 1848-56; was sent to Europe with Bishop Simpson
in 1856 as dele-rate to the Wesleyau Methodist conference
of England, and to the Evangelical Alliance at its Berlin
meetiuf; ; was pastor of St. Paul's M. E. church. New York,
1857-60; lx>canie pastor of the American chapel in I'aris,
France, in 1860; and while the civil war in the L'. S. was
in progress used both jien and voice to give the French an
intelligent idea of the causes of the contest. Keturning to
the U. S. in 18l>4, he was again for a few months jiastor of
St. Paul's, New York, resigning the position on account of
broken health; became in 1866 chairnmn of the Central
Centenary committee of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
which organized the celebration of the completion of the
first century of .\meriean Methodism ; was chosen first presi-
dent of Drew Theological Seminary, and superintended its
opening at Madison, N. J., in 1867. I>. at Madison, N. J.,
Mar. 4, 1870. In the management of The (Quarterly Jieview,
in his Analysis of ^yalson's Theological liistilu/es (1850),
his essay on The Temporal Power of the Pope (1851), his
Sketches of Eminent Methodist Ministers (186:i), and his
translation of Buiigener's History of the Council of Trent
(1855), he gave proof of versatile scholarship. The great
work of his life, proieetcil as early as 1853, was the Cyclo-
podia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Litera-
ture (10 vols., 1867-82), which he edited with the co-opera-
tion of Dr. James Strong. A volume of his sermons. Living
M'ords, was published in 1870. and a course of Lectures on
Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology in 1873. See
Ids Life and Letters, eililed by Ki'V. George R. Crooks (New
York, 1876). Revised by A. Osborn.
MeClos'key, .ToHN. D. D. : cardinal ; b. in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
Mar. 20, 1810; received his early classical training in New
York; graduated at Mt. St. Alary's College, Emmittsburg,
Md. ; studied theology in the Roman Catholic seminary con-
nected with the same institution: was ordained a priest in
St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, Jan. 9, 1834; spent two
years attending lectures at Rome, and another year in
5'rance ; became on his return assistant pastor, and soon
afterward pastor, of St. Joseph's church. New York ; was ap-
ointed by Bishop Hughes in 1841 first president of St.
ohn's College, Fordhain, N. Y. ; returned the following
year to his pastoral charge; was appointed coadjutor to
Bishop Hughes Nov. 23, 1843 ; consecrated under the title of
Bishop of Axiere in partibus infidelium Mar. 10, 1844, and
on the division of the diocese of New York was installed in
Sept., 1847, as first Bishop of Albany. He administered that
diocese seventeen years with signal ability, erected a splendid
cathedral, founded at Troy a well-equipped theological sem-
inary, binlt a large number of churches, founded many char-
itable and religious institutions, and introduced numerous
monastic orders and lay communities. On the death of
Archbishop Hughes he was appointed his successor. May 6,
1864, and took iMissession Aug. 21, after which time he re-
peated upon a larger scale the activity shown at Albany.
For the completion of the magnificent catheilral on Fifth
Avenue he was very active, and visited Rome in 1874 to pro-
cure materials for it. Raised to the princely dignity of
cardinal-priest Mar. 1.5, 1875, he received the biretta in May,
after which he visited Rome to obtain the investiture. D.
in New York city, Oct. 10, 1885. J. J. Kkane.
McClurc, Sir Robert Jonx i,e Mksirier, C. B. ; Arctic
discoverer; b. at Wexford, Ireland, Jan. 28, 1807; was edu-
cated at Winchester and Sandhurst ; entered the navy as a
midshipman ; joined the Arctic expedition under "('apt.
Back (1836) as a volunteer; was«ppi>nited lieutenant on his
return, anci served on the Great LaKes during the Cana<iian
rebellion 1838-30; took part in .Sir John Ross's Arctic expe-
dition (1848), and took command in 1850 of another explor-
ing expedition, which discovered the Northwest passage.
For this service he was knighted, received a captaincy and a
reward of £5,000. From his journals ( 'apt. .Sherard ( isborne
published in 18.")6 'J'he JJiscoriry of the S'orthicest Passage,
lie al'lerward served in th(^ China squadron, became rear-ad-
miral lH(i7, and vice-admiral on the retired list 1873. I), in
London, Oct. 17, 1873.
McClymoiit, James Alexander, M. A., B. P. : minister of
the Church of Scotland; b. in (iirvan, Ayrshire, May 26,
1848; educated in the Universities of Eilinburgh and Tu-
bingen; pastor of Holburn parish. .Mierdeen, from 1H74;
translator, with Dr. Nicol, of l)r. .1. T. Beck's I'astonil The-
ology of the New Testament ; editor, wit h I'mf. ( 'hartiris, of
I
The Guild and Bible Class Textbooks; author of The New
Testament and its Writers in that series (Edinburgh and
New York, 1892); editor of The Church of Scotland : What
she has done for the People of Scotland, and what she ex-
pects in Return (1893). C. K. HoYT.
MacColl, Malcolm : clergyman and author; b. at Olen-
finan, liiverness-sliire, Scotland, Mar. 27, 1838; was edu-
cated in Ivlinburgh and a]>pointed assistant curate of St.
Paul's, Knightsbridge, 1861. chaplain to the British ambas-
sador in St. Petersburg 1H62, curate of St. Paul's 1864, and
rector of St. George's, in the city of London, 1871. lie pub-
lished Mr. Gladstone and Oxford (2d ed. 1865); Science
and Player (4th ed. 1866); The lieformatiojt in England
(2d ed. 1869); The Ober-Animergau Passion 7V(/_y (6lli ed.
1^(70); M'lio is Pesponsible for the War/ (Franco-Prussian)
(1871); iMwlessiiess, Sacerdotalism, and Pitualism {lH'i5);
The Eastern (Question: its pacts and its Eallacies (1877);
Three Years of the Eastern (Question {lH7i<): Christianity
in Relation to Science and Morals (3d ed. 1890), comprising
lectures on the Nicene Creed delivered as canon residentiary
of RiiHin Cathedral, besides numerous contributions to peri-
<Klical literature. Canon McCi>ll was present at the Old
Catholic conference at Biuin, 1875, representing Mr. Glad-
stone at this meeting of representative theologians of the
Eastern and Western Churches. Revised by W. S. Perry.
McComh: village; Hancock co., 0. (for location of coun-
ty, see map of dhio, ref. 2-1)); on the Cin.. Ham. and Day.,
and the N. Y., Chi. and St. L. railways; 10 miles N. W. of
Findlay, the county-seat. It is in a natural-gas belt; con-
tains a private bank and a weekly newspaper; and has saw
and grist mills, sa.sh and blind factories, and grain elevators.
Pop. (1880) 417; (1890) 1.030.
McComb City : town ; Pike co.. Miss, (for location of
county, see map of Jlississippi, ref. 9-F); on the Illinois
Cent. Railroad ; 7 miles N. of Magnolia, the county-seat,
105 miles N. of New Orleans, La. It is in a cotton and
corn growing region, and has a State bank with capital of
^25,000, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,982 ; (1890)
2,383.
MoCoiinolsville: village; capital of Morgan co., 0. (for
location of county, see map of Ohio, ref. 6-11); on the Mus-
kingum river, and the Zanesville and Ohio River Railway;
27 miles S. of Zanesvillc. It is in an agricultural region ;
has natural gas; and contains 6 churcli(-s. an opera-house
that cost ^40.000, manufactories of flour, tobacco, and agri-
cultural implements, nuuiv choice residences, and 2 weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,473; (1890) 1,771.
Editor of " Herald."
MeCook : city; Red Willow co.. Neb. (for location of
county, see map'of Nebraska, ref. ll-D); on the Republican
river, and the Chi., Burl, and (.iuincy Railroad ; 10 miles W.
of Indianola. It is in a farming and stock-raising region,
and contains the division head(|uarters and repair-shops of
the railway com|)anv. and three weekly newspapers. Pop.
(1880) not in census ;' (1890) 2,346.
MoC'ook, Alexander JIcDowell: soldier; b. in Colum-
biana CO., O., .\pr. 22, 1831 ; graduated at West Point, and
entered the army as brevet second lieutenant of infantry in
1H.52 ; after a brief term of service in garrison, he was ac-
tively engaged against hostile Indians until 1857, when after
a year's leave of absence he was assigned as instructor of in-
fantry tactics at West Point. On the outbreak of the civil
war lie was appointed colonel of the First tihio Volunteei-s,
which regiment he commandeil at the first battle of Bull
Run. Reorganizing his reginu'ut on the expiration of its
term of service, he was recommis.sioned colonel in August ;
was appointed brigadier-general of volunteei-s in Sept., 1861,
and assigned to the comuuind of a brigade in the de|)art-
ment of the Cumberlaiul ; connnanded a division at the bat-
tle of Sliiloh an<l siege of Corinth, and First Army-corps
at the battle of Perry ville ; Twentieth Army-corps at Stone
river and Chickamauga, aiul the troo]is for the defense of
the capital at the time of Early's attack on it, July, 1864,
Received the vario\is brevets from major to major-general.
Resigned his commission as major-general Oct., 1865, and in
Mar., 1867, was promoted to be lieutenant-colonel of infantry;
colonel in 18H0; brigadier-general July 10.1890, and major-
general Nov. 9, 1894. Retired Apr. 22, 1895.
McCuok, Henry Ciiristoimiek, D. D. : Presbyterian nun-
isler and a naturalist; b. in New Lisbon, O., July 3, 1837;
graduated at JelTerson College, Pennsylvania, 1859; West-
ern Theological .Seminary, Allegheny, I'a., 1859-61 ; lieu-
MaiCORMAC
McCULLOCII
421
tenant, and aftorwanl clmplain, in Fortv-first Regiment
Illinois Volunteers 1H61-62: minister in C'linton, III.. 1x61,
a[id 1862-63; home mi.-ssioiiary in .St. Louis, >lo., lS6;}-70;
pastor of 'J'abernacle Preshyterian c-hureli, Philadelphia,
from lyTO. lie has been active in the work of the American
Kntomoloffical Society and in the Philailelphia Academy of
Natural Sciences, publishinK many papers in the Proceed inffn
of the latter. He has also published Object and (httline Teach-
ing (St. liouis, 1M71); 77(« Last Year of Christ's J/iiiistri/
(Philadelphia, 1871): The Last JJai/s of Jesus (1872): The
Tercentenari/ /yoot (edited 1873); The Mound-making Ants
of the Alleghenies (1877); The Xaturiil History of t lie Ag-
ricultural Ant of Texas (18.H0); Historical Decorations,
Presbyterian Council, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1880):
Garfield Memorial Sermons (1881); Honey Ants and Occi-
dent Ants (1882): Tenants of an Old Farm (N'ew York,
1884): The Women Friends of Jesus (188.5); American
Spiders and their Spinning Wor/c (Philadelphia, vol. i„
1889 : vol. ii., 18U0). Willis J. Beech er.
SlacCorinnc-. IIenrv. M. D. : physician; b. in Belfast-
Ireland, in 18(10: studied medicine in the Universities of
Dublin, Paris, and Ediiiburfrh, graduatin;; M. D. at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh i" 1824; licentiate of Royal College of
Surgeons, Edinlnirgh, 1824: traveled in Africa and Xorth
America, returning to Belfast to practice his profession ; was
visiting physician to several local hospitals; in 1866 gave up
the active duties of his profession for literature. Among his
more important writings are A Treatise on the Cause and
Cure of Hesitation of Speech, or Stammering (London.
1828); Observations on Spasmodic Cholera (London, 1832);
An Exposition of the Xature, Treatment, and Prevention of
Continued Fever (London, 183.")) ; Method us medendi, or the
Description and Treatment of the J'rinripal Diseases Inci-
dent to the Human Frame (London, 1842) ; Metanoia : a Plea
for the Insane (London, 1861); The Painless Extinction of
Life in A nimals Designed for Human Food (London, 1864) ;
Translation of Antoninus Epictetus. I), at Belfast, Jlay
26, 1886. S. T. Armstrong.
McCosh, .Tames, D. D., T/L. D., Lit. D. : philosopher: b. at
Carskeoch, Ayrshire, Scotlan<l, Apr. 1. IHll ; cdmated at the
Universities of (rlusgow 1824-2!t and Edinburgh 182i»-:i4 :
wrote, while a student in the latter, an essay on the Stoic
philosophy, which obtaineil for him, on motion of .Sir Will-
iam Hamilton, the honorary degree of M. A.; was ordained
a minister of the Church of Scotland at Arbroath in 183.5;
removed to Brechin in 1830; wjts actively concerned in the
disriiption of the Scottish Church and in the organization of
the Free Church 1843: appointed Professor of Logic and
Metaphysics in (Queen's College, Belfast, 1851 ; elected presi-
dent of the College of N'ew, I ersey at Princeton 1868. which post
he filleil with great ability and success. His resignation of
the presidency was accepted in 1N8S. and he became president
emeritus, retaining his profi'ssDrsliip of Philosophy until 1890.
1). at Princeton, N..I.. Nov. Hi. 18!)4. His principal works are
Tlie Methods of the Divine (lovernment. Physical and Moral
(18.50). which laid Iheba-sisof a wide reputation both in Great
Britain and America; (in connection with Prof. G. Dickie)
Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation (18.56) ; In-
tuitions of the Mind inductively Investigated, being a De-
fense of Fundamental Truth (I860): The Supernatural in
Relation to the Satuntl (1862); .\n Examination of Mill's
Philosophy (1806) ; Logic (1869) ; Christianity and Positiv-
ism (1871); The Scottish Philosophy, Jiiographical. Exposi-
tory, and Critical, from Hulcheson to Hamilton (1874): The
Development Hypothesis (1876): The Emotions (1880):
Psychology (2 vols., 1886); liealistic Philosophy Defended
in a Philosophic Series (2 vols., 1887); The Religious As-
pect of Evolution (1888): The Prevailing Types of Philos-
ophy: Can They Logically Reach Reality? (1890); The
Tests of Various Kinds of Truth (If^Ol); Our Moral Xatu re
(1893) :' Philosophy of Reality (I8!l4). Dr. M<<V>sli, both by
his writings and bv his personal work as president, teacher,
and preacher, has iiad great influence on American philos-
ophy, theology, and eilucation. His pliilosophv is a develo|i-
ment of the Scottish realism, but he goes furtlier than Reid
in asserting the direct cognition of realities of all kinds.
He very early accepted the doctrine of biological evolution,
and interested himself in the newer problems of psychology
and education. The present important rank held bv the
college at Princeton was largely reacheil during his a<lmin-
istration. Revised by J. Mark Balowis.
MaoCracken, Henry Mitchell. D. D., LL. D. : cilucalor
and author : b. at Oxford, O., Svpt. 'iS, 1840 ; was educated
at Miami University, the United Presbvterian Theological
.Seminary, Xenia, (I., Princeton Theological .Seminarv, and
Tubingen and Berlin Universities. He was teacher of the
classics and school superintendent 1857-61 ; pa.stor of West-
min.ster church, Coluud)Us. (>.. ]86;(-68: of the First Pres-
byterian church. Toledo, 18I}8-K0: chancellor of the West-
ern University, Pittsburg. Pa.. 1N80-84; vice-ihanceHor and
Professor of Philosophy in the University of the City of Ni-w
York 1884-91, and has been chancellor since 1891. In 1867
he was deputy to the General Assemblv of the Free Church of
Scotland and to the Irish Presbyterian General Assembly ;
on .luly 4, 18H4, was the orator at'the reunion of the Scotcli-
Irish at liilfast, Irelatul. Besides manv other pamphlets,
he luLs published Tercentenary of Pres'byterinnism ; K^an't
and Lotze ; anil A Metropolitan University, ami is editor and
author of Leaders of the Church i'niversat (3 vols.. Phila-
delphia. New York, Edinburgh, 1879). C. K. IIovt.
McCrie. Thomas, I). D. : historian and divine ; b. at
Dunse, Scotland, in Nov.. 1772; became pastor of a church
in Ediiiburgh 1795: took a prominent part in the agita-
tions within the Scottish Church. In 1804. he, with three
others, fornunl the Con.stitutional Associate Presbytery,
commonly known as the Old Light Antiburgher Ijodv.' {Si-e
Presbyterian Chlri h.) He was the author of an esteemed
Life of John Knox (1811), and of The Life of Andreir Mel-
ville (1819). im|iortant for the history of the Reformation in
Scotland. He also wrote a History of the l^ogress and Sup-
pression of the Reformation in Italy {IH2~) and a History of
the Reformation in Spain (1829); lives of several Reformers
in The Christian Magazine (1802-06); vigorously criticised
Sir Walter Scott for his treatment of the Covenanters in
Old Mortality; published several controversial and jtolitical
tracts and discourses, and left unfinished a Life of Calvin.
D. in Edinburgh. Aug. 5, 18:}.5. A posthumous volume of
.S>r?HOH» appeared in 18:16, hi^ Miscellaneous B ritings in 1841,
and his Works in 4 vols, in 185.5-57. See Life of Thomas
McCrie by his son, Thomas McCrie, Jr. (Ediiiburgh, 1841 ;
2d ed. 184;{); WMiKinn'i Dictionary of Authors; Lord Cock-
burn's Journal (vol. i., p. 100); Blackie"s Preachers of Scot-
land (vol ii..n. 269); Hugh Miller's The Headship of Christ
(p. 77) and My Schools and Schoolmasters (ch. xvi.).
C. K. Hoyt.
McCrie, Thomas. .Ir., D. I)., LL. D. : son of Thomas Mc-
Crie ; Professor of Systematic Theology- in the English Pres-
byterian College in London ; b. in Edinburgh in 1798, d. in
1875; wrote Life of Thomas McCrie (1841); Sketches of
Scottish Church History OHil) : edited The Proi-incial Let-
ters of Blaise Pascal, a Sew Translation, trith Historical
Introduction and Xotes (1846). Revise<l by C. K. Hovr.
Mct'ulloch, Hiiiii: financier: b. at Kennebunk. Me.,
Dec. 7, 1808: wils educated at liowdoin College; removed
to Indiana in 18;{3 ; wa.s president of the State Bank of Ind-
iana from May, 1855. till May. 1863. when, at the instance
of the .Secretary of the U. .S. Treasury, Mr. Chase, he was
called to the newly created oflTiee of Comptroller of the Cur-
rency; he succeeded .Mr. Fessenden as.Se<-retary of the U..S.
Treasury until .Mar., 1869, when he returned to Indiana.
His reporls as Secn'tary of the Treasury are hehl in high
esteem by financiers. He engaged in the banking business
in London in 1870; was again S<-cretary of the Treasury
1884-)S5. He published Men and Measures of Half a Ceii-
tury (18.S8). I). May 24, 1895.
MfCuIloch. .John Ramsay; economist: b. at Whithorn,
Scotland, .Mar. 1, 1789; became editor of 7'be Scotsman, an
organ of Liberal political opinions at Edinburgh. aii<l one of
the editors of The Edinburgh Revieir; wrote the article mi
political economy in the supplement to the Encyrlnjiadia
liritannica (1824). ill which he anticipated the opinions of
the Manchester school of adviK-ates of free traile: r»'pul>-
lishe<l this article in 182.5, with additions and inixliflia-
tions, under the title Principles of Political Economy:
with a Sketch of the Rise and Progress of the Science; and
was professor of that s»ience in tlie University of L<'ndon
1828-32. During this time he ex^Hiiinded the wage-fund
theory (1826), which, after eonslilutinir for years the ac-
cepted doctrine on the siibjivt, was completely overtlirowii
by the opiionents of the laissez-faire system. He e<lile«I
Adam Smith's Wealth of Salions (I1^i»)'; publishecl A Dic-
tionary, Practical, Theoretical, and Historical, of Com-
merce and Commercial .\ 1 18;i2l : A ' ' il
Account of the liritish E ' ; A Did
graphical. Statistical, and ;. ■■..'. of the Vin --■<-
tries. Places, and I'rincipal Satural Objects in the World
422
McCULLOUOn
MACDONALD
(1841: revised cd. 186(5-67): The Literature of Political
Ecottomi) (1845); und imiiierous other valuable treatises on
economical tofiics. His great Dictionaries were long stand-
ard aulliorities upon their respective sulijects. Prof. McC'ul-
loch received in 1843 the hiu'li honor of an elei'tion as one
of the eight foreisrn associates of the French Institute of
Moral and Political Sciences. He was appointed in 1838
comi)troller of tlie royal stationery ollicc, and received a
pension of i:2(M) for eminent services to literature. U. at
Westminster, Nov. 11, 1864. Revised by F. JI. t'ouuv.
MvCllllong'Il. .loHN EnwARD : actor: b. in Coleraine, Ire-
land, Nov. 2, 1837 ; removed to the U. S. with his jiarents
in 18.5.'{, and was apprenticed to a chairitjaker. In 1835
he made his first appearance in a minor character in The
Belle's Stratagem at the Arch Stivet theater in Philadel-
phia, and adopted the stas;c' as a regular profession; From
1866 he traveleil with Kdwin Forrest, hllin;,' the second
part in the plays. In 1H(!!I, in connection with Lawrence
Barrett, he managed the Hush Street theater in San Fran-
cisco. Forre.sl, when he died in 1872, left his manuscript
plays to McCulloufjli, looking upon him as his legitimate
successor. From lf*73 until 1883 he played througliout the
U. S. the parts of Hrutus. in .Tohn Howard Payne's tragedy
by that name, .Tack Cade, the Gladiator, Vii-ginius, Da-
mon and Pytiiias, Othello, Coriolarms, and King Lear.
While playing the Gladiator in Chicago he broke down.
He appeared in Knglanil in 1881, but his acting was not ad-
mired. I), in a lutiatic asylum in Philadelphia, Nov. 8, 188.5.
Although a |)owerful actor he was in every way inferior to
his model, Forrest, especially in his lack of originality and
literary culture. ' B. B. Vai.le.ntixe.
McCnrdy, .Tames FR?:i)ERirK, Ph. D. : philologist and
professor of languages ; b. at Chatham, New Brunswick,
Feb. 18, 1847 : was educated at the IFniversity of New
Brunswick and Princeton Theological Seminary, where he
was instructor in the Semitic Languages 1873-82 ; studied in
Gottingen and Leipzig 1883-84; was Stone lecturer at
Princeton 1885-86 ; and since 1886 has been Professor of
Oriental Languages in the University of Toronto. He has
contril)utod many articles, linguistic, archa-ologieal, and exe-
getical, to jouriuils and to the transactions of |)hilological
societies. For the American edition of Lange's commen-
taries he wrote the Commenfari/ on Ilaffgai (1876), and
translated and supplemented from the German edition
Sookn JII.-V. of the Psnlms (1872) and Ilo.iea (1876). He
has published Arijo-Semitic Speech (.\ndover and London,
1881). and The Aioojrian and Jiahylonian Inscripiionx. with
Special Reference to the Old Testament (New York, 1886).
C. K. llovT.
Macdonald, Andrew Archibald: statesman ; b, at
Three Kivers, Prince Edward Island, Feb. 14, 1829; was
educated at a grammar school ami privately. lie sat in
the provincial House of Assembly 18.54-60; in provincial
legislative council 1863-73; was postmaster-general 1873-
84, lieutenant-governor 1884-89, and was called to the
Doininioii Senate in 1891. He was a delegate to the Char-
lottetown and Quebec union conferences 1864; to the In-
ternational convention at Portland, U. S., 1868 ; and is a
public trustee under the Land Purchase Act of 1875.
Neil Macdonald.
Macdonald, Ktie.vxk .TAcyrss Joseph Alexandre, Due
de Tarente : soldier; b. at .Sancerre. in the de|>artinent of
Cher, Franc^e, Nov. 17, 1765: descended from a Scottish
family which went to Prance with the Stuarts; entered the
army in 1784; fought at Jemappes in 1793, after which he
rose rapidly in rank and became general of division in
179.5. Having been appointed governor of Rome and the
Papal States in 1798, he commanded the principal corps in
the successful Imllle at Olricoli. and was afterward made
general-in-chi(^f of the army of Najiles. .\fter considerable
success against the Neapolitans he was beaten by Suwarow
on the banks of the Trebbia .June 17. 1799: was wounded ;
returned to Paris, aiul took the side of Napoleon in the revo-
lution of 18 brumaire. but afterward lost the confidence
of the emperor on account of his stanch defense of Gen.
Moreau. In 1809, however. Napoleon again gave him a com-
mand, and he dislinguished himself si> much in the battle
of VVagram that he was created Duke of Tarente and made
a nnirslial of I'Vance. In the campaigns of 1812-14 he ren-
dered distinguished services, but was defeated by BUicher
at Katzbaeh Aug. 26, 1813, and adhered firmly and honestly
to Napoleon till his aljdication. Having taken servi(!e witii
the Bourbons, he refused to accept any ollice during the
Hundred Days, and lived, much honored, though in retire-
ment, during the second Restoration. I), at Courcelles, near
Guise, Sept. 24, 1840. Revised by F. iM. toLliY.
Macdonald. Flora: heroine; b. at Milton, in the island
of South I'ist, one of the Hebrirles, in 1720; became cele-
brated in 1746 as the heroine of some of the remarkable
a<lventures of Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender,
whom she assisted in escaping pursuit from South Uist to
Skye. She was imprisoned on board ves,sels of war and in
L(Uiilon for several months ; relea-sed in 1747 ; married Allan
Macdonald in 17.50, and settled in Fayctteville, N. C, in 1775.
During the Revolutionary war her husband served as an
otlicer in the British army, and Flora returned to the island
of Skye, where she died Mar. 4, 1790.
MacDonald. Georoe : novelist and poet ; b. in Huntley,
Scotland, in 1824 ; was educated at the I'niversity of Aber-
deen : studied for the ministry at the Independent College,
Highbury. London ; preached in the counties of Surrey and
Sussex for some time, but ultimately became a lay member
of the Church of Englaml and devoted himself entirely to
literature, settling in London. He published volumes of
noems in 185,5, 1857, 1864, 1868, and 1882. He has pub-
lished several novels, including David £lginbrod (1863) ;
Alec Forbes of Ilouylen (1865); Annals of a Quiet Neigh-
borhood (1866)"; Guild Court (1867) : Robert Falconer (WliH);
Wilfred Viimbermede (\X~,\): Malcolm (1874); The Mar-
quis of Lossie (1877) ; and Wliat's Mine's Mine (1886) ; also
several successful juvenile books, and two theological works.
He has been principal of a ladies' seminarv in London;
lectured in the V. S. (1872-73). Revised by I'l. A. Beer.s.
MacDonald. .Iames : jurist ; b. at East River, Pictou, Nova
Scotia, July 1, 1828 ; was educated at New Glasgow, aiul was
admitted to the bar in 1H61. He represented Pictou in the
Nova Scotia Assembly 18.59-67, 1871-72, and the same con-
stituency in the Dominion Parliament 1874-81 ; was railway
commissioner for Nova .Scotia 1863-64; financial secretary
1864-67; Minister of Justice of Canada 1878-81; and was
appointed Chief Justice of Nova Scotia May 28, 1881. He
was one of the commissioners ajjpointed to open up trade
relations with the West Indies, Mexico, Brazil, and the Brit-
ish American provinces 1865-66. N. M.
Macdonald. Sir John Alexander, G. C. B., D. C. L., LL. D. :
Canadian statesman; b. in Glasgow, .Scotland, .Ian. 11,
1815. His father, Hugh Macdonald, a native of Sutherland-
shire, removed to Canada with his family in 1S20, and set-
tled in Kingston, where his son was educated at the Uoyal
Grammar School. A<lnnttcd to the bar in 1836, John soon
established a lucrative practice, and became noted for his
knowledge of criminal and commercial law, and for his abil-
ity as a pleader. In 1844 he was elected to represent Kings-
ton in the Canada As.sembly, and sat for this constituency
almost continuously until his death. Soon after entering
Parliament he began to display those talents which secured
for him so great an ascendency in Canadian politics, aiul in
a few years became the virtual leader of the Upper Canada
Conservatives, even before he had displaced Sir Allan Mac-
Nab as chief of the jiarty. He assumed office for the first
time May 21, 1847, entering the cabinet as Receiver-General ;
became commissioner of crown lands Dec. 7, 1847; and
was Attorney-General for I'pper Canada from Sept. 11, 1854,
to July 29, 18.58, when, as Prime Jlinistcr, he and his cabinet
resigned. He returned to ollice Aug. 6. same year, as Post-
nuister-General : resigned this jiorl folio on the following
day, on his reappointnu'nt as Attorney-General, a position
he held until the defeat of the administration. May, 1862,
when he and his colleagues again retired from office. He
led the opposition in the Assembly, together with Sir George
E. Cartier, until the defeat of the Sandliclil Maedonald-
Dorion government, when, with Sir Etii'iiue Taclie, he
fornu'd an administration .'Mar. 30. 1864. He resumed his
former office of Attorney-General, and was Government
leader in the .Assembly from that date until tlie union of
the jirovinces in 1867. To the consummation of this union
he contributed more than any other person in Canada. Ho
was a delegate to the union confereiu'cs held at (^harlotte-
town and tiuebec in 1S64 ; and was chairman of the London
colonial confereiu'c lH6t)-67. when llie act of union known
H< the British North .\nierica .Vet was i>asscd by the British
Parliament. On July 1, 1867, he was called upon to form the
first Government for the new Dominion, and was a|)pointed
."Minister of Justice and .\ttorney-General of Canada, an ollh^e
whi<'h he held until he and his ministry resigned on the Pa-
cific Railway charges Nov. 6, 1873. During this administra-
MACDONAI.I)
McDowell
423
tion negotiations with the Hudson's Hay ('oinpnny respect-
ing tlio transfer of the Northwest region to t'anaila were suc-
cessful, and that vast domain was united to the Dominion
hirj;ely IhroUKti his elforls. Sliortly afli-r ri'tiriiifj from
ollicu he removed to Toronto and enpifjed in Itii^ practice of
law, anil many of his political opponents and others re-
garded his public career as ended. In the meantime, how-
ever, ho introduced his scheme of protective duties, known
since as the National Policy, to the notice of the puldic,
and ap|)ealing to them upon that issue was succcssfid at the
polls. He was not, however, in favor of protection as a per-
manent fiscal policy, but was led to adopt it by the exigen-
cies of trade with the U. .S. He resu[ne(l ollice in Oct.,
1878, as .Minister of the Interior; resigned this portfolio
and became president of the council and superintendent-
general of Indian alTairs Oct. 17, 188;t. He resigned those
otlices Nov. 28, 188!), and became Minister of Railways and
C'anal.s, which post he retained until his death at Ottawa,
June (5, 18!(1. In 1871 he was appointed one of the British
joint high commissioners and plenipotentiaries, together
with Karl de Grey (now Marquis of Kipon), Sir StalTord
Northcote, Sir Edward Thornton, and the Right Hon.
Montague Hernard, to act in connection with five cominis-
sionci-s for the U. S. for the settlement of the Alabama
claims and of other matters in dispute between Great Brit-
ain and the V. S., the labors of the commissionei-s resulting
in the Treaty of Washington, signed May 8, 1871. During
the summer of 1880 Sir .John visited Lomion in company
with Sir Charles Tupper and the Hon. J. H. Pope (members
of his cabinet), when thev arrangeil the terms for the con-
struction of the t'anadian Pacific Railway. He again
visited Loiulon in 1884, and attended the conference held
there Nov. 18. at which the Imperial Federation League was
formed, and was regarded as the chief originator of the
movement. The measures which Sir .John carried through
Parliament comprise the most important features of Cana-
dian legislation from 18.">4 up till the period of his death.
He received the degree of D. C. L. from Oxford University
in 1805; LL. D. from Queen's L'niversitv, Kingston, and
McGill University, Montreal ; was createil a Knight Com-
mander of the Bath in 1807, Knight Grand Cross of the
Royal Order of Isabel la Catolica (of Spain) 1873 ; sworn in
as a member of Her .Majesty's Privy Council 187'J ; and re-
ceived the decoration of the Grand Cross of the Bath in 1884.
.Sir John possessed natural aliilities of the highest order.
He held no mean rank as an orator, and had no equal in
Canada as a parliamentary debater. A ma-ster of repar-
tee, witty, persuasive, and engaging, he had but few superi-
ors anywhere as a conversationalist. He seemed to have an
intuitive knowledge of human nature, and possessed in an
eminent degree those special talents wherel)y he rendered
this gift serviceable in [iromotiiig his public policy. He
displayed the commanding character of his intellect and his
statesmanship by welding opposing factions, creeds, and
nationalities into a harmonious political unity of action.
He was twice married — first to his cousin, Isabella Clarke,
who died in 1856, and second, in 1867, to Susan Agnes,
daughter of the Hon. T. J. Bernard, a member of the Queen's
Privy Council of the island of Jamaica. .She, surviving Sir
John, was soon after his death created Baroness Earnsclille,
in consideration of her luisliand's distinguished services.
His son Hioii Joii.n, (^. C. (b. in Kingston, Ontario, Mar.
13, 18.")0), was educated at Queen's College, Kingston, and
the University of Toronto, and admitteil to the bar in 1872.
He served in the Red river expedition (1870) under Sir Garnet
(now Lord) W'olselev, and again in 1.S8.5. He is president
of the Manitoba Rifle Association, and in 18111 was elected
to the Canadian Parliament for the city of Winnipeg.
Neil JIacuonald.
Mucdonnhl, Jons Sanpfield : statesman ; b. in St. Ra-
phael's, Glengarry, Ontario, Dec. 12. 1812. lie was solf-
educated. was admitted to the bar in 18J0, and achieved an
immediate success; elected for (ilengarry County in Par-
liament of Canada in 1841 : re-elected in l.'<4.'<, ls.-)2; and 18.54
without opposition; wjws Solicitor-tieneral 184!»-51. Speaker
1852-.54, and in 18.58 was ,\ttorney-General in the Hrown-
Dorion or "two-days" ministry. He was elected for Corn-
wall in 1857, was called upon to form a government after
the defeat of the Cartier-Macdonald government, which he
succeeded in doing, and was Premier till his resignation in
1864. He became Premier of the province of Ontario in
1867, which office he resigned in 1871 ; but he retained a scat
in Parliament till his death in Cornwall, Ontario, June 1, 1872.
—His brotlier DoxALn .Alexander 0). in St. Raphael's, Feb.
17, 1817) represented Glengarry in the Caiiailian Parliament
1867-75. lie became a niemlier of the Privy Council Nov.
7, 187y, and was Poslnuister-tieneral from that date till b|>-
pointed lieutenant-governor of Ontario May 18, 1875; this
last ollice he held for five years. ' N. M.
Mcl)Oil')falI, Alkxandkr : sohlier ; b. in .Scotland in
17:tl ; went to North America with his father alxjut 17.55.
and settled near New York ; was in 1769 a printer, and im-
prisoned by the colonial government (1770) for an allegid
libelous address. He t<x>k an active part in the popular
movements preliminary to the Revolution ; was appointed
colonel of the first New York regiment ; brigadier-general
Aug., 1770, and major-general Oct. 20, 1777; was engaged
in the battles of Long Island, White Plains, and German-
town, and in the New Jersey campaign; commanded the
posts on the Hudson 1778-80 ;' wa-s .'^linister of Marine for a
short time early in 1781 ; was elected a delegate to Congress
from New York in that year, and apain in 1784 ; was elected
to New York Senate 178:). D. in New York, June 8, 1780.
MncDniigall. William. C. B.: statesman ; b. in Toronto,
Canada, .bill. 2.5, 1822 ; was educated there and at Victoria
College, Cobourg, and was admitted as an attorney in 1847.
He founded (1848) The Canada Fanner: in 18.50 The
yorlh American, of whiili he was editor until it was merged
into the Toronto i'oiVy Globe in 1857. and was a political
\vriter on the latter 1857-60. He represented Canada at tho
New York exhibition 18.53; was a member of the executive
council and commissioner of crown lands 1862-64; provin-
cial secretary 1864-67; acting Minister of Marine 186(5-67;
and Minister of Public Works from 1807 until ap|K)inted
lieutenant-governor of Rupert's Land and Northwest Terri-
tory in 180!). He was chairman of the commission apiwinted
pen u
and Brazil 1865-66 ; delegate to the Charlottetown and (Jne-
to open up traile relations with the We.st Indies,
ipiK)inted
. Mexico,
bee union conferences 1864; to the colonial conference in
London 1866-67 ; to confer with British Government on de-
fenses of Canada and for the acquisition of the Northwest
Territory 1868-69; and was sent to London (1873) as a
special commissioner to confer with British Government re-
specting fisheries and to make arrangements in Scandinavia
and Baltic provinces for emigration to Canada. He is au-
thor of Six Jjelters on the- Amendment of the I'rovincial
Constitution (Toronto, 1872). " N. M.
MacDowell, Kdward A.: composer: b. in New York
city, Dec. 18, 1861 ; began the study of the piano very early;
went to Paris in 1870, remaining thFee years in the con-
servatory there ; then went to Wiesbaden and Frankfort,
and in 1881 was appointed first piano-teacher in the con-
servatory at Darmstadt, but resigned in 1882. In 1884 he
married an American lady, and took up his residence at
Wiesbaden. He returned to his native country about 1889,
and resides in Boston. His compositions are important,
and include piano concertos and suites, .symphonic poems
for orchestra — viz., Hamlet. Ophelia. Launrelol and Elaine,
Lamia — a symphony, a suite for orchestra, and similar large
works. ' ' I>. E. Hervev.
McDowell, Irvin: soldier; b. at Columbus, C, Oct. 15,
1818 : educated at the College de Troycs. France, and at
the U. S. Military Academy, at which he graduated July 1,
18:(8. Appointed second lieutenant of artillery in the
army; adjutant at West Point 1841-45; aiile-de-camp to
Gen. Wool 1845, as adjutant-general of his division, in the
war with Mexico, and subsequently of the anny of o<'cu-
pation. At the battle of Buena Vista he gained the brevet
of captain, and in May, 1H47. was appointed bn^vet captain
and assistant adjutant-general. Served as adjutant-general
of various departments until 1861. having lioen promoted to
brevet major in 18.50. Ordered to Washington in Feb., 1801,
he served until Mayas inspiftor of ln>ops. in organizing
and mustering volunteers. Ajfjiointed brigadier-general May
14. he was three days later assigned to the command of tho
department of Northeast Virginia ami the defenses of Wash-
ington on the Virginia side of the Potomac, and on May 27
to the Army of the Potomac, which he commanded at the
battle of Bull Run July 21. On the accession of Gen. Mc-
Clellan to command, .\lcDowell was plareil at the head of «
divisicm of the .\rmv of the Potomac. aiiii on its roorpiniza-
tion (Mar., 1862) of 'the First Corjvs of that army. He wa.1
made major-general of volunteers Mar. 13, ise2; wb.s in
command of the de|iartment of the KappidoinUiK-k Apr.,
1862; of the Thinl .Army-forjw (Army of Virginia) Aug.. 1862,
and during Gen. Poi>e's campaign in Northern Virginia was
424
MACE
MACEDONIAN LANGUAGE
cn^ped at t'cilur Mountnin. Hapimlianiuick Station, and
sccutiil Hull Uiiii. Ill .Inly, 1ISG4, iiiaceil in tominaiid of the
department of the Pacilic ; of department of California
June, 1866, department of the East 186H ; became major-
general V. S. army in Nov., 1872 ; in eommaiid of the divi-
sion of the Soulli Dec., 1872. to June. 1876. and then of the
division of the I'aeitic till his retirement, Oct. 15, 1882. D.
in San Francisco, Cal., May 4, 1883.
Hevised by James Merii'R.
MaOP [from Lat. »if/>i.«, mn cir, from Gr. fuixtp, mace]:
the dried arillus or inner coat investinji: the shell of the nut-
meg, which is the kernel of the nut of Jlyristica fragrans, a
tree of the Spice islands (family Myn'sticaceiF) now natu-
ralized in other hot regions. Mace of inferior cpiaHty is also
produced by Myristica fafiia of the same regions. JIace is
used as a spice, and as an aromatic stimulant in medicine.
It has also the slight iiarcntii' power of (he nutmeg, in a
milder degree. It yields a volatile oil upon distillation, and
a buttery, fixed oil when subjected to j)ressure. The oil of
mace of coinmerce is. however, generally the fixed oil of the
nutmeg, which is harder than the true oil of mace. Mace,
in the fresh state fleshy and of a beautiful crimson, ap-
pears in commerce as a mass of Hat. dry branching plates of
an orange-brown color, and a taste and smell resembling
those of nutmeg, but rather milder and jileasanlur.
Mace [from 0. Fr. mnce (> Fr. ma.sse) : Ital. mazza:
Span, maza < Ijat. *matea, club; cf. mdleola. mallet] : (1)
A weapon consisting of a wooden hamlle about 3 feet long
with metal head, usually a spiked ball, sometimes of other
forms. It was much used by knights in the days of plate
armor, against which it was particularly effective, as a strong
blow would frcrpicntly drive a spike through the plates. It
was also used as a weapon by priests, who were forbidden
to carry a sword. Ornamented maces, sometimes of copper
or silver, are now used as badges of authority by magistrates
and in legislative assemblies. (2) A substitute for the cue in
billiards. (3) A currier's mallet used in dressing leather.
9Iac£, ma"a'sa', Jean: author and educator: b. in Paris,
France, Apr. 22. 181.3; the son of a laborer, he was edu-
cated at the College Stanislas ; served in the army 1842-45 ;
was secretary to Theodore Burette 1845-47 ; editor of La
Mepublique 1848 ; retired to Alsace after the coup d'etat,
and there for ten years taught in a school ; founded in
1864 Le Magaxin d' Kducatian, and in 1866 a league of in-
struction after the Belgian model. I). Dec. 13, 1804. He
wrote a number of extremely popular books for young peo-
ple, of a semi-educational kind: llisluire d'line 'bouclii'e de
jsam (1861); Cnntex du Peli/-Chdteau{\HC>2); Lea serviteurs
de I'entnmnc (186(5) ; L'annirersaire de Waterloo (1868) ; Les
premiers lirrex den pet Us enfan'ts (18Gi)) ; Lex ideex de Jean-
fraiifois (1872-73); La yrammaire de Mile. Lili (1878);
La France avant Les Francs (1881). A. K. Marsh.
Macedo. ma'a-sa'do. Joaquin Manoel. de : poet and states-
man ; b. at Sao Joao de Itaborahy, province of Itio de
Janeiro, Brazil, June 24, 1820. He studied medicine, and
took his doctor's degree in Rio; but he early began to write,
and was soon made Professor of Brazilian History in the
college of Dom Pedro at Hio de Janeiro. He has b'ecn one
of the chief forces in the literary and scientific life of Brazil
in the nineteenth century. He has also interested himself
in political affairs, being elected to the Brazilian chamber
in 1854. His first literary work to attract attention was his
novel Mnreninha (1844; "3th ed. 1877). This was followed
by 0 Mofo louro (1845; ,3th ed. 1877); 0« dons amores
(1848) : Vicentina (1853) ; Hnna (1854) ; A Carteira de men
Ho: Viagem phantas(ica(lH'>5). In 1855 he made a hit in
a new literary genre by his extremely successful national
tragedy Col^, having in 1840 brought out with less success
O Cizo. Hardly less pleasing were his vaudevilles : 0
primo da California (IS')'); publisheil 18.38); U Fantasma
branc.o (1836); Lttjo e vaidade (18.3!)); besides A torre em
eoncurso and 0 novo Ollielo. Macedo's greatest literary
8UCCCS.S, however, has been his lyric-epic poem A A'elmlosa.
published in 1837, In spite of some exaggerations of style
and sentiment, this remains on the whole the best Brazilian
poem of the century. It consists of six cantos and an epi-
logue, in unrhymed' hcndecasvllables. The scene is laid in
Brazil, and felicitous descriptions of the tropical nature of
the country abound. The story is of an essentially roman-
tic kind, .somewhat alien from the taste of the iireseni ; but
the reader has to a(-kno\vledge that in many of the situations
both power and truth are to be found. Macedo later has de-
voted himself mainly to scieiililic studies. A. K. .Maksh.
Maecdo. Jose .Voosti.niio. Padre de : poet and writer : b.
at Beja, Portugal, Sept. 11. 1761. Destined for the Church,
he took his vows Nov. 15, 1778, rather from motives of ox-
pediencv than from a real call to the life. As a consequence
his conduct poorly conformed to his professions, and on Feb.
18, 17y2, he was formally expelled from the monastery da
(ira(;a at Lisbon, of which he was a nuMnber. This disgrace,
contrary to all expeclalious. incited him to mainlaiii him-
self in society, and even in the Church, des]>ite the con-
demnation of his superiors, lie became a kind of uncon-
nected preacher, and at the same time began his extraordinary
career as a writer. Having great abilities and entire disregard
for the feelings of others, he succeeded in making himself
almost a lili-rary dictator for a time. His sermons drew
great crowds, and in 1802 he even became court preacher.
At the same time he tried his hand at almost every kind of
literary production, poelry. philosophy, criticism, etc. Later
he took part in political affairs, and in 18'22 was elected to the
chamber of deputies. Toward the close of his life, however,
his friendlessness, due to his own unsparing bitterness, grew
more and more marked, and he died in neglect and dises-
teem. The year before his death, which occurred at Pe-
droncos in 1831. he had been appointed chronicler to the
usurper Dom Miguel, but he never undertook the duties of the
office. His chief poetical works are Conteniplacao da natu-
re^n(1801); U Novo Argunauta (180(1); Obras de Iloracio
(translation. 1806); (iania (an epic, 1811; later enlarged
under the title 0 Oriente, 1814); Us Burros ou o reinadn
da Sandice{a comic-heroic, 1812) ; Meditacdit: I'oema phit-
osophico (1813): yewton : Poenia (1813; '2d <'orrected and
enlarged edition 1815) ; A hjra anacreontira (1819) ; Viagem
ej'tatica ao temple de sabedoria (1830); .4 yatureza : I'oema
en G cantos (1846). Among his philosophical works may be
mentioned 0 Ilomem on os limites da razCio (1813) ; Cartas
filosoficas a Atico (1815). His critical ability and his bitter,
sarcastic, witty manner appear in his Cartas a Manoel Men-
des Fogai;a\ As Pateadas do titeatro investigadas (1812);
Censura dos Lusiadns (1820) ; Exorcismos contra periodicon
e oiifros jnaleticos (1821). It must be said that this vast pro-
ductivity prevented JIaccdo from knowing any subject i)ro-
foundly, and the personal bitterness that kept him involved
in controversies all his life gives a singularly uniileasing
quality to almost everything he wrote. A. K, Marsh.
Macedo'nia (in dr. MoKeSofla): an ancient and at one
time very famous kingdom of Southeastern Europe; origi-
nated from a stnall and obscure beginning, and comprised,
when it first became known to history, the districts extend-
ing between Epirus and lUyria on the \V.. Pa'onia on the N.,
Thracia, from which it was separated liy the river Strynion,
on the E.. and Thessaly on the S. The country was fertile,
rich in gold and silver, and jiroiluced excellent wheat, wine,
and oil. The capital was Pella. The Mareilonians were
originally an lUyrian race, though the kingdom was a com-
posite one — something like the Austria of to-day — including
various tribes of barbarians. Pa'onians. Brygians, Kdonians,
Pierians, and others, who met at Pella and mingled with
Thracians from the north and (Irecks from the south.
Greece had very early jilanted many flourishing colonies in
these regions, as, for instance. Poliila'a, a colony of Corinth,
Chalcidice of Eubiea, and Amphipolis of Athens. Greek
l)ecame the prevailing language, and Greek civilization the
ruling spirit, but the dominant race was not Hellenic, and
the JIacedonians were never acknowledgeil by the Greeks as
countrymen. When .Xerxes invaded Greece he compelled
Alexander. King of Maci'donia. to follow him as his vassal,
but after the battle of Plata'a the country once more be-
came independent. A century and a half later I'hilip II.
(3.39-336) conquered Greece, and his son, Alexander the
(ireat (336-323), made Macedonia the most powerful empire
of the lime; but on the death of Alexander his em|iire dis-
.solved into four kingdoms, and the splendor of Macedonia
declined very rapidly. A quarrel belweeii Philip V. aiul
.\1hens gave the Komans an ojiportunity of interfering,
and I'hilip was ullcrlv defeated at Cytioscephala' in 197 li.i'.,
as was Perseus at Pydna in 168 li. c. After an unsuccessful
uprising against the supremacy of the Komans. Macedonia
was finally made a Roman province in 146. an<i included as
such parts of lllyria. Pa'onia. and Thracia. In the Middle
Ages the name gradually went ipiit of use, and in the present
administrative division of Turkey it has no place.
Kevised by J. R. S. Sterkett.
Macedonian Langnatrr : Ihe native idiom of Macedonia,
the country of Philip an>l Alexander. It was never em-
MACKIO
ployed for literary rocnnl, ami is known only throuph scanty
glosses in the lexicofjraiilicns ami a few l.mn-WDrds and
proiier names. I'lutarcli tells us that it was displaced en-
tirely hy Attic Greek at the court of I'hilip, and it is appar-
ent that the Macedonian fjenerals and the mibilitv adopted
Attic tireek as the Kcneral huifruajre of intercours'e, th(>uf;h
the common Macedonian soldierv spoke amonf; themselves
their native tongue. This language was, if not a Greek clia-
lect as some hold, an independent branch of the Indo-Euro-
pean closely related to the Greek. Some of the words which
are handed down to us as Macedonian may have been
merely Greek words in .Macedonian proniuieiation — i. e.
virtually (}reek loan-words in .Maceilonian, and this may in
some measure account for the ajiparently dose resemblance
between the languages in some jjoints and great divergence
in others. Greek <(> is represented in Macedonian bv 0. anil
e by !; thus Maced. BlKimro! iipUimros). Bfptyixv ((ptpfvlKTi).
iSpoiires {o(ppvs, pi), KffloA^ (K<if>aA^I, KaSaphy (KoBapiii), KanaSoi
(yvdBui), Aippuv i&apiTuy t ). ('(. ."^lMrz, De iliultrtu Macedonica
ft Alrxdiiilrina (IHQS) ; Fick, Zum makedonischen Dialekt,
Kuhnx /.vitschrift, xxii., VSi IT. Be.nj. Ide Wheeler.
Macpio, maa-sa-yo' (sometimes, but incorreotly, written
Mi«;ayo) : capital, principal city, and port of the state of
Alagoas, Brazil ; on the Atlantic Ocean, at the mouth of a
little stream which forms the outlet of the Lagoa do Xorte •
lat. 9' S9' 35' S., Ion. .a' 44 :i6" \V. (see map of South
America, rcf. 4-1). The city i)roper is situated a little in-
land, at the base of blulTs which form the edge of a low
table-land ; it is well built, and peculiarly picturesque, ow-
ing to the great number of eocoanut and dtudi' palms which
grow about it. The heat of the climate is modilie<i by regu-
lar sea-breezes, and the place is generally healthful, but the
water-supply is poor. The port is a suburb called Jaragua,
connected with the main city by a horse railway. The har-
bor is formed by a coral reef about half a mile off shore, is
open to south winds, an<I of late years has tended to fdl up
with drifting sands. Maceio is the terminus of a branch of
the Recife and Sao Francisco Kailway. It has a thriving
and growing traile, the most important exports being sugar
and cotton. I'op. (I81I3) about lo.OOO. The Lagua do Xorte,
a short distance inland from the town, is a salt lake of con-
siderable size, and is navigated by small steamboats. It
abounds in fish. Herbert H. Smith.
McEntee, .Tervis : painter ; b. at Kondout, X. Y., July
14, 1H-2S; studied under Frederic K. Church in 1850-.'il ; a
few years later opened a studio in Xew York ; exhibited a
picture at the Academy of Design in IH.VJ; was elected an
associate of the academy in 1H60, and a full member in
INfil. He visited Euro|)e in 1869. Among his important
Works are Indian Summer (1861); October Snow (1870);
Cape Ann (1874); Tl>e Kaatakills in Winter (1884). D. at
Kondout, Jan. 27, 1891.
Mncerata, maa-ch<J-raataa : town ; in the province of Ma-
cerata. Central Italy: about 30 miles X. \V. of Fermo (see
map of Italy, ref. 5-F). This town, one of the finest in the
Jlarches, is surrounded by strong walls crowned by thirty-
three towers, and at one of its six gates stands a triumphal
arch. The aspect of the town itself is striking, and the pan-
orama to be seen from it is beautiful. Among the public
buildings arc the cathedral, moilern. but containing old
mosaics and pictures of interest ; the Churches of Santa
Maria delle \ ergini, of much architectural merit, and tliat
of Santa Maria della Pace, of the fourteenth century, and a
palace of the thirteenth century, which is one of the finest
specimens existing of the architecture of that age. There
is a university founded in 18i4 by Pope Leo \II. Macc-
rata was built about 408 A. i). on the ruins of Uiiina, a cele-
brated town of the territory of I'iceno. It was generally
faithful to the pope during the .Middle Ages ; in 1799 it was
sackeil by the French. The bishopric of Macerata dates
from the suppression of the see of liecanati in 1:120. Murat
retired here for a few days in 181.i, and here his demoral-
ized troops forsook him. Macerata was among the fore-
most to declare for popular freedom in 1848—19, and its citi-
zens are distinguished for intelligence. Pop. of town (1891)
about Id.OOO.
iMacfnrlaiiP, Charles : historian ; b. in Scotland earlv in
the nineteenth century; traveled extensively in the Kast
and resided many years in Italy; wrote, among other works,
Con-tlnn/inople m'iAW--'.'' (1829) ; ('in'/ and Mililnrii Ilin-
tory of Em/land, contributed to Knight's I'irtorial Ilislnry,
edited by \i. L. Craik (8 vols., 18:j8-M); (hir Indian Em-
pire (1844); The French Rerululion (1845); The Pictorial
McGEE
42£
/Tislor;/ of Scotland, with G. L. Craik (H vols., 1849); Tur-
key and itH iJentiny ( 1850| ; Memoir of the Duke of Welting-
ton (1851) ; Life of l/te Duke of Marlborout/h (1852; ; and a
History of liritish India (1852). D. in 1858.
Macrarlanc HonERT: editor and author; b. in the High-
lands of .Scotland in 1734; was educated at the University
of Edinburgh, and is alleged to have assisted .Maciihersfm in
the preparation of Onsinn. He published a I^atin transla-
tiim of Temora (1769). one of the Ossianic epics ; wrote vols.
i-_and iv. of a History of the Reign of George III. (4 vols.!
1770-96); edited Tlie Morning Chronicle and I'he Morning
Packet ; published an English and Gaelic Vocabulary ( 1 795)
and Tlie Poems of (Issian in Gaelic, teith a Literal Traru-
lation into Latin (1807). He was engaged upon a vindica-
tion of the genuineness of Ossian at the time of his death,
which occurred in 1804.
Macfarren, Georoe Alexander: musician; b. in Lon-
df)n, .Mar. 2, 1813; educated entirely in that city. lie was
a prolific and for a time a highly popular composer. In
opera he produced Don (Quixote, The Devil's Opera. Robin
flood. Jessy Lea. I/elrellyn. She Sloops to Conquer, Charles
II., El Malechor, and The Prince of Modena. In ora-
torio may be mentioned St. John the Bavtist, Joseph, The
Resurrection, King David ; in cantatas. The Sleeper Au-ak-
ened. Leonora, Mayday, Christmas, The Lady of the Lake,
Around the Hearth, Songs in a Cornfield (these last two for
female voices only). Outward Hound', and music to Sopho-
cles's AJax. He also composed five symphonies, several over-
tures, much church music, many songs and smaller works.
He wrote a number of theoretical musical works, musical
biographies, analyses of great compositions, etc. In 1875 he
was appointed Professor of Music at Cambridge University,
to succeed Sir William Sterndale Bennett, whom he also suc-
ceeded as principal of the Koyal Academy of Music in Lon-
dcm. In Jlay, 1883, he wa.s' knighted. I). Oct. 31, 1887.
During the greater part of his life he was blind, and most of
his compositions were written from dictation by his wife.
He was a musician of the old, conservative school, and was
strongly opposed to Wagner. Sec his Life and li »r/l-.s (1891).
I). E. IIervev.
MacOahan, Januarius Aloysius: newspaper correspond-
ent ; b. in Perry co., 0., June 12. 1844 ; visitetl Europe in
1868. and during the Franco-German war was correspondent
for The \ew York Herald, describing the defeat and retreat
of Gen. Bourbaki. He accompanied the Russian exjiedition
against Khiva in 1873. and afterward published an account
of his experiences in Campaigning on the Oxiis and the fall
of Khiva. In 1875 he took part in the Arctic expedition of
the Pandora, which he described in Under the \orthem
Lights, published on his return. Leaving The Herald he
entered the service of the London Daily .^'elrs, and in 1876
wrote for that paper a series of stirring letters about the
Bulgarian atrocities. The effect of these was to arouse the
keenest sympathy of the people of Great Britain with the
victims, and to remove the danger of British opposition to
Rus.sian intervention. He followed the entire course of the
war in his letters, which are the best journalistic correspond-
ence of the time. D. in Constantinople, June 10, 1878.
McGarvPV, Jon.v William : theologian ; b. at Hopkins-
ville, Ky., >far. 1. 1829; was educated in Bethany College,
where he graduated with honors in 1850. He was ordained
to the ministry among the Disciples in 1851, and preachi-d
in Missouri until 1802. when he accepted a call to Ix?xing-
ton, Ky. In 1862 he published a Commentary on Acts,
which he has since thoroughly revised. In 1865 he aw-epled
a chair in the College of the Bible. Kentucky University,
which he continues to hohl. In 1879 he made a tour fn
Palestine, and in 1881 published Lands of the Bible. In
1886 ho published vol. i. of a work on Christian evidence
entitled Text and Canon, and in 1891 vol. ii.. Credibility
nnd Inspiration of the Bible. J. H. Garriso.v.
MrtiPp', Thomas n'Aacv : politician and writer: b. at
Carlingfird. Louth, Ireland. Apr. 13, 1825; went in 1H42 to
Boston, Mass., where he wrote for the Bc.ston I'ilot. anil Ixv
came its chief editor : Ih'c ame l^ondon correspi'ndiiit of the
Dublin Freeman's Journal, and afterward was w.relary of
the Irish confederation and an editor of The Sation. In
1848 he fled to Xew York, where he was. 184J*-50, pfiilor of a
pai)er lulviMating the inde[)endenec of Ireland. Displiii«.d
with the Know-nothing movement, he went to Monirial.
Cana<la ; (Killed 7Vir ^Vcir AVa. disavowed n<publicanisni. l>e-
camo an ardent royalist ; entered the provincial Parliament
426
McOEE
MacGREGOR
in 1857 ; became in 1864 president of the executive council,
and in 18(57 Minister of Agriculture. He denounced the
Fenian niovenient, and was assassinated at Ottawa, Canada,
Apr. 7, 1868. His princi|ial works are O'ConneU and his
Friends (Dublin, 1845); Canadian Ballads (1858); Irish
Selllers in America (1851) ; Protestant Heformation in Ire-
land (1853); Ilixluri/ of Ireland (Xew York, 1862); Catholic
History of North America (1854); Speeches and Addresses
on the British American Union (London, 1865). A volume
of his poems appeared in 1870 (Xew York).
Me(«ee, W J : antliropologist and peolojrist ; b. near
Dubuque. la., Apr. 17, I85;i ; was self-educated. In 187it he
bepm a geologic map of his own and neiichborinf; counties,
and eventually the geologic mapping was cx[nuided into a
systematic survey of an area of 17,000 sq. miles in North-
eastern Iowa. The maps and other results were published
in 1801 in the Eleventh Annual lieport of the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey. In 1881 he examined and reiiortcd on the
building-stone and quarry industries of Iowa for the tenth
census, and in 1882 oecame connected with the U. .S. Geo-
logical Survey. In 1885 he laid the plans for surveys and
mapping by the U. S. Geological Survey before the Interna-
tional Geologic Congress at Hcrlin ; and a year later made
a study of the Charleston earthquake, on the ground, irnme-
diatelv after its occurrence. On the organization of the
Geological Society of America in 1888 he became its editor.
and held the position for four years; he has also edited
The yational Geographic 3Iaijazine for several years. In
1885 and again in 1802 he compiled geologic maps of the
U. S., and he has prepared a geologic map of the State of
New York. In 180;! he resigned from the Geological Survey,
and was appointed etlinologist in charge in the Bureau of
Ethnology. His published writings exceed 100 titles.
McWiffert. Arthur Cushman, Ph. D.. D. D. : theological
professor ; b. at .Sauquoit, X. Y., Mar. 4. 1861 ; was educated
at Western Reserve College, Union Theological Seminary,
the Universities of Berlin and Marlmrg, in Paris, and in
Koine. In the department of church history, in Lane Semi-
nary, he was instructor 1888-1890, and professor 1890-9;i ;
and in 1.S93 he became professor in the same department in
Union Seminarv, Xew York. He has published Dialogue
of Papias and ^ason (Xew York, 1889) ; and a translation,
with prolegomena and notes, of the Church History of Eu-
sebiiis Paniphilus, in yicene and Post-Xicene Fathers (Xew
York. 1890). C. K. Hovt.
McGill. James: founder of McGill College, Jlontreal : b.
Oct. 6, 1744, in Glasgow, Scotland and was educated there:
removed to Canada about 1770. For some time after his
arrival he was engaged in the Xorthwest fur-traile; subse-
quently became a merchant in Montreal ; was for many
years a member of the Lower Canada Parliament, and after-
ward of the legislative and executive councils. He held the
rank of brigadier-general of militia during the war of 1812,
and was mainly instrumental in foumling the college (now
university) in Montreal which is named after him. lie died
in Montreal, J)ec. 19, 1813. Neil Macdonai.d.
M('(iiriivray. Gen. Alexander: a Creek chief, son of
Lachlan McGillivray, a Scotch trader, by the half-breed
daughter of a French ortieer; b. in Alabama about 1740;
was well educated at Charleston, and was for some time en-
gaged in commercial pursuits at Savannah, but returned to
his tribe, in which, at the time of the Revolution, he had be-
come a |)rominent leader and head of the royalist ))arty.
After the war, in which he took little part, he induced the
so-called Muscogee Confederacy, embracing Creeks. Semi-
noles. and other tribes, to become allies of the Spanish co-
lonial government of West Florida ; was the commissary of
that government among his countrymen, and concentrated
their trade at Pensacola. In 1790 he visited New York by
invitation of Washington ; was received with honor; signed
a treaty ceding to the U. S. the disputed territory on the
Oconee river, 'and by a secret article of the same instrument
received the appointment of U. S. agent, with the rank and
my of brigadier-general. D. at Pensacola, Feb. 17, 1793.
McGillivray was a man of culture and political talent, anil
exercised a splomliil hospitality. He was uncle to the cele-
brated chief William Weatherfonl.
McGillivray. William, LIj. D. : naturalist; b. in the isle
of Harris, Scotland, in 1796; bccanu- in 1823 Assistant Pro-
fes-sor of Xatural llisturyat the University of F.dinburgh ;
was afterward conservator of the museum of the Royal Col-
lege of Surgeons in that city, and in 1841 was appointed
I
Regius Professor of Xatural Historv in Marischal College,
Aberdeen. He published Lives of Krninent /ioolngixts from
Aristotle to Linna-us (1834); A History of British Birds,
Indigenous and Jligratory (5 vols., 11^7-62); and wrote the
major nart, if not all, of the systematic jmrtion of the text
of Auilulion"s Birds of America. I), at Aberdeen, Sept. 5,
1852. He left unfinished a treatise on The yultiral History
of Deeside and Jiraeiiiar. illustrating the vicinity of Bal-
moral. The manuscript wiu> purchased by Queen Victoria
and printed in 1856. Revised by F. A. Lucas.
Mc(»lynn. EnwARn: clergyman; b. in Xew York city,
Sept. 27, 1837; was educated at the College of the Pro[iagandtt
in Rome, and in 18(i6 became pastor of St. Stephen's church
in New York city, where he rapidly gained great intluenco
over his congregation. His opposition to the establishment
of parochial schools and his cnaini)ionship of the doctrines
of Henry George brought him into disfavor with the Church
authorities, and he was removed from his charge and sum-
moned to the Vatican. On refusing to obey he was excom-
municated. In 1887 he aided in founding the Anti-Poverty
.Society, and became its president. A reconciliation was
effected between Mctilynn and the Church in 1893, the ban
of excommunication wils removed, and he was restored to
his rank and dignity in the Church.
McGready, milk-gia'di, James : clergyman ; b. in Western
Pennsylvania about 1760: was educated at JefTer.son Col-
lege; became a Presbyterian mini>ler in X'orth Carolina;
removed to Southwestern Kent ucky in 1796, where he directed
a remarkable revival of religion, which, begun in 1797,
lasted for .some years, and led to the organization in July,
1800, of the first camp-meeting. The religious movement
thus begun was carried on by young men who were ordained
to the ministry without a regular education in theology.
This step gave rise to opposition, and the ecclesiastical dif-
ficulties culminated in 1810 in the organization of a new
Church, which took the name Ci'Mherlaxd Presbytkrian
CnuRcii (7. V.) from the region of its origin. Two years
later he withdrew from the new body and returned to his
former presbytery. He died in Kentucky in 1817. IlisCW-
lected Sermons appeared in 1831-33 (Nashville). See his
Life by Rev. J. B. Lindsley (Nashville).
Revised by C. K. Hoyt.
McGrog'or : city ; Clayton co., la. (for location of county,
see ma)) of Iowa, ref. ii-i)\ on the Mississippi river, and the
Chi., Mil. and St. P. Railway ; opposite Prairie duChien, Wis.,
55 miles N. W. of Dubucjue. It is in a pictures(|ue valley
in an agricultural region ; has large grain and live-stock in-
terests; contains railway car and repair shops, carriage and
wagon factory, blank-book manufactory, bindery, and two
weekly newspapers; and is an attractive summer resort.
Here are curious pictured rocks and Pike's Peak, the high-
est [loint on the Mississippi river. Pop. (1880) 1,602 ; (1890)
1,160; (1895)1,201. Kuitor of "News." .
MacGregor, James JlAcNAfonTAN, D. D. : minister of
the Free Cliurch of Scotland; b. in Callander. Peithshire,
Jan. 6, 1830; educvited in tlie University and the New Col-
lege of Edinburgh; minister of tlie Barrv Free church
1857-61; of the Paisley Free High church' 1861-6H; Pro-
fessor of Systematic Theology, New College, Edinburgh,
1868-81 : minister of Columba church, Oainaru, New Zea-
land, from 1882. Besides pamphlets, reviews, and articles
on Hegel and Jarobi in the eighth edition of the Enryclo-
pa'dia Brilannica, Dr. MacGregor has publisheil Text-book
on Christian Ihirtrine (Edinburgh, 1861) ; The Sabbath
Queslliin (1865) : Hiindbool; on (jalatians (Edinburgh, 1875) ;
Handbiiok oh E.iiidus (F.dinburgh, 2 vols.. 1889): I'rcsby-
leridiis on Trial by their Principles (I)uiiedin, 1890); 'The
A/iology of the Christian lieligion (Kiliiiburgh, 1892); The
lO'Vclation and the Record (Edinburgh and New York,
1893); in press. The Catholic Doctrine of the Person of
Christ, and Studies in the History of Christian Ajiologelics.
C. K. Hoyt.
MacGregor, John: author; b. in Stornoway, Ross-shire,
Scotland, in 1797; emigrated to Canada in youth, an<l was
long engaged in commercial pursuits; j)ulilishe(l .1 Sketch
of British America (1828); Emigration to liritish America
(1829); J/y i\'o/e-/wo/.(l835); Commercial and Financial Lef)-
islation of Europe and America (1841): (Commercial Statis-
tics of all i^'ations (5 ycds., 1844-50); Progress of America
from the Discovery by Columbus to ]S4<! (2 vols., 1847);
Holland and Ihe DutcJi Ck/omiV.s (1848) ; (lermany and her
Resources (1848) ; and a History of the British Empire from
MacGREGOR
MACniAVELLl
427
Me Accexxion nf Jamen I. (2 vols.. 1852). Rotiirning to Eiig-
liind, he was einployoit on cdiiiiiiiTciul missions to S(;vcral
Kuroppan governments; was in 1H40 u secretary of tlie
Hoard of Trade ; advocated free-tra<ie mca-sures : was elected
to Parliament for Glasgow 1H47; was made governor of the
Hoyal Hritisli Hank, on the failure of which he retired to
Houlognc, France, wliere lie died Apr. 2;t, 18.57.
MiicCircgor, John: travelerand author; b. at G ravcscnd,
England. Jan. 24, 1825; entered Trinity College, Dublin, but
removed to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he gradu-
ated 1844; entered at the Middle Temple 1847; made a
tour of Europe, the Levant, Egypt, and Palestine 1K4U-50;
was called to the bar 1851 ; visited Kussia and every coun-
try in Europe, as well as Algeria, Tunis, the U.S., and Can-
ada; wrote and sketched for Punch and other periodicals;
made in 18(i5 a canoe-voyage, and in the following year
published his log-book, under the title A Thouxand Miles
in the Hob liuij Canoe un Rivers and Lakes of Europe ; in
later years made other voyages, recorded in the volumes
77ie liob Hoy on the Baltic, The Voyage Alone in the Yawl
Hob Hoy, and The Hob Roy on the Jordan, all of which
have been very popular and have found numerous imitators.
Mr. MactJregor was captain of the lioyal Canoe Club (1 800);
was a prominent member of the Ltrndon .school boanl, and
was a('tive in philanthropic work. 1). at liourneinouth, Eng-
land, May 10, 18!»2.
Mfichn, raaji'kaa, Karki, IIvnek : poet ; b. at Prague, Bo-
hemia, Nov. IT), 1810; studied jihilosophy and law at the
I'niversity of Prague. In 1836 he finislied his legal studies,
and entered a lawyer's office at Litomefice. where he diecl
Xov. 7. ISiSe. His fame rests upon his lyrico-epic poem Miij
(May, Prague, 1836), which introduced into IJohcmian poetry
the Byronian pessimistic^ view of life. It contains piussages
of great beauty, and its language is highly musical. lie
also wrote a n\inil)er of short Ivric poems and stories :
A';'(roA/<(/ (in the A'c/Vj/) and Cikuni ('Yno Gypsies, Prague,
1857). His collected works were published in 1862, at
Prague, by KolM^r. A German translation, by A. Waldau,
appeared in 1862, at Prague. Macha's genius, misumler-
stood bv his contemporaries, was fully recognized by the
succeednig generation. J. J. Krai-
Macliw'rodiis [Mod. Eat., liter., knife- or saber-toothed ;
Gr. ^axoipo, knife, curved dagger -t- iSois. tooth] : an extinct
geims of carnivorous mammals allied to the cats, and distin-
guished by the enormously developed canines of the upper
jaw. These teeth are long, curveci, and comjjressed, with a
trenchant and usually serrated edge behind and before,
whence the name "saber-toothed tigers" applied to the
group, which has been divided into three genera — Drepnno-
don (from ipfiripov, a scimitar), Sinilodnn (from o-^At), a
chisel or graver), and MarhaTodus. .Many siiccies have
been descrilicd from the Miildle and Later 'lertiary and
the Qiniternary ileposits of Europe, .\sia. North and South
America. Jlachirrodus prim<Fvnx, from the Bad Lands of
Dakota, was somewhat smaller than the cougar or Ameri-
can panther, and the skull resembles that of that aninuil in
numy respects. J/, siralensis is another Miocene species
from the Sewalik Hills, n<lia. M.cultridens from the Ter-
tiary of the Val d'Arno is a large specie-s, the upper canines
measuring 8J inches along the anterior curve. M. hitidens
from the Quaternary of Kent's Hole, England, was scarcely
smaller, and equaled the largest living tiger in size, while
M. neogaus from the t^uaternary of the caverns of Brazil
was a still larger species, the canines projecting about 8
inches from their sockets. The later species of Machwrodus
were doubtless contemporary with man, but the group be-
came extinct before the beginning of the historic period.
O. C. Marsh.
McHale', John, D. D.: archbishop; b. in 1791 at Tuliber-
navine. Mayo, Ireland; stu<lied for the Roman Catholic
priesthood at Maynoolh College, where lie became Professor
of Theology (1814); was appointed coadjutor Bishopof Kil-
lala in 182.">; became titular bishop in May. 18;i4, and Arch-
bishop of Tuam in August of the same year. He took an
active jmrt in the agitation wliich led to Roman Catholic
emancipation, writing two series of letters on the subject;
published in 1827 a treatise on the Eridencf.iand Doctrines
of the Catholic Church ; built a cathedral at liullina; built
or rebuilt morethan lOOchurches; established numerouscon-
vcnts and Roman Catholic parish s<hiwls; preached at
Rome in 1832 a .series of sermons, whii'h were translated
into Italian; obtained from the pojie in 184S the conilemna-
tion of the queen's colleges in Ireland, and in 186U i)ro-
cured from a, council of Iri>h bishops a vote of censure
again.st mixed education. He did much to revive the liter-
ary use of the Irish language, translating in the original
meters sixty of Moore's Jristi J/f/<K/(>», publislieU Irish trans-
lations of six Ixjoksof the //I'wf (I8(il)and of the Pentateuch
(1803), etc. I). Xov. 7, 1881.
Madia'on (in Gr. Maxaav) : in Greek nivthology, a st)n of
Asclepius and Eiiione, and himself a skillful physician.
Along with his brother Podalirius he conducted thirty
Thessalian ships to Troy, when- they acted as the |)hysicians
of the Greeks. He was wounded by Paris, but wals savtKl
from death by Nestor. He wils one of the heroes in the
wooden horse. He was killed afterwanl by Eurypylus, the
son of Telephus. His frien<l Nestor br(/tight his'lKxly to
Mes.senia and buried it in Gerenia, where a heroum was built
in his honor, and in a sanctuary connected therewith cures
were effected in his name. J. R. S. Stehrktt.
Machias, m«-ki as : town: capital of Washington co.. Me.
(for l(jcation of county, see map of Maine, ref. 7-G) ; at the
head of navigation on the Ma<hias river, 12 miles from its
entrance into JIachias bay; 70 miles E. bv .S. of Bangor.
It is engaged in the coasting trade, lumber Inisiness, and in
ship-building, and has 3 banks, the Porter Memorial Li-
brarv, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2.203 ; (1890)
2,0:35.
Slarhiavel'li, Niccol6 di Bersardo: historian and pub-
licist ; b. in Florence, Italy, May 3, 1409, of a respectable
middle-class family; d. in Elorencc, June 22, 1527. Of his
early life or occupation before his secretaryship hardly any-
thing is known, and of his [irivate life anil family relations
in later years we have oidy ati occasional glimpse. His edu-
cation was not that of a scholar; although he uses Latin as
easily as Italian, and is thoroughly familiar with the authors
he knows, his reading was not wide, anil his acquaintance
with (ireek writers was almost certainly obtained through
Latin and Italian translations. What we find in him is the
practical and leady knowledge of the busy man of affairs.
In 1502 he married Marietta Corsini, who bore him six chil-
dren and apparently was attached to him ; but his own senti-
ments toward her do not appear in his letters, in which lie
speaks of all that interests his active mind, and while he
snows that he was not free from the gross licentiousness of
his times, he is ever reticent as to his family affairs. Though
the human and domestic side of the man eludes us, we have
a complete jiicture of his public activity and intellectual
ilevelo|imciit from the time lie lakes office to his death. He
had grown to manhood in the Florence of Lorenzo the Mag-
nificent, the brilliant center of the great revival of learn-
ing; had .seen the rise of the new tyrannies in Italy, the rav-
ages of the mercenaries, the invasion of the French under
Charles VIII. ; Imd seen the Medici ilriven out and Savo-
narola burned at the slake, when, after the re-establishment
of the republic, he was in 1498 aiijiointed chancellor, or sec-
retary, of the second chancery in Florence, which transacted
the business of the commission in charge of war and foreign
affiiirs (died di libertd e pace). He continued in this office
till the end of the republic and the return of the Medici in
1512. His position was that of a high subordinate odicial
who must possess great technical knowledge, and who re-
tains his place in spite of all changes in his sui>eriors. He
is trusted and consulted in matters of the greatest moment,
but nowhere does he take a leading jiart or repres»'nt the
state. This takes from him the responsibility of acting, and
leaves him as an observer, high enough in rank to be present
on important occa-sions and to have knowledge of all secrets
of state, yet low enough not to be noticed. Machiavelli's
vears of public life were years of ceaseless activity and lalmr.
'rhe archives of Florence contain Ihousiindsof official im|KTS
in his handwriting, but his functions were not limiliHl to the
walls of his office. Almost yearly he was sent out with some
emba.ssvto guard the inlere'stsof Florence; to Cesare Borgia
(i7 ducfi Valentino), whom he had abundant opixirtunity to
studv carefully, Inith at the height of his power and after
his fall; to the Emperor Maximilian: twice to l'o[ic Julius
II. ; four times to King Louis .\II. of Fiance; ri>|><>ute<lly to
the little states of Italy. t>f all thes*- embassies he sent home
elalKirale ri'inirts, full' of minute knowledge of |>olitics,of
shrewd obs.Tvalions. of suggestions of all kinds, and written
in the simple, direct style which marks him as the foremost
master of Italian pnW. From this close ivntact with af-
fairs, furthermore, he was coii.stantly deriving those general
views which apiH>ar again and again in his di.M'Ussion of the
largtT problems of his time. Thus during his whole official
42 S
MAcrIIA^^5LLI
life Florence was engaged in an effort by the use of mer-
cenaries to reiiuoe rebellious I'isii. Maohi'iivolli early ]ior-
ceived the evils of the systoui, ami advocates in his reports
the substitution of a naiional militia. Ho is eonvinood that
no state can be stron-; sjjve by the use of its own troops,
which it nmst obtain by arming and drilling the wliole popu-
lation, and his never-failin|j example is rciuibliean Rome.
Of this i)lan he never tires ; it ajipears again and again in all
his political writings. He had inthionce enough with I'iero
Soderini, the gonfaloniero. to have the experiment tried, l)ut
the troops when put to the test proved utterly iiieflicient.
The failure did not discourage Machiavelli. and after his re-
moval from oflice he fully developed his views in the book
DeW arte della Qiierra (loiO). That system all the powers
of continental Fiurope are now trying to maintain. Again,
the interference of L'harles VIII. and of Louis XII. in Italy
filled him with horror, as the ravages of the French soldiery
were even more brutal than those of the uuTcenaries. The
remedy in his eyes is the formation of a united Italy that
shall be able to' protect itself. A repulilic like Rome can
not be hoped for, so he looks for the prince who should be
skillful aiul strong enough to bring about the union, and
sees the needed qualities in Cesare Borgia.
After fourteen years uf indefatigable activity the return of
the Medici in 15i2 put an end to Machiavelli's public life.
In the following year, on the occasion of a conspiracy against
the new government, he was arrested, subjected to torture,
and imprisoned for a while, but soon set free, with the in-
junction not t<i leave the territory of Florence. He with-
drew to the country, and in his enforced leisure engaged in
the composition of the works that have made him famous.
He continued to watch imblic affairs eagerly, as is shown by
his Leilere familiari, almost all of which belong to this
period. Here and there in these we find a charming descrip-
tion of his rural pleasures or of his intercourse with his
literary friends, but the greater part, especially those to
Vettori and Guicciardini, are filled with political news, criti-
cism, and advice.
While in otfice he had produced a rhymed chronicle of the
events of the ten years preceding 1.TO4, the Decfiinale primo
(followed by an incomplete Derennale secondo), which.
though valuable for the historical information and judg-
ments contained in it, is wretched doggerel in the form of
tena rima. The purely literary verse which he wrote later
is uniformly bad. His tale of liclfegor is bright and amus-
ing, but hardly to be distinguished from the hundreds of
similar productions in Italian. He wrote a few comedies in
prose, of which one, Ln mandragola (1518 i), is considered
the masterpiece of the Italian stage in that century, some
critics even thinking it the best in Italian. The piece is
little more than a novella told in scenes in which the plot
hardly admits of dramatic action and is highly immoral;
but the dialogue is natural and sparkling, the characters
fairly breathe with life, and are drawn with the realistic
truth and accuracy of observation which mark all his writ-
ings and make even his official reports works of literature.
His other plays are far inferior in merit.
In the year l.TKi Macliiavidli began to put into shape the
results of his reading and reflection upon polities, and of his
long experience in the affairs of state. Within the year,
probably, he finished // Principe, the book which is irrevo-
cably connected with his name, and which has made mnchia-
vellism a synonym for evil. At the same time he was at
work on the Discorsi mpra la prima deca di Tito Livio,
and in each work refers to the other, so that the two can not
be considered apart. The only forms of government which
he undei-stood and thought possible were the rule of the
many and the rule of one; the republic (of which the most
perfect example to him was Rome) and the al)Solute mon-
archy. The Discorsi, whose title is misleading, are his re-
flections on republican government — how it can be made to
succeed, to what dangers it is exposed, how such govern-
ments grow anil decay, with cxam[)les drawn from classical
antiquity, from the history of the Italian states, and from
what he himself had seen. In the Principe, in the .same
way, he investigates the rule of a single person — how it may
be ac(]uired, how retained, how made to succeed, and the
qualities necessary to a prince. The most brilliant example
of such a prince in his eyes is Cesare Borgia, of whose at-
tempt to subdue the cities of Ronuigna he had been an eye-
witness. The lK)ok is a i>urely scientific examination of the
forces that come into play in thu successful establishment
of a strong and durable jiersonal government ; and from the
problem are eliminated all extraneous factors like the rights
of the persons affected and the morality of the acts com-
niitte<l. The investigation is carried out with tlie pitiless
logic of a niathenuitical deinonst ration ; every step is proved
by examples from conleniporary history, which unfortunate-
ly were alaindant ; and the conclusions reached are profound
[irinciples, of which many, however startling when expressed
plainly and stripped of their conventional dress, are accepted
as true by all statesmen and historians, and are followed by
praitical men in <laily life. Some, however, if unmodified.
would demand the ideal villainv of Machiavelli's model in
order to he put into practice. 1 he book was dedi<aled first
to one, then to another of the Medici; but there is no evi-
dence that it was ever presented. The dedication was in-
tended rat her to bring to public notice a work containing the
author's ripest thought, which was not written for a special
occasicui. Like the Dixcorai (published in l."i;il), it appeared
after the author's death (in iriiii). The Principe has given
birth to an eiulless controversial literature, dating from its
publication, in which it is attacked, defeniled, excused;
in which cpiestion is raised as to what Machiavelli really
meant, whether the book expresses his real convictions,
whether it is not a satire — qiu^stions that are likely to re-
main luatters of opinion. In his bold breaking away from
all niddianal and even humanistic traditions of the state,
and from all scholiustic forms of thought, in his purely ob-
jective treatment of h's (piestion. as a ]inrcly scientific one,
in his thoroughly modern way of looking the fa<-ts in the
face, Machiavelli produce<l a work uf genius, which at once
made politics a science, and will stand forever as a master-
piece of Italian prose style. In 1521 Machiavelli, who had
long been trying to draw closer to the Medici in the hope of
again entering the active life for which he was so well fitted,
was commissioned by them to write the history of Florence,
and by 1.525 had completed the work to the death of Lorenzo
the Magnificent ; his intention to continue it to his own
time was prevented by death. Anxious to give his story a
form worthy of it, in the IMorie Florentine Machiavelli
turns to older historical models, and departs in some degree
from his usual simple style; but it is the new method of
treating history that gives the book its merit. No trace of
the ancient chronicler is left ; careless and often inaccurate
in matters of detail, not always critical in the choice of
authorities, with little sympathy for the Middle Ages and
dead institutions, the author seeks everywhere for mo-
tives, for causes and results, for lessons to be drawn, for
what can be of use in the present and the future, and applies
to the task the clear, judicious, dispassionate intelligence
that is his chief characteristic. This it is that makes him
the first of modern historians, and places his name by the
side of those of Tacitus and Thucydides.
The end of ^Machiavelli's life was clouded. He had ac-
quired the esteem of the Medici, but hardly had they begun
to make use of his talents when in 1.527 they were again
driven out of Florence and the republic was re-established.
It was not to be hoped that Machiavelli would be restore<i
to his oflice ; yet he seems to have been bitterly disappointed
that he was not ; and in that same year he died, and was
buried in the family chapel in Santa C'rocc, leaving his
family in great poverty.
The change of ])arty. the desire to serve both the republic
and the Medici, has been made a reproach against Machia-
velli, but not with entire justice. In all his public life he
was first and foremost a citizen of Florence; his loyalty,
his patriotism were for his city alone. In all his writings he
shows his preference for a republic, and he had served his
republic faithfully; but when the government changed he
continued a Florentine and was ready to serve his country
under the Medici. A practical man of business, he sought
for good government first ; he was constantly striving against
the disorders that weakened the state, and .so was ready Id
accept a tyranny, which was strong and preserved order, in
place of a re]iublic which retained only the form of liberty.
From the conviction that Florence could be free and power-
ful only if foreigners wore kept out of Italy, he was led to
think out the remedy, and found it in the idea of a united
Italy. In seeking the cure of the evils which afilict his
country he goes to the very foundation of things, and de-
duces principles that apply to all stales at all times. Living
in an age when individual effort, for good and forbad, pro-
duced results which have never been er|Ualed, his name stands
among the foremost as a thinker; while as a writer of prose
he is acknowledged asthe greatest that Italy can boast. The
(Jiuiiti published an edition of his complete works, the
Testina, in 1551, and they have often been reprinted silicic
MACHINES AND MAt'IUNEKY
MACUINE-TOOLS
429
The best modern eilitioii is that priiitod at Milan. IHIO-U,
or Italia, 1H13, in eleven volumes. An etlitiun begun in
1873 by I'usserini and others was never completed. An
Knglish translation by Detmold appeared in 18«2. Of the
I'rincipe there is an excellent edition by K. A. Hurd (Ox-
ford, 18U3). The best and latest bio{;rapl'iy is by I'aMiuale
Villari, iV. Machiavelli e i suoi tempi (3 vols., 1877-82 ; Knfj-
lish trans, by Linda Villari. new ed. 2 vol.s., London, 18112).
The literature on the I'rineipt will lie fi>und in Mold, Of-,
schichte und Literatur der iStaatsicisseimc/iaft (vol. iii.)
See also O. Toniniasini, La Vita e gli ncrilti di X. Machia-
velli (Turin, 1882) : Nitti, Macliiaiv'lli nrlla vita e nelle opere
(1876, «ey.); Nourrisson, J/ac/iiacf/ (Paris, 1883).
U. Be.n-delari.
Machines and Machinery [via O. Fr. from Lat. mn'china,
from (ir. firixay^, <levice, expedient, contrivance, deriv. of
/i^X"*' """""*' expedient]: conibinatiuns of fixed and ninv-
iuK parts contrived with an intent to utilize force and mo-
tiiPM for the attainment of a dcsireil result. Mechanical
machinery may be classified in general terms as follows:
First, the machinery of jjrime movers, which includes every
kind of machine by which natural forces are controlled and
made available; second, the machinery of transmission,
which includes every means for the transmission of jiosver
from a prime mover to the place where it is to be used ;
third, the machinery or apparatus which utilizes power in
the doing of work.
The active elementary constituents of machinery, arranged
in the order of discovery, are: 1, sliding contact ; 2, rolling
contact ; 3, links or connecting-rods ; 4, hoisting-tackle, etc. ;
5, wrapping connections, belts, etc.; C, fluid connections.
The elementary movements employed in machinery are :
1, rectilinear motion; 2, circular motion; and 3, combiua-
lion of the two kinds of motion. A well-known illustriilion
of the three kinds is supplied liy the connecting-rod of a
steam-engine. The end of the rod couided to the crosshead
has a rectilinear movement, while the other end coupled to
the crank moves in a circle, while any other point on the
rod descril)es a closed curve whose form ami proportions
are determined by the position of the point on the rod.
The results produced by machinery are accomplished by the
combination of suitable constituents of o])eration with force
and inution in one or more of the three elementary ways
named.
Machines may be classified in a general way as follows:
1, machines for use as prime movers, such as water-wheels,
windmills, steam-engines; 2, for moving solid bodies: 3, for
moving fluids ; 4, for cutting or dividing bodies ; 5, for mak-
ing textile fabrics; 6, for pressing or squeezing: 7. for ])iiiit-
ing; 8, for acoustic purposes; 9, for optical purposes; 10, for
calculation; 11, for measuring; 12. for weighing; 13, for re-
cording; 14, for copying; 15, for developing and storing up
electricity; 16, for miscellaneous purposes. Many of the
items in this list may be subdivided into a large number of
special types, each representative of certain iieculiarilies of
construction intended to adapt the machine to particular
situations or uses. The general considerations which should
be kept in view by the constructoi-s of machines are : Sulli-
cient strength, wearing surface, and accessibility of parts;
their ada|itation to their functional re(|uirements, witn spe-
cial reference to a silent smoothness of action in the moving
elements, convenience of lubrication, safety to the attend-
ants, and avoidance of complication. Noise and vibration
in machines are usually evidences of a waste of power.
W. F. DURKEE.
Machine-tools: machines use<l in shaping materials, ns
distinguished from tools used for such purposes which are
worked by hand. The term is ordinarily reslricti'd to those
niai-hines employed in working metals. Machine-tools com-
monly change the form of the slock ii[)on which they work
by cutting, as in turning, planing, drilling, and milling;
but many important machine-tools, as grinding-machines,
steam-hammers, and drop-presses, employ other pnx'essos.
The most familiar standard cutting machine-tools are the
lathe, planer, and drill-press. Hy means of the lathe a piece
may be turned (shaped externally) or twred (shajK'ii inter-
nally) to almost any desired figure of revolulion ; flat sur-
faces can be faced, screw-threads can be cut. and, bv special
devices, various irregular forms can be produceii. The naml-
lathe, i>r speed-lathe, is the simplest form of the nu-tal-work-
ing lathe, and it differs little in itsessi-ntials from the w<H>d-
turniug lathe. The lathe-tool is held in the hands of the
workmaii and simply supported on a rest. To facilitate
such oj>erations as tho.se indicated above, upon sttK'k of va-
rious sizes and shapes, manv ailditional features are ajiplied
to the metal-working lathe I'n it.s more complete forms. The
live spindle is driven by a step|KMl cone, so that by placing
the belt u[>on difTereiit steps a s|H-ed appropriate to the ma-
terial and size of stock is obtainable. For all but the smaller
lathes it is desirable to have greater changes of S|H'ed than
could be conveniently obtained in this way, and back-gears
are applied. A lathe with back-gears is douOlr grarfd. The
si'If-actiiig lathe lias u carriage with a feed along the bed.
The tool is secured to this carriage, and eylimlrical work
can tju i)roduceil automatically by this arrangement. This
feed is usually derived from a spindle-rod or a screw |>arallel
to the l>ed and driven by the s|>indle. When the screw is
used, it is connected to the spindle by positive gearing, thus
insuring a definite relation between the feed or longitudinal
motion of the tool and the rotation of the work. This ar-
rangement constitutes a screw-cutting lathe. The rod-feed
is used for less e.\acting work, thus .saving the lead-screw
from unnecessary wear. Hesides the screw-cutting lathe
there are many moditied forms, as puUev-lathes, shafting-
lathes, turret-lathes, screw-machines, etc., designed to operate
very cfRciently upon limited classes of work.
tor many operations, such as boring and turning large
wheels, cyliiulers. etc., the buring-mitl is advantageously cm-
ployed. It has an adjustable vertical tool-sui)i)ort ab<>ve a
horizontal turning-table, u|)on which the wort is placed.
The planer is used principally for dressing flat surfaces,
though it is also employed for producing other ruled sur-
faces. The work is mounted upon a moving-table or platen,
and the tool is held stationary during the cutting stroke,
and fed horizontally, vertically, or at an angle during the
return stroke. The time lost in the return stroke seriously
affects the cost of work done on the planer. Various ex-
pedients have been tried to reduce this effwt, but the one
generally emph)yed is that of returning the platen at a
higher speed than would be permissible in cutting. The
ratio of time recpiired in cutting to that of the return stroke
is about three to one, though five to one is sometimes era-
ploved, and higher ratios have been attained, but are extreme
aii<( unusual.
The size of work which can be operated upon in the or-
dinary type of planer is limited by the distance between the
vertical supports or housings, and by the clear height under
the cross-rail. For planing surfaces on wide work, without
the use of excessively large planers, the o|)en-side planer
has been designed.
To avoid moving very heavy or unwieldy pieces, special
forms of the planer, as the plate-planer aiu\ shaping-machine,
are used ; in these the tool is moved while the work remains
stationarv.
The plllar-shaper is very convenient for dressing small.
light work; it resembles the shaiiing-machine, but has more
limited capacity.
The slotter or slotling-machine resembles the shaf)er in its
ojieration, but the cutter-bar has a vertical stroke, ami the
table upon which the work rests is placed Iwlow the cutter;
so that the general design of the machine is somewhat sug-
gestive of the drill-pres,s.
The rfri7/-»rfs« is largely restricted to drilling; but it is
employed advantageously in taipping, reaming, and simple
boring operations.
The milling-machine is used for a great variety of opera-
tions, and in its most general form — tlie"universal" milling-
machine — it probably has a wider range than any other
machine-tool. The cutter is a piece of steel having the
general form of some figure of revolution, with teeth at the
outer edge or along the faces. In the simplest form the
cutter is similar to a circular saw, but the meridian section
may \>c of almost any ilesinMl form. The cultiT is mounte<l
on a rotating arlnir, and the work is feil towani the cutter,
riane surfaies are produ<'pd on the milling-machine by a
long cylindrical cutter. The teeth of gears are cut on the
milling-machine by giving the cutter the form of the sjiace
between two teeth' of the gear. Most of the ge«r-<utling
machines in use are only speiial forms of the milling-nia-
chine. The head of the' universal milling-maehine is us«h1
for subdividing circles, as in cutting gear-twlh and the
flutes of taps and reamers; and the spindle is also capable
of continuous rotation bv the .screw which imparts the longi-
tudinal feed to the tabfe. Hy this oombiiial ion of motions
the stm-k held l)y the heail ca'n be given It spiral movement
under the cutter, with any desired pitch, anil such griKives
as are seen on twist-driU.s, spiral-n-aiuers, and milling-ma-
430
JIACUIXE-WORK
MACHINE AND HAl'IU-FIRE GUNS
chine cutters are thus produced. Many other (1,100) opera-
tions of a peculiar character may be carried on by the iiiill-
ing-machiiie, with proj>er devices. J. 11. IJabr.
Machine- work: work done and objects made or partly
mado l)y machinery, as distinguished from work produced
by simple tools guided by the workman's hand. The term
is es|)ecially used to denote what is intended for ornamenta-
tion, but, being made by machinery, has of necessity all ils
successive parts or members alike — a succession of parts ex-
actly similar; whereas hand-work has not and can not have
such close resemblance of its parts to one another. What
is called the tame and lifeless character of machine-work is
caused by this exact sinularity of parts, as in machine-made
lace, carpets woven on power-driven looms, wood-carving,
and that which is called so, but is really carbonized or burnt
work done by swift-moving patent apjdiances. All these
fail to be pretty or interesting because of the constant suc-
cession of parts mechanically exact in their likeness to one
another. There is no other cause for the general ugliness of
machine-work that can not be done away with. The pat-
tern may be as carefully designed for the steel die as for the
workman to follow with his tools; the design for lace may
be made as delicate and refined for the mill as for the needle-
workers of Belgium or the bobbin-workers of Auvergne. If
a design which is made for the machine is not generally so
good as that used by the hand-workmen, this is because the
same indifference to beauty of result which allows of the use
of the machine at all governs also the choice of the design.
There is no insuperable difliculty in getting fine designs
ready for machine-work — some special patterns only, or some
peculiar effects, are out of its reach. The real difterence is
that, whereas no two leaves, no two sprays, scrolls, curves,
no two roundings, or sinkings, or notches are exactly the
same in hand-work, machine-made ornament is always a
series of exact repetit ions.
A partial remedy for the .stiffness and feebleness of ma-
chine-work is, then, to increase the length of the unit. In
a machine-carved scroll, for instance, let the pattern which
has to be rejieatcd be 10 inches long and made up of four
successive different whirls, or clusters, or " bouquets,'" rather
than half as long and made up of two units only; then,
when the fifth of these follows, and resembles the first one
exactly, it will be so far from it, ami will have so much dif-
fering work between, that the monotony of repetition will
be greatly diminished. Another partial" remedy is to make
the pattern very irregular, very unsymmetrical, as is done,
indeed, with many of the cheap laces of 1892-94, or to use
a Japanese irregular si)riid<le of flowers or sprays instead of
an equally spaced arrangement of the same figures.
UUSSELL StI'ROIS.
Machine and Hapid-dre Guns: A machine-gun is one
that is loaded and fired by machinery. A rapid-fire gun is
distinguished from a machine-gun by the fact that it is
loaded by hand, and nuiy be fired either by hand or by ma-
chinery; it is generally of larger caliber, and has but one
barrel, while the machine-gun may have more. In both
classes there is practically no recoil. The fire of the ma-
chine-gun is more rapid than that of the rapid-fire gun, but
the latter delivers a comparatively rapid, well-aimed fire of
large, armor-piercing projectiles, with relatively small weight
of gun, while the former is generally limited in calilier to.
the snudl-arm ammunition; or, if it goes beyond this, as
with the Ilotchkiss revolving cannon, the weight of the gun
becomes very great for the caliber. For these reasons ma-
chine-guns are restricted to infantry fighting, and can not
cope with artillery. At present machine-guns are preferably
used on land for defensive purposes in fixed positions, such
as the defense of ditches or defiles, and on shipboard thev
are mounted in the to|js, and are intended to sweep the decks
of the adversary. Kapid-firc guns are almost exclusively
used in the navy aganist torpedo-boats. By their power
they are enabled to iienetrate any armor that torpedo-boats
can carry, and by their rapidity and accuracy the chances
of hitting in a given tinu- are greatly increased. The de-
velopment of both machine and rapid-fire guns has been
rendered possilde by the development of metallic ammuni-
tion, and the limit of caliber of rapid-fire guns appears to
be the weight of ammunition that can be conveniently han-
dled by one man.
JlACniNE-GL'NS.
Mitrailleuse. — Probably the best known of the early
machine-guns is the Fren<h mitrailleuse. This gun had
twentv-five barrels, grouped in parallel rows of five. They
were loaded by a single breech-block, which was movable,
and contained twenty-five short chambers corresponding to
the <lifferent barrels. Kach gun had several of these breech-
blocks, which were loailcd beforehand. Kach barrel had a
separate firing-])in, and these pins were released in succession
by mechanism operated by a crank.
Passing over a number of machine-guns which were tried
during the civil war in the U. S. (1861-1)5). and which were
generally unsuccessful, the next one to claim attention is
the (iatling gun.
(ratling Gun. — This consists of a group of barrels (caliber
0'45 inches) around a central shaft. This shaft and the bar-
rels are caused to rotate by a crank, which may be apjilied
directly to the shaft, or indirectly, by means of a worm-gear.
In rear of the barrels, and in prolongation of them, is a
brass cylinder, whose surface contains a scries of grooves,
one for each barrel. Each of these grooves carries a bolt,
which is made to slide in its groove parallel to the axis by
the action of a fixed cam in rear of the bolts. Kach bolt
carries a firing-pin, a siiiral mainspring, and an extractor.
As the barrels and cylinder rotate, the bolts are pushed
forward in their grooves. A cartridge being dropped from
the magazine in front of a bolt, is pushed forward by the
latter into the barrel. When it reaches this position the
barrel is closed by the bolt, while the firing-pin, which has
been drawn back during the forward motion, is releaseil,
and fires the cartridge. By a reversal of the motion of the
bolts, caused by a cliange in the direction of the fixed cam,
the empty case is now removed from the barrel and ejected.
This process goes on continually, the bolts on one side ad-
vancing toward, and on the other side retiring from, the
barrels.
The ammunition was formerly fed from a tin case in
which the cartridges rested one above the other, atul, the
case being held vertically over the grooved cylimler, the
cartridges were deposited in the grooves and in front of the
bolts by the action of gravity. This was open to many
serious objections, and is now abandimed.
For low angles of elevation the Bruce feed is used. This
consists of an upright standard of brass, on the front of
which is hinged a plate having two grooves into which the
Iieails of the cartridges fit. By removing the top from the
paper box in which the cartridges are packed, they can be
slip]ied into the grooves of the swinging plate, and the box
pulled off. One column of cartridges is then ready to feed
into the gun. When this column is exhausted, the weight
of the second column causes the hinged plate to swing over,
and brings the opening of its groove over the magazine. A
wheel is nu)unted below the mouth of the feed, which ro-
tates with very little friction. The cartridges strike this
and are delivered to the grooves parallel to the barrels, and
thus jamming is avoided.
For high angles of elevation a positive feed, and one in-
dependent of gravity, is requireii. For this purpose the
Accles feed is designed. It consists of a drum whose heads
are separated by a distance a little greater than the length
of the cartridge. The cartridges are held in spiral grooves
in this drum, the pole of the spirals being at the center of
the drum. Kadial arms revolve about the center of the drum,
the rotation being caused by projections on the grooved cyl-
inder of the gun engaging with the extremities of the arms.
By this rotation the arms push the cartridges along the S])iral
grooves of the drum, an(l deliver them to the barrels. The
cartridges being held by the grooves are always fed parallel
to the axis of the barrels, no matter what the angle of ele-
vation may be.
The latest model feed consists of a strip of tin, to which
the cartridges are attached by punching long, narrow pieces
out of the strip, and wraiijiiiig these pieces around the car-
tridges. This strip of tin with the cartridges attached is fed
into the gun, the cartridges acting as the teeth of a rack,
and the fluted cylinder which carries the locks as a toothed
wheel to move the strip transversely. A wedge-shaped pro-
jection frees the cartridges from the strip, and they are then
pushed into the barrels by the locks as before. This feed
is simple, light, and independent of gravitv.
The dardner (inn. — This has two barrels, which are par-
allel and side by side. Kach barrel has its own bolt, as in
the Gatling, and these bolts move backward and forward
alternately in rear of the barrels and parallel to them, by
the action of two cams, which are rotated by a crank. These
cams are IHO' apart, and, consequently, while one bolt is
moving forward, the other is moving liack. When the
cams are on the center, one barrel is fired, while a cartridge
MACHINE AND RAPID-FIRE GUNS
431
is Jroppcd in front of llio other bolt, rondy to be pushed
homo. From tlie nature of circular niotinn. the lM>lt is
drawn back slowly at iirst, thus givinj; power for the ex-
traction of the empty case. The feeding of the ammunition
is somewhat similar to that of the Hruce in the GatlinR gun.
As the bolt moves forward it opens a valve and allows a
carlridfre to drop from the feed-guide in front of the oppo-
site barrel, at the same time shutting oft the feed from the
barrel whose bolt is advuming. This gun is not capable of
delivering so many shots in a given time as the uatling,
owing to its smaller nundjcr of barrels.
The Is'ordenfelt Gun. — This is composed of a number of
parallel barrels, varying from two to seven, arranged as in
the Gardner gun. tach barrel has its bolt, and the bolts
are move<l forward or backward together by a horizontal
hand-lever on the right. Above each barrel is a magazine.
When the bolts are drawn back the cartridges drop in front
of each, and when the bolts are move<l forward the cartridges
are pushed by them into the barrels. As the bolls move
forward the hammers are retained by a comb. When the
barrels are closed by the bolts, and locked by locking bolls,
the comb which retains the hammers moves sidewise and
releases them one after the other, so that the barrels fire
successively and not simultaneously. The effect is that of a
volley, but the shock to the gun is not so great. This gun
is used principally in Knghind.
TVifi JItttrhkisa lierolriiir/ Cannon. — This differs from the
Galling, however, in having but one loading, one firing, and
one extracting mechanism, which act in turn on each barrel.
The caliber Is 1^ inches, and the projectiles steel shot, shell,
or canister. The breech is solid, and is of cast iron and very
heavy, to resist the shock of discharge and a.ssist in over^
coming recoil. The barrels are made to revolve by the
action of a peculiar gearing, driven by a crank on the
right-hand side of the piece. This gearing is for oiu-half
its circumference a screw, and for the other half the screw-
threads become planes parallel to the axis of the gun. This
gearing engages with heavy studs on the rear end of the
central shaft, and by its arrangement, while the crank
makes one continuous revolution, the Ijarrels revolve during
one-half of the revolution and remain still during the other
half. While the barrels are rotating the firing-pin and load-
ing-piston are moving to the rear, and the extractor to the
front. While the barrels stand still the cartridge is fired,
the empty case extracted, and a new cartridge inserted.
The rotation of the barrels then begins again as before.
This gun is used principally in the U. S. navy, and was
originally intended to act against torpedo-boats, but its
relatively great weight and small caliber have caused it to
be replaced for this purpose by the rapid-fire gun.
The Majcim Automatic Macliine-yim. — This gun differs
from those previously described in lieing, as its name indi-
cates, automatic; that is, after firing one shot, if the finger
be kept on the trigger,the gun will load and fire automatic-
ally till the supply of ammunition is exhausted. The in-
ventor is Iliram S. Maxim, of the U. S. The gun consists
essentially of a barrel attached to a frame. This barrel
and frame are mounted in a casing, and have a sliding
motion in it. The breech-block has a motion with refer-
ence to the barrel and frame. When the cartridge is fired,
the barrel and frame recoil together in the casing for a short
distance. At the end of this recoil a cam attached to the
sliding frame strikes a fixed cam attached to the casing.
The action of these cams draws back the breech-block from
the rear end of the barrel. As it moves back it withdraws
the empty shell from the barrel and draws a fresh eartriiige
from the magazine. The recoil of the barrel and frame has
also compressed a strong spiral spring, which now acts to
pull the barrel and frame forward to its firing i)osition. The
block having extracted the empty shell and drawn out a
new cartridge, as above explained, its front portion or car-
rier, which slides vertically, is caused to drop. The new-
cart ridge is now in prolongation of the barrel, ami the
empty shell opposite the ejector-tulie. The strong spiral
sprmg before mentioned now moves barrel and block for-
ward, and at the same time moves the block forward rela-
tively to the frame, pushing the new cartridge home and
the empty shell into the ejector-tube. As a final operation,
when the block is in place the firing-pin will be released
automatically and the cartridge be fired, if the pressure on
the trigger be maintained. After the insertion of the car-
tridge and just before the breech is closed, the front portion
of the block or carrier rises and engages with a new car-
tridge. The cartridges are fed from belts, which may be
hooked together end to end, and the supply thus mode con-
tinuous. The belt is fed automatically, in a direction at right
angles to the axis of the gun, and just above the chamber.
Rapid-fire Guns.
The Ilotchkins liapid-fire dun. — This is made of va-
rious calil^ers. from the i-pounder, 1'46 inches, to the 100-
pounder, 610 inches. In all rapid-fire guns the distin-
guishing feature is the breech meclianism,and hence special
attention will be given to that. The ballistic qualities are
about the same for all guns of the same calilxT. In the
Hotchkiss gun the breech-block moves vertically in a slot
in the breech. A lever with two handles projects from the
right side of the breech, ami when rotated by the hanii it
moves a crank-arm on the inner face of the breech, which
arm carries a stud. This stud moves in a groove in the
^ide of the breech-block, which groove is at first concentric,
and afterward eccentric with relercnce to the center of mo-
tion of the crank-arm. While the stud is moving through
its concentric groove, the hammer is cocked by the motion
of the lever; when the stud reaches the eccentric part of its
groove, it causes the block to fall vertically in the breech-
slot. In falling, the block draws back an extractor, which
throws out the empty cartridge-caie as so<in as the block
falls far enough to uncover the rear end of the barrel. A
new cartridge is then in.serted by hand, and by reversing
the motion of the hand-lever the block rises, pushing the
cartridge home and closing the breech. The gun is then
fired by pulling the trigger. A shoulder-piece is attached
to the gun or to the carriage by which it may be aimed.
The DriggsSchroedtr (Jun. — This was invented in the
U. S. The breech-block has a combined sliding and rotat-
ing movement, and the upper part of the breech is not cut
through as with most of the other systems. The bix-ech-
bliiek has. on its upper convex surface, jirojecting ribs,
which fit into corresponding grooves in the upper nart of
the breech, and thus resist the recoil. After firing, a nandle
is rotated, and this moves a cam which acts upon the block
and forces it downward. This downward motion of the
block continues until the ribs are disengaged from the
grooves in the breech-recess, when the block revolves to the
rear. During the downward motion of the block, the ham-
mer is cocked by the action of this cam, and when the
breech is open the cartridge is ejected by the action of the
breech-block upon the extractor. The cartridge being in-
serted by hand, a reversal of the motion of the lever first
revolves and then raises the block, thus closing the breech.
The advantage of this rotatory motion of the block is that
the cartridge need not be inserted by hand so far into the
breech as in the case of a sliding block, for the rotation
tends to push the cartridge home, while the sliding tends
rather to guillotine it.
The NordenfeU Rapid-fire Qun. — In this gun the same
object is sought as in the Driggs-.s^hroeder, but by different
means. The breech-block is divided into two parts by a
plane transverse to the axis of the gun. 'I'he rear part acts
as a wedge and the front part as the block proper. The
whole has a cond)ined vertical sliding and rotatory motion
in a slot in tlie breech. Uy moving a hand-lever, the rear
section of the breech-block slides downwartl. the front sec-
tion remaining fixed. When the rear section has moved
down a certain distance, by the action of the cam on the
hand-lever, the whole blwk revolves together to the rear.
In this revolution the hammer is cocked and the empty
cartridge-ease ejected. A reversal of the motion of the
lever-handle causes the block first to rotate as a whole, thus
pushing the cartridge into its place, and then the rear or
wedge part of the block rises vertically and presses the
front part finnlv against the breech.
The Maxim Jiapid-lire 6'iiH.— This differs from the other
guns of its class by being semi-automatii- — that is. after
the first fire all the oix-rations are performed by the p>in
itself, except that it is necessary to intr<Kluce the cartridge
by hand. The act of introducing it completes the cycle.and
the gun fires and returns automatically to the po.«ition for
the insertion of the next cartridge. The gun consists of a
barrel and breech-blixk, » hieh slides in a jacket. The mo-
tion of barrel and block to the rear is caust-d bythedi*-
charge; the motion to the front, by a strong spiral spring
acting on the barrel.
The breech-block slides verlicallv in the barrel. When a
cartridge is fired, the Imrrel and block slide together to the
rear. As they move forward again under the ai'tion of tho
spiral spring', a projecting arm on a shaft which passes
432
MACIIUAY
MACKAY
through the barrel strikes a spring catch attached to the
jacket. This causes the shaft to rotate, ami on tliis shaft is
an arm that nets on the hreecli-block, thus causing tlie lat-
ter to full. The fall of the block acts on the extractor and
causes it to eject the empty cartridge-case. The rotation of
the shaft above described compresses a spring. This spring,
after the cartridge-case is ejected, causes the block to rise
vertically till it is caught by projections on the extractor
fitting into corresponding cuts in the front of the block. In
this jiosition the insertion of the cartridge causes it to
strike against the extractor, and move it forward. This dis-
engages the latter from its hold on the block, when the
latter rises and closes the breech. As in the case of the
machine-gun, if the trigger bo kept pressed the gun will
fire automuticallv at the instant the breech is closed.
These descriptions iiichide the best-known rapid-fire guns.
Among others not described are the Albini, Armstrong,
Canet, Oruson, and Krupp, but the principal types are in-
cluded in the above descriptions.
As an illustration of the characteristics of each caliber, as
regards weight, jirojectile, velocity, power, etc., the fol-
lowing data relating to the Hotchkiss rapid-fire gun is
given :
PrnetrmtloD 1dU>
C»llb«r of run.
Wdctit of
Wrfehi of
powder,
Munle velocity.
wroueht-lron pUt«,
lacbH.
projprtilc.
foot por Kcood.
with stwl ihell,
pounds.
[(OUQds.
St miuzle, inchu.
1-49
1 87
0-70
1.968
3-43
1-85
3-31
1-76
2,001
413
284
800
80S
1.968
5-08
299
1411
706
2,0»»
7-36
393
3307
ISiS
1,968
9-t«
4-72
5511
29-76
2,132
13-38
610
99 21
48-50
2,001
14- 17
For detailed descriptions of all these guns, see Reports of
the chief of ordnance of the army and navy, Heports on
naval progress for 1887 and subseiiuently, and the hanil-
books published by the manufacturers giving very full and
complete data. 1j.\wrexce L. Briff.
Machray, miik-nl', Robert, 1). D., LL. 1). : Anglican arch-
bishop: b. in Aberdeen, .Scotland, in 1832; was educated at
Kings College, .-Vberdeen, and at Cambridge, where he grad-
uateil in 1851. He was ordained priest in 1856, andajipointed
vicar of Madingley the same year; became dean of .Sidney
Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1858 ; was university examiner
1860-61; Ramsden university preacher in 1865; and in
that vear was consecrateil Bishop of Rupert's Land. The
diocese at that time included the present Manitoba and the
Northwest Territories, and the new bishop suffered many
privations in visiting the mission stations scattered over
this vast territory. In 1874 the diocese was subdivided and
Bishop Machray was apjjointed metropolitan of the North-
west country. In 1881 he became chancellor of the I'niver-
sity of Manitoba; in 1888 Professor of ecclesiastical History
in the Theological College of Manitoba; and in 18911 arch-
bishop of the Northwest country. N. M.
Maciejowski, ma"a-tsyee-yov ski, Waclaw Aleksaxder :
Polish historian; b. at Kalwarya, 1793; educated at the
Piarist schools at Piotrkow; in 1812 entered the Academy
of Cracow; studied philology, history, and law at the Uni-
versities of Breslau, Berlin (under Savigny), and Gotlingen,
and uptm his return was ap|)ointeil Prufcssor of (ireck ami
Roman Literature at the Lyceum, and later Profes,sor of
the Historv and Institutions of the Roman Law at the Uni-
versity of VVarsaw ; lectured on the Pandects 1825-31 ; be-
came Professor of Ancient Literatvires at the Catholic Acad-
emy, and a member of the appellate court in 1838. D. at
Warsaw, Feb. 10, 1883. Besiiles numerous essays, he wrote
Pamiitniki o dzieiach, piimienictifie i prawodawstwie Slo-
wan (Notes on Slavonic History, Literature, and Juris|)ru-
dence, 2 vols., Warsaw, 1839) ; Polska ai do pierwszi'j polowy
XVJI. n-iekii pod wzgledem obijczajuw i ztryczajow (Po-
land down to tlie First Half of the Seventeenth Century, its
Customs ami Manners. 4 vols., Warsaw, 1842); Pierimlne
dzieje IMski i Litivij (Early History of Poland and Lithu-
ania, 1846); Pisiniinicfwo pohkie od czaxow ntijilinvnirj-
szych az do rokii IS.IO (Polish Literature since the Earliest
Times down to 1h:jO, 3 vols., 1851); Ilixlonja prairodiiiivliv
slowiafinkich (Ilisl<iry of Slavonic Lcgislatiim, 4 vuls., 1832-
35 ; 2d cil. 6 vols., 18.56-65 ; a history of pea.sants' uprisings
in Poland, Warsaw, 1874), etc. Maciejowski is a Panslav
writer, whose theories have aroused considerable opposition.
J. J. KbAl.
Macllvniiie', Charles Pettit, D. D., LL. I)., D. C. L.:
bishiip anil eilucator; b. at Burlington, N. J., Jan. 18, 1798;
graduated at Princeton in 1816; took orders in the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church 1820; olliciated at Georgetown, I). C. ;
was chaplain at West Point, N. V., and Profe.ssor of Ethics
and Historv 182.5-27; became rector of St. Ann's, Brook-
lyn, N. v.. In 1827: was Professor of the Evidences of Re-
vealed Religion in the University of the City of New York
in 1831 ; was consecrateil Bishop of Ohio in 1832, on the
resignation of Bishop Philander Chase ; was president of
Kenyon College 1832-40, and afterward president of the
theological seminary at Gambler, O. His Evidences ofChris-
lianity (1832) has gone through manv editions. Among
his other numerous works are Oxford t)iviuili/ (1841) ; The
Jloly Cii/lio/ic Cliurch (1844); Valedictory Offering (1853);
The Truth and the Life (1855). D. at Florence, Italv, Mar.
12. 1873. Revised by W. S. Perrv.
Mc'Intosll, Gen. Lachlan: soldier; b. at Borlam, Inver-
ness, Scotland, Mar. 17, 1727. His father, John More Mc-
intosh, the head of the Borlam branch of the clan Mcin-
tosh, accompanied Oglethorpe to Georgia in 1736 with 100
of his tribesmen, and settled in New Inverness (now I)a-
rien), in frhal is now Mcintosh County. Lachlan had few
opportunities for education, but, aided by (iov. Oglethorpe,
stuilicd mathematics and surveying; became a clerk at
Charleston in the counting-house of his friend Henry Lau-
rens; was afterwaril a surveyor in the Altamaha region;
studied military tactics; became colonel of the First Geor-
gia Regiment, and brigadier-general in the war of the Revo-
lution (1776); killed Button Gwinnett in a duel May, 1777 ;
commanded the Western department 1778, and led an ex-
pedition again.st the Indians of the Ohio valley ; was ac-
tively engaged in the siege of Savannali 1779, and in the
defense of Charleston 1780, where he became a prisoner of
war. He was a member of the Continental Congress 1784,
and commissioner to treat with the Southern Indians 1785.
D. in Savannah, Feb. 20. 1806.
Mcintosh. Maria Jane: author; grand-niece of Gen.
Lachlan Mcintosh: b. at Sunbury, Ga., in 1803; was edu-
cated at Sunbury Academy ; removed to New York in 3835 ;
suffered a reverse of fortune in the financial crisis of 1837,
when she determined to earn a support by authorship; pub-
lished in 1841 a juvenile story entitled Blind Alice, which
was followed by other juveniles (1843) ; the whole series was
issued in 1847 in one volume as Aiiiit Kilty's Tales. They
were republished in London, as also her later works, among
which were Conquest and Self-congiiest (1844); Woman an
Bn igma (IS44); Tiro Lire.i, or to Seem and to Be (1846);
Woman in America, her Work and her Reward (1850) ; The
Lofty and the Loirli/ (1853): and Jfeta (irai/ (1858). D. at
Morristown, N. J., Feb. 28, 1878. Revised by "II. A. Beers.
Mackar'ness, John Fielder, D. D. : bishon; b. in Eng-
land. Dec. 3, 1820; educated at Merton College; became
a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford; took Imly orders in
1845; was vicar of Tardebigge, Worcestei-shire, 1845-55;
rector of Honiton, Devonshire, 1855-58; prebend of Exeter
1858; proctor in convocation for the clergy of the diocese
of Exeter 1865; favored the disestablishment of the Irish
Church, and was appointed in Dec, 1869. Bishop of Oxfonl.
Owing to failing health he took measures for the resigna-
tion of his see in 1888, but before the legal formalities had
been fullv carried out he died at Cuddesdon, near Oxford,
Sept. 16, "1889. Revised by W. S. Perry.
Mat'kay', Charles: author; b. in Perth, Scotland, in
1812; was eilucated in London, Brussels, and Aix-la-Cha-
pelle; was enijiloycd on the stall of The London Morning
Chronicle 183-1-43; editor of The Olasyow Argus 1844-47;
was long editorially connected with The Illustrated London
jWhvs-; founded The London Review in 1860 ; contributed a
series of poems — Voices from the Crowd — to the London
Daily News; lectured in the U. S. in 1858, and was a war-
correspondent of the London Times in the U. S. 1862-<j5.
Is best known by his songs, some of which were set to music
composed bv himself. Among his numerous works are
Songs and Poems {XK.iV); History of London (1837); The
Thames and its 7'ril/uliiries (1840) ; Longbeard, a romance
(1840); Memoirs of Kxtraordinary Popular Delusions
(1841); Legends of 'the Isles (1845); Education of the Peo-
ple (XHUi); The English Lakes {WAC); Town Lyrics {lHi»);
Under Oreen Leaves (1857); Studies from the Antique
(1864); Lost Beauties of the English Language (VHi); Po-
etry and Humor of the Scottish Language ; The Founders
of the American Republic; and for some time preceding his
McKEA.V
MACKENZIE
433
death was occiij)ieil in writing a brmk on The Gaelic. Ely-
moUiyy of the LiK/lish Lnnyuuye. lie liii'il in London, Doc,
1889. llis son h'lric, anllior of The Lore-lellem of a Vio-
liuisl, Aero and Acted, a IraKC'ly, etc., wrote uii introduc-
tion for the I'uM humous I'uemn of liis father. The sister
of the hitter, under the pseudonym Mtirie Corelli, has writ-
ten .1 Uoiiiance of Two Worlds, The IJUtory of a Vendetta,
and otlier popular novels.
McKoan, Tii<»ns, A. M., LL. I).: a signer of the Decla-
ration of liidi-pendence : b. at Lonilonderrv. Pu., Mar. 11),
I'.M ; was admitted to the liar, and early lield important
public trusts in Delaware and Pennsylvania. lie was sent
to the general Con{;ress of 1703. where he took a Ixild stand
for the rights of the colonies. He became in 1705 judge of
the quarter sessions and the orphans' court, and sole notary
and tabcllion public for Delaware. In 1771 he was made
collector of the port of Newcastle, and was 1774-8;) a mem-
ber of Congress from Delaware, [iresident of Congress in
1781, and president of Delaware in 1777, although he had
for some years been a citizen of Pennsylvania, lie wrote
the constitution of Delaware in a single night, with no book
for reference, and it was adopted unanimously on the fol-
lowing day. lie was (1777-99) <'hief justice of Pennsvlvania,
and its Governor 1799-1808. He was one of the ablest and
most determined of the Hevolutionary patriots. D. in Phila-
delphia, June 2-1, 1817.
McKeesport: city; Allegheny co.. Pa. (for location of
county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-11) ; on the Monon-
gahela river at the mouth of the Youghiogheny river, both
of which are here navigalile for steamboats, and on the
Balto. and O., the Penn.. and the Pitts, and Lake Krie rail-
ways; 14 miles S. K. of Pittsburg. It is the center of the
greatest bituminous coal region in the country and of the
natural-gas wells. The census returns of 1890 showed that
116 numufacturing establishments (rei>resenting 40 indus-
tries) reported. These had a combinecl capital of $10,942,-
537; employe<i 6.283 persons; paid $3,433,029 for wages
and $10,()10,618 for materials; and had jiroducts valued at
$17,383,12.5. The principal industry wius the manufacture
of iron and steel, which had 3 establishments, $10,191,652
capital, and 5.665 persons employed; paid $3,114,845 for
wages, and had products valued at $16,235,177. Among
these establishments were the largest wrought-iron pipe-
works in the world. Other manufactures are sawed lumber,
locomotives, cars, and glass. There were 7 public-school
buildings, and public-school property value<i at $140,000.
The citv has 3 national banks, with combined capital of
$.500,000, a State bank with capital of $100,000, and 3 daily
and 4 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 8,212 ; (1890) 20,741.
Secrkt.xry ok board of trade.
McKee's Rocks : village; Allegheny co.. Pa. (for location
of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-B); on the Pitts.,
Chartiei-s and Youghiogheny Railway; 4 miles from Pitts-
burg, the county-seat, it contains iron, steel, and planing
mills, iron-bridge works, glass-factory, machine-shops, and
railwav repair-shops, and has twowecklv newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 'not in census; (1890) 1,687.
MiU'Kol'lar, Thomas: poet; b. in New York, Aug. 12,
1812; entered at the age of sixteen years the printing es-
tablishment of the Harriers; removed to Philadelphia in
18:53; became pro<if-reac!er in the great stereotype fiumdry
of Lawrence .Johnson iV Co.; ro.se to be foreman, and idli-
mntely a partner. lie published several volumes of poetry
— Drtippings from the Jleart (1844) ; Tarn's Fortniflhl Ham-
ble (1847); Lines for the Gentle and Loving (1853); and
Rhymes Atween-times (1873). He published a ly|Mipraph-
ical numual. entitle<i The American Printer, in 1866. and a
voluuii' of Hymns and Metrical I'.ialms in 188:!. His best-
known poem is the po|>ular song Let Me Kiss Him for His
Mother. Revised by H. A. H'kkrs.
McKeii'dree. William, D. D.: the first bishop of the
Methodist Episcopal Church born in America; b. in King
William co., Va., July 6, 1757. .At the beginning <if the
Revolutionary wai^ 1775, he entered the Continental army;
was an adjutant and commiss4iry, and witnesseil the sur-
render of t'ornwallis. He joined the Methodist itinerant
ministry in 1778. In 1801 he was sent over the .Mleghanies
into Kentucky, and became one of the principal founders of
his denomination in the Western States. His travels were
extensive, his labors extraordinary, his ehxpieiiee n'mark-
able, his success general, and his endurance of privation
aiid sutlering heroic. In 1808 ho was elected bishop. Jlc-
2&4
Kcnilree College, founded at Lebanon, III., in the year of
his death, will cause his name to be long remembere«l. D.
near Nashville, Tenn., Mar. 5, 18;J5. Revised by A. Osuohn.
Markpiina, Uknjamin Vk'L'Sa: Sec VicuSa Macke.nna.
.Mi'Kenzle: town; Carroll co., Tenn. (for hx-ation of
county, M-e map of Tenne.ssee. ref. O-C); on the Louis and
Niusli. and the Nash., Chat, and St. L. railways; 113 miles
N. K. of Memphis, 119 miles W. of Nashville.' It is in an
agricultural region, has c(msideralile trade, and contains
Bethel College (Cumberland Presbyterian, opened in 1K49»,
which in 1890 had 6 instructors, 281 students, and $10.(MW
invested in grounds ami buildings, and .McTveinj Institute
(.Methodist Episco|ial, founded in 1sm2), which in 1890 hail
3 instructors, 110 stuclcnis, and $'.M>,U0O investiMl in grounds
and buildings. Pop. (1880) not in census; (1890) 1,166.
Mackonzip, Sir Alexander: b. at Inverne.ss, Scotland,
about the middle of the eighteenth century ; reinoveil to Can-
aila when young; entered the service of the Northwest Fur
Company ; pa.ssed eight yeare at Fort Chippewyan on Lake
Athabasca, where he formed a project of an exploring expe-
dition to the Northern Ocean; spent a year in England in
the study <if astronomy and navigation; set out from Fort
Chiripewyan June 3, 1789. with four canoes and a party of
twelve pei-sons; discovered and explored to hit. 69 tlie great
river to which he gave his imine ; and in a s<'Cond exoeiiition
from Fort Chippewyan, iH'gun in Oct., 1792, reached the
Pacific Ocean at Fort Menzies in July, 1793. Returning to
England in 1801, he published Voyages from Montreal
through the Continent of Sorth America to the Frozen and
Pacific Oceans in the Years 17S9 and i7yj(4to. with maps);
was knighted in 1802, and died at Dalhousie, Scotland, Jlar.
12, 1820.
Mackenzie. ALEXAxnER, P. C. : Canmlian .statesman ; b.
near Dunkeld, .Scotland, Jan. 28, 1822; was educated there
and at Perth ; removing to Canaila in 1842, became a con-
tractor and builder. He represented East York in the
Canada Assembly 1861-67; the same eonstituencv in the
Dominion Parliament 1867-92; sat for West Middlesex in
the Ontario Assembly 1871-72, and was treasurer of the
province during that jierioil. He declined a seat in the
Canadian cabinet in 186.5; led the t)ntario oprnisition in
the Dominion Parliament from 1867 till 187:1, when he was
elected leader of the entire reform opjiosition of Canada.
l"pon the resignation of Sir John Macdonald, Mr. Mackenzie
was called on to form a new administration, which he suc-
ceeded in accomplishing Nov. 7. 187:t. taking the positions
of Premier and ^linister of Public Works, which he held
till he and his cabinet resigned in 1878, in consequence of
the Conservatives lieing returned to power. He liroceeili-<l
to Scotland in 1875. and while there was presentctl with the
freedom of Irvine. Dundee, and Perth ; and during a subse-
quent visit in 1881 was presented with the freedom of In-
verness, lie visited the t^ueen at Windsiir. and was thrice
offered the honor of knighthood, which he deeline<l. He was
instrumental in securing the enactment of various imfiortant
measures; |^iosses,sed great administrative abilities; was u
fluent and convincing speaker. D. at Toronio. Apr. 17,
1892. He was the author of Life and S/M-eches of Hon.
George Jiroirn (Toronto, 1882). ' Neil Macdonald.
McKenzie. Alexander, D. D. : clergj-man ; b. in New
neilford, .Mass., Dec. 14. 18:10; wa.s educated at Harvard
College and Andover Theological Si'iiiinary ; was pastor of
the South Congregational church, Augusta, Me., 1861-67;
pastor of the First church (Congregational), Cambridge,
Slass., in 1867: was an overseer of Ilarvanl College 1872-
84; is trustee of Phillips Acailemy, Andover, Wellesley Col-
lege, Hampton Institute, and Cambridge Ilospit.i' : ' ' ' '
at Andover Theological .S-minarv and llarviird I
is author of History uf the piril Church in i
(1873); Cambridge Sermons {\><>>H\ : Somt Things AOroad ;
The Tiro Hoys; anil numerous addresses.
.Wackciizlc. .\i.EXANDER Campbell: composer; b. in Ed-
inburgh, .Seolland, Aug. 22, 1847; was educateii n' llr^t by
his father, himstdf a tine violinist, and then at .<• '
Sondershausen, Germany, where heenlenil the ••■ i
orchestra as a violinist when foiirlei m '-'
he removed to London, anil liecanie ;i
Royal Aciulemy of .Music; in l.'MS5 r. ; ■ ■
city, and began a professional cani-r a.« violinist ami teacher.
His first coiu|Misiiion wius a ijuartet for piano and string* in
B flat, which was published in I^-ipzig: s4M.n after came his
overture Cervantes and other orchestral coiniwsitions. llis
434
MACKENZIE
MACKEREL
first clioral composition was the cantata The Bride (1880).
followed by Jaxtm (lHt(2), which was performeil at the Bris-
tol festival in tliut year; then came The Hose uf Sliaran for
the Norwidi festival of 1884; TUe Story of Say id for the
Leeds festival of 1886; Jubilee Ode (1887); The Xeir Cove-
nant (Glasj,'ow, 1888); The Cottar's Saturday Aighl (18!K));
The Dream of Jubal (Lom\o\\, 1889); Veni Creator Spiri-
lus (18!tl); Jielhlrhem (1894); and the two operas Co-
lomba (1883) and The Troubadour (1886), both composed to
order for the Carl Kosa Company. He lias also composed
much excellent orchestral music and many songs, |)i.rt songs,
piano and organ pieces. He received the degree of Mus. Doc.
from the University of St. Andrews in 1886, and was elected
principal of the Koyal Academy of Music in Feb., 1888, to
succeeii Sir George A. Macfarren. D. E. Hervey.
Mackenzie, Alexander Si^idei.l: originally named .Si.i-
DEi.i., lirotlier of Senator Julin Slidell ; naval ollicer and au-
thor ; b. in Xew York, Apr. 6, 180:5 ; entered the navy in 1815 ;
cruised in the Mediterranean and on other stations; became
lieutenant 182,5, commander 1841,servingon the West Indian,
Brazilian, Pacific, and Jledilerranean sipiadrons, and took
in 18;j7 the name of Mackenzie. In 1842 Commander Mac-
kenzie was placed in charge of tlie U. S. brig Somers, sent
to the West African coast, manned diietly by naval appren-
tices, and on the return voyage an intention of mutiny said to
have been discovered on board led, by a decision of council
of orticers, to the lumging from the yanlarm (Dec. 1, 1842)
of three young men, one of whom, a midshipman, was a son
of .John C. Spencer, the Secretary of War. This tragical
event naturally created a great sensation, and Mackenzie's
conduct was severely critii'ised and as warmly defended.
Though liis conduct was approved by a court of inquiry,
and he was acquitted of blame by a court martial, the dif-
ference of o[)inion was not set at rest, ami the affair embit-
tered the subsequent life of Mackenzie. He was ordnance
officer at tlie siege of Vera Cruz during the Mexican war,
and commanded the artillery division wliich stormed the
town of Tabasco June 16. 1847. D. at Tarryfown, N. Y.,
Sept. 13, 1848. JIackenzie had consideral)le literary ability,
and published A Year in Spain (1829; revised ed. 1836);
Popular Essays on Xavnl Subjects (1833); The American, in
England (18;j5) ; Spain Revisited (1836) ; Tjife of John Paul
Jones (1841) ; Life of Oliver Hazard Perry (1841) ; and Life
of Stephen Decatur (1846),
Mackenzie, Charles Predkrick, D. D. : bisliop; b. in
Peel)le.sshire,.Scol land, Apr. 10. 1825; graduatedat Camliridge
in 1848 ; took orders in the Church of England ; labored for
sometime as a parish minister; obtaine<i a fellowship and
lectured at Cambridge; went to South Africa in 1854 with
Bishop Colenso, and officiated as Archdeacon of Natal until
1859, when lie returned to England to urge the establish-
ment of other African mi.ssions; was consecrated Bishop of
Central Africa at Cape Town .Ian. 1, 1861 ; sailed for the
Zambezi with a corps of missionaries, and began operations
at a village named .Magomcro, where the climate soon under-
, mined his constitution, and he died Jan. 31, 1862. His Life
(2d ed. 1865) by Harvey Goodwin. D. D.. Dean of Ely (afte'r-
ward Bishop of Carlisle), is a work of deep interest.
Kevised by W. S. Perry.
Mackenzie, Sir George: lawyer and statesman; b. at
Dundee, Scotland, in 1636 ; was educated at the Universities
of Aberdeen and St. Andrews; studied law three years at
Bourges, France; was admitted to the bar in Edinburgh in
1656, and soon became celebrated as an advocate ; warmly
but unsuccessfully defended the Manpiis of Argvie on his
trial for tresison 1661 ; was knighted, became judge of the
criminal court, mendier of Parliament, and king's counsel
(1677), in which capacity he maintained the doctrine of pas-
sive obedience. His conduct as criminal prosecutor in the
persecution of the Covenanters cau.sed him to be stigmatized
by the title of Uluidy .Mackenzie. He was also memor-
able for the witchcraft trials over whi<'h he presided. ]\Iac-
kciizie wa.s a friend of Dryden and <illier poets, was himself
an elegant scholar, and one of the first Scol<-hmen to write
the English language correctly. He published lieligio Stoici
(1663). A Moral Essay uuon Solitude (1665), Moral Gallantry
(1667). a Discourse on the Laws and Customs of Scotland in
Mailers Criminal (\{ViX),«.ni\ Institutions of the Imws of
Scotland (HtH4), besides .4 Vindication of (lie (lovirnment
of Charles //. He was the chief founder of the Advocates'
Lil)rary in Edinburgh. In 1688 he retired to Oxford. I), in
Lonilon. Mav 8, ItiDl. His complete IforA* were published
in 1716-22. '
Mackenzie. Henry: author; b. in Edinburgh, Scotland,
Aug. 26. 1745; was educated at the university of that city;
became an attorney of the Secitlish court of exchequer; pub-
lished anonymously in 1771 a novel, The Man of Feeling,
which enjoyed great Jiopularity, and led to the composition
of a second part, which was i.ssued uiuler the author s name
in 1773 as The Man of the World, .\notlwr novel, Julia de
lioubigne, appeared in 1777. In 1779-80 .Mackenzie edited
a weekly literary pa|ier. The Mirror, for which he wrote a
.series of admired e.s,says; in 1785-87 he conducted ITie
Lounger, a paper of a similar character; wrote several po-
litical tracts espousing Tory principles; made a report to
the Highland Society aiivcrse to the gemiineness of the Os-
sianic poems; wrote three inferior tragedies and biographical
sketches of Thomas Blacklock. .lohn Home, Lord Abercrom-
by, ami William Tytler. besides various minor ])ublications.
In 1804 he received the lucrative appointtnent of comptroller
of taxes for Scotland ; gave to the world his collected works
in 8 vols. (1K08); and during his declining years made his
house in Edinliurgh the center of the most distinguished lit-
erary :iiid iioliti<'ai society. I), in Edinburgh, Jan. 14, 1831.
Mackenzie, Sir Morell. JI. D. : laryngologist ; b. at Ley-
tonstone, Essex, England, July 7, 1837; was the son of a
phvsician ; entered London University, where he look M. B. in
1861 and M. D. in 1862 ; in 18,58 studi'ed in Paris, and in 1859
in Budajiest, where he met Czermak. who was introducing
the laryngoscope, in the use of which Mackenzie soon be-
came expert, and which he introduced into L(mdon. In
1860 he became resident medical officer to the London
Hospital, holding the office eighteen months, then became
its first registrar; in 1866 became assistant physician and
in 1873 physician, resigning the latter in 1874. ' In 1863 he
founded the Throat Hospital. His skill and dexterity in
operating and the fertility of his resources combined to'give
him the largest practice in his specialty in England, and to
necessitate his services for the Crown Prince, subsequently
Frederick III., of Germany. For these latter services he was
knighted in 1887 by the Queen of England, and had con-
ferred on him the Grand Cross and .Star of the Ilohenzollern
Order of Germany. He was president of the laryngological
section of the international medical congress held at Copen-
hagen in 1884. and was the first president of the British
Laryngological Society. His treatise on the I'se of the
Laryngoscope (London. 1866) passed tlirough .several edi-
tions. His Essay on Groivths in the Larynx (1871) raised
him to the front rank of laryngologists. His other impor-
tant works are A Manual of Diseases of the Throat and
Kose (New York, 1880); The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs
(London, 1886). D. in Londcm, Feb. 13, 1892.
S. T. Armstrong.
Mackenzie River: one of the largest streams on the
globe. It rises in tireat Slave Lake, and flows in a N. N. W.
direction to the frozen ocean. It is navigable in the open
season from its mouth to Fort Simpson, where there are
rapids; above which it is again navigable to Great .Slave
Lake. Its three great head-streams are the Peace, Atha-
basca, and English rivers. Its extreme length is 2,300 miles;
its area of drainage, 590,000 sq. miles. Lignite-beds occur
upon its banks, and a large part of its upper basin is fertile
and habitaljle land.
Mackerel [from O. Fr. maquerel > Fr. maqiiereau ; cf.
Lat. »««(■'//«. spot I : a name of various sidt-water fishes of
the genus iS'm /«/«';• (family Scnmliridir). The most impcu-tant
sjiecies is the <'oiumon mackerel, Scomber scombrus, found
in the North Atlantic, and caught on the shores of both
continents in immense inmibers, both bv hooks and nets.
As a fresh fish, the mackerel is of rich and excellent
Mackerel.
flavor; it is also salted in great (niantilies. Gloucester and
Yarmouth. Mass., are the great ceutei-s of the mackerel-
fishery in the U. S. Their fleets visit all parts of the coast
from the Canilinas to the Hay of Chaleurs, according to tho
season of the year. Spain, Spanish America, and the South
MACKERKL-OL'LL
McLANE
435
and West of the U. S. are the great markets for salted mack-
erel. The name mackerel is also applied to various other
8i)ccies of Sci/inbriil(P, as tiie (•Inili-imiokfrfl (.Scomber coliaji),
tne Spaiiish-iiiHckerel (Scomberomonin iiiaculaliix), and the
frigate-mackerel {Auxis Ihazard). See als^) Siomuriu.i; and
FisiiKRiES. Revised by 1). S. Jokdan.
Maekerel-irilll : a popular name for the terns (see Tern),
given iIhmi cm account of their habit of hovering over
schools of mackerel in search of fish driven to the surface,
or to pick up scraps of food left by the fishes.
Mack'cy. Albert (Iali-atin, M. I).: writer on Freema-
sonry; l>. in Charleston, S. C, in 1807; graduated in 1^32
at the Medical College of .South Carolina, wHuro be became
demonstrator of Anatomy in 1K!8, but in 1H44 devoted him-
self wholly to literature, chietlv in connection with .Masonry.
He wrote for several periodicals in (-'harlcston ; pnblisheil a
Lexicon of Freemasonry (184.5); The Mystic Tie (1849);
Principles of Masonic Law {\Hii6) ; The Boole of the Chap-
ter (18,58); Text-book of Masonic Jurisprudence (IS.")!));
Cryptic Masonry and Masonic Ritualist (18(57); The Sym-
bolisms of Freemasonry (1868); and Manual of the Lodge
(1870). He also edited the Ahiman liezon, or Book of Con-
stitutions of the Urund Lodge of Ancient Freemasonry of
South Carolina. He established a Masonic monthly in
Charleston in 18.50. and a ipiarterly in 18,58; lectured upon
the Middle Ages, and took an active part in politics after
the civil war. A new and much-enlarged edition of the
Lexicon appeared in 187.5 under the title Fncyclopiedia of
Freemasonry. D. June 20, 1881.
Miu-kiiiac. niak i-naw: village; Mackinac co., Mich, (for
location, see map of .Michigan, ref. 2-1); on the Mackinac
island, in Lake Huron. N. K. of .Mackinac Strait, which
connects Luke Huron with Lake Michigan; nearest railway,
the Dulutli, S. Shore and .Atlantic; liOO miles by water N.
by W. of Detroit. The island, which is 3 miles li)ng liy 2
miles wide, contains a post-ollice, and a telegraph-station,
and was a place of much importance in the colonial |>eriod.
It was settled by the French ; made a missionary station in
160!); captured and its inhabitants massacred bypontiacin
1768; ami captured by the British in 1812. The island is a
popular summer resort, has a good harlmr. and has large
cx|)orts of fish. Fop. of village (1880) 720; (18U4) 70.5.
Me Kinley, William, .Jr.: political leader; b. at Niles, O.,
.Ian. 26, 184:5; enlisted in the L'. S. army in May. 1861. as a
private soldier in the Twenty-third Ohio Vdhinteer Infan-
try, and was mustered out as captain of the same regiment
ami brevet major in Sept., 186.5. lie settled at Canton,
Stark CO., 0.. and entering the legal profession, was prose-
cuting attornev of .Stark Countv 186!)-71. He was elected
as a Kepublican to the 45tli. 46th, 47lh, 48lh. 4'.»th. 50th. and
51.st Congresses, though in the Forty-eighth Congri'ss his
election was contested and his opponent was seated bv the
House late in the scs-^ion. He snon became recognized as a
leader in Congress, and iparticularly as an advo<'ale of pro-
tective tariff. In the I-ifty-first Congress, as chairnuin of
the committee on ways and means, he prepared the bill
(H. K. 11416) to reduce the revenue anil equalize duties on im-
ports, which became famous as the McKmley Bill. The bill
passed the House .May 21. 18!I0. pa.ssed the Senate Sept. 10;
was then sent to a conference committee, whose report was
agreed to by the House .Vpt. 27 and by the .Senate Sept. '.W.
The bill was approved by the President Oct. 1. In the fol-
lowing congressional elections .Maj. McKinley was not suc-
cessful, but in Nov., 1801, he was elected (iovernor of Ohio
by a m;.jorily of some 21,000 after a campaign which was
fought almost exclusively on the tariff issue. Was made
|iermanent chairman of the Uepublican national coiiventii'ii
in 18!t2. and received 182 votes for the nomination for Presi-
ilent. In Nov.. 18!i;i. he was re-elected Ciovernor of Ohio.
In 18116 he received the Kepublican nomination for the presi-
dency and was elected, mainly on the souinl-inoney plank
of (he Kepublican platform and with the help of the Sound-
money Democrats. See L'xiTEU States.
XcKinney: city (foiindc<l in 1846: named after Collin
McKinney, an early settler); capital of Collin co., Tex. (for
location of county, sec map of Texa.*, n-f. 2-1); near the
east fork of Trinity river; on the Houston and Tex. (^ent.
and the Sherman, Shreve. and .S. railways; 32 miles N. of
Dallas. l;i.5 miles N. K. of Austin. It is in an agricultural
and cotton-growing region; contains .5 churches. McKinney
Institute, a public-school building, and 4 weekly newspa-
pers; and has a cotton-compress, cotton-oil mill, flour-mill.
icc-faclorv, planing-roill, important live-stock interests, and
electric lights. Pop. (1880) 1,47«; (18«0) 2,489; (18U3) esti-
mated with suburbs, 5,(XX). Kuitob ok " Democbat."
Mark'intosh, Sir .James, M. D., LL. D., F. K. .s. : philos.*-
fdier anil |«ilitiiian ; b. at Aldourie, Inverne.^s-shire, .Scot-
and, Oct. 24, 1760; graduated .M. A. in 1784 at King's
College, Aberdeen, and M. D. at h^linburgh 1787; went to
London, and in 17!*! published his riri<?i>i<e Ualtiar, an
eliKjuent defense of the French Revolution against the
strictures of Burke's Reflections, which at once won him the
favor of the Whig leaders; Bup|)orted himself by literary
work, and in 17!l.5 was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn';
delivered in 17U1)-1800 at Lincoln's Inn his brilliant lec-
tures on the Law of Nature and of Nations; won a splen-
did fame at the Iwr; was knighted I80:i, and was ri'corder
of Bombay 1804-06; judge of admiralty 1806-11; n-lurned
to England after a highly honorable career in the hjust, and
entered Parliament in 1813 from Nairn; was Profc-ss/ir of
Law and General Politics at Huileybury College 1818-24.
still taking an important place in parliamentary business;
in 1830 became a commissioner of Indian alTiiirs. D. in
London, May 30, 1832. Among his more important works
lire a brief History of England (1830i, extending only to the
reign of Klizabeth, but completed by Wallace and WW (10
vols.); a Dissertation on the Progress of L'thirnl Philoso-
phy (1830), written for the L'nryrloptrdia Britannica; a
Life of Sir Thomas More: a posthumously published Jfis-
tory of the Revolution in Knyland in /CA'.V, which was a
fragment of a projected history in several vohinies; and a
great number of miscellaneous artick^s, chiefly published in
The Edinburgh Review, containing a mass of valuable criti-
cism, especially regarding questions of psychology and eth-
ics. They were collected into volumes and publishetl in the
L". S. in a series entitled Modern British Essayists. As a
parliamentary orator he did not fill the ex|«ttations ba.sed
upon his forensic achievements, among which the memora-
ble defense of I'eltier (Feb. 21, \WA) was jHThajis the
greatest effort of British elotpience at the bur. See his
Memoir.1, by his son, containing journals, etc. (18;J5).
McLaiie'. Ijoris: Congressman and diplomat; son of
Col. Allen McLune (1746-1829), jurist ; b. ut Smyrna, Del.,
JIay28. 1780; entered the navy as midshipman nt the age
of twelve years, and cruised a year in tlie Philudelphia ;
pursued studies at Newark College, Delaware; sludied law
with James A. Bayard, and was admitted to the bar 1807;
served us a volunteer in 1814 in a company commuiided by
C.Tsar 11. Rodney, which innrched to the defense of Balti-
more from the threatened attack by the British ; was repre-
sentative in Congress 1817-27, voting agninst the admission
of slavery in Missouri or in the Territories; was chosen
.Senator 1827; sent by President Jackson as minister to
Knghind May. ]8"29; returned in 1831 to accejit the i>ost of
Secretar)- of the Treasury: was tninsfem'd in 1H3;J to the
department of State in consequence of his refusal to sanc-
tion the n-movul of the deposits from the Hank of the I'. S. ;
retired to ])rivate life June, 1834. settling in Marx land ; was
president of the Bidtimore and Ohio Railroad during its
completion and early management 1837—17; accepted the
mission to London to settle the ( tregon difficulty June, 1845 ;
was a delegate to the constitutional convention of Mary-
land 18.50-51. D. in Baltimore, Oct. 7. 18.57.
,McI,ane. Robert Millioan: son of Ivouis McI.Ane, diplo-
mat: b. in Wilmington. Del.. June 23,1815: resiiUni with
his father in London 18'2.'*-31 : studie<l in collegi-s in Balti-
more, Md., and Paris, Fnmce; graduatiMl at We.st Point
Military Academy 1837; servinl in the army in Florida, in
the Cherokee country, and in the Northwest ; n-sigiu^i 1843;
was admitted to the'lmr in nnltiinort' the same year: was a
member of the Maryland Legislature 184.5-47: meinU-r of
Congress 1847-51 ; commissioner to China 1 s.5;{-,Vi ; and min-
ister to .Mexico. While in Mexico he negotiated a treaty giv-
ing President Juarez the lienefit of a I'. .*<. loan and other
substantial advantages, and punOiasing Lower California for
a sum of several millions of dollars. The tnalv wn« never
ratified, but the jwilicy of intervention in '^' ^Tairs
was carried out by the V. .S. navy in captur ves-
si'ls of war bi'longing to the reactionary . ' of
Mirainon. After his return from .Mexio he ; it the
Baltiinon> liar. He was a delepite to the i . i vrai>-
cratic conventions of 18.56 and 1M76: memlHT of the Forty-
sixlh ami Forty-seventh ('ongn.s.«<-s; (iovernor of Maryland
1SH4-85: became I'. S. minister to Fram-o Mar. 2;l, 1885;
resigned this post iu 1889. Rivisoti by C. K. At>Aiis.
436
MAcLAliEN
MACLISE
MacLa'rcii. William, D.D. : minister in the Presbyterian
Churt'li of Canada ; b. in Tarboltoii. Carletoii County, Canada,
Jan. 36, 182y ; educated in Knox Collejje and the ['nivirsity
of Toronto; pastor of tlie Church of Aiuherstburg, Ontario,
l.H,~i;i-57; then pastor of Knox church, now tlie Columbus
Avenue Presbyterian diurch, Boston, Mass. ; pastor of John
Street church,' Helleville, Canada, to 1870; of Knox church,
Ottawa, 1870-73; lecturer on Apologetics in the Presbyte-
rian College, Montreal, 1872; Professor of Systematic 'Ihe-
ology in Knox College, Toronto, from 1873. He was mod-
erator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church
of Canada 1884. Besides other articles and pamphlets he
has published a series of theological monographs, including
77ie Inxpirntion of Hen' pi u re. The liomish Duclriiie of the
Rule of Faith, The Rule of Truth and Private Judgment,
Calfinism in Relation to other Theislic Systems, Condi-
tional Immortality, and a volume The Unity of the Church
and Church Unions (Toronto, 1890). C. K. HovT.
McLaren, William Edwaui), S. T. D., D. C. L. : bishop;
b. Dec. 13, 18;il. at Cieneva, Ontario co., N. Y. ; graduated
at Jefferson College in 18.51, and at the Western Theological
Seminary, Pittsburg, in 18G0; was ordained to the Presby-
terian ministry in the same year, and went to South America
as a missionary ; returned in 1863, and became pastor to the
Second Presbyterian church, Peoria, 111.; moved in 1866 to
Detroit, Mich!, as pastor to the Westminster church ; entered
the Kpiseopal Church in 1872; became rector of Trinity
church, Cleveland, 0., and was elected Bishop of Illinois in
1875. The diocese of Illinois having been divided into three
sees — Illinois, (Juincy, Springfield — by the general conven-
tion of 1877, the name of the see of Illinois was changed
to Chicago. Bishop McLaren has published (■atholic Dog-
ma the Antidote of Doubt (New York, 1884), and a num-
ber of sermons, charges, and addresses.
Revised by W. S. Perry.
Mcljean, Jonx, LL. D. : jurist; b. in Morris co., N. J.,
.Mar. 11, 178.5; settlcil with his parents in Warren CO., O., in
childhood; worked on a farm until the age of sixteen; be-
gan iitudying law at Cincinnati in 1803; was admitted to
the bar, and began practice in 1807 at Lebanon ; served
in Congress from 1813 to 1810, when he became a judge of
the Supreme Court of Ohio: was commissioner of the gen-
eral land ollice in 1822, Postmaster-General in 1823, associate
justice of the U. S. Supreme Court in 1829; was distin-
guished for the elocpience and ability of his charges to
grand juries, of which a notal))e example was one delivered
in Dei-., 1838, concerning unlawful combinations against a
foreign government, eliidted by certain aspects of the Cana-
ilian ■• patriot war." His decision in the celebrated " Died
Scott case" (18,57) was given to the eiTect that slavery has
its origin in force, not in right, nor in general law, to which
it is opposed, but in local law, which (^m not be respected
by the national courts. In 1S4H lijs name was brouglit be-
fore the BuIIalo " Free Soil " convent ion as a candidate for
the presidential nomination, and in 18.56 he was the leading
competitor of Fremont for the Republican nomination at
Pliiladelphia. He again received some votes in the Chicago
^■onvention of 1860. 1). in Cincinnati, 0., Apr. 4, 1861.
He published 6 vols, of Reports of United States Circuit
Court (1829-5,5).
Maclean, Lktitia Elizabktu Landon : poet; b. at
Brompton, Kngland, Aug. 14, 1H02: acfpiired considerable
ntputation by a number of poems published in 1820 in 7'he
Literary Gazette over the signature L. F. L., by which she
was thenceforth known. She soon became a regular C(Ui-
tributor of reviews, essays, poein.s, and miscellaneous articles
to The Gazette and other newspapers, and to the annuals,
and for fifteen years supported her family by her pen. She
pul>lished several volumes of poems and four novels, all of
which were successful, many having been reprinted in the
U. S. In June, 1838, she m;irrie(l George MhcIchi!, ap-
pointed governor of Cape Coast Castle, West Africa, and
accompanied him to that place, where she died Oct. 1.5,
18;)H. .See the Life and Literary Remains of L. E. L.,
by Ijainan lilancliard (1H41).
MacLeod, nulk-lowd , Donai.u, D. D. : a minister of the
Church of Scotland; b. at Campsie, Berwickshire, Scotland,
Mar. 18, 1831; was eihicale<l at (ilasgow Cniveisity; was
minister at Lauder 1H.5S-62; at Linlithgow lS(i2-6!l; and
since 1869 of the I'aik church, (ilasgow. He is chaplain to
Ihi^ (^ueen, and siiue 1M73 has been editor of Hood Words.
He has published Memoir of Norman McLend, liis brother
IS p
.s.,1
(3 voLs., London, 1873; 1 vol., 1876; New York, 1870); The
Sunday Home Service (1885) ; Christ and Modem Society
(1893) ; and has edited a JS'ew Illustrated Bible (1892).
C. K. HOYT.
McLeod, Hexrv Di-xnino : financier; b. in Kdinburgh,
Scotland, in 1821 ; was educated at Et(m and the University
of Cambridge ; was admit tetl to tlie bar in 1849; published
Theory and Practice of Banking (,\S5ii) ; Elements of Politi-
cal Economy (1858) ; and a Dictionary of Political Economy
(1859). He was employed by the British Government 1868-
70 in codifying the laws relating to bills of exchange.
MacLeod, Jamf.s Farqumarson, C. M. G. : military and
civil officer; b. in Toronto, Canada, in 1836; giaduaied at
Queen's University, Kingston, and became a barrister-at-
law. He served as brigade-major of militia with the Red
river expedition in 1870, and was created a Companion of
the Order of St. Michael and St. George for his services; ap-
pointed captain in Xoithwcst mounted police in 1873; com-
missioner in comniaiid of this force and member of North-
west Council in 1876; and stipendiary magistrate, with civil
and criminal jurisdiction over the entire Northwest Terri-
tory, in 1880. 1). at Calgary, Sept. 5, 1894. N. M.
MacLeod, Malcolm : Canadian explorer ; b. in Stonioway,
island of Lewis, Scotland, in 1788; removed to British North
America in 1811, and entered the .service of the Hudson's
Bay Company. In 1815 he was detailed to assist the Selkirk
settlement in its fust establishment ; comniamled a small
force which defeated, on the present site of Winni[ieg, a
larger force of a rival, the Northwest Company, and erected
forts, liouses, and barns on the territory he had secured. In
1822, on the coalition of the two companies, he was selected
as a partner, and was ajipointed to the perilous task of ero.ss-
iiig the Rocky Mountains by the Athabasca Pass, to organize
an extended trade in furs and other products, to the Pacific
Ocean, in conjunction with a projected line of ship|)iiig to
and from Kngland, Mexico, the Sandwich islands, and Rus-
sian America. He spent four years in this work, and ojiened
trade routes by the Yellow Head I'ass, the Thompson and
Fraser rivers, and elsewhere, and removed the main post of
the company on the Pacific from Astoria to Vancouver,
where he established a large farm and erected grist and
saw mills, the first on the Pacific coast N. of Mexico. In
1826 he returned to York Factory, on Hudson's Bay, to re-
jiort to the general council of the company, and from that
date till 1830 was stationed at the head of Lake Winnipeg,
having a general supervision of the company's field of work
in North America. In 1834 he retired on leave of absence,
and died in Montreal, July 24, 1849.
MacLeod, Malcolm: lawyer and author; b. at Green
Lake, Athabasca. Northwest Territories, Oct. 21, 1821 ; son
of Malcolm MacLeod, the explorer; was educated in Edin-
burgh, Scotland; admitted as a barrister of Lower Canada
in 1845; was judge of the distri<-t of Ottawa 1873-76, and
appointed a queen's counsel in 1887. In adilition to many
contributions to the i)eriodical press, he jiublishcd The Peace
River, descriptive of the Northwest and British Columbia,
in 1872; sundry pamphlets in promotion of the Canadian
Pacific Railway in 1869-80, and Problem of Canada in 1880.
His writings on the Northwest directed public attention to
the resources of that region, and greatly facilitated the la-
bors of suryeyors in ilcterniiiiiiig u|)on a route for the Cana-
dian Pacific Railway. Neil Macdonalh.
MacLeod, Norman, D. D. : b. at Campbelton, Scotland,
June 3, 1812; educated in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Ger-
many; became minister of the National Kirk; jiarish min-
ister' of Loudoun 1838-43, of Dalkeith 1843-51, in Glasgow
(Barony parish) 1851 — a very large and dillicult field; es-
tMl)lished schools and meetings for the ^yorkingmeu, and
l.'ibored with zeal and success: was a founder of the Evan-
gelical Alliance 1847; took a leading part in the advocacy
of foreign missions; became cha|>lain to the l^iu'eii for Seot-
landl857: edited TtieChrititian J/m/(ij/Hc(l';dinl)iirgli, 18.50-
60), Good irorf/s(1860-72) : was author of The Earnest Sta-
denl (a biogra])hv of John Mackintosh, 1854), Parish Papers
(1862), Eastwnri) (1866), and Peeps at the Ear East (1871, a
narrative of travels in India), ami several other \vorks. D.
in (ilasgow, June 16. 1H72. Dr. ;\laiLeocl made Good W'ordt
an important eihicitiiuial organ ami a great literary success.
He was noted for breadth and versatility. .See Memoirs by
his brother. Rev. Donald MoaLeod (3 vols., London and New
York, 1870).
MacHse, inak-lees', Daniel (real name perhaps McLeish
or McLish): paintei ; b. at Cork, Ireland, probably Feb. 2,
MACLURE
MiLcMAlION
437
1806; early displayed a remarkable versatility of talent in
art. His first successes wore cuiiied by skelelies of Irish
gcenery mid life taken on it pedestrian excursion anionf; the
1)L'n.sKntry of Wicklow. lie studied iirt at (_'ork Academy,
n 1H2H he went to Koiidnii, was admitted to the Koyal
Acailemy, K'lined a medal in the anlii|ue sclii'ol, an<l wa-s
maile a member of the life school, where he also jjained a
medal for the best copy of a painting by (itiido; was a con-
tributor of drawinf.'s and vi'rses to Fraser's Mnijazine;
studied a year in I'aris ; won the f;old medal of the .\cadcmy
in 1H;!1, liy his historiial paintinj;. The Clidice of llircuhs.
anil frnm that time devote<l liis pencil mainly to subjects of
a blended historical and romantic character — All-llnUuw
£ve, Henry VIII. ami Aiiiie. liuleyn, Frnncis I. and Diana
of Poictiers, ('Itarles I. and Cromwell, I'liek Disenrlianliny
Bottom. Macbelli ami WilcheK, Bohemian (lypsieg. Oil Bias
Dressiny ax a Camliir. The ^Sleepiny Beauty. Oriyin of the
Harp, Alfred in the Danish (Vi/Hp, and many others. His
most important works were huge frescoes and water-glass
paintings in the houses of Parliament, The Death of Selnon
and the Meefiny vf Wellinyton and Blnrher after Waterloo.
both in the Victoria (iallery. He was a poor colorist, and
his conception of incidents, gesture, and expression was the-
atrical and unreal; but he knew how to compose a large
number of figures. Madise was elected associate of the
Acailemy in lH:i.j, and academician in 1S40. In 18()6 he de-
clined the presidency. 1). in London, Apr. 25, 1870.
Revised by Ki'ssell Stcrgis.
Mnclnre', William: geologist; b. in Ayr, Scotland, in
ITOii; visited New York in 178- ; settled in London soon
after as partner in a commercial house; gained a consiiler-
ablc fortune; emigrated to tlie U.S. in Kitti: was one of
the commissioners on tlio Frencli spoliation claims in 1803;
became interested about this time in geology, which he
studied in Europe; conceived the plan of making a geo-
logical survey of the V . S., and for tnat purpose crossed the
Alle'jhanies lifty times, and visited nearly every State of
the Union, traveling chielly on foot. lie presented geo-
logical memoirs to the .\merican Philosophical Society in
1800 and 1817. Tlu; .second wius accompanied l>y the first
geological map of the U. S., and he thereby gained the title
of " father of .Vinerican geology." Settling in Philadelphia,
he gave his books and collections to the Academy of Natural
Sciences of that city, an institution of which he was presi-
dent from 1817 until his death. He resided in Spain 1810-
24; engaged in an nnsuccessful attempt to establish a col-
lege on an agricultural basis; made an attempt of the .same
kind at New Harmony, Ind., where he bought a large tract
of land and resided several years; went to Jlexico for his
health in 1827, returned there in 1828. and resided there
until his death, which occurred at San Angel, near the city
of Mexico, .Mar. 2;t, 1840. He left $20,(HM) to the Academv
of Natural .Sciences, besides his lil)rary as already ment ioned,
and was a liberal benefactor of the .\merican (ieological
Society, of which he was president in 1828. While in Mexico
he wrote a work entitled Opinions on Various Huhjects {'i
vols., New Harmony, 18;}7).
MacMahnn, ma'Jik'maa on", jrAiiiE Eume Patrice >L\i'-
RICE. de : Duke of .Magenta, nuirslial of France, president of
the French republic ; b. at the chiiteaii of Sully, near .Vu-
tun, June i;j, 1808; descended from an Irish family which
took refuge in France after the fall of the Stuarts; entered
in 182.'> the mililarv school of St.-Cyr; served in Algeria:
returned after the .luly revolution to France, and was pres-
ent at the siege of Antwerp. (>nce more transferred to
Africa, he distinguished himself as a captain at the storm-
ing of Uonstantine; received the command first of a bat-
talion, then of a regiment, of the foreign legion; became
colonel in 184o, and brigadier-general in 1848. As such ho
stood at the head of the admiiust ration, first of the province
of Oran. and then of that of Uonstantine. In 18.52 he lio-
came general of division, and in 18">-"> he was ri'ealled in or-
der to assume the command of a division in the Urimean
war. lie arriveil just in time to take part in the storming
of Malakoir, and ilistinguislu'd himself bv an act of courage
bordering upon disobedience. The trench commander
gave the onler for MacMahon's return. His rej'ly became
historic "J'y suis ; j'y re;ito." He remained in the MalakolT
and drove out the Russians. For this heroic success he re-
eeiveil the Grand Cross, and was created a s«'nator. In this
position he evinc^ed a rare independence of character; he
was the only senator who refused to vole for the Safety Mill
which was proposed in consequence of the Ursiui coiispir-
aoy (June, 18.58), and placed France' under the intolerable-
rule of the bayonet, in ltd' he fought again in Algeria,
and in 18.')0 ho made his name famous in the canipaign
against .Austria. He conunanded the Second Uorps, and led
tlie left wing of the army in the battle of Magenta, .lune 4.
18.V,», while S'apt.leon commanded the center. At the head
of the guard the emperor was very hard pressed by the ene-
my, anil there was ilanger of his being driven into the Tici-
no, but MacMahon came to his support, and by throwing
himself on the right flank of the Austrian i-orjis, which
threatened the French center, he won the battle. For this
t>rilliant exiiloit the emperor nunle him on the battle-fieM
marshal of France and I)uke of Magenta. In the battle of
Solferino (June 24, 18.W) he also played a conspii-uous part.
After the war he received the command of the division sta-
tiimed at Lille, an<l in 1HB4 he succeeded Pelissier in the un-
portant position of governor-general of .Algeria, where great
reforms were to be introduced, ami so far lus the reigning
system allowed the ailministratiou i'{ .MacMahon was bene-
ficial. Daring the famine of 1807-08 he t<X)k goixl care uf
the poor people, and defended them with great energy
against the clergy, who tried to use the aid which was given
to the Arabs as a means iiy which to convert them. At the
beginning of the war against (lermany in 1870 the niarshui
receive<l the command of the First Uor|)s, consisting chi<-lly
of African troops, and forming the right wing of the first
line, nearest to the frontier, with headipuirters at Stra-ssburg.
When (on -Aug. 4) his advanced body, the division of Doiiay,
was defeated at Weis,senburg by the Crown Prince of Prus-
sia, he drew re-enforcemenis from ol her corp,«, and occupied
an excellent position at Worth in order to detain the enemy.
In spite of his brilliant valor, he was defeated in the blfKxIy
battle, and his army was almost completely routed in conse-
quence of the long and obstinate resistance it made. The
remnants he gathered at Cluilons. and here he formed out
of the First, Fifth, Seventh, and Twelfth t'orps the army of
Chiilons, to which the emperor repaired after the defeat at
Metz. From the regency in Pans he re|ieat«lly receiveil
orders to push on toward ^letz by a circuitous way. in order
to extricate liazaine. He understiHid the futility of this
plan, and remonstrated, but at last he ilK-yed. Soon, how-
ever, his army was driven by the (ierinans out of its direc-
tion and toward Helgium, and at Seilan it was com|ielled to
give battle. At the beginning of the contest, in which the
French army, together with the emperor, was surrounded
and taken prisoner, early in the morning (Sept. 1, 1870),
MacMahon was severely wounded, and gave up the com-
mand. While a prisoner of war in Germany he was almo.st
the only superior ollicer who was not accused of treason by
his countrymen ; both the purity of his character and his
brilliant valor being generally acknowledged. Immediately
after the conclusion of the armistice in the spring of 1871
he was intrusted by Thiers with the command of the army
at Versailles, the only orpinized army of France at that mo-
ment. In political respects he enjovo<I the confidence of all
parlies. He seemed to be nothing l>ut a soldier, indifferent
to polities, and without those qualities which make a man a
blessing or a ilanger to his country. Nevertheles-s events
soon raisi-d him to the most inipi>rtant jxilitical |Kisiii"ii.
Ilavini; put down the revolution of the Commune in l'..ri-
in 1871, after which he published L' Aniiee de l>r«iii//- <
depuis sa formation JuM/u'd la complete pacification de
Paris, ho became the man on whom those parties of the Na-
tional As.sembly which feared nidicalism and revolution
rested their ho'i>es. and in May, 1873,-the legitimists, cleri-
cals, and Bonapartists agn'ed in overthrowing Thiers, and
MacMahon accepliil Iho pri-sidency of the n-public. which
was olTered him by a deputation from the NatiunnI As.sem-
bU. The ho|ies, however, which the Hona|>arlisls enter-
tained of a restoration of the dynasty of Na[K>leon, and the
legitimists and clericals of a complete supprx-ssion of all
liberty, were not realized. His government was one of or-
der, aimin;; at the n'-establishmeiit of the power ' '■ •
and although the influence concediil to the (
larpr than the liberals considered s-'ioi ! \.i •
of his own tiower seemwi in his eyes tl
reaching his aim. On Nov. 10, IH7;i. i
pn>longed by tho National Assembly t.i "■'
resigneil Jan. ;tO. 1H70, ixvupving the leisi. ' v, ^ .
oral years in preparing his militai i !"-vi
siHin to 1h' pulilislied. D. on \\\> ' ' '
17. 18U;l, and had a national fui - ■ •" ""■
Hotel dcs Invalides, I'aris.
ItcvisctI bv Jakes Gkant Wilsok.
438
McMASTER
JIACON
McMas'ter, Grv Hi-mpiirkys: jurist and poet; b. at
Clyili), N. Y., Jan. 31, IS'i'J; Knuluateil at Ilainiltoii College,
and became a practii-inj; lawyer, county judf;<'. and surrojjatc
in Steuben eo., N. V., a history of which county he |)ul)lishod
in 1H4'.). He is chiefly reniend)ered, however, as tlie autlior
of the famous Carmen liellicosuin, originally contributed to
The Knickerbocker Magazine in 1849. D.'at Bath, N. Y.,
Sept. Vi, 1887, H. A. 1$.
McMaster, .John Bach, C, E., Ph.D.: professor of his-
tory; li. in Brooklyn, N. Y., June 29, 1852; educated in the
public schools of Sew York city, graduated 1872, College of
the City of New York; studied civil engineering; was in-
structor in civil engineering at Princeton College 1877-83 ;
became I'rofessor of American History, University of Penn-
sylvania, 1883; author of The People' of the United States
(i883, third vol, 1893); Benjamin Franklin as a Man of
Letters (1887).
McMillan, CiiARLKS : civil engineer; b. in Moscow, Rus-
sia, Mar. 24, 1841 ; was educated at the Hensselaer Polytech-
nic Institute, Troy, X. Y., where he graduated in 1860 with
the degree of C. E. He filled the positions of assistant
engineer on the Brooklyn water-works and on the Croton
water-work.s. Professor of Engineering in Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute and in the Lehigh University. Since 1877
he has been Professor of Civil Engineering in the College of
New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. lie was the editor of the re-
vised edition of .Smith's Topographical Drawing (188.5).
MacMillan, Co.nway, M. A.: botanist; b. at Hill.sdale,
Mich., Aug. 26, 1867; educated in the Universities of Ne-
braska, Johns Hopkins, and Harvard; wius appointed assist-
ant in geology in the University of Nebraska 1886; ento-
mologist to the Nebraska agricultural experiment station
1887; instructor in botany in the University of Minnesota
1888; Professor of Botany and .State botanist, 1891. He
has published Twenty-tivn Common Insects of Nebraska
(1888), The Metaspermn: of tlie Minnesota Valley (1892), be-
sides many articles in botanical journals.
Charles E. Bessey.
MacMillan, Huoii, D. D., LL. D., P. R. S. E., F. S. A.
Scot. : minister aiul author; b. at .\berfel<ly, Perthshire, Scot-
land, Sept. 17,1833; educated at Edinburgh University; was
minister at Kirkmicliacl, Perthshire, 18.59-64 ; of Free St.
Peter's, Gla.sgow, 1864-78; and since 1878 has been minister
of the Free West church, Greenock. Besides contributing
largely to reviews and to religious and scientific ]>criodicals,
he has published the following books, most of tliem in sev-
eral editions, some of which have been translated into sev-
eral of the European languages: First Forms of Vei/etafion
(1861 ; 2d ed. 1874); Jiibte Teachings in Nature (1866; 24th
ed. 1886); Holidays in High Lands (1869; 2d ed. 1875);
The True Vine (1871; 5th ed. 1886); Tlie Ministry of Na-
ture (1872: 5th ed. 1886); Tlie Garden and tlie City (1872;
2d ed. 1873) ; Sun-glints in the Wilderness (1872) ; Our
Lord's Three Raisings from the Dead (1875); Sabbath of
the Fields (1875; 5th ed. 1886); Two Worlds are Ours
(1880; 4th ed. 1880); The Marriage in Cana (1882; 2d ed.
1886); The Riviera (1885); The Olive Leaf; Roman Mo-
saics; My Comfort in Sorrow; and The Gate Beautiful.
C. K. HOYT.
McMillan, James: U. S. .Senator; b. at Ilamiltim, On-
tario, Canada, .Mar. 12, 1838; prepared for college. b\it re-
moved to Detroit, Mich., and entered business in 1855 ; with
others established the Michigan Car Company 1863; has
since been largely interested in manufachiring, railway and
shipping business : has given largely to educational and'char-
itablo institutions; was elected to the U. S. Senate as a Re-
publican, Mar. 4, 1889.
McMinnvillc: city (founded in 1855, incorporated in
1876); ca|iital of Yamhill co., Dre. (for location of county,
see map of Oregon, rcf. 2-15); at the liea<l of navigation on
the Yandiill river; on Hie S. I'ac. Railway; 23 miles N. \V.
of Salem, .50 miles S. \V. of Portland. It is in an agricul-
tural, lumbering, and fruit-growing region, and has a large
trade in wheat, wonl, hops, and green and dried fruit. It is
the seat of Oregim Baptist College, and has 6 churches, 2
public-school buildings, electric lights, water-wcirks, 2 flour-
mills, planing-mill, sash and door fiictorv, and 2 weekly
newspapers. Poo. (1880)670; (1890) I.:i68;'(1893)estimalcd,
2,500. Editor of " Yamhill (.'ou.nty Reporter."
McMinilTille: town; capital of Warren co., Tenn. (for
location of county, sec map of Tennessee, ref. 6-(i); on the
Nash., Chat, and St. L. Railway; 35 miles N. E. of Tulla-
homa, 75 miles S. E. of Nashville. It is in a farming ami
fruit-growing region ; is the seat of Cumberland Fcnuile
College (founded in 18.55), which in 1890 had 9 instruc-
tors, 115 students, and f.50,000 invested in grounds and
builtlings; and has 2 libraries, 2 weekly newspapers, public
park, and mamifactories of cotton and woolen goods and
foundry j.roducts. Pop. (1880) 1,244; (189U) 1,677.
McMur'rogli, Dermot: King of Leiuster, Ireland, from
1140 till 1168, when he was expelled by his subjects; ap-
plied unsuccessfully for aid to Henry II. of England ; ob-
tained the services of Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke
(surnamed Strongbow), by whom he was restored to power
in 1170. Dermot gave Strongbow his daughter Eva in nuir-
riage, and dying in the same year was succeeded by the in-
vader as a vassal to the English king, this being the founda-
tion of the English claint of sujiremacy in Ireland.
McNab, Sir Alan Napier: soldier and statesman; b. at
Niagara, Canada, Feb. 19. 1798; became a midshipman in
1813; served under Sir James Yeo in the naval expedition
against Sackelt's Harbor and other U. S. ports of Lake On-
tario; joined the army as ensign of the 100th regiment;
was present at the capture of Fort Niagara and at the battle
of Plattsburg; studied law; practiced at Hamilton; was
elected a niendicrot the Assembly of Upper (_'anada in 1830;
became its .Speaker at a later period ; commanded the Cana-
dian militia on the Niagara frontier ihiring the insurrection
of 1837-38, with the rank of colonel; routed the insurgents
near Toronto Dec. 7, 1837; seized, burned, and sent over
Niagara Falls the steamer Caroline ; was knighted July 14,
183H ; became Sjieaker of the Legislature of the united prov-
inces of Canada in 1844 ; Prime Minister 1854-56 ; was made
a baronet Feb., 1857, and died at Toronto, Aug. 8, 1862.
McNeill, nulk-necl'. Sir John, G. C. B.. I). C. L., LL. D. :
ambassiidor ami commissioner; b. at Colonsa, Scotland, in
1795; was apjiointcd assistant envoy at court of Persia in
1^31, and envoy in 1836, in w,hich capacity he became prom-
inent through his pre<iiction of aggressive designs on the
part of Russia, a subject to which a great part of his career
was devoted, ami which he treated in numerous pamphlets
and essays in the English and Indian periodicals, as well as
in a volume entitled I'rogress and Position of Russia in
the Fast (]Hf)-i). Returning from Persia in 1844, Sir John
was empli>yed in many civil and military commissions in
England and Scotland (for instance, inquiring into the ad-
ministration of the commissariat of the army in the Crimea,
1857), and became a member of the privy council (1857) and
chairman of the poor-law board. D. May 16, 1883.
Macomb, ma-koom' : city ; capital of McDonough co., 111.
(for location of county, see map of Illinois, ref, 5-C); on
the Chi., Burl, and (juincy Railroad; ,58 miles N. E, of
Quincy, 206 miles .S. W. of Chicago. It is in an agricul-
tural and fire-clay region; has mainifactures of pottery,
tile, and sewer-pipe, and contains a normal college (estab-
lished 18;!3), high school, public library (founded in 1885),
and three weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,140; (1890) 4,052.
Macomb. Alexander: soldier; b. in Detroit, Mich., Apr,
13, 1782; entered the army, and at the time of the declara-
tion of war with Great Britain (June, 1812) was acting ad-
jutant-general of the army ; but jireferring active field-serv-
ice, he was appointed in July colonel of the Third .'Vrtillery,
and distinguished himself at Fort Niagara and Fort George;
promoted to Ik' brigadier-general in .Ian., 1814. 0;i Sept.
1 1, with 1..5()0 men and a small number of militia from New
York and Vermont, he fought the battle of Plattsburg, de-
feating a largely superior force of British veterans under
Sir (leorge Prevost, for which service he received the thanks
of Congress and a gold medal; was also breveted major-
general and commanded a military department in the North-
west 181.5-21. Upon the reorganization of the armv in the
latter year, he was retained as chief engineer, with tin' rank
of colonel. In Jlay, 1828, he succeeded Gen. Brown as
major-general in command of the army. D. in Washinglcm,
June 25, 1841. He was author of a Treatise on Martial
Law and Courts Martial as practiced in the United Slates
(1809).
Miicon, mali'kon' (Lat. ^falis'co, the ancient name): town
of France ; capital of the department of Saone-et-Loire; on
the river Saone, which is Imed with beautiful i]uays and
crossed by a bridge of twelve arches (see nuip of Fraiu'c,
ref. 5-G). Otherwise the town is ill built, with narrow,
crooked, and dirty streets, but its trade in timber and Bur-
gundy wine is considerable, as also its maimfaclurss of
MACON
MACPIIERSON
439
watches. It is a railway center of importance, the lines from
Paris, Marseilles, and .Vlorit Cenis meeting here. In the Quai
liu Midi there is a liron/.e statue of Lamartine, who was
born in Miieon in 17!>0. l'o|>. (18K1) 18,4U7.
Ma'con: city: capital of Bibb co., (ia. (for location of
county, see map of (ieorgia, ref. 4-II): at tin- heail of navi-
gation on the Oemuls,'ee river, and on the (ia., the Cent, of
Ga., the Ga. .S. and Fia., the K. 'I'enn., Va. and tia., the Ma-
con and N., and the .Mncoii, Dublin, and .Savannah railways;
80 miles S. K. of .\llanla. It is on both sides uf the river,
in an aKrienltural and fruit-growing region, with granite
hill.s, hard-wood forests, and brick-clay de|josits in the vi-
cinity. The city is laid out with streets l.'iO and 180 feet
wide and beautifully shaded, and has a public park of 'i'-i'
acres, in which the State Agricultural Society has its build-
ings and holds its fairs. Water for domestic purposes is
supplied from eighteen natural springs, 2 miles S. of the
city, and is distributed from a reservoir on the top of the
highest hill in the vicinity. There are about 30 clinrches,
45 public schools, public library, the .\lexander Free School,
the Julia Piirkman Jones Home for Indigent Women, Meth-
odist Episcopal and Protestant Episcopal Orpluin.s' Homes,
an academy of music, ami a Homan Catholic academy for
young ladies. The city is the seat of Mercer University
(Baptist, founded 18:51), Wesleyan Female College (char-
tered 1836), St. Stanislaus College (Uoman Catholic, for pre-
paratory education for the priesthcHid), and of the State
Academy for the Blind (incor|u)rated \H'>2). The census
returns of 1800 slmwid that Itil manufacturing establish-
ments (representing 40 industries) reported. These had a
combined capital of :f:i,0l)8,!)77: employed 3,142 persons; paid
If 1,08.5,716 for wages and $2,.")34.144 for uuitenals, and hiul
products valued at !J4,'J74.'J14. The principal industry was
the manufacture of textile fabrics, which had 4 establish-
ments, $1,430,301 capital, and 1,038 employees; paid |219,-
13.5 for wages and $722,356 for materials; and liad products
valued at $1.11.5,306. The city has a wholesale trade of
about $.50,000,000 annually, anil handles a large amount of
cotton and luMd)er. There arc 2 natiimal banks with com-
■ bined capital of $4.50,000. .5 State banks with capital of $1,-
OoO.OOO, and 2 private banks, and 2 daily, 3 weekly, and
2 other periixiicals. Pop. (1880) 12.740; (1800) 22.746, with
suburbs, 35.746. Editor of " TELEURAfu."
Macon: town (founded in 18;i2); capital of Xoxubee co..
Miss, (for location of county, see map of Mississippi, ref.
6-II); at the head of navigation on the Xoxubee river; on
the Mobile and Ohio Railroad ; 108 miles X. of Mobile, Ala.
It is in an agricultural and cotton-growing region, and con-
tains .5 churches for white and 3 for colored people, 2 public
schools, a business anil commercial college, railway machine-
shops, cotton-compress, and 3 wecklv newspapers. Pop.
(188()) 2,074 ; (1800) 1..565. Editor of " Beacon."
Macon: city; capital of Macon co.. Mo. (for location of
county, see map of Missouri, ref. 2-G); on the Chi., Burl,
and (^uincy and the Wabash railways; 170 miles X. \V. of
St. Louis. It is in an agricultural and coal-mining region,
has important trade interests, and contains St. Agnes Hall
for young ladies (Protestant Episcopal, opened in 1883), St.
James's Military Academy (Prote.stant Episcopal, opened in
1875), and three weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,046;
(1800) 3,371.
Maeoy'a, called also Marahuha Pnim and (»reat Ma-
caw-trec: native name for a Soutli American and West
Indian palm-tree (Arruromiii grlerocarpa), which yields a
pleasantly perfumed palm oil used in soapmaking, and, in
its native regions, employed as an unguent in rheumatism.
MoPher'son : city ; capital of McPherson co., Kan. (for
location of county, see map of Kansas, ref. 6-G); on the
Atch., Top. and S". Fe, the Chi., l{ix-k Is. and Pac., the Mo.
Pac, and the Union Pac. railways; 84 miles W. of Emporia.
It is in a wheat, corn, and dairy region, has live-stock inter-
ests, and is a shipping-point for a large territory. There
are water-works, electric lights, street-railway. jfePherson
College (Puukanl). 2 national banks with combined capital
of $100,000. a State bank (capital $20.(KH)). and a daily.
monthly,and 4 weekly newspajMrs. Pop.(18,s0) l.,5!tO; (1800)
3,172; (180.5) 2,60U. " Editor ok " Ukpiblicas."
Marpherson. Sir David Lewis : statesman ; b. in Inver-
ness, Scotland, Sept. 12. 1818; educate<l at Koyal .\eailemy.
Inverness, and removed to Caiuxla in IXirt He was a mem-
ber of the firm of (izowski & Co., constructors of several
Canadian raiiwaiys and other important works ; a director of
Molson's Bank and of Western Canada Permanent Loan and
Savings Company; president of the Inleruceanic Itailway
Company, and arbitrator for the Province of Ontario under
the British Xorth American Act. He represented .Saugeen
district in Legislative Council of Canada 1N»H-<J7; was called
to the Senate .May, 1867; Sjieaker of that bo<lv and meml>er
of cabinet, without portfolio, fnan Feb. 11. 18H<i. until Oct.
17, 1883, when he resigned the speakership ami was appointed
Minister of the Interior, which oflice he resigned Aug. !i,
1885. He was knighted in 18.84. I), at .«ea, Aug. 16, 1806.
He was the author of a pamphlet on Hanking and Currency
(Toronto, 1860) and of several political pamiihlels betwiHiu
1877 and 1882. Neil Macdonald.
MfPlierson. Edward, LL. D. : journalist and statisti-
cian: b. at Gettysburg, Pa., July 31, 1830; graduated at
the University of Pennsylvania iii 1848; was for a time a
journalist; was a member of Congress 18.59-63; clerk of the
U. S. House of Representatives l86;j-75; secretary of the
Union nali(jnal committee 18l>0-64 ; he engaged in journal-
ism at Cultysburg, Pa. He published a Political History
of Ihe United Staten during the Civil War, a Ifamltmok of
rolitira, and other works, including some admirable liter-
ary and other papers: was afterward editor of the PhiliMiel-
phia IVe.iK. and was clerk of the House of Representatives
in 1882 and 188:5. D. Dec. 14, 1895.
Macphrrson. James: author; b. at Ruthven, Invemcss-
shire, in the Highlands of Scotland, in 1738; entered King's
College, Aberdeen, 1752; studied also at .Marischal Ctdlege,
Aberdeen, and at the University of Edinburgh, where ho
gave evidence of his literary taste by the publication of a
heroic poem in six cantos entitled The Highlander (17.58),
which is admitted to be beneath criticism. After teaching
at the Ruthven school he became a tutor in the family of
Mr. Graham, of Balgowan. and made some essays in versifi-
cation, which he showed to the celebrated John Home as
translations of Gaelic poetry which he allegeii that the Uigh-
laml minstrels had preserved by memory from a remote |>e-
rio<l. The circumstance was communicated by Home to Drs.
Hugh Blair and Alexander Carlyle, ami by their advice Mac-
pherson published a small volume of Fragmentu of Ancient
Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland, and translated
from the Gaelic or Krse Language (1760). The book met
with great success and a subscription was raised to enable
the "editor" to travel through the Highlands and rei'over all
extant remains of early minstrelsy. Thus encouraged. Mac-
pherson, whose knowledge of Gaelic was never more than a
smattering, prorluced in quick succession Fingid.an Ancient
Poem in Six Booki>, together with Seivral other Poems com-
posed by Ossian, Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic
Language (1762), and Temora, an Ancient Epic Poem, in
Light Hooks, etc. (1763), by which he gaine<l 1'1.200 and a
European reputation. These so-called "ixkmus" were re-
ceived with the utmost enthusiasm in Scotlaml. and even on
the Continent they were immediately translated into the chief
modern languages, and the mythical l)aril, Ossian the son
of Fingal. at once tcnik his place in biographical dictiona-
ries as the rival of Homer and Vergil. Xot lonp after the
English critics liegan to call for the original Gaelic of Ossian
in order to test the correctness of the translation, but it
was not forthcoming, and the flimsy excuses put forth for
its absence were sulVicient evidence to imiiarlial inquirers
that, as Dr. Johnson said, the poems "never existed in any
other form than that which we have seen." The Sc-otch en-
thusiasts, who had staked their reputation uinin the genuine-
ness of Ossian, t<Kik up the cudgels in l>elialf of Macpherson,
and the battle raged with great bitterness for fifty years;
even in 1875 there appeared an elalKirate vindication of
Ossian's genuineness. Niacpherson accepted the |K>st of pri-
vate secretary to Gov. Jolinsloiie, of West Florida, ami s|ieiit
nearly two years at Pensacola ami in traveling through the
American colonies; took up his residence in Ijondon (1706),
wrote an Introduction to the History of Great Britain and
Ireland (1771), and issued a prose translation of • " f
Homer (177:1) ca.st inOssianic mold, which was r -i
colilness by his friends and with contempt by hi-
In 1775 .Macpherson publishecl a History of G •
from the liestoration to the Accession of the H" '>-
orer (2 vols. 4to, 1775), in whi<li he atlackt^l the motives of
the statesmen who elTi-cteil the revolution of 1B88. The copy-
right of this work bnuight Macpherson i:3.000. He wa.s em-
ployed l)y the (iovernment to write a |iam|iliU't, The Kighta
of Great Britain asserted against the I laimsofthe Coloniea
(1776),and another entitled .4 Stiort History uf the Oppunitum
440
Mcpherson
MACROBirS
during the Last Sexxion of Parliament (17T9). Macpjioison
was an able pamplilotocr, and in reward for his services lie
obtained ihe lucrative agency for the Nabob of Areot in his
negotiations with the Government. lie wrote several pam-
phlets on Indian affairs, sat in Parliament for Camelfonl
17SO-90, and built a handsome residence at Belleville, In-
verness, where he resided for several years until his death,
Feb. 17, 1796. At his own request he was buried in West-
minster Abbey, the monument being erected at the expense
of his estate. I'pon the Ossianic controversy the standard
work is that by Malcolm Laing, under the title The Poems
of Ossian, containing the Poetical Works of James Mac-
pherson, trith Xotes and Illustrations (1805), in which the
memory of Macpherson is handled without gloves by a
brother Scotchman. This masterly criticism disposed of
the more or less plausible theories of Blair, Karnes, Gregory,
and the rest, but did not prevent Sir .John Sinclair from
publishing Ossian in the Original (1^06), from the post-
humous papers of the " translalor," ail of which, however,
were in the handwriting of Macpherson himself or of his
secretaries. Xotwithstanding some modern counter-pleas,
the verdict of the Highland Society of London, that no
poems of the kind could be found to exist in the memories
of the Highlanders, ought to be conclusive. At the siiine
time, candid criticism must admit that a work which elic-
ited the unbounded admiration of such dissimilar minds as
Dr. Parr, .Sir Walter Scott, Klopstock, and Napoleon Hona-
parte must have in it elements of poetic excellence which
escaped the prejudiced judgment of Macaulay and Sir
James Mackintosh. Sec also CampbelPs Popular Tales of
the West Highlands (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1862) ; and Kcv.
Archibald Clerk's Poems of Ossian in the Original Gaelic,
with a Literal Translation into English (2 vols., Edinburgh,
1870). Revised by H. A. Beers.
McPhersoii, Oen. James Birdseve: officer and engi-
neer : b. in Sandusky eo., O., Nov. 14, 1828 ; graduated at
the U. S. Military Academy at the head of his class July 1,
18.53, and was appointed to the Engineer Corps ; in Aug.,
1861, was made captain of engineers, and in November of
that year was chosen by Gen. Halleck as aiile-de-camp and
assistant engineer of the department of the Missouri, with
the rank of lieutenant-colonel ; and was chief engineer on the
staff of Gen. Grant, Feb. to Apr., 1863, being engaged in the
operations against Forts Henry and Donclson and the
battle of Shiloh, and as assistant engineer in the siege of
Corinth. In May, 1862, he was promoted to be colonel and
aide-de-camp, brigadier-general U. S. volunteers, and major-
general in Oct., 1862. His brilliant career from the capture
of Fort Henry in 1862 up to the surrender of Vicksburg in
1863 won the admiration of Gen. Grunt, who recommended
him for promotion to the rank of brigadier-general. The
actions in which he had especially distinguished himself dur-
ing this period were the siege of Corinth, the second battle
of Corinth, the siege of Vicksburg, and the battles of Port
Gibson, Raymond, and Champion Hill. On Aug. 1, 1863, he
was appointed a brigadier-general in the regular army, and
soon after surprised the Confederate camp at Canton, Miss.
In Feb.. 1864, ho accompanied Gen. Sherman's famous raid
to Meridian as second in command, and in March was as-
signed to command the department and army of the Ten-
nessee, to the reorganizing of which he devoted several
weeks, preparatory to the invasion of Georgia. During this
famous campaign his services were invaluable ; at Resnca,
Dallas, and the almost daily severe fighting up to and in-
duiling Kencsaw .Mountain, he was conspicuous ami greatly
distinguished himself; in the battles before Atlanta he
commanded the left grand division, and it was here on July
22, 1864, he was shot aii<i almost instantly killed.
McPIicrsnn, John Roderic: Senator; b. in Livings-
ton CO., X. v.. May 9, 1832; engaged in farming and
stock-raising, and settleil in 1859 in Hudson City, N. J.,
where he established a stockyard in 1863. He was the
originator, designer, and constructor of the great buildings
used by the Central Stockyard and Transit Company at
Harsimus Cove, N. J.; also of the abattoir and stockvard of
Philadelphia: and the invent. .icif a new stock-car. lie was
alderman of Hiids<ui City 184;! -69. and State Senator from
Hudson Countv 1H72-74. Elected U. S. Senator for New
Jersey Jan. 24,'l877; re-elected 1883 and 1889.
Macraiichft'ilia [Mod. Lat., fr. (ir. ^o^pi^s, hmfx + aixiv,
neck] : a genus of mammals of the order i'nguluta. inehid-
ing one species from the Tertiary pampas deposits of Buenos
Ayres and Patagonia. It hud the body of a ta|)ir, but a
long neck and somewhat horse-like head. The dental series
was almost uninterrupted. The canines were small. It
may also be added that, while belonging to the perissodactyl
(or odd-toed) division of the ungulates, it presents, especially
in the skeleton, many points of resemblance to the even-
toed camels and llamas. Thus in the elongated cervical
vertebra" the canal for the vertebral artery instead of per-
forating the transverse processes, as in most mammals, is
conllueiil with the neural canal in the jiosterior part of the
vertebra', and anteriorly perforates the walls of that canal.
The radius and ulna are ankvlosed together. The bones of
the feet resemble those of the odd-toed ungulates, and, as
in the rhinoceros, there were three toes both before and
(probably) behind. These toes, in the fore feet at least, were
nearly ecpial in size. The femur is long, and has a third
trochanter. The fibula is entire, but confluent with the
tibia. The astragalus is of the characteristic peris,sodactyl
type. The single known speck'^ (Jlacratichenia patagonicn)
has been made the subject of an elaborate monograph by
Burmeister, who has almost com|)letelv restored the skele-
ton. It was originally described by Prof. Owen from re-
mains brought by Charles Darwin from Patagonia, and on
account of i)eculiarities of the cervical vertebra; compared
with the camels. The Macrauchenia ei|ualed in size the
largest hippopotamus, but probably had a less broad and
bulky body, and the neck was elongated. 0. C. Marsh.
Maerpady, ma-kree'di, William Charles: actor; b. in
London, England, Mar. 3, 1793 ; was .«:ent by his father, a the-
atrical manager, to Rugby to be liberally educated, but his
projected career was cut short by pecuniary embarrassments,
and at the age of seventeen he essayed the stage, making his
first appearance at Birmingham in Jiomeo(i\me 7, 1810). He
first undertook Hamlet in 1811; played with Mrs. Siddons
at Newcastle in The. Gamester and Douglas; played at
Glasgow, Bath, Berwick, and Dublin: was seen in London
at Covent Garden as Orestes (Sept. 16, 1816). His success
was slow, but steady, and was due to hard work rather than
to genius. In 1822 his engagement Ijegan at Covent Garden,
and his reputation rose in parts like Virginius and Miran-
dola till 1826, when he went to Drury Lane. From this
time he took rank with the illustrious of his profession.
The same year he visited the U. S. ; the next year he made
a continental tour; in 1828 played in Paris; returned to
England, and for several years played in London and all the
chief cities of the kingdom : revisited the U. S. in 1843-44,
and made a long and successful professional tour ; made
another engagement in Paris, and performed in Hamlet at
the Tuileries before Louis Philippe; returned to the U.S.
again in 1849, during which year the Astor Place riot in
New York occurred; in 1850 began the long series of "fare-
wells" to the theaters in England which terminated at
Drury Lane Feb. 26, 1851. Till 1860 he lived in retirement
at Sherborne, enjoying society, taking an interest in public
institutions, and occasionally giving readings. The last
years of his life were spent at Cheltenham, where he died
Apr. 27, 1873. Macready w'as one of the last of the great
Shakspearean actors, a good scholar, a man of fine literary
taste, of higli professional ambition, of elevated character,
generous, luimuiie, modest, and just. Sec Iteminiscences and
Diaries, 1875. Revised by B. B. Vallextine.
Ma«'ri'iius, M. Opelius : Roman emperor from Apr., 217,
to June, 218; b. in 164 of humble iiureiitage at Ciesarea, in
Mauritania; entered the service of Plautianus, the favorite
of Septimius Severus; received different apiuiintments in
the imperial household; became prefect of the pra'torian.s
and was chosen emperor by them after the assa.ssi nation of
Caracalla. Shortly after his accession he was defeated by
the Parthians, and lost his inlluence with the army. The
jira'torians rose in rebellion, instigated by Elugal>ulus. and
the emperor lied in disguise, but was discovered and put to
death. G. L. Henukickson.
Macro'liius. Ambrosius Theoposh's : grammarian ; flour-
ished at the beginning of the flfth century, but of his per-
sonal life nothing is known. Of his writings there are still
extant ('onririorum Saturnnlioruut Libri VII., containing
much valuable historical and mythological information, as
well lus critical and grammatical disipiisitions, four books
being devoteii to Vergil; Comiiienftiridruui in .Siiuinium
ticipiotiis Lihri II.. a scries of philoso|iliical discourses
based on Neoplatonic views (the J)ream of Scipio, which
suggested them, having formed a part of the sixth book of
Cicero's I)e Hrpublica); and an extract or abridgment of
De Differentiis el Socielatibus Grieci Latinique Verbi.
MACROCIIIRES
MADAGASCAR
441
Maorobius is the first pa<ran writer wlio iiirntions the mas-
sacre of the cliililrcti of Hfthlelicin liy llcroil. 'I'lio best
editions of his works arc those by Jan (2 vols., 1M48-52)
und Eyssenhardt {WJ'J). There is no Knelish translation.
Revised by .M. Warrkn.
Maeroehires [Moil. Lat. from the Cr. luiKpixdp, long-
handed j: a Ki'o'ip. usually ronsidereil an order, nf birds,
distinsuished by the trreat length of the bones of the hancl
as eoiii|iared willi those of llie arm. The name was origi-
nally given by Nitzsch to a family of birds eoiitaiiiiiig the
humming-birils and swifts, but ti> these Huxley and others
have added the goatsuckers (Viijiruiniltjidte). V. A. L.
Mncr(>|>o(l'i(la! [.Mo<l. Lat., named from mac'ropim. the
typical genus; (ir. iuuep6t, long + irois. fool]: a family of
mammals of the ordiT Marsupialia and sub-oriler Siinilnc-
ti//i, containing the kangaroos and kangaroo-rats of Austra-
lia and Xew (iuinca. They have iinnietisely cidarged hind
limbs, by moans of which they progress by great leaps, and
much reduced fi>re limbs, while the large thick tail serves as
a fulcrum for support, etc.; the head is comparatively
small, and somewhat deer-like; the teeth in the full series
are as follows: molars, J; canines, 8 or i; incisors, J; the
second molar in each jaw in the young is deciduous, and
followed by a permanent successor ; all except the first are
two-ridged; the canines are small or absent in the up|ier
jaw, always absent in the lower; the incisors of the upjier
iaw (3-H:i) trenchant and nearly vertical, of the lower (1 + 1)
large ami horizontal : the stomach is large and .sacculated
and a long simple c,i>cum is developed : the marsupial pouch
opens forward. The family is peculiar to Australasia an(l
the islan<ls of the Papuan Archipelago, and is quite rich in
penera and species. It has been divided by systematists
into two sub-families and many genera.
Macrospore: See Embryolooy.
Macrn'ridie [Mod. Lat., named from macni'rtis, the tvp-
ical genus: iir. iuucp6s, long -i- ovpd, tail!: a family of fishes
of the order Trleocephali and sub-order Jiigiilares. distin-
guished by a body which gradually terminates in a tapering,
long, and compressed tail, and is covered by keeled or orna-
mented scales. The family is related to the' GadidiE or cod-
fishes, anil contains numerous species, mostly of the deep
seas or of the Arctic regions.
McTyeire, mJik-tcer', Holland Ximmons, D. D. : bishop ; b.
in Barnwell co., S. ('., .July 25, 1824 ; grailuated at Randolph-
Macon College. Virginia, in 18-14; joined the Virginia con-
ference in 1845; in 1846 took charge of St. Francis Street
church. Mobile; served thechurchesat Demopolis, Ala., and
Columbus, Mis.s.; wjus then transferred from the Alabama
to the Louisiana conference, and was stationed in Xew Or-
leans ; in 1854 was elected editor of the Xew Orleans Chris-
tian Advocate; in 1858 was elected editor of the Xashville
CKristInn Advocate. During the war he was transferred
to the Montgomery conference, and was i)astorin Montgom-
ery, Ala., when in IStifi he was elected to the e|)iscopatc.
He became president of the board of trust of the Vanderbilt
University, which owes its existence largely to his influence
upon its founder. He is the author of .Manual of tlie Disci-
pline. Duties of Masters, Catechism of Church (iovirnment,
and A History of Methodism. D. at Xashville. Feb. 15,
1889. Revised by A. <.)shorn.
McVoagh, initc-va', Wayxe: lawver and publicist; b. at
Phienixville. I'a., Apr. li», 1833; educated at Vale College;
admitted to the bar 1850 ; became district attorney of Ches-
ter CO., Pa. ; captain of cavalry 1802. when invasion of Penn-
sylvania was threatened; chairman of Republican central
committee of Pennsylvania 1803; appointeil liy President
Grant minister to Constantinople in 1870; leading member
of U.S. "McVeagh commission" to Louisiana 1877, to inves-
tigate political alTairs; appointed U. S. Attorney-General by
President (Jarfield, Mar. 5, 1881; resigned saiiio year: ap-
pointed ambassador to Italy l)y President Cleveland, Dec.
10, 1S03.
McWhorfer. Alexander, D. D. : clergvman ; b. near
Newark, Del., July 15 o. s., July 26 v. s.. 1734: graduated
at Princeton 1757: studied theidogy under William Ten-
nent ; was installed pastor of the Presliyterian church at
Newark 1758; went on a mission to S'orth Carolina in
1764, returned to Newark in 186<). and was sent apiin to
North Carolina in 1775 by Congress to pei-siiade the royal-
ists of the western counties to join with their brethren in
the Revolution; became in 17i8 chaplain of Knox"s artil-
lery brigade; accepted in 177U the pastorate at Charlotte, |
Meeklenliiirg co., X. C, and the presidency of Queen's Mu-
seum College, then called I,il)erty Hall ; lost his library bv
the inviusion of Cornwallis; retiirneil to Newark in I^Ml';
aided in drawing up the constitution of the American Pres-
byterian Church in 1788; was for thirtv-five vearsa trustee
of Princeton College; took a leading paii in colleeting funds
in New England for rebuilding the college after the con-
flagration of 1K02; published a centennial sermon at New-
ark in 18(X). and two volumes of .si>rmons iti 1K03. He was
in charge of tin; Presbvlerian church at Newark for twenty-
six years till his death July 20, 1807.
Revised by C. K. Uovt.
Madasas'rar [calleil by the Arabs Komr or Knmr. The
people themselves used to name the island Izao rtheira
Jzao. "this whole," beeau.se it was supposed to be the prin- '
eipal part of the world. In the time of Radama I. it was
called yy anivon ny riaku. "The [land] in the midst of the
Flood." Madagascar, the name used by foreigners, is a cor-
ruption of Mngadajn] : the largest of "the African islands,
975 miles long, 358 miles broad at the widest part, and com-
prising an area of about 22H.500 sn. miles; is in the Indian
Ocean, between lat. 11 57 and 25" 42 S., and between Ion. 43"-
10 and 50 25 E. It is separated from Africa bv the Mozam-
bique Channel, 250 miles broad. The fossils of Madagas<ar
and its existing llora and fauna leave no room for doubt
that it once had land connection with Asia, and probablyulso
with Africa. The coast, much indented on the western side,
and although more regular, affording several good hart)ors
also on the eastern side, is generally low. presenting a hc\\. of
sand-plains or swamps, and containing many lagoons and
lakes. From the coast the surface rises in the .same manner
as on the African continent, in terraces, bmader and more
gently sloping on the western, narrower, aiul divided bv wall-
like cuts on the ea.stern side. The interior forms a illateau
from 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, traversed from N. to S. by a
mountain-chain whose peaks rise from 6.000 to 12.000 feet,
and which in the northeastern part of the island separates
into many ranges, and forms mountainous regions of con-
siderable extension. Of the rivers flowing down the east-
ern slope none is navigable, but of those descending the
western slope the Tsidsubu (or Jlenabe) and the Mangooka
(or St. Vincent's) are navigable, the former to thefoot ofthe
mountains. The climate of much of the interior plateau is
comparatively healthful, but is very different in the low coast
regions, where the heat is intense and a fever prevails, dan-
gerous not only to Europeans, but even to the natives of the
interior. The rainy season lasts from Decendier to .\pril.
Iron, rock-salt, coal, and gold are found in quantities that
will pay for development. Generally the soil is very pro-
ductive ; the vegvlation is exceedingly rich. Ebony, ma-
hogany, different kinds of gum-trees, figs, cocoanuts. bread-
fruit frees, plantains, and baiumas are frequent. Rice is
extensively cultivated, and forms the principal article of
food: also yams and arrowroot. The cotlon-jilant has been
introduced from Fiji, the sugar-cane from .*Iauritius, and
the coffee-tree from Java, and they thrive well. The silk-
worm is indigenous, and is reared on the Tapia edulis; the
cocoon is often used by the natives as an article of fmxl.
The inhabitants, numbering about 3,500.000, fall, ethnologic-
ally, into two groups — the black, or African, on the western
slope, and the light-colored, or Malayan, on the eastern; and
f)olitieally into four si'ction.s — the llovas. .Sikalavas, Betsi-
eos, and Betsimisarakas. (Jf these, the llovas are the rul-
ing tribe, a race of middle height, but well-pro|xirtioned,
with black, straight or curled hair, and hazel eyes, well-
gifted and active. The Hova government is an absolute
monarchy. The Hova language belongs to the Malavo-
Polynesian family, and is s|H)ken in several ilialei-ts. 'fho
island was mentioned in the thirteenth century by .Mano
Polo, but not actually known to the Kurojii'ans until the
l>eginning of the sixteenth century, when in 15(K) it was
visited by Lorenzo de Almeida, the first Portuguese Viceroy
of India. Not long afterwani the Portuguese formed a
colony on the river Fnmchere. in the pnivince of Anosy. on
the eastern coast, but the settlers wen- mass«ere<l by the na-
tives. In 1642 the French, and in 1044 the English, plant-
eil colonies on the eiLstern coast, but tlies*- too failed, and for
a long time Madagascar wils known to the F.iirii|K'ans
ehiellv as the hiding-place of pirates and liuecane<rs, » honi
it took considerable force to finally suppress. In 1745 Iho
French I-Jist India Company founile<l aei-lnnyon the island
of St. Mary, and in 1708 another at Fort Dauphin. These
succeeded belter, but a lively and cIDcacious intercourse
442
MADAR
MADEIRA
with Euroj)ean civilization did not begin until the reign of
Raduma I. (180H-2S). lie received the British missionaries
and artisans well who came to the couiilry. The native
langiiafie was reduced to writing, the Uilile was translated
and printc<l. a large number of the inhabitants were taught
to read and converted to Christianity, the slave-trade, in-
fanticide, and polygiuny were abolished, at least nominally,
etc. Under his successors the progress of civilization was
several times stopped, and the people threatened to relapse
into paganism and barbarity. Such was the case under the
successor of lladama, one of his wives, Kanavalona I., 1828-
61. In 18;!5 the profession of the Christian religion was
declared illegal, and in the following year the missionaries
were compelled to leave the country. Christian worship
was to cease. Christian books were to be burned, etc. The
time of persecution, however, ceased with the accession of
li^ama II., and under Queen Hunavalona II., who as<eniied
the throne in 1868. Christianity became the state religion.
The queen herself was bajitized, the royal idols were burned,
and a chapel was built in the palace. She died July 13. 1883,
and was succeeded by CJueen Kanavalona III. .Vbout 1.2(X)
congregations have been formed in the island, and about
900 schools, with nearly .50.000 soh<ilars, are in operation.
By treaty of Dec. 12, 188.5, Madagascar was nominally pliu-cd
under French protection, but in its internal affairs liie llova
government exercised complete inde]ien(lcnce. Much fric-
tion, however, prevailed, and France, desiring to make her
protectorate more effective, dispatched an expedition to the
country (Xov.. 1894). In the face of many dillicullies the
French force made their way to the capital, Antananarivo
(q. v.), which they captured Sept. 30. 189.5. In the treaty
then made the Hovas fully recognized the protectorate.
Aug. 6. 1896. however, France promulgated a law declaring
Madagascar and its dependencies a French possession, and in
1897 the queen was exiled to Keunion. Tamatave, situated
on the eastern coast, in lat. 18° 10 S., carries on trade with
Europe. Muscat, Zanzibar, and the Cape of Good Hope. See
Ellis, History of JIadagnscarCiSSS) ; 7'liree Visits to Mada-
gascar (18.58); The Jlarli/r Church (1870); McLeod, Mada-
gascar and its People (1865); S. P. Oliver, Madagascar and
the Malagasy (1866) ; W. Ellis, Madagascar lievisifed (1867) ;
J. Sibree, Madagascar and its I'euple (1S70) and The Great
African Island (1880); and The (Quarterly Review, July,
1896. Revised by C. C. Adams.
Madar', or Miidar [= Hind, madar'] : a large plant of
the East Indies. Calolropis asctepias giganiea, now natural-
ized in the West Indies. Its fiber is used for making
cloth and cordage, and the bark of its root is employed
with apparent advantage in leprosy, elephantiasis, syph-
ilis, and other diseases.
Maddalo'ni [Ital. < Lat. Magdalo'num, the ancient
name]: town; in the province of Caserta, Southern Italy,
about 18 miles X. from Naples (see map of Italy, ref. 7-F").
Its chief interest for the visitor is the grand Carolino aque-
duct, built about 1755, which brings the waters of the Ti-
burno to Ca.serta (3 miles from Maddaloni), where they form
a fine cascade that supplies the lakes and fountains of the
royal palace ganlens. The whole length of this aqueduct is
30 miles, the tunnels and bridges being very numerous, the
latter alone having cost nearly $1,000,000. The longest, the
Ponte della V'alle, consists of three tiers of arches, the upper
of 4a arches ; the second, 28 ; the lower, 19. It was at Mad-
daloni that Gen. Bixio in 1860 met the flying Bourbon troops
after the battle of Volturno, and drove tLem into the fortress
of Capua. Pop. 17,080.
Madden. KirHARD Robert, M. D. : author and traveler;
b. at Dublin. Ireland, in 1798; traveled in Turkev, Asia
Minor, ami Egypt in 1824-27; became a fellow of the Royal
College of Surgeons; was sent to Jamaica in 1833 as a
special magistrate to sui)ervise the working of the Emanci-
pation Act ; became superintendent of liberal ed Africans at
Havana in 1836; was commissioner of arbitration in the
mixed court of justice at Havana 1836-39; memtjerot the
commission of inquiry into the slave-tra<ie on the west coast
of Africa 1841; colonial secretary of Western .Vustralia
1847, and secretary of the loan-fund board at Dublin Castle
1850-80. He nublisheil some volumes of travels in Turkey
and the West Indies. Lms of Savonarola (1854) and Galilei)
(1863), and several Works upon Ireland, of which the most
important are The Lives and Times of the United Irishmen
(1842-46 ; republished 1874), Historical Aolice of the I'enal
Laws against Roman Catholics (1805), and History of the
Irish Periodical Literature (1867). D. Feb., 1886.
Madder [M. Eng. mader < 0. Eng. mcrdere, Fr. garance.
Germ, krapp]: a dyestufi obtaineil fiom the root of differ-
ent species of Rubia, chiefly Riibia tinctoniin. The main
supply of commerce is from Holland, though the plant was
originally a native of Southern Europe and Asia Minor,
where it is still cultivated to a large extent. In Ohio, Dela-
ware, and elsewhere in the V. S., the cultivation of the plant
has been followed. Hiiulu madder, called nninjeet, is the
root of jf?M6i'a munjisia, ami gives the bright colors to the
East India chintzes and calicoes. The term Turkey red, ap-
plied to one of the tints pnxluced from this material, arose
out of its importation from the Levant, where a common
species, Rubta peregriua, has the popular name alizari,
whence we get our chemical name for the chief tinctorial
principle of madder. Alizarin (g.v.). A concentrated form
of madder is called garancin. H. Wurtz.
Madder Family : the Rubiaeem; one of the largest of the
families of dicotyledonous plants, including about 4,500
species of mostly tropical herbs, shrubs, and trees. They
have opposite or whorled leaves, and regular, gaiuopetalous
flowers, with inferior two to several celled ovaries. The
Rubia tinctorum.
madder (Rubia tinctonnn), a native of the south of Europe,
and Western Asia, is grown in many parts of the world lor
its roots, which yield a red dye. Several species of South
American trees of the genus CinrJiona yield Peruvian bark,
from which is extracted the well-known drug quinine. The
colTee-tree (Coffea arabica) is a native of Aby.ssinia, now
grown in many tropical countries. The emetic drug ipecac-
uanha is derived from the roots of a semi-shrubby Brazil-
ian species of Vragoga. Bedstraw {Galium), bluets (Ilous-
iotiia), and button-bush {Cephalunthus) are common repre-
sentatives in the U. S.
Madeira, nuiii-dil'niii fPortug., timber, in allusion to the
floating logs brought down by its current ; S|ian. Madera'\ :
a river of .South America; the most important of the simtfi-
ern tributaries of the Amazon, draining, according to
Keller, an area of 7.55,000 sc]. miles, inchiding nearly all of
Xorthern Bolivia, with portions of Southcaslern Peru and
Western Brazil. Its length, to the head of its most remote
affluent, the Guapay, is over 2,000 miles, and according to
Keller it discharges, at medium flood, 517,t)00 cubic feet of
water per second. The .Madeira and its tributaries occupy
a broad southern extension of the Amazonian depression,
practically confluent with the Paraguayan dejirossion, and
se|>arating the Brazilian plateau from the highlands of
Bolivia and Peru. This region forms a vast low plain cov-
MADEIRA
MADISON
443
ered in proat part with forest: the climate is warm (mean
temperature at Silo Antonio 79' F.) aii<i damp; from Oc-
tober to April rains are very frequent and heavy, and from
this cause, as well as the melting of snow about the An-
dean affluents, the river durint; those months is subject to
heavy Hoods, the diirtience between low and IukIi water
bcin); from 25 to 40 feet. The lower Mudeiru, to wliieh the
name is generally restricle<l, is formed by the uiiitid waters
of four great rivers — the Miidre de Dios, rising in I'eru; the
Beni and Mamore, Uowini,' from Bolivia; and the (iuapore
from Western IJrazil. The Madrede Dios joins the Beni 125
miles above the mouth of tlie latter, and in a similar manner
the Mamore receives the (iuapore; the Beni and Mamo-
t6 finally unite to form the Madeira. The least known of
these great tributaries is the Madre de Dios, which rises on
the eastern slope of the Peruvian Andes, E. of C'uzco, and
has a length of at least 700 miles to its junction with the
Beni. The Beni rises on the Nevado de Chacaltayo, near
Ija Paz, Bolivia, flowing as a rivulet through that city ;
after making a great curve to the S. and E. it turns X. and
finally N. E. to its junction with the Mamore. Its Whole
length is jirobably il.'iO miles; close to the mouth it is
obstructed by raiiids, but beyond is navigable for 020 miles.
The Mamore (culled in its upper course the Ciuapay or Hio
Grande) rises near Cochabaraba, Bolivia, and after nniking
a great eastern curve around Santa Cruz turns N. to its
junction with the Beni. For about 45 miles above its mouth
it is obstructed by rapids, beyond which it is freely navi-
gable to E.'caltacion, ;iT5 miles, and above that small vessels
go much farther; it is said that by removing obstacles it
could be ea.sily opened to beyond Santa Cruz. The extreme
length to the head of the Guapay is between 1.300 and 1,400
miles. The Guaporc or Itcnez rises on the Brazilian plateau
(Scrra dos Parcels), E. of the town of Matto Grosso, and very
near .streams which flow to the Paraguay (lat. 14' 4;^ 3' S.,
Ion. 59° 50 21" W'., according to Almeida Serra). It soon
takes anorthwesterlv course, joining the Mamore in lat. 11°
54' 13' S., Ion. 64' 40 12' \V.. with a length of over 900
miles. It is navigable for light-draught vessels to the town
of Matto Grosso, 150 miles from its source. From near lat.
14° S. (junction of the Kio Verde), the Guaporc and Jlaiuore
form the boundary between Brazil and Bolivia. All these
rivers receive numerous affluents, some of them hundreds of
miles long, and navigable, but very little known. Finally,
through t he Beni and .Mamorc,t he whole system unites to form
the Madeira ])roper, on the northern frontier of Bolivia (lat.
10' 22 30' S.. Ion. «5 22 B' \V.). From this point it flows en-
tirely in Brazilian territory, and reaches the Amazon in lat.
3° 25' 43' S. and Ion. 58'' 47' 41' \V. The length of this
lower portion is about 935 miles, and the average width half
a mile, increasing in parts to more than a mile. During the
perio<l of high water (Xovembcr to July) ocean steamers of
any size can ascend to .Sao Antonio, 715 miles ; and vessels
drawing 8 feet reach that point at any season. The Madeira
and its affluents flow through regions well.fitted for agricul-
ture, but almost deserted. The wild Indians are reduced to
a few savage hordes, wandering in the forest, and the few
settlements along the rivers owe their existence almost en-
tirely to the rubber-gatherers, the Madeira basin being a.
chief source of the rubber-supply of the world. The banks
are nearly everywhere low, and large areas are covered
during the annual floods; it is on these lowlands that the
rubU'r-trees grow ; and as such regions and the vicinity of
the falls are often malarious, the Madeira valley has acquired
the reputation of being unhealthful. The scheme for build-
ing a railway around the falls of the upper Madeira and
lower JIamore, thus opening communicaticjn with the navi-
gable npi)cr rivers, hius never been carried out ; but careful
surveys have been made, and several miles of the railway
were constructe<l by IT. S. contractors in 1877. See Gibbon,
Kxploration of the, Vallei/ of the Amazon (1854); Keller,
Vom Amazonas iind Mudiira (1874; English translation,
77ie Amazon and Madeira Rirers. 1875); Mathews, I'p the
Amazon and Madeira JiiverK (1879) : various pamphlets and
papers by G. E. Church; P. B. de .Sonza, Comniissdo do
Madeira (1874); .lulio I'inkas. Helalorio da Coinmissiio de
estiidos da eslrada de ferro do Madeira e J/awiore (1885) ;
Fonseca, Viagem ao redor do Brazil (vol. ii., 1881).
Herbert H. Smith.
Madei'ra: an island belonging to Portugal, and siluate<l
in the North Atlantic Ocean, between lat. 32' 36 and 32°
53 X., and between Ion. 16 40 and 17' 20 \V. It is atwut
360 miles from the coast of Africa, 535 from Lisbon, 1,215
from Plymouth, 240 from TenerifTe, and 4W from .SanU
Maria, the nearest of the Azores. Bv the Brazilian subma-
rine telegraph, which tou<hes it at I-'unchal, it is connected
with Lisljon and Kio de Janeiro. Area, 315 sq. miles. The
island is of volcanic origin, though earthquakes occur very
seldom. The ground is liigli, the average elevation being
2,000 feet, anil the surface mountainous. The coa.stg are
steep, precipitous, and afford but few harbors. In the in-
terior the land rises still higher until it reaches its greatest
height in Pico Uuivo. 6,0.50 feet; but it is everywhere in-
tersected by deep, well-watered, and fertile valleys, which,
however, it has cost, and still costs, an immense amount of
labor to cultivate, as the ground has to be terraced and the
soil prevented by walls or other devices from being washed
away by the rain, while the limited supply of water makes
necessary a very intricate and expensive system of irriga-
.ion. The climate is eouable, the average lieat in the sum-
mer being 74° and in the winter 64'. In the valleys trop-
ical plants are grown— rice, sugar, coffee, bananas, pine-
apples, and oranges; on the more elevated fields vines,
chestnuts, and wheat are cultivated, and the table-land is
covered with fine forests and extensive pastures. The in-
habitants, numbering 135,000, are a mixture of Portuguese,
Moors, and Negroes, and described as a vigorous, healthy!
and industrious race. Since the grape disease in 18.52 the
vine cultivation, which formerly made the island celebrated,
has declined very much, but the coffee-tree has taken the'
place of the vine, and succeeds very well. There is, how-
ever, still produced excellent wine in the Wneyards of Ma-
deira (Bual, Sercial, and .^lalmsey, strong in body and with
a fine bouquet) ; about 300,000 gal. are annually exported.
Sugar is also cultivated with success. The capital is Fu.v-
ciiAL (q. v.). Madeira was discovered in 1416, and soon
after colonized by the Portuguese. The conjecture that
the Phoenicians discovered Madeira at a very early date has
been formed on insufficient evidence, though the position in
which Pliny places the Mauritaniau islands with reference
to the Canaries seems to indicate the Madeiras. The ro-
mantic story of the two lovers cast on the shores of the isl-
aiiil in 1346 is hardly more than fiction; but it seems prob-
able that Genoese captains had vi.sited Madeira before the
Portuguese came. Revised by M. \V. Habbi.nqtos.
IMadeira-nut : See Wal.vct.
Madenio. C.\rlo: architect ; b. at Bissone. in the Correo
district in 1.^)56. He studied painting at first, but being
called to Rome by his uncle Domenico Fontana, he practiced
architecture and acquired great but undeserved fame. He
succeeded Giacomo della Porta as architect to St. Peter's,
and altered the designs of Bramante, Peruzzi, and >Iichael-
angelo. He preferred the Latin cross to the Greek, which
entirely destroyed the proportion and harmony of the proj-
ect of Michaelangelo. Nothing was done in' Rome with-
out his advice or co-operation. The choir and cupola of St.
(iiovanni dei Fiorentini, the faijade of .Santa .Susanna, the
Church of La Vittoria, and that of .Sta. Chiara are his works.
He finished the Quirinal Palace, the Borghe.se Palace, the
tribune of Sta. Maria della Pace, and numerous others, be-
sides making designs which were carried out in other cities
of Italy, France, and Spain. D. in Rome. 1629.
W. J. Stillma.n.
Madison: city: capital of Morgan eo., Ga. (for location
of county, sec map of Georgia, ref. 3-H); on the Georgia
and the Macon and N. railways; 63 miles E. by S. of At-
lanta, 104 miles W. of Augusta. It is an imix>rtant ship-
ping-point for cotton; has steam cotton-gins, steam saw-
mill, and a cotton-compress, and contains the Madison
Male and Female Institute (non-sectarian, opcnetl in 1875),
a State Iwnk with capital of $75.00(1, a private bank, and
two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,974; (1890) 2.131.
Madison : city ; capital of Jefferson co., Ind. (for location
of county, see map of Indiana, ref. 9-G); on the Ohio river,
and the Pitts., Cin., Chi. and St. L. Railway : !>0 miles S. W. of
Cincinnati. It has daily steamlHiatcommuniiati. in with Cin-
cinnati and Louisville; is engaged in sM|^l>uililiiig and the
manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, taiineil leather,
starch, machinery, foundry products, and brewery produela,
and has a largo trade in provisi.wis. There an' 2 national
banks with combined capital of ;f250,0(X1, and 3 <iailv and
3 weekly newsjwpors. Pop. (18W) M45: (18901 8.!«6.'
Editor of "CoiRiKm."
Madison: bon)ugh : Morris co.. X. J. (for location of
county, sec map of New Jersey, ri'f. 2-1)); on the Del.,
444
MADISUX
Lack, and W. Railroad ; 26 miles W. of New York city. It
is in a noted iwaoli and rose growing region ; is the seat
of Drew Thkolouhai. .-^kminakv (</. r.): and contains the
permanent and summer residences of many Xew \ ork and
Newark business men. Tlie principal industry is rose-
growing for Xew Vork flower-dealers. There are some
minor manufactures and two newspapers. Pop. (1880)
1,756 ; (1890) 2.479 ; (1895) 3,2.50. Editor of " Eagle."
Mndison: city: capital of Lake co., S. D. (for location
of county, see map of .South Dakota, ref. 7-G) ; on the Chi.,
Mil. and' St. P. Railway; 40 miles X. W. of Sioux Falls, 60
miles S. of Watertown'. It is in an agricultural region, is
the seat of the State normal school (founded in 1883), and
has a daily, a semi-weeklv, 3 weekly, and 2 monthly period-
icals. Pop. (1880) Dt; ; (1890) 1,73() ; (1895) 2.006.
Madison: city; capital of Wisconsin and of Dane co.
(for location of county, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 7-D) ; on
the t'hi. and X. W.,'the Chi., Mil. and St. P., and the 111.
Cent, railways; 75 miles W. of .Milwaukee. It is built on
an undulating isthmus between Lakes .Mendota and Jlonona,
788 feet above sea-level and 210 feet above Lake Michigan,
and has Lakes Waubesa and Kegonsa in its immediate vicin-
ity. The city is the seat of the University of Wisco.nsi.v
{q. v.), and contains a commercial college, 8 public schools,
a high school, several select schools. 12 churches, 4 State
banks with combined capital of $225,000, a national bank
with capital of ^^100,000, a savings, loan, and trust com-
Stale ('aftitol, ^ladisou. Wis.
pany with capital of $100,000, and 4 daily. 7 weekly, 4
monthly, and 2 other periodicals. It has improved water-
works, gas and electric light plants, electric street-railways,
7 hotels, and State Supreme Court, State Historical Society,
university, high school, Luther Seminary, and law libraries.
The industries comprise the manufacture of agricultural im-
plements, sugar-mills, heavy machinery, printing-presses,
bicycles, flour, carriages and wagons, and foundry and ma-
chine-shop products. The State Capitol is in an attractive
park of 13 acres, and the State Hospital for the Insane is in
the suburbs. Madison has wide repute as a charming sum-
mer resort. Pop. (1880) 10,324; (1890) 13.420: (1895) 15,950.
Editor of " State .Journal."
Madison. .Iames.'D. D. : bishop and collegiate professor;
b. near Port Hepublic, Va., Aug. 27, 1749; was a second
cousin of President .Madison; graduated at William and
Mary CiiUege 1768; studied law and was admitted to the
bar, but aljandoned that profession for the ministry of tlie
Protestant Episcopal Church. In 1773 he was chosen Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in William and Mary College, and
became president of that institution in 1777. lie visited
England in 1775 and again in 1777, where he pursued a
course of study at London in several advanced brancln'S of
science, kept llic college open during the war of the Revo-
lution, became Professor of Xatural and Moral Philosophy
1784, Wiis consecrated first Bishop of Virginia by the .Vrch-
bishop of Canterbury in Lambeth Palace Sept. 19, 1790. and
continued todisch;irgf his duties as collegiate president and
professor until his death .Mar. 6, 1812. fie published sev-
eral aildresses, a Enlnr/i/ on Wnxinnglon (1800), a large map
of Virginia, and .some papers in Barton's Journal an<l in the
TrariMtrtiuns of the American Society, vols, ii., iii., and iv.
Mndison, .Iamks : fourth President of the U. S. ; b. at
Port ("onway. Prince George co., Va., the residence of his
maternal grandparents. Mar. 16. 1751 ; was the eldest of the
seven children of a prosperous planter. Col. James Madison,
of Montpellier, Orange County, by his wife Eleanor Con-
way; studied Latin, (ireek, French, and Italian under the
tutorship of the parish minister. Rev. Thomas Martin ; en-
tered the college of New .lersey at Princeton in 1769, and
graduated in 1771, but remained for several months pursu-
ing a course of reading under the guidance of President
Witherspoon. At this time he seriously and permanently
injured his health by allowing himself but three or four
hours of sleep: returned t6 Virginia in 1772. and continued
for two years in incessant study, nondnally directed to the
law. lint really including extended researches in theology,
philosophy, and general literature. His attention was then
absorbed by the impending struggle for independence, with
which was closely connected in Virginia a Iwal contro-
versy on the subject of religious toleration. The Church
of England was the established State religion in the Old
Dominion, and other denominations labored under serious
disabilities, the enforcement of which was characterized
by them as persecution. Ma<iison took a prominent stand
in behalf of the removal of all disabilities, repeatedly ap-
peared in the court of his own county to defend the Bap-
tist Nonconformists, was elected from Orange County to the
Virginia convention in the s[iring of 1776, and signalized
the beginning of his public career by procuring the pas-
sage of an amendment to the Declaration of Rights as pre-
pared by (xcorge Mason, substituting for the word "tolera-
tion " a more emphatic assertion of religious liberty. In the
same year he was elected to the Virginia Assembly; was
choseii in Nov., 1777, a member of the council of State, and
in Mar., 17H0, took his seat in the Continental Congress,
where he first gained prominence through his energetic op-
position to the issue of paper money by the States. He was
made chairman of the committee on fon-ign relations, and
as such wrote an able memorandum for the use of the
American ministers in France and Spain, establishing the
claims of the young republic to the territories between the
Alleghany Mountains and the Mississijipi, and to the free
navigation of that river. In 1783 he was chairman of the
committee on ways and means, wa.s the principal author
of the system of reveinio then adopted, and wrote on that
subject the address to the States adopted by Congress. As
a member of the Virginia Legislature 1784-86, JIadison
rendered important service by promoting and participating
in that revision of the statutes which effectually abolished
tlie remnants of the feudal system subsistent up to that
time in the form of entails, primogeniture, and state sup-
port given to the Anglican Church ; and his Memorial and
JiemoHslrance on the latter subject was one of his ablest
State papers. In .Ian., 1785, he took the initiative in pro-
posing a meeting of .Slate commissioners to devise measures
for more satisfactory commercial relations between the
States; represented Virginia at the Annapolis meeting
which issued the call for the national constitutional con-
vention (Sept.. 1786): was a delegate to that convention,
which met at Philadelphia May, 1787: was one of the chief
framers of the Constitution of the V. S., and perhaps its
ablest advocate in the pages of The Federalist iq. v.). He
was a member of the first four Congresses, 1789-97. in which
he maintained a moderate opposition to Hamilton's financial
policy; declined the mission to France and the secretary-
ship "of State, and, gradually identifying himself with the
Republican party, became from 1792 its avowed leader, and
in 1796 was its choice for the presidency as successor to
Washington, but declined to be a candiilate. During the
storniv adminislralion of .lohn Adams. .Mailison remained
in jirivate life, but was the aiitlior of the celelirated " Reso-
lutions of 1798" adopted by the Virginia legislature, in con-
demnation of the .Alien anil Sedition Laws. as well as of the
Jieport (1800) in which he defended those resolutions, which
is by many considered his ablest Slate paner. The great re-
action in public sentiment which sealed Jefferson in the
presidential chair was largely owing to the writings of ^ladi-
son. who was consequenlly well entitled to the post of Sec-
retary of State, which he" filled during the whole adminis-
tration of his frienil with such ability as to make him the
natural successor" in the chief magistracy. Chosen Presi-
dent by an electoral vote of 122 to .53, iVIadison was inaugu-
rated Mar. 4. 1809, at a critical period, when the relations of
the U.S. with Great Britain were becoming enibillered, and
his first term was passed in diplomatic <iuarrels. aggravated
by the act of non-intercoursr of .May, IHIO, and finally re-
sulting in a declaration of war on .lune IH, 1H12. In the
autumn Madison was re-elected to the presidency by 128
electoral voles to 89 in favor of George Clinton. The war
MADISON UNIVERSITY
MADRAS PROVINCE
445
was prosecuted three years, marked by alternate success
and defeat in Canada, by |^li)riuus vicldries at sea, by the
burninti; of the natinnal Capitol at Wa.shin;;ton, Auj;., 1H14,
by the opposition movement in New Kii;,'land, which cul-
minated in llie IIaktkoku CoNVKNTn)N (</. v.) in H<14, and
by the celebraled battle won at New Orleans (.Ian. H, IHl.'J)
after a j)e»ee had been sijjned at Ghent (Dee. ^4, 1814)
which left the ori;;inal cause of dispute in abeyance. The
contlict of 1H12-I.5 was indecisive, and the check received
by the Western .States in their openly declareil intention of
annexing Canada by ri^ht of comjuest might furnish a mo-
tive of humiliation, as well a-s a valuable lesson, had not the
popular historians of the war conveniently forgotten to
chronicle that original intention. In lyi.5 a commercial
treaty was negotiated with Great Britain, and in Apr., 1816,
a national bank was incorporated by Congress, the germ of
a tinancial conllict not yet decided. Madison yielded the
presidencv Mar. 4, 1M17, to his Secretary of State and in-
timate friend, .lanies Monroe, and retired to his ancestral
estate at Montpellier, where he passed the evening of his
ilays surrounded by attached friends and enjoying the mer-
ited respect of the whole nation. He took pleasure in pro-
moting agrieiilture as president of the county society, and
in watching the development of the University of Virginia,
of which he was long rector and visitor. In extreme old
age he sat in 182!) as a member of the convention called to
reform the Virginia constitution, where his appearance was
hailed with the most genuine interest and satisfaction, though
he was too inlirm to participate in the active laborof revision.
He died at Montpellier, June 28, 18:36. .lames Madison was
pre-eminently a statesman of a well-balanced mind. His
attainments were solid, his knowledge copious, his judgment
generally sound, his powers of analysis and logical state-
ment rarely surpa.ssed, his language and literary style cor-
rect and polished, his conversation witty, his temperament
sanguine and trustful, his integrity unijuestioned, his man-
ners simple, courteous, and winning. By these rare qual-
ities ho conciliated the esteem not oidy of friends but of
political opponents, in a most unusual degree. — He had a
worthy helpmate in his wife, DoRornv 1'avxk (b. in \ir-
gitiia, 1767), whom he married in Philadelphia in 1704, she
being then ."Mrs. Todd, a widow celebrated in society for
beauty and accomplishments. During her long resilience
in Washington, Mrs. Madison was a conspicuous ornament
of the " republican court " over which she ultimately pre-
sided ; she returned to Washington after her husband's
death, survived until .Inly 12, 1849, and was long admir-
ingly remembered in Washington as " Dolly Madison." (See
Meinoim tiiiit Leilirs of Uiilli/ Madison. 1886.) A valuable
diary kept by .Madison at the time of the formation of the
Keileral Constitution was purchased from his heirs for $:iO,-
000, and printed by order of Congress as lieports of the De-
bates in the Sational Convention of 17S7 (3 vols., 1840); a
second edition of this journal of the convention of 1787
wiis published in one volume, Chicago, 18iKi; his Complete
Workii have been published in 6 vols. .See his Ai/e and
Times, by W. C. Kives (3 vols., 18,')S)-<39, unfinished); the
Letters and other ^\'rilin(/s of Jamex Madison (4 vols.,
186.')) ; and Gay's Life in the American Statesmen .Series.
Revised by F. M. Colby.
Madison I'liiTersity: See Colgate U.mversity.
MiidisonvUlp: town; capital of Hopkins eo., Ky. (for
location of lounty, sec nnip of Kentucky, ref. 4-D): on the
Louis, and Nash. Railroad; :i6 miles N. of Ilopkinsonville,
!JS miles .S. of Henderscm. It is in the heart of the tobacc(V
growing region, and also in a valuable coal-mining district,
and has flour and plarung mills, cotton-gin, tobacco-stem-
nu^ries, and several manufactories. Pop. (1880) l,i>44;
(18!»0) 2.212.
Madisoiivillo: village: Hamilton co., O. (for location of
county, see nuip of (thin, ref. 7-C): on the Pitts., Cin., Chi.
and St. L., and the Halt, ami (). S. W. railways: Ki miles
N. K. of Cincinnati. It has several manufactories, consid-
erable trade with the surrounding cmuitry, and a weekly
newspaper. Pop. (18.80) 1,274 ; (1890) 2,214.'
Miid'ler, .Iohann llEtXHTcn: astronomer: b. in Berlin,
Prussia, .'Slay 21». 17114. While holding a |K.sition in the nor-
mal school of his native city he made astronomical observa-
tions together with Wilhelm Beer, and they published in
1829-36 the celel)rated chart of the moon, in four leaves,
and in 18;f7 the explanation of the chart (Allyemeine ver-
gleirhende Selenoiirnphie, 2 vols.). In 1.8;!6 he obtained an
appointment at the observatory of Berlin, and in 1840 he
was made director of the obser\'atory of Doroat, in Russia.
While there he published a long series of Cntersuehuif- n
uber die J<'ijrsternsi/steme, setting forth his hy|x>lliesis • :■
existence of a great central <ele»tial body. ' An eye di-. ,
compelled him to resign in 186.'). He returned to Germany,
and died at llanuvi-r. Mar. 14. 1874. Among his other works
are Leitfaden zur mathematische und allyemeinen /^A .(-
schen f»'eo(7ra/)/iiV (.Stuttgart, 1844): Die /Centralsunnt i\^ i'. .
Der Fissternkimmel (1858) ; Ueschichte der lUmmeUkuudc
(1872-73).
Madoe: a Welsh prince; son of Owen Gwynedd ; flour-
ished in the twelfth century. According to some anmilists
he sailed westward with a fleet a. d. 1170, discoven-d a vast
and fertile continent, returned to Wales, sailed again with
ten vessels, and was never after heard of. Many pa.ssages in
Welsh bardic and historical writings have been cited in sup-
port of the story, but these pa.ssages are, for the most part,
extremely vague, and their reference to Madoc's alleged
discovery is a matter of mere conjecture. The earliest ex-
tant narrative of Madoc's voyage is in the work of one
llumfrey Llwyd, or Lloyd, wlio wrote in l.O.W. The new
land was supjiosed to be Nova Hispania or some part of
Florida, since the Spaniards are said to have found there
the traditions of a previous settlement by a strange race
which hail honored the cros.s. Substantially the same ac-
count of the discovery was given in the writings of Powel,
Herbert, Howell, Hakluyt, Raleigh, Purchas, and many
others, and to this evidence was added the testimony of
travelers who professed not only to have found traces of the
Welsh settlement in Mexico, but to have learned of a cer-
tain tribe of Indians that spoke the Welsh tongue. All
these claims, which created among patriotic Welshmen a
widespread belief in the story of Madoc's voyage, have Ix'en
subjected to a careful and critical analysis by Thomas
Stephens in Mndoc, an Essay on the Discovery of America
liy Madoc up Owen Gwynedd in the 7'welflh Cent iiry (IbV'-i).
After a thorough presentaticm of the evidence relating to
the subject, the author decides against the theory of Welsh
discovery. For arguments in favor of the theory, sec the
[lublications of the Llangollen Ki.steddfod, held in Septem-
ber, 18.58, and for a bibliography of the subject, see R. B.
Anderson's America not Discovered by Columbus (1874).
F. M. CoLDY.
Madon'nn [ Ital., origiiuiUy equivalent to madame] : a title
of the \'irgin Mary, and given especially to artistic repre-
sentations of her. In medianal times the Madonna was the
symbol of glorified womaidiood and maternity, and feelings
of chivalric devotion, blended with religious reverence,
matle her a pronnnent suliject of Christian art. See Mrs.
Jameson, I^egends of the Madonna (1852).
Mudoz', Pascual: statesman and author; b. at Pam-
plona. Spain, May 17, 1806; studied at the University of
Saragossa : volunteered for the defense of the castle of Mou-
zon against the French in 1823; was taken prisoner and
held for seventeen months, after which he resumed the
stucly of law at the university, but was expelled soon after
for liberal opinions; resided several years in Tours, France;
was |>ar<loned by the regent Christina and returned to
Spain. Taking up his residence at Barcelona he edited a
Diccionnrio (Jeografico Universal in 10 vols. (1829-34). a Co-
lecriiin de Causas C'elebres (20 vols.), and a liUTal newsj>ai«T,
El Catalann; became a lawyer and a judge; and fought
against the Carlists as colonel of a battalion of volunteers.
In l.s;t6 he was elected to the Cortes, in which he sided with
the progressive party, refusing to accept ofliee from the Gov-
ernment. During this time he was at work on his lUcrio-
nario Geogrntiro. Eslatislico y llistorico de Espafla ( Madrid.
16 vols.. 184.'<-.')0). He l)ecanie governor of Barcelona l.<>4;
was leader of the Progressists in the Cortes, and as Minister
of Finance in 18,')5 he showeil most radical tendencii-s. In
the following year, after a vain resi.stance to the Govern-
ment, he was flirced to leave Snain, but soon returned, and
was re-elected to the Cortes. Took [)art in the revolution
of 1868, became governor of the province of Madrid, and
ileputy to the Constituent Cortes, and diini in 1870 on the
iournev to offer the crown of .Spain to Amadeo.
■* ■ F. M. Colby.
Mndriis' ProTince: the southernmost pnivince of the
Iliniluslan peninsula : extends from Cape Comorin, laf, 8 4'
N., to Nagjiur. lat. 2r 10 N.. and is boumleil N. liv the
presidency of Bombay, Curg. llaiilaralmd. the (.'eiilral Pn>T-
inces, and Bengal, K. and S. K. by the lUy of Bengal. .S.
by the Indian (.»eean, anil W. by the Arabian Sea. Area,
446
MADRAS
MADRID
140,172 sq. miles. Pop. (1891) 35,591.440. The surface
forms u plateau slopinj; down from the center on both sides,
inilosiMl K. and W. by the (ihats and S. by the Nilfriri Hills,
and traversed by three larL;c rivers, the (iodavari, Kistna,
and L'auverv, besides several minor ones. The rivers, which
How westward to the Arabian Sea, expand at their mouths,
become shallow, and form lakes. The soil is sandy along
the coast, and nuuh mixed with salt in the interior: there
are. nevertlieless, many very fertile districts: for instance,
Tanjor, which is rich in fjrain. Tlie great forests, which
since 1859 have been under regular cultivation, yield teak and
many other valuable kinds of wood. Sugar, cocoanuts, to-
bacco, indigo, and cotton are produced. Consideralile tiuan-
titics of iron, copper, lead, manganese, silver, and coal are
found. Kevised by M. \V. Harkixuto.v.
Mailras (derivation unknown ; native name Chennapat-
nam, ■' Chenappa"s City " ; official name Fort St. Ueorgt) :
the third city of India: capital of the presidency or "ad-
ministration" of the same nauie ; situated on the Hay of
Bengal, along the shores of which it extends for 10 miles ;
lat. 13 4 X., Ion. 80 15 K. (see map of S. India, ref. (>-P).
The city, which ha.s an area of 27 sq. miles and extends in-
land for about 4 miles, is built on a sandy plain only a few
feet above sea-level, and the drainage is consequently bail.
It consists of Fort St. George (the first Hritish possession in
India) and of twenty-three villages, which have grown to-
gether into one municipality. The streets are macadam-
ized, but the street-lighting, .sewerage, means of transit, etc.,
are so poor that the city is often nicknamed " The 15e-
nighted." The water-supply is obtained from wells and
the Red Hill Tanks or reservoirs. The Cooum river, which
traverses the center of the city, is little better than an open
sewer, the mouth of whii-h is silted up from the sea for a
large part of the year. A similarly sluggish stream, the Ad-
yar, flows across the city on the S. In the center of the town,
but immediately on the sea, stands Fort St. George, which,
besides the barracks for the British troops and other military
institutions, contains the council-house, in front of which
stands the marble statue of Lord Cornwallis, the arsenal, St.
Mary's church (more than 100 years old), and other public
buildings. To the X. of the fort, but separated from it by
a large esplanade, is Blacktown, the native town, poorly
built, but densely populated. To the K. along the shore it
is lined with handsome public buildings and business offices.
On the south side of the fort, but separated from it liy the
Cooum river, is the Mohammedan quarter, with the C'hepak
Gardens and the palace of the former nabobs of the Carnatic.
W. of tha palace stands the government-house. Other note-
worthy buildings are the new High Court: the lighthouse,
128 feet high and visible 20 miles; the Church of St. An-
drew (founded in 1818); St. George's Cathedral; the mint
(in Blacktown); the .Madras Club; the observatory: the
Military Orphan .\sylum : the hospital, etc. The imraerous
residences of the Kuropean officials, civil and military, are
generally palatial structures, the polished chunam used in
their construction giving them the appearance of marble.
Parks and gardens usually surround the houses and con-
tribute much to the beauty of the city. Madras is progress-
ing iialustrially and has several large cotton-mills, tanner-
ies, etc., and an ice-factory. It has several canals, the most
important of which is the Buckingham, extending north-
ward for I'JG miles, and is an important railway center.
Though destitute of any natural harljor, ami thus unfavor-
ably situated for conimerci'. .Madras is in direct steam com-
rauuication with Europe and the principal ports of the East.
It ex]iorts hides, S|)ices, tea, coffee, in(Iigo, cotton, and salt-
peter, and imports cotton goods, canned goods, liquors, met-
als, horses, etc. Recently a commodious artificial luirl)or has
been constructed at great expense, and vessels are now com-
paratively well sheltered from the terrible hurricanes to
which they were formerly exposed in the open roadstead, and
passengers are no longer landed through the surf on cata-
marans and \\w native miinKiilah boats, consisting of planks
bound together wilh string. In calm weather the surf
breaks about 300 feet from the shore, with waves 3 feet
high, while in stormy weather the break is 1,000 feet from
the shore ancl the height of the waves is 15 feet. The heat
is great but comparatively dry, and an invigorating sea-
breeze called "the doctor" blows the greater part of tiie
year from ai^ont noon to sunset. Madras wjus founded in
1039 by Francis Day, of the East Imlia Company, whn ob-
tained a grant of land from the Rajah of Clumdragiri in
that year, and was luadu a presidency in 1U53. The fort
has often been attacked — in 1702 and 1741 by the natives.
In 174G it was captured by the French, but restored two
years later, and in 1758-59 it was unsuccessfully besieged
by them. In 1803 it was swept by a great Hrc which con-
sumed 1,000 houses, ami it suflered greatly in the great hur-
ricane of 1872. Pop. (1891) 452,518.
Madrazo, miiii-draa tho, Don Raimi'ndo, de: portrait and
genre painter: b. in Rome, Italy, July 34, 1841 ; pupil of his
father, Don Fcderico de Madrazo, and of Leon Cogniet, in
Paris; was awarded first-class medals, Paris Exposition,
1878-89; decoration of the Legion of Honor 1878. D. in
Madrid, June 11, 1894. He was a brilliant technician, and
his portraits in oil and in pastel are most cleverly painted.
His Fite iliiriuff the Carnival is in the collection of Mrs. \V.
U. Vanderbilt, Xew York, and is a representative work.
\VlLLIAM A. COFKI.V.
Madro (le Dios: river of Bolivia. See Madeira.
Madre de Kios: archipelago. See Mauallakes.
Madrepore: a group of coral-forming polyps (see .Scv-
PHOZOA) belonging to the order of Ilejactmia. The term is
usually restricted to the tree-corals of tropical seas, but in
the broader sense it includes the greater, portion of the reef-
building forms.
Madrid': the capital of Spain and of the province of
Madrid, a part of Xew Ca.stile : situated nearly in the center
of the country, in lat. 40" 25 X., Ion. 3" 42 W., on the left
bank of the Manzanares. a small stream which joins the Ja-
mara and flows to the Tagns (see map of Spain, ref. 15-F).
The site offers no commercial or industrial advantages, nor
has it any special military importance ; and the surrounding
plateau — 2.200 feet high, and once covered with forests, but
now, with the exception of the immediate neighborhood of
the city, naked and arid — suffers from a very harsh climate.
In the streets of the city the thermometer sometimes falls in
the winter to 18% and rises in the summer to 105° in the
shade. Changes are frequent, sudden, and violent, and the
difference in temperature between the sunny and shady sides
of the street often amounts to 20°. The city is first men-
tioned in history as a Moorish outpost, called Mnjerit. hut
was captured in 1083 by Alfonso VI. of Castile. Henry HI.
of Castile resided there often for the pleasure of hunting;
Charles V. went there occasionally, and in 1560 Philii) II.
made the place his capital. From this time it grew rap-
idly into a magnificent city, and became the center of
the Spanish people, political and literary. Pop. (1892)
480,000.
The city is surrounded by a brick wall 20 feet high and
pierced by fifteen gates, of which the most remarkable is
Pucrta de Alcala, 72 feet high, built in the form of a tri-
umjjhal arch with five openings, and standing at the foot
of the street of Alcala, which, three-fourths of a mile long,
traverses the city from X. E. to S. W., and forms one of
the most magnificent streets in Europe. The southwestern
(or old) part of the city contains many narrow, crooked,
and ill-kept streets, but the central and eastern parts ci in-
sist of straight, broad, well-ke))t thoroughfares, liiu'd with
handsome houses, magnificent jialace.s, and elegant public
buildings. Xofable among tlie public squares, of wliicli
Jladrid numbers seventy-two, is I'uerta del Sol, once form-
ing the eastern entrance of the city, but now occupying
nearly its center. The government palace, the post-office,
and other public buildings are situated here; also the best
hotels, clubs, and reading-rooms; and thus the place luis
become a general reiulezvous both for business and pleas-
ure. Plaza Orient e, situated between the royal palace and
the royal theater, contains an equestrian statue in bronze of
Philip IV., 19 feet high, designed by Montafles; in the
promenade skirting the plaza stand forty-four colossal
statues of kings and (pieens. Plaza Mayor, 398 feet long
by 306 feet wiile, contains an equestrian statue in bronze of
Philip III.; here the so-called autas-de-fe were formerly
celebrated, and from the Real Casa de la Panaderia the king
and the court used to witness the burning of heretics. The
bull-fights take place in Plaza de Toros, just outside Puerta
de Alcala, erected by Philip V., and accommodating 14,000
persons. In Plaza de las Cortes .stands a fine bronze statue
of Cervantes. .Among the numerous promenades aiul gar-
dens, the Prado is the most n'lnai'kable ; 2^ miles long,
divided into parts — the Pnido proper, the .Salun, the Fuento
Caslellana, foniu'rly the Delit^'las de Isabel — finely laid out,
planted wilh beautiful frees, and in part adorned with mag-
nificent fountains and statues. The view which these
MADRID
MJECENAS
447
gfrounds prpsent on a fine evening, when thronged with peo-
ple, is very brilliimt and cliHractfrislic.
Although .Muilrid is one of the handsomest modern eities,
it contains, properly speaking, only one striking Imilding,
the royal palaee. Its cathedral was liegun in 18M5. It forms
only a suftragan bishoprie of Toledo. .Many of its churches,
of which it numbers ninety, are beautifully decorated with
paintings of the old masters, but none of therji has any
architectural merit. The stime is the case with the con-
vents and monasteries, which formerly were so numerous in
Madrid, but which now mostly are used for other purposes:
forty-four monasteries were suppressed in IWW. The royal
palace was built between 17^7 and 1750, of granite and
white marble, forming a stjuare 470 feet long, 100 feet high,
inclosing a court "240 feet S(]uare, occupying an area of 220,-
900 so. feet, and surrounded with magnitieent gardens. It
contains a library of 100,000 volumes, an interesting collec-
tion of arms, consisting of 2,533 specimens, among which
are the armor of l_lolumbus, (ionsalvo de Cordova, and Don
John, and a numismatic collection of 150,000 pieces. The
collection of pici uri'S in the royal museum in the Prado is one
of the largest and richest in Kurope, and contains 65 pictures
by Veliusi|uez, 5S by Hibera, and 46 by Murillo, besides nu-
merous and excellent works of the Italian and Dutch schools.
The educational institutions of the city are good, from the
elementary schools, among which the Protestant Sunday-
schools begin to play a conspicuous part, to the university
and the learned societies. There are, besides the national
library, containing over 300,000 volumes, several minor li-
braries accessible to the public, an observatory, a botanical
garden, a medical school, military and engineering schools,
a theological seminary, normal schools, and schools of art,
law, etc. Its hospitals and other charitable and benevolent
institutions are also good.
The industry of the citv is not considerable. Of its manu-
factures only tliose of plated ware, coaches, tobacco, furni-
ture, carriages, tapestry, earthenware, gloves, and fans have
acquired any prominence; but the commerce is important.
The retail business is mostiv in the hands of foreigners, es-
pecially Frenchmen; but wliolesale transactions are carried
on by native houses, and are very large, the city forming
the entrepot for all the interior provinces.
Revised by C. K. Adams.
Madrid. Josfi Ferxandkz : Sec Fernandez Madrid.
Mad'rigal [Fr. madrigal, from Ital. madrigale < O. Ital.
madriale, mandriale., pastoral poem, madrigal ; cf. Ital.
mand'ci. flock < Lat. man Ura, stjtll, herd, from Gr. pidySpa,
fold, stable] : in music, the name of a certain species of com-
position, originally of a light.airy, joyous, and pastoral char-
acter. Madrigals are often of complex and elaborate struc-
ture, usually for voices alone, and consist of four, five, or more
parts, in which the skill of the composer exhibits itself in
fugues. canons.imitations, and other highly labored styles of
writing. Compositions of this kind abounded in the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries, and in their production
the best mastei-s appear to have found a congenial field for
the exercise of their ability. It is supposed by some writers
that the madrigal originated in Flanders, was subsequently
taken up with siici'ess l)y the Italians, and finally be-
came popular in Knglaml about the middle of the six-
teenth century. Numerous collections of these composi-
tions were published in that century and the following,
an<l these give evidence not only of the popularity of the
madrigal in Kngland, but also of the high rank attained
by the Fnglish uwisters in this style of composition. In
1741 the well-known Ma<lrigal So<'iety was foundeil in
London — an institution which has had a wide inlluence in
the cultivation of a taste for madrigal music, and for glees,
canons, rounds, catches, and national airs. The derivation
of the name " madrigal" is merely conjectural. Bv some it
has been traced to matuira. a sheepfcdd, as the early madri-
gal was of a pastoral character; Dr. Hurney derives it from
Alia inadre. "the first wonls of certain livinns addressed to
the Virgin"; Sir John Hawkins connects it with the name
of a town in Spain; but no satisfactorv etvmology has yet
been reached. Revised by t)i'DLEV BfCK.
Mndil'ra: an island of the Malay .\rehipelago, X. K. of
Java, comprising an area of 1,700 sq. miles, and Udonging
to the Netherlands. The inhabitants, numbering yOO,OtH),
are Mohammedans, and live in three kingdoms governed by
native princes uinler Dutch superintendence. They are
brave and honest; but, although they cultivate sugar, in-
digo, rice, and tobacco to .some extent, they have no di.si>o-
sition for agriculture, anil the island is a fKisscssion of in-
ferior iin|>ortanee. Its chief product is salt, the manufacture
of which is a government monopoly. Petroleum is found in
small (piaiitilies in all the departments. The principal in-
duslrv is cattle-rearing. The breed of oxen is small, but
very highly esteemed in Java, and ex|>orted in considerable
numbers. The island contains some hi>t springs and a muil-
volcano calli'cl Manju Kiiing. Among the most im|H>rtant
towns of Madura are Kamul, Kangkalaiig (the flourishing
chief town of Madura proper), Arisbaya, Ajermata (named
from its salt springs), Pamaka.san (containing the residence
of the regent), Sampang (an important market-town), Su-
menep, and the Kuropean town of Maringan.
Madura: a city of British India; in the province of
Madras; capital of the district of Madura, which, compris-
ing an area of H,40t sq. miles, with a population of 2,175,000,
occupies the southeastern part of Iliiulustan (see map of S.
India, ref. 7-E). The city is fortified, carries on a consider-
able trade in cotton and tobacco, and contains some of the
most remarkable Hindu buildings, among which are the
magnificent Pandivan palace, the great temple of Mahadeva,
and a celebrated clioultry or inn for pilgrims, 312 feet long
and 125 feet broad, resting on six rows of columns of gray
granite, and 25 feet high. \ Roman Catholic mission was
started here in 1606 by the Portuguese Jesuit Roberto lie
Nobili, and continued with great success till the middle of
the eighteenth century, when the wars between France and
Great Britain stopped and nearly annihilated the work. It
was resumed in 1837. In 1834 a Protestant mission was es-
tablished by the .American Board of Commissioners for For-
eign Missions, which has under its charge numerous <-hurches
and schools, besides several dispensaries. Pop. (18U1) 87.420.
Mad'vig, JoHAN Nikolai: statesman and scholar; b. at
Svaneke, Dcnimirk. Aug. 7, 1804; studied from 1820-25 in
Copenhagen; became privat docent in 1826; Professor of
the Latin Language and Literature in 1829; was elected to
the IJigsdag in 1848; was Minister of Kducation till 1851;
since 1855 frequently elected president of the Rigsdag. Mad-
vig was one of the greatest text-critics of mo<leni times. D.
Dec. 13, 1886. having lost his eyesight some years previously.
His most famous works, characterized no less by a brilliant
Latin style than by critical learning, are Kmendaliones
LifiatuB (1876, 2d ed.); Adversaria critira ad gcriploreg
GrcBcos et Latinos (3 vols.); Opuscula Academica (1!?87, 2d
ed.); Kleine Schriften (1875); Latin Urammar (1843) and
Greek Syntax (\^1), both frequently re-edited ; Yerfaggung
uud Verwallutig deft r&miscften Slaals (2 vols., 1882); and his
masterpiece, the critical commentarv to Cicero's De I'inibiia
(1839; 1876, 3d ed.). Together with his pupil Ussing.he also
published a complete text edition of Livv (4 vols., 1879, 3d
ed.). See Ileiberg, Biogr. Jahrbucher (ix..'l886, pp. 202-221).
and, for a complete list of his writings, Wochmnchrifl fur
claxsinrlie Philulogie (iv., 1887, p. 285). Alfred Giuejian.
Ma-an'der (in Gr. Moioi'Spot) : a celebrate<l river in .\sia
Minor; rises in Phrygia at Cela'na" (later .\|iamea-Cibotiis,
now I)ineir). Numerous large springs burst forth from the
mountain-side at Cela-na', and when nnite<i form a large
river at once. The water comes through the mountain that
separates Cela-iue from .\ulocrene (now Bunarbashn), cele-
brated both in myth and history. After leaving the Haklan
(_)va.-ri at Demirdjikieui. it falls rapidly and cuts its way in
a deep caflon through the mountain.s. emerging at TriiKilis
into the great fertile valley of the .Maunder, whose s..il is
from 30 to 60 feet deep. Ik-sides the so-calle<l Smyrna figs,
this valli'y furnishes most of the licorice us*il in Christen-
dom, and has been wealthy and populous at every [leriod of
historv. The river is noied for its winding and tortuous
course I hri>ugh this valley, ami l«ecauso of this iHi'uliarity
it has given its name to one of the most beautiful patterns
of Gn>ek ornamentation. It has numerous tributaries. It
is narrow and deep, and carries with it a largi- quantity of
mud, which, being deimsited at the mouth, hiis cxtendeil the
I coa-st many stiulia farther into the .-i^a, anil connecti'd it
with some 'adjacent islands. It is navigable only for small
craft. For a discussion of the rivers that rise at i^r near
Cel.Tnm. the Marsvas and the Ma-amlcr, see the literalupe
cite.1 under Maksvas. J. It. S. .STEKRtrrr.
Mare'iias. Gaus CiLMfs : was Uirn l»-tweon the ycani 74
and 64 ii. ( . of a noble family of Ktnis«an origin, and died
in 8 B. c. His historical sigiiificanec is twofold, as a states-
man and as a i>atron t>t literalun-. He was a friend of the
young Uctavian, and Itecame his most tniste«l ailviscr. Ili»
services were employe.1 esiK-eially for diplomatic negotia-
44S
MAKLSTROM
MAESTUICIIT
tions, in which he displayed ran tact and discretion. AVc
first hear of him as iiu'diatinjr bctwocii Sextus I'ompcius
and Octavian. in the year 40 ii. o., brin^riii? about the mar-
riage of Scribonia. a connection of Pompoius, willi Octa-
vian. A diplomatic mis.sion of reconciliation was the pur-
pose of a trip to Briindisium a few years later, which Horace
has so droUy described in one of his satires (i., ."i). During
the absence of Dctavian in SO n. c. he was his otVicial rei)re-
sentative at Rome, and again in 31 n. c. he shared this re-
sponsibilitv with Agrippa : but all of liis inllucnco in the
establishment and organization of the new rigime was exer-
cised as a private citizen, and it almost seems to have been
a matter of family pride and tradition to keep aloof from
public life as a inagistrate. His private life was sensual
and inert, and ancient authors rei)cat much gossip concern-
ing his table extravagances, his passion for pantomimes, and
his association with actors. He is well characterized by
Velleius as one who " in emergencies was tireless, far-seeing,
and never at a loss what to do, but who, when the pressure
of business or duty had relaxed, was more effeminate and
luxurious than a woman'" ; but it is as the creator and cen-
ter of a literary circle at Rome, of a brilliancy unparalleled
perhaps in the world's hist(jry, that he is best known— a cir-
cle composed of such men as the tragic poet Vaiius, Vergil,
Horace, and Propertius. His patronage did not merely
consist in the alleviation of their wants and the granting
of means for the enjoyment of a literary leisure, but it had
a direct influence on 'many of their compositions, and we
learn that the Georgics of Vergil and portions of the works
of Propertius were due to his suggestion. As a ])atron of
literature his name became proverbial, and a century after
his death Martial wrote,s(H/ JIiFcetiates non deerunt, Flacce,
Jlartines (let there but be .Ma>ceiias('S, and Vergils shall not
be lacking). His own literary efforts were inconsiderable
and unimportant, arousing a temporary interest chiefly be-
cause of their authorship and the strained and unnatural
style in which they were written. A striking and charac-
teristic fragment is preserved by Seneca, which reveals with
painful vividness his almost hysterical fear of death :
" Jlaiin me in hand and foot and hip. make me hunch-
backed, shake the teeth from my mouth — while life but lasts,
it is well ; hang me on the cruel cross, but only preserve my
life." G. L. HiJndrickson.
Maelstrom, mfd'strum, or Malstrom [from Norweg. mal-
strtiuiii, a whirlpool; main, grind + s/c«»m, stream]: ac-
cording to legend, a tremendous whirlpool on the western
coast of Norway, immediately S. of Moskoe, the southern-
most island of the Lofoden group, in lat. 67" 48' N. The
legend tells us that whales, men-of-war, etc., when caught
by the vortex, are ground to pieces as fine as dust. There
is, however, no whirlpool at all; but the currents, which
run here for six hours from N. to S., and then for six hours
from S. to X., are very strong; and when, as often happens,
the wind blows from just the opposite direction to that of
the current, the agitation of the sea may become very heavy,
and even dangerous to small vessels. The origin of the
legi-nd is unknown.
Slaerlant, mimrhmnt, .Jacob, van : media>val writer; b.
about 1235 in the district of Bruges, a city of the Nether-
lands. When still young he removed to the village of Maer-
lant, on the island of Voorn. in the North Sea. Hence came
the name ho is known by, and here he was for a time a sac-
ristan, or parish clerk. Here also several of his earlier works
seem to have been written. In 1206 he settled in Damme,
the haven of Bruges, where he is said to have been clerk of
the city chancery. His later years seem to have been passed
mainly here, and here he was buried under the belfry of the
parish church. Maerlant was called by his own pupil and
imitator, Bcjcndale, " Vad(!r der dietscher dichtren algader,"
and by this name he continues to be known in the history of
Dutch literature. In him fir'st appear on a large scale those
qualities which have ever since been characteristic of the
Dutch genius — moral energy, didactic fervor, erudition, and
rniddle-elass rather than aristocratic ideals of life. When he
appeared his coMntrymcn were completely under the influ-
ence of the literary works of P'rance. Romances of chivalry
such as were rifi at Paris and at Troyes had been eagerly
translated into Dulih, and the vogue of them seemed com-
plete. Maerlant himself began his career as a writer by
treating precisely sueli matters. His first works were a ver-
sion of the Alexatulrtin of (iauthier de Chastillon (written
between 12r)7 luid V200,; ed. by .Snellaert IHOO-OI, and .1.
Franck 1882); a //intone mn T'roycH.lpa.seil upon the A'whi/ih
de Troie of Benoit de Sainte-More (about 1264, ed. in nart by
J. Verdam 1874; a complete ed. has been undertaken by
Nap. de Pauw and K. (iaillard, vol. i., lihijnt. 188!)); a ren-
dering of the double Arthurian romance of Robert de Borron,
l/istorie ran den Urale and Merlijns lioeck (eil. by J. van
Vloten, Levden, 1880-82); a translation of a lost French
romance, Torec (ed. J. te Winkel, Leyden, 1875). In all
these works Jlaerlant permits himself great freedom with
his originals, ablireviating and adding wherever it seems
good to him. Here and there also passages show the tend-
encies of his mind ; but, on the whole, he accepts the ro-
mantic and chivalric theories of France as he hnds them.
.\ change, however, gradually came over his spirit, and he
began to find these same theories exceedingly pernicious.
This appears first in a strophic ]ioem known as the Eerste
Miirtijn (or Wapene J/arlijii. from its opening words), in
wliich he discusses bitterly with his friend Martijn the cor-
ruptions of the worlil in wliich they live. This was followed
by the similar Dander (The Second) Martijn, an<i the Der-
den Martijn, of much the same character (all three ed, by
E. Verwijs, 1880). About the same time with the last two
of these Slaerlant wrote the first of his didactic works, the
I/eimelijklieid der 1/eimeliJk/ieden (ed. by J. C'larisse, 1838;
and by E. Kansler in his Denknailer altn iid. Spraclie n. Lit.,
1844-66), as it is conjectured, for the benefit of Floris V.
when he became Count of Holland (1266), This is a treatise
on the art of governing, based upon the work attributed
wrongly by ]\Iaerlant to Aristotle, the Hecreta Secrelorum.
Soon after this he prepared his version of the De lienim
Aalura of Thomas of Cantinipre, known as Der ]\^aturen
Bloeme (ed. by E. Verwijs, 1878). This was followed by the
most famous of his works, the Hijmbihel, based on the Sco-
laslica of Petrus Comestor, but am|ilified by an account of
the fall of Jerusalem (Die ^Vrake van J/ienisateni), taken
from Flavins. I osephus (ed. by .1. David, 1858-69). This was
completed in 1271, and at once brought upon the poet the
charge of having made the Bible accessible to the laity. He
had to defend himself from the charge, probably before the
Bishop of Utrecht. Soon after, at the request of a Fraiu'is-
can of Utrecht, he translated into Dutch St. Bonaveutura's
life of St. Francis, Ler'en ran ,St. /•'ranciiicu)) (ed. by J. Tide-
man, 1848). In 1283 Jlaerlant set his hand to his chief work,
the Spiegel I/isioriael, based upon the Speculum I/istoriale
of Vincent of Beauvais (ed. by de Vries and E. Verwijs,
Leyden, 1857-63). This enormous task he did not live to
finish. In his last years he wrote a number of shorter pieces
of a devotional character, among them a beautiful crusade
song. Van den Lande van Oversee. Though a list of his
works nuikes Maerlant appear chiefly as a translator, yet in
reality his originals were to him little more than general
guides. He seldom followed literally, and he showed every-
where the ideals that were his and those of the serious part
of the Dutch people. Hence his great vogue and influ-
ence. See C. A. Sernire, Jacob ran Maerlant en zijne
iverken (2d ed. 1867); Karel Versnaeven, t/oroJ ra)i Maer-
lant en zijne werken (1861); .1. te Winkel, Maerlantu Werk-
en beschouud als Spierjhel van de ISten eeiiw (1877); ('(/.,
Oeschiedenis der neaerlandsche htlerkunde (Decl i., 1887).
A. R. Maksh.
MsD'sa, Julia: sister-in-law of the Emperor Seiitimius
Severus and grandmother of the Roman Emperors Islaga-
baUis and Alexander Severus; b. at Eniesa, a city of .Syria,
about 150 A. D.. and died aliout 225 A. u. .She has a |)lace
in history as having lirouglit about the elevation to the im-
|ierial dignity of her grandsons Elagabaliis (emjieror 218-
222) and .Mexander Severus (emiieror 222-235). G. L, H,
Mnestricht, nimis'trifht [Dutch, Maastricht; anc. Tra-
jectum ad .f/osain]: city of the Netherlands; capital of the
province of Lind)urg, on the Meusc ; 19 miles by rail N. X. E.
of Liege (see map of Holland and Belgium, ref. lO-G). It
was founded in tlic fifth century, is regularly and well liuilt,
ami contains several fine buildings. It was formerly con-
sidered one of the strongest fortresses in Europe and the
principal defense of Holland, as parts of the surrounding
gromul can easily be put under water, but during the years
1871-78 the fortifications were razed. In the wars between
the United Provinces and Spain and France it ofti'ii formed
the center of the contest, ami suffc nil miicli. It has an ex-
tensive transit trade, manufaelures of <iirpets and earllien-
ware, and immense subterranean quarries of samlstone in
the Pictersberg. These have been worked since the ninth
century, and the ex<avated passages cover an area of 12 l)V
7 miles. Pop. (1889) 32,078.
MAETERLINCK
MAGALIIAES
44'J
Mui'tcrliiick, maaler-link, Maurice, or (in Flemish)
MooKis: |)oul; b. in 1864. He is tlic most ronmrknlile np-
resentative of tlie school of poets callintr itself J^ii Jeiine
Beli/e and workin;,' under the device J'ru Aiti\ The dis-
tinctive character of his work dates from a nine months'
residence in I'aris in ISHti, where he came much under the
influence of Villicrs ile I'lslc-Adain. He owes soniclhing
also to his study uf ICnfjiish literature, |iarli(ularly .Shak-
speare and the Klizalielhan dramatists on the one hand, and
Do yuincey, I'oe, and l{<issclti on the other. He has pro-
duced a series of «(>i-(li«(iiil dramius tluit liave created n
veritahle sensation by rca.son of the strangeness of their
manner and a certain indubitable [K)wcr they show. These
are Jjfx Aveitylex, L'Intruse, La I'rincesse Malrine (5th
ed. IHUl), Les Sept Princesses (1891), I'etleas et Melisande
(1892). La QiipnoHilte et la liesare (announced Sept., 1893).
Besides these dramas he has also publislied a volume of
poems, Serres c/iaiiiles, and L'Ornement dis nores spiritu-
elles, (le liuyxbrueck I'Ailmirtible, tradiiit dii Flamand et
aecompagnf d'line introduction. Sec the Lotulon Academy
for Mar. 19, 1892, and The Nineteenth Centun/ for Sept.,
1893. A. K. Marsh.
MiliTo!, maa-fa ee, .\ni)KKa, f'avalierc : poet ; b. at Hiva di
Trcnto, Italy, in 1802; studied literature under I'aolo Co.sta,
and then went to .Munich for the study of (ieriuan. At the
age of sixteen, encouraged by Monti, he began to publish his
finishcil metrical translation of the /r////.s of (irxxnir (.Milan,
1818). This was followed by a translation of Schiller's liride
of Messina (1827) and Mary Stuart (1829), and later by that
of all the dramatic works of this great Oerman (Milan, 1844),
on whose maiuuT JIatTei formed his own poetic style. After
this he made admiral>le translations of numerous poems of
Moore; the Cliilde Ilaruld, Sardanapatus, Jiride of At/ydos,
and other poems of Uyron ; Milton s Paradise Lost ('i'urin.
1857); ancl three plays of .Shakspeare. He also rendered
into Italian Goethe's Faust. Ipliigenia, and Hermann und
Dorothea, several German romances, and the Odes of .\nac-
rcon. In 1854 he pul>lished a small collection of original
verses, entitled Dal lienaco. Kour years later he began to
print a larger collection of the same kind, IVr^i' editi e in-
editi {'.i vols., Klorcnce, 18.>H-0(I). Among these are poems
of rare lyrical beauty. He led a retired and uneventful life
in his native place, and died in Milan, Nov. 27, 1885.
Revised by A. R. Marsh.
MnfTel, FRAxrisro Scie'Ioxk. Marquis: scholar and poet;
b. at Verona, Italy, .lunc 1. I(i75 ; educated by the .Tesuits at
l'arn:a, he joined his brother, a general in the Bavarian serv-
ice, in the war of the Spanish Succession. Returning to
Italy, lie published in 1710 a treatise, Delia sciema caval-
leresca. directed against the duel. The sanu' year he helped
to found the (liornale dei letlerati, the first Italian lili-rary
journal, to which he ina<le many contributions. Hecoming
interested in the revival of the Italian drama, he published
a collection of the best cxamj)les of it, with a prefatory dis-
sertjition (3 vols., 17'2:J-25). lie had already, however, ren-
dered a better service by his tragedy Merope (first represent-
ed .luno 12, 1713); his comedy, Le cerimonie. and several
melodramas were worth far le.ss. Turning now entirely to
scholarship, he published, after several lesser \vi>rks, his Ve-
rona illustraia (1732), a splendid monument of erudition
and civic pri<le. Traveling six>n after through Southern
France, he interested himself greatly in I'rovenc.al matters,
and published in I'aris in 1733 a .series of letters on the sub.-
ject, entitled Oalliae anti(jiiitates. For three years he re-
sided in I'aris, and becoming engaged in the Janseiiist con-
troversy he wrote his Istoria teoloyica delle doltrine . . .
della divina yrazia, del libera arbitrio e delta predestina-
zione (published in Trent, 1742), which, with other theological
treatises, brought upon him many savage attacks, .\fter
journeying in Kngland, Holland, and Gcrinany, he returned
to Italy, where he wrote his Trattato de' teatri antichi e mo-
derni.'in reply to the attack of the priest foncina on all
forms of tlieatrical representation. Inten'sted also in
science, he published a Lettera sopra i /"i//mi'ni (1747), ami
treatises on electricity, etc. He ilied Fell. 11, 1755._ His
works were published in twenty-one volumes in Venice
(1790). .See G. 15. V. Giulari, liibliugrafia mafriana (in
Propuynatore, 1885). A. It. Maksh.
Mnffel, Giovanni I'iktho: historian : b. at Rerganio, Italy,
in 153."i : became Professor of Rhetoric at (ienoa 15tl:i ; secre-
tary of the republic 1504: entered the onler of .Jesuits 1.5tt5;
taught rhetoric several years at Rome; visited Spain and
Portugal in quest of materials for his Ijiliii History of the
255
Indies (1588), a work of groat value upon which ho bestowed
twelve years' labor. He liiul previously published a Com-
mentary on tlie Arhievemrnis of t lie Society of Jesus in the
Last up to iJ»;.V( 1571 j and a Life ofjynatius Loyola (1.5H5).
He edited a collection of missionary Inciters from the East
(1588), wrote the history of the poiit'ilii'ate of Gregory XIIl.
(not published till 1742), and had commenced tho.se of later
popes, but had brought the story down only to the death of
.Sixtus V. (1.590) at the time of his own ileat'li, at Tivoli, Oct.
20, 1003. His coniiilete works in Latin were published at
Bergamo (1747) with a Life.
Mnllla : a Sicilian secret society having for its aim the
substitution of its own authority for that of the law. Tliough
depending upon community of sentiment among its mem-
bers rather than upon eflectlve organization, it ha-s neverthe-
less proved a powerful iiiHuence in the social and political af-
fairs of the islanil, often controlling ele<-t ions, affording pro-
tection against the ollicers of justice, an<l forcing landlords
to employ none but nieml)ers on their farms. Boycotting
is the usual weapon, but violence has been re-sorted to in
many instances. Italian emigrants have founded branched
in N'ew York, New Orleans, and other cities of the l". S.,
wlH>re their members are thought to foster and jirotect
crime. In New Orleans the suspicion felt for the Madia
broke out into open and violent hostility on the o<-casion of
the murder of the chief of police by memliers of the society
in 1890. Enraged at the accjuittal of some of the accused, a
mob broke into the jail and murdered eleven of the prison-
ers, including those who had been acquitted. In conse-
quence of the delay in bringing to justice the authors of the
disturbance, the Italian (ioyernment protested against this
violation of the rights of Italian residents, but the matter
was ami<'ably arranged, the I'. S. agreeing to indemnify the
relatives of the victims. F. M. C'oLHV.
Mafra, maa frali; small town of Portugal, 20 miles N. W.
of Lisbon (see map of Spain, ref. 17-A) ; famous for the im-
mense building which John V. erected here in 1717-^11,
whii-h comprises a royal pahuc with 806 rcMims, a cathedral
180 feet long and 135 feet broad, surmounted with a mag-
nificent clonic, and a nioiia-stery with 300 vaulted cells, the
whole of white marble from Carrara, and surrounded with
magnificent gardens.
Magalhiies, nia'a-giral-yins , BKN.IAM1N Constant Botk-
Liio, de, commonly known as Bknjamin Constant: states-
man; b. in Brazil in 1838. He was director of the military
academy at Rio de Janeiro, and early adopted republican
princi|>les, upholding them in the press and in congress.
As one of the leaders of the revolution by which the emperor
wa.s deposed (Nov. 15. 1889). he took jiart in the formation
of the provisional government in which he was Minister of
War and. for a time, of the I'ost-ollice. Two days after the
constituent assembly had met, he died at Rio de Janeiro,
Jan. 22, 1891. The Brazilian constitution, adooted soon
after. )>royideil that his house should be imn^hased and pre-
served by the Government as a memorial of his s<'rvices.
Hkkiikrt H. Smith.
Magalhiies, Dominoas Josli Goncai.vks, de, Visconde de
Araguaya: iK)et and publicist; b. at Rio ile Janeiro, Bra-
zil. Aug. 13. isll. He studied law and was admitted to
the bar. but in 18;t01iecame attached to the dijilomatie si'rv-
ice, and in later life was successively charge d'affaires at
Naples and Turin, and minister at Vienna (1859-62), Wash-
ington (1868-72), and Rome; he was several timi-s ehrted
to congres.s. In literature Magalhiles staiuls at the head of
the Brazilian romantic |K)ets. Among his earlier works are
Suspiros poeticos e saiidades. and several tragwiies which
were acte<l with success. His Confederafilo dos Tamoyos.a
heroic poem foundol on epistnles connei'titl with early Bra-
zilian history, aiipeared in 1857, and is his best-known work.
It was followed by Myaterios (1858); Crania, h collwlion
of shorter jHiems (1802); and several prose works on philo-
s«iphical (|uestions. A colh-ctinl eilition of his writings, in
eight volumes. aiiiK-an^l in 1870. P. in Rome. July Id. 1"»^^2.
.SiH- F. Wolf, I'rler D. ./. a. de ilapiilhiir^ : rin litilrag ;ur
(leschichte des brasil. Lileralur (\ ieiina. 1802).
IlKKniiKT H. Smith.
Mmrnlhaeji, FernAo, de (Span, Fkrnasho he Maoa-
l.i.AXi>: by English and French authors comiiionlv called
Fkriunano Mauki.i.an): ilisi-ovenT; b. in the village of
Sabonisa, Traz-os-Monte«, I'ortugal.alKUit 1480. From 1505
to I5I2 he served in the Fjist Indies (n-tuniing onit* to
Portugal in 1508), and accnm|ianied exjiodilions to Malait-a,
450
magaliiAes
MAGALLANES
the Moluccas, Sumatra, Aiiiboyna, tlu' Malabar coast, etc.,
acquiring much knowlcdjrc of those regions ami of naviga-
tion. Ill 1514 he fought with the Portuguese in Morocco.
About this time he conceived the plan of finding a western
route to the t^st Inilies. America was then a barrier on
the western route to Asia, and so far all attempts to find a
passage through or around it had failed, although Halljoa's
discovery had shown that there was an ocean beyond it. A
cosmographer named Kuy Faleiro offered to join him in the
enterprisi' ; but to carry it out it was necessary to have the
sanction of some government, and at this time Magalhiies
was on bad terms with the Portuguese court, which, as he
claimed, had not properly rewarded his services. lie there-
fore determined to apply to Spain, and before doing so, ac-
conling to a custom of the nobility, formally renounced his
allegiance to Portugal. He reached Seville in Oct., 1517,
living there in the house of an exiled Portuguese, Diego
Barboza, a man of position and influence, whose daughter
he marrieil shortly after. The Cuaa de Cunfrafacnui at .Se-
ville had the superintendence of colcmial affairs, and to it
Magalhaes first applied, but obtained little encouragement.
Later he and Faleiro were admitted to an audience at Val-
ladolid with Charles V., then a vnung man just taking pos-
session of the Spanish throne; C'liarles W!is greatly interested
in the scheme, and by good fortune Bishop Fonseca, who
had so persistently opposed Columbus, Halboa, and Cortes,
warmly seconded this enterprise. Without definitely fixing
on a route, Magalhiies offered to take a Spanish flotilla to
the Moluccas by a route different from that used by the
Portuguese. The partners, having been joined by a rich
merchant, offered to make the expedition at their private ex-
pense, as was the general custom ; but Charles finally agreed
to fit out a Government squiulron, under the joint command
of Magalhaes and Faleiro, who were to receive important
honors and privileges in case of success. There was the
usual opposition and delay in preparing the ships, but all
obstacles were overcome by the steady support of the king.
The Portuguese court protested vigorously against the pro-
posed expedition, as likely to infringe on its rights ; and its
envoys emleavored by every means to ruin the enterprise,
even offering brilliant inducements to Jlagalhites and Fa-
leiro to return to Portugal, which tliey very properly re-
fused. The two partners frequently quarreled: and at
length Charles, seeing the inconvenience of a divided com-
mand, ordered that Faleiro should remain at Seville to fit
out a second expedition. This and the spiteful report of
one of the Portuguese envoys originated the fre((iiently re-
peated statement that Faleiro went crazy at this lime. The
five ships and 263 men were placed uniler the full eommaiid
of Magalhaes; but the usual policy of curtailing aulliority
was shown in giving extraordinary powers to .luan de Car-
tagena, one of the caiitains. with the title of vceilor, or in-
spector. The squadron left San Lucar Sept. 20, 1519,
touched at Ma*ieira, thence sailed to the Brazilian c(jast,
and on Dec. 13 entered the bay of Rio de .Janeiro, where
the Spaniards remained trailing with the Indians until the
26th. From Jan. 10 to Feb. 7, l.")20. they explored the Hio
de la Plata, already made known l)y the expedition of Solis.
Thence following the unknown coast of Patagonia, they
reached (Mar. 31) the port of .San Julian, where JIagalhaes
decided to winter. Soon after leaving Madeira, Juan de
Cartagena had at tempt eil to assert his position by refusing
to obey Magalhaes. and had been promptly arrested by the
latter, and placed in the custody of one of the ships" Cap-
tains. The pros])ect of wintering on this bleak coast caused
much discontent, and at length the captains and crews of
three ships mutinied, releasing Cartag<'na, and announcing
their intention of returning to Spain, liy a prompt and un-
expected attack MaLralliaes snlKiMed the mutineers; one of
their leaders was killed in the fight, another was executed,
and Cartagena and a priest who had joined the revolt were
condemneil to be abandoneil on the coast; thereafter the
authority of Magalhaes was never questioned openly. Soon
after this one of the ships was lost in an attemiilcd rccon-
noissanee toward the south. The Spaniards had some slight
encounters with the Indians, whom they described as a race
of giant.s, perhaps from having seen an individual of un-
usual size. Leaving San Julian .\ug. 24, they spent two
months more at the Rio de Santa Cruz ; and on Oct. 21 dis-
covered the entrance to the strait which Magalhiies called
Todos los .Santos, but which has since borne his name. Two
ships sent to explore the inlet could find no end to it ; and
at length .Magalhiies, convinced that he had found the de-
sired pa.ssage, ordered the whole squadron to sail through.
As they often stopped for fishing or exploration, a month
was occupied in tlie passage. During this time one of the
ships became separated, the crew mutinied, and returned to
Spain. With the remaining three vessels Magalhiies reached
the western end of the strait Nov. 28, and sailed out on the
ocean, which he called the Pacific, on account of the pleasant
weather prevailing there. From this j)oint he kejit at first
well to the X., and later to the N. W. and W., the crew suf-
fering greatly from insufiicient and bad food and water, and
from scurvy. A few islands were seen, among others those
which Magalhiies called the Ladrones or Robber islands, be-
cause the natives stole one of the ship's boats — a name still
retained for the group. Seeking the Moluccas, but mbin-
formed of their position, the .Spaniards kept too far N.,
and on Mar. 16, 1521, discovered Samar, one of the Philip-
pines. The King of Zebu, on a neighboring island, received
them with great hospitality, even making an act of formal
allegiance to Spain. The natives of the island of Mactan
were hostile; Magalhiies attacked them, and wa.s defeateil
and killed, with eight of his men, Apr. 27, 1521. It was long
before the Strait of Magellan became a jiractical highway ;
but this expedition gave to the world the first distinct
knowledge of the Pacific, and the Spanish discovery of the
Philippines led to their colonization soon after, and the de-
velopment of the rich commerce, tlirough Mexico, with the
Asiatic islands.
Ai'THORiTiiiS. — The writings of Antonio Pigafetta, an
Italian who accompanied the expedition ; the one best
known is Priniu viagt/ia intorno al gluho terraccjueo (Milan,
1800).; Navarrete, Colecciuii de Dociimenlos, vol. iv. ; Stan-
ley, First Voyage round (lie Worlil by JIagellan (Ilakluyt
Soc, 1874) ; Barros Arana, Vida y Viuges de Hernando de
Magallanex (1879) ; Kohl, Geschirlite der Entdecknngsreisen
iind Schiffiihrlen zitr Magellans-straxxe (1877): Rev. E. E.
Hale, Jlagellan'n Discovery (in yarrative and Critical His-
tory of America, vol. ii., 1886) ; Guillemard, Tlie Life of
Ferdinand Magellan (1891). Herbebt H. Smith.
Magrallniies. maii-gi&l-yaanfiz : a territory of Chili, in-
cluding all the mainland and islands of the republic S. of
hit. 47 to Cape Horn ; bounded W. by the Pacific and E. by
the main ridge of the Andes as far as lat. 52 S., beyond
which the Chilian territory extends to the Atlantic, thus em-
bracing the whole of the Strait of Magellan and most of the
Fuegian arclii])elago. The area, as officially estimated, is
75.292 sq. miles, lint as the eastern boundary-line is very im-
perfectly known, this is to some extent a matter of conjec-
ture. The whole region is mountainous, and the coast is
broken by a multitude of inlets, channels, ami fiords, re-
.senibling those of Norway. The almost numberless islands
and peninsulas are fragments of greater or less size cut off
by these channels, and jiartaking of the high and rocky
character of the mainlanu ; explorations are continually re-
vealing new passages in this labyrinth, and it is often fmind
that what was supposed to be a single island is in fact a
conglomeration of several, while the supposed peninsulas
may be really islands cut off by .some undiscovered passage.
The fiords penetrate far inland, with numerous ramifications.
Nearly all these channels are very dee]), and this adds to
the danger of navigating them, owing to the diflTicultyof
finding anchorage. The scenery of this region is extremely
grand and varied, the rocks often rising iierpcndiciilarly to
great heights, while in other places the mountains are
slot lied with dense pine- forests. Glaciers are numerous,
some of them attaining the sea-level. The islands on the
Magalhines coast were nearly all named by Kiiglisli explor-
ers. The line begins at the N. with the Wellington group,
in which the principal mass is Wellington island. 140 miles
long from N. to .S., and sejiarated from the mainland by a
channel which in parts is hardly 300 feet wide ; it is sur-
rounded by a imiltiluile of smaller islands and rocks. South
of this is the Madre de Dios archipelago, then t^iieen Ade-
laide island, se]iarated by a channel which leads to the .Strait
of Ma(ii;i,i,an (7. >■.). the latter ciilting off the group known
as TiKRRA DEI, FfEC.o (q. v.). Small islands to the S. of
Tierra del Fuego are the most southerly outlying fragments
of South America, Horn island, the extreme southerly rock,
being the. so-called Cape Horn. The southemmost point of
the continent is Cape Frowardonthe Magellan .Strait. The
interior of Magallanes, so far as known, has little land fitted
for agrieiilture. but portions can be used for pasturage;
small lakes and peat-marshes are numennis. Tlie climate
is damp anil stormy, snow-storms being frequent in winter.
Three or four thousand colonists are gathered in a few set-
MAGALLANKS
MAGAZIXE-GINS
451
tlements on tho coasts, the most iiiiportniit ImIii;; Punta
Arenas on the Siruit of Magellan. A coal mine ami Rold-
washings arc workcil in the vicinity, and considerable
herds of cattle are kept ; pop. (1894) 1,500. Kor l)ihlio);raphy,
see .Magellan, .Strait of. IIerdkrt II. Smith.'
Magallanes, KKRNA.NDo.de: See JIagalhAes, Ker.nIo, <le.
Magfalluncs Strait: See Magellan, Strait of.
Ma!|j:azlnc-;;Miis : small-arms which deliver projectiles in
rapid siicccssiun, i he cart ridges being delivered aiitoinatically
from a magazine or hopper.
The earliest magazine-guns had tubular magazines in
which the cartridges were placed end to end, the magazine
being situated in the butt-stock, as in I he .Spencer (Fig. l),or
Fio. 1.— .Spencer magazine gun.
under the barrel, a-s in the Henry. These two guns were in-
vented in the I'. .S., and were the earliest adopted for actual
use in war. They were used during the civil war in the V. S.
From the Henry magazine-gun was developed the Win-
chester (Fig. 2). .still in use for siiorting puriwses, and a
magazine-gun of this nature, the Vettcrlin, was soon after
used in Switzerland.
Though the tubular magazinens still used in one or two
countries, the approved modern military magazine is of en-
tirely different type. It is a " box magazine." so called, in
which the cartridges are placed side by side instead of end
to end, thus making a magazine of compuct and convenient
form which can lie rapidly refilled when empty, or wliich
can be readily detached from the gun and replaced.
Out of nearly forty guns presented for trial in 1883 before
the U. S. Magazine-gun Board there were only two systems
of box magazine, the Lee and the Livermore-Husselli while
in 1892. out of alK)ut fifty guns presented, all but two or
three were of the box magazine type. These and all later
box magazines are more or less mouilications of the Jjce or
of the Livermore-Husscll system.
Flo. 2.— Sectional cut of Winchester rifle.
With the tubular magazines the operaticm of filling was
generally slow and leilious, as the cartridges had to be
pushed in one at a lime, endwise : so that magazines of such
form were practically useful oidy as a ri'serve. for In-ing
once emptieil they were no better than single-loaders, unless
«^
=^^Vr^
L_J==!
T^x:^'
Flo. 3.— I^ee magozinp-gun.
time was allowed for refilling. With b<ix magazines, how-
ever, the operation of rclillingor replaiing tln> magazine is
so rapiil that it is not necessary to keep a large ri'SiTve of
cartridges in the magazine. The accepted form of breech
mechanism for military magazine-guus is the \hiU system,
the box maguzine being so placeil an to feed througli tho
breech-housing into the " receiver "—the space just in rear of
the liarrel and in front of the ixilt, when the liolt ia drawu
back.
The Leo gun (Figs, a and 4) had a detachable magazine
holding five cartriilgi's, arningeil side by side like the fin-
gers of the hand. The magazine consisieil of a box, which
was ^lushed ui> from lielow through a slot under the Udt
and just in rear of the barrel, feeding the cartridges up
from below by means of a spring, so that
thev were caught successively by the liolt
and pushed forward into the cartridge-
chamber. A number of these maga-
zines, alri'ady filleil. were carrieil on the
waist-belt, so that when the magazine on
the gun was emptied it could be replaced
by a full one. Kach magazine was pro-
vided with a spring and a cartritlge-
pusher or " follower."
The Livermore-Hu.ssell gun had a fixed
magazine extending downward just in
rear of the barrel, as in the Lee, but
placed at the sidi' iii.stead of underneath ;
and it wius arranged to be rapidly refilled,
when emptied, without removing it from
the gun. A " follower," moved by a
spring below, foned up the cartridges to
the receiver. An outside mouth at the
top of the magazine allowed cartridges
to be pushed in from above; a spring
gate at this filling-mouth admitting carlriilges, but prevent-
ing their exit through this mouth, and guiding them side-
wise to the "receiver." This magazine could lie filled by
inserting cartridges one at a time, but the special methocl
adopted for rapidly refilling the magazine was the us«- of a
cartridge-holder or magazine-filler, from which, when placed
Fin 4. ~ Seclion of
1.^ gun an4l inag-
Fio. 5.— Gun used in BrilUh senrice.
over the mouth of the magazine, all the cartridges could be
pushed together into the magazine.
In the gun adopted for the British service (I''ig. ii) a Ia'c
(Iclacliahle Miairnzine holilingten cartridges is u.setl.
The SchulhotT magazine (Fig. 6) consists of a drum placeil
under the receiver, the cartriilges being inserted through a
mouth at the side and forced round by a revolving plate
Fio. tJ. SiiiullmlT niogaxine-giin lAiiMrtan invrnUno).
until presentetl at the lM>ttom o( the r»>ceiver. This mags-
zine, hohling nine cartridges, could be fillwl by droppinie in
loose cartridges, or by using the original fonn of ma^'nTiiie-
filler des<-ribe<l above' (i|H<ning the lid of the fill •
turns back the revolving plate or " follower." c
the follower-spring and leaving ihe way clear f^T im- car-
tridges.
452
MAGAZINE-GUNS
In the Mauser system (Fig. 7) the curtrid'^e-hoKier, or
clip, consists merely of a strip of metal lurveil at its edges
to enfold the Hanged or ennnelured heads of the cartridges.
The magazine is placed centrally under the receiver, and
Fio. r.— Mauser guu.
the cartridges are forced from the dip into the magazine
from above. This system has been adopted by Belgium,
Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and the Argentine Republic; and
Switzerland has adopted the Schmidt system, wliich uses a
magazine-filler resembling the old form.
Another fixed magazine, intended to be filled by pushing
in cartridges from a clip or magazine-filler, is the Krag-
Jorgensen. This feeds into the side of the receiver, but the
Fio. 8.— KraK Jorgenseu gun (Norway and U. S. services).
magazine, instead of projecting downward, is bent to ex-
tend under the bottom of the receiver to the opposite side,
where there is a mouth for the insertion of cartridges. This
mouth is closed by a lid which in opening withdraws the
Fio. 9.— U. S. mnRazlne-rme i Krag Joreensen) : 1, longltndinnl section
of breech ami magazine nieelianisin in tiring position ; a, plan
view, with bolt remiivt-d, of reirriver and rniigazim*- gate open,
ready for insertion of f-artridges ; 3. eross-seotion. corresjKmding
U) 2 ; 4, cross-section of receiver and magazine, witii latter partly
full.
magazine-spring and cartridge-follower, allowing the car-
tridges to be dropped in without obstruction. In (he Dan-
ish form of this gun the lid is hinged at the front, so that in
opening it swings out and forward; but in the forms
adopted by Norway and the U. S. this lid is hinged at the
bottom, so that in opening it swings out and downward.
Fig. 8 gives the general view of this gun, and Fig. 9 plan
and sections.
A special peculiarity of the Mannlicher magazine (Fig. 10)
is that the clips in which cartridges are packed, arc inserted
^^
, Fio. 10.— Mannliciier gun (.\ustrian).
with the cartridges into the magazine cavity, so that the clip
forms- one of the working jiarts of the magazine. Unlike
the detachable magazine proper,
the Mannlicher clip (Fig. 11) does
not contain in itself the spring
and cartridge-follower, these be-
ing fixed in the magazine cavity
on the gun, and made to push the
cartridges up through the clip
and feed them into the receiver.
When the cartridges are all fed
out of the magazine, the clip falls
from the bottom and a new full
clip is inserted. Fig. 12 shows
the form of Mannlicher magazine
adopted in Germany. Magazines
of the Mannlicher type have been
adopted in Austria, Bulgaria,
Chili, France, Holland, Mexico,
and Roumania.
The use of box magazines has
been greatly facilitated by the
introduction of cartridges having
shells with grooves or cannelured
heads in place of the flanged heads of the older cartridges,
w^hich had to overlap in the magazine to prevent their catch-
ing. The new form, illustrated in the (ierinan Mannlicher,
FlQ.
11. — Mannlicher cart,
ridge-clip.
Fio. lli.— Mannlicher gun (German form).
allows the cartridges to be arranged symmetrically in the
clip, so that it can be placed either way up in the magazine.
The clip of the old form used in the Austrian Mannlicher is
shown in Fig. 11.
Jlost of the bolts used in the breech mechanism of maga-
zine-arms have been the ordinary sliding and turning bolts
— of the general tyne of the (icrnian needle-gun as improved
in the Mauser single-lire gun and otlier well-known bolts —
but the Austrian Manidicher rille illustrates a form in
which the bolt is moved by the direct forward and back ac-
tion of the hand, the olijeet of this system being to increase
the rapidity of manipulation of the arm. The Swiss and
Mexican guns also illustrate this sy.stem of bolt action, and
they have adjustments for firing the gun automatically on
closing the bolt.
The Fredili recoil rifle is an automatic nuigazine-gun in
which the barrel is made to slip to the rear in the stock, un-
der the action of the discharge, and actuate mechanism for
withdrawing the bolt and closing it again, at the same time
forcing in a new cartridge in place of the empty shell ejected.
With the Freddi gun continuous fire can be maintained by
keeping the finger on the trigger until the magazine is ex-
haust ed.
For sporting jnirposes tubular magazines are still much
used, especially those which are operated by slides in place
of the levers of older types. Two forms of this class are
MAGDALA
MAGELLAN
453
popular on sliotguns and even on rifles. The first, illus-
trated by tlie Spencer reneiitiiit; sliotguii, the earliest (;un
acting on this priiuiple, has a handle operated hy the left
hand, sliding along tlie harrel nnderneath, ami this nictliod
has been adopted by tin' \Vin<hi'sterand Cult arnisconipaMies.
In the second form, the Burgess, the hainlle, whicli carries
with it the trigger, slides along the small of the stock, being
operated by the right hand, leaving the left hanil in place to
steady the barrel. A. H. KussELL.
Magdiilu : a mountain-fortress of Abyssinia, situated on
one of the three peaks of the spur which King Theodore
defended againtit the Hritish. (See Ahyssi.via.) The three
peaks are called Fiila, .Selassyc, and Magdala. They rise
about '.I.OOO feet, and are separated from eacli other by saddle-
like depressions. On Apr. l;i, 1S(58, the British took the for-
tress stamling on the top of the steej) peak, and Theodore
committed suicide. Gen. Napier, commander-in-chief of the
IJritish expedition, was created Baron of Magdala.
Mag'ilalena: the northernmost diM^iartraent of Colombia;
bounded N. by the Caribbean Sea, E. by Venezuela. S. by
Santander, and W. by the Magdalena river, separating it
from Bolivia; area, including the Goajira Peninsula (see
GoAJiEA), 20.!t00 st[. miles. It was formed from the old
provinces of Kio llacha, Santa -Marta Valle-Duiiar, and part
of Ocaila ; tioajira was atlachecl to it for ailministrativc
purposes in 1871, but is still claimed by Venezuela. A
nranch of the Eastern Cordillera stretches northward along
the eastern frontier, with the local names of Sierra de Moti-
lones and Sierra de Vallc-Dupar ; and in the northern part
near the .sea there is an entirely isolated group of moun-
tains, including the Sierra Nevada d<' Santa >Iarta, 17,018
feet higli. Surrounding this group and occupying all the
central and western portions of the department are low
plains partly covered with forest and partly with extensive
grassy stretches or llanos; large portions of them are
swampy, and those properly belonging to the Magdalena
delta are sul)ject to annual floods; they contain numerous
lakes and several large rivers which flow to the Magdalena.
Agriculture (cacao, coffee, sugar, maize, etc.) and grazing
are the only important industries, though the department is
said to be rich in minerals. The population is in a backward
state, and hardiv a third of tlie territorv is inhabited.
Pop. (estimated 1890) 125,000. Capital, Santa Marta.
Herbert II. SsiiTn.
.Haerdulpna: the most important river of Colombia, form-
ing, with its branches, the iirincipal fluvial system of North-
western .South .\nieriea. '1 he main river is about l.OoO miles
long, and lies between the Central ami Eastern Cordilleras
of the Colombian Andes. It rises where these chains join,
near lat. 2 S., in a high paramo, ch>se to streams which flow
to the Pacific, to the Cauea, and to the Caqueta. a branch of
the Amazon. The general course is from .S. to N. The up-
per portion is a series of falls, rapids, an<l narrow defiles, con-
tinued, with short interruption, to Neiva. about ;!(H) miles;
ami far below that the Magdalena has the character of a
highland river, (lowing between steep banks and often in
narrow passes; just below the junctiim of the Bogota (700
miles from the sea) the whole flood is crowded into a defile
4(X) feet broad, which has been briilged; and tho Aiigoaliira,
or Narrows of Carare, below Honda, is less than GOO feet
broad, though the river here attains n dej)lh of 150 feet dur-
ing the floods. The last 500 miles lies in an alluvial plain,
an unhcalthful region, cut up by numerous channels, lakes,
and swamps, and very thinly inhabited. The current of the
river in this lower region is still very swift, and the naviga-
tion is ditVuult, owing to numerous shifting sandbai-s and
islands. It finally di.scharges into the Caribbean Sea by two
principal mouths. Seagoing vessid.s as<'end to Barranquilla,
at the parting of these mouths. Light-draught steamboats
ascend to Honda, about fi(K) miles, in from ten to fifteen days.
For a distance above Honda there is a dangerous series of
rapids; beyond them small steamers have asj'ended with
much trouble to Neiva, 200 miles farther, this stretch Iwing
known as the upper .Magdalena. Notwithstamling its difll-
cult navigation, the Magilalena is the main highway to the
populous plateaus of Central Colombia, and must remain so
until railwavs are built. Of the manv aflluents. the most
imiiortant is the Cauca (q. v.). The whole area drained by
the Magdalena river system is estimated at !)(>,(HMt sq. miles.
See Crevaux, Vmjngcs dans VAmeriqne tin .S'mi/ (lM.s;!) ; von
Sehenk, heixen in Antioqitia (in Peternuinn's MilthcHungen,
188:i); Vergara y Velasco, Ueografia fie Colombin.
Herbert H. Smith.
Magdalene, or Mary .Magdalene: a woman who stood bjr
Jesus at the cross; was prf«'nt when Joseph of Arimathea
laid him in the sepulcher; came early on the first day of the
week to the tomb and found it opi'ii ; went to Peter and
John, and saw the two angels sitting in the sepulcher when
she returned with the apostles. Jesus himself appeared t«
her shortly after, and announced his approaching a-seeiision.
The derivation of her surname probably is from " Magdala,"
the name of a town of Galilee. She is gratuitously identified
with the "woman who was a sinner" (Luke vii. 37). She is
the " Marv called Magdalene, out of whom went seven devils"
(Luke viii. 2).
Magdalene Islands: a group of islands in the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, nine in number, fi)rmerly, with one exception,
united into one ami called Magdalene island. The group is
57 miles long by 14 broad, ami is about 50 miles from Prince
Edward Islanil and (iO from Newfoundland. They consist of
steep dills of freestone rising 200 or 300 feet above the sea.
Area, 1.50 sq. miles. Pop. about 5.000, mostly of French ori-
gin. Fishing is the chief occupation. The soil is good, but
few crops are raised, and the domestic animals are [loor. The
climate is relatively cool in summer and mild in winter. In
winter the islands are connected by ice so firm that jionies
can be ridden over it. For about live months there is no
communication with the outer world excejit bv telegraph.
Mark \V. ifARRi.NOTON.
Magdalla Hed : See Naphthalene Color-s.
Mag'Uebiirg. Germ. pron. maaAh'de-boorch : city of Prus-
sia, caoilal of the i)rovince of Saxony ; on the Elbe; 72 miles
by rail N. of Leipzig (see map of German Empire, ref. 3-F).
It was founded in the tenth cenlurv by Otto the Great, and
consists, besides its two suburbs, Neustadt an<l Sudenburg,
of four parts — .Mtstadt and the .Sternschantze on the left
branch of the Elbe, the citailcl on an island in the river, and
Friedrichstadt on the right bank. Each of these parts is
strongly fortified, and together they form a fortress of the
first rank, making .Magdel)urg one of the strongest places in
Europe. Most of the streets are crooked and narrow, but
the houses are generally neat and sub.stantial, and there are
several fine buildings, among them a Gothic cathedral of
the thirteenth century. There arc manv beautiful |>rome-
nades, such as the FUrstenwald and the Friedrich-Wilhelms
Garten. The manufactures comprise woolens, cotton, rib-
bons, leather, soap, and glass; the breweries and distilleries
are very extensive. On account of its position on the Elbe
and at the junction of four principal railway lines. Magdeburg
is one of the commercial centers of Northern Germanv. It
has many benevolent institutions, and several giKxl military,
scientific, industrial, and commercial schools. During the
Thirty Years' war it W!ls besieged by Wallenstein (162il),and
in 1631 was captured V)y Tilly, who sacked and burned the
citv and massacred many thou.sands of the inhabitants.
Pop. (18(K)) 202,234. Revised by W. B. Shaw.
Magdeburg Centuries: See Centuries ok Maodebiro.
Magee. William Connor, I). D.: bishop; b. at Cork, Ire-
land, in 1821; studied at Trinity College, l>ublin; went to
Malaga. Spain, for his health, 1846, remaining there two
years; obtained the curacy of St. Saviour's, Bath, IH48; be-
came incumbent of the Octagon cha]H'l. Bath, 18.50; t<x)k a
leading part in organizing the Church Defense .Society in
opposition to the Liberation Society; became minister of
Quebec chapel, London, 1860; rector of Inniskillen 1861;
dean of Cork 18r>4, and short Iv aflerwanl dean of the
Chapel Roval. Dublin ; was Donellan le<'lurer in Dublin Uni-
versity 1865-66, and wa.s appointed Bishop of Peterl>orough
1868. He was translated to the archieiiiscopal see of York
in 1887. D. in Lonilon. May 5. 18!M. He a<i|uireil a great
reputation for elo(|uence. preached on nublie (K-casii'iis in
various parts of (ireat Britain, and took an active part in
the debates of the House of I^onls, es|)ecially in op|>osition
to the disestablishment of the Irish Church'. Many of his
sermons have been published, Ixilh in Great Britain and in
the I'. S. I{evis»d by \V. S. Perrv.
Magellan, Ferpinaxd: See MaoalhAes, FernXo, de.
Magellan (Span. Magallanes). .Strait ok: a channel be-
tween the s<iuthern end of the South .\merican continent,
and the islands of Tierra del Fuego. connecting the .South
Atlantic and Pacific Oci^ans. Fr>an the Atlantic end (lat,
52' 28 S.) it runs W.. then S. \V. and S. to hit. .53 54 S.,
and from Cape FMward keeps a nearly straight .\. W. course
to the Pacific, which it reaches in hit. .52 36 .S. ; the extreme
length is alKiut 370 miles, and the width varii'S from over 20
454
MAGELLANIC CLOUDS
MAGIC
miles to hardly 2i miles. There are few obstructions from
rocks and islands. It is similar in character to the numer-
ous channels and fiords along the coast of Soulliorn Chili
(see JlAiiALLAXES); like thoin it is bordered by high and
often precipitous and imposing lands, and has numerous
branches, some of wliicli end in a cul-de-sac, while others
form channels between the Fuegiun islands ; some of the
latter ofiEer shorter routes to the Pa<.'ific, but are obstructed
by rocks. Tlie strait lies entirely within Chilian territory,
but is a free waterway ; its only port of importaTice is Punla
Arenas. The passage was discovered in 1520 by MagalhIes
(q.v.), and has been celebrated from the voyages of Drake,
Hawkins, Dumont d'Urville, Darwin, Fitzroy, and many
others. At present it is much used by steamers, but its
baffling winds, sudden gusts, currents, and high tides render
it dangerous to sailing vessels; these generally take the
longer passage around Cape Horn, or through the short
Strait of Lcnuiire (discovered in 1615). See Darwin, Voyage
of a yaturali.tl, a\u\ the reports of Fitzroy and King; In-
formation Relating to Magellan Straits (British hydro-
grapliic olTice) : ami Cunningham, Natural History of the
Straits of .Magellan (1878). Herbert H. Smith.
MafircUanic Clouds: See Nebul.e.
Milffeiidio, maajhaaiVde-e', Pran<;ois: physiologist and
physician; b. at Bordeaux, France, Oct. 15,1783; received
a medical education in Paris; was admitted to the Academy
of Sciences 1819 ; became Professor of Anatomy in the College
de France 1831 ; president of the consulting committee on
public health 1848. D. in Paris, Oct. 7, 1855. He practiced
vivisection extensively, and in far less humane methods than
are now in use ; but by tliis and other means of observation
he made numerous anil higlily important discoveries in
physiology, especially in tluit of the nervous system, and
also in other departments of medical science. Among his
works are Formulaire (1821) for new medicines; Elements
de Physiologie (1816-17); Le(ons sur les Phenomenes phy-
siques de la T7c (1836^12); Le(;ons sur les Fonctions ei les
Maladies du Systeme nerveux (183!)) ; and Lemons sur le
Sang (1839), which have been several times reprinted, and
were translated into German. He founded and for ten years
edited the Journal de la Physiologie Eiperimentale.
Magen'ta; town; in the province of Milan, Northern
Italy; about 18 miles W. of tlie city of Milan, in a fertile
district watered by the Naviglio Grande (see maj) of Italy,
ref. 3-C). Its topographic position inis made it the theater
of many battles, the last and most memorable being that
known as the battle of JIagenta, fought on June 4, 1859, in
■which the Austrians were defeated by the Italians and
French, and thus forced to evacuate Lombardy. Napoleon
111. gave the title of Duke of Magenta to Marshal MacMahon,
afterward president of tlie French republic. Pop. 5,570.
Ma'gi 1= Lat., plur. of Magus = dr. Mdyos. one of a
Median tribe, or perhaps of the priestly class. Cf. JIaor] : the
sacerdotal caste of ancient Media, and priests of Persia in
antiquity. Originally the name was a tribal one, designat-
ing a single division of the race of the Medes. (Cf. Herod-
otus 1, 101 ; Aniniianus Maiccllinns 23. 6, 32.) The terra
Magian, Magu-. occurs several limes in the Old Persian in-
scriptions, in connection with the usurpation of Banliya,
the false Siuerdis. The form of the appellative is found
once or twice in the Avesta as Maju-. The Greeks called
this priestly sect Vliyoi; the English version of the Bible
(Matt. ii. 1) rendei-s Mayoi by " wise men." The origin and
meaning of Moyi-. Mugu-, Mayoj, however, arc uncertain.
The familiar though unfavorable association of the name
from earliest times with " magic," black arts, and astrology
seems to have arisen from the peculiar tenets and rites of
the Magians, and from their dreaded power as priests.
The Magi presumalily became priests of Persia proper
through the Median supremacy over the country. This re-
ligious supremacy continued even though the Median yoke
was thrown off at the time of Cjtus the Great. One of the
rea-sons probablv for the hatred felt by the Persians at the
Magian usurpation of the government by the false Smcrdis
in the time of Darius Ilystaspes was the fear that this move
might lead to a restoration of the Median sway. This oppo-
sition to the Magians (cf. Old Persian Jnscrijitions, Bh. 1,
63-84; 4, 81) and the resulting "massacre of the Magi,"
(Vlayo(t)6vui, Herodotus 3, 79). was presumal>ly political and
anti-clerical rather tlian religious. Uegaiding the con-
nection of Zoroaster's name in antiiiuily with the ]Magi, it
maybe a<liled that although the scene of his activity was
XSactria (sec Zokoa-^iih' ilnTe ai-e iieviTllii'lcss strong
grounds for believing that In- was originally a Magian from
Media. As he was a reformer, however, his religion must
have differed somewhat from the older faith. On the ques-
tion of the rehition between tlie Zoroastrian and the Magian
faiths, see Zokoastek. The name of the Magi, furlherinorc,
is sometimes coupled with the Babylonians and Chalda?ans,
as in the Bible, Jer. x.xxix. 3, 13 : Kiib-Mag — i. e. chief of the
Magi. In this connection their name is commonly associ-
ated with Clialihvan magic.
The general religious tenets of the Magi priests may be
gathered from Herodotus 1, 140, Plutarch, /«. f/. Os.41. from
otlier da-ssical writers, and by inference from the Avesta and
from passages in the (ltd Persian Iiiscriptio7is. The Magian
faith was characterized by a belief in the principles of
dualism, Orinazd and Aliriman ; by a belief in the resurrec-
tion and a future life; by certain peculiar rites and prac-
tices, such as exposing the dead to be torn l>y dogs and
birds; and by religious scruples against taking animal life,
with the exception of destroyiujj noxious animals, which
was regarded as a meritorious and sacred duty.
Tlie fame of the Magi for learning and for the power of
divination was widespread in antiquity. It was in this
sense that the Magi who came to worship at the manger in
Bethlehem (Matt. ii. 1-12) are regarded as the wise men
from the Fast. Later tradition repivsents these Magians as
three kings, Gaspar, Jlekhior, ami Balthasar. coming from
different places in Persia. The supposed remains of their
hallowed bodies, it is claimed, were removed from Constan-
tinople to Milan, and thence in a. d. 1162 to a shrine in the
cathedral at Cologne, where they are still preserved as sacred
relics. A. V. Williams Jackson.
JIagg'iorc, Laoo : See Laoo Maqgiore.
MaggrotS: See Diptera.
Maaric [from Lat. magice = Gr. iiayiic^ (sc. t^'xit?, art),
magic, liter., fem. of fia-yiK6s, pertaining to the Magi, hence
(since these were thought to possess magical jiowers) magi-
cal] ; the pretended art of working wonders by supernat-
ural power. Though popularly derived from the arts
of the Magi, or Old Persian priesthood, the belief in magic
is inherent in man, and history i>resents no instance of
any race at any time in which pretenders to it have not
existed. It is evident that before exact science was founded,
yet while students were unwearied in searching into the
mysteries of mind and of matter, and of the self-develop-
ment of a First Cause, and while they were led astray at
every step by the wonderful in nature, it was impossible
not to believe that there existed some iirimal clew by
which all knowledge, both of the sensible and the spiritual
world, could be gained and all power attained. All that
they knew indicated the existence of such a science of sci-
ences and i)owcr of jiowers. As all that was positive and
intelligible could be re)iresented by numbers or expressed
geometrictally, it was natural enough to assume that the
mysterious and spiritual was subject to the same laws.
Hence a belief in the occult [uiwer of numerals and pro-
portions, derived from the East, and taught by Pythagoras,
Plato, and their followers. The heavenly bodies had cer-
tain influences, as of the moon on the tides, the sun in giv-
ing light, heat, and lieallh. This was exaggerated as a
matter of course, until it was believed that all the planets
in their conjunctions had peculiar effects on individuals.
The study of astronomy was closely allied to that of mathe-
matics, and in this spirit they mutually became more and
more magical. Such methods applied to natural philosophy
n.'iturally made chemical investigation rediiee matter to a
few elements and to a prima materia whieli, once appre-
hended, could enable man to develop ov make any later
forms, such as gold or diamonds, an elixir of immortality,
and a universjil panacea, just as the first principle in as-
tronomy, also divine, was believed to give the illimitable
godlike knowledge of all that the stars governed. The next
.step was to bring chemical principles into harmony with
astrology and the lore of God and spirits. So 11. Cornelius
Agrippa, whose work on occult ]philoso|ihy (which he after-
wanl declared was nonsense) was the cornerstone of magic
in the sixteenth century, declares: "There are four ele-
ments without the perfect kinnvledge whereof we <an elTect
nothing in magick. Now, each of them is threefold, that so
the numlier of 4 may make up the number of 12; and by
passing by the numiier of 7 into the number of 10. there
may be a progress to the Supreme Unify upon which all
virtue and wonderful operations depend." As s|>irils were
iiiuuuK-i'able, they were eliLs^ififd, i-sjuM-iallv iiy raraeclsus.
MAGIC
MAGIC LANTKKX
4:.5
accorilinj; to this I'liciiiicoiistroloKic tliposophic j)liilos<)phy.
At till- base of all was the fifth cleraeiil, " tlit- Jiviiie ii^^tral
spirit," the intelliijentia abKcoiidila of Vauf;haii, the traii-
sci'iidenlal principle or power, '"that spirit which (!od him-
self breathed into iiiaii. and l>y which man is unitisl aptin
to God." Tlie powers of this spirit, aieordinn to .\);rippa,
"are full of wonders and mysteries, ami are operative as in
Maffick Nalurall, so Divine. For from these proceed the
bindings, loosinffs, and transmutations of all thinffs, the
knowinjf and foretelling of things to come, the driving forth
of evill and the gaining of good spirit.s." (Jbjectivelv, this
subtle spirit streamed through all nature as the spirit or
very being of stars, mountains, rivers, trees, fountains, (low-
ers, leaves, gems, metals, herlis, establishing between them
wonderful allinities or a graml sigiialiira reruiii, bestowing
on them occult properties, either medical or magical, and
impressing on them by divine art in their curves, lines,
colors, or spots a secret alphabet and written language.
The stars in the heavens considered as |]i>ints, when con-
nected, made Hebrew letters, "these having," says Agrippa,
"the greatest similitude with celestials and the world."
This poetic and picturesque principle of nuigic, which maile
forests, fountains, and gardens, with the stars above, a lit-
eral library, was curiously set forth by Jacques GafTarel in
the Ciiriutiitez inouijes (Uouen, 16;t:2). Subjeclirely, this
astral light becomes in man the intellcrtus illiixtraliis, or
magic perceptive power, which, united to a transcendent
will proceeilmg from illumination or penance, enabled hira
to grasp all the mysteries and power hidden in the divine
life of nature. As certain gems, metals, ct<-., were virtually
the same with certain planets or certain divine numlx-rs or
times (time itself being a form of divinity), all of them con-
sisting of matter (i. e. a lower form of God), impressed by
the same astral element, it followed that lhe.se gems espe-
cially, when marked at fit times with signs of the proper
planets, spirits, names of God, etc., became amulets or
charms which protected the bearer from disease, evil spirits,
or death. Hence the endless charms, talismans, and written
spells founded im the Iheo-magic philosophy. From Icjirn-
ing to know, and from conferring with the spirits of nature
by means of prayer, will, and communion with God, theix^
was but a step to commune with tlie dead and call up their
spirits by the art of necromancy, which was professed from
the earliest times in the East. Good or harndess spirits
were drawn by pleasant charms and ceremonies; the dark
and evil [lowers were won by horrors, by midnight incanta-
tions among graves, with such disgusting spells as we read
of in Macbtth. See Animism.
When the Turot, or inlinite Spirit of God. or God in
nature, was supposed to be in all things, with a reciprocal
appreciative spirit in man, it was soon believed that in-
spired books concealed deep mysteries. This was the se<-ret
of the Cabbala, or "the mystical explanation of the Bible,
the art of finding sense by the decomposition of words,
and that of working miracles by virtue of these words pro-
nounced in a particular way." This kind of magic [irob-
ably existed in Kgynt and India, and it was known to Py-
thagoras. The rabbis by means of it deduced universal
categories of the spirit-world, which they classified ucconl-
ing to the elements, the art of governing them bv spells,
that of making talismans, and all manner of magic, gi-eat
and small. The names of God |)roiierly pronounccil were
the highest spells; among thest^ A;//</ was greatly revered.
The Cabbala was much studied in the lifteenth and six-
teenth centuries in Kurope. Among its greatest expound-
ers were Akiba. I'hilo. Avicenna, Raymond Lullius, Mi-
randola, Paracelsus, Rcuchlin, II. More, Robert Fludd,
Postel, and Knorr von Roscnroth. The Rosicrucians, an
imaginary, sect of magicians, in whose name manv biMiks
were written, were an olTshoot of the Cabliala, allied to the
peculiar views of the alchemists and Christian mystics.
As magic embraced a mutual harmony of all that exists,
it included good and evil. Hence white or holy magic, and
also black magic or sorcery, which works by the aid (if
demons. Sorcery was closely connected with witchcraft.
Celestial magic Was founded" on prayer and communion
with (iod or mysticism. Natural magic is the art of work-
ing wonders simply by science — c. g. by mechanics or chem-
istry. Ceremonial' magic is chiefly cabbnlislical, and treats
of raising spirits, exorcising, tinding treasures, and conse-
crating talismans by reciting sacred formulas when in cir-
cles drawn at certain hours with the aid of pe<-uliar per-
fumes. Works on this subject are innumerable. As n
specimen the reader may consult the JlffihimeroH, or .Vug-
ical KlementH of Peter di Abano, or the Jtmjus of Francis
Barrett (London, 1824). Sorcery involved many horrible
iniquities. Ac-c-onling to Philo and Kliplias Levi, some of
the old Hebrew works of magic arv enough to cause their
writers to be execrated by all the world. Magic was a pas-
sion— we might say the princiiial study — in Kgypt and
.\ssyria; several papyri and cylimlers in the British Mu-
seum treat <if it. In Alexandria, from the second to the
fourth century, where the relics of olil Kgypt combined
with N'eoplatonic doctrines and many strange secl.s. magic
reviveil, as it did suliseijuentlv at Cairo in the ninth cen-
tury under the Anibs. The Knights Templar are believed
to have brought Oriental magic to the West. The Renais-
sance, as well as the Reformat i(m, had its s<hool of ilevotees
to occult philosophy: and since the doctrine is essentially
religious, the movement of Luther, which made religious
discussion common to all, also {lopularized the study of
magic, and books up to that time kept in Latin for the
learned were now translated, so that everybody coulil raise
the devil in his native tongue. The last grand revival of
such studies took place with that of Ma.sonry, Illumination,
and the extraordinary fancies of the eighteenth century.
The lives of Caglii'strn and Casjinova, the works of Pierre
le Brun. of Lascaris. the Count de Saint-Germain, and the
Marquis d'Argens throw much light on the follies of this
period. As astrology and the Cabbala lost ground in [lopu-
lar faith, and witches ancf devils grew dim, magic took
refuge in mesmerism, and more recently in its nearly related
.Sjiiritualism. As of old. its professors did not disdain to
aid their sacred lore with marvels which inofliTii science
claims were mere juggling, as many of the miracles of
iiKHlern magicians from their very humble and useless na-
ture appear to be principally ba.scd on "hankey-pankey."
(See Jugglers and Ji<uii.F.KV.) Among the immense num-
ber of works on magic are llixlaire et Traile df.s Srimcea
ticniltes, by Count de Resie (Paris. 1857); Hixloire dii Mer-
veitliHS (liin.t lex Tempa inoilenies. ]>Y Louis Figuier (Paris,
1X60); U^alile lie In J/m/iV, by Coliin ile Plancy ; Von dfr
allin und ueiifu Moijie, I'ritpruuy, Jdee, I'mfany iiiid O'e-
xcliirhle, by Horst (Mentz. 1820); CuHuxites des Srieiitea
ornilles. by the Bibliophile Jacob (Paul I.,acroix); Uiulugua
ill Mtigica Arte, ^y .Symphorien Chamiiier (Lyons, l.'JOO);
EnlretieiiH dii Comie de (iiihnlig, etc.. by de Villars (Ablie do
Moiitfaucon) ; Si/xlui) of .Vngic. by Defoe ; the works of Del-
rio ; Jm JJiiyie. by L. F. Alfred Maury ; Lii Magie au XJX'
Sircle. I)v the Chevalier tioiigenot ; the ('luvis Huloinonig, by
Rabbi iTawa (1714); Trniii Lirres de Charmes. by du Vair;
liibliitlheca Mtiyird. by Joliann (leo. Tli. Grasse (Leipzig,
1843); Arcanex de la Vie. future. Jfayie magnetique, and
other works, by Cahognet (Paris, 1848-56): Sommlung der
merku'urdiqsten Vixiomn. etc.. bv Carl von Eckhartshausen
(Munich. l'7!l2); Le Ditihle Bou'ye (Paris. 184;i) : Dax Sie-
beiite /inch ^V<«i'.i(the common hand-biM.k of magic in Ger-
manv): Hixlory of the Siipenialiirat. by William Howitt
(186:i); Faltarf. llixtoire philoxopliique el politique de Toe-
culte iiinyie, etc. (188.5); J. Ikxiinus, Veinononiiinia (Paris,
1501): Johannis JIacarei, Abnij-nx : a Ireatixe on Talin-
mana. by Jean CliifHet (.\ntwerp. 1657): Johann Wicrus, De
I'rd'xliyiix (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1566).
Charles G. Lelan-d.
Mugic Lantorn: an optical contrivance for pro<lucing
enlarged images of transparent or translucent object.s, usu-
ally paintings, drawings, or photographs on ghuss. It is the
device of Father Athanasius Kircher, a (ierman Jesuit of
the seventeenth century. t»ptieally considensl, it consists
of two distinct part.s. an illuminating apparatus and a mag-
nifying apnaratu.s. The illuminating apparatus embraces a
source of light (in the original construction a lamp) inclosed
in a tightly shutting box or chamber I'peiiing on the side, a
condensing lens some inches in iliameter adaj'tifl loan oiH'n-
ing in the front of the l)ox, and a concave mirror Udiiml the
light within and opposite to the lens. Properly, this is the
lantern; the magnifying apparatus is extenial to it, and
cxinsists of one or more convernine lens<'s fixed in a sliding
lube. Fig. 1 shows the entir. ' "^'. Mis
the mirror, here shown as allin r of the
lamp, which is swunil to the i • means
of bnicket-luMiks; L is the conden> i figure
upon a ghuss plate, supported by ti (■ - in the
grooves or ways shown in the •• nig
svstcm of lenses : and A B is t K ••<!
ujnin a plane while surface, or x n . n. w n i !■• ui-f dis-
tinctness to this image, the tube carrying the lensios m is
45t]
MAGIC LANTERN
drawn out or piishoil in till the true focus is found. The
mirror M. in this design, is parabolic, and is supposed to be
|ierforatcd. or notched, at the top to accommodate the lamp-
chimney ; but in the simpler forms it is of spherical curva-
B
S
Rl
J-t-
"kn
" — — 3hc
^ J
— ' rm
^i p
— ^t
^r
lA^JA II
■fwr
X
•c*
\
Fio. 2.— The phantasmagin-ia
laDterD.
FiQ. 1.— The magic lanteru.
ture, and is entirely behind the lamp. In order to exhibit
the optical effects of this apparatus the room must be dark-
ened ; and inasmuch as there must be provision for the ad-
mission of air to the lantern, and for the escape of the gase-
ous products of combustion, care must be taken that the
apertures so provided are screened against the entrance of
light into the apartment.
For a very long time after its invention, the magician-
tern was emifloyed for no more important purpose than
to surprise or to amuse. It was
in high esteem with professional
conjurersand jugglers, who found
in it a means of producing start-
ling effects. A construction
much employed by them was the
phantasmagoria lantern, repre-
sented in Fig. 2. This is a lan-
tern sii[)ported by a stand on
wheels, and designed to run upon
a horizontal table. One of these
wheels carries a pulley. R, which
is connected by a band with an-
other pulley, k', higher up. On
the axis of the pulley R' is a cam,
against which one extremity of a
lever, I, rests, the other extremity
acting on a sliding tube carrying
the magnifying lenses within the
larger tube, T. The proportions
of the cam and lever are such
that if. when the magnifiers are at the nearest practicable
approach to the object, and the size of the image is there-
fore a maximum, the lantern be placed at the distance from
the screen which gives a distinct image, then on rolling the
apparatus toward the screen the magnifier will be drawn
backward at precisely the rate necessary to preserve the dis-
tinctness of the image, while this will rapidly diminish in size
till it vanishes in a point. In preparing designs for phan-
tasraagorial displays, the ground is made absolutely black,
so that no light may pass except that which exhibits the
figures. The lantern is also placed behind the screen, so as
to be invisible to the spectators of the display, the screen
being of dam[)ened or varnished muslin, and translucent.
Under these circumstances, the sudden increase of size of
the image irresistibly creates the impression that the object
represented is rapidly approaching the observer; and the
sudden diminution of size of the same image causes the ob-
ject to seem to recede. It contributes to the force of these
impressions that, by means of another simple contrivance,
not here represented, the aperture of the lantern is gradual-
ly closed as the image diminishes in size, and gradually re-
opened as it again increases, so as to preserve a harmony, such
as we see in nature, between the brightness of the image and
the imagined distance. When the image has dwindled to
so minute a point as to be unrecognizable, the exhibitor often
avails himself of the opportunity to change the slider in the
lantern; so that when the object, after apparently receding
into the distance, returns again, it appears with a new and
often formidable aspect. Thus a being of angelic beauty
may seem to faile away almost to vanishing, and then come
suddenly rushing back in the character of a gorgon or a fiend.
The magic lantern has been greatly improved. Designs
on glass of objects of every kind in nature and art are so
expeditiously, accurately, and eheajily produced by means
of photography as almost indefinitely to have increased its
resources and to have made it an invaluable auxiliary to tho
teacher and public lecturer. The substitution also of tho
calcium light, or, better still, of the electric light, for the oil-
lamp, as a source of illummation, has added iinmensely to
the power and brilliancy of its displays. Both the mechan-
ical and the optical arrangements have been carried to a
high degree of perfection. .See LlMK-M(iHT.
A very popular use of the magic lantern is for the produc-
tion of the optical illusions called "dissolving vii-ws." For
these, two lanterns are necessary, placed either side by side
or one above tlie other. They must be adjusted in position
so as to have a common luminous field upon the screen.
Each hius a different object, and the two images when super-
posed to a great extent obliterate each other. A sliding or
rotating stop placed before the lanterns is so constructed a.s,
on being moved to left or right, to close the aperture of the
one while it opens that of the other. At the mean position,
both arc half open and half closed; at either extreme posi-
tion, one is wholly open and the other wholly closed. The
movement of this stop therefore causes the images alter-
nately to come out distinctly and to melt away. Advantage
is taken of the moments when the lanterns are successively
closed to change the objects, so that each dissohition is fol-
lowed by the jiresentation of a new picture. When the cal-
cium liglit is used, a stop is not necessary for the dissolving
effect; but this is produced more sim|)ly by gradually and
alternately shutting off and turning on the gases which feed
the light in the lanterns severally. For this purpose a six-
way cock is sometimes employed. A
form originally introduced by U. (i.
Malchu. of the Royal Polytechnic
Institution, London, and called the
" Maiden tap," is represented in Fig.
3. The gases enter from the reser-
voirs through H and 0; they pass to
one of the lanterns through II' and
0', and to the other through H' and
()'-'. When the lever is upright, as in
the figure, the gas flows to both lan-
terns freely ; when it is turned down
to the right the supply to the left-
hand lantern is cut off; \rhen to the
left, the supply to the right is cut off.
A small cock at C allows a small
quantity of hydrogen to flow constantly into either lantern,
serving to i)revent extinction when the light is cut off.
In the illustration of scientific subjects by means of lan-
tern views, it is frequently desirable to present objects which
can not be securei! in a vertical position, as, for instance.
Fm.3.- The .'(laUkii tap.
Fio. 4. — Vertical lantern.
objects immerseil in a Ihiuid. This case may be provided
for by removing the magiiifving apparatus fmm the lantern,
and placing before the com^ensing lenses a diagonal mirror
mounted as in Fij;. 5, bv which the illuminating beam is
MAGIC SQUARE
MAGNA CHARTA
45";
thrown vertically upward, passine through a horizontal stage
of glass, iiiti'iideil turi'ocivc the objects. Imimiliiitely above
this is fixed tlie nuiKiiifyiiif; apparatus, as repn>intiil ; and
above this si ill is a second diagonal mirror which restores
0
1
8.
'7
5
3
2
9
4
Fro. 6.
the beam to the horizontal direction. Prof. Henry .Mur-
ton, of tlie .Stevens Teelinolofiical Institute, Iloboken, X. .1.,
constructed a lanti'rn which admits of being used either as
a horizontal or vertical lantern at i)leasure, the transforma-
tion being elTectod very expeditiously and easily. This is
shown in Fig. 4. arranged as a vertical lantern. In lanterns
for use in seientilic demonstration, it is customary to mount
the objective upon a separate stand leaving space between it
and the condensing lens for the various pieces of apjiaratus
used in the art of projection. Fig. 6 shows the typical ar-
rangement of such an instrument. For details concerning
the manipulation of the lantern, etc., see Dolbear, Tlte Art
of Projection; Wright On Litjht; and Wo^Vins, Experimen-
tal !^cience. Uevi.sed by E. L. Nichols.
Magic Sflliare : an arrangement of numbers from 1 up to
9, 10, i'>, or any oilier S(|uare number in the form of a square,
so that the sum of those contained in any
straight line, horizontal, vertical, or diagonal,
shall be the same. The most familiar form
of magic square is that made with the nine
digits, arranged lus in the diagram. Here the
digits arc placed in a S(puiie. with three on
each side. It will be seen that, in whatever
way thev are added, the sum of any three which lie in a
straight line amounts to 15.
The following shows how a magic square with Ave num-
bers on a side may be forme.! : Write the five numbers 1, 6,
11, 1(5, 31, in live of the squares, put-
ting 1 anywhere wo please, 6 in the
sipiare two lines to the right, and one
below from 1 ; then write in 11 at the
same distance from ti. and so on with
16 and 31, but going back or up five
lines when a number falls in lines
outsiile of the diagram. Then fill
in the numbers 2, .'!, 4, ."i by contin-
uallv counting two lines In-low and
onetothe right from 1. Start from
6, 11, etc., in the same way. The same system may lie ap-
plied to squares of any prime number of sides.
S. Nkwcdmb.
Hngill, Edward TIicks, A. H., liL. D. : educator: b. at
Solcburv, Bucks co.. Pa., Sept. 24. 1825; graduated at Hn>wn
University in 1853; was principal of the clivssieal depart-
ment of Providence Iliirh School 18.53-5i» ; sub-master Bos-
ton Public Latin .School 185!>-67 : spent some time in foj-
cign travel ; Wiis president of Swarthuii>re College from 1871
till 188!», when he became Professor of French Language
and Literature in that institution, lie is the autlmr of
Frenclt (iriiinmnr; Inlrmliirtnnj Freiirh Reader ; French
Prose and Poetry; Key to French (Jrammar; Reading
1
24
17
15
8
20
13
6
4
oo
9
2
25
18
11
23
16
14
7
5
12
10
3
31
19
French Grammar (1892); and Modem French Series (be-
gun 1893). C. 11. TULBBER,
Magliubccehl,maaI-yii3i-bek'kei',AsTOSio: bibliographer;
b. at Florence, Oct. 28, 1033, of poor parents; followed the
trade of goldsmith until forty years of age, but his eager-
ness to acquire book knowledge triuin[ilK-<l over all oi>sta-
cles, and by diligent study he made himself one of the most
learned men of his time. The librarian of Cardinal Leo-
pold de Medici finally brought him to public notice, ami he
wa-s appointed to take charge of the library of the tirand
Duke of Tuscany. Though i>ossessing but scanty means,
he contrived by his frugal mode of life tu gratify his ab-
sorbing passion for the C(jllection of books, and ama.ss<Ml a
library of over 30,00() volumes, including many works of
great value. Many anecdotes illustrate his v^L^t knowledge
and the high esteem in which he was held by contemporary
Siivants, but, with the exception of his corresjMmdence and
editorial work, he left no record of his extraordinary learn-
ing. On his death, which occurred at Florence, .luly 4,
1714, he be(|ueathed his library to the grand duke, and
since 1859 it has formed a part of the National Library. A
portiim of his correspondence was imblished by Targioni in
1T45. and many of his letters are given in Valery's Corre»-
IMiidantc de jjubillun et de Jlontfaitcun avec I'ltalie.
V. M. CoLB*.
Mugtia Charta, nulg na-kaar ta [Lat., the Great Charter] :
a charter of liberties originally granted by King .lohntA.u.
1315) to the clergy, barons, and freemen of England, and
repeatedly confirmed by subsequent nionarchs, and justly
regarded as forming the most iin]iortant part of the British
Constitution. The tyrannical character an<l opjiressive acts
of King John, and his open violation of all law, arou.*ed an
opposition among the clergy and barons at an early periiKl
in his reign. This opposition, which at length lx?came well
organized and extensive, was headed and guided by Stephen
lie Langton, cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and
Archbishop of Canterbury, to whose wis<lom, firmness, and
patriotism the successful issue of the great struggle lietween
the people of the realm and the crown was largely due. On
Aug. 35, 1313. a couucil of the i)relates and barons was held
in London for the purpose of concerting measures by which
the roval authority might be confined within legal lx)unds,
and the rights and liberties of all estates in the kingdom
might be secured and guaranteed. The contest which was
thus openly begun lasted through the two succeeding years.
On the oiie side were arrayed the freemen of England,
the clergy, the barons, and' the commons, united in one
common cause and contending for rights which l)elonged
to them all. On the other side was the king, standing al-
most alone, but using every artifice to divide and weaken
his opponents. He aiiplied' for aid to Poi>e Innoi-ent III.,
who, as a rewanl for his previous surrender of the English
crown and reception of it again as a va.ssal of the papal .s»'e,
openly sided with him, censured the barons, and orderu-d
the archbishop to exeommunicale them. He also endeav-
ored to detach the clergy from their union with the laity bv
granting (.Ian. 15, 1315) a sjiecial charter to the English
Church. All these mameuvers were unsuccessful : the cler-
gy, as well as the nobility and the commons, reinaineil firm
in their demands for sudi fundamental guarantees as should
secure their rights and liberties, and the king was forced to
yield, after much delay and even violence in attempting to
overthrow the organiziiti<m which hail been formed against
him. The barons, with whom had coUecteil a large fone of
armed knights and viNimen. proclaimtil their array to Iw
the "army of God and Holy Church." On .May 34, 1315,
thev entered Ix>ndon, the king having fled from the Tower
to (idihain, in Hamnsliire. 1- rom this place he sent wonl
that he would comply with the jn-litions. and a>ked that a
time and place should be apiHiinled for a conferenir. T' ■
barons named Kunnymede as the place and .lune 9
dav. The conference actually began on the 15th. anil i
until the 19lh. An outline was first drawn up and assented
to in the form of articles (artiruli inii;/iur rhartir). uj-on
the ba.sis of which, although differing in some |>arli. ulars,
the more complete and formal instniment was pnpai. .1.
The Great Charier itself was finally eonsummntiHl and llie
royal si'al afiiNed at Kunnvmide i'>n Friday, the l»lh. al-
though it l>ears the date of '.lunc 1.5. 1315, the day on which
the iiegotiations were iM'giin. At the death of .lohn the
charter was at once renewed by the Earl of Pembroke, who
adminislen-d the government as pmteelor on iu-i-«unt of
the minority of Henry HI. In the next year it was again
45S
MAGNA CUAKTA
MAGNESIUM
renewed, and again in the ninth year of Henry's reipi, and
on &ve subsequent oceasions before the death of that mon-
arch. The Great Charter as it was promulgated in the
ninth year of llenry 111. was most solemnly re-established
and co'ntirnied by tlie kin^ and Parliament a. d. 1300, being
the twentv-tiflh year of the reign of Edward I., and in the
form as thus finally adopted, although differing in several
particulars from the' original, it appears in the English stat-
ute-book, and has been again connrmed by kings and Par-
liaments more than thirty times. The original cliarter of
King John contained 61 chapters or articles. All of these
after the -JOth, except the .54th, were entirely teniponiry. re-
lating to certain personal acts of the king, and establish-
ing iTmeans of enforcing its provisions by a commission of
twenty-five, to be elected by the barons from among their
own number, hi case the king should refuse or neglect to
carry it into effect. This portion was of course omitted in
everV subsequent renewal. Of the permanent articles a few
only' related to the clergy. The charter which had been
granted to the Church earlier in the same year wa.s deemed
sufficient, and was expressly confirmed. By far the greater
part of these chapters had 'reference to the laity, and they
may be separated into two groups — namely, those which
legislated for certain designated classes, and especially for
the barons as tenants in capile of the crown, defining, regu-
lating, and limiting their feudal burdens and duties; and
those which legislated for the whole nation, for the entire
body of freemen. The former were based upon the then
existing social condition, and, with the exceptions hereafter
mentioned, they all eea.sed to be operative with the extinc-
tion of the feudal system. The latter remain in full force
and effect as the very foundation and security of civil lib-
erty in Great Britain, and the most important and compre-
hensive of the clauses has been incorporated into all the
constitutions, national and State, of the U. S. Among the
articles defining the feudal relations of the barons to the
cro\vn, the I2th enacts that " no scutage or aid shall be im-
Eosed in our kingdom unless by the general council of our
ingdom," except for three specified purposes; while the
14tli provides tor the summoning and holding of the gen-
eral council in order to assess such " aids." In these clauses
are to be found the germs of the constitutional principle
that no taxes shall be laid except by the consent of the per-
sons to be taxed expressed tlirougli their representatives — a
principle which involves the entire theory of representative
government. These clauses were omitted in the charter of
Henry III., but were re-enacted witli even more explicitness
in the confirmatory statute of 2.5 Edw. I. The most impor-
tant articles by far of the Great Charter — since they contain
a sure guaranty of every civil right and liberty belonging to
freemen — are the ;3!)th and 40th, the original text of which
is: "39. iV'i<//«s liber homo capialur, vet imprisondur, ant
utlagetur, aul exuletur,aut aliquo modo cleslruatiir ; nee nuper
eum ibimns, nee super eum mitfemus, nisi per legale judi-
cium parium suoriim,vel per legem terra;. 40. JVulli vetide-
mus, nulli ne<jabimiis,aiit differemns rectum aut jiislitinin."
The corresponiling article of the charter of 9 Hen. III. and
25 Edw. I. is the 29lh, the language of which is slightly va-
ried and expanded : " Aitlliin liber liutno capiatur vel inipri-
sonelur, aut disseiniatur de aliqiio libera tenemento suo vel
libertatibus vel liberis con.suetudinibus suis, aut utlagetur
aut exuletur aut aliquo alio modo destruatur ; nee .super
eum," etc., the remainiler of the clause being exactly the
same as in the original form given above. The following is
the authoritative translation of this capital provision, as
found in the English book of statutes: " Xo freeman shall
be taken, or imprisoned, or be disseised of his freehold, or
liberties, or free customs, or be outlawed or exiled, or any
otherwise destroyed ; nor will we pass upon him nor con-
demn him, but by lawful judgment of his peers, or by the
law of the land. ' We will sell to no man, we will not deny
or defer to any man, either right or justice." To this text it
is a[)propriate to add a sentence from the eloquent eulogium
of Lord Chatham : " These three words, 'nullus liber homo,'
have a meaning which interests us all; they deserve to be
remembered, they deserve to be inculcated in our minds,
Ihey are worth all the claKxirg."
AUTIIORITIKS. — Thompson's Magna Chnria Ueais the his-
tory of each of the cimplers at length. The significance of
the' charter at different |ieriods of ISrilish. history will be
found fully presented in Stiibbs's Constitutional Ilistortj,
Hallain's Middle Agen, anil in Taswell-Langmead and
Creasy. Sec Stubbs's Select Charters (1870).
Keviscd by C. K. Adams.
Mn^'iiil (irw'cia [= Lat., liter.. Great {i. e. Greater)
Greece] : the name given to the ancient Greek settlements
along the southern coast of Italy, such as Tarentum, Cro-
ton, Sybari.s, Locri, Uhegium, etc. These cities were nearly
all founded in the eighth century u. c., by mercantile cities
of Greece, as trading-stations, and by means of their com-
merce attained to great wealth. They possessed a loose
confederation, which did little more than keep alive a con-
sciousness of their common origin, and they maintained a
certain amount of literary and athletic association with
the mother-country, although they did not take any con-
siderable ])art in its military and political movements.
Internal decay and strife between the cities of Magna Gra--
cia were the first causes of a decline in its prosperity, which
was further hastened by the aggressions of foreign ene-
mies— Syracusans, native Bruttians, and Eucanians. and,
from the third century n. c. on, the lioraans. In Cicero's
time Tarentum was almost the only city of Magna Gra'cia
which still retained vestiges of earlier importance. The
significance of the designation Magna Gra-cia is not alto-
gether clear, but may have arisen from the superior wealth
of these cities in the sixth and seventh centuries b. c. to the
cities of Greece from which they came. See Eenormant, La
Grande-Orece, Paysages et Ilistoire (3 vols., Paris, 1881-84).
G. L. Hendrkksos.
Magrnan, maanya'an', Valentin, M. I).: alienist; b. at
Perpignan. France, in 1835; studied medicine in Lyons an<i
Paris, graduating M. D. from the school in Paris in 18C0;
settled in Paris and devoted himself to nervous diseases ; was
appointed physician to St. Anne Asylum. Has written a
number of pa|>ers on subjects connected with diseases of the
mind and of the nervous system. His more inijiortanl
works are De V alcoolisme, des diverses formes du delire al-
coolique, et de leur traitement (Paris, 1874); Recherches sur
les centres nerveux (Paris, 1876). S. T. Abmstro.ng.
Ma^no, maan, Pierre : statesman ; b. at Pcrigucux,
Prance. I>ec. 3, IHOC : studied jurisjirudence at Toulouse;
was apjiointed councilor of the prefecture in 1835; elected
deputy in 1843. and I'niler Secretary of State in the ministry
of War in 1847, but resigned this office during the revolution
of February, and returned to Pcrigueux. Napoleon, how-
ever, called liiin back in 1849, and made him a secretary in
the ministry of Finance, and in 1851 Minister of Public
Works. ]n'l855 lie became Minister of Finance. Questions
relating to the internal policy caused Magiie to change his
office several times, but his great fimiiK.-ial talent always
brought him back to this department. In 1803 he retired
on account of a controversy with Fould, but (Nov, 13, 1867)
he was again appointed Minister of Finance in order to effect
the new great loan. When Napoleon formed the cabinet of
OUivier (Dec. 27, 1869). Jlagne retired into private life.
Once more, liowever. he took charge of the ministry of
Finance, from May 25. 1873, to Jlay 16, 1874, in the cabinet
of Broglie, but withdrew on account of a vote of the National
Assembly which went against the ministry. D. Feb. 18,
1879.
Magnp'sia : the name of two ancient cities in Asia
Minor— (1) a city of Ionia lying on the Ma-ander, not far
from Miletus and Ephesus, famous for its temple of Arte-
mis (Diana), of which excavations have disclosed some re-
mains; and (2) a city (the modern Manisa) of Lydia, N. E.
of Smyrnn. at the foot of Ml. Sipylus, celebrated for the
battle "which was fought here in the year 190 ». c. between
the two Scipios and Antiochus the (!reat, of Syria, by which
the Romans laid the foundations of tlieir rule in the East.
G. L. Henurickson.
Magfnesia : magnesium oxide. See Magnesium.
Masriio'siiim : a light, silver-white metal. Its ores are
the magnesiau minerals and rocks, among which serpentine
is the richest, as it contains 25-8 per cent, of the metaL
Other widely distributed and aluindant natural compounds
of magnesium are itiaqnesile. Mg('()s; tiieserite. MgS04. 11,(1;
A-«m(V(',MgS0,.KCI.(ill50; corHf(//(7(',MgCl,.KC1.0lljt) ; talc,
meerschaum, augite, olirine, etc. Each cubic foot of the
ocean contains 1'34 oz. of metallic magnesium, or over three-
fifths of a cubic inch. A cube of 30 feet of sea water con-
tains 2.240 lb. of llie metal magnesium.
Priiperlies. Chrmiral and /Viy.i/ra/.— Magnesium is silver-
white and very brilliant, malleable, and ductile. It melts
at a red heat.'and is readily cast into ingots. At a higher
heat it volatilizes and distills, like zinc. One of the niost
remarkable characters of magnesium is itsconduistibility in
MAUNKT
45a
the form of flliiigs, wire, or ribbon, with a light of dazzling
brilliancy. In this also it is like zinc, whiuh will burn in
the same way if in sulliciently thin foil.
MagrR'siiim dues not rust rujiiiUy in danip air, a thin,
white (ilni of carbonate forming, which, from its insolu-
bility, protects the metal. C'arbonat.e of magnesium is de-
void of toxic qualities, and not <lestructive to organic matter
like that of iron. IJeing by far the lightest substance of
equal strength that is known (e.xceot pijssibly caUiuni. which
Ls eoniparalively little kn<jwn), ana ohlainulile in iiulimited
<iuanlities, niagiicsium would seem to be, next to alumin-
ium, the most inifiortant of the metals of the future.
Mnniifactiire uf Maijiusium, — 'I'he manufacture of mag-
nesium is dependent on that of sodium. The improved
method of Sonstadt consists in heating in a closed crucible
6 parts of <liloride of magnesium, 1 of dry common salt,
1 of powileii'd lluor-spar, and 1 of metallic sodium to a
bright-red heat. The granules of magnesium thus furmeil
are separated from the mass, and purilii'd by distillation in
a current of dry hydrogen gas, at a white heat, in an appa-
ratus composed of carbon. It is incorporated into a tjody
for casting into ingots by fusing, under a flux composted of
the same ingredients as above — mixed chlorides of magne-
sium and sodium. JIagnesium is employed principally in
the form of ribbon and powder for producing bright lights
for photography, as in liie flash-light, for sigmiling at sea,
and fur pyrotechny. White fire is nunle by melting together
1 part shell-lac and 6 parts barium nitrate, grinding, and
mixing with a'.i ^)er cent, of powdered magnesimn. Red
fire is made by using 5 [larts strontium nitrate in place of
the 6 parts barium nitrate used in making white lire, the
other ingredients being used in the same proportions.
Cumpimnda uf Miiyuisiiim. — The principal ones are mng-
nMia, which is the iixide, MgO; mngnesile, or the carbo-
nate, Mg('<)3", Epvim salt, or the sulphate, MgSOj.TIIiO ;
and the chloride, .Mgt-'lj.
Magnesia, MgO, is usually made by gently igniting the
carbonate, and is called mugnesia tista, the carbonate being
known as magnesifi nlba. Magnesia is a white powder,
which is very dillicultly soluble in water, forming with it
the hydroxide iMg(Ull)j. It is used for the purpost.^ of pro-
tecting vessels subjected to a high temperature. .Mixed
with water and exposed to the air, it becomes very hard.
A mixture of magnesia, water, and magnesium chloride
forms Sorel's cement, which hardens to an oxychloride as
hard as marble. Magnesia and the carbonate are valuable
in medicine: in the tirst place as alkalies to neutralize acid-
ity in the alimentary canal, both from their high saturating
power and from the absence of any corrosive properties of
their own. Hence in j^Kusoning by the mineral acids and in
acid dyspepsia they are very useful, but from their low dif-
fusion power they are little absorbed, and hence can not be
employed to alkalize the blood. All soluble magnesium
salts are purgative, producing watery discharges, while at
the same time not irritating the intestinal mucous mem-
brane. Thus magnesia and magnesium carbonate combine
the virtues of an alkali and a mihl purge, and are acconl-
ingly useful in acid dyspepsia with constipation. Magne-
sium sulpliate, Epsum suit (tierm. Jiittersalz), was discovered
in the springs at Kpsom, in Kngland. It is used in medi-
cine as a powerful though safe neutral purge, and. from its
less offensive taste, has superseded (rlauber's salt. If in-
fused into the blood, it acts as a dangerous poison. It is
used, further, in the manufacture of sodium sulphate and
otassium sulphate, and as a fertilizer in place of gypsum.
ts chief use is in the Lancashire cotton-trade for warp-
sizing. The chloride is used in the preparation of the
metal. Magnesium citrate may also bo mentioned. It is
used in medicine as an agreeable laxative and mild purge
in the form of the officinal effervescing solution of the I'. S.
Pharmacopoeia. lievised by Ira Kemse.n.
Mngnpt [via <>. Fr. from l.at. mag'nri'. mngiie tis, from
<!r. MaycqTis Afflos. or Ma>iTjff(a \leos. liter., Magnesian stone,
(.'f. Lat. lapis Jferacle us, magnet, liter., lleradean stone,
named from lleraclea, capital of Magnesia]: a name which
from early times has been applied to the loadstone or na-
tive magnet, an ore consisting of the magnetic oxide of
iron, FcaO,, more properly termed magnetite. This ore is
extensively distributed over the globe, and its peculiar pro|>-
crty of atiracling metallic iron has been known from the
remotest antiquity. Some (following IMinv) truce the deri-
vation of the name from Magnes, a (ireek shepheni, who,
on Mt. Ida, observed the attractive jiower of a large mass
r;
of loadstone on his iron erook. It was this power of the
loadstone to attract to itself small iiarticles of iron that
made it famous, being referred lo by I'lato, Kuripides, Aris-
totle, I'liiiy, and others. The [Kjwer of the loadstone to im-
part its properties to iron or steel rubU'd or even touched
by it was likewise known at an early date, but it was not
until the twelfth century or thereabouts that it was dis-
covered that the loadstone when freely sus|>ende«l would
a.ssume a north and south ilirection. The philosophy of the
loadstone was a favorite subject for discussion by many writ-
ers, most of whom were led astray by conceptions handed
down from generation to generation.' William Uilbert, of
Colchester, in a scholarly work enlilleil I>t Muqnele, Mag-
neticisi/ue Corporibus, et de Magiio Mtigiiele Telture (Lon-
don, HMO), treats the subject of the loadstone exhaustively;
he states ail that was previously known 8lM)ut it. and adds
important discoveries of his own. It was he who first un-
derstood the nature of the polarity of the magnet, which he
refers to as follows in the introductory chapter of his U)ok :
"The loadstone has from nature its two poles, a northern
and a southern, fixed detinite points in the stone. ... It is
to be undei-stood, however, that the force of the stone docs
not emanate from a mathematical iMjint, but from the parts
themselves, and from all of these [larts. . . . These i)oleS
point toward the jioles of the earth, and move toward tnem,
and are subject to them. . . . Whether its sha|)e is due to de-
sign or to chance, . . . the loa<istone ever has and ever shows
its poles." Dr. (iilbert was careful in all his work and sci-
entific in his methods, and much credit is due to him for
his clear ideas concerning the magnet. It was he who dis-
covered that midway Ix'twcen the poles there was a place
of no attraction, which he calls the equator. The line con-
necting the imaginary i)oli>s he called the magnetic axis,
lie furthermore [xiinted out the distinction between mag-
nets and magnetic substances. A magnetic substance (such
as a mass of soft iron) has no poles nor ccpiator. and will
attract either pole of a magnet to whatever part the magnet
is |>resented. A magnet, on the other hand, attracts only
at its poles which display opposite pro[)erties, the one at-
tracting and the other repelling a given pole of another
magnet brought near, like poles repelling and unlike attract-
ing. If a piece of iron or steel be rubbed by a magiiet it
will become magnetized. This method of magnetizing, or
of producing an artificial magnet, was formerly of great
importance, particularly in consi meting the mariner's com-
pass, and various modifications of the method have l>een
used since the magnetizing effects of a current have l)oen
known. These have been supplanted for the most part by
methods in which an electric current is used. The inetliod
of simple toiirli consists in passing the pole of a [Kiwerful
magnet along the bar to be magnetized, and repeating this
operation several times, alwavs moving the [lole of the mag-
net in the .same direction until the magnetization is complete.
In the method of double touch, two bar magnets are placed
upon the bar lo be magnetized with opposite poles in prox-
imity, but separated by a .small piece of wood. (See Fig. 1.)
The magnets are
then moved back
and forth until the i?*
bar is magnetizeil. * ""^^^K-ot«
A slightly different
method is that of
separated or di-
vided touch, in
which two magnets with opposite poles together arc plnc-ed
at the middle of the bar to ue magnetizeil. and drawn a|>art
from the mitldle of the bar toward its end and back several
times. All these methods, however, have In-en replaceil, ex-
cept for special ca.ses. by the methods described further on,
in which an electric current is employed. Laminateil mag-
nets (see Fig. 1) have been used when' a strong jH-rmanent
magnet is wanted, and are found to be more jMiwerful in
pro[iorlion to their weight than those eonsistins of one pie<-e.
\ magnet is less liable to deteriorate in slniiu'Ili if il frms
part of a closed magnetic circuit, ami for this rea.-in a kirprr
oi armature is often placed so as to connect the two |ioles.
A sudden slamming on of the annature will weaVen the
stn-ngth of the magnet, but not so the sudden pulling off,
as is commonly siip[Hist<d.
The Klictrii-muguit. — The disooverr of Oerstejl (IS19),
that magnetic iiiMueiices surrounded a eondiiclor carrying
an electric current, led to the dis<overy by .Arago that a
needle plaewl at right angles to the coiulu<lor iKH'oines
magnetized, and the further discovery by .\m|)ere that if m
Fio. 1.— Metbud of double touch.
460
MAGNETISM
Fio. 2— Electro-magnet.
number of turns of wire be substituted for the straight con-
ductor, the lUHgnetizing power will be increased. 'I'hi'so
principles led to the elect ro-uiagnet, first constructeil by
\\' '.' . , Sturgeon, and described by him before the Society
of Arts in \)<:15. After the inven-
tion of the electro-magnet, the de-
Icrniination of its laws received
ihe attention of Sturgeon. Henry,
.loiile. atid Faraday, and additions
have since been made to our knowl-
edge of the subject by various
men of .science. An electro-mag-
net is simply a piece of iron sur-
rounded by a magnetizing coil of
wire carrying a current. (See Fig.
2.) The polarity of an electro-magnet depends upon the di-
rection of the current magnetizing it, as in Fig. 8. The
tractive power of a magnet depends ui)on the magnetic in-
duction (lines per square centimeter) and the polar surface,
and is equal to 3)'.i -i~ 4ir dynes, where SJ is the induction
or number of lines per sipiare centimeter (see Magnetism
OF Iron) and A the polar surface in sijuare centimeters.
Kxpressed in grammes, this becomes
iB-.l -r- 4ir X 981 ; and in pounds, ©«A
-V- n,iyy,000. These formulas are
strictly true only when the induction
is uniform; where 8 is not uniform,
for "S-A in aljove we should write
/■©'-(/.l. This law holds in all cases
for permanent magnets as well as elec-
tro-magnets. A full account of the
electro-magnet may be found in The Electro-maijnei, by S.
P. ThomiJson. The properties of an electro-magnet depend
upon the magnetic properties of the iron which constitutes
the core, and these, together with the laws of the magnetic
circuit, are discussed al length under Magnetis.m of Iron
{q. v.). Frederick Bedell.
Magnetism : a term applied to the phenomena observed
in the region surrounding a magnet and in the neighbor-
hood of a conductor conveying an electric current. In
the.se regions there exists a nuignetie force which acts upon
a magnetic substance (such as a compass-needle or iron fil-
ings) or upon a wire carrying a current of electricity.
If fine filings of soft iron be uniforiidy sifted over a plate
of gla.ss, we shall observe that the distribution of the filings
is influenced by the position of a magnet introduced be-
neath. The approach of the magnet is first indicated by a
bristling of the iron filing.s. If the plate be gently vibrated
the filings will arrange themselves in a system of lines, more
or less regular, jus shown in Fig. 1, each particle of iron taking
Fio. 3.— Direction of
currents around
the poles of an
electro-magnet.
through which it passes. The magnetic field set up by a
current is similar to that in the neighborhood of a magnet,
and nniy also be shown by means of iron filings which arrange
themselves in circles about the conductor, as illustrated
under Klectricity (q. v.). Although earlier experiments
showed that the magnetism of a piece of iron was intluenced
by the flow of electricity in a neighboring conductor, it was
not until 181!) that these phenomena were definitely ])ointed
out. In that year Prof. Oersted, of Copenhagen, made
known the fact that if a compass-needle be placed near a
conductor carrying a current and parallel to it, it turns, and
tends to set itself in a direction at right angles to the cur-
rent. This first announcement of the relation between
electricity and magnetism attracted considerable attention
in the scientific world. During the following year Arago,
im/0:
-<5
Flo. 1.— Magnetic curves.
a direction according to the direction of the magnetic force to
wlii<h it is subjc'cted. The study of the.>ie curves, in connec-
tion with the action of magnets on magnetic and diamag-
netic bodies, led Faraday to the adoption of the terms
"magnetic field " and "lines of nuignetie force." We see
that these lines of force e-Xtcnd throughout Ihe whole re-
gion surrounding a magnet. A magnetic field maybe de-
fined as any sjiace throughout which there exists a iiuvgnetic
force, while a line of magnetic force is a line drawn Ihrnuu'h
a magnetic field in the direction of the force at each point
Fig. 2.— Magnetic lines of force around a straight wire with current
flowing upward.
in France, and Davy, in England, showed that iron filings
placed in the vicinity of an electric current became magnet-
ized, and Ampere, of the French Academy, published his
generalizations, which formed the foundatiim of the science
of electro-magnetism. He showed that not only were mag-
netic bodies influenced by the passage of a current, but that
there wiic mutiuil f rci s bitwtin n ighboring currents;
that parallel cur-
icnts flowing in the
same direction attract,
and that those flowing
in opposite directions
lepel. These early
txperiinents demon-
strated the fact that a
( urrent of electricity
establishes about itself
a magnetic field pos-
ses.sed of the same
properties as the field
surrounding a mng-
1 't. The direction of
lie lines of force in
this magnetic field
f irm concentric cir-
cles with the conduct-
or at the center, as
shown in Fig. 2. The
jilieiiomena of mag-
netic fields containing
iron are fnlly discussed under Maonetism ok Iron (a. v.),
where also are given the technical meanings assignecl to a
line nf force, unit pole, etc.
Jllagiietic Field Produced hy a Current. — We have seen
that a current of electricity flowing in a circuit produces a
magnetic fielil in the surrounding region, and that the lines
of force which constitute this field are always closed lines
encircling the conductor. The total number of lines pass-
ing tlircpugh the area bounded liy a closed electric circuit is
the total magnetic induction of the circuit. As the current
MAGNETISM
4<;i
is incrciused in strength, the intensity of tho niugnotic^ field
at everv i)oinl is in<reiised, and. if there is no Miiignelic sul)-
stanee in the regiun, the intensity of tliu field is increiised
in direct proportion to the strength of the current. A unit
current is defined in terms of the iiiiigiietic field which it
generates. A unit current is that which, flowing in a cir-
cuit of a centimeter radius, ucts on a unit mugnetic i>ole,
placed lit the center, with the force of a dyne per centimeter
length of the circumference. This is the L'. Li. 8. unit of cur-
rent; but the practical unit, the umpire, is one-tenth of the
O. G. S. unit. It has been found, as the result of experiment,
that the magnetic effect of a current is the same as that of a
magnetic shell of suitable strength, having for its boundary
the circuit in which the current flows. IJy u magnetic shell
is meant a very tliin sheet of magnetic material magnetized
in the direction of its thickness. The strength of shell, _/,
is equal to the magnetic moment per unit of area, i. c.
j = — , where m is the pole strength and I the distance be-
A
twecn the poles of the magnet with cross-section A. A
shell of Miiiform strength, y, having the same boundaries as a
circuit in which the current / is flowing, will exactly re-
place the current,
so far as magnet-
ic effect is con-
cerned, when /
and/are numeric-
ally equal. The
magnetic poten-
tial at a point /*,
at which a closed
circuit carrying a
current / sub-
tends a solid an-
(.See PoTENTiAl-.) The direction of the mag-
f^S=
Fio. 3— Direction of ma^etlc force set up In a
soleuoid.
glc n, is la.
netic force set up by a current is shown by Figs. 2 and ;i.
Elect ro-maijnet ic Inductiun. — We have seen that a mag-
netic field is set ui) by a current of electricity. Of equal
importance is the fact discovered by Faraday that an elec-
tromotivo force (K. M. F.) is produced in a conductor
which is move<i through a magnetic field so as to cut the
magnetic lines of fone. This electromotive force is directly
proportional to the rate at which the lines are cut, and is in
a direction at right angles to the direction of motion and
also to the direction of the lines of force, p'arailay further
showed that if the magnetic induction, ,V, thnlughout any
closed circuit l>e varied l)y nny means, an E. M. F. is devel-
oiied in the circuit proportional at any instant to the rate of
change (increase or decrease) of the induction at that in-
stant. This change in magnetic induction may be produced
by an alteration in the position (jf the circuit in its relation
to magnets or other circuit, or to a variation in the intensi-
fy of the current in a neighboring conductor or in itself.
However the change in the induction is produced, the law
always holds, and may be expressed by the equation
E= — '-. The negative sign indicates that an electro-
dt
motive force is induced in such a direction as to oppose the
change in number of lines threading the circuit. A ('. G. S.
unit of K. .M. F. is developed when there is a change in the
induition of the circuit at the rate of one line per second,
or when the conduclor is cutting one line per second. The
practical unit of K. M. F., the ro/l. is 10' times the V. G. .S.
unit just defined. If the circuit in which the induction is
<'hanging is closed, the K. M. F. iiroduced by this change
will cause a current to flow in a direction so as to ojipose
the change producing it (ljenz"s law); for example, if the
field is increasing in strength, the current developed will
tend to weaken it by sending lines in the opposite direction.
Again, if the electromotive force is produced by the motion
of a wire, the current induced will exert a force which ten<ls
to resist this motion. This law is a i)articular case of the
general law of the conservation of energy. An E. M. F. is
induced, as explained above, whenever the numlnT of lines
inclosed by a circuit is varied, no matter what may be the
source of the lines or the cause of the variation. Any varia-
tion in the strength of the current itself will priKluce a
variation in the field which will induce an K. M. F. in the
circuit, called the K. M. F. of self-induction, in such a direc-
tion as to opposi' the change in the current. The effect of
self-inducticm is to make a current act as if it possessed in-
ertia, but this apparent inertia is a function of the shape of
the circuit and the magnetic properties of the bodies near
it. The spark observeil on breaking a circuit in which a
heavy current is flowing is due to self-induction. If the
circuit contains iron, and has a large nuinlicr of turns, a
considerable s[)ark may l>e obtained with a very small cur-
rent. The E. M. F. of self-induction may be expressed as a
function of the rate of change of current thus : e = — L — -
dt
Tlio cocfllcient L is called the coefieienl of self -induel ion,
and has been defined us the ratio iK-twcen the i-ounler
E. M. F. of s( If-induetion in any circuit and the time rate
of variation of the current producing it. If the current is
changing at the rate of one unit per si-eond, ami the E. M. F.
caused therebv is unity, then L is unity. The practical
unit of self-inJuction is the lieriry, and is equal to 10* times
the C. G. S. unit. This definition of L is in accordance
with the Chicago congress (IWW). The E. M. F. of self-
induction may be written in terms of the change in mag-
netic induction thus : e = — ^ = — L—. If the iiennea-
dt dt
bility of the medium surrounding the conductor is constant,
the value of L is eonslant for all values of current, and
A'=LI. From this ecjuation the coefiicient of self-imluc-
tion has been defined as the ratio of the total induction
threading the circuit to the current producing it. When there
is iron, this is approximately true when a higli degree of satu-
ration is not reacheil. The quantity of electricity which wdl
flow in a circuit on account of the change in the number of
lines which thread it is eijual to the change in the number of
lines divided by the resistance, i. e. ^ = ''*•''•
TbisU
entirely independent of the manner of the change and the
time occupied in making it. This principle is illustrated in
the use of the earth inductor and the ballistic galvanometer.
Energy of a Magnetic Field. — When a current is caused
to flow in a conductor it produces a magnetic field in the
surrounding region, and stores up a certain amount of energy
in this magnetic field which depends upon the value of the
current and the self-induction of the circuit, and is equal to
\LI*. This energy is kinetic, and when the current decreases
this energy is returned to the circuit, and tends to nuiintain
the flow of current, just as the kinetic energy of a revolving
fly-wheel tends to maintain the rotation of the wheel when
slowing down. The energy of the field increases and de-
creases with the current, and its rate of change depends upon
the value of the current and also upon its rate of change.
Thus in the time dt the change in the field energy is Ll—dt,
which is positive when the current is increasing and nega-
tive when it is decreasing. No energy is lo^t in the magnetic
field when in air. i. e. it is all re.>;tored to the circ^uit; but
when the field contains iron the energy is not entirely re-
turned to the circuit, part of it being lost due to hystereti*.
(See Maoxetism of Iron.) In air the energy of the magnetic
field is ^ ergs per cubic centimeter* — (where ^ is the inten-
ox
sity of the field): in iron it is much greater, incn-asing al-
most directly with the [jermeability until saturation is
reached.
Properties of Lines of Force. — Many facts in connection
with electro-magnetism are more readily understiMxl by as-
signing certain " properties" to the lines of force. Lines of
force in the same direction repel each other, while those in
opposite directions attract and tt-ml to neutralize each other.
Lines of force exert a tension
which tends to shorten them.
Thisteiision explainsthe trac-
tive power of magnets, and is
equal to ~ dynes per square
centimeter. The tension is
only displayed at the points
where tlic lines enter the
iron, just as the tension of a
stretched rubljer band is evi-
dent only at the fxiints at
which it is attached. If a
conductor carrying a current,
/, be plBce<i at rigid angles to
the lines of forc-c in a uniform
fiehl of intensitv, t>. it will l>e
acted upon witii a force, 1^1. where / rejiresents the length
of the conductor in the field. This eUitro-dynainic action
Kio. 4 -Conductor In uniform
flrld carrying (rurrrut upward.
462
MAGNETISM OF IRON
mav also be explained by the tension of lines of force. Fig.
4 shows the lines of force which result when a eiindui'tor
carryin;; a current is placed in a uniform magnetic field.
The direction in which the conductor is urged is indicated
bv the arrow. Upon this i)rinciplc depend the action of the
efectrlc motor and the resistance ottered to the rotation of
the armature of a dynamo.
The subject of magnetism is so intimately connected,
both logically antl by association, with that of the magnet-
ism of iron, that a treatment of this latter subject is ren-
dered necessary for a complete undei-standing of the more
general subject of magnetism. Therefore, further discus-
sion of magnetism will be taken up under Mau.netism of
Iron'. Classical works on magnetism are those by Max-
well, Mascart and Joubert, and Gray.
Frederick Bedell.
Masnotisiii of Iron : although many substances possess
magnetic properties to some e.\tent, iron (and steel) possesses
these properties to a greater extent than any other body, and
is by far the most important of the magnetic metals. Nickel
and cobalt possess similar properties to a lesser degree. In
addition to these three may be named chromium, cerium,
and manganese, and a few other substances which are ap-
preciably magnetic. If a magnetized needle be thrust into
iron filings, it will be found that these cling in clusters near
the ends which are called pohs, which, however, as Gilbert
fointed out (see MAti.NET) are never mathematical points.
or convenience in the study of magnetism, liowcver, we
may suppose that a magnetic pole may be concentrated at a
point, and we define a unit nmgnetic pole as one which exerts
a force of a dyne upon another equal pole at the distance of
a centimeter. Such a pole forms the basis of our study of
magnetism and the foundation upon which is based the
whole system of electro-magnetic units. By strength of pole
(m) we mean the number of unit poles to which a magnetic
pole is equivalent: this is measured liy the force (in dynes)
that the pole exerts upon a pole of unit strength placed a
centimeter away. In this definition it is assumed that the
pole is concentrated at a point ; whereas, in the case of
actual magnets, the attractive power is found to be distrib-
uted over considerable area, called the polar surface of the
magnet. Each element of this surface, however, may be
treated a.s a pole in the sense used above, with its atti'active
power varying as the inverse scpiare of the distance. The
combined action of the.se infinitesimal poles is equivalent to
the actual cfTect of the magnet. Coulomb investigated the
action between magnetic poles, and established the following
law of force from experiments pel-formed with a torsion bal-
ance. The attraction or repulsion between two poles is in-
versely as the square of the distance between them, and
directly as the product of their strengths; that is, / cc'^^-^,
where m and m' are the strengths of the poles and r the dis-
tance between them. A unit pole being defined as above,
the sign of variation may be changed to one of equality if r
is measured in centimeters and / in dynes. The force be-
tween two magnetic poles is then = — ,-. When the two
r^
poles have the same sign, the product m m' is positive, and,
inasmuch as the poles repel, a force of repulsion has a posi-
tive sign. .Similarly, a force of attraction has a negative sign.
It is not possible for an isolated jiole to exist, but this con-
dition may be practically obtained by using a long, uni-
formly magnetized needle witli one pole so far removed that
measurements upon the other arc uninfluenced by it.
Magnetic Force (^). — If we could place a free magnetic
pole in a magnetic field, it would always be urged in a cer-
tain direction, and if free to move wo'uld actually move in
this direction. The direction in wliioh a + pole would be
urgeil is called the positive direction of the line of force
which i)asscs through (he pole. The value of the magnetic
force. ^, at any point in a magnetic field is measured by the
force (in dynes) that would be exerted on a unit pole placed
at that point. When dealing with induced magnetism. ^ is
frequently called the magnefizinf/ force, since it measures
tin; tendency of the field to magnetize a piece of iron [ilaced
in it. Usually it is founil that 6 varies at dilTerent points
in the field ; but if i> has tlie siinic viiliie at every point, both
in magnitmle and direction, Ihe field Is sai<l to be uniform.
A line of force is an imaginary line which shows by its
direction at any point the diiection of the magnetic force
i>. If the uniform field be one of unit inteiisiti/, I hen i>
equals 1, anil there is said to be one lino of force per square
centimeter; and when the intensity is ^ there are Klines of
force per square centimeter. Thus the intensity of a magnet-
ic field is considered as being determined by the innnber of
lines which pass through a centimeter of a surface normal
to the direction of the lines of force. When lines of force
are imagined as drawn in this way so as to give the magni-
tude as well as the direction of the force, they are commonly
spoken of as C. G. S. lines. By the definition of a unit polo
the intensity of field i> is unity at a distance of a centimeter
from the pole. If a sphere be described about the unit pole
as center, having a radius of a centimeter, there is conse-
quently one line of force passing through the surface of tho
sphere for every square centimeter. As the surface of a
sphere contains 4ir sc). cm., there are in all 4jr lines of force
that emanate from a unit pole, and 4irm lines trom a pole
whose strength is m. Tlie magnetic moment (9R) of a magnet-
ized piece of iron is defined as tho distance between its two
poles multiplied by the strength of one pole ; thus SW = ml.
Generally the two factors m and I can not be separated, for
it is the effective strength of pole that is required. If a
magnet of moment SW is suspeiuled in a uniform field of in-
tensity $), so as to make an angle 9 with its position of
equilibrium, the moment of the couide tending to restore
the magnet to equilibrium is Wl^s in 9. Magnetic moment
is accurately defined by this relation.
Magnetic Induction in Iron. — When a piece of iron is
placed in a magnetic field, that is, when it is subjected to a
magnetizing force, it becomes magnetized, and if the iron is
isotropic this magnetization is in the direction of the mag-
netizing force. The amount of this magnetization may be
expressed in various ways — for instance, in terms of its liiag-
netie moment, already defined, intensity of magnetization,
magnetic induction, etc., each of which ways has its advan-
tages. Magnetism is sometimes considered as consisting of
two hypothetical fluids. positive and negative. equal amounts
of which appear at the ends of the magnetized bar. The
middle portion of a uniformly magnetizeu bar shows no posi-
tive or negative magnetism, for the poles of successive ele-
mentary magnets neutralize each other. Although magnet-
ism is only displayed at the ends of a bar where its unneutral-
ized poles exist, the magnetic state is continuous throughout
the bar. If we cut the uniformly magnetized bar into pieces
of any shape whatsoever, the magnetic moments of the sepa-
rate pieces are proijortional to tlie volumes. The magnetic
moment per unit volume is taken as a measure of the mag-
netization, and is called the inten.'iit^ of magnetization (3).
For a magnet of uniform cross-section A and length /,
f^ Wt ml m ^, , . ^, . . .^ - ^. ^.
3 = — y ~ 7~ ~ "J ' ^"*'' '^' '"^ intensity of magnetization
is equal to the pole strength per unit of polar surface. The
intensity of magnetization is a function ot the magnetizing
force; the ratio of the intensity of magnetization to tho
magnetizing force is called the magnetic susceptibility («),
3
\\ e have seen above that 4>rm lines of force emanate from a
pole of strength m. From the polar surface. -4, of a bar of
iron with intensity of magnetization 3, there will emanate
4Tr3^1 lines, or 4ir3 lines per square centimeter. These lines
are called induced lines of magnetization, and are adiled
to the lines of force ^ which magnetized the bar. The
total number of lines of force wliicli now pass through each
scjUiire centimeter is .^ + 47r3: Unit is, it is the sum of Ihe
magnetizing force (lines of force per square centimeter) be-
fore iron was placed in the field and the induced lines of
magnetization due to the presence of the iron. This quan-
tity, the total number of lines of force per square centi-
meter, is usually called the induction or the magmtic in-
duction, designated by the letter © : or SJ = .^ + 4V3. Tho
total induction i\' throughout any area ,1 is _/'5)(/.l ; and
when the iron is uniformly magnetized we havcA'=S/l.
In air or other non-magnetic substance the magnetic in-
duction is equal to the magnetizing foive, that is, S = -f>;
but in a magnetic substance such a.s iron Ihe luimber of
lines is increased by 4ir3 Hues due to the presence of the
iron. The ratio of the induction to the magnetizing force
is called the magnetic peruieal>iliti/ /»; that is, © = ^|).
The permeability is. so to speak, a multiplying factor tlio
value of which depends upon Ihe magnetic propertiesof the
iron. The relation between permeability and susceptibility
may be obtained by dividing Ihe equation S = ■& + 4ir3
by $1. Wo then have -^ = ? -I- -^J^, or u = 1 + 4irK.
and is dependent upon the quality of the iron ; thus, k :
MAGNETISM OF IRON
463
Meaning i>fS& and ^. — Suppose a narrow crevasse cut in
the Iron perpendiciilur to the dircclioii of iimgiietizution.
The force on a unit pole in lliis crevussu is lUie to ttic inag-
netizinjf force i>, and tlic induced lines of luaKnelization
4ir3. and is a measure lliercfore of 4) fur 4) =: 4i + -Jir^. Now,
suppose a hole drilled throuf,'h the niii;,'nel in the direction
of maf;"elization. The force uijon a unit pole in this hole
is a measure of ^, for in this liole there are" no induced lines
of niajj;neti/,atiun. © and $ are vector quantities, and equa-
tions in which they occur should Ijc so interpreted; Uiey
become algebraic when the ine<lium is isotro]iic.
Work done in Moving a Magnetic Pole. — In moving a
magnetic pole in a nnignetic field, work is done either by
the magnetic force or against it. Suppose that we have
two nnignetic polesof strengths m and m . and that r, is the
distance between them. If m' is moved from the point P, to
Pt so that the distance between m and «i' is increased from
Ti to rj, work is done. The work done in thus moving m'
from Pi to P, can be found by first ascertaining the work
done in moving m' over an element of distance ds with an
increase dr in the distance r from the magnetic pole hi.
The force between two pules of strengths m and »i at a
distance r apart is /= — ,- . This force may be considered
constant while the pole to' is moving through an element of
distance ds. The distance through which the pole is moved
against this force is dr; hence the work done is dW =
mm'—^. To find the work done by the magnetic force in
moving m' from P, to P,, this exjiression must be in-
tegrated between the limits r, and r, ; thus 11'= nun'
( — j. The work done against the magnetic force is
mm'l j. This work is independent of the path, de-
pending sirnnly upon the pole strengths and upon the ini-
tial and final ilistances.
Magnetic Potential. — If the distance r, is infinite (mean-
ing that the pole m is carried from an infinite distance to a
point at a distance ri), the work done against the magnetic
force becomes W = . If ;«' is unity, meaning that a
unit pole is mored, the work done becomes Tr= — . It is
r,
seen that each point in the region surrounding a magnetic
pole possesses a certain characteristic which determines the
amount of work done in bringing a unit magnetic pole
from infinity to that point. This characteristic of the point
has been called its magnetic potential. The magnetic poten-
tial Valapoint is tlierefore defined as the work done in
moving a unit positive pole from an infinite distance to that
point; thus, V=— . This potential is positive when the work
done is positive; that is, when work is done, in moving the
pole, by some agent external to the system. The potential at
a point due to a number of magnetic pules is the sum of the
potentials at that point due to each pole independently;
thus K=2 -. We have seen under the head of Mao.vet-
r
isji that the magnetic potential at any point due to a cur-
rent fiowing i]i a closed circiiit is la. the proiluct of the
current and the solid angle which the circuit subtends as
seen from the point. It may be shown that the work done
in carrying a pole around a wire in which a current 1 is
flowing is \Y = ^ir/ergs. If, instead of one wire, there are
■S' turns around which the pole is carrie<i, the work will be
S times as much, and 11' = -tir.S'/ ergs.
Mai/neliziuq Force of an Ampere Tnm. — When a unit
pole IS moved in a magnetic field, the work <lone is the
product of the magnetic force and the distance through
which the pole is moved against the force. If / is the
length of the path describt>d by the txilc and a the angle at
any iioint in the path Ix-tween the direction of motion and
the Jirection of the force ^, the work in moving a unit |Kile,
being the product of the force anil the distance through
which the pole moves, is 11' =/•& cosai//. Therefore/^ cos
udl — iirSl in ('. G. S. units. In case the path of the i>ole
is coincident with the direction of force, cos a = 1 at all
points. This is the case when the medium is isotropic and
there is no residual magnetism in a ilirection inclined to
the magnetizing force. If the current lie expressed in am-
peres (and not in C. G. S. units as above) and cos o= 1,
4».S'/
then /(x/i = — ^ . If ■© has a constant value, <!,, through »
portion h of the path, another value •&, through the dis-
tance /,, etc., then $i,/, + *,/, + etc. = ^')-. This is the
ence of such a circle, /{)(// = {>/, and i) = ~"." , where / is in
If r is the distance from the center, / = 2»r
At any point within the winding i is evi-
forin in which the equation is generally useil, and is the
ba.sis for most magnetic computations. Tlie "line integral
of magnetic force, ' f^dl, is called the ningnetomulire force.
In the case of a torus, or anchor ring, wound unifomdy
with wire carrying a current /, the force is constant along
anv circle concentric with the ring. If / is the circumfer-
4».S7
/
C. G. S units.
and •& = .
dently inversely proportional to the distance from the cen-
ter, and .{1 = 0 for all points outsi<le of the winding. At a
distance r from an infinite straight conductor with current
2/
I,S=l,l = 2irr, and i> = -, for C. G. S. units. In the
r
ease of a long solenoid (i is very nearly uniform through-
out the length, and is much greater at jniints within the
solenoiil than at points outside. Ky far the greater work is
done in carrying the fxile through the solenoid. If |), is
the force inside and /, the length, we have therefore ^,/i =
d or
—r..-, approximately, d, as computed from this formula,
will always be somewliat greater than the true value. The
apjiroximation is close only when the length is great as
compared with the diameter. For short solenoids it does
not hold.
The Magnetic Circuit. — We see that a current flowing in
a conductor creates a magnetizing force in the surrounding
region, and the value of this force is given in the ei|uations
above. Now, the total number of lines which will be si-t up
through this surrounding medium which constitutes the
magnetic circuit depends not only upon the magnetizing
force i), but also upon the permeabdity of the material
composing the magnetic circuit ami upon its dimen.sions.
Electric Analogy. — The analogy between magnetic lines
of force and the lines of flow of electric currents was first
pointed out hy Faraday. So many magnetic phenomena
may be more clearly explained by this electric analogy that
it is very generally used. If a voltaic cell consisting of s
tube with electrodes at each end is placed in a poorly con-
ducting li(iuid, such as salt water, the current in flowing
between the two poles of the cell will Ix; distributed
throuehout the whole liquid. If lines of tloir, or stream
line.'<,\e drawn so that they indicate the direction of the
current at every point in the liquid, these lines will lie
exactly similar to the lines of force of a magnet having
the same shape and size as the cell. The number of stream
lines per square centimeter will lie a measure of the current
density, just as the number of lines of force in a magnetic
field gives the value of it or 9. If a gcKxl ci^nductor is
placed near by, the currents will flow through it in prefer-
ence to the water, on account of its greater ftinrf»r/i'ci'?v. and
the stream lines will be deflected. Similarly a jiiece of soft
iron in a nnignetic field will converge lines of force toward
itself on account of its greater permeability, as shown un-
der Electbicitv. a coil of wire carrying a current tends
to produce lines of force, just as an electromotive force
tends to develop a current. A »X)il may therefore be said
to produce a magnetomotive force. The electromotive fon-e
in a circuit is equal to the sum of all the difl'erences of
electrical potential. The magnetomotive force in a mag-
netic circuit should therefore U' equal to the sum of all the
ditlerenccs of magnetic |iotential, so that the magnetomo-
4».S7
tive force of a coil must bo equal to -
10
In a magnet cir-
cuit the total induction is equal to magnetomotive force
divided by the reluctance, or magnetic resistance. This
law for the magnetic circuit is anah>gous to Ohm's law for
the electric circuit.
Anir of the Magnetic Circuit. — Prof. Rp«i.m,.i di^t ex-
presswl this law in its mathematical form. . y to
Ohm's law is obvious. The first memlior is t • le of
elei-tric current — i. e. the magnetic flux or inilii<ii<>n. The
second meinlH"r is the magnetomotive force dividnl by the
reluctance ormairnetic resistance. and c<irr\'s|i<incls toelwtpo-
motivc force divided liy Ohm's n-sistance. The tpteific
404
MAGNETISM OF IKOX
magnetic resistance (sometimes called riluclivitv) of each
portion of the circuit is — ; when multii>lii'J by the length
Rml diviilod l>y the sectional area, this f;ives the niaj;netic
resistance for each particular portion. The total magnetic
resistance, first called reluctance by O. lleaviside, is found
by summing up these partial resistances ; that is, © = 2 -r-.
In words tlie law is: Magnetic flux equals magnetomotive
force divided by reluctance, or ^V=-- ^_^ — ■'. The Greek
^ 1
letter p is used to denote the specific magnetic resistance — .
The word permenrice or magnetic conductance is sometimes
used to denote the reciprocal of reluctance. The American
Institute of Klectrical Kngineers (1894) has adopted the fol-
lowing magnetic units: The gilbert for the C. G. S. unit
of magnetomotive force, the same being produced by 0' 70.58
ampere-turn approximately : the iceber for the C. G. S.
unit of magnetic flux, sometimes described as the C. G. S.
line of flux; the oersted for the (_'. G. S. unit of reluctance;
the gauss for the C G. S. unit of (lux density, or one weber
per S(iuare centimeter. Although the laws of the electric
and tlie magnetic circuit are similar in many respects, it
must not be supposed that the analogues hold throughout.
It re(iuires no energy to maintain the magnetic flow when
once established ; there is therefore no analogy to Joule's
law for the energy which is continually dissipated in heat
during the flow of current. There is a difference, too, be-
tween electric resistance and magnetic resistance or reluc-
tance, inasmuch as the former is an
ly constant for
is approximately
ordinary ranges of current, while the value of the rehuttanee
of a magnetic current depends upon the value of the nmg-
netic flux.
If two paths are open for lines of force they will divide
just as an electric current would do between two wires. In
a circuit made up
of masses of iron
of different di-
mensions and
qualities, the to-
tal magnetic re-
sistance, for I lie
particular in-
duction used,
may be computed
by summing up
the separate re-
sistances, just as
in the case of an
electric circuit.
The Magnetic
Properties of
Iron. — (For com-
plete treatment
l«,ooo
K.OOO
" 12.000
z"
O 10,000
H
u
3
a
8,000 -
!,000
Fig. 1.
MAGNETIZING FORCE, jS
-Curves of magnetization.
see Ewing, Magnetism of Iron.) The magnetic properties
of iron are best shown by curves of magnetization which
show the relation between the magnetic induction and the
magnetizing force. Such curves for cast and wrought iron
are shown in Fi^. 1, from experimental data obtained by
Hopkinson and given in the accompanying table:
Wrootht Irao.
CHlIfOn.
9
c
•5
e
c
»
5.000
2.500
20
4,000
800
60
9.000
2.2.W
40
6,000
500
100
10.000
2.000
5 0
6.000
279
21-5
11,000
1,6»2
6-5
7.000
133
420
12,000
1,412
85
8,000
100
800
14,000
823
170
B.OOO
71
137 0
16,000
308
520
10,000
53
1880
2.000
30
8660
11,000
37
2920
For any point on one of the curves the abscissa represents
the value of tlie magnetizing force ^ in ('. G. S. units, and
the onlinate the lorresponding value of the induction 39. If
a line be drawn fr mi a point on the curve to the origin, the
tangent of the angle wliich this line makes with the hori-
zontal is a measure of the perinciibilily ; that is, the ratio of
S to ^. In the case of wrought iron, we see from the curve
that as ^ increases from 0 to 1 <!.G. S. units, the induction
increases in about the same ratio, the permeability being
comparatively small and nearly constant. As ^ becomes
still greater, iB is found to increase more rapidly, and the
permeability increases suddenly to a very high value. This
continues until i> has reached "the value of about 15, after
which the permeability begins to diminish, and any further
increase of (i produces only a comparatively small' increase
of 8. When this condition of affairs is reached, the iron is
said to be saturated. I'p to the present time no experimenter
has succeeded in producing absolute saturation, although
the induction has been carried to over 40.000 with the jier-
meability between 1 and :.'. There are theoretical reasons
for believing that a limit exists to the intensity of magnet-
ization which can be reached. The induction can always be
increased with the increase of (>, for 23 = .& -(- 4ir3. If,
after a piece of iron has been magnetized, the magnetizing
force is gradually reduced again to zero, and the corre-
sponding change in » observed, we obtain what is known
as the descending curve of magnetization. It is found that
the value of 'S corn^sjujuding to a given value of ^ is always
greater when the magnetization is decreasing than when it
is increasing — i. e. the descending curve lies above the as-
cending. The amount of magnetization remaining in a
piece of iron after the magnetizing force is removed is
called the residual magnelL-^m. Its amount in the case of
any given sample of inm is found to depend not only on the
quality of the iron, but on the shape of the specimen. A
short liar, for esam|)le, on account of the demagnetizing in-
fluence of its induced
poles, will ."^how very
little residual magneti-
zation; while a ring of
iron, even though quite
soft, will remain strong-
ly magnetized for a long
time after the magnetiz-
ing force has been with-
drawn. Since, in the lat-
ter case, the magnetic
circuit is closed, there
are no poles to exert a
demagnetizing influence.
Fig. 2 shows t he behavior
of a ring of soft iron
when carried through a
comidete cycle of mag-
netization; i. e. .fi is first
carried to a maximum in the positive direction, then reduced
to zero and carried to an equal negative value, and finally
brought again to zero. After this process has been repeated
several times the curve will be found to repeat itself. The
residual magnetism of the .specimen is shown by the line OM
or OM'. The value of i> which is required to destroy this
residual magnetism is called the coercive force, and is given
in the figure by ON or ON'. The residual magnetism of
soft iron is very high (from 70 to 90 per cent, of the total
induct i(m), but on account of its small coercive force a short
bar of iron will re- jj^
tain scarcely any
magnetization after is.*")
the magnetizing ,,505
force is removed.
Cast iron and steel "*•'"'''
show considerably to j.ooo -
less residual mag-
netism than soft
iron when in the
form of rings (40 to
60 per cent.); but
when in the form
of bars, their high
coercive force ena-
bles them to retain
more residual mag-
netism than iron.
For small magnet-
izing forces (less
than 1 ('. G. S.) the
permeability of soft
iron is very small,
e. g. about I.IO in
one case. The residual magnetism in such cases is also a
very small fraction of the total induction. The residual
magnetism for a wrought-iron ring is shown in Fig. I!. The
magnetic properties of a metal may also be shown liv curves
which show the value of the permeability for dilTer'ent val-
ues of the magnetizing force or the magnetic induction. lu
FiQ. 2.— Cyclic curve of magnetization.
<,ooo
3.000
2.000
1.000
^
^
/
y
/
/
/
r
/
.^
ii>
—
-
j
^
1
/
/
'
//
Fio. 3.-
01 23< 6«7 8eiO
MAGNETIZING FORCE, n
-Restdiial magnetism in wrought-iron
ring.
MAGNETISM OF lUOX
4«5
«,uuo
5S.
^
1
'^,
J-«,000
5,m
/
N
ie...
;/1
/
\
cc
/
\
0
/
N
2,1
tfiM C.OOO H,UU 10.000 12,000 K.UOO IC.OOO
INDUCTION, ^
Fio. 4.— Permeability curve.
Fig. 4 a curve (Rowland) is Riven showinR the permeability
i<f a ring of Norway iron fur dilfurent values of Ibe induc-
tion. The specitic inagnelic resi-slance (the reciprocal of /»)
may likewise bo plotted as a function of SJ or i. Cunes
are .sometimes used showing the relation between the inten-
sity of magnet-
i/jition 3 and
the magnetiz-
ing force, but
these diiler but
little from
those showing
the relation be-
tween S) and
,&. The curves
here given are
typical, but the
results will, for
different speci-
mens of iron,
vary through more or less range according to the chemical
composition and proceiM of manufacture.
liysterenis Lun-i. — When a current flows in a circuit, en-
ergy is stored up in the magnetic field. When the current
ceases to flow, all this energy is restored to the circuit if
there is no neighboring magnetic material; but if the field
is in part set up through iron or other magnetic substance,
some of the energy is dissipated in hysteresis, increasing the
molecular energy of the iron, and only part is restored to
the circuit. For any cyclic change in the magnetization of
iron, the curve showing the relation between the intensity
of nuignetization and the inagnetizing force forms a loop,
the area of which, namely, /4)<i3. is a measure in ergs of the
energy dissipated percyde pcrcubic centimeter. If the curve
is drawn so as to show the relation between 9 and ^, as in
Fig, 2, then the energy dissipated per cycle is j- fiidS.
The persistence of the magnetic state due to hysteresis
causes the rate of change of magnetization to be slow imme-
diately after a reversal of the inagnetizing force. This is
shown bv the nearly horizontal direction of the curve after
reversal ; at this time , . may be less than 200, whereas it is
often over 14,0<X) at the steepest portion of the curve. After
a loop is formed (Fig. 5) by the removal and reapplication
of the magnetizing force, when
the magnetizing force is increased
up to its old value, the magneti-
zation usually has a higher value
than before. A loop higher than
the first is founil by a second re-
moval and reapplication of the
force; the process becomes cyclic
after several rejietitions. Evi-
dently, on account of hysteresis,
9 and 3 are not simple func-
tions of ^. For one value of $)
we mav have any value of S) and
3 within the 'hysteresis loop.
Moreover, the gradient at any point is not fixed. When
iron is perfectly demagnetized the direction of the curve, i. e.
its initial permeability, depends upon the direction by which
it was brought to zero. In Fig. 6 compare the solid curve
A' B' O C, in which B O C is reversed at zero, and .\ B O C,
in which B 0 C is continuous through zero. The greater per-
meability, imlicated by the
slope OC being greater than
that of OC, shows a greater
readiness of the curve to pass
continuouslv through zero.
This prejudice of the iron can
not he known without a knowl-
eiige of its previous history.
It may be remove<l by demag-
netization by reversals. Stoin-
inetz has experimentally in-
vestigated the subject of hyste-
resis loss, and has formulated
the following experimental
law: The hysteresis loss per
._ n, ,, cubic centimVter i>or cycle =
^ /*'>_ .-"'N ^ where ij is a constant coellicient dependent
upon tlie material, and S, and 9, are the limits of mag-
Fio. 5.— Effect of removal
and reapplication of
magnetizing force.
no. 8.— EHect of previous his-
tory upon curve of magueti-
Eatiim.
<9,-!B,\'*
Fio. T.— Enerjjy of
niafrnetizatioD.
netizjition. For soft iron i| is -002 approximately. "With
the value ij = -002 above, the energy lost per cutjic centi-
meter per cycle for 8 = 16,000 is 10,657 ergs = —/t)rf8 =
/■&(i3. The rate of expemliture of energy de|ieiids u|k)Ii
the rapidity of reversal. Let n = complete reversals jier sec-
ond ; then watts = "P^iy^ ^ -?^ r^^ If n = 100 re-
versals per secoiid, and /^(/3 = 10.000 ergs jwr cubic centi-
meter \tvr reversal, the ex|jeuditure of energy is '1 watt for
each centimeter of volume, or 13 watts per kilogramme, or
01) watts per pound. These figures apply to goini soft iron
taken through the complete range of magnetization 100
times |>er second. In exceplionally gixnl sfH'ciniens the loss
is below these figures, and in some cases is half as much
again. The losses in cast iron magnet-
ized to saturation are three or four times
as much. The losses for nickel and co-
balt are between wrought and cast iron.
Steel losses vary from those given above
to five or six limes as much. Ilopkin-
son found loss twenty times as much in
an exceptional jjiece of oil-hardene<i
steel containing carlxju. tungsten, and
manganese. These last data are for
high magnetization reversals. The
(iiiiuiinl of enen/y stored in a field at
any time is shown by the area fi>d9,
included between the 9-axis and the
curve of magnetization, as shown by
the shaded area in Fig. 7. 11'= —/9(7.{> i>er cubic centi-
meter.
Fuiicaiill Ciirrenlg. — If a mass of conducting material be
moved in a magnetic field ciirretils will, in general, be in-
duced by the movement in it. These currents are called
foiicaiilf or eddy ciirrenln. and always give rise to a waste
of energy. Since the electromotive force induced by the
motion is proportional to the speed, and since the eddy cur-
rents are proportional to the electromotive force, the heat
developed must varv as the stpiare of the speed, other things
being equal. The loss of energy due to foucault currvnis
is also proportional to the conductivity of the moving mate-
rial. Eddy currenls are developed in stationary masses by any
change in the number of lines through them. The lamina-
tion of armature-cores, transformer cores, etc., is in order to
prevent as far as possible the development of eddy currents
and the consequent loss of energy. Steinmetz formulates
an empirical law for the losses due to"eddy "or "foucault "
currents induced in the iron by a reversal of magnetization :
thus eddy eiirreiil loss per ciibic centimeter per cycle =
•'* ( T ) ' w''*!™ • 's * constant dependent upon the ma-
terial (about 7-5 X 10-' for well-laminated soft ir»in). n is the
frequency of complete reversal, and 9i. 9> the limits of
magnetization as before. The lossi-s caused by the reversal
of the magnetization of iron are of imjiorlancc in connec-
tion with the construction of armatures for dynamos and
motors. In these the magnetizatiim is reversed for every
revolution of the armature. Foucault currents and hyste-
resis are undesindjle for two reasons: First, on account of
the rise of temperature caused theri'by; and second, on ac-
count of the energy dissipated and the conseoiient decrease
in efliciencv. Foucault currents may be reduced by lami-
nation, but" not so hysteresis, which can onlv be reiluce<l by
improving the quality of the iron. These losses due to re-
versal of magnetization become inqHirtant in the case of
alternating current apparatus in which the magnetization
is reversed for every alteriiiition. thus passing through a
cy<le perhaps in the one-hundredlh of a s»-cond.
' Effects of I'hysiral Ctinnt/e upon Miiiinrlic Siibslanfes.—
Temperature changes have a marked efliit which i' difTer-
enl for different liegn-esof mBgnelizalion. AIk)v. 1
critical temperature iron is non-magnetic. At
niarke<l molecular cliangi-s take place, iiin! tin
many of the physiial cciii-itaiils iliang^ nlinii'tly
ing, a generation of heat tak' - i ' >■ ■ i^' -t •:
pa.ssed, ami for a short tinn' •
or rises slightly and the inm 1
it is all the time ratlialing heal.
recalescener. Under n weak innf
bilitv increjuses at first gradiiniiy. »r
then suddenly, until the temperature 7
Ii
,-.H,l-
int is
■■ adv
iigh
. 1- called
■ ]ieniiea-
iiie ieiii|>«'nilun%
is roacheal, when
256
466
MAGNETISM OF IKON
lOo 300 300 100 .'lOO coo
TEMPERATURE
Fio. 8.— Effect of temperature on permett-
bUity.
^
■coRVE
I.
1
CURVE
11.
0 20 10 00
TIME IN 6ECON08
Fio. 9.— Increase of mag-
netization with time.
it quickly drops to zero at TSS". Beyond this point it is
non-maguetic. Tliis is shown in Fig. D, curve I., for ^ = 0'3.
Forstronj; iimj:netiz-
in;; force.-; the |ierine-
ability cliiinf;es but
little "with the tem-
perature, but finally
falls off to zero at
785'. In curves 11.
and III. in Fi,^'. 8
is shown the varia-
tion in permeabili-
ty for niagnetizing
forces of 4, and 45 C.
G. S. units, re.-ipective-
ly. Stress produces
clianjre in magnetic
qualities, these effects
being more marked
in tiie case of hard-
ened than annealed
iron. A moderate pull increases the permeability when
magnetization is weak, but decreases it when strong. A
strong pull always decreases the permeability. After stretch-
ing the permeability is less. Pressure decreases permeabil-
ity. Vibration dnninishos all re-
sidual actions, and facilitates the
rearrangement of the molecules so
that the body is more free to as-
sume a new state ; thus there is
little difference in the ascending
and descending curves of magnet-
ization. This effect is greater in
soft than in hard iron. It is very
great when the magnetizing force
is small, but is scarcely noticea-
ble in strong fields. Although
an appreciable time is taken in
changing the magnetization of a
piece of iron, the timcAag is
small, and is of little practical im-
portance. Such effect is shown
bv the curves in Pig. 9 for the magnetizing force of .Ji =
•081 and -035.
Ejrperimenfal Determination of Curves of Magnetization.
— The ways of determining the magnetic properties of a piece
of iron are many and various, some being valuable for their
accuracy and others for their convenience. They consist in
determining, either directly or indirectly, the amount of mag-
netization produced by a (ferlain magnetizing force. Pieces
of various shapes are used in the different methods, and more
or less error from the demagnetizing effects of the ends may
be introduced. To avoid these errors we may employ (1)
an endless piece, as a ring, with uniform section and wind-
ing; (2) a rod with ends far removed (for instance, with
the length equal to 400 times its diameter), in which the
effects of the ends are negligible; or (3) a long ellipsoid in
which correction can be made for the demagnetizing effect.
Ellipsoids are hard to shape and so are scarcely practicable,
but when they are used they should be quite long, inas-
much as slight irregularities produce large errors in the
case of short ones. The correction for a long rod is practi-
cally the sfinie as for an elli[isoid.
Magneloinrlric Methods. — These methods are among the
oldest, being due to Jli'iller, but are now little used. A
magnetized bar or an ellipsoid is placed near the magnet-
ometer-needle, frr)m the deflection of which the intensity of
magnetization may be calculated. In these methods the
forces due to the magnetized bar deflect the needle against
the directive force of the earth's field, which must therefore
be known for alisulute measurement.
Jiiilfinre Mcllio/I.i. — In these methods the magnetometer-
needle is acted upon by an unknown force due to the piece
of iron being tested, and also by a known force from a com-
pensating magnet. These are usually adjusted differentially
so as to give no deflection. In this class may be placed
Hughes's magnetic balance, Eickcmeyer's differential mag-
netometer, etc.
Edimn'H Magnetic Bridge. — A magnetic briilge similar
to the Wheal stone bridge for measuring resistance has been
devised by I'dison for delennining the magnetic properties
of iron. The ends of the bridge are subjected to a differ-
ence of magnetic potential. The four arms are of iron and
are a<ljusted until a raagnetomcter-needlo across the middle
Fia. 10.— Ewliig"s magaetic curve tracer.
of the bridge shows no deflection, and indicates no differ-
ence of magnetic potential.
Tractive Mel/toda. — \arious devices of divided rings and
divided bars have been used by which the tractive force can
be measured and the value of 33 obtained. They arc not
capable of a high degree of precision, but are convenient
for ready calculation. S. P. Thompson has devised an in-
strument, which he terms a permeamcter, based upon this
principle.
EiviiKj's Magnetic Curve Tracer. — Prof. Ewing has de-
vised an automatic instrument for determining the relation
between S and 4>.
The instrunient is
shown in Fig. 10,
and consists of a
mirror which may
be given a vertical
and a horizontal
movement, shown
by a spot of light
on a screen. The
horizontal move-
ment is made to
depend upon the
magnetizing cur-
rent of the test-
jiiecc, and is there-
fore a measure of
^. The magnetization S3 is shown by the vertical motion
which is obtained by a wire carrying a constant current,
which is drawn into a slit in the magnetic circuit as the in-
duct ion increases.
Ballistic Method. — This method is due to Weber, and
is the one in most general use. The induction in the tcst-
])iece is made to vary through any cycle desired bv a series
of " steps," each change being jirodueed by a sudden varia-
tion in tlic magnetizing current. The instantaneous cur-
rent induced in a " secondary " coil surrounding the test-
piece is then measured by means of a ballistic galvanometer,
and is proportional to the change in A' that produced it.
The test-piece may be in the form of a long rod, but more
commonly the magnetic current is completely chased an<lthc
sample is in the form of a ring. Now, if the rush of current
takes place almost instanlaneously (as will be the case unless
the specimen is without lamination, and so large that the
change in A' is retarded by eddy currents), the throw of the
ballistic galvanometer (for small deflections) will be propor-
tional to Q. |) can be computed from the strength of the
magnetizing current ; S can of course be obtained from SS',
if the cross-section is known. To reduce the specimen to a
non-magnetic condition, before beginning the test it should
be annealed ; or, if this is not convenient, it may be demag-
netized by reversals. The latter process consists in send-
ing an alternating current through the magnetizing coil,
beginning with a rather large value and gradually reducing
it to zero by introducing resistance. The same result may
be accomplislied by using a continuous current, which is re-
versed by hand ami at the same time gradually reduced in
intensity. The maximum current shiuild bo greater than
any current that has previously been used to magnetize the
specimen. Unless the iron is quite hard, this treatment will
reduce it to a neutral condition.
In determining hysteresis loops, the iron should be car-
ried through several complete cycles before beginning the
observations, in ordi-rlo luiike sure tluit the curve will re-
peat itself. Preliminary denuignelization is unnecessary.
For ordinary " ascending curves" of magnetization, how-
ever, it is very imjiortanl that the specimen should origi-
nally be in a neutral condition, otherwise the curves ob-
tained will be distortcil and useless. Care must be taken
in using the method of "sleiis" to make the changes of cur-
rent continuiius. While going up the curve, for example,
the current should not be diminished or broken, even for an
instant. The rcsistanec-box by which the current is varied
must be constructed with this point in view. A modifica-
tion of the ballistic method is sonu'tinu'S used, in which N
is determined from the throw of the needle that is obtained
when the magnetizing current is s\i(ldenly reversed. In this
case the throw is proporlioniil to 2A'. In the case of hard
iron there is some danger of this method leading to incor-
rect results, but with soft specimens it is often more con-
venient than the "step" method. Ilopkinson has devised
an apparatus consisting of a divided bar and a yoke; the
induction is measured by separating the two parts of the
MAGNETISM OF IROK
MAGNETISM, TEKRKSTKIAL
467
bar and allowing the test-coil to be drawn suddenly away
by means of a sj>riiig.
Theory of Mayrielinm. — Inasiniich as the phenomena of
magnetization are manifested chiefly upon the surface, it is
natural that one of the earliest theories slunild be that in
which magnetism is considered as being caused by two
fluids of opposite polarity distributed upon the polar sur-
face. As in the theories of electricity, it was supposed that
these fluids were equal in amount, and in an unmagneti/.ed
bar conibiiieil and unnuli'd each other. In accordance with
this fluid theory, magnetization consisted in the separation
of the positive' and negative niagnelisms to the two poles.
Such a theory is now abandoned, although commonly used
to explain certain phenomena as forming a convenient
mathematical conception in the solution of certain prob-
lems. It is now well known that the magnetic state is con-
tinuous throughout the whole magnet, for the smallest
pieces into which a magnet may be broken will exhibit
magnetic polarity. \Vc may suppose, therefore, that if we
subdivide the niagnet into separate molecules, each will
itself be a magnet with a north and south pole. The ques-
tion then presents itself, of what does the process of mag-
netization consist f Poisson explains the process as con-
sisting of the magnetization of each molecule si'parately ;
the molecules are fixed in position, and become magnets
only when the bar is magnetized. According to \Vel)er,
each molecule is always a magnet, whether the bar as a
whole is magnetized or not ; in an unnuignetized bar, these
have no regularity of arrangement, and therefore exhibit no
resultant polarity. The apjilication of a magnetizing force
rotates these molecular magnets until their axes are more or
less parallel. In the interior of the magnet the molccides
are so arranged that each north pole is adjacent to the south
pole of a neighboring molecule. This theory of Weber, or
a modification of it, is the one now commonly accepted. As
to the cause of the polarity of each separate molecule, we
can reach no definite conclusion. Ampere, one of the
earliest experimenters in electro-magnetism, conceived the
idea that circular currents are continually flowing in each
molecule. When the molecules are brought into an orderly
arrangement by the application of a magnetizing force, the
currents in anv two adjacent molecules in the interior of
the magnet will be in opposite directions, and will there-
fore neutralize each other. The currents on the outside of
the magnetized bar will, however, be unneutralized, and the
magnetization is seen to be the same in effect as a current
of electricity flowing around the bar as a whole. Any the-
ory of magnetization to be adequate must explain the ob-
served phenomena, including saturation, residual magnet-
ism, hysteresis, etc. Iniusmuch as the application of a small
magnetizing force does nut immediately magnetize the bar
to saturation, it is evident that the nu)lecules are moved
against some constraining force. Weber supposed the ex-
istence of some directive force by which the molecules were
constrained to remain in the positions they originally occu-
pied in the unmagnetized bar. Maxwell extended VVeber's
hypothesis by assuming that the deflecte<l molecules acquire
a permanent set, thus accounting for the phenomenon of
hysteresis. Some have explained the resistance to molecular
movement as being the resistance due to friction ; but if
this were so we would not expect any magnetization to result
from small magnetizing forces, and we would eipect that
after a bar had been once magnetized the molecules would
remain in their deflected position even after the removal
of the magnetizing force.
Swing's Theory. — Ewing explains the phenomenon of
magnetization by means of the mfilecular magnets of Weber
and Ampere, under the assumption of directive force due to
their own mutual actions. By this hypothesis he explains
the known facts and interprets the curve of magnetization
0.
0
0
M tuOMtrrtma rowcf
iiTiAL tTATC (a)
0
0
0
0
MtALL
H Aoai r I f I NO ro*ci
o.
X9.
a
•a
Mco»o aTAOi (r)
"^
-e-
e-
e-
■ua«iTiji««raac*
THiao tTAai till
Flo. II.— Slajres "f mttKiictiration.
in a .satisfactory manner. Ry this theory the molecules in an
unmagnetizeil bar would be in a slate of equilibrium, as far
aa their mutual attractions and repulsions are concerned, as
is illustrated in Kig. ll(n), where the simple case of a grouu
of four molecules is represented. Supjiose now that a 6mall
magnetizing force |) be applied, as represented in Fig. 11(A),
the magnets will be slightly deflected from their initial
position, Ijut will still be in a state of equilibrium. As the
magnetizing force increases, this deHecli.m increa-ses until
a point is reached, whereupon the molecules fly around into
such a position as that in Fig. ll(r). As the magnetizing forco
is further incretiseil the elementary magnets would tend to
turn into a direction parallel with it, but would be restrained
by their own mutual actions. Saturation would only bo
attained when this condition of parallili.sm is reached. Of
coursi\ in an actual magnet the grouping would benmch more
complex than the simple one here described. Certain groups
of molecules would swing around from one state of equilii>-
rium to another before other groups, according to their
relative positions. This theory accords well with observed
|>heno[nena ; for small magnetizing forces the niagnet izat ion
IS small, and there is scarcely any residual mugiietisin. This
means that the molecules are turned but little from their
initial position. and return to it when the magnetizing force
is removed. This stage is one of equilibrium. The succeed-
ing stage, for an increasing magnetizing force, is the one in
which the several groups are swinging around into approxi-
mate parallelism with the magiutiziiig force, and is one of
unstable equilibrium. The third stage begins after /all the
groups are more or less parallel with the magnetizing force,
and here an increa.se in magnetizing force can increase the
magnetization but little. When the magnetizing force is
removed, many of the groups remain nearly in the position
in which they were left, residual magnetism being thus ac-
counted for. The a.scending and descending cur>'e8 of mag-
netization, therefore, do not coincide, that is, there is hys-
teresis. When a molecule is swung around from one pjsition
of stable equilibrium to another, it os<'i Hates back and forth,
and flnallv comes to rest when this motion has lieen damped
by the eddycuiTents it set up. The energy lost by hysteresis
is thus explained. The remliness with which a bar rcsjiomU
to a magnetizing force when tajiped or vibrated is accounted
for by the fact that the molecules are more free to move on
account of the vibration. The increased permeability of a
piece of iron when heated is due to the vibration of the mole-
cules which the heat produces. As the heating is increased
the vibration of each molecule increases, and finally becomes
a rotation at that temperature at which the iron becomes
non-magnetic. The lime-lag in magnetization is explained
hy the fact that the molecular groupings are broken down
by degrees, one molecule swinging around first, and then
others in rapid succession. The theory of magnetism thus
briefly outlined has been carefully worked out by Prof.
Ewing. It is not necessary to explain the nature of the
molecular magnets. Objection has been rai.se<l to Ampere's
theory of circular currents; for, how are these currents
maintained f They are not supplied with energy from any
external source, and to maintain a flow of current again.xt
a resistance necessitates an expenditure of energy. To many
this object ion seemed fatal, but Lo<lgo boldlv explains it by
saying that the resi.slancc of a molecule is nil, and that it is
no' more preposterous to assign to a molecule an infinite
conductivity than an infinite elasticity, as is universally
done. We end, then, as we liegan, bv n-cognizing the close
correlation of magnetism and electricity. Our liypothes«-s
explain not what electricity and magnetism actually are,
but how they act and are manifesle^l ; that hyfK)thesi.5 is ac-
cepted as Iwst which best a<conls with known facts, and any
hypothesis must lie considered simply as tentative, to be re-
placed by comprehensive theory, as we acquire increased
ability to hxik into the secrets of nature.
Frepebick Bedell.
Maif netism. Terrestrial : In onler that the development
of the subject of terri'strial magnetism may tie understood,
since the time <if the discovery uf the din-dive influence of
the earth on the compa.s.s-needle, it will be inni's.'Miry to con-
sider briefly the magnetic conditions surrounding a spherical
magnet. It has been found that the earth may In- tri-atj-il
as a great magnet, so far as il.s action upon s fre«'ly sus-
pended needle is concerneil. Take first ir liere
magnetized homogeneously thrfupln'iit its and
the distribution of the magnetic fi>n'es will !•■ .•- ii...i.«te<l
in the diagram, which is the section of a magnetiz»l sphere
along its axis of iMilarizalion.
A ixilarized sphere may b«' treated a» if it ha<l one of its
hemispheres, marked + iii the figurx-, covered with poeitiro
468
MAGNETISM. TEKRESTKIAL
magnetic matter, and the other, marked — , covered with
iiefrative iiiajriu'lie matter. The lines of ma}nieti<^ force orij;-
iiiate in the surface of the positive hemisphere, and proceed
to the sarface of the negative hemisphere along two sets of
Negative
Positive
Fio. 1.— Section of a magnetized sphere alon^ its axis of polarization.
paths, on the outside in wide sweeping curves, as indicated.
' and on the inside in straight lines parallel to the axis of
magnetization.
If Vi represents the magnetic potential in the inside of
the sphere. Ton the surface, V, in the space exterior to
the sphere, (r.fl) the polar co-ordinates of any point, then
4r
V\ = -^Cr cos 0 inside the sphere, V=C cos fl im llie
3
cos S
surface of the sphere, T', = -^CM' . outside the
sphere, where C is a constant showing how strongly the
¥)here is magnetized, and B is the radius of the sphere,
hese satisfy tlie fundamental differential equation
dVi dr.
ir-^ + '^'=''-
The equation for the lines of force is
„ 8ir, „ „ sin* 9
and for the corresponding equipotential surfaces,
y representing the order of a line of force, and F„ the sur-
face density of magnetic matter, on the axis at the surface
of the sphere. Important derived formulas are, tan/ =
2 cos 9 = 2 tan <p. where / is the angle with the tangent to
the surface at which the line of force pierces it, called the
inclination, <p the magnetic latitude, and 9 the magnetic
polar distance. ^jn g
The tangential component of force, i^t =|ir.C/i' , .
The normal component of force, F„ = iw.CR' —r-.
The poUr component of force Ff = - U-CR'^^—^^^^.
The equatorial component of force, I\ = ^.CR*'— — -r — ^.
The moment of the sphere, M= ^Cr cos fl.
The whole quantity of magnetism, m = {'i/wRfC.
For the purposes of drawing a typical diagram these simple
forms sufTice, W = r cos 9, V, = ' ^— , as has been the case
in Fig. 2 (given on page 460). This theoretical case is
analogous to the magnetic condition of the earth. The
southern hemis[)here is positively magnetized, and the
northern hemisphere is negatively magnetized, and hence
the magnetism is called respectively austral magnetism
in the .southern and Iwueal magnet ism in the nnrlhern.
The prom'rty of a magnet, freely suspeinled in a mag-
netic field, is to take up a direction parallel to llie lines
of force of the field, and in such a position thai the positive
end of the magnet is nearest the region of negative poten-
tial, while the negative end of the magnet is nearest the re-
gion of positive potential of the field. Then starting at the
surface of the earth in the southern hemisphere, the free
Thus it is proper to employ all the mathematics of the com-
position and the resolution of forces in the case of repulsion.
magnet will point aliove the horizon, with whicli it will
make an angle of negative ineliniilioii, called —7; on trav-
eling along this line of force till it reaches its point of en-
trance at the surface of the northern hemisphere, the same
needle would i>oint downward, and make with the plane of
the horizon an angle of positive inclination, + 1. IMms the
positive end of a free needle is called the north-seeking and
the negative the south-seeking. Ixfause if disturbed from
the dirt-etion <if the line of force it will seek to resume the
position just indicated.
There is another method of regarding this matter, re-
lated closely to the forces of repulsion involved. All the
material in the universe seems to divide itself into two gen-
eral classes, first, that in which the parts attract each oilier,
in accordance with Newton's law of gravitation, + — j^ =/.;
and second, that in which the parts repel each other, in ac-
cordance with the .same law, — - =.fr, /. and /, repre-
senting the forces of attraction and repulsion, respectively.
F.Iectricity and magnetism include this latter case. Suppose
an isolated positive pole (which it is impossible to produce in
practice) were situated at any |K)int of one of the lines of
force indicated in the diagram, it would tend to travel along
this line under the force of rejiulsion, just as an attractive
jiarticle of matter tends toward the center of gravitation.
proper ti
id tlie re
just as in the case of attraction. Every line of force has a re-
pulsion at each point peculiar to ils<-lf, and the equal repul-
sions may be marked out by equipotential surfaces. If we
take a unit length of the line of force at the surface of tlie
earth, in which the magnet lies, it may be considered as hav-
ing a certain total intensity T, resolvable into two compo-
nents, first. //. horizontal alongthe magnetic meridian, posi-
tive to the noi-th conlinuouslv : and second, l', vertical along
the normal, jiositive upward in the southern hemisphere,
and jmsitive downward in the northern hemisphere, as the
preceding formulas indicate; or Tinay be best taken posi-
tive downward in the northern and negative upward in the
southern hemisphere, to (onform to the conventional viUues
of the inclination /. There hjis been great diversity of use
among inagneticians regarding the choice of co-ordinates
and absolute uuits of measurement, but it is believed that
the system of co-ordinates here indicated is the most suit-
able. For systems of units there have been extensively
used the following :
Foot-grain-second (F. G. S.), called the British units.
Jlillimeter-milligramme-secoud (M. M.S.), called the metric
unit.
Centimcter-granmie-second (C. G. S.) unit.
There are also others which occur in Gauss and in German
authors.
The following table gives the factors for transformation
from one system to the other ;
TABLE (JIVIXO THE Nl'>IERll-.M, FACTOKS FOR PASStXO FKOM
ONE SYSTE.M OF r.VITS To A.NOrllEK.
SYSTEM OF
USI-TS.
GlOH.
COOIDOB
Brithh.
Mttrlc
C. O. S.
Enoiplc.
Oauss
Common use
British
Metric
C. O. S
10
1000-0
13197
2M3-2
2802-0
0-001
1-0
0 13197
0-28B2
2-802
0- 0075778
7 ,5778
1-0
a 1UR7
21-087
00034941
3-4941
04611
10
100
0-0O0.S4941
0-34941
0-(M6U
0-1
1-0
1357-0
1-3S7
10-283
4-7414
0-47414
It is agreed that the C. G. S. system shall be the one
adopted in magnetic science for the future, and all values
should be reduced to it. Mo<lern observations are for the
most part found in (F. (!. S.) Hrilish,(M. N. S.) metric, and
((". G. S.) units, anil lieiK-e the fnelors are 0-04(ill for the
(F. G. S.). and 0-1 for the (M. y\. S.) systems. Great confu-
sion exists in published magnetic observations by reason of
the dilTerent systems of units, systems of lime for observa-
tions, and systems of principle for the instruments. The
latter will be explained in a later panigra|>h. Under time it
is noted that some use: Local mean liiiie; local mean time,
astronomical reckoning; Gi'ltliiigen mean time; local mean
lime, with correclion to the lu-arest hour of even (Jollingen
lime. The influence of (iauss and Weber was such that
Gdttingen receiveil an undue prominence as the center from
which magnetic times should be reckoned for the purpose of
simultaneous observations, as in the stati-d intervals of the
so-called ■■ term ihivs." It would be better to use Greenwich
MAGNETISM, TERKESTIilAL
4C9
I'OSITION OK TUB UAIiNETIC
POLES IN LATITUDE AND LrONOITCDE.
KFOCII.
Vuhoi.
MORTH lUaNBTIO POLC. |
soiTB MAOiimo roLm.
AMWHt.
LsUloda.
Uaflua*.
Aatkirily.
LalilaAa.
LMOtlll..
I8S0
C.
c.
Ol>g.
c.
c.
c.
c.
Uauas
+73° sr
+70° 7'
+ 7s° ais'
+70* ao-
+70« 0-
93° 5«' W.
98° SO' W.
9.-)° 0- W.
9r.° .•)»' w.
IU« .VJ' w.
94° ao' w.
-7f 85' K.
-7S»4U'8.
-TyfiCB.
-7iC»"8.'
-isa-so-E.
-1I10«45'E
-14;° 0' K.
-15S* 0' K.
15S* 80' K
1889
Eriiion and Peteraea
ROKS
Erman and Hetvraeo. . . .
1M0-4S
Alrv
LiMiistroiii
NewiiiuytT
LeUiBtroui
ISOO
1800
Schott
mean time for such purposes, because of its adoption in
astronnmical and civil rockuniiif;, uud bci-ausu iiiu^netic
phenoincnii huvo certainly an u.-^truiKnuical side to tliciii.
In the suiiiu' way muKnelic latitudes and Idiifjiludes were
taken on a different system fniin the astnmoniieal and geo-
graphical oii-ordinates, but they shiiuld be restored to the
common system. Gauss used » = north polar dislance, A cast
longitude, and r distance from the earth's center, X in the me-
ridian north, }'|ior|)endieulareast, /f positive upward. Max-
well uses A' to the north, 1' to the west, .^ upward : but, as al-
ready indicated, the best system is //=: Tens 7, 1'= Tsin /,
the convention being that I is positive in the northern and
negative in the southern heniisi>here. At the .sjime time the
convention for /> (declination) is positive to the west and
negative to the ca.st,so that theazinmth rotation isX. W.S. E.
The magnetic poles of the earth do not coincide with the
poles on the axis of revolution, and therefore a complica-
tion is introduced into the conditions bv the simultaneous
existence of these two polar syslem.s. The positions of the
magnetic poles are not very well determined at any epoch,
though several attempts have been made to define them
both by cOMiputalioii and by ob.servation.
It wdl be seen that the location of the poles is derived
almost exclusively from computation, and that tliey are not
accurately known. The poles themselves arc supposed to be
changing along the surface of the earth, and it is therefore
necessary to locate them carefully at some epoch in order to
kiiow the rate of siu-li motion.
The combination of the two systems is shown in Fig. 2.
Let yAS represent the meridian on which a northern
station, --1, is lix-ated ; yBSthe meridian on which the sta-
tion li is situated, such that the sjime wiilc sweeping line of
force, BOA. passes through each: If 1) is the declination,
positive west ; if I is the inclination. p<isitive below horizon ;
if Tis the total intensity, positive along the line of force;
if/Tisthe horizontal i-omponent, positive northward ; and if
Fis the vertical component, positive downward, the relative
positions at the two stations are illustrated on the diagram
by the arrow-lines.
In onler to show the type of changes through which these
elements pa-ss in dilTereiit parts of the earth, a table com-
piled for the most important observatories, where more or
less continuous observations have been made, given for tlie
epoch of the mean observations, is addeil.
Such observations with portable instruments haTc liceii
made in widely extended regions of the earth as [HTmit tlio
construction of charts, showing by means of continuous
curves the places where a given element has the sjime val-
ues. These curves of equal declination, and eoual ineliiia-
tion, and of c(|ual horizontal, equal vertical, ami equal total
forces, have been conslnictetl by magnet iciaiis. notably by
Gauss, Erman and Petersen, Airy, Scliott, and Neumaver,
Those for equal declinations are especially u.seful in naviga-
tion, and all the sailing charts furnished by hydrographiu
offices have the lines of equal declination marke<l upon them,
so that the deviation of the compass direction, which is that
of the horizontal component, may be allowed for in the navi-
gation of vessels.
Neumayer's chart of eoual declinations for the year 18fiO,
which faces this page, will serve as a specimen.
The magnetic meridians form continuously varying angles
THE XAONETIC ELEMENTS AT THIBTY
IMPORTANT STATIONS, 1>
C. O. S. ABSOLUTE UMTS AND MINITTES OF
AHC.
STA-no.v.
UlUaim.
y<m.
RoikMUl
fcna.
Taftlolfccn.
TM^Ina.
Fort Conjjer
4h. 18m. 55m.
4h. Sflni Sis.
7h. 4SII1. K».
lllh. SBni. .'ills.
-Ih. Sill. 4'.is.
Oh. 33m. .VJs
-111. .^^m 598
5h. ITiii. .'13.1.
-Ih. 40111. -JIWl.
Oh. Illlll. 4s.
.Ih. Sni. l-is
-Sh. Im. Vkl
Oh. a.'>m. 4.1
-Oh. SSin. 3.V
Oh. Om. Us
-Oh. 9m. IBta.
-Ih. 5m. Sm
-Oh. Villi. SIS.
+7h. .Mm Ss.
— Sh 3Um. Ills
-8h. 5tll. \^
-4h. .Mm llVt.
-.Ml. Simi .VN
Oh. SSm. 4SS.
-7h, 7m. lis
Sh. Sim. OS.
4h. 41m. 4Is.
-Ih. I3m .'Al
-9h. .30111. ian
-Oh. 40111 SOs.
W.
w.
w.
w.
E.
W.
E.
w.
E.
W.
W.
E.
W.
E.
E.
E.
E.
W.
E.
F-
E.
W.
E.
W.
W.
E.
E.
E.
+81° 44' 0"
+ I1C° 3.'.' 411"
+«S».38' .v."
+71° 17- 4S"
+7K°S8'Sr"
+70° 59' 48"
-rlW .%7' «9"
+4.'»° !»' 44 "
+BT° 34' .30'
+.V.° .34' 45"
+38° .\3' .39"
+ .'M>°4r 0"
+.M°Sr 0'
-i-.'v-i° sr w
+ .M° S8'.3S"
+ 48° 48' 34'-
+48° 14' 0"
+ 41° SS" 0"
+34° rw
+ 41*48' 8"
+.31° IS- .30'
+ 18°53'aO"
+ 1S« 4' 8"
-15° 88' 41" a
-8° 11' 0" S.
-.M» 51' IV' S.
-.VV sr 84" S.
-38° S«l' 0" 8.
-87° 48' 45" S,
-4S° 5S' 30" S.
188-3-83
IHSS-S:t
18NS-83
188S-K3
18KS-83
llWS-83
l»«J-83
1 81.3-48
l»«-83
ItK-l
1H90
IS83
18IS-43
I»»t!-83
n»<3
IN80
18B0
i8»e-«9
1888
1885
1883
1851-55
1811-45
itw
1*««3
I8iti-K3
lMI-18
1 858-83
1841-4(1
100° 87' W.
7S° IS' W.
411° SO' E.
!K° 37' E.
1-S° 49 W.
89° 53- W.
4° 3' W.
!• 29' W.
I'lW w.
»°It'W.
4° 6' W.
0° 4»' W
27° 17' W.
13° 54' W.
18° 15' W.
K' 14' W.
V 85' W.
IO«H'W.
14° SB' E.
0° !•■ E,
V VW.
0°»l'E.
1° 0' E.
8«« 46' W.
r 47' E.
0« 15' W.
80° HE.
w r w.
S'gS'E.
9° 47' E.
85° r
88° 58'
88* 65'
81° 88'
80«8r'
7»» *"
78* S*'
75° 15-
74° 45'
71° 15'
71* 5'
7U*44'
70-41'
88° 1'
«7«S8'
85* 18'
83° »4'
80" 43'
56° 85'
46«18'
i»*ia'
7«88-
-81° 87'
-WW
-48° 58-
-5«"S5'
-5s°sr
-87* an-
-70* 86'
005155
008879
0-07880
oat»40
O'OHBSI
009745
0 I80W
0-I8SB
0 13358
0 15803
0 19880
0 18.380
0 t818S
0 17778
0 18100
0 19681
080664
081948
osTJTa
085748
0 38911
0-S7I87
osnwa
0-85710
0 r-'.s
0 -•
0 ■>
0 .-
0 --■
0 .-
0-50190
0 59.341
08I7BO
058080
088006
OS0884
OaiMM
088000
049086
045888
057988
048888
0 48186
044080
048788
0 41081
089187
048800
0-87888
084485
0 18987
0 0S0I5
-0 lOISs
0-60340
0 58888
Fort Rap
0-88884
0'a8868
Cap Thonlsen
0-53751
OS188B
0 6I88B
0 A4I81
0-50781
MakcrtftiMin
0 4K54<I
0 61838
Pawlowsk
0 49638
Iiiihlin
WilhehnHhaven
0 48919
047488
0 4;as»
Fare St.-.Maur
Vl»»nn*
0 46.US
0 45(*«i
Pola
0 44'«l
Lo» Angeles
TIHIs
0 53781)
04!15«0
Sikawpi (Shanghai)
Boniha;
0-47833
n »«e»
0 37718
8t. Helena
0 87655
BataviA
0 48175
8Ud Qi'f-trcien
0 89088
Cape H.im
Capo Oood Hope
0 4;3»
0 8C45
061181
HobarlTim-n
0 88819
470
MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL
with the geographical meridians, as likewise the magnetic
equator with the geographical equator. Tlie maps from
Flo. o. ->urLii iiiiii4iit:lic pole.
Qanss for the year 1829 represent the magnetic meridians,
and also the lines of equal inclination, or dip, as this angle
is often called.
Soulb magnetic pole.
The map by Airy exhibits the dip and the total intensity
in a comparative way. Airy used the word blue to repre-
sent positive and red to represent negative magnetism.
The general magnetic aistribution, us seen by the lines
\ .It "|':',',7,'^*y'»»' /
Fio. 5.— Jlognetlc dip and intensity.
upon the chart.s is a very complicated matter. Tlie cliirf
points in the phenomena may be brielly summarized :
1. The surface of the globe is divideii into two hemi-
spheres of easterly and westerly declination, the meridians
of no declination being uboul 180 apart.
2. The declination increases with the latitude from the
magnetic equator to the poles in latitude about 72" north
and south.
3. There is a large area of small declination in the Asi-
atic continent called the Siberian area, and another in the
Pacific Ocean near the equator called the Pacific area.
These bear some relation to wide expanses of land and of
ocean controlling the amoiuit of the deflection.
4. The inclinati<in is greater in the regions containing the
magnetic poles than in regions of similar latitude on the op-
posite sides of the hemisphere.
5. The magnetic eiituitor intersects the geographical equa-
tor in two nodes 180 apart, and has a maximum divergence
of nearly 17° in latitude.
6. The tangent of the dip is double the tangent of the
magnetic latitude within 20 of the equator.
7. The inclination has two maxima and two minima with-
in the latitudes ± 17% and but one maximum and one mini-
mum outside of these limits.
8. The horizontal force diminishes in intensity from the
equator to the poles, where it vanishes, while the needle
loses all its directive energy at the same places.
9. In the northern hemisphere there are two unequal re-
gions of increasing dip. and similarly in the southern hemi-
sphere there are two unequal regions.
10. The inclination is greater in the regions embracing
the magnetic and geographical poles than in the corre-
sponding opposite symmetrical regions in each hemisphere.
11. The vertical intensity is less in the larger areas of
small declination in high latitudes than in the opposite
hemispherical regions.
12. The inclination and vertical intensity increase with
the latitude from the magnetic equator to the poles.
13. The focus of greatest intensity in the northern hemi-
sphere is in 52° 19 N. lat., 92° W. Ion. ; the weaker focus
in 59° 14' N. lat., 118° E. Ion. For the southern hemi-
sphere the stronger focus is at 64° S. hit., 138° E. Ion. ; the
weaker at about 64° S. lat. and 125° W. Ion.
All the knowledge of the magnetic system of the earth has
been obtained very slowly, and is the aggregate result of
the activity of many able men. One of the most noted of
these is the astronomer llalley (1656-1742). the author of an
important theory, and of charts, showing the lines of eqiial
decliiuiti(jn (hence sometimes called the llalleyan lines). The
charts, which were published in the year 1701. contained such
lines at intervals of 5' through all points of the earth's sur-
face. Other charts have been published by Mountain and
Dobson for 1745 and 1756, bv llansteen for 1787, bv Harlow
for 1833, by .Sabine for 1840." by Gauss for 1829, also revised
by Erman and Peter.sen and by Neuinayer for 1890. The
lines of etpuil declination have little value compared with
lines representing the true magnetic meridians, and in gen-
eral it was a mistake to introduce them into the science,
except possibly in the interest of navigation. Duperrey in
1836 and Airy in his treatise on magnetism published charts
of magiu'tic meridians. The same authors inclu<led in their
work other elements. Koss nuide a voyage of observation
to the north and the south nwignctic poles, and alone has at-
temjited to determine the place of 90 inclination by the u.se
of instruments.
Ex|ieditions for determining the magnetic elements have
played an impcirtani part in the progressof knowledgeof the
suliject, viz.. those of de Lamanon in 178.5-87. Kossel in 1791-
94. Humboldt 1798-1804, Lutke 1826-29. llansteen. Due,
Erman, 1827-29, Fitzrov 1831-36; the French expeditions
183.5-38, and those of Ross 1840-43, Lefroy 1843-44, Elliot
1846-.50. The two most important series of observations were
carried on in fixed observatories e.stalilished for a year or
more, one set by the liritish colonial governments, uiuler the
supervision of (ten. Sabine, including stations at St. Helena
Cape of (iooil Hope, Hobart, Toronto, and co-operating sta-
tiiins at GJittingen, .Madras. Makerstoun. Uombay, etc., from
184O-.50. In 1882-83 stations were simultaneously occupied
in the extreme northern and soutliern latitudes, in accord-
ance with the plan of the international polar commission,
atul at these stations the most accurate observations known
to nuignetic .science wi re made. A table of the stations and
of the governnu'nts under whose auspices they were estab-
lished will be found on the following page.
MAGNETISM, TERUESTRIAL
471
TABLE OF STATIONS.
STATION.
ObMrrar'a luaa.
Wohlfffniutt*.
Oodthaab
Deuiiiark
l*a<ly KrankliQ Bay.
Kiri^ia Fjurd
U. S ...
(ireely.
(jeise.
Germany
Fort Kae
Ureal Britain and Canada .
U.S
Ray.
Jurifens.
Russia
Holland
MoUer Bay
Russia
Andrt'jew.
Sodankyla ....
Finland
8t«en.
Spitzbergt'D
Sweden
France
Courcelle*Seneuil
There are also many finely equipped permanent observa-
tories, about seventy-five in number, where extensive scries
of observations have been conducteil, and about forty where
continuous self-recording instruments are in use. A brief
account of the magnetic instruments will be given, but a
full description would involve an extended study of their
many physical peculiarities.
Claasijications of Magnetic InMriiments. — Magnetic in-
struments are divided into two classes: I. for absolute meas-
ures; II. for differential measures. In the first, measure-
ments are so conducted that by suitable computations the
observed nuantities can be reduced to the corresponding
values of tne elements in minutes of arc for declination and
inclination, and to a system of absolute measures, as C. G. S.,
for the horizontal force, the vertical force, and the total
force. In the second the vacations of these angles and
forces are recorded from time lo time, so that bv compari-
son of the observed values with the known absolute values
for given instants the corresponding absolute values may
be obtained also for intermediate intervals as ref|uireu.
The labor of obtaining the absolute measures is so great
that in practice these are taken once a week in well-con-
ducted observatories, and the values for the intermediate
intervals arc derived from the combination of the absolute
and the differential measures,
TABLE OP TYPES OF INSTRL'MEKTS.
EUm«BU.
DecliDation.
Declinometer and theodolite.
A/inuitb compass.
iDclinadon.
l)ippiiip-nefdlf circle.
Earth-inductor I \\Vb<?r).
Horizontal
Sine iinitilar magnetometer
Bifllar suspension
force.
Tnnjf'nt unifllar magnetome-
ter 1 WVtx-ri.
Tangent compass and vol-
Unifllar deflection
taniet4;r.
maKnetometer
(Lamont).
Vertical
Bifllar Kalvanometer.
force.
Balance mat^netometer^Lloyd).
Llovd's balance.
l-=//tanl.
Unililar imluction
mngnetonu'ter
(Lamout).
Total force.
r=HsecI.
There is great variety among these instruments both as
to size of magnets and the |)arts. Also there are several
forms of apparatus for field observations.
For a description of magnetic instruments, including a
history of their development, reference is made to an arti-
cle by Dr. Th. Edelmann, Munich, rea<l before the Chicago
meteorological congress, 18'.t;5, and published in Bulletin
-iVo. 11. part 2, of the U. S. Weather liurcau.
The Iloriznnldl Force. — The determination of the inten-
sity of the horizontal coui|ionent of the earth's total force
depends upim a double operation : (1) the determination of
the time of vibration of tne freely suspended magnet under
the action of this component, ami (2) the di'termination of
the angle of dellection caused by a deflecting magnet
against this same force. The fori'uula may be given for
vibrations :
F
where T, is the true observed time of vibration, -..--, a cor-
rection for the effect of torsion, Q(t—t,), a correction for the
effect of temperature, - -, a correction for the induction of
the magnet.
'~-'°L WMOO 16 J-
where 7o is the observed time of the vibration.
U(MOO
, the
correction for clock rate, ', the correction for unequal
16
wT
arcs. Hence we have by theory mU = „.^, the moment of
inertia being /.
For the deflections :
where r is the distance between the centers of the magnets,
u the angle of deflection, ( 1 — — , 1, a term depending upon
the distribution of magnetism, — , a term depending upon
the induction, Q{t — /„), a correction for temperature.
Finally, mil ■*- = IJ',h\ which the horizontal component
is given. A good circumstantial account of the portable
magnetometer is to be fouml in Stewart and Gee's Practical
Physics, as of the dip circle and declinometer, pages 275-
313, to which reference is made for a description of the ac-
companying figure.
f
The Differential Apparatus. — There is one very impor-
tant system that has liocn wiilcly employed. It was intro-
duced by Lamont into Germany, and dcjKMids unon the in-
duction of soft irt)n in a varying magnetic field. If the
force of the field changes, the attractive i>ower of the mag-
net is assumetl to vary in accordance with a law which gives
a simple proportion to the n-lations of the field and the
magnet. In spite of the gn-at care exi>ende<l u|Hm this
form of instniincnt, it has never given quite so satisfactory
results as tlios<' wliirh rely upon the simple mccluinical
forces of gravitation for their action. There are two rea-
sons for this lack of precision: the first is that the mechan-
ism and the nutgnetic action is more complicateil, and there-
fore less reliable; and the second is that the doctrine of
hysteresis shows that the induction of soft iron is not •
simple function of the inducing force, but that it is a func-
tion depending ui>on the whole history of the moKi'ular
constitution of the imrticular piece of iron that is employed,
and this is so complex as to lie beyond our immediate knowl-
edge. The other system of the' apjiaratus f>r .litT-r-'ntial
measures depends uinm the bililar .Misjiensp 1*1-
anceil horizontal needle. In the bifllar tin -us-
nended by two wires, which are twisted ui. -"net
hangs at fight angles to the meridian, and i- nura
between the horizontal fori'e and the t<T ■ ■• of
gravity. The lialance is simply a magnet s.'t on an agate
edge, and weighted at one en<l, s<i that the action between
it and the vertical component pro«luces e<)uilibrium. It is
not quite scDsilivo enough to bo us uwful an instrument as
473
MAGNKTISM, TKKKESTRIAL
the deolination or the hifilar magnets, but on the whole it
is better than nnv induction apparatus. For ilitTerential
measures the majority of observatories use a unitilar sus-
pension for declination, a bitilar suspension for horizontal
force, a balance for vertical force, while a number employ,
either alone or in combination wilh the precedinj;. a unitilar
for declinalinii, a unitilar with ddlectors fur horizontal
force, u unitilar with soft-iron inductors for vertical force.
The self-registering apparatus is of the Kcw pattern, in
which all the photographic rolls are inclosed in u single dark
box, the three components having a separate cylinder for
each, or of the Mascart pattern, where all the three traces
are niatle upon the siime sheet of |iapcr. Wild has intro-
duced certain improvements in registration. Upon these
traces are recorded all the minute fluctuations through
which the terrestrial field is continually passing.
Varialiona of the Magnetic Elements at the same Station.
— It has been seen that the distribution of magnetism is of
an asymmetric kind, and does not follow any mathematical
law representing a homogeneous mass. This is no doubt
due to the mixed nature of the material inside the earth,
and it is in consequence a difficult subject to investigate.
There are also large superficial changes going on all the
time, which it is one of the chief objects of the science to
elucidate. Before attempting to describe a law to account
for these changes, it will be necessary to pass some of them
in review.
The Physical Cause of Magnetic Variations of the Ter-
restrial Field. — Through the long period of time during
which the observations of the magnetic elements have been
carried on, the causes that produce the periodic variations
have eluded analysis. Many hypotheses have been advanced
for their explanation, some ascribing them to changes orig-
inating inside the earth, others to changes in the atjnosphere,
and others to the direct magn()tic action of the other bodies
of the solar system. Probably the favorite hypotheses are
those which associate the changes with the action of heating
effects of the solar radiation, producing electrical currents
through friction and other physical conditions.
It will not be necessary to explain these suppositions fully,
because it is well known that they are wholly inadecjuate to
the purpose for which they have been invented. In view of
the lack of knowledge on this important subject, the writer
has succeeded in placing the facts in such connection as to
point very clearly to a definite solution, one which is in har-
mony with the best results of modern physics. The experi-
mental and mathematical researches of l'''araday and .Maxwell
upon the nature of electro-magnetic energy in various con-
ductors and dielectrics, combined with the later researches
of Hertz and the wonderful development of the theory and
practice of allcrnaling currents and oscillating electrical
discharges, render it almost certain that the solar radiations
are themselves electro-magnetic forms of energy. They
origiimte in the sun, by the oscillations of electric charges
upon condensers of atomic dimensions, thereby producing
variations of thousands of millions per second, and closely
associated with many physical phenomena observed in the
solar corona, the solar spectrum, and other well-known phe-
nomena. These vibrations, partly electrostatic and partly
electro-dynamic, thus also being electro-magnetic, are prop-
agated across the ether spaocs with the velocity of light.
Upon contact with the denser medium of the earth's atmos-
phere they undergo many peculiar transformations, which
It is the province of meteorology to elucidate and which
must be omitted here. These same electro-magnetic radia-
tions, in one portion of their transformation, appear to be-
have to the earth as if it were a polarized magnetic body,
and they a.ssume in its neighborhood those peculiar curves
and that complicated distribution, which is imperfectly
understood, whenever a rotating spherical magnet is placed
at varying angles of its axis of polarization to the direction
of the magnetic field. Much of this subject remains as yet
undeveloped on its analytical side, but it seems to be of
great interest. From the unpulilished material in the
writer's possession, by permission of the U.S. Weather Ihi-
reau, which has the investigation in charge, some prelimi-
nary statement of the evidence can lie made. This is of a
very complex character, and it is dilficult to convey a just
view of it in a short notice, and without the auxiliary appa-
ratus that exhibits the phenomena at one view. It was
found necessary to construct a model which should exhibit
this magnetic system as il surroumls the earth all the lime,
because the continual variations of the directiuns made il
iinpo-ssible for the mind to construct a picture from the
study of the computations by themselves. What is here
presented rests upon the best magnetic observations, which
extend over fifty years. All the testimony is taken to-
gether, so that we do not introduce any theory into the
statement. Our argument is simply to call attention to the
harmony existing between the model thus built up and the
known matheiuatical relations developed from wliolly dif-
ferent sources. The conclusion is that the solar radiation
field is magnetic, and that its lines of force pass through
the earth in the proper curves, because the earth is a better
transmitting medium for such rays than the surrounding
space dielectric. A siin]ile law, which is sometimes called
magnetic refraction, is at the basis of the phenomena. As
rays of light are transmit led through a glass sphere in pecul-
iar curves, so the magnetic rays are carried into the earth
and through it in characteristic curves.
Treatment of the Observations. — The residual values of
the elements//,/), l', as given in the reports of the thirty
observatories whose mean elements have already been com-
piled for this article, taken month by month, are treated in
the following way : These values. A//. A/>. A (', are reduced
as components of a dellecling force acting on the normal
force at the station, and their resultant determined in polar
coordinates, dj- = eill, dy = II tan A/>, dz = A V, dx, dy, dz,
being taken consistently, after all necessary reductions, in
units of the fifth decimal place of a dyne, C. G. S. units.
Then dS=^dx^,^^>:rdz^ a = ^J\^^,^ » = %
where S = thc total deflecting force, a its angle with the
plane of the horizon at the station, /3 its angle in azimuth,
counted from the magnetic meridian. Now, instead of ro-
tating the ball representing the earth about its axis in the
presence of the sun, the magnetic system is Bup|)Osed to
rotate about the surface of the earth, so that when a station
reaches a given hour-angle the deflecting force (S. o, /3) will
have its special value as given by the observations. It
would be possible thus to construct a model for each month,
but the mean of the twelve months was taken so as to pro-
duce a mean annual result. This is as if the sun were on
the equator all the year, and the magnetic axis were per-
pendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. It will be seen \i\mn
consideration that the magnetic deflecting system acts in-
stantaneously over all the surface of the earth, that each
station takes up that part of it peculiar to its place and
registers that by itself. Hence dilTercnccs of longitude and
differences of the years of the observations do not need to be
regarded, which simplifies the problem, because it is not
necessary to reduce observations to an epoch, as in other
physical functions depending upon the time. The observa-
tions therefore may ini'lude all available data that have ever
been taken, though it is to be limited to those which have
the twenty-four hourly readings, and stations may be con-
sidered as moved to the same meridian. Instead of con-
structing by order of geographical latitude, it is clearly
proper to take magnetic inclinations, calculating the mag-
netic latitude corresjionding to any inclination.
The Model. — The following description contains a state-
ment of the main features of the instantaneous magnetic
distribution as displayed by the model. The drawing (Fig.
7), however, contains some of the essential features. The
two circles represent the magnetic equator, and the two
magnetic hemispheres are orthographically projecte<l upon
that plane. The sun is on the meridian N. S., and an ob-
server at any point, local hour-angle, will see the sun in its
astronomical position.
The field is divided into two portions, the first containing
the forces which enter the surface of the earth at suitable
angles; the second comprising those forces which emerge
from the surface of the earth. The darker parts ie|j|esent the
entering forces, and the lighter parts the emerging forces.
In the northern hemisphere these forces enter the dark side
of the earth and emerge on the light side: in the southern
hemisphere lliey enter on the light side and emerge on the
<lark side, licence generally all the forces in the northern
hemisphere are directeil towanl the sun, and all the forces
in the soulliern hemisphere away from the sun; but the
northern hemisphere is a negatively magnetized region, ami
the southern hemisphere a positively magnetized region, and
therefore the norlhern hemisphere is pulleil toward the sun
anil the soulliern is pushed away from the sun. In a word,
the earth is acted niion by a niagiu'tic couple, and the field
is such that the magnelic |>oteiiliiil ilimiiiislies in the direi'-
tion from the sun outward past the earth. A magnet wilh-
I
I
MAOXKTI.SM, TKUKKSTKIAI-
473
in a nia^etic
pole is driven
of the lines of
magnet tends
field is acted upon bvannuple; its positive
and its nepitive [miIc isdruwn in tlie direction
force pa-^sin^' throujrli them. Tlie axis of tlie
to coincide as nearly as possible with a line of
FiQ. 7.
force passing throuf^h its (tenter. Wc can hardly resist the
conclusion that the radiations from the sun have the prop-
erty, amonp others, of actins; like magnetic lines of force,
and that the earth is pulled by this force continuously.
This majinetie force does not affect the solar constant of
gravitation, because it acts only as a couple; it does not
tend to alter the earth's angular vclo<;ity of rotation because
the forces are distributed symmetrically about a plane jiass-
ing through the center of the earth. This couple docs, uow-
ever, tend to draw the axis of rotation toward the plane of
the ecliptic, being a force similar to that which [)roduces
precession of the e<|uinoxcs and nutation of the poles. It is
also pointed out that it is of the right physical type to pro-
duce a change of latitude in the stations on the earth. It
will be nccessjiry here to state that the.se forc-es range in
dynes per gramnie from 0001-20 to 0-00(10.'5 C. (.}. S., and that
they will average about 0(HK).')0 if integrated over the sur-
face of the earth. The attraction of the sun at the distance
of the earth is, in the same units of abs<ilute mea.sure,
0'58y40 (". (}. S. Now, in the case of disturbances of the
magnetic field it is known that the deflet'ting forces will in-
crease from 0-00020 to at least 000200 at \Va.shington, that
is, tenfold. Hence we may .-iay verv roughly that the force
0-00050 may becroine 000.500, or alxiut one-thousamlth of the
sun's total altnictive force. This is a fair estimate of the
change in the fon-es of the couple.
The argument for the magnetic action of the sun's rays is
greatly strengthened by another phenomenon which is pres-
ent in eertnin critical places of the fielil.
If 0 is the angle that the my makes with the normal out-
side the surface, and u the angle with the normal inside the
surface, then the index of refraction is ji = .
tan «
The lines nf which the rays enter and emerge immedintely,
or,asit may N- said, are laiigi'ntial,oeouralong the unbroken
line separating the n'd and blue regions. .\t X. and S. the
forces are nearly per]iendicnlar to the surface; following the
heavy lines on either side of the jK>les, thes»> angles become
more and more inclined, till near the equator there is a
region of conflict or um-ertain directions where the two sets
of forces from opposite hemispheres change plai-CH.
The normal magnetic lield of the earth h.i ' ' n
shown to l)e subject to a system of |M-rio<lic vnr a
have lieen first studies! bv the author. On ci,i:.. ....... ...u
residuals obt^iined by suhtracling the monthly from the
dally means, in the horizontal, de^-lination, and vertical
components, the vectors that represent the.-* disturbing
fort'es are found to pass through j)erio<lic lluclualions re|>-
resented by the following curve, in a iK,-riiHl of •.'((■«» days,
with epoch June 12-22, ll#)7, Ureenwich mean time.
lists
6 7 8 9 10IlU131lldl«I7Ul»BDt;
-
1 1 1
i ! M
1 ^
'
; '
; 1
/'X^f\.
y'\.
TTV_
r \ '
/A /
\
yx
BA« LINE
i ' \
/ '\ ■/
'\
— ( 1 * i
^
H
'
i ^*^
]
1
. ,1 i I i
— -J— J L_
, , ,
_
BAacuNC-coooiit c.a.& VAiiuTioi>,i>.a
Pio. 8.— Tariatlons of the nolar polar magnetic field In the
•ai68da.v perl.p.1.
This result depends upon the KuroiM'an observations,
1878-89, seven stations, reduced by a lea.st square compu-
tation. The force is derived from' the solar magnetic field,
having its seat in the nucleus of the sun, emerging i>olewanl
and sweeping over through space till it approaches the earth
at right angles to the ecliptic. It is concentrated chiefiy in
the ovals surrounding the magnetic and geographical poles,
since the earth's axisof magnetic conductivity |ioints in that
direction. At the sun the lines of this field liec-ome in jiart
visible in the coronal streamers about the poles. From the
coronal oliservations and the study of this field at the earth
it is concluded that the sun is a magnetic sphere, the mag-
netic poles being separated from the axis of rotation by 4i',
the s<iulhern (negative) preceding the northern (|x>sitive) by
about 100'. The true time of solar rotation is not that of
the sun-spot belts at latitudes 10 -V.i' N. and .S., but that
derive<l from the sun-spot observations for the equator,
being 13-4'J:16" daily motion instead of 14-1844' (t'arrington),
the former corresponding to 26-68 days and the latt«r to
27-275 days in a synodic revolution.
At the earth this field manifests the changes taking place
in it by outbursts of the aurora, by magnetic storms, by
earth currents, and in variations in the meteorological ele-
ments of tein|)eralure, pressure, humidity.atmosoheric elec-
tricity. Thi-se synchronous changes are much distfirted by
theconvectional cireiilation of the atmosphere. On reducing
the several elements by means of the ephemeris derived from
this i>eriod, the typioil change is found to surNive in high
and low pressures of the L^. S. and the North Atlantic, I'. S.
and European weather curves, temjwratures, aliiiosphcric
electricity, and relative humidity. The effect of convection
is nearly eliminated by using for data the temperatures of
tlie Northwestern .States, and thereby taking siimcient data
the original magnetic curve is found quite fierfeclly. This
arises from the Ininsfonnalion of the imnressed poUr ra<liant
energy into heat in the atmosphere oi that region. It is
I 1 a I 5 « I » 1 10 11 nuHitu iTi»i»a<itia«3«gn«c
Pio. 9.— Variations of nolar tnaci.'
found that i'l s.'oic tw-Hods the currp of temixratiirr agrees
with the m -ve in its dirrrt p<'«itiim and in others
in thet'nirr- i that is, when turned over on its longer
474
MAGNIFICAT
JIAGNUSEN
axis. This points to an action of magnetic inversion, or
polarization, not yet understood. The result of sucli coni-
iiarison is seen in'the following curves. The direct and the
inverse periods are collected by themselves, and the direct
rninu.-i llie inverse gives the data for the temperature curves.
All temperatures of the U.S. are arranijed so as to eliminate
the eastwanl drift of the waves, and are referred to an
origin in Ion. 115' W. and lat. 55' N.
Similar comparisons are e.\tended to a sun-spot period
within the years 1878-93. and the result shows that there is
a distinct synchronous variation in the sun-spot nunilicrs,
the intensity of the European magnetic held, the movement
in latitude of the mean tracks of low and high pressures in
the I'. S., the motion in longitude of lows and highs, the
amplitudes of the temperatures, and the mean annual tem-
peratures; al.so that the changes related as direct and in-
verse follow in the same sun-spots period, the direct varying
with and the inverse varying inversely, a-s sliown in Fig. 10.
1878
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Fio. 10.— Variation of maernetic and ineteorolo^cal elements
in a sun-spot period.
It is inferrerl from the results of the computation, upon
which these remarkable sets of curves depend, that two ty|)es
of radiation traverse the space between the sun and" the
earth: (1) the electro-magnetic, or visible ray, falling upon
the equatorial regions of the earth ; ('2) the niagnetic, or in-
visible ray, falling upon the polar regions of the earth. The
polar field is clearly the seat of that hitherto unknown sys-
tem of forces which are displayed in the aurora, magnetic
storms, earth currents, variations of the magnetics field, and
some of the inetcorologloal changes that make up the weather.
Its full extension can not yet be seen, but evidently the cos-
mical con(liti(}ns of the problem includes in its scope the
nature of the sun that emits this niagnetic cnergv, of tlie
ether that transmits it in ('urved paths through such enor-
mous distarn'cs. and the transformations in the atmosphere
or at the surface of tlie earth. Frank II. Bkielow.
Magnificat [named from the first word in the Latin
version Mrii/iiijieat anima mea, Domintun. My soul magni-
fies th(^ Lord] : the song of the Virgin Marv, as recorded in
Luke i. Ai>-hT). This song of praise by the Virgin Mother in
thankfulness for the Incarnation, and uttered while yet she
was the tal)crnac!e of the Sun of Kighteousness, must have
formed a part of the worship of the Church from early times.
1' is first found prescribi'd about the vear 506, when in
I'Vance it was ordered to lie sung at lauds. In the Eastern
and Armenian Churches it is still a lands canticle. In the
West it has during the last 800 years been sung only at
vi'sjiers. A prominent pliu'i' isgiven to this hynin in tlie'ves-
fier and other services of the Roman Catholic Church and
tlie Church of Eriglaiiil. It was omitted from the evening
service of the I'rotestant Episcopal Cliurch in the U. S. at
the revision of 1789, but it forms a part of t lie prescribed I'veii-
song in the Standard of 18l»2. Revised by W. S. I'ekry.
Mugnin, maan'yiln', Charles: critic and poet; b. in
Paris, Nov. 4, 1793; was appointed assistant at flie National
Library in 1818, and one of the directors in 1832. As early
as 1815 he began to make him.self known by liis verses. In
1826 lie produced a successful comedy, Racine, ou la iroi-
ait-me representation des " Plaideiirs." As contributor to the
</7«4e, with Guizot, to the i\n/(OH<i/, with Arinand Carrel,
and afterward to the lievue des Deux Mondes, he acipiired
great reputation as a spirited and acute critic, especially of
dramatic poetry and art. A number of his articles he col-
lected under the title Causeriex et Meditations historiques
et litteraires (2 vols., 1843). He also wrote Les Origines du
TlieHtre moderne (WM): Le Theatre de Hrosvitha (1845),
with translation and commentaries; and Ilistoire des Ma-
rionnettes (1852). 1). in Paris, Oct. 8, 1862. See VVallon,
jVutice sur la I'ie et les travatix de Charles Mai/niti (Paris,
1875). Revised by A. K. Marsh.
Magnitude [from Lat. magnitu do. greatness, size, deriv.
of w(i(/ «»*•, great] : anything that can be measured. Origi-
nally the term was applied to signify a portion of space pos-
sessing the three attributes, length, breadth, and thickness;
by extension of meaning it has come to signify any quantity
that can be expressed in terms of a quantity of the same
kind taken as a unit. Lines, surfaces, and volumes are
called geometrical magnitudes. An angle is also a species
of geometrical magnitude. Time, weight, and numbers are
arithmetical magnitudes. See Quantity.
Maguolia : See Magnolia Family.
Magnolia : town ; capital of Columbia co.. Ark. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Arkansas, ref. 6-B); on the St.
Louis S. W. Railway; 40 miles S. W. of Camden. It is in
a region abounding in good water, fine timber, and valuable
grasses, and though level and fruitful has been developed
but little. The town has saw and grist mills, two weekly
newspapers, and churches and public schools. Pop. (1880)
536 ; (1890) 1,486. Editor ok " Columbla Banner."
Magnolia Family : a small group of dicotyledonous trees
and shrubs (the Magnoliacece), numbering about eighty-five
species, natives of America, tropical Asia, Australia, and' New
Zealand. They have simple, alternate leaves, and flowers
usually composed of many separate sepals, petals, stamens,
and pistils. They are therefore to be considered as among
the lowest of the dicotyledons. Of the thirteen genera now
recognized, four are represented in the U. S. by eleven spe-
cies, viz. : Liriodendron, 1 ; Magnolia, 7; lllicium, 2; Schi-
zandra, 1. Of the first there is but one species, L. tulip-
ifera, the tulip-tree of the Eastern U. S., one of the most
stately, as well as useful, of forest-trees. A variety of this
species is found in China. The magnolias are remarkable
for their fine foliage and large, beautiful flowers.
Charles E. Bessey.
Magnus, IlEiNRirn Oustav : physician ; b. in Berlin,
May 2, 1802 ; studied natural science at the university of his
native citv, and chemistry under Bcrzelius in Stockholm,
where he discovered the compound known as the green salt
of Magnus ; was appointed Professor of Physics and Tech-
nology at the University of Berlin in 1834. I), in Berlin,
Apr. 5, 1870. The result of his numerous original researches
he communicated in Poggendorir's Aimalen and in the
transactions of the Berlin Academy of Science. The most
remarkable ■were his experiments on the coefficient of the
dilatation of gases, published in 1841, a few days after Reg-
naulfs [uiblication of the same results ; and his experiments
on the transmission of heat through gases, which gave rise
to a controversy with Tyndall.
Magnus, lluoo Frikdricii, M. D. : ophthalmologist ; b. at
Neumarkt, Pru.ssia, May 31, 1842; educated at the Univer-
sity of Breslau ; has been Professor of Ophthalmology in
the University of Breslau since 1876 ; is author of Ophihal-
moskopischer Atlas (IH72); fiexrhichte des graiien Staares
(1876); Die Geschichtliche Entwick-etung des Farbensinnes
(1877; Fr. and Span, trans.); Die Blindheit, ihre Entsteh-
ung vnd ihre Verhutiing (1883); Die Sprache der Angen
(1885 ; Ital. trans.) ; Die Erziehiing des Farbensinnes (1879 ;
Eng. trans. Boston, 1882); Aiigeniirztliche Unterrichtsta-
felii (1K92); and numerous professional essays.
Mag'nnsen, Finn : Icelandic antiquarian ; b. at Skalholt,
in li'claud, Aug. 27, 1781 ; studied at the University of
Copcnliagen ; began to jiractice as a lawyer in Icelanil in
1803. but returned in 1812 to Copenhagen ; was appointed
Professor of Northern Antiquities in 1815, and keeper of the
archives in 1842. His principal works are a translation of
MAGNtSSON
MAIIA-BHABATA
475
the older Edda, with accompanying commentaries (4 vols.,
1821-23), a critical exposition of the Scandinavian mvtholojfy
(4 vols., 1824-36), and J'riscte Velemm Jiorealtum ^lytltolo-
(jice Lexicon (1828) ; but besides these works lie wrote a great
iniMilier of minor essays relatinj; to Icelandic literature,
Scandinavian mytholo<?v, and Northern antiquities, remark-
able as well for learnnifj as for critical acuteness. D. at
Copcnhajren, Dec. 24, 1847. Kevised by P. Grotb.
Ma^nusson, Arni: historian and collector; b. in the
western part of Iceland 106;5 ; was educated at Uvainm by
his uncle, Ketil the Priest, who was famous for his learning
in Icelandic lore and as a copyist of old Icelandic manu-
scripts. In 16h:! Mapnusson went to t'<)r)cnhafren and re-
ceived employment first as secretary to Bartholinus, after-
ward in the royal archives. In 1701 he was ma<le Professor
of Philosophy and Xorthern Antiquity at the university, and
in the following year he accompanied the royal commission
of survey to Iceland, where he remained, with some inter-
ruptions, until 1712. During his ten years' stay in Iceland
he made a unique collection of Icelandic manuscripts, which
he bcqueatheil, together with his whole fortune, to the uni-
versity library. A catalogue of the collection is in course of
preparation bv its custodian. Dr. Kr. K&lund (1894). In the
fire of 1728 a large portion of the collection, including Mag-
niisson's notes, copies, etc., was destroyed, lie was the au-
thor of several works on Scandinavian history. D. .Ian. 6,
1730. Revised by D.' K. Dodoe.
Magog : See Goo and Maooq.
Magog : river, lake, and town of Southern Quebec, near
the borders of Vermont (see map of Quebec, ref. 6-0). The
river drains Lake Memphremagog, traverses Lake Magog (10
miles long by 3 or 4 broad), and at Sherbrooke, after a course
of 20 miles, empties into the St. Francis, a tributary of the
St. Lawrence. It contains a considerable volume of water,
and its fall affords large water-power to the towns of Magog
and Sherbrooke. The town of Magog is on the river near
where it leaves Lake Memphremagog, County Stanstead, 19
miles S. W. of Sherbrooke, on the Canadian Pacific Kailway.
Pop. 2,100, about half being French-Canadians.
Mark W. Harbinotos.
Magot : See Barbary Ape.
Maspie [Mag, nickname of Marguerite + pie. magpie,
from Lat. pica, magpie, jay] : a name for the birds of the
genus Pica, members of the crow family, the European
magpie (Pica pica) being the most common species. It is
of a lustrous black with green and bronze reflections, white
on the belly, shoulders, and inner webs of many primaries.
The bird is 15 to 20 inches long acconling to the length of
the tail, which may be a foot or less in length. The magpie
is social and omnivorous, wary and mischievous. It occurs
throughout Europe and Northern Asia, and a local race
(Pica pica hudsonica) is found in parts of Xorthern North
America. The name magpie is sometimes applied to the
long-toiled jays of the genera L'rocissa and Cyanopoliua.
F. A. Li-CAS.
Magnider, Jon.v Bankiiead: soldier: b. in Virginia
about 1810; graduated at West Point 1830; assigned to the
infantry as second lieutenant July 1, lH;iO ; transferred to the
artillery Aug., 1831 ; first lieutenant Mar., 1*16, and captain
June 18, 1846. He was distinguished in the Mexican war in
command of the light battery of Gen. Pillow's division, earn-
ing the brevet of major for gallantry at Cerro Gordo, and
lieutenant-colonel for Chapullepec, where he was wounded ;
resigned from the U. S. army Apr. 20, 1861 ; entered the
Confederate army ; commanded at Vorktown until its evac-
uation ; took part in the campaign on the Chickahominy ;
was appointeil brigadier and major-general, and sent Oct.
16, 1862, to assume command of the western department, in-
cluding Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico, lie recovered
Galveston from the Federal forces, and took an active part
in military allairs in Texas throughout the war. He after-
ward resided for a time in Mexico, but soon returned to
Texas. D. at Houston, Tex., Feb. 19, 1871.
Revised by James Mercur.
Maguirp, Joiix Frascis: editor and politician; b. at
Cork, Ireland, in ISl.j; was called to the bar in 18*1; wa.sa
member of Parliament from 1852 until his death ; was pro-
prietor and editor of the Cork Ksntiiiner. a Koraan Catholic
organ, and was a leading exponent of Irish Koman Catholic
interests in Parliament, in journalism, and in literature. He
wrote liiiiiie and its Ruler (18o7). revised, enlarged, anrl re-
published in 1870, under the title 7'lie Puntificnte of Pius
IX. \ The Industrial Movement in Ireland (ISS3) ■ The Irish
ill America (1858) ; Life of Father Mathetr (1863) ; and The
Xext Generation (1871), a political novel. Mr. Maguire was
an advanced Liberal politician, an mU-mmU: of Home Rule,
and was four times elected mavor of Cork. He stimulated
the growth of flax in the soutli of Ireland by establishing
linen-mills in Cork. D. at Cork, Oct. 31, 187'2.
Magyars, niaa-jaars' : the dominant people of flungarv,
especially on the iilain. Probably they are a Turkishj'eo-
ple, though with decided Ugro-Finnish characteristics. They
formerly occupied the steppesof Southern Russia, but in the
ninth century were forced over the Cariiathiaiis into the vast
plain of the Danube, driving before them the Slavs who had
jireviously occupied it. Thev became the terror of Europe,
tiut hitcr were Christianized and became the bulwark of
Europe against the Ottoman Turks. They number about
6,000.000. M. W. H.
Mahii-bliiirata : the name of the great epic of the ancient
literature of India. The Aryan tribes of the Vcdas lived
about the miildle Indus and its Punjaub affluents. Later
they migrated soulhea.stward and established themselves
on the upper course of the Jumna and Ganges, in Madhya-
dc^a. The Mid-land. Foremost among these tribes were
the Bhiiratas, the Kurus, and the Panch&las. Indeed, so
famous became the eponym of the first of these that ancient
India was called after it Hhiirata's Continent, or Bhdrala-
varaha. In this Gangetic Mid-land were fought the battles
of the Bharatas ; and here, to ever-ready listeners, in school
or forest hermitage, at a sacrifice or a funeral, were told the
tales of these battles and their heroes. The Hindus were
lovers of stories, even in early times, and Patanjali says
"they will listen to them all night through, until sunrise."
Stories (itihOsas) in mingled iirose and verse were common
in Vedic times, as is indicated bv the fact that the metrical
parts of some of them are still extant, as the " itihOsa
nymns" of the Veda. The priests told stories and gave
oiit riddles to each other to beguile the tedium of their sac-
rifices; and no less at the festivals of the chieftains or
tribal kings were the tales of bygone times in order. These
tales were probably first circulated in prose, until some
more clever teller put them into simple and easily remem-
bered metrical form. Such a teller was often made sQla or
bard by his chieftain as a reward for his skill ; and, as his
skill passed on by inheritance to his son, so also did his of-
fice. Thus arose an hereditary order of bards or rhapswlists ;
and thus, too, the ei>os originated in the warrior caste, and
belonged especially to it.
The eighteen-day battle of the Bhfiratans forms the prin-
cipal theme of the poem ; and its full title, accordingly, is
the Great Bharatan Story: in Sanskrit, akhythianiLhd-
ratam mahal. or. as a compound, mahd-bhdrata-akhydnam.
By omission of the word for story, this last is abbreviated
to J/n/ia-fi/idra/n,' which is the title usual in the Occident,
The Hindus abbreviate it still more, and often speak of the
poem as Bhdrata. the Bharatan. an example which it is
rather a pitv that Western scholars have not followed.
The simple heroic epics that formed the nucleus of the
Bhdrata probably existed several centuries before our
era, although, of course, such a thesis is not matter of direct
proof. Around this nucleus have been grou|>ed additions—
nistorical, mythological, theological, metaphysical, didactic,
and prescriptive — until the Great Bhdrata. as we now have
it, and counting the Harivanfa. contains<iver 100.000 double
verses. or alKiut eight times as much as the Iliad and OdyMey
together. In the printcii I'ditions it is divided into eighteen
very unequal books orparraus. The seventeenth is the short-
est,'having only 312 double verses, and the twelfth is the long-
est, with 13.9i{; although, imleed, the appendix, called
Unriranfa. is still longer (16.374).
Only about one-fifth of the whole poem is occupie<l with
the principal story. This, in briefest summary, is as fol-
lows: The two brothers I)lirita-n"i.shlra and Pamlu were
brought up in their royal home of Hast iiia-pura. about 60
miles N. E. of mixler'n Delhi. Dhrita-ni^lilnu the elder,
was blind, and so IViiidii liecame king, and had a glorious
reign. He had five sons, chief of whom were Vudhishthira,
Bhima. and Arjuna. Thcv are called Pnndnvns, ami are
types of honor and heroism. Dhrita-nishtra's hundn'd
sons. Duryodhana and the re.st. are usually called the Kuril
princes or Kauravas. and are ri'presoiiled as in every way
(>ad. After I'an.lu's death his sons are bnnight up with
their cousins. The king<h<ni devi>lved on Dhrila-ruslitra.
who in turn made his nephew Vudhishthira the heir-appar-
476
MAHA-BIIAKATA
MAHAN
etit. Yinlhislithira's exploits aroused the ill-will of his
cousins, and. to escape tlieir plots, the IVmdu princes wont
awav to the King of Panchala, whoso iliiughter, Uraupndi,
booanie their common wife. In view of this strong alliance
with the I'jnichiilas, Dhrita-riishtra thought it best to con-
ciliate the I'undus. So ho dividoil the kingdom and gave
Ilastina-pura to his sons, and to his nephews a <listrict to
the S. \V., where they built Indra-prai-tha, the modern
Delhi. Here the Pandavas and their people lived happily
uniler King Vudhishthira.
On one occasion Dhritu-rashtra held a great assembly of
princes at his capital. The IVmdavas were invited and came.
Vudliishthira was challenged to play with Duryodlmna. and
accepted. The dice were thrown for Duryodhana bv his
uncle t,'akuni. Vudhishthira loses everything — wealth, king-
dom, brothers, wife. A compromise, however, is made, by
which the Pandavas give up their part of the kingilom for
twelve years, and agree to remain mrognito for a tliirtccntli.
With Draupadi they retire to the Kamyaka forest, and there
for twelve years they dwell. Many legends are told to divert
and console them in their exile; and these stories, with the
description of the forest-life of the princes, combine to make
up the thinl or Forest-book, which is one of the longest
in the poem.
The thirteenth year arrived and passed. "Then in the
fourteenth the Pandavas demanded back their possessions,
but received them not. From this arose the conflict. They
overthrew the ruling house, slew Prince Duryodhana, and
then, although losing most of their warriors, they got back
again their kingdom." Thus ended the ^Adrote, doubtless,
in its oldest and simplest form.
The poem, as we now have it, spins out the story of the
combat through several books and through thousands of dis-
tichs. At length Vudhishthira is crowned in Hastina-pura,
and Bhishma, the leader of the Kurus, although mortally
wounded, instructs him, for about 20,000 distichs, on the
duties of kings and on other topics, and then dies. In the
seventeenth book the Pandus renounce the kingdom, and in
the next — the last — they ascend to heaven with Draupadi.
The episodes and digressions often have only a very loose
connection with the main thread of the Bhdraia. but are not
on this account less important or interesting. The first to
become famous in the Occident was the story of Xa/a ayid
JMinai/an/i, published by Bopp in 1819, and often since,
both in text and translation. Sdvitri. or the Glory of
Wifely Dtrotiiin, is also es[)ccially noted ; less so, the Story
of t lie Deluge, the Rape of DraiipmH. and others. Worthy
of mention, in [)art as a type, is the epic form of the (^akun-
tala legend, because it has served Kaiidasa as the basis for
his drama (/ak ii nfald, the masterpiece of the literature, and
in somewhat the same way as the Homeric for the Sophocle-
an Aiax. Of a very ditterent kind are the pliilosopliical
episodes ; among these the BiiAGAVAU-oiTA {g. v.) is by far t lie
most celebrated. The appendix, Ilarivan^a, contains the
history of Krishna, one of the mo.st popular deities of India.
For a brief account of him, see Monier-Williams, Indian
W'iMlom. lecture xii.
The origin of the epic nucleus of the poem is fairly clear.
The completion of the nucleus is set by Jacobi at about the
beginning of our era. Dillicult is tlie question of tlie genesis
of the piiem in its present shape. See the solution given by
K. W. Hopkins. Journal of the American Oriental Society
(xiii., 68-()!t). Hindu tradition ascribes the gigantic work to
the mythical sage Vyasii. Certain narts are plainly very
ancient ; otliers much less so. The whole is the " precipitate
of a long literary period." Ilolt/.mann assumes several re-
dactions and workings-over, and phices the beginning of
the final one at about 1000 A. n. The studies of Bilhler,
however, show tliat as early as Kumiirila, TOO a. d.. the
Bharata consisted in the main of the same divisions which
it now has; and that it was not merely a narrative of the
great war, but also a nmrili or work belonging to the .sacred
tradition, and nctiially made use of in public readings for
teaching to all Hindus the whole <luty of man l)y sententious
precepts and by most winning examples; and that is just
what the poem now is and protends to be; and again, an in-
scription of 600 a. II. from Cambodia stales that the king
erected a temple, gave it a lilirary, including a complete
copy of the lihdrata, and made an endowment for its daily
recitation in perpetuity. To such sanctity had the Iviok at-
tained— and so early — in a rc^molo Indian colony, 2,000 miles
friiTii the secnesof the poem ! Finally.an inscription of a. n.
H'Xi mentions the lihdralu as a work of 1(10,000 distichs. and
in such a way as to imply that it was then a complete text.
The bibliography is given with great detail in parts ii.
and iii. of lioltzmann's work, and in the Catalogues bv
Haas and by Hcndall, of the Sanskrit books in the British
Museum. Text editions of the entire work : Edilio princejm,
very important because the citations of the great lexicon,
etc, refer to this (t'alcutta, ISi-l-;!!!, 4 i]uarlu v<iluines and
index volume); the l)est recent edition, with Nilakantlia's
comment, but without Harivan^a, and with separation of the
words and convenient nunitioring of the chapters, was puli-
lished in Bombay, ISUO. Translations: The nearest approach
to a complete English translation is that instituted by Protap
Chunder Hoy (Calcutta, 188^!J4, to date 88 |)arts),'embrac-
ing about nine-tenths of the » hole, excluding liiirivanfa.
Translations of parts of the itoom are enumerated by Iloltz-
mann, as also bv Haas and by Bendall. We niav mention
JS'ula, translated by II. 11. Milman (Oxford, I860); Cakun-
tald. in Sanskrit and French, as an appendix to A. L. Chezy's
edition of the drama (Paris, 1830). Sir Edwin Arnold's
Indian Idylls (Boston, 18tty) contains Sdvitri, Ifala, the
Great Journey (bk. xvii.), the Entry into Heaven (xviii.), and
several other stories. Summaries of the main story: One of
the best in English, in Talboys Wheeler's Ilislori/ of India
(vol. i., London, 1867), abridged in his Short )listory of
India (New York, 1884) ; perliaps the very best, by Theo-
dore Goldstiicker, Westminster Bevieic. Apr., 1868, reprinted
in his Literary Uemains (ii.. 96-1111, London, 1879); very
convenient, that by Jlonier-Williams, Indian Epic Poetry
(pages 91-133. London. 18()3); .see al.so his Indian Wisdom,
Uctiire xiii. (London, 1871). General works: Das Jlfahd-
bhdrata, by Adolf lloltzniann [-Ir.] ; vol. i., Zur Ifeschichte
uiid Kritik des Mahdhlidrata (Kiel. 1892) ; vol. ii.. Die neun-
ztlni Biicher des JIalidlJidrata (1893); vol. Hi., Das lUahd-
bhdrata nach der nordindisrhen Recension (1894); very im-
portant criticisms bv .lacobi, GOttingische qelehrte Anzeigen,
1892, No. Ifi. and 1893, No. 16 ; Indian Studies, by Biilder
and Kii'ste, Sitzungaherichte der pli il.-hist. Classe der Wiener
Akademie (vol. cxxvii.. No. 12, 1892). ■ C. K. Lan.man.
Mahaf'fy, .Jonx Pestland: classical scholar; b. at Cha-
fonnairo. on Lake Geneva, Switzerland, Feb. 26. 1839; re-
ceived his early education in Germany; studied in Dublin
(1856); since 1871 Professor of Ancient History in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. He is a prolific author and an elegant stylist.
Among his numerous works niav be mentioned The Elin-
ders Petrie Papyri (Cunningham Memoirs, Koyal Jrish Acad-
emy, 1890-94); Commentary to Kant's Critique (1866); So-
cial Life in Greece, from Homer to Menander (1877, 3d ed.) ;
Rambles atid Studies in Greece (1878. 2il ed.) ; Greek Life
and Thought, from ihcAqe of Alexander to the Roman Con-
quest (1888); Greece uncier Roman Sway (1890); Story of
Alexa7ider's Empire; Old Greek Education; History of
Classical Greek Literature (3 vols., 1892, 2d ed.).
Alfreu Gudemas.
Mnliakalpa [.Sanskr., a great kalpa]: in Hindu and Bud-
dhist chronology, the period which elapses from the moment
one universe is formed to the moment it is replaced with
another. It is divided into four kalpas, which are compared
with the four seasons of the year, and is equal to 1,344,000,-
000 mortal years,
Malian', Alfrko Thaveh : U.S. naval officer; h. Sept. 27,
1840, at West Point, N. V., where his father, Dennis H.
Malian, LL. D., was Professor in Civil Engineering: gradu-
ated at the U. S. Naval Academy, 1859; served in the civil
war in the South Atlantic and in the Gulf squadrons; was
head of the department of gunnery. Naval Academy, 1877-
80 ; president of the V. S. Naval War College. Newport, K. 1.,
1886-89; president of a commission to select a site for a
navv-yard on the northwest coast of the U. S., north of 42"
N. I'at'itude, 1889; again nresident of the War College 1890-
93; assigned to command of the U. S. cruiser Chicago and
attached to the European squadron May 11, 1893. He was
accorded a hearty welcome in European capitals, and re-
ceived many honors, among them the degree of LL. I), from
Camliridge I'niversily and of 1). C. L. from Oxford. Hois
iiullior of The Gulf and Inland Wafern in The Sary in the
< 'iril War (New Vork, 1863) and I'he Influence of Sea Power
upon History, IGdO-lTS.S (1890), which gave him a wide repu-
lation among naval and historical slmh-nts in all countries.
.\uthor also of Life of Admiral Farragut (1892).
C. U. THi'iinER.
Mnlinn, Asa, D. D., LL, D. : minister, educator, and au-
thor; b. at Vernon, N. Y., Nov. 9, 1800; was educated at
Hamilton College and Andover Theological Sominarv ; was
pastor of Congregational churches at Pitlsford, N. V., and
MAUAN
MAHMDD
477
Oincinnati, O. : pn-sident and Professor of Pliilosophv and
Theolofjy in Uberlin College lH35-oO; president of Cleve-
land University 1^50-56; pastor of the l'ont;rej;at innal
church, Jackson, Mich., 18."i6-i>7; of the CongrcKUtional
church, Adrian, Mich., \H'>~-&); and president of Adrian
College 1S60-71. After IHTl Dr. Mahan spent much of his
time in Kngland, where he died at Ka-stbournc, Apr. 4, \)iHlK
He was a prominent advcx-ate of the views <alled Perfec-
tionist, which he set forth in the work Scripture Doctrine
of ChriMifin Perfection (Hosli.n, W.Vd\. He pulilishcd other
works, including Intellectual Philomnhy (New York, 1845);
The H'lY/lOberlin, 1H46); Moral Philomphij (^)\h-v\\\\, 184«);
Logic CSev York, 1H.57); 'J'/ieimn and Anti-theism in their
Relation to Science (Cleveland. 1H72); Mental Phihmjphy
.{Chicago, 1882) ; Critical History of Philosophy (New York,
1883). C. K. HovT.
Mahan, Dennis Hakt, LL. D. : soldier and scientist ; b. in
New Y'ork, Apr. 2, 1802. He removed with his parents to
Virginia and in 1820 entered the I'. S. Military Academy,
graduating at the head of his class in 1824, and was a|)-
pointed a second lieutenant of engineers, but retained at the
academy as Assistant Professor of Mathematics and of En-
gineering until 1826, when he was sent to Europe on profes-
sional cluty, passing four years, including one year as a stu-
dent at Pfc-ole d'Artillerie et du Genie at Mctz, in visiting
and .studying forlifications and the institutions connected
with his profession. Keturning to the U. S. in 1830, he was
in 1832 am)ointi-d Professor of the Department of Civil and
Military Engineering, of which he had been in charge since
1830, and at the head of which he continued until 1871.
Failing health brought on continued insomnia, resulting in
temporary insanitv, during an attack of which he drowned
himself in the Hudson near Stony F^oint, N. V., Sept. 16, 1871.
His works on engineering and the art of war are largely
used as text-books in the U. S. In 18;}6 he published a
Treatise on Field Fortifications, to which was added in 186.')
Military Mining and Sieye Operations, the whole now com-
prising part i. of An Elementary Course of Military Engi-
neering, of which Permanent Fortifications constitutes part
ii. ; Advanced Otiard, Outpost, and Detachment Seri'ice of
Troops (1847, enlarged in 1862) ; Industrial Drawing (18.53) ;
Fortification-drawing and Stereolomy (1865); Mahau's
American edition of Moseley's Mechanical Principles of
Engineering and Architecture (18.56; 2d ed. 1869). Hi's
Course of Civil Engineering (1837) was largely improved
and extended up to 1868, when it was almost entirely re-
written; at the time of his death a new revised edition was
in preparation ami partly printed. He was a member of
the Geographical Society of France (1828) and of many other
• scientific societies, and corporator of the National Aca<lemy
of Sciences, 1863. Revised by Jamks Mekcur.
Mahan'adi. or MahiinadI [= Sanskr.. liter., great river;
mahd. great + »c((/7, rivcrj : a river of Hindustan. It rises
in lat. 20 20 N. and Ion. 82 E.. flows with an ea-stwanl
course 520 miles through Hcrar and Orissa, into the Bay of
Hengal, forming a large ilelta. which is subject to destructive
inundations by the ocean. Navigable for 3(X) miles during
the rainy season, it becomes almost dry during the remain-
ing half of the year. The river-bed is celebrated for the fine
quality of diamonds found in it.
Mahanoy City : borough; Schuylkill co.. Pa. (for location
of county, see niup of Pennsylvania, ref. .5-H) ; on Mahanov
creek, and the lichigh Valley and the Phila. and Read, rail-
ways; 80 miles N. \V. of Philadelphia. It is in the anthra-
cite coal region ; has several valuable mines, and iron-foun-
dries and potteries ; and cmitains a high school, public-sch(xjl
property valued at over .$(iO,000. public library, 2 national
banKs with combined capital of f 200,(KX), and 4 weeklv and
3 other periodicals. Pop. (la'^O) 7,181 : (1890) 11.2-'<6.
Mahtiyiina [Sanskr. mahd-, great + ySna. a vehicle or con-
veyaiiccj : the expanded form of Huddhist doctrine which
prevails in the northern scIum)! of ISudilhism. and is charac-
terized by "an excess of transcendental speculation tending
to abstract nihilism, and the substitution of fanciful degrees
of meilitalion and contemplalion in place of the pnictical
asceticism of the Hinayana school" (Eitel's Handbook of
Chinese Buddhism). See HiXAVi.VA, and Monior-Williams'
Buddhism. qU: (1889).
Mahdi. El [= .Arab, mahd't. litiT., the guide, or lea-ler] :
the name applied hvthe Mussulmans to Mohauiined. twelfth
and last Imam (high priest) of the family of .Mi. In 873 he
entered a cave at Seriuen Rev. and was never seen a^ain.
His disappearance gave rise to wild conjectures and theo-
ries by which more than once the Mussulman world has
been convulsed to its center. The .Shiite Mu.ssulmans be-
lieve he still exists in the cave, and daily hnik for him to
issue from it in pomp to rule over the earth. The orthodox
Mussulmans say he will apiH-ar only at the end of the world,
when ho will be alteudeil by 3ti0 celestial envoys, will con-
vert all mankind to Islam, and reign universally as the
vicar of Jesus Christ. Many claiming to be El Mahdi have
arisen at dilTerent tiincs, and s<ime have attaineil great
power. The last of these pretenders, commonly called The
Mahdi by Europeans, was Mohammed Aclimel.who was bom
at Dongola, in Nubia, in 1H42. He studieil .Mussulman the-
ology at Khartum and IJerber, arui in 1868 was consecrated
to tlie service of Islam by the broiherhofxls of Sid Abd-el-
Kader and .Sid-es-.Senoussi. Retiring to the island of Abba
in the While Nile, he nipi<llv won veneration fn'm the neigh-
boring Bagarrah Arabs by liis learning, austerities, and ap-
parent piety. In 1880 the Sid-es-Senoussi announced that he
was the long-expected Mahdi, and onlered him to undertake
the holy war. The Arabs and Ottomans treated his claims
with derision ; the grand sherif of Mecca in a pnxdamation
branded him as an iini)ostor, but the Mussulmans of the
Sudan — then nominally a province of Egvpt — accepted him
with delirious enthusiasm. He defeated four expeditions
sent against him by the Egyptian (iovernment, captured El
Obeid, capital of Kordofan, in Sept., 1883, and a lew weeks
later annihilated the Anglo-Egyptian anny commanded by
Gen. Hicks Pasha, composed of iu,(X)0 soldiers with 40 Euro-
pean officers. Only two persons escaped death. In Jan.,
1885, he captured Khartum, where Gen. Gordon Pasha was
killed. The energetic interference of Great Britain then pre-
vented the further spreail of the insurrection. The Mahdi
died of smallpox in June, 1885. His authority was supposed
to be transmitted to a successor, who exercised his functions
under the same name. See Ohrwalder, Ten Years' Captivity
in the Mahdi's Camp (1892). E. A. Gbosvexor.
Mall^, maa-hii' : principal island of the Seychelles, belong-
ing to the French; N. N. E. of Madagascar, in lat. 4 45' S.,
Ion. 55' 30' E. It is of irregular form, 20 miles long by 5
broad. It is mountainous, and rises abruptly from the
ocean. The village of Mahe. or Victoria, is in the N. E., on
an open roadstead which serves as a port. The soil is scanty,
but fertile; the climate is hot, but healthful. Pop. 8.000,
speaking a corrupt French. M. W. H.
Mah6 : French town and colonv on the Malabar coast, In-
dia, 35 miles N. of Calicut; lat! 11 42' N., h.n. 75° 31' E.
Area of colonv, 23 sq. miles (see map of S. India, ref. 6-D).
Pop. (1889) 8.:i49. Tne town is a picturesque one, but the
colony is in decadence. It was taken in 1726 by Malic de la
Bordiinnais. who gave it his own name, which is like the
former native name of Mahi or Mnihi. The town was taken
by the British in 1761. 1779. and 1793. M. W. H.
Mahi Kanta: a group of fifty-two feudatory states, as-
sociated into one political agency, in Bombay, a<ijoining
.Southern Rajputana, between the Mahi and Sabarmutti
rivers. Combined area. 11,049 sq. miles. Pop. .520.000. The
principal states in order are Edar, Danta, and Pol. The
feudal lords are mostly Rajputs, though there are some Kulis
from Gujerat. The people are Bhils. M. W. H.
Mahniud : the name of two Ottoman sultans. Mabml'D
I. (1730-54), b. 1696, son of Mustapha II., Micceeiled his
uncle Achmet III.: was an incllicieiit but kindly prince.
I), in 17.54.— Mahmlu II. (1808-;t9), b. 17>*5. second son of
.\bd-ul Ilamiil 1. His cousin .Selim HI., who reigned from
1789 to 1807, allowed him a degree of freedom in his vouth
unusual for an Ottoman prince, and inspired hiin with zeal
for progress and reform. .Selim was hated l>v the Jaiiissiiries,
who deposed him and raised Mustapha iV., eldi-r s.in of
.\lxl-ul Hamid, tothelhrt>ne. liamictar Pasha, nf liu-l. link,
a devoted partisiin of Seliin. rose in revolt, laptund Con-
stantinople, stonned the Seraglio, and pr<x-lainw<l Mnhmiid
as sultan (July 2.S, 1808). Selim having lK'«'n strangled by
Mustapha's orders during the attack. Ma^'inid. with BaJ-
ractar as grand vizier, imfietuously l>egii- -^
sudden and di-spernte insurrection of lli' ke
out (November). The grand vizier wi ' .lio
about to surrender whi-n .Mahmu'l i 'la
l>e liowstning and his deail body tl.i ' He
thus miule himself the sole surviving dex-eiKianl of < Snian,
and sti rendered his iHTs<m inviolalile. it lieing universally
U-lieved among the Ottomans that their empire will end
when the dvnastv of thiinan iH-eomes extinct.
478
MAIIMUD
MAI
In 1808 the Ottoman empire seemed on the point of dis-
solution. The Waliabees held Arabia ; Mchemet Ali was
virtual sovereig;n of Egypt; in nioro than half the other
provinces the pashas wrre practically iniUpcndciit ; the
Janissaries were the real masters of the state; all improve-
ment or application of remedy seemed im[)ossible on ac-
count of the fanatic spirit of the Mussulmans, wlio were
bitterly opposed to any innovation. Mahmud's reign of
thirty-one years was a constant struggle of one man against
a whole people, against lUl the evils inherent in the Ottoman
system and the political circumstances of the empire. At
home he attained partial success. By means of Wehemet
Ali he crushed the Wahabees and regained Arabia; he
brought the pashas to semi-submission, destroyed the Janis-
saries, and somewhat consolidated the empire. He forced
the officials to adopt the Kuropean dress and established an
official gazette. lie introduced a regular police system, put
the army on a European footing, and founded military.
naval, artillery, and engineering schools. In consecpicnce
of these innovations, and specially of his effort to better the
political condition of his Christian subjects, he was detested
by the vast majority of his coreligionists, who denounced
hnn as a giaour. His two wars with Russia were disas-
trous. He could not put down the (Sreek revolution, and
W!is rescue<l from his rebellious vassal, Jlehemct Ali, in 1H32
only by the intervention of Russia. A secon<l rebellion of
Mehemet Ali seemed about to give the deathblow to the
empire when Mahmud died (July 1, 1839). Though a re-
former, Mahmu<i was an Oriental : lience his best clforts
were often sanguinary and always desi^otic. He was i)liant,
yet persistent even to obstinacy, generous, and brave. Full
success in his undertakings was a practical impossibility.
The marvel is rather that he accomplislied so much as he
did. No other Ottoman sultan since Souleiman I., who
died in 1.566, so nearly deserves the title sometimes ac-
corded him of The Great. E. A. Geosvenor.
Mahmud of Ghazni, ABrL-KAsm-YEMiN-ED-DAULAH :
Sultan of Persia ; first Mussulman Emperor of India and
founder of the (ihaznevide dynasty; b. at Ghazni (Ghizni or
Ghuzni), in Candalmr, Oct. 2, 971. His father, .Subuktigin,
who claimed descent from the .Sassanian kings of Persia, be-
came governor of the province of Khorassan after the di^ath
of his father-in-law, Alptigin, of whom he had formerly been
a slave. He owed a nominal allegiance to Persia, but was
really independent and extendeii his fnmticrs on every side.
Mahmud distinguished himself in youth under his father's
command against the Tartars, who' had invaded Khorassan,
and received from Noh, the Samaiude sovereign of Persia,
the title of Seif-ed-Daulah, sword of the state, together
with the government of tlio province of Segestan. His
father died in 997. having appointed Ismail, a younger son,
his successor. Mahmud overthrew Ismail and captured
Ghazni in9!W; then made alliance witli tlie rulers of Turk-
istan and Kasligaria against .Mansur, the new Persian mon-
arch, and divided the Persian kingdom with his confeder-
ates. From 1001 to 1030 ho made fourteen generally suc-
cessful expeditions, in which he accunmlated enormous
treasures, massacred vast immbers of Hindus, and extended
his empire from the Caspian to the Ganges. Though not
specially favorable to letters, he founded an acadeiny, li-
brary, atid tine museum of natural history at Ghazni. Fir-
DAUsi (}. v.), the chief Persian poet, was his subject and
friend. Mahmud was the first ruler to take the title of sul-
tan. D. at Ghazni in 1030. Many of his descendants bore
the same name. .See histories of 'India bv Caldwell, Elliot,
and Elphinstone. E." A. Grosve.vor.
Mahog'anv [from the S. Amer. name]: a noble forest
tree of the West Indies and Central and South America,
growing also to some extent in Florida. Its scientific name
is Swietenia ma/ior/oni. It belongs to the order Cedivlar.efp.
Its wood is of very beautiful reddish color, extremely hard,
strong, and heavy, and so costly that for a long time" it has
been used almost entirely as a veneering. Il has for nearly
800 yc^ars been a staple article of commence, anil is exported
from Honduras, Cuba. Haiti, Jamaica, and South America.
The Honduras mahogany is now the most abuiulanl ami the
largest, but also the coarsest anrl least handsome variety.
The better sorts are called Spanish mahogany. Ccmsidera-
ble quantities of the tiudier of A'/mi/d neni'yriletiKis from
Africa and Soymida febrifm/n from Calcutta (bi)th cedrela-
ceous trees) are importeil into Kngland as mahogany, but
the wood is generally inferior to true uudiogany. .Madeira
nuihogany is the W(jod of Pemea iiiilica, and is coarse and
inferior. Australia and other countries also furnish spuri-
ous though often valuable nnihoganie.s. The bark of the
true malu>gany abounds in an active febrifugal principle.
The mountain mahogany of Utah is the Cercocaij)uis Udifu-
liiis, of the order Jioxacetp.
Miihomct : See Mouam.med.
Malum. Lord: See Stanhope, Eabl of.
Muhone, ma-hon'. Gen. William: soldier and politician;
h. in Southampton. Va., Dec. 1, 1SS26; graduated at the Vir-
ginia Military Institute 1.S47; devoted himself to civil en-
gineering; was the constructor of the Norfolk and Peters-
burg Railroad ; took part in the capture of the Norfolk
navy-yard Apr. 21, 1861 ; raised and commanded the Sixth
Virginia Regiment; was engaged in most of the battles of
the Peninsular campaign, those on the Rappahannock, and
those around Petersburg; was aiipuiuted brigadier-general
Mar., 1864. and major-general Aug. 12, 1864 ; commanded a
division in Hill's corps, and at Lee's surrender was in com-
mand at Bermuda Hundred. After the war he devoted
himself to the development of Virginia railways, and be-
came president of the Norfolk and Tennessee Railway. He
entered actively into polities, and was soon consjiicuous as
the organizer and leader of the so-called R<'adjuster party.
He was V. S. Senator 1881-87, and failed of re-election. 1).
in Washington, I). C, Oct. 8, 1895. F. M. Colby.
Ma'hony, Frantis : author ; b. in Cork, Ireland, about
1805; studied at Jesiut colleges in Paris and Rome, and
took orders in the Roman Catholic Church ; abandoned the
Church about 1831 to connect himself with Fraser's Maga-
zine, in which he published an amusing series of articles
over the pseudonym of Father Proul. These were collected in
1836 as Keliquts nf Father Front. He was also a contribu-
tor to Bentley's Jiliscellatiy (1837), traveling correspondent,
and afterward Roman correspondent, of The Daily News.
and fur many years Paris correspondent of The Globe. He
advocated the unity of Italy in the ijowerful letters pub-
lished as Facl.'i and Figiii'es from Italy, by Von Jeremy
Savonarola. Benedictine Monk (1849). In 1864 he retired
to a monastery in Paris, where he died May 19, 1866. Some
of his later essays were edited by Ulanchard Jerrold as
Final Reliques of Father Front (1.S74). and an edition of
his works by Charles Kent was publishctl in 1880.
Maliopac', Lake: a summer resort in Carmel township,
Putnam co., N. Y. ; 14 miles from Peekskill. It has many resi-
dences and several hotels. The lake is about 3 miles across,
has three beautiful wooded islands, and is about 800 feet
above the sea-level.
Malirattas: a people of Central and Western India, who
in the eighteenth century overran the greater part of the'
peninsula, placed the Mohammedan empire of Delhi under
tribute, and were for half a century the most formidable ob-
stacle to British supremacy in India. Their origin, geo-
graphical and ethnological, and their early history are alike
unknown, liut the evidence of physical characteristics, cus-
toms, religion, and language, combined with the feeble in-
dications of tradition, would point to one (or several) of the
numerous irruptions of Turanian races from Central Asia
prior to the rise of Mohammedanism (seventh century A. D.).
This supposed race must have found its chief seat in the
N. W. of the Deccan, along the Indian Ocean southward
from the Nerliudda river tcj tlie neigliborhood of Goa, and
by intermarriage with .Sudras and other low-caste Hindu
women acquired at once a language and a religion, the lat-
ter, however, being distinctive in ignoring caste and in per-
mitting the use of meats. See Lsdia, and Grant Duff's
History of tlie Mnhrattas. and, for a comprehensive though
brief resume of Mahratta history, Meadows Taylor's Stu-
dent's Manual of the History of India,
Mai, ml, Anoklo : classical scholar ; b. at Schilpario, near
Bergamo. Italy, Mar. 7, 1782; was educated by the Jesuits;
was appointed custodian of the Ambrosian Library of Milan
;eeper of I " "' '
o I no Pro|:
I), at Albano, Sept. 9, 1S.>1. When in Jlilan he aci|uireil
great reputation from his publications of fragnu'iits of long-
lost classical works, chiefly discovered on palim|)sest.s. The
most remarkable of these were the fragments of Cicero's
Oriiliones. Fronto's /yf//cr.s, Eusebius's Chronicon, Diony-
sius of /fii/irarnassus. Themistius. Isirus. Fhilo. and others;
lint by far the most important were very considerable por-
tions of Cicero's De republica. pidilished in 1822, and the
so-called Ambrosian codex of Plautus of the fifth century,
in 1Hl;i; chief keeper of the Vatican Library in Home in
1H19 ; secretary to the Propaganda in 1833 ; canliiud in 1838.
MAIA
MAIMENSIXGH
479
which apart from its paramount critical value proved that
the plays of Phiulus wliicli we possess are those which Varro
pronounced geiuiiiic. In 1H25 he hepin the imhlieation of
those series of ancient works, Greek and Latin, partly in«-
dita, which have made his name celebrated among scholars,
namely, Scriptorum Vettrum Xova Co/lectio e Vatieatiin
Codicilius edita (10 vols., 1825-38) ; Auctore^ Clagxici e Vali-
cania Cadicilms edili (10 vols., 1828-:t8): Spicilegium lio-
manum (10 vols., 1839-44) ; and Xova Patrum liibtiotheca
(6 vols., 1845-53). Revised by A. Uudeman.
Mui'a (in Gr. Mora): in Greek mytholof;y, the eldest
daughter of Atlas and I'lcione, and tlierefore one of the
Pleiades. She wius l)e!oved by Zeus, an<l in a cave of Mt.
C^llene, in Arcadia, she bore to him lli-rnics. The story of
his birth and infancy is told in the beautiful hymn to Hermes
sometimes ascribed to Homer. J. K. S. S.
Maideniiuir-troe: See Plants, Fossiu
Maidcniipnti : town ; in the county of Berks, Enf;land ;
26 miles W. of London (see map of Kiij;laiid, rcf. 12-J); on
the southern bank of the Thames, here crosse<l by a stone
bridge erected in 1772. It is picturesquely situated, and
trades in malt, meal, and timber. Pop. (1891) 10,G07.
Maid of Koiit: a name commonlv applied to Klizaiiktii
Bakton, a religious enthusiast ; b. about 1506 and einpluved
for some time as a servant in the village of Aldington, Ki'iit.
Left by a serious illness In a state of partial derangement,
she saw strange visions, and uttered delirious speeches which
the superstition of the pconle invested with the sanctity of
prophecies, .\rchbishop Warham hearing of her alleged
revelations sent Kdward Hocking or Hockling, a canon of
Oanterliury, to investigate them. Whether persuaded of
her divine mission or wishing to use her as a tool, Hocking
encouraged her to continue proiihesying. How far con-
scious imposture entered into her speeche.'i, or how far they
were due to epileptic conditions, or genuine religious en-
thusiasm can not be determined. It was revealed to her
that if Henry VIII. obtained his divorce from Catharine he
would come to a miserable end within seven months. Many
Homan Catholics upheld her, ami among those who showed
great interest In her were Sir Thomas .More, Warham, and
Bishop Fisher, liut the king's wrath soon made itself felt.
She was arrested and after a public recantation and a con-
fession that her visions were all " feigned of her imagina-
tion," she was executed at Tyburn with Bocking and four
others on Apr. 21, 1534. F. M. Couiv.
Maidstone: town: In the countf of Kent, Kngland; 34
miles E. S. K. of London (see map o{ England, ref. Ki-K);
on the Med way, here crossed by a fine stone briilge of three
arches, erected in 1879. It Is a handsome old place, with a
fine church, many good educational institutions, a museum
and public library, two hospitals, cavalry and militia bar-
racks, extensive oil and paper mills, breweries, and manu-
factures of hats and blankets. The Church of All .Saints is
one of the largest parish churches in the kingdom, and con-
tains several interesting monuments and other antiquities.
The surrounding country Is famous for the wheat, and espe-
cially for the hops, it produces. Pop. (1891) 32,150.
Mai?nan, nuinyaaiV, .\lbert: historical and genre
Fainter; b. at Beaumont, Sarthe, France, Dec. 15. 1844.
le was a pupil of Luminals; was awarded a third-cla-ss
medal at the Salon of 1874 ; a second class inedal in 1876 ;
a first-class medal in 1879; received the decoration of the
Legion of Honor 1H83; a first-class medal at the Paris Ex-
position ot 18.89. He Is a strong draughtsman and an ex-
cellent eolorisl. His Di'parlure nf Hip Xnrmnn Fleet (1874)
and Danle Mi-eling the Countesx Matilda (1881) arc in the
Luxembourg Gallery, Paris; Ax-iniilton I'o}>e linnifnre VIII.
at Agani is in the Metropolitan Mu.-icum, New York.
Wii.i.iAM A. Corris.
Maitrre, mii'ger [Fr.. liter., lean, slender): |Mipular name
of a fish (Srurna aquila) of the fain-'y Sna-nidir, Inhabit-
ing the Mediterranean Sea and the ea-st .Vtlantic (tcean. It
sometimes attains the length of 6 feet, and is much sought
asa food-fish. It emits a groaning souml, which often guides
the fishermen to its shoals. The maigre is taken with the net.
Its large ear-hones are worn liy s<ime as charms against colic.
The ear-bones of related .\inerican spwies, being marked
with a Hide imprint ot the letter L, arc in some quarters es-
teemed as •' lucky-stones." Ueviseil by U. S. .Iorua.s.
Mal'kop: a rapidlv growing city of Kuban province; in
the Caucasus, Kus<ia'; 6:» miles .S. E. of EkaturincKiar; on
Bielava river, an aflluent of the Kuban (sec map of Russia,
ref. 10-E). It is a favorable point for the concentration of
troops ojjerating in the Cauca-sus, is in a rich and fertile
district, and has tjecorae the chief market of that region.
Pop. (1886)27,945.
MaHkur, maa-eekOv, AWL1.0N Nikolaevkii: poet; son
of a distinguished painter, and great-graiids<jn of Va.silil
Maikov, a poet of the eighteenth century; b. in Moscow,
Hu.ssia, .May 23, 1821. He studied at the rnivcrsity of St.
Petersburg, and turned to literature, publishing in 1842 a
small volume of poems that was favorably reviewed by the
great critic Beliiiskli. In the !>ame year he traveleil and
spent several months In Italy; ami during a slay in Bohemia
he became u dls<'lple of Punslavism. .Since then liLs life has
been that of an author, though he was also for many years
in the service of the Government a.s one of the censors of for-
eign b<X)ks. On Apr. 30, 1888, the fiftieth anniversary of his
earliest literary production was celebrated. Maikov prob-
ably is the first among living Russian i«iets. His works,
idealistic In tone, are characterizecl by great perfection of
form. He has drawn from classical antiquity many of his
subjects, among them those of his two plavs, Tri Smerli
CThree Deaths) and I)va Mira (Two Worlds), on wliich he
labored for years. During the Crimean war lie comixised
patriotic pieces, and besides a modern rendering of Tlie
Talc of the Troop of Jyor ami other excellent translations,
he has written fine poems of divers sorts. ,\ numljer of
them have been put into German (H. Roskos<-Iiny, Leipzig),
and a few not very successfully into Engll>h. See K. T.
Wilson, Jiussian Lyricx (1887), ami J. Pollen, Hhynieii frum
the Hiissiajt (1891). His complete works were pulilished in
St. Petersburg in 1864 (3 vols., 4th ed.). A, C, CooLllxiE.
MaikoT, LkontiI Xikolaevicu : editor and author ;
brother of .•\|>ollon Maikov, poet; b, in 1839. After study-
ing at the University of St. Petersburg he entere<l the serv-
ice of the Government, and in time was appointed vii'e-
dlrectorof the Imp'rial Library. He has also lieen eilitor
of The Journal of Public luMruction as well as president of
the ethnographical section of the Imperial Geographical So-
ciety. He has contributed valuable articles to journals and
reviews (m such subjects as geography, ethnography, and
folk-lore, besides studies of Russian authors. In 1885-*t7 he
edited with excellent notes and biography the works of the
poet Batiushkov. ' A. C. CooLllxiE.
Mainnik-hin, mi'mi'cheen' fliterally, bny-sell-mart) : s
Chinese commeri'ial station on the frontier of Mongolia;
situated immediately op[K)site the Siberian frontier trading-
post, Kiaklita, from which it is .separated by a neutral strip
6.50 feel in width. It is clean and well kept and has a [Mipu-
lation of 3,0<X). Since the treaty of Peking (1860), which
0|iened the whole Russian-C^hinese frontier to commerce, it
has lost much of its importance.
Mainibonrg. muiVboor', Loris: Church historian; b. at
Xaiuy ill 101(1; entered the Sf)ciety of Jesus in 1626, and
was for some years Profes.sor of Rhetoric at Rome. He en-
joyed a great reputation as a Church historian, and his //i>-
toire de I'Arianisiiie, Ilistoire dex Irnnorlaitef. llistoire du
CaliiniKine, etc., were much read in their lime; but lie
wrote with one eye fixed upon his friends ond the other
upon his foes, totally bliiul to truth, and having incau-
tiously entere<i into the contest lietween lyoiiis .XlV. and
the pope, and taken the side of the king in his Trailf hia-
torique Kur le* prerogatives de V f'glise de Pome, 1682. ho
was ex|>elled from his order on ileiiiand of the pope (1(582).
He retiri'd, pri>le(teil by the king, who gave hlin a pension,
to the abbev of St. Victor in Paris, where he dli-d Aug, 13,
1686.
Malmonp: khanate and town now in Northwest .Afghan-
l.st.in and tributarv to its ameer. The town is 190 miles
X. E. of Herat, lai. 35" 49 X., Ion. 64 :t3 E., on the San-
ghalyk or Xari river, whii'h Ii>s«^ it6«>lf in the sandy ileserts
to the N. The town has an imimrtanl strategic [>osition in
case of a war l^tween Great Brilaln and Russia. It was an
important commercial place, with a p..pulalinn estiiimle.l at
OS high as WI.IMK) down to the year 1X7!. when it wa.» >ul>-
jccted to a siege of six moiil lis, terminated by a nia.s,<«cre
of 18.000 pers<ins. It is now a small town of aUiut 2,500
inhabitants. Tlie khanate covers the siirrouniiing tem'tory,
and has a population estimated at lOtl.mK), mostly Uzt>ek
Tartars. .See Gnxlekov, From Samarcand to Jleral (trans-
latwl from the Russian, 1880). Mark W. Habbisotox.
Malmenslnirh'. orMympnulnirh ; a district of the Pac<«
division, Bengal, Britl.-.h India: Intween the Jamuns (the
4S0
MAIMONIDKS
continuation of the Brahmaputra) and the Meglina, anJ S.
of the Garo hills of Assjiiii. It is cii)ssi'ii olili<|iiely by the
Old Brahiuujmti-a aiul niaiiv other streams between the .la-
muna and Meiihiia. It is a large, iiiurshy, but fertile plain,
hilly toward tlie S., with many jcreat, insalubrious jungles.
Rice and jute, the best in Heiiiral. are the principal crops.
Area, 6,287 sn. miles. Pop. 3,100.0(10. There arc 7,1)00 vil-
higes, but only live with a poijulation of over (i.500. The
capital is Xasirabad, on theOlu Bralunapulra. l*op. 10.500.
M.\KK W. IIakki.nuton.
Mainion'idrs (in Fleb., Moses hen JTaimon; in Arab.,
Abu Jiiiram J/«*(i ibii JIaimiin ihn AbdaUuh): the most
important tij;ure in media'val Jewish literature ; b. in Cor-
dova, Mar. 30, 1135. lie is also known as Rainbam. a word
formed from the initial letters of his names. Among Chris-
tian authors of his time he is known as R. Moysex. He
came of a family well and honorably known in the Jewish
community. Under his father's guidance he was at an
early age initiate<l into the study not only of the Bible and
Talmud, but also of mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.
When he was thirteen years old the Moravid dynasty in
Spain gave way before the Almohid (Unitarian) invaders frorti
Africa. Their chief, Almu'min, took possession of Cordova
and immediately instituted a reign of religious persecution.
Those who refused to change their religion were e.\iled. It
has been asserted that the family of Maimonidcs did, for a
time, outwardly profess Islam ; but decisive proof for this
statement is wanting, and the authorities differ in opinion.
(See a resume by S. M. Simmons, Jewish Chronicle. London,
Jan. 27, 1882.) A few years later we find them exiled from
their native country. In 1159 they were in Fez, in 1165 in
St. Jean d'Acre. Moses traveled still farther, and settled in
Postat (Cairo). At first he earned his livelihood as a jeweler ;
but the Jewish community recognized his worth as a scholar,
and soon looked upon him as their spiritual head. He came
to be widely known also as a physic'ian, and in this capacity
entered into the service of the reigning sultan and of his
vizier, al Fadhil. D. Dec. 13, 1204.
Maimonides was a prolific writer, but, at the same time,
he was careful and systematic. His works, written in .Arabic
with one exception, were very soon translated into Hebrew,
notablv by members of the Tibbon family. They may be
divideil into three classes: Talmudic, philosoi)hical,and sci-
entific works.
I. Talmudic. a. Commenlnri/ to the Mishnah ; *or, ac-
cording to its Arabic title, Al SiriiJ (The Luminary). — In
writing this commentary Maimonides wished to spare those
who studied the Mishniih the trouble of wading through the
endless discussions of the Gemara. (See Talmud.) He has
therefore carefully noted only the decisions reached by the
rabbis. He gives his own explanations only where no rule
of practice is concerned. At limes he goes into long philo-
sophical or religious discussions; e. g. attached to his notes
on the treatise Sanhedrin we find the so-called Thirteen
Artielesof Faith, \rhich,thoiigh not intended by Maimonides
as authoritative and binding, have found their way into the
orthodox Jewish prayer-book. (See the literature in Schech-
ter, The Dogmas of Judaism, jew. Quart. Rev., i., pp.60,
sq.). This work, wtiich occupied its author for ten years,
was soon translated into Hebrew, and is found (since 1.523)
in the ordinary editions of the Talmud. On the editions of t he
Arabic text see .Steinsohneider, Die Ilebraeischen Ueber-
setzungen des Miltclalters (Berlin, 1893), g 554, p. 922. A
Latin translation of the introduction was given by Pococke
(q. v.). Porta J/o.ti.f (iJxford, 1655) ; a Latin translation of
the whole by Surenhus (161)8-170.3). Kxtracis in (iprman
may be found in Winter and VVilnsche. J)ie Jiidische Lite-
ratur (1892, ii., pp. 385, .tq.).
b. Book of the Commandments (Arabic, Kitab Ashariya ;
Hebrew, Sefer Ilammitsirrilli) contains a list of the 613 pre-
cepts deduced by the rabbis from the Pentateuch. In his
love of order Maimonidc^s classifies the {)rincip!es u[ion
which these laws are deduced under fourteen heads. See
M. Peritz, Das liuch dcr (lesefze (Hreslau, 1881); M. liloch,
Le Lirre des I'rfcepts (Paris, 1888). On the discussion
aroused by this work, sec Ji'llinek, A'o)i/re« Taryag {WW-n.
1878). Tills compilation was simply an introduction to
c. The Repetition of the Law (.Hishnah Thorah, or Yad
Ilachazakdh), in which Maimonides has gathered all the
Halachot (legal and nOigious decisions) which are to be
found in the whole Talmudic litcniture. as well as in the
works of the Gaoiiim. It was his intention that this should
be a civil, religious, and moral guidi- for I lie- .lew who wished
to live according to the Law, as understood by rabbinical
Judaism. Several similar works were compiled during the
Middle Ages. (See Jkwish Literati'BE.) The Mishniih
'J'hiirah is written in |iurc Hebrew, and is arranged, not ae-
coriliiig to the treatises of the MishnHli, but according to
certain philosophical |)rinci|iles which Maimonides has laid
down ill his (Juide of the Perplexed, iii., chap. xxxv.
d. Several smaller works, for example. Treatise on Cont'
pnhory Conversion, in which the author attempts to show
that, ■' according to Talmudic teaching, the acknowledgment
of Mohammed as prophet is permissible"; and that in cer-
tain cases a Jew may outwardlv profess Islam. (See the eds.
of A. Geiger. 1850, and II. Edelmann, Chemddh Genuzah,
1851.) The Kpistle to the Jews in Yemeyi (Iggcreth Tenian,
ed. by I). Ilahib, Vienna, 1874) treats of a pseudo-Messiah who
had appeared in that part of Arabia. (See also JUd. Litera-
tur filatt, 1893, No. 40.) For the literature of Maimonides's
eoirespondence, see Steinschneider, Bebr. Uebersetz., ii., pp.
930. SI?.
II. It is, however, as a philosophical writer that Maimon-
ides has exerted the greatest influence upon Judaism. His
Guide of the Perplexed (.\rabic. DaliVat al-Ildir'tn; He-
brew, Moreh Nebhuch\m), finished in 1190 and dedicated to
his pupil Joseph ibn Aknin, is the most comprehensive at-
tempt made to combine Aristotelian jihilosophy in its Neo-
platonic form with orthodox Jewish theology. His admira-
tion for Ari.stotle was unbounded. He studied his works
with the aid of the commentaries of Alexander of Apodisia,
Tliemistius, and Averroc'S. Jlaimonides may be considered,
in general, to be a rationalist. Where he forsakes philoso-
phy, he does ,so knowingly, and in order to satisfy the de-
mands of the religious feeling.
According to Jlaimonides, "the study of philosophy is the
highest degree of divine worship." and Scripture must be
brought into harmony with it. He explains numerous ex-
pressions as figures, homonyms, and hybrid terms. From a
misunderstanding of such terms has resulted the apparent
conflict between religion and science. All the attributes of
(lod mentioned in the Bible are thus explained away. They
would be a limitation of the Deity as the Primal Cause or
Ever-active Intellect. The Mohammedan Kalam he de-
clares to be uniihilosophical.
In the second part Maimonides endeavors to prove the
existence of an infinite, incorporeal, eternal Primal Cause.
He divides the spheres into four groups, each sphere hav-
ing a soul of its own. These are a descending series from the
Primal Cause, and through them emanations are transmit-
ted to the Active Intellect. This is to a certain extent Aris-
totelian; but Maimonides holds that the spheres are cre-
aXi'xl. He teaches also the doctrine of the Creatio in nihilo,
contrary to Aristotle. He holds that it can be proved as
well by philosophical rea-soning as from Scripture. The
universe can be destroyed again only by a fiat of the divine
will. Miracles do not really exist, for the laws once laid
down by the Creator can not be changed. Prophecy, like-
wise, is explained as a purely natural ]ihenonienon — an ema-
nation from the active intellect uyion the intellect and im-
agination of such persons whose mental and moral powers
picilispose them to such a reception. That which was po-
tential is brought into actuality.
The third part opens with an exposition of the firet chap-
ter of P^zekiel, which had always formed a subject of s[)ccu-
lation among the Jews. According to Maimonides, it con-
tains an exposition of the sublunary world, of the spheres,
and of the intelligences. The rest of the book treats of
theological and etliical matters. Evil is simply the nega-
tion of good, and arises through the material elements which
are in man. The pur[)ose and end of the world can not be
ascertained; they arc determined purely by the will of God.
Jlaimonides is a firm upholder of the doctrine of free will,
though he is ready to confess "this theory is not estali-
lished by demonstrative proof; it is based upon the author-
ity of tlie Bible." The same is the case with his belief in
the resurrcclicm of the body.
The Miireh I^'el/liurh'im has been twice translated into
Hebrew — by Samuel ibn Tiblion (twelfth century) and by
Juda Charisi (1210). It has been many tiims commented
upon. The Arabic text, with French translation, was pub-
lished by S. Munk, Le Guide des kgaris (Paris, 1850-<i0).
A Latin translation was done by J. liuxtorf. Doctor Per-
plexorum (Hasei, 1629); a German one by Filrstenthal (part
I., Krotoscliiii, 1839); M. Stern (part ii., Vienna, 18ti4); and
S. .Scheyer (part iii., l''rankforl-on-tlie-Maiii, 183H). An
Italian rendering Wius made by 1). J. Maroni, Guida degli
^
x3
MAIN
MAINE
481
Smarrili (Klorencc, 1870); a IIuiif;:iirian 1)V M. Klein (Bu-
dapest, 1880-«!»); and an Ktifjlish one by'M. KriedlUlider,
The Guide of the Perplexed (H vols., London, 1885).
The position assi(jned by Mainionides to philosophy ap-
peared to many to be danfjerous to Jewish doctrine, and a
neree controversy arose between Mainionists and auti-.Mai-
inonists which lasted for many years, and ended in a victory
for the followers of the philosopher. See Kried lander,
(iuide (vol. iii., pp. xxiv., sq.) ; Uci^'iT, Wissent. Zeitschrift
(v., pp. U8, «(/.); tiriltz, Geachichte der Juden (\n., pp. ai,
sq.); Jew. (Juarl. Hev. (i., pp. (iO, sq.).
Several smaller treatises were also written by Mainionides,
suchasthc /-f//cro» //le l{esurreclwn{,Vi^dl); Loyical Ttrmi-
no/«i/y (about lUiO); Treatise on the rnity of O'od, elc. See
Steinschneiiler, Jlebr. Uebers. (i., pp. 341. sq.).
III. While living in Fostiit a ^reat part of Mainionides's
time was taken up with his duties as a physician, liis in-
terest in the study of medicine is seen in the eiKht treatisi-s
which he wrote. They e.vist, still in MS., in many of the
Kur()|iean libraries. A complete account may be found in
SteinsclituMder, llebr. I'ehers. (i., ^ -181, pp. 7G"i, sq.).
ArTHORiriKs. — 1 n addition to those mentioned above, Stein-
schneiiler, i'atalmjus Libriirum Ihbrtpcorum in Bibliolheca
Umlleiana (Berlin, 1852) col. 18(50 ; Uriitz, Uesehiihle der Ju-
den (vi., pp. ;}(!:(, sij.) : S. B. Scheyer. Das psychol. System des
Maimonides (Krankfort-on-lhe-.Main, 184.J) ; Geiger, J/o.se«
Ben Maimon (Breslau, 1850); M. Joel, Die lieligionsphi-
losophie des Mosea ben Maimon (Breslau, 1850); Albertus
JIai/niis und sein Verhiillniss zu Maimonides (Breslau,
18B3); S. Kubin, Spinoza und Maimonides (Vienna, 1868);
Ad. Jarac/ewsky, Zeitschr. f. Phitus. und Philos. Krilik
(vol. .\lvi., p(). .5-24, Halle, 1865); M. Kisler. VorU.iunyen
liber die Judische Philosophen (ii., Vienna, 1870); I). Kosin,
J)ie Elhik des Maimonides ()iTei\t\\\, 187tJ); 1). Kaufmann,
(lesch. der Altributenlehre (pp. 'M,i, sq., (jotha, 1877); I.
Milnz, Die lieliffion^philosophie des Maimonides (Berlin,
1887); Steinschneidor, Muren Mekom J/ammoreh (Berlin,
1885). Richard Gottiikii_
Main, min : a river of Germany which rises in the Fich-
telgebirfjc, flows westward with a tortuous course for a dis-
tance of 300 miles, and joins the Khine opposite Mayence.
It is navipable for a distance of nearly 200 miles, and is con-
nected with the Danube by the Ludwig's canal. The prin-
cipal cities on its banks are Wiirzburg, Offenbach, and
Frankfort.
Maine : an ancient province of France, lying S. of Nor-
mandy, and comprising the present de[iartuients of May-
enne ami Sarthe, and (larts of Kure anil Orne.
Maine: one of the V. S. of North America (Nortli At-
lantic group) ; the most northeasterly of the U. S., and the
largest of the New
England States;
name used by ear-
ly explorers to dis-
ignatc the main-
land as distinct
frnni the nutner-
• iis islands which
>kirt the coast.
Silualion and
Area. — It lies be-
; ween 43' 04 and
17 27 N. lat., and
let ween 66° 56
Old 7V 06' \V.
Inn., and is bound-
ed on the N. W.
by the province of
yuelK'c, on the N.
^.iii ■! \iaii •■ ''/ yu>^'*c ami
New Brunswick,
on the E. by New Brunswick, on the S. E. and S. by the At-
lantic Ocean, and on the W. by New Hampshire. Its ex-
treme length is 302 miles; extreme width, 285 miles. The
gross area is ,'13,040 s<^. miles, of which 3.145 are water sur-
face. By the census of 18U0 Maine ranked thirtieth among
the States in population.
Topography. — The surface is disposed in two groat slopes.
The northern or St. John sloiio, drained by the St. John
river, is 117 miles in length and about UO miles in breadth,
and has an area of 7,400 m\. miles. The divide which .seiia-
ratesthis from the southern slone is in general iiuitc flat,
and in manv instances lakes and swamps near it liave out-
267
lets in both directions. The region is a great monotonous
plain, almunding in swanifis, with but few mountain [leaks,
and some low rolling highlands. The average fall |Hr mile
toward the N. and E. is from 2 to 3 feet. The .southern
slo|)C has an area of 24,100 s<|. miles, with an average width
of 140 nule.s. The elevation aU.ve the sea of the northern
•border varies from nearly 2,000 feet on the \V.. to less than
1,(KK) feet on the E. The average slope per mile is 7 feet.
Mountains. — The main mountain region crosses the State
northeastwardly in a nearly straight lini' fr the White
Mountains, past Mt. Abraham and Mt. Katahdin, to Mars
Hill near the St. John river. Mt. Katahdin, in the center of
the State, is 5,:i85 feet high.
/{iters. — The rivers rise high among the mountain peaks —
the .Saco at an altitude <.f l.H'.HI feet, the Kennebec at 2,000,
the I'enobscot at 2,500, the Androsc-oggin at 3.000 — and flow
swiftly, with frequent falls and rapids, to the sea. Large
lakes at their sources give abundant op|)ortunity for stor-
age, and the location of many of the best falls a't the head
of tide-water gives them an exceptional value. The availa-
ble water-power of the State has been estimated at 2,656,200
horse-power.
Lakes. — Maine has more than 1..500 lakes situated at the
head of the river systems and at the bases of the scattered
mountain peaks. Together with the rivers they cover an
area of 3.145 st). miles, or one-eleventh of the area of the
State. Moosehead Lake, the largest in the .State, is 35 miles
long, 10 miles wide, and 1,023 feet above the level of the sea,
and Ilangely Lake is 1,511 feet al>ovc it.
Searoast. — Although the coast-line measured direct is only
about 225 miles long, yet such is its irregularity and inden-
tation that Maine has 2.4H(i miles of seacoast. In the west-
ern portion of the Stale the seacoast for 10 or 20 miles in-
land is flat, low, sandy, and at .some points marshy. The
only excejUion is Mt. Agamenticus in the exlri'ine south-
west. E. of the Kennebec, in the Camden Hills and the
peaks of Mt. Desert island and vicinitv. the shore rises
abruptly from the sea to a height of from' 1,000 to 2,800 feet.
lieoloyy. — The rocks are highly crystalline and much dis-
turbed. Metamorphosis has been carried to such an extent
that only in a few cases are they fossiliferous. t'onsequently,
the geological age of large areas is conjectural, and admits
of no absolute statement except the general one that they
are very old. The Devonian areas in the northern part of
the .State and in the vicinity of I'erry and i'embroke, and
the Silurian area at North Haven on I'enobscot Bay, have
been established beyond question. The entire surface, in-
cluding Katahdin, is glaciated. Stria- and bowlders are
found in all parts of the State. There are thirty-one sys-
tems of kames, having a general northerly and southerly
direction. Through the southern part of the State are finely
stratified fossiliferous clays of the t'hamplain period.
Soil and I'roducts. — Maine presents a great variety of
soils — clay, clayey loam, sandy loam, mountain interval,
river bottom, salt marsh, and fresh meaibiws. The soil in
the river valleys, and Iwtween the Penobscot and the Ken-
nelH'c, ami in the cultivated jxirtions of AriHtstook t'ounty,
is of good qualitv. In the mountainous districts and along
the seacoast it is sterile, and d<x>s not rejiay cultivation.
Farms of alluvial soil, on the Andros<'oggin, Sandy, and
Kenneln'c rivers, arc the best for the cereals; the uplands
for grazing and orchards ; and the clay loam for hay. The
forests are a great soun-e of wealth. In the northern part
of the State thev are composed chiefly of pine, spruce, hem-
lock, and fir. Farther south there is an admixture of white
and red oak, maple, beech, birch, and ash. Then' are ce<l»r
swamps in the northeiust. In the south are found poplar,
elm, basswoiMl, dogwoinl, sassafras. juni|MT. buttonwixHl. al-
der, and willow, liutternut and hickory are found, but are
not abundant ; chestnut is fouml only on the southwest Imt-
der. The apple is the leading fniit-tn'C. The plum, cherry,
and pear are native. The blacklKTry, strawberry, r«.«|>-
berry, and blueberry grow in gn-at pnifusion.
The moos*', deer, caribou, bear, wolf, catamount, wolver-
ine, wild-<'at, fox, Iwaver. raccoon, marten, ."-able. wpilsoI,
mink, wo<Hlchui'k. [Hin-upine, rabbit, a'vi S4|uirrel inhabit
the forests. S'als ari' found in many of the ba>>. Wild
geeso, ducks, brant, and teal inhabit the lake'- and |>onds.
ftnlls ami lish-hawks are fouml on the ct«>t. Kiit'le-^. hawks,
owls, crows, [iarlridg\-s. pige»n«, quails, n'bins. king-fish-
ers, plover, woiMloxk, blackbinls, orioles, t»>l"iliiiks. blue-
bird.s, yellowbinls, humming-binls, swallows, and s|iiirrow»
are common. .Salmon, salmon-trout, trout, sturgwin, bass,
and pickerel abound in the stri'ams and lakes; and the cun-
482
MAINE
ner, flounder, rock-cod and sculpin, the cod, pollack, had-
dock, hake, hcrrin;;, menhaden, mackerel, porgy, and hali-
but are found in great numbers along the coast. Clams,
mussels, and lobstei°s arc abundant.
The minerals of chief economic value are granite, lime-
stone, and slate. In 18111 the Slate ranked second in gran-
ite, the production being valued at l|;2,200,000. ami Dix isl-
and (solid rock) and llallowell Ijeing the iiriiicipal sources;
sixth in limestone, with iiroductioii, chielly burned into
lime, valued at $1,'JOO,OUO: and third in slate, with product
of .50,1)00 siiuares of rooting slate, valued at !?2.")0,000. . Oilier
valuable minerals worked are iron, copper, gold, silver, lead,
zinc, tin, manganese, arsenic, antimony, pyrites, freestone,
nuirble, (piart/, for glass, brick clay, feldspar, garnet, beryl,
and tourmaline.
The following from the U. S. census reports of 1880 and
1890 shows the extent of farming operations in the State :
FARMS, ETC.
1880.
1890.
Per Mat.*
Total number of farms
64.309
6,558,578
$102,357,615
62.013
6,179,985
898.!>67.730
3-6
Number t»f acres in farms
Value of farms, including
buildinfcs and fences
5-7
3-7
• Decrease.
The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of
the principal crops in 1893 :
CROPS.
Acrug*.
Yield.
Value.
Corn
13,563
4,500
183,216
1,045
83,314
61,905
1.227.702
410,656 bush.
73,000 "
4,474,193 "
12,540 "
670,106 "
6,228,600 "
1,129,186 tons
$254,607
Wheat
73,440
Oats
2,013.387
Kye . .
13,.143
365,0117
Potatoes
3,363.444
Hay
13,700,665
Totals
1.446,275
$19,784,183
The farm animals on .Tan. 1, 1894, comprised 116,604
horses, value $7,354,4.58 ; 1 77,602 milch cows, value !^3,795,-
Sor,; 130,.528 oxen and other cattle, value $3,181,617; 326,-
937 sheep, value .1671,80.5 ; and 79,995 swine, value |6'Jd,-
476 ; total value $15,698,756.
Two leading industries, though not directly agricultural,
are of great benefit to the farmers of the State. The cut-
ting of ice gives employment to a large number of men and
teams at a time when they otherwise would be idle, anil the
development of the coa.st and lake regions as summer resorts
gives a market for garden products. Of the 150.335 fami-
lies in the State, 62,122 occupy farms ; 92'38 per cent, of the
farm families own, and 7'62 [)er cent, hire, the farms they
occupy; and 71'97 per cent, of the total farm families own
their farms free from incumbrance.
Climate. — The climate, though severe and subject to great
extremes, is moderately uniform during each season, and is
favorable to health. Snow lies on the ground from three
and a half to five months. Kxccllent drainage and wiiuis
from sea, mountain, and forest render the State almost free
from malarial diseiLse. The following table, compiled from
reports by the U. S. Weather Bureau at Portland on the
basis of observations made in that city, is fairly representa-
tive of the temperature and rainfall during 1893 in the
thickly settled portions of the State. A considerable dilTer-
ence is shown by observations in the northern section, caused
by conditions of its own:
January...
February..
March
April
May
June
July
Auf^ust . . .
September
October . . .
November.
December .
HlfheM
tampemtur*.
48°
63
68
61
83
88
93
90
74
75
58
46
Meu
4flOi|Mrfttut«,
15° F
SW
89
39
62
60
68
67
66
61
385
28
Relshll,
Incbee.
219
4-51
3 68
3-71
7-59
3 68
098
2-74
233
6- 18
1-83
6-42
Dii'itiioyts. — For administrative purposes Maine is divided
into sixteen counties, as follows :
COUNTIES
AND -COUNTV-TOWNS, WITH POPULATION
COU.NTIES.
•Ref.
Pop.
11180.
Pop.
1890.
COUNTY-TOWNS.
Pop.
I8W.
Androscoggin . . .
9-B
3-K
10-B
7-U
8-E
9-C
9-D
10-D
8-A
6-K
6-D
10-C
6 C
9-D
7-0
11- A
45.042
41.700
88.359
18,180
38,129
53,0.58
33.863
24,821
32,627
70,476
14,872
19,272
32.3M
32,46;J
44,481
68,857
48.968
49..')89
90,949
17,0.M
37.318
57,012
81,473
21.996
30,586
72.805
16,131
19,4.12
32.627
27,759
44,488
68.829
11.2.W
Houlton
4.015
Portland
36.425
Farmington
Ellsworth
1 ,243
Hancock
4,804
10,.187
8,174
Wiscasset
Paris
Bangor
1,7.33
266
Penobscot
19,103
Piscataquis
Sagadahoc
Somerset
Waldo
1,942
8,723
Skowhegan
Belfast
1 Calais
5,068
5,294
7,290
Washington
York
'( Machias
Alfred
2.035
1,030
Totals
648,936
661.086
* Reference for location of counties, see map of Maine.
Principal Cities and Towns, irith Population for 1S90. —
Portland, 36,425 : Lewiston, 21,701 ; Bangor, 19,103 ; Bidde-
ford, 14,443; Auburn, 11,2.50; Augusta, 10,527 ; Bath, 8,723;
Kockland, 8,174; Calai.s, 7,290; Waterville, 7,107; Westbrook,
6,632; Saco, 6,075; Brunswick, 6.012 : Gardiner, 5,491 ; Cape
Klizabeth, 5,459; Peering, 5,353; Oldtown, 5,312; Belfast,
5,294; and Skowhegan, 5,068.
Population and Paces.— 1\\ 18,50. ,583,169 ; 1860,628,279;
1870, 626,915 ; 1880, 648,936 ; 1890, 661,086 (native, 582,125;
foreign, 78,961; males, 332,590; females, 328,496; white,
659,263; colored, 1,190, including 73 Chinese, 1 Japanese,
and 559 civilixcd Indians). The great majority of the for-
eign population of Maine are French-Canadians. There is
an important Swedish settlement at New Sweden. Maine
has the largest proportion (more than three-riuarters) of
purely native stock among the New England States.
InduKtries and Business Interests. — The following table
gives a summary of the manufacturing and mechanical in-
dustries of the !5tate, as reported by the census of 1890 :
INDUSTRIES.
Total for the State i
Increase
Totals for st'leeted industries :
Woolen goods
Col Ion gor kIs
Boitts and shoes, custom-work and repairing
Boots and sluM'8. factory product
LnmlMT.planing.millprodnct.s. including sash, doors, and blinds
Lumber an<l otlier mill products from logs or bolts
Ship building
Pulp, wood
1.^'ather, tanned and curried
Flour and grist mil! products
Foundry and mariiini'-shop products
Fish, canning and prcsiTving
Fruits and vegetables, canning and preserving
1890
1880
1890
PTumber of
eitnblish-
munU,
5,010
4,481
88
2.1
ISti
07
831
85
6
11
61
810
82
35
44
Cipiui,
$80,419,809
49,988,171
$.30.431.6.38
$9,484,925
20,8.10.7.14
,14,080
4,804,948
962,910
11,883,447
1,027,7.16
1,678..327
2,695.498
2,231.702
1,194,900
3,0'i).473
627,480
1,014,980
AVERAGE NUUBER OF
EMPLOYEES AND
TOTAL WAGES PAID.
Employee!.
75.780
52,954
22.826
6,4.13
13,992
198
6,597
680
8,938
1,6.39
793
911
4113
1,903
8,391
2,133
Wagee.
$26,526,817
13,623,318
$12,902,899
$1,991,676
4,372.473
81,839
8,078,466
332,412
2,519.609
843.715
371,980
386,2.17
411.791
186,420
l,041,6t«
471, IMS
216,680
Oott of
□letrritli
lued.
$61,509,678
61,120,708
$,188,970
$.15,098
6,800,682
503,973
5,9.10,780
1,42.'). 175
1,062.028
810,6,19
2,307,313
8,806.869
1,139.070
1KK),«74
700,719
Value of
producu.
$95,690,760
79,829,793
$15,860,907
$8,814,868
15,316.909
i6r,o:i4
10,.^3.1,3I2
1,085.892
10,907,4,38
2,818..1ti5
1,762,440
1,518,011
3,363,(>72
3.2'i4.690
2,fl28,.173
1.660.881
1,198,683
MAINK
483
More than 100 new maniifacturinf; industries were cstal>-
lislii'il in Miiine in 181(1, including 4 inilp-Miills. 5 paiiiT-
niilU, ;jO luiiiliiT and wood-worklii;; mills. I ccittun-inill, 'i
woulen-inills, 4 slmc- factories, 7 ciolhing-factorics, 10 luu-
chine-shops, and 0 foundries.
Sliip-biiililiiu/. — Tlif close proximity of ocean and forest,
the deep-watir iidaiid harbors, the sliilled Inlmr the residt of
generations of ship-lniilders, combine to nmkc sliip-liuitdiiif;
a leading interest of tlie State. At Hutli alone since ITbl
there have been built ;i,4.)0 vessels, haviiif; a total lonnafje
not far from l.UoO.OOO. In IHid i;JS vessels of 47,:W7 tons
were built in the State. Hath has a yard larfje enoufjh to al-
low the construction of eijfht or ten large wooilen ships at
once, and a very large yard for iron ship-building.
Quarries. — The roofing slate produced from the quarries
of Piscataquis Countv, is almost free from impurities, per-
fectly granulated, and consequently is flexible and not eas-
ilv broken, lis remarkable cleavage renders it capable of be-
ing split into very thin plates, and its color is a deep black,
unchangeable by exposure to weather. Maine stands first
among the .States in the amount of cai)ital invested and
persons employed in granite quarries, and second in amount
anil value of pro<luct. The New York State Capitol at Al-
bany and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, arc
constructed of Ilallowell, Kennebec co., granite. Maine heads
the list of States in the value of lime produced. In Knox
County large quarries of very pure limestone are operated
exclusively for the purpose of burning the product into lime.
The following is a summary of the quarrying industry :
CLASSmOATION.
.No. of
qurrlM.
CaplUI.
P«nOM
a>plo7<d.
W.g»p.ld.
prodact.
4
153
$1.I'JU,.VX)
611,000
S,19S,»17
1,063
309
3,737
t679,!tS
160,300
I,5l7,0a8
$1,523,499
8lato
211,01X1
QraniCA
2,'>-"),S3'J
Totals
217
$4,953,817
5,109
82,357,151
$3,963,3.38
Fisheries. — In 1889 the products of the vessel fisheries
amounted to 38,358.830 lb. The most important species was
the c<«i. The shore fisheries employed .5,990 boats, 121,250
lobster-pots, and 273 weirs, trap-nets, gill-nets, pound-nets,
hand-lines, trawl-lines, bag-nets, and seines. The products
for 1889 were 91.201,034 lb. of fish, mollu.sks, an(l crusta-
ceans. The lobster-fishery is the most important one, the
value of the catch being $574,165. Next in importance are
the herring and the soft clam. The larger part of the clam
catch IS salted for bait in the line fisheries. The smelt is an
important fooil-fish abounding in the coast rivers. The sal-
mon is confined chiefiy to the I'enobscot river. The total
catch in 1889 was 152,700 lb. The shad-fishery has ad-
vanced greatlv, and is greater than that of any other New
England State, 887.800 lb. being taken in 1889. The shore
fishery industries add greatly to the value of the fisheries.
They include the canning of sardines, plain herring, men-
haden, clams, lobsters, and mackerel, and the smoking of
herring.
The following is a, summary of the fisheries of the State
according to the census of 1890:
DESIGNATION.
PemonR employed.
Fishermen
Shoremen
Capitnl invested. ..
1 — yjj^
Boat*.
Mini>r ftpparntus
Otht^r capital, iiicluiliuj; shore property .
Proilucts
(J'-ntral fishcriefl
Menhaileii-dHhery
Oyster-flahery
12,537
10.944
1.593
422
»,397
$2.."i«2.709
591,530
295,320
5!rr,344
1.078.525
S.lMfl.9K9
3,024 .tW
14.a%1
8,250
Commerre. — Jfaine has eight V. S. customs di«triels ami
ports of entry — Hangor. Halh. Belfast, f'asline. Frenchman
Bay, Pa-ssamaquoddy, Porllaml and Plymouth, and SValdo-
boro. During the calendar year 1893 the imi>orls of mer-
chandise at these ports (excepting Frenchman Hav) amount-
ed to 12,251,790, and the exports to |;3,068.857. The domes-
tic tratlic of the State by rail and water is very large.
Finance. — The total assessed viiliiation in l8so was $2.35,-
978,716; in 1H90, $309.12!l.ll>1. In 1S92 the asspsseil valua-
tion of real properlv was $236,135,199. of personal. $78,194.-
983: total, $3I4,.330.1S1. The tax-rate in 1892 was $2.75
per $1,000, and in 1894 $2.50. The Stale hod a bunded debt
on Jan. 1, 1894, of $2,.506,25O, and a temporary loan of $100.-
000, payable that year. During 1H93 the Stale paid $50,000
of its bonded ili-bi and $2IK),(KH) of its tein|M,rHrv loan.
Uankitiy.—ln Dec, 1H93, lliiTc were 8;i national banks in
the State, with combined capital of $11,243,570, indiviclual
deposits of $12,276.W73, and surplus and profits of $4,411,-
359; .52 savings-banks, which together had 1,53.922 ileiK,si-
tors, $53,261,309 in individual deposits, and $3,366,:143 in
surjilus and profits.
ihans uf Vummunicnlion. — Maine in 1891 had 1,383'02
miles of steam railway in operation, of which the principal
lines were the Maine Central, the Boston and Maine, the
Canadian Pacific, the (iraiid Trunk, the Bangor and I'is-
cataquis, and the Portland and Kwhester. The total cost
of the Maine Central Hallway to ISUl was $13,735,578.74 ;
its net income that year was $218,374.86. It had in o|KTa-
tion in the Slate, including lea-secl lines, 600 miles of rail-
way, and carried 1,943.351 passengers and 1,741,519 tons of
freight. There are 86 steam vessels on the inlaiicl waters of
the State. The tonnage of shipping owned in Maine in
1890 was 303,969. A large number of vcsseb are euiploved
in the coastwi.se trade.
Churches. — The census of 1890 gave the following statis-
tics of the principal religious bodies :
DENOMINATIOKS.
Roman Catholic
Methodist Kpist-opal.
ConpreKatioiial
Baptist
Frren 111 Baptist
Uuiversalist
cm-islians
Protestant Kpiscopal
Spiritual ist
ifnitarian
Advent Christian
Friends
OrrulB-
Uou.
CIladM
udlulla.
URBbo^
88
89
57,548
855
S.'ff
22.W>6
240
277
21.523
232
242
18.4»2
280
273
1G.2»4
80
84
3.7.50
60
36
3.451
88
87
8.291
21
21
2.562
22
25
2.421
65
62
2.317
23
23
1.430
v>h>>r
$597,550
1.152.878
1.512.0110
l)I5.&50
584.7.50
542.9U0
76.880
40e.6«0
1S.S50
216.700
88.100
86,»7B
To prevent excessive multiplication of feeble churches in
small towns, and to promote comity between denominations
in missionary work, an interdenominational commission was
formed in 1892, composed of representatives of the Ba[>tist,
Free Baptist, Methodist Kpiscopal, Congregational, and
Christian denominations, who agreed to hold consultation!*
before beginning Christian work which might affect each
other's interests, and to refer all cases of friction to the
executive committee of the commission.
Schools. — Children between the ages of nine and fifteen
years are required to attend school twelve weeks in each
year. Kvery city and town is required to raise and exi>end for
schools a sum not less than 80 cents per anniiin for each in-
habitant. The Stale, from the income of a i>ermanent echoed
fund, from a tax of one mill per dollar of valuation on prop-
erty in the State, and from a lax of 1 per cent, on the annual
average deposits in savings-banks, distributes school money
in proportion to the number of children of school age in
eacn town. In 1S90-91 the amount of schoc^l money avail-
able for common schools from town treasuries was $781,712 ;
from the Stale treasurv. $.391,959 ; fnun lix-al funds, $37.-
.581. The total expenditures were $1.16;l.968. The esti-
mated value of school profierty was $3,670,.'{85. The num-
ber of sehiwl-houses was 4,2(19 ; number of sclnxils 4,621, of
which 8;W were grailed and 3,7H2 ungraded ; number of
children of school age in the Slate 210.997. of whom 141,-
4.33 attended school ; and the average daily atlendanre was
103,062. The average length of scluxil-tcrnis for the year
was twenty-one weeks : 7.314 teachers were em|)loyt>d durin);
the vear, of whom 6.268 had had jirevious experience, and
2,.34:5 continued in the same school tlnring the year. Tho
average wages, excluding board, of male teachers was $34.1K)
per month, of female teachers $17.56. The schools are sup-
plieil with free text-books, at a cost in 1890-91 of $170,014.
The district system, by which weak and inefllcient schools
under a management divided between Ihe town committee
and Ihe district agent were maintained at disproportionate
expense, has prevented the progress of education in the
niral regions. The system was abolishecl by the Legislature
in 1893. A system of free high schcnils was established in
1878, by which Ihe Stale contributes $2.50 to each town
which raises a sum not less than $2.V) for the .support of a
free high school. As t)ie support of thi>se high schools is
voluntary on Ihe part of Ihe towns, the constant anri uni-
form increase in the number of such schools is a gratifying
484
MAINE
indication of increased interest in education. In 1880-81
there were 100 hisli schools supported at an expense of ^69,-
469 ; in 1890-91 tliero were 228 such schools, supported at a
cost of $1-47,07").
Since the establislinioiit of free liigli schools in all the
principal towns the aeadeiuies, which were important factors
in the education of tlie State during the earlier portion of
its history, have relatively declined, as they can not draw
enough pupils to support theui by tuition. In 1891 the
State came to the temporary relief of several of these
academies by the a|)propriation of $500 annually for ten
rears. There are three State normal schools: at Farming-
ton, with an attendance in 1890-91 of 120 students ; Castine,
with 106; and Gorham, with l;i4.
The following table shows the condition of the institu-
tions of higher education in the school year 1892-93 :
Bowdoin College '
Colby University
Bates College
State College
Bangor Theological Sem-
inary
Cobh Divinity School....
Medical School of Maine
1794
1818
I8G3
1865
1814
1870
1821
Brunswi<:k
WattTville.
Lewiston. .
Orono
Ban^nr
L.ewiston..
Brunswick
J.
'i
ii
■a o
E?
£^.
"■
•*
16
197
14
150
56
8
115
50
28
140
6
4.3
7
22
1
14
100
197
206
165
140
43
23
100
Charitable, Reformatory, and Penal Instiliifionx. — These
comprise a State prison, at Thomaston, in which the pris-
oners are employed in various industries, and are given in-
struction in reading, writing, spelling, book-keeping, arith-
metic, geography, and history : a Stale reform school, at
Cape ElizHbelii, which has a farm of 184 acres, a mechanical
school, a library, reading-room, and an cntcrtainment-lia-11
(where the cottage system has been ititroduccd) ; a State
Industrial School for girls, at Hallowell, which is not a house
of correction, but a refuge for girls between the ages of
seven and fifteen years who are in danger of falling into
vice and immorality, where they are taught to become self-
supporting ; a State insane asylum, at Augusta, which is in-
adequate to nu'ct the needs of the State ; a military and
naval orphan asylum, at Bath ; the Maine Genera! Hospital,
at Portland ; the Maine Kye and Kar Infirmary, at Portland ;
and Good Will Farm, at East Fairfield, where boys of good
character and [u-omise are given homes in attractive cottages
and trained for lives of usefulness.
Post-offices and Periodicals. — On Jan. 1, 1894, there were
1,170 po.st-officcs in the State, of which ."iS were presidential
(3 first-class, 9 second-class, 46 third-class) and 1,112 fourth-
class. There were 377 money-order and 5 postal-rate oflices.
Of periodicals, there were 16 daily, 2 semi-weekly, 106 week-
ly, 1 bi-weekly, 5 semi-monthly, 57 monthly, and 5 quarter-
ly ; total 192.
Libraries. — A U. S. Government report on public libraries
of 1,000 volumes and upward each, in 1891, showed for
Maine a total of 93 libraries, which (contained 448,598 bound
volumes and 90,562 pamphlets. The libraries were classi-
fied as follows : Geiu-rai, 44 ; school, 14 ; college, 6 ; law, 5 ;
theological, 3; medical, 1; government, 1; ])ublic institu-
tion, 3 ; Y. M. C. A., 1 ; State, 1 ; social, 10 ; scientific, 2 ; his-
torical, 1 ; and garrison, 1.
Political Orqanization. — The legi-slative power is vested
in a House of Representatives of 151 members representing
the towns, and a Senate of 31 members representing the 16
counties. The supreme e.\e('utive power resides in a Gover-
nor, elected by a plurality vote of the people, and a council
of seven members, representing as many districts, elected, as
are al.so the treasurer and secretary of State, by joint ballot
of the two houses. The judicial power is vested in a su-
preme judicial court of eight members, and superior courts
in such counties as riM|uire them. State elections and ses-
sions of tli(! Legislature are biennial. Every male citizen of
the U. S. of the age of twenty-one years anil upward, ex-
cepting paupers, perscms under guardianship, and Indiiins
not taxed, having his residence established in the State for
the term of three months next preceding any election, who is
able to read the C'on.stituti()n in the English language iitiil
write his name, is allowed to vote. The voluntary militia
consists of 17 companies of infantry and 2 Gatling gun com-
panies, aggregating (1890) 77 comudssioned ollieers and 932
enlistiid men. The reserv(^ militia consists of two companies
of infantry, aggregating (1890) 6 commissioned ollieers and
79 enlisted men.
History. — Maine was probably visited by Northmen about
the year 1000 a. d., and was seen by the Calxits during their
voyages in 1497 and 1498. In 1.524 Verrazano named the
whole coast New France. The voyages of (iosnold in 1602,
Pring in 1603. and Weymouth in 1605 brought this region
to the attention of the English. In 1603 Henry IV. of
France granted a charter, embracing all North America
between 40' and 46" N. lal., to de Monts, a French Protes-
tant. In 1606 .lames I. of England granted the territory
between 34 and 45 N. lat. to a company of Englishmen.
Thus the whole coast of Maine was subject to a double
grant, and became the scene of a prolonged contest between
the English and French settlers; the French occupying the
vicinity of the St. Croix and the Penobscot, the English occu-
pying the vicinity of the Saco anil the Kennebec, and each
taking every opportunity to encroach upon the other. The
first English settlement in New lOngland, with the single
exception of the slight and s|ieedily abandoned attempt of
Gosnold at Cuttyhunk. was made by a colony under the
leadership of (Jeorge Popham and (iilbcrt Kaleigh at the
mouth of the Kennebec in 1607, thirteen years in advance
of the Pilgrims, and twenty-one years before the Puritans
of Massachusetts Kay. Here they initialed what has since
been the leading industry of Maine by building a 30-ton
vessel, whicli they named the Virginia of Sagadahoc. The
colony lacked a sound basis in family life and diversified in-
dustry ; and after a winter of hardship, privation, and mis-
fortune, the settlement was abandoned.
In 1620 the charier of New England was granted to forty
noblemen, knights, and gentlemen. Two years later a
patent under this charier gave to Sir Ferdiiiando Gorges
and Captain John Mason the country between the Merri-
mac and the Kennebec for GO miles inland. By a division
in 1629 Gorges received the portion l)etwcen the Piscataqua
and the Kennebec. The Plymouth council, eager to settle
the country, made numerous small grants inconsistent with
previous grants, introducing iniu-h confusion and giving
rise to protracted litigation. When the council surren-
dered their charter in 1635 Gorges retained what he had
already possessed, and Sir William Alexander, the Earl of
Stirling, received the region Vietween the Kennebec and the
.St. Croix. In 1639 Gorges received a new charter, confirm-
ing the old boundaries on the coast, extending his territory
twice as far inland, giving it to him as the jirovince of
Maine, under the feudal teiuire of a county palatine, and
investing him with vice-regal powers. In 1641 he estab-
lished his government, under a kinsman, at Georgiana, now
York, which in the following year became the first char-
tered city in America. Gorges died in 1647. Ma.ssachusetts
laid claim to more and more extended jurisdiction in Maine ;
and finally, her claims being disallowed, in 1677 she pur-
chased the entire Gorges interest for .£1.250.
In 1691 the charier of William and Mary included Maine in
the province of the Massachusetts Bay. This relation existed
for the following 130 years. During the French and Ind-
ian war Maine suffered severely, both in loss of jiroperty
and drain upon population, but cimtributed her share of
men and means to the maintenance of the English cause.
The period from the capture of (Quebec in 17.59 to the out-
break of the Hevolution in 1775 was one of ra]iid growth
for Maine. Deserted towns along the coast were repeopled,
and new towns were established along the Saco, the Andros-
coggin, the Kennebec, and the Penobscot.
5laine bore an honorable part with Massachusetts in the
war of the Revolution, suffering again severely in the devas-
tation of the towns along the coast. Tlio close of the war
was followed by a large accession to the ]>opulation. Many
of the discharged soldiers came to take up the new eastern
lands. From a population of 96,.540 in 1789 Maine had
grown to 151,719 in 1800, to 22S,694 in ISIO. and to 298,334
in 1820. The growth between IHIO and 1H20 was greatly re-
tariled by the Embargo Act. passed in 1807, and the war of
1H12, wliich together with a s\iccession of severe winters,
almost deslroved the industries of the .State. In 1815 and
1816 nuire than 15,000 |>eople emigrated to Ohio. In 1820
Maine became a separate State. Politically ]\laine was an
Anti-Federalist, or, as it was later called, a Democratic
Stale, with but one or two exceptions, from 181(1 to 1853;
but the Democratic party lost <-ontrol of the Stale first
through its advocacy of ]irohil)itiiig the liquor trallic in
1853 ; and again in 18.55 whi-n Anson P. Morrill carried the
State as a representative of the advocates of the [u-ohibitory
law. and of the KTuiwnolliing party. In 18.56 the Demo-
cratic and Anti-Maine Ijaw candidate was chosen by the
Legislature. The year 1856 marks the rearrangement of
MAINE
485
parties with rcforence to the question of slavery. On this
issue the State became strongly Republican, amJ for twenty-
two years elected Republican governors. In 1871) Dr. Alon-
zo Garcelon, the Democratic candidate, was chosen by the
union of the Democnitic and Greenback menibcrs of the
Legislature. The election in the fall of IHV.t resulted, as in
the previous year, in no election by the |ieo|>lc, and it again
devolved upon the I^egislature to elect the Governor. Gov.
Garcelon and his council, acting as the returning board,
refused certificates of election to several Republican mem-
bers on the ground of informality in the returns, without
giving the customary o[)portunity for the public correc-
tion of such informalities; thus giving the Democratic and
Greenback members a nnijority of the Legislature. The
situation wiu* com|)licated by charges of bribery brought
against Republicans. Rival legislatures were organized, and
rival candidates claimed the governorshij). fien. Joshua L.
Chamberlain, as commander of the militia, preserved order
and protected the property of the State ; and by his firm-
ness and impartiality brought about a peaceful settlement
of the contest. In accordance with a decision of the .Su-
preme Court of the State, a Republican Governor was inau-
gurated. In the following year a Fusion Governor was
elected by a slender plurality. Since 1883 the Republi-
cans have carried the State continuously by large majori-
ties.
Soon after the treaty of 1783 with Great Britain there
arose a dispute about the northeastern boundary of Maine,
which was carried on with incretising bitterness until in 1842
the boundary was settled by the Ashburton Treaty. At this
time Maine lost .'5,500 sq. miles of territory, for which she
received but a meager compensation from the national Gov-
ernment.
Maine has been a pioneer in the prohibition of the liquor
traffic. In 18-16 an ineffectual attempt was made to restrict
the selling of li(iucir to sales for medicinal and mechanical
purposes. In IH'A the first effective prohibitory law was
enacted. Since that time the law liius been frwpiently
amended and strengtheneil. In 1884. by popular vote, pro-
hibition was cmbodiecl in the constitution of the State. In
1891 the law was still further strengthened by making the
penalty for keeping a drinking-house or tippling-shop flOO
and costs, and in addition imprisonment for sixty days; and
by making the payment of a L'. S. special tax as a liquor-
seller prima /aci'e evidence that the person paying this tax
is a seller of intoxicating liquor. In some sections of the
State, under some officers and at some times, the law has
been fairly successful in preventing the sale of intoxicating
liquor. At other times and places, under other ollicers, the
violation of the law has been open and flagrant. While
during the greater portion of the time both political parties
have been nominally in favor of prohibition, neither of them
has given the law that consistent and persistent support
which is necessary for its complete success. The prohibitory
law has in great measure made it impossible for the liquor-
dealers to control political parties. It has not, however, pre-
vented political parties, when in power, from seeking to con-
trol the licpior-dcalers in their own political interests. Pro-
hibition in Maine has been neither a perfect success nor a
complete failure.
In the civil war Maine met everv call of the general Gov-
ernment promptly and generously, and furnished to the
Union army 70,107 men, of whom 9,31)8 died during the
war.
In 1891 Maine adopted a form of the Australian ballot
system.
OOVERNORS OK MAINK.
Wm. Klne(resf(fn«ii IS2U 21
W. D. WilliamKon (actinRi 1S21-JJ
Albion K. Parris IftS-.T
F.n.H-h Lincoln ( Jieil) IftT "J
Naltmn Cutler lactinic)... I»«i-:to Sidney IVrham.
Jonathan t). liuuton 1*)(>-.11 ' "
Samuel E. Smith 1S3I-.'M
RolH-rt P. Dunlap IXUnt
Eilwanl K.-nt IRtH .Ti
John Fnirneld ItWi-lo
Kdwar.l Kent )W(M1
John Kairfli-ld IMl-W
E. KavannKh meting) ItW 41
HuKh J. Anderson 1(144-1T
John \V. liana IW: "i")
John Hiihhard iwyvM
W. n. Crosby 18M-.W
A nson 1'. Morrill IUVVM
Somupl W.dls I8Sfi-.W
H. Hamlin I rHRljfnertt. ... IM.%T
J. H. Willianis (aetinRl l!WT-."»<
Loi .M. .Morrill IS»^ 01
Israel Washburn. Jr )W1I-(K)
AbniT Coburn 1S<B-6I
Samuel Cimy lSlM-87
J. I,. Chamlierlain IfMT-TI
IKTl-T-l
Nelson hingley. Jr lKr4-Til
Selden C.»>nuor IH7ft-Tfl
.Monzo (iarcelon IKTlt-Hl)
Haniel K Davis lw«> si
Harris M Plaistpd ISXI-H3
Krederi.-lt Rohie l(»CM<r
1W7
ifw:-«)
>s^ph R Bmlurell
S«'ba.*itian S Marble.
Kdwin C IIurlriKh .
Henn- H. Clea>eji .
Uevvellyu Powers. . .
Altiiobitiks. — Travel and des<Tiption : Draki-, Tlit Pine-
tree Coast (Boston, 1891); Thoreau, The Maine Wuodn
(Boston, 1864); G. N. Colby, Atlas of Maine (Iloulton,
1884) ; Hubbard, Woods and Lakes of Maine (Boston,
1891). History : Abbot and Llwell, llislury of Maine (Port-
land, 181)3); ('liamburlain, Maine, hrr vluce in History
(.\ugusta, 1877); (i. .1. Varney. lirirf Jlistory of Maine
(Portland, 1888); Williamson, History of Maine (Boston,
1832). Bibliograjihy : (J. T. Little, One hundred Hooks on
Maine : Bowdotn College Library Jiullelin (Brunswick,
1891). Discovery and colonization : Baxter, .SVr Ferdinandu
Gorges and his Province of Maine (Prince .Society, 1890).
Collections anil periodicals: Uangnr llistoricul Magazine;
Maitte Historical and Genealogical liecorder; Maine His-
torical Society, Collections and Hocunienlary History;
Maine Register, Religious, civil, and s<ienlific : Allen and
Pillsburv. History of Methodism in Maine (Augusta, 1887);
(jriffin. llistory of the Press of Maine (Brunswick, 1872);
W. Willis. History of the Law, the Courts, and the Law-
yers of Maine (Portland, 1863); Well.s, Water-pmrer of
Maine (Augusta. 1869) ; Stone, The Karnes of Maine (Bos-
ton Society of Natural History, vol. xx.. pji. 430-469).
William 1)e Witt Hyde.
Mainp, Sir IIknrv James Si->i.ner, LL. D., K. C. S. I..
F. R. S. : jurist ; b. Aug. 15, 1822; educated ut Pembroke
College, Cambridge, graduated 1(*44, and received a fellow-
ship; was Regius Profes.sor of Civil Law at Cambridge
1847-54 ; reader on Jurisprudence at the Middle Temple
1854-62 ; was engageil in India on the great legislative re-
form 1862-69; became in 1870 Corpus Professor of Juris-
prudence at Oxford, and in 1871 entered the council of the
Secretary of State for India; in 1877 was electe<l master of
Trinity llall, Cambridge, and in 1887 Professor of Inter-
national Law ; wrote an essay on Roman Law (1856) ; -4n-
cient Law (1861); Modern Theories of Succession to Prop-
erty after Death, and the Corrections of them suggested by
recent Researches, and Village Communities in the East
and \S'est, six lectures delivered at Oxford in 1871 : Karly
History of Institutions (1875) ; Karly Law and Custom
(18.H:i); Popular Government (188.5); and International Law
(1888). I), at Cannes, Feb. 3, 1888.
' Maine de Biran, miinde-bci-nuiiV, Marie Francois
Pierre Goxtiiier : philosopher; b. near Bergerac, France.
N'ov. 29, 1766; served in the French army in the reign of
Louis XVI. In 1803 his memoir Influence de Ihabitude
sur la faculty de penser won a prize from the French Insti-
tute. His Sur la decomposition de la pensee (1805), L'ssai
sur les fondements de la psychologic, Xouveaiu' essais d'an-
thropologie, Eiamen des Le;ons de M. de Laromiguiere are
all important contributions to philosoi)hy. During his own
lifetime only a few of his minor essays were printed. After
his death, w'hich occurred July 16, 1824, Cousin ol)taine<i ac-
cess to his papers and published youvelles considerations
sur les rapports du physique et du moral de I'homme (1834)
and (Euvres philosophiques de Maine de Hiran (3 vols.,
1841). A complete edition of his works did not exist, how-
ever, until the (Euvres inedites appeared (1846-59, 3 veils.),
edite<l by K. Naville. See Merten, Ktude critique sur
Maine de Biran (1865); E. Naville, .Vninf de Hiran, sa vie
el ses pensees (2d ed. 1874) ; Gerani. Maine de Hiran, essai
sur sa philosophic (1870). Maine de Biran is considered the
founder of modern French Spiritualism, his works having
inaugurated the reaction against the sen.sationalisin of Coii-
dillac. He helil that mental activity is a matter of innue-
diale consciousness. Revised by J. .Mark Baluwi.v.
Malne-et-LoIrP, man d-lwa'ar : western department of
France ; on the Mayenne and Ixiire. the second of which
traverses the department from K. to W. liy a valley varying
in breadth from a mile to 5 miles. The bed of the I/oire is
here very wide, but the river is very shallow and crowded
with islands. Area, 2.749 s*]. mi le.s. The surface is undu-
lating and hilly, and the soil very fertile. The wine, of
which the departnuMit annually produces ll.tKto """• ■' i-i
much esteemed, especially the white kinds. La f
wheat and excellent fruits are raiseil, and iron n
mined. Many cattle, sheep, and pigs are brought from the
adjacent (lepartmont for fattening H.>riirulture is highly
developed, and the fruits and vi^ ■' Sjnimur and .An-
gers are much prized. Themanuf .luce linen cloth,
flannel, and cotton go(xls, worsleo mi'i i ■u.'n ihreiuJ. Pop.
(1891) 518..58fl. Capital, Angers.
Malnp State ColleKP: an in.stitulion fwtablishwl by »n
act of the Legislature in 1865; located at Orono, on the
486
MAINOTES
MAIOLICA
Penobsfiit river, 8 miles N. of Bangor. It is the eastern-
most collefje in the U. S. The college is a school of science
and technology. It offers eight courses of study: the scientific,
the civil, mechanical and electrical engineering, the chemi-
cal, the agricultural, tlie prc[)aratory medical, and the i<har-
macy. Short coui-ses, summer course, and extension courses
are offered. Military drill is required of all male students.
The college is supported chiefly by the State and the general
Government. Tlie endowment is ^".jyi.lKK). The income is
$59,000. Tuition and rooms are free. There are eighteen
buildings, of which the most important are Oak Hall, a dor-
mitory, Wingate Hall for engineering, the laboratory for
chemistry. Machinery Hall for mechanic arts, and Coburn
Hall for biology. In 1893 the faculty numbered 2M and the
students 140. TheprcsidentisA.W. Harris. A.W. Harris.
Mai'iiotes (in Gr. MoKiaTai): the people of Maina(Jfani ;
71 Monjl ; a mountain district of Laconia; in the Peloponne-
sus, between the Messenian and Laconian gulfs, so called
since the reign of Constantine Porphyrogennetus (944-959
A. D.). They boast of their descent from the ancient Spar-
tans, although some consider them Slavic. They remained
pagan until the reign of Basil (867-886 A. D.). They were
virtually independent for many years before the rest of
modern Greece. They are handsome, warlike, superelitious,
and were formerly notorious robbers. Their number js about
60,000. See Walpole, Memoirs relating to European and
Asiatic Turkey (London, 1817, pp. 8;i-6U) : Leake, Pelu-
ponnesiaca (London, 1M4G, pp. 138, note, 335 IT.): Curtius,
Peloponnems (Gotha, 1S51), consult the index; Bartholdy,
Bruclisluclce (i., 246) ; Gell, Journey (246); Schafarik, Slav-
ische AllertJiUmer (Leipzig, 1844, ii., 229) ; Leake, Hesearches
in Greece (p. 416); Fallmcrayer, Geschictite der Ilalhin.iel
Morea (i., 294) ; Hoss, Konigsreisen (ii., 223) ; 'Pa7Kd|87js, ri
'E,K\i\ytKi. (ii., 401 fl.); also see the histories of Finlay and
Hertzberg. Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Mainpnri : the capital of the district of Mainpuri, which
forms part of the Northwestern Provinces, India (see map of
N. India, ref. 6-E). It stands in lat. 27° 14' N., Ion. 79° 3'
E., and consists of two parts — the old town which dates back
to the time of the Mahabharata, and the new town which
was founded in the beginning of the nineteenth century. It
carries on a considerable trade in cotton, indigo seed, opium,
iron, etc. Pop. 23,000. The district is a part of the monot-
onous plain of the Doab, but is well-watered by rivers and
canals. It is noted for its cereals, cotton, and sugar-cane.
Area, 1,697 sq. miles. Pop. 820,000. M. W. II.
Maintenance [O. Fr. maintenance, deriv. of maintenir,
to hold by the hand < Lat. ma'mis. hand + tine re. hold]:
as defined by Lord Coke, is "a taking in hand, bearing up or
upholding of a quarrel or side, to the disturbance or hin-
drance of common right." It was a common-law offense,
although also made the subject of legislative prohibition
and punishment as early as 1275. (3 Ed. I., c. 28). During
the next three centuries many rigorous statutes were enacted
for the suppression of tliis evil, which was felt to be a serious
one. Its origin and the state of society which fostered it,
are graphically described in Stubbs's Constitutional Hixlory
of England, vol. iii., chap. xxi. " A man who wished to main-
tain his own right, or to attack his neighbor'.s," sought " to
secure the advocacy of a baron, who could and would main-
tain his cause for him, on the understanding that he had
the rights of a patron over his client." So great was the
danger of the ojipression of the poor and the weak by the
barons and their retainers during several centuries, that the
courts felt forced to hold many acts to be maintenance that
are considered perfectly harmless now. If a person attempt-
ed " to persuade a lawyer to act as counsel for another gratis,"
or went with the other "to inquire for a person learned in
the law," or testified as a witness without Vjeing subpicnaed,
he was guilty of maintenance. Some authorities declare
that an assignment of a chose in action was not iiennitted
by the common law because it amouuteil to maintenance.
but the statement is incorrect. (Pollock On Contracts, p. 207.)
As the power of the barons diminished, and the various
classes attained more nearly to e(|ualily before the law, the
tendency of judicial decision wa-s reversed, and the limits
of this otTense were narrowed. Persons who had a pecuniary
interest in llie subject of litigation, or were closelv related
to one of the i>arties, were allowed "to take a hanil" in the
controversy. The .same exemption was made in favor of
persons sustaining the relations of master and servant, or of
landlord and tenant. Even a rich man could give assistance
to a poor litigant as a matter of charity ; and in such a case.
if the aid is given in good faith, it does not matter that the
rich man is unreasonably duped, or that he acts thought-
lessly and inconsiderately. Harris vs. Brisco, 17 Queen's
Bench Hi vision 504.
Because of the changes in .social conditions and of the
jiulicial reaction against the stringent rules of the early law,
maintenance as a crime has become practically obsolete in
Great Hritain. That it is still a subject of importance, how-
ever, as a tort, is shown l)y the case of liradlaiigh vs. Sewde-
(70/p, 11 (Queen's Bench Division 1. decided in 1883. Bradlaugh
having sat and voted in the House of Commons without tak-
ing the oath required by statute, was subject to a penalty of
£.500. Xewdegate, a member of Parliament, supposing' he
could not bring a suit in his own name, requesteu one Clark
to institute an action for the pemilty, and gave him a bond
of indemnity against all costs and expenses he might incur.
Clark was defeated, on the ground lliat he had no right to
sue for the penally. As he was unable to pay the costs of
the action, Bradlaugh sued Kewdegate for maintenance, and
recovered as damages all the costs and expenses of the Clark
suit. Chief Justice Coleridge, in rendering the decision,
spoke of the action as of the rarest in modern times, but
declared he had no wish to abolish an action which might
be in some cases the only way of redressitrg a cruel wrong.
According to this ca.se, maintenance consists in inducing or
assisting another to bring or prosecute an illegal action.
In most of the L^. S. maintenance, both as a crime and as
a tort, has been alxilished, or has never existed. {Schomp
vs. Schenrk, 40 N. J. L. 195; Bicttardson vs. Botrland, 40
Conn. 505.) Even in those States where it still maintains a
foothold, a corrupt motive, or the hindrance or perversion
of justice, is believed to be an essential element of the offense.
Wherever maintenance is illegal, a contract involving it is
void. See Stephen's Uislory of tlie Criminal Law, vol. iii.,
ch. xxxi. Francis M. Biruick.
Maintenance of Way : the department of a railway or-
ganization which has charge of the repairs and renewals of
the road-bed, track, bridges, and buildings. The field opera-
tions of this department are usually under the charge of
civil engineers called roadmasters, who subdivide their di-
visions into sections, on which gangs of men are continually
at work. The expenses of the maintenance of way of the
railways of the U. S. is, including taxes, about 30 per cent,
of the total expenses. See Rails and Railways. Also
Parsons's Track (New York, 1886). M. Merrima.n.
Maintenon, nulnt'non , Frax(,oise d'Aubig.ne, Marquise
dc : wife of Louis XIV. ; born of noble Protestant parent-
age in the prison of Niort, France, Nov. 27, 1635; went in
1639 with her parents to Martinique, her father not being
allowed to remain in France on account of his alleged trea-
son. She returned in 1646; was sent by her relatives to be
educated at an Ursulinc convent. I'nder its influences she
became a Roman Catholic after a long resistance. She was
(1651-60) the wife of .Scarron, a comic poet of inferior posi-
tion ; and in 1669 she became governess to Louis XlV.'s
children by Madame de Montespan, whom she supplanted in
the king's affections. She acquired and long maintained a
powerful influence over the king, but it is not believed that
she was ever his mistress. In fact, it is stated that she per-
sistently refused to listen to his solicitations, and used her
influences to reform his character .so thai his life might no
longer be a public scandal. His affection for her continued
to the end of his life, but in the later years of the reign she
seems to have grown utterly weary of court life, and in her
impatience to be off to St.-Cyr she deserted the bedside of
the dying king. In 1683 the king married her in private,
but she was never |niblicly ai'knowledgi'd as his wife. Her
religious influence was largely responsible for his increasing
zeal for persecution, and especially for the Revocation of
the Edict of Nantes ; but she was probably not in sympathy
with the violent measures that followed that unfortunate
act. I). Apr. 1.5, 1719. She had considerable literary talent,
and her Letters (9 vols., 1759; improved ed. 1865) are valua-
ble. Revised by F. M. CoLiiv.
Mainz: See ^li-Nrz.
Maiolicn. or Alajotica : enameled earthenware decorated
in colors, and nuuie in Italy. It is fa'tence (see Kkramks),
that is, it has a coarse earthenware body and an <ipa(iue
smooth enamel, which covers and conceals the body, and
upon which the (lainting is applied. In Italy the term is
applied to all such wares, or to all except the coarsest and
plainest ; but it is u.scd by collectors and students of keramie
art in two special senses: first, by some writers for those
MAIORESCU
MAITLAND
487
wares which are decorated with metallic luster, and for those
only; second, for all the richly decorated wares of the fif-
teenth and sixteenth centuries and since that lime, of which
the lustered wares are only u iiortion. This last is the sense
in which the word is most commonly used in KriKlish. Delia
Kobhia ware (see Uobbia) is not cliussed aniont; majolica,
because it has a far more solid ami hard body. Some
modern Knglish wares of hard terra-cotta, cuvered with col-
ored oj)aciue or partially o|iai|ue phizes, are called m<iJolica,
in which ease the term is rather a trade-name than one
fixetl by common usa^e. The term mezza-inainlica, that is,
half of half-way luaiolica, is applied to certain Italian
wares of less beauty and importance than the fine pieces,
and especially to those which are covered, not with real tin-
frla/.e, out with slip, or potter's clay nuide very thin and
li(iuid, or in some cases with lead-};laze.
The towns in which the famous and beautiful maiolica
was made are situated in the northeastern part of Italy, with
few exceptions. The most famous areas follows: Facnza,
in the Marches, near Kavenna ; Urbino, Pesaro, tiubbio, and
Castel Durante (now Urbania). in the ancient duchy of Ur-
bino, now in the province of the Marches; C'alfafjiolo, in
Tuscany, on the old road from Florence to Holoj,'na ; Deruta
near Perugia. A score of towns dispute the palm of excel-
lence with these, and their wares all have merit and beauty.
Castelli, in the Abruzzi, is remarkable for having kept its
fine work going to a much later date than the northern
towns.
The pieces most commonly decorated in an elaborate way
are drug-pots, made for the dispensing establishments of
convents and princely residences; i)latcs and rouml platters,
some having the rim or marly very broad, and a small,
deeply sunken center, and others nearly flat, slightly con-
cave or saucer-shaped ; bowls, vases, pitchers of various
forms, and some few special and unitjue pieces, such as an
object like a large tortoise-shell, a pdgrim bottle or flask
with rings to hold a cord, a plaque so richly painted as to
be a picture on pottery insteml of canvas or paper. These
portable objects, with square tiles for floors aiul walls, make
up the chief part of the tiner wares. Some of these arc of
light ground, covered with arabesques ami grt)tcsques in
dark green, dull red, dull yellow, and similar colors; the
wares of Urbino are often of this character. Others have a
dark-blue ground, upon which are relieved grotesque figures,
masks, and scrolls in ilensely crowded jmtterns, very rich
and strong in color. Others are (lainted in white on a white
ground, the two tints ditTcring slightly. Others are covered
with splendid compositions of figures, with architectural or
landscape backgrounds, all in full color. No pottery is more
beautiful or more worthy of study than fine maiolica. Fine
ancient pieces bring enormous prices. Many of them have
been copied with .xome success in Italy in the latter half of
the nineteenth century. KfssELL Sturois.
Malorescn, niaa-yo-rcskoo, TiTi; : statesman and writer ;
b. at Krajova, Koumania, in 1840; studied at Vienna, Berlin,
and Paris ; became in Mii Professor of Phili>so|iliy at .lassy ;
was chosen a representative in 1H71 ; was Minister of Public
Instruction 1874-76, and in 1876 envoy to IJerliu. lie holds
a prominent position as a critic in recent Roumanian litera-
ture. Among his writings are Einiges Philosophinche in
gemeinfasslicher Form (in German, 1861); Poi-xia nimdna
(1867); Obsercciri polemice (186!)); Dfxpre ncritrea limbei
rojndne (1874); Cri/ice (1874) ; Loyica (M ed. IHHO); trans-
lations from Schopenhauer (1890). E. S. Siikldo.n.
Millpo. or Milipil. mi p<x>, often written and pronounced
Muipi'i, mi-poo : a river of Chili, rising in the .\ndes and
flowing W. to the Pacific, which it reaches in hit. :i:! li'.t S.
On its banks, about 8 miles S. of Santiago, was fought the
decisive battle of Maipo, which secured tlie indeiK-ndcnce of
Chili, and, more remotely, opened the way to tne invasion
of Peru and the final defeat of the Spaniards. After the
defeat of Canclia Kayaila (Mar. 111. 1818), San Martin con-
oeiilrated the patriot force of .").(KI() men on a plain to the X.
of the Maipo. The Spanish general Osorio, advancing from
theS. with .").")00 men. encountered him Apr. 5, 1818, ami after
a short battle was completely defeate<I. Osorio fled, but
Ordofiez, whom he left in command, surren<lered with nearly
all the principal ollicers and '.J.'.HM) men, 1,(K)0 having In-eii
kille<l. The entire patriot loss in killed and wounded was
about 1,000. IIerdert II. Smith.
Maistre, mntr, .losEPn, Count dc: political and philo-
sophical writer ; b. at Chainbery, in .Savoy, then a part of
the kingdom of Sanlinia, Apr. 1, 1754. I'lis family was of
French extraction, but had become thoroughly attached
to the house of .Savoy. Completing his law studies at the
University of Turin, he entereil the civil service of Savoy,
was advanced rapidly, and in 17HM became senator. When
under the Uevolution .Savoy was united to France he joined
the emigrating iiobilitv, and took up his residence at Lau-
sanne (171(2). There lie wrote the ConxideriiHuttii gur la
France (17U6), which clearly fureshadows his later poljticul
thinking, and views the Uevolution as a providential chatise-
ment, to be followed by the restored aim re-en forc-ed author-
ity of monarchy and the Church. In 17!>U he was called
by Charles Knimanuel IV. to Turin to be chancellor of the
kingdom of Sardinia, and withilrew with him to .Sardinia
when the revolutionarv niovemeiil tfxjk away his territory
upon the mainland. In 1802 he was minister pleni|Hiteii-
tiary to Kussia. and rei)resented the aliiio>t vanished king-
dom of .Sardinia at St. Petersburg throughout the XaiK)h-on-
ic era till 1817. He then returned to Savoy, and in 181U
was again called to Turin to his old post, with the title of
Minister of State. D. Feb. 26, 1821. His princijial works
were written at St. Petersburg, though most were not |mb-
lislied till after his return, some not till after his death.
They are Kxnai sur leu principes gin(rateur/s den constitu-
liuns pulitiaiies (1810). upholding the theory of absolute
inunarchv : I>u I'ape (2 vols., 1819), maintaining the neces-
sity for the absolute supremacy of the pope; Les aoirhs de
Saint-l'etfriibourg (2 vols., 1821), philosophical conversations
on the divine order in the world ; and De. I Anlise gallieane
(1821). They are all directed to upholding his conception
of society as a divine order to be realized by an absolute au-
thority. What he presents as of supreme im|K)rtance is not
individual liberty, but social order and unit v. and this de-
mands a single and unrestricted governor. This order and
unity to be complete must be universal, and in this sense
are to be realized by the supremacy ami infallibility of the
pope. This conception is defended with great power, leam-
ing.and polemical vigor. His intellectual force and his emi-
nent qualities of style, which for brilliancy and fervor recalls
that of Jean .lacques Housseau, make him the most imjior-
tant of the apologists of traditional authority who attacked
the ideas of the Hevolution. Besides the works already men-
tioned, we have from him an Examen de la philoauphie de
liaciin (2 vols., 18^6) ; Lettres et opuscules inedits (2 vols.,
1851); Correspnndance diplomatique (2 vols., 1860). There
is an edition of CEurres eomple/es (4 vols., Lyons, 1864) and
(Euvres jm.ilhumes (Lyons. 1^64). Cf. S. ftocheblave. Jo-
seph de J/aisIre (Paris. 18'.);i); Fr. Paulhan. </()w/;/t de Mais-
tre et sa j)liili)S(>pliie (Paris, 1893); G. Cogordan, Joseph de
Maistre (Paris, 1894). A. G. Caxfield.
Maistre, Xavier, Count de: author; l>. at ChaniliOry in
1763; entered the military service of Sardinia: emigrated
to Russia after the coiujuest of Sardinia by the French;
participated in the campaigns against Persia. D. in St.
Petersburg. .June 12. 18.)2. In 1794 he published at Turin
Voyage autnur de ma chambre. a very pleasjint and original
book, which in 1825 was followeil by Erpidition nocturne
autiiiir de ma chambre. He also wrote Le Lepreux de la
cite d'Aoste (1811); 7yf.i Prisonniersdu Caucose (1825); and
Prascovie, ou la Jeune Siberienne (1825).
Revised by A. G. Canfield.
Mait : Egyptian deity. See Mat.
Mnit'land : town of Xew South Wales. Australia; on
the navigalilc river Hunter, which divides it into 1-jist and
West Maitland (sec map of Australia, ref. tt-I). It is a
prosperous place, has extensive manufactures of tobacco,
active trade in wool, and rich coal mines in the vicinity.
Pop. (1891) 9.907.
Maitland. Sir Richard. Lonl Lethington : )KH't and
lawyer; b. ill .Scotlaml in 1496; was educated at St. An-
drews and in I'aris; tHname a disiinguishetl lawver; and
was successively employed in public affairs by James V.,
the regent Arran, and Mar>- Stuart. He iH'came blind in
l.'ifiO. but in spite of his inllrmily was sworn a member of
the privy council, anil in llec. I.")ii2. nominateil kee|.crof the
great seal. I), in Kdinbiirgh. .Mar. 20. l."iS6. He made a
MS. ciilleclinn of early Si'tlish |«ietry, anil wnite original
i>i>eiiis of considerable merit, his Satire on T'lirn iMdie*
being among the best known. The .Maitland Club, i-stab-
lished in Glasgow in 1828. piiblishe<l his (vn-nis in IKtO. He
also wrote a Chronicle and J/isturie of the House and Sur-
nnniro/ .Sen/oil, etc.. and his MS. collection of niuient |>i>ctry
is preserved in the Pepysian Library, .Mikgilalenc College,
Cambridge. ' Kevi.M-d by F. .M. Colbt.
488
MAITLAXD
MAIZE
Maitland. Sami'ei. Kokfey, 1). D. : historian: b. in Lon-
don, i;iii,'lHnil, in 17U2: was educated at Trinity CoUef^e,
Cambridge; was called to the bar in 1816; tiH)k orders in
the Chureh of Knglanil in 1!<21 ; was perpetual curate of
Christ church, Gloucester, 1823-29, and became in 1838
keeper of MSS. at Lambeth and librarian to the Archbishop
of Canterbury ; he retained both posts until his death at
Lambeth Palace, Jan. 11», 18G6. He wrote several works on
prophecy, on the catacombs, on the history of the Albi-
gcnses and Waldenses, on the state of religion and litera-
ture in the Middle Ages, and on Knglish ecclesiastical his-
tory. A new edition of his valuable treatise on Tlie Dark
.4(/'«, edited by Prof. Frederick Stokes, M. A., was published
in 1889. Revised by W. S. Perry.
Maitland, William, of Lethington, known as Secretary
Lethington : statesman ; eldest son of Sir Richard Mait-
land: b. in Scotland about 1528; was educated at St. An-
drews and on the Continent ; became a convert to the doc-
trines of the Reformation about 155.5: was in the service of
the queen regent, Mary of Lorraine, 1554-59, when lie joined
the '-Lords of the Congregation " ; was one of the commis-
sioners who met the Duke of Norfolk at Herwick 1559 ; was
Secretary of State of the queen regent: was made an ex-
traordinary lord of session 1501 ; opposed the ratification of
the Book of IJi.tcipli lie, and conducted the prosecution of
Knox for treason 15C3 ; had a debate with Knox on the in-
deiiendenee of the Church 1564; was at least cognizant
of the conspiracy against Rizzio ; was exiled in consequence,
but soon recalled ; was present at the coronation of James
VL 1567 ; fought against Mary at Langside 1568 ; attended
the conferences at York in the same year; w^as arrested, but
soon liberated, and joined Kirkcaldy of Grange in support of
the queen 1569; assisted in the defense of Edinburgh Castle
1572-73; surrendered May 29; died in prison at Leith, June
9, 1373. See J. Skeltoii's Maitland of Lethington, and
the Scotland of Mary Stuart : a History (2 vols., London,
1887-88).
Maitreya [Sanskr., full of love toward all beings] : the
coining Huddlia, the fifth of the present age. lie now lives
in Tushita, the fourth Deva-loka (q. v.), where Gautama
Sakyauuiiii is said to have met him and appointed him his
successor. He will not appear until 5,000 years after the
enlightenment of Gautama, when Buddhism has decayed,
and its precepts are no longer obeyed. He is the only one
of all the Bodhisatlvas who is worshiped by Buddhists every-
where. R. L.
Maize, or Indian Corn [maize is from Span, maiz, from
Haitian mahiz, nuiize] : the most important grain raised in
North America; belonging to the triiie Flialaridie of the
natural order Graminece, or grasses. Its scientific name is
Zea mays(L\\\n.). It is indigenous to America, where it has
always formed the chief food of the Indian races, and from
this circumstance its comm(jn name is derived. Its cultiv,H-
tion was introduced from America into Southern Europe
and Asia, and into Northern Africa, where it spread with
great rapidity, Indian corn properly is a sub-tropical grain,
probably a native of the table-lands of Mexico or Peru, the
great height of which gives them a distinct character from
the lowlands in the same latitude. It thrives best under a
hot summer sun, and its rapid growl li and ripening give it
a peculiar value fur high northern latitudes, where the sum-
mer heat is us intense as the winter cold. In Great Britain
the summer heat is not sulUcieiitly intense to favor its pro-
duction, and maize is very little grown in any part of Eu-
rope. Not only does maize require a high summer temper-
ature, but it is a rapid and gross fee<ier and needs a large
amount of moisture; it therefore flourishes best in a loose,
fertile, well-cultivated, thoroughly drained soil, for though
it requires a large amount of water in its growth, it will not
thrive in a heavy, sodden, wet soil. It is grown troth for its
grain and the forage in its leaves and stalks. The grain is
used for human consumption and as a food for animals.
Large quantities of the grain are also used in the mainifac-
ture of distilled liquors, in the nuiimfacture of starch, and
of glucose-sugar.
Cu/liralion. — In order that the largest amount of grain
may be produced, it is necessary that abundant room be
given to the individual jdauls for complete and full develop-
ment. For this reiusim it is usually grown in hills of three
or four plants each, 3 to 4 feet aiiarl each way according to
the size of the variety, or in drills 3 to 3} feet apart, with
single |)lants a foot to a foot and a half a|)art in the row.
Maize can use to advantage a large amount of crude fertil-
izing material (coarse farm-yard manurel, which is usually
applied during the winter or early spring to the land. As
soon as the land is well settled in the spring the manure is
turned under to a moderate depth, and the land brought
into H fine comlition of cultivation Ijy means of the harrow,
cultivator, and roller. Planting is nut done until the ground
has become somewhat warm — usually in the maize belt from
May 15 to 25, or even June 1. The old rule was that " maize
should not be planted until the while-oak leaves were of the
size of a squirrel's ear."' In modern times scientific agricul-
ture has changed this rule to "such a time as the soil has
attained at one inch in dejith a temperature of 50° at 7 o'clock
A.M." Tlie young maize is carefully cultivated, the ground
being kept loo.se and free from weeds until the plants have
taken complete possession of the soil. After this cultivation
is often continued in order to prevent loss of moisture by
evaporation. In those portions of the U. S. where the stalks
and leaves are of value as food for animals the crop is cut
and gathered into stouks when the kernels are well glazed.
When the stalks have cured the grain is removed from its
husk and the fodder iirescrveil in barns or stacks. All of
the operations of cultivating maize, including even cutting
the stalks and husking the grain, are now done successfully
on a large scale by horse-power, so that the cost of labor
in producing a bushel of corn has been much reduced. In
the great maize-growing regions the grain is stripped from
the standing stalks, little attempt being made to utilize the
fodder except to turn it into the ground as manure.
Where maize is grown wholly for forage formerly it was
the custom to plant it much thicker than is the case where
it is grown for grain, the result being a larger amount of
somewhat finer material with no grain, and of somewhat re-
duced feeding value. With the advancement of the practice of
preserving maize in jiits or silos (see Ensilage) the system
of growing maize fur foilder has been very much changed,
and now it is the custom by the more advanced growers to
raise fudder-corn fur preserving in silos in practically the
same way as if it were to be raised for grain, and when the
plant has arrived at its full develo|)ment the whole mass,
grain, stalks, and leaves, is put into the silo.
Composition of Maize. — While maize has always been
largely used as an article of human food in North America,
it has' never been made use of to any extent in Europe,
and the cxpurtatiun of maize from North America has been
very small. Since 1S90 the V. S. Deiiartmeut of Agriculture
has" taken es]ieciiil jiains to bring tlie value of maize as u
human fuod to the attention of the various European coun-
tries with cunsideralile success, and the expurlation of maize
has been greatly increased in consequence. JIaize does not
differ greatly from the other cereals in the proportion of its
food constituents, and it contains large amounts of the more
important nutrients in a state of easy digestiliility and avail-
ability. Below are given analyses of maize, wheat, oats, and
barley, taken from the latest compilation of analyses of
.Vmerican feeding-stutfs by Jenkins and Winton :
CONSTITUENTS.
MiUm.
Wheat.
Ctoto.
BuUj.
Water
10-9
1-5
10-5
21
69-6
6-4
10-5
18
]19
1-8
71-9
21
no
3 0
11-8
9B
B9-7
60
10-9
84
12-4
2-7
NitroKenfree extract (starcl), sug-
69-8
1-8
It will thus lie seen that the chief difference between maize
and the other cereals is in its smaller proportion of ash and
albuminoids, and in its larger ])ruportion of fats. Since
maize is so cheaply and so readily grown, not only the grain
but the stalks and leaves form ti most important source of
fo<lder material for domestic animals. Maize fodder, i. e.
stalks and leaves, is considerably lacking in its proportion
of albuminoids or flesh-making materials, but in tiiis respect
it is not more so than timothy hay, as will be seen from the
analyses appended, taken from the source already quoted :
CONSTITUENTS.
Wat«r..
Asll.
Protein lalbumlnoidn)
C'nide (Iher
NitroReii-free extraet (starch, sug-
ar, vtc.)
Ether extract (crude fat)
Muln
toAAtr.
422
4 5
14-3
84-7
•lov«r.
401
3-4
8 8
19-7
31-9
11
•Use*.
79-1
1-4
1-7
60
I
111
0-8
TlmoUi;.
182
4-4
29 0
4,^0
25
.MAI/.K
MAJOR
489
Tlie inuizc-|ilant is an cxtrciiioly viiriulilc one, and during;
its long period of cultivation it lius s|i<irlfd into a large
number of varieties. These varieties can be cla.ssified in a
general way into five well-marked grou()S or races, as fol-
lows : Soft-corn, I'op-corn, sweet-corn. Hint-corn, and dent-
corn. Probably the orifjinal maize was furnished with a
husk about the kirml as well as about the ear, and it is
thus occasionally grown in gardens as a curiosity, but it
is of no practical value. The kernel of maize is made up
of an outer corneous or horny portion, an inner softer or
starchy portion, and the germ orcotyledon at theba.se. The
distinction between the races is founded mainly upon the
ditTcrence in the proportion of the corneous and starchy
portions of the kernels. In one race the whole interior of
the kernel is made up of starchy matter, to the exclusion of
the corneous. This race is called soft-corn, ami the best
known variety of it is the Tuscarora. It is the kind most
commonly used by Indian tribes at present, and probably it
is one of the first variations from the original type.
In pop-corn the whole of the kernel is made up of corne-
ous material with little or no starchy material. The pecul-
iar quality of this class of varieties is that when heated
rather quickly the kernel explodes with considerable force,
anil the corneous matter becomes expanded into a white
floury mass. The sweet-corns also have a kernel largely
miuie up of corneous matter, but when dry they present a
much shrunken and wrinkled appearance. They contain a
much larger per cent, of fat, and the kernels remain green
for a much longer period than the other classes of corn. While
in the green state thev arc much esteemed as a table vege-
table. In Hint-corn llie corneous portion makes up from
one-half to two-thirds of the whole bulk of the kernel en-
veloping on the outside the starchy material. Dent-corn
differs from flint-corn in that at the top of the kernel there
is a characteristic dejjrcssion, and the starchy material
reaches to the outside. Flint-corn and dent-corn are the two
kinds most grown for market. Below are given the averages
of all the analyses of the ditTerent varieties, taken from the
same source as that previously mentioned. It will be seen
that the main diflerence between the races comes in the larger
proportion of fat in the sweet-corns:
C0N3TITUENTS.
DtDt-
corn.
Fllat-
corn.
SwM-
oorn.
Pbp-
oorB.
Solt-
Water
10 6
15
10-3
2 2
70-4
50
11-3
1-4
10-5
17
701
50
8-8
1-9
11 6
28
888
81
10-7
1-5
11 2
1-8
89 8
5-2
9'3
Ash . . .
\a
PrnteiD lalhuniinoids)
Crude fiber
n-4
2 0
Nitrogen - free extract
(starrh. suf^ar. etc. i
Ether extract (crude fat) ..
70 2
5 5
Variatiott and Distribudon. — While the varieties are eas-
ily classified into these well-marked races, hybridization
eijsily takes place, not only among varieties of the same class,
but between the classes as well, and new varieties are con-
stantly being forme<l. The varieties vary in the height of
the stalk ami the size of the ears and kernels. In general,
the dent-corns are the largest growing varieties, and the
pop-corns the smallest. The flint varieties are grown large-
ly in the northern and eastern portion of the I . S. and are
considerably smaller than the dents. The dents are grown
almost universally in the Southern and Western States. The
corn that is grown in the extreme northern localities is usu-
ally of the soft tvpe, notably the variety grown l)y the Man-
dan Indians in Northern Dakota. Jliniu'sota. and .Manitoba.
While maize is more generally cultivated over the whole
area of the U. S. than any of the other cereals, slill the great
bulk of the crop is produced in a comparatively few States.
In the States of the t'entral West. X. of the :i()th parallel,
maize finds soil and climate best adapted to its needs, and
it is in these localities that it is mostly grown. The total
yield of maize in the U. S. in 1880 was' 2,12i,07:!,4G;{ bush.,
raised on "■J,077,183 acres of land. Of this amount the
State of Iowa proUiieed :?i:i.i:!0,T82 bush.; lllinoi.s, 2s".t.«2n,-
705 bush.; Kansas, 2.)!l..")74.")l>8 bush.; Nebraska. 2 1 •i.S'.t.'i.-
9il6 bush.; Missouri. I!llj.!l04.!n.5 bush.; Ohio, ll:i,S!l2,:il8
bush.; Indiana, ll)8.84;f,0',t4 bush., or all these States to-
gether produced 71 i>er cent, of the whole. Xoiie of the
other States produced so much as 100.000,000 bush. While
the great bulk of the crop is produced in these few .Slates, it
is not in these States that the largest viehls per acre are usu-
ally found. In small areas in fertile localities and with
thorough cultivation, in the Kjistern and Middle States, ari'
usually found the largest yields jK'r acre. The average yield
per acre, a.s reported by the census statistics of 1890, varied
from U'77 bush, in Florida to 41'04 bush, in New Hamp-
shire. In the States S. of the aCth parallel the average
vield is less than in those X. of that parallel. Though the
highest average is given as slightly more than 40 bu.-h. |«er
acre, this does not indicate the yiehl under favorable con-
ditions of S(jil, climate, and good cultivation. YieUls of
over 100 bush, of shelled corn iicr acre are occasionally re-
ported, and a yield of 00 to 80 bush, is common.
lltNRY II. Wl.VO.
Majesty [from 0. Fr. majeste > Fr. majejile < Ij»t. mnjta-
/aj», greatness, dignity, splendor, majesty]: a title which, as
applied to royally, is a reminiscence of the mn/>*/fMclaimed by
the Roman emperors — apeculiardignity,orIiterallyvrfa/ii?««,
which was held to have directly descended to the Kmpercrs
of Germany. Henry VIII. was the first English king to as-
sume the style of His Majesty. The French kings after
Louis \I. were by pajml bull authorized to take the title of
Most Christian Majesty ; those of Spain, after Ferdinand
and Isabella, Most Catholic Majesty; the Kings of Hungary,
His Aj>ostolic Majesty: the Kings of Portugal. Mo.st Faithful
Majesty. The monarch of Austria-Hungary is called His
Imperial Koyal Majesty.
.Majolica: See Maiolha.
Major [from Lat. major, greater, compar. of mag'nus,
great] : in music, a term used to designate any mode, inter-
val, or key which is in certain respects pren/^T than others.
The major nio<Ie is that in which the third above the tonic
is major, as from C to K. G to U, or I) to Fc On analysis,
this interval of a major third will be found to embrace four
semitones, whereas in a minor third there are only three.
From this arises the distinction of greater and lesser, i. e.
major and minor. Several of the intervals are thus variable
in their contents, viz., the third, sixth, seventh, Und ninth,
not comprising in all eases the same number of semitones,
and hence needing the discriminating names of major, mi-
nor, diminished, etc. The major intervals always contain
pne semitone more than the minor. See I.nterval.
Major, properly Meier, Georo, D. D. : theologian; b. at
Xuremberg, Germany, Apr. 25, 1502; studied theology un-
der Luther and Melanchthon ; became rector at Magdeburg
1529, pastor at Eisleben 1535, Professor of Theology and
court preacher at Wittenberg 1536 ; was a representative of
the Protestants in the colloquy at Regensburg 1541 ; was for
a few months in 1547. during the Smalcaldic war, sujierin-
tendent and court preacher at Merehburg ; returned to his
po.-it at Wittenberg 1548 ; became superintendent of the
Slansfeld churches 1552: again returned to Wittenberg; d.
there Nov. 28. 1574. By the active support he gave to the
Leipzig Interim (Dec. 22, 1548), which assorted that gixxl
worKs are necessary to salvation, he separated from the
strict Lutherans, and became involved in a controversy with
Amsdorf (1552), who declared good works prejudicial to sal-
vation, and his doctrine was rejected by the Formula of
Concord (1.580). In his later years he was involved in the
Crypto-Calvinistic controversy, and was forced to sign the
Torgau Articles. His principal works, being homilies and
commentaries on the New Testament, were iirinted at Wit-
tenberg (1569). The "Majoristic controversy " gave rise to
the foniiation of a theological cinde called Majorists.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Major, Richard Henry : geographer and historian; b. in
London, England. Oct. 3. 1818. In 1844 he was appointed
a.s-sistant in the British Museum in charge of the maps and
charts, and from 1867 to 1880 wa.s kee|>er of the department
of printed maps and plans. From 1849 to 1858 he was
honorary secretary of tlie Hakluyt S<K'iety. willing for it the
Select Letters of' Christopher ('olumbHs (1847) and several
other works. Ilis be.st-kiiown viork. Life of lYince Henry
of J\>rtiigal, suntamed The ynriijalor, ai>peared in l^*8,
and was followed by The Ilincoirrien of Prince Urnrti. the
yavi(iator, and their lieKulta (1877). I'he mbliiittraphy of
the t''iriit Letter of Columbus was published in 1872. Major
was vice-president of the Royal GiHigraphieal .Society. His
discoveries in relation to caily Portuguese and Italian navi-
gators were rewardi-d by tleeorations from the soven-igns of
Portugal, Italy, and lirazil. D. at Kensington. June 23,
1891. Hkkiiebt H. Smith.
M^jor, or Mair. John: theologian and historical writer;
b. at Cleghorn, near North Berwick. S<otlanil, alM>iit 1470;
was educated at the I'niversity of Pari.s, where he sul>so-
quently lectured, and gained for himM-lf a great rvpuUUoo
490
MAJORCA
MALACIIY
as a tciiohcr. IIo tauKl't "l "»' I'niversityof Glasgow from |
1518 to 1523, ami at St. Amlrews from 1523 to 1525. After
speniling several years in Paris, he returned to St. Andrews
and was appointed provost of Salvalor's Colle-ie, an office
whieh he lieldtill his death in 1550. Among his pupils at
Glasgow and St. Andrew.s, respectively, were John Knox
and George Buehanan, who are thought to have derived
some of their radical political ideas from their master.
Major set himself against the Keformation and the spirit of
the Renaissance, but he wrote on behalf of the liberties of
the people against absolutism, whether in Church or state,
and he is considered by some the foremost literary Scotch-
man of his time. His IIisli>nj has been translated by the
Scottish Historical Society (18t)l). Among bis other works
are In Librum Senlenlianim Comtiientarius (Paris, 1509-
1!1) anil III Quatuor Ei-angelia Expusitiones Luculentce
(Paris. 1521»). F. M. Colby.
Majitr'cil [Spun. Mallorca ; from Lat. major, greater,
the greater. Cf. Mi.norca] : an island of the Mediterranean,
belonging to Si)ain, and forming the largest of the Balearic
group. Area, 1,310 scj. miles. Pop. (1877) 230,396 (with
three small islands). The northern part of the island is
mountainous, Silla de Torellas rising 4,596 feet. The south-
ern and western parts are lower, and alford several good
harbors. The soil is very fertile, and the climate a perpet-
ual spring. All the products of Southern Spain, more es-
pecially of the province of Valencia, are raised here to
perfection. Capital, Palnia. Two volumes of Archduke
Ludwig Salvator's Die Baltaren in Wort iind 5/M (1869-80)
are devoteil to Majorca. Kevised by M. W. Harrington.
Major-general : See General Officer.
Majorists: See Major. Georg.
iMa.jor Seale : in music, with a major third and seventh.
See jfoDi; and Scale.
Makal'lah : town of the Hadramaut, Southern Arabia;
situated on its southern coast, in lat. 14"' 31' N., Ion. 49° 12'
E. (see map of Persia and Arabia, ref. 10-G). It has a good
harbor, and many vessels visit it to take in provisions. It
has a large trade, and is the market for the fertile valleys
and numerous villages around it. The temperature is very
high, and the climate trying to Europeans. Pop. estimatetl
at 18,000, comprising besides Arabs, Soinalis, Abyssinians,
Negroes, Zanzibarites, and Hindus. M. W. H.
Uakart', Hans: figure-painter; b. at Salzburg. Austria.
May 29, 1840. He was a pupil of the Vienna Academy and
of Piloty in Munich ; traveled and [lainted in Italy, France,
and England 1805-69, and in 1869 settled permanently in
Vienna at the request of the Emperor Francis Joseph; be-
came professor in the Vienna Academy 1879 ; honorary
member of Munich and Berlin academics; was awarded
gold medals at Vienna in 1857 and 1882 ; medal of honor,
Paris Exposition, 1878 ; was made an officer of the Ijegion of
Honor 1884. He became insane in Aug., 1884, and died in
A'ienna, Oct. 3, the same year. His compositions, several of
which are executed on very large canvases, are notable for
florid and striking color schemes. He possessed a fine sense
of decorative possibilities in painting, and his works are
good in general asi>ect. Caterina Cornaro (1873) was ex-
hibited at the Centennial Kxhibition, Philadelphia, 1876.
and is now in the Xalional Gallery, Berlin. \V\f. Diana's
Hunting Party (1880) is in the Metropolitan Museum, New-
York, and The Five Senses (1879) and Abnndantia have
been shown in New York and elsewhere. His most suc-
cessful work is The Entry of Charles V. into Antwerp, which
he painted in 1875-78, and is now in the Kunsthalle, Ham-
burg. William A. Coffin.
Makaii : Sep ('in.MAKtAN Indians.
Makrizi. nr Makree'zee, Aiimeii Al: b. in 1360 at Ma-
kreezec, near liaallier, in Syria; lived most of his life in
Cairo, and died there in 1442. He wrote in Arabic several
works on the history and topography of Egypt from the
time of the Mohammedan conquest down to 1327 A. D.. parts
of which, as well as his essay on Egyptian weights and
measures, have been translated into French by Quatremere
and Sylvestre Sacy. He drew largely from Elmacinus, a
Christian wriler, who preceded him. He left unfinished a
large work on the iinpnrtant persons who had visited Egypt.
The original manuscript of the first volume is in the Na-
tional Library in Paris.
Malabar': district of British India; in the province of
Madras ; exteniling from lat, 10° 15' to 12° 18' N., along the
Arabian Sea ; comprising an area of 5,765 sq. miles, with a
population of 2,500,000. The jirincipal products of the dis-
trict are timber, especially teak, and pe|)per. The teak-tree
grows on the plateau formed by the Western (Jhats at an
elevation of 5.(X)0 feet. The jiepper is cultivate<l on the
coa.st-land. The name Malabar is often applied to the
whole western coast of the peninsula.
Malac'ca : an old geographical name still used occasion-
ally for the Malay Peninsula (q. v.).
Malacca : a small territory on the west coast of the Ma-
lay Peninsula; a part of the British Straits Settlements,
formerly a jiart of the confederation of Negri-Seinbilian,
100 to 150 miles N. W. of Singapore. Area, 640 sq. miles.
Pop. 92,170, of whom 40 are whites, 1,647 natives of India,
18,161 are Chinese, and 70,325 Malays. The country is flat
on the coast, rising to mountains in the interior. The eastern
mountains alTord some gold and large quantities of tin.
The climate is hot and unheallhful. The princiiml crops
are rice, pepper, and sago. M. \V. II.
Malacca: a city; capital of the British territory of Ma-
lacca; hit. 2" 11' N., Ion. 102° 5' E. ; on the west coast of the
Malay Peninsula (see map of East Indies, ref. 6-B). It is a
picturesque place, formerly a very important port, but now
in decadence in consequence of the rivalry of Singapore and
Penang. It is a very ancient city, and was fre(|uented by
Arabian and Persian merchants as early as the eighth cen-
tury. It fell into the hands of the Portuguese in 1511, into
those of the Dutch in 1641, and. definitely, into those of the
British in 1824, who received it in exchange for their rights
in Sumatra. Pop. 20.000. M. W. 11.
Malacca. StraH i>(: a channel which separates the Malay
Peninsula from the island of Sumatra. It is 500 miles in
length ; its breadth varies from 35 to 180 miles.
Mal'achi [from Heb. Jlal'dkhi. liter., my messenger, but
supposed by some to be contracted from 2Ial'<ikhiyydh, mes-
sengerof Jehovah, whence Gr. MoAox^as] : the latest |)rophetic
book of the Old Testament. The scene is laid during the sec-
ond adniiiiistrat ion of Neliemiah, later than 433 1). c. (See
Nell. xii. 27-xiii.) The people have neglected to provide for
the support of the priests and the temple, and the priests have
in turn become negligent, both in their care of the worship
and in allowing illegal sacrifices from others (i. 6-ii. 9; iii.
7-12). The nation, in the person of its leading citizens, and
even of its priests, is intermarrying with foreigners (ii. 10-
16), and is committing this offense " a second time " (ii. 13).
Especially in view of these olTcnses, the prophecy insists
upon the |ironiise made to Israel in the wilderness. "Be-
hold I send my Angel" (Mai. iii. 1 ; cf. Ex. xxiii. 20, 23;
xxxii. 34 ; xxxiii. 2), and applies this to existing and future
conditions. It dei)ends upon the men to whom he conies
whether Jehovah's covenant Angel will be a blessed helper
(Ex. xxiii. 20) or a relentless judge (Ex. xxiii. 21). Whetlier
the name Malachi (My Angel) is that of the prophet who
wrote the book or simply that of the book itself, in either
case it connects itself with this most prominent idea in the
book. Mai. iii. 1, or rather the Exodus text referred to in
Mai. iii. 1, is cited in the (lospels in ccmncction with John
the Baptist and Christ; and Mai. iv. 5 is applied directly to
John the Baptist. Willis J. Beecher.
Malachite [from Gr. naKixn. mallow, from its rescm-
blancv to the green color of the mallow-leaf | : a natural
green carbonate of copper, occurring at many places, some-
times so abundantly as to be a valuable ore of copper, it
differs only slightly in composilii>ii from .Vzriii'iK (</. r.).
Its brilli.-int color made it a favorite ornamental stone,
though now little in use; it is rarely employed as a gem.
The finest specimens come from Arizona, Australia, and
Russia, where the celebrated Demidoff mines in Nijiii Ta-
gilsk, in the Urals, have yielded nearly all the malachite
used in the arts for the nineteenth century. It is chiefly
wrought in Russia, where it is used for inlaid work, orna-
ments of vari(jus kinds, anil even paneling, as in some of
the ajiartments in the Winter Palace and the Church of St.
Isaac in St. Petersburg. G. F. KuNZ.
MalacliHe Green: See Aniline Colors.
Mal'achy, Saint O'Moroair: archbishop and papal leg-
ate; b. at Armagh in 1094; became in youth a rigid ascetic,
and when twenty-live became a priest; restored the monas-
tery of Bangor; became in 1124 Bishop of Connor; in 1134
Archbishop of Armagh, Primate of all Ireland, and labored
with much zeal to bring the Irish Church, thus far inde-
pendent, under the pajial sway. In 1137 he resigned the
MALACOLUUV
MALAY I'KNINSULA
4yi
primacy to its legal possessors (for tliat soc was then a
family jxissession), uml became Bishop of Down. lie soon
afterward inaile a journey to Home, visit in;; Hernard of
Cluirvaux on the way, and was named lej^ute for Ireland by
the pope. He brought back with him sotne Cistercian
monks, with whom he established a monastery of that order
in Ireland. In 1148 he induced the synud of Iriis I'adriK to
request the pope to bestow the pallium upon the Irish bish-
ops. D. at t'lairvau.x, Nov. 2, 1148, in the arms of .St. Her-
nard. his biographer and friend. He was one of the most
learned, eloquent, and inlluential men of his time.
Malacorui;y [dr. ^loAoxiit. soft + -logy, science, from Gr.
\iyoi, discourse, reason] : a term given to the .study of the
molluscs. .See Mollusca.
Malaeos'traca [Mod. Lat., from Gr. ita\aK6t. soft + ta-
rpoKoy, shell of a testacean] : a name given to the higher
C'rustai'ka (q. v.), embracing the lobsters, shrimps, crabs,
beach-tleas, sow-bugs, and the like. These forms agree in
having a body composed of twenty segment.s, all of which
except the last are usually provided with appendages. Fre-
quently more or fewer of the anterior somites are imited
with the head to form a ceplialothorax. The Malacos-
traca are subdivided into the Tetbadecapoda, .Stomai-oda,
ScnizopoUA, and DecaI'ODA (qq. v.). J. S. Ki.ngslev.
Mal'aga : Jirovince of Siiain. bordering on the Mediter-
ranean, and bounded by tile provinces of Cadiz, Seville,
Cordova, and Granada. Area, "2,824 S(i. miles. Pop. (1887)
519,y77. It produces excellent and aoundant wine, grain,
and fruit, and is rich in metals and mineral springs.
Malag'a: the capital of the province of Malaga, Spain ; on
the Mediterranean; ()."> miles N. K. of (iibraltar (see map of
Spain, ref. 1!»-K); is beautifully siluateii at the foot of a
lofty mountain rangi'. whose highest peak is crowned with
the old Moorish castle Gibralfaro, and whose undulating
sides are covered with vines producing the famous Malaga
wine. The climate of Malaga is remarkably dry. sunny, and
ecpiable. It is an old <'ily. founded by the Carthaginians.
having lived through long periods of Uoman and .Moorish
dominion. Many of its streets are narrow, crooked, and
quaint, but the newer part, extending along the harbor and
trie beautiful alameda, has a thorouglily modern appearance.
It has a cathedral, two fine theaters, and an immense am-
phitheater for bull-fights, lis harbor is spacious an<l safe,
lined with (piays, and provided with excellent dockyards.
Its traile in wine. oil. hgs, almonds, raisins, and grapes is
extensive, and its manufactures of cloth, silk, ropes, and
leather are prosperous ; besides, it has several large iron-
foundries, breweries, and distilleries. Pop. (1887) lii4,016.
Malakaiis: a religious sect in Russia, Sec Haskol.viks.
Malakoff : one of the principal works of the fortress of
Sevastoi'oi, {q. v.). taken, with the Kedan, by the uniteil
British and French armies .Sept. 8, 185.J.
Malan, maa laah', CIcsar IIexri .\braiiam. D. D. : clergy-
man and author: b. at Geneva, Switzerland. ,luly 7, 1787,
of French Protestant descent ; was bred a .Socinian. and or-
dained in 1810; became a Trinitarian under the guidance of
Robert llaldane and of lii'v. Dr. .luhn .M. Mason, of Xew
York, and was (1820-6:i) the pastor of an independent
church at Geneva. His sect were called Mumiers (come-
dians) by the people. He was the author of many religious
works. His hymns. Les Chnnts des Sion (1826 ; with origi-
nal music 1841) ami LexOrains de Senere (1846), are note-
worthy. Many of his works have been translated into Kng-
llsh. I), in Geneva. Mav 18. 1864. See his Life by his son,
Cesar (Geneva, 186!)). ' Revj.sed by S. M. .Ia. kson.
Malan, Solomon C.^sar, D. D. : son of Cesar Malan ; b.
InGeni'Va. Apr. 22. 1812; educated at St. Kdmund Hall, Ox-
ford, where he gradualeil with honors in 18:!7 : senior classi-
cal professor In the Hishop's College, Calcutta, 1838-40; re-
turned to Kngland ; was ordained priest 1843 ; vicar of Hroad-
windsor, Dorset, 184,')-8."); and in 1870 bei'ame a prelMMidary
of Sarum, but resigned in 187.'5. He has written s«'veral
orlgiiml books on ecclesiastical subjects, ornithology, travels,
etc.. <oinposed sjicred and other rausle. designeil illustrations
for his own and other's works, and translated from Kastern
and other literatures many books, mostly religious, including
The Gospel of Sl.liihn in translations from Ihe Svrlac. Arme-
nian, Geez, Georgian, Slavonic, Memphitic. Gi>tliic. Sahidie,
Anglo-Saxon. Persian, and Arabic. Among his most inter-
esting translations are The Ctmflirl» of Ihe Holy Avonlles
and The Jiuok of Adam <tnd i'l'-e. \>oih from the Ethiopic.
D. Nov. 25, 189.5. Itevisod by S. M. Jackson.
.Malaria ftTid .Malarial Fever: See I.s-tersiitte.m Fevkb,
.MusMA. KhMiiiiM Fkvkk, alld CuiLL.
Mii'larn. or .MKIar: the most beautiful and one of the
largest of till- luki- of Sweden. With bn-adth of from 2
to 20 miles, it stretches 70 miles inland from the Ualtic .Sea,
with which it is coniie<;led by a small but deep channel. Il
contains over 1,260 islamls, fertile and well cultivated, or
covered with forests of pine and birch. .Stinkholm Is situ-
ated on lx)th sides of the channel and on a number of islands
in the Millar lake, and several other towns are on it« shores
or on its islands.
.Malayalam Language : See Dravihian Langi°ai!E.s.
.Malay Arclii|iclago: See Kastern Archipelaoo.
Malay Peninsula, or Malacca [anc. 4 urea Chemonegus]:
the long peninsula extending southward from Indo-China.
It begins properly alx>ut the latitude of Bangkok (13' 30'
N.), but the name is usually ap|ilied only to the peninsula
beyond the Isthmus of Kra, about lat. 10 30' N. It ends
in Cape Romania, lat. 1' 22' N. Thus limited it Is about
8.50niiles long. 210 miles broad at its broadest part, contains
an area of 82,000 sq. miles, and a iMjinilation of l,4lJ<t,0(X).
The coast is flat, unhealthful. flanked with manv islands,
and has few good harbors. The interior is but little known.
At the Isthmus of Kra it is low, but farther S. there are one
or more ranges of mountains, parallel to the axis of the |>e-
ninsula, and many l.solated iieaks. The greatest elevation
known is about 'J.OOO feet. The rivers have a strong tend-
ency to parallelism with the coast, and thus attain a greater
length tlian seems consistent with the breadth of the penin-
sula. The climate is hot, humid, and unhealthful. The
west coast is subject to sudden high winds of short duration,
called Sumatra, from the point whence they .seem to come;
the east coast is sometimes affected by the typhoons of the
Gulf of Slam.
The mountains are rich in tin, which has been mined
from time immemorial. Silver is common, especially on
the west coast, and the peninsula has had a reputation for
gold from the earliest times. Mt. Uphir, N. K. of the city
of Malacca, received its name fnim the reputation for gold
In Its vicinity. The vegetation is very luxuriant ; the forest
growth of the mountains is one of the greatest in the world,
and Includes a great number of species of trees, such as teak,
sandalwood, arcca, ebony, camphor, and gutta-|)ercha trees.
KIce, sugar-cane, cotton, pepper, tobacco, lea, and coffee are
among the cultivated plants. The fauna is very rich, espe-
cially in monkeys.
The human races represented arc: (1) The Negritos, exist-
ing In small numbers In the mountains. (2) The Siamese,
especially N. of the parallel of ~' N. (3) The civilized .Alalavs,
occupying the territory S. of 7 N.. except the mountains
of the interior, and savage tribes of Malays found in the
latter localities with the negritos. (4) Among the immigrants
the Chinese occupy the first pliKC. Then come in order the
Hindus, Arabs, Armenians. Jews, and Eurofieans.
Politically the territory is divided as follows :
STATES AND SETTLEMEprrS.
A~,.q. ■.
IkfUtl.
I. SlAMEME TRIBITARV STATSS :
17,000
8,600
S.000
7.000
COM
:<s.«00
s:o
>I0
iao.000
80.000
I'ntani
KHantait
*).riiiii
Totals
aw.ooo_
II Sthaits SnTLKMEKTB (BrltUb) I
Sini;ii|M>rH. . ....
IN'iirtHL' i"nl Wellwley
•iv..(im
»--'.irf)
■J . , , 1
TotulK
1.S5B
Ml ■■ .
III. Stato prutbctkd bt TBS British :
IVrnk
S**lanifor
Siini:»'i t'j<»"ir
Nfirri S«'iiil»iliin
Pananfc
Jolion-
ToUUs
There is, besides, a considerable si'.in- >piir^iiy iHtupu-d by
wild triU-s.
Sec Straits Srm.EiiEXTS, SisnAPoas. Pmaxo. Malacc*.
Kra. etc. Sec also for a complete list of works published on
492
MALAY RACE
MAI.DIVK ISLANDS
the Malay Peninsula, Dcnnys, ,4 Contribution to Mataynn
Bibliography, in the Journal of tlie Straits Branch of the
Roval Asiatic Society (Sinpiporo, 1^80 and 1881). Also Isa-
bella Bird, The Golden Chersonese (Xt^iiS); \\.eane. Eastern
Geography (1887) ; Skinner, 7'he Eastern Geoqraphy. a
Geography of the Malai/ Penitisula and Surrouniling ( 'oun-
Iries (1884); Godinho ile kredia, JIalacca. I'lnde nieridio-
nale et le Cathay (manuscript reiiriHluced and translated by
Janssen, 1882). Makk \V. Harri.noton.
Malay Race [called by themselves Jfalayu] : the domi-
nant race of Malacca (the Malay Peninsula) and the Kast
Indian islands (Malay ArcliipeUip)). In a larger sense, the
inhabitants of the greater part uf the islands of Polynesia
arc said to be of Malay race, since i)hysically ami in lan-
guage they arc kindred, and the Malay traditions assume
an insular origin for their people. Some ethnologists have
made the Malays the type of a fifth or brown race of man-
kind, but others regard them as essentially Mongolian.
They are of a brown color, have l)lack and often curled
hair, and prominent facial bones, are short of stature, and
as a rule eourageou.s, but unstable and subject to fits of un-
controlable rage. They are treacherous and unforgiving
enemies and inconstant friends, idle and revengeful, but
are active and useful sailors, (jambling, cock-fighting, and
intoxication are the national vices. The Malays are in-
veterate liars. Some observers, however, give the .Malays a
much better character than the one here drawn. It is prob-
able that intercourse with unscrupulous Europeans and
Chinese has degra<led them, as it has most other rude peo-
ples, and the injustice and cheating of traders have done
much to make them treacherous and deceitful. Fortunate-
ly, the Malavs have a patriarchal system of living which
has prevented them from becoming an aggressive and far-
conquering race. In religion they are Mohammedans.
Fondness for music and disregard of death are almost uni-
versal. Their so-called civilization is small. There are
manufactures of weapons, of ornamental gold and filigree
work, and of fast-sailing but small vessels of peculiar con-
struction. The people are largely engaged in agriculture
and trade. The standard Malay language, which belongs to
the Malayo-Polynesian family, is written in the Arabic char-
acter. It is the commercial language of the East, and has
been called, for its euijhony, the Italian of Asia. The lit-
erature is abundant, and bears strong marks of Sanskrit and
Arabian influence. .See the Dictionary of Marsden (1812);
Crawf urd. Mala y Orammar and Dictionary (1852) ; Wallace,
The Malay Archipelago (2 vols., 1869).
Malcolm : the name of four kings of Scotland. Mal-
colm I."s reign (943-54) is noteworthy for the cession of
Cumbria by the Anglo-Saxon king Edmund to the King of
the Scots. The latter was killed while trying to suppress a
revolt in the north of Scotland. — Malcolm II. (1005-34)
successfully resisted the attempts of the Danes to conriuer
Scotland, and secured possession of Lothian.— Malcolm III.
(1059-9:3), surnamed Canmore, was reared at the court of
Edward the Confessor. After the Norman conquest Eilgar
Atheling, the Anglo-Saxon claimant; to the throne of Eng-
land, sought refuge with his family at the court of Malcolm.
The latter received him hospitably and married his sister
Margaret, an alliance which involved the Scottish king in a
quarrel with the Nornums. After an unsuccessful invasion
of England JIaleolm was forced to acknowledge William the
Conqueror !us his suzerain. The war broke out anew in 1093,
and the Scottish king crossed the border, but was slain near
Alnwick in the same year.— Malcolm IV. (11,54-05) had to
contend with continual insurrections. Somerled, the Scots
of Galloway, and the men of Moray successively revolted,
but were brought to terms. After tlie suppression of a sec-
ond rebellion of Somerled, the king died in the twenty-
fourth year of his age.
Malcolm. Sir.IouN: soldier and diplomatist; b. at Burn-
foot, near ].,angholm, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, May 2,1769;
entered the army at the age of twelve years ; became a cadet
in the military service of the East India Company, and hav-
ing familiarized himsiOf with several Oriental hmguages,
successfully performed a pcjiitical mission to Persia in 1799.
and became president of .Mysore in 1803, and in the same
year accompanied (ien. Arthur Wellcsley in the Mahratta
campaign, and signed the treaty of peace" with Scindia after
the tatter's defeat at Assaye. During the ensuing years
Malcolm was employed in high civil functions under the
successive In<lian administrations; was again sent as envoy
to Persia in 1807 anrl IHOli, l]ut with less diplomatic success
than before, and returned to England in 1813. He was
knighted, wrote his elaborate History of Persia (2 vols.,
1815). still an authority, ami visited Paris during its occupa-
tion by the allied forces, ile returned to the East in 1817;
engaged in the Mahratta ami Pindaree wars in the Deccan
as second in command, with the rank of brigadier-general;
distinguished himself at the battle of Mehidtmr (Dec. 21,
1817), in which he broke the power of the Mahrattas; was
governor of Malwa 1818-22 ; published his Memoir of Cen-
tral India (1823) and his Political History of India from
17S4 to 1S23 (ISiS) ; was governor of Bombay 1827-30; was
member of Parliament for Launceston 1831. D. in Lon-
don, May 31, 18^33. A monument was erected to his mem-
ory in Westminster Abbey, and an obelisk 100 feet high at
his native place. See his Life and Correspondence, by J.
W. Kaye, 1856.
Malczenski. ma'al-chev ski, Antoni: poet; b. at War-
saw. Poland, June 3, 1793. His father, a Polish general,
gave his son a French education. He began his military
career in 1811, but resigned in 1816; traveled in France,
Italy, and Switzerland; studied English literature, and par-
ticularly the works of Byron. In 1821 he returned to \Var-
saw. At that time he hail written a number of short
stories and poems, a satire entitled Kartiatral M'arszawski,
and several scenes of a tragedy, Helena. From Warsaw he
retired to Wolhynia, where he wrote his celebrated epic, Mar-
ya, piiwiesf ukrainska (Maria, a Story of the Ukraine, War-
saw, 1825), which he dedicated to Nieinczewicz. The public,
however, failed to appreciate the beauties of the poem, no
one would buy his books, and Malczewski died in poverty.
May 2, 1826. at Warsaw. His productions were original
throughout, but his talent was not recognized until after
his death. Mart/a has since been repeatedly edited, and
translated into English (London, 1836), French, German,
and Bohemian. Though occasional reminiscences of Byron
may be found in his works, Malczewski differs from the
English poet in the deep religious spirit which pervades his
poems. J. J. Kral.
Maldall' : town ; in the province of Bengal, British
India ; on the Mahanadi, an affluent of the Ganges (see
map of N. India, ref. 7-1). It is poorly built, with narrow
and filthy streets lined with decaying houses. Its weaving-
factories, once very active, have fallen into decadence since
1810, being transferred to Englisli Bazar, 3 miles S. The
surrounding districts, which in the rainy season are com-
jjletely inundated, lie uncultivated. Pop. 5,000.
Mal'dc§:lieni : town; in the province of East Flanders,
Belgium ; 12 miles by rail E. of Bruges (see map of Holland
and Belgium, ref. D-C) ; with celebrated lace-manufactures.
Pop. 8,600.
Maiden, mawl den : city; Middlesexco., Mass. (for location
of county, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H) ; on the Maiden
river, and the Boston and Maine Railroad; 4 miles N. of
Boston. The census returns of 1890 showed that 627 manu-
facturing establishments (representing 47 industries) re-
ported. These had a combined capital of $7,050,416; em-
ployed 4,415 persons ; paid $2,161,650 for wages and $5,428.-
785 for materials ; and had products valued at $8,694,807.
The principal industries were the manufacture of rubber
boots and shoes, various kinds of leather goods, carpets and
rugs, cotton goods, boot and shoe lasts, and sand and emery
paper. In 1890 the city had 13 public-school buildings, and
school property valued at over $362,800, and expended $80.-
867 for public education. There are 4 libraries (Bazar,
Ladies' Exchange, High School, and Public), with over 25,-
000 vi>lumes: a national bank, capital of $100,000; a savings-
bank (deposits, $1,S00.000); and 2 ilailv and 2 weeklv news-
papers. Pop. (1880) 12,017 : (1890) '23,031 ; (1895) 29;708.
Maiden Island: a solitary coral island of the South
Pacific, in lat. 4" S., Ion. about 155° W. ; area, 35 sq. miles.
It is without population or fresh water. It has supplied a
large amount of guano. Great Britain took possession of it
in 1866.
Maldive (miil'div) Islands: the larger part of a remark-
able line of coral islands extending from off the Malabar
coast southward for "20 of latitude, and consisting of the
Laccailives. Minikoi, the Maldives, and the Chagos Archi-
pelago. The Malilives extend from 7 7' N. to 0 42' S. lat.,
between the meridians 72° 27' and 73° 50' E. The Maldives
form a double series of large atolls (nineteen in number), ar-
ranged like a closed chain hung on a peg. The w hole group
is thus one great compound atoll. The lagoons of the atolls
MALDON
HALESIIERBES
493
are dotted and iimrfjinod by sniall islands, each one being a
minute atoll. The total niinilier of islets is popularly esti-
mated at 12,000. There are 600 charted on the maps and
200 are inhabited. The islets rise in no case more than 6
feet above high water. At low water about 2,(X)0 sq. miles
of area are exposi'd, but at hi^h water this is reduced to
350 sq. miles. The population is estimated at 20,000 to
30,000.
The larger islands are covered with wood, the cocoa-palm
being the characteristic tree. Land animals are very scarce,
but turtles and fish are common. There is no running water,
but fresh water can be easily obtained by digging. The
climate is temperate fur the latitude, but is very unhealth-
ful to immigrants because of the nuruerous lagoons and
swamps. Violent fevers, the ilropsical btri-beri, and dan-
gerous dysenteries are sure to attack the newcomers.
The people are like the Singhalese, and speak a Singhalese
dialect, but thcv have some characteristics in common with
the people of Malabar, and also betray some African inter-
mixture. They are short, dark copper-colored, gentle, hos-
pitable, cleanly, domestic, and affectionate. They are di-
vided into six classes or castes.
These islands were apparently known to Ptolemy and
Ammianus. They have formeii a little kingdom from the earli-
est times, and are now governed by a sultan of ancient line-
age. They were converted to Islam about 1200 A. D. They
have since been in Portuguese, French, and Dutch hands,
and now form a nominal dependency of Ceylon. The peo-
ple depend for food chiefly on fish and rice, the latter im-
ported. The chief exports are coir, cocoanuts, and copra,
cowry-shells, and <lrie(l bonito-fish. The sultan lives on the
island of Mali, near the center of the group, a mile long by
half a mile broad. Poj). 2.000. .See Vuijages d'Ibn Da-
ioutah (trans, by nufrcmery and .Sanguinetti, iv., 1858);
Voyage de Francois l^rard de la Val (1679); Bell, The
Maldive Islands (1883). Mark \V. IIarrinotox.
Maldon, mawl'diin: town; in the county of F^ex, Eng-
land; at the confluence of the Chelmer and the Blackwater;
38 miles N. E. of London (see map of England, ref. 12-K). It
has manufactures of salt and silk, and breweries and iron-
foundrios. Pop. (1891) 5,397.
Maldonado, majil-do-naailo: a department of Uruguay,
on the mouth of the Rio de la Plata; E. of Montevideo.
Area, 1,610 sq. miles. Pop (1891) 20,600. The capital,
Maldonado, is a p>rt-town, on a bay protected from E.
winds by a projectmg point, but o|)cn to the S. (see map of
South America, ref. 8-F;). Founded in 1762. It was for-
merly of considerable importance, but is now little used ex-
cept for local trade and as a harbor of refuge. Pop. about
1,500. n. H. S.
Malebranche, maal'brminsh', Nicolas: philosopher; b.
in Paris, Aug. 6, 16;{8, of a rich and respectable family ;
was prevented by a feeble constitution from attending any
public school as a youth; when older studied theology at
the Sorbonne, and entered in 1660 the ci>ngregation of the
Oratory. The incidental perusal, in 1664, of Descarles's
Traite de Vllomme filled him with such an enthusiasm that
henceforth he devoted himself exclusively to philosophy,
and after ten years' preparation he prcxluced his principal
work. De la Recherche de la Verite (1674), which contains
the substance of his entire system of thoUL^ht. His health
was still very precarious, but by his quiet and cautious
manner of living he reached a good old age. The study of
philosophy he alternated with that of mathematics, in order
to sharpen his i)owers without burdening his memory. As
he was a man of genuine piety, it was to him a most serious
task to demonstrate the true relation between the metaphys-
ical ideas set forth in his first Ixtok and the doctrines of
Christianity, and all his subse<)uent writings reveal moix- or
lessdirectlv the same tendency : Conversntinnx Chretiennex
(1677); De la Xuture el de la (/race {UM)); Medilnlions
Chreiiennes el Mrtaphijuiques (168:1); Traitf de Morale
(1684); Entretiens'siir la Jtetaphi/m'ifue el siir la Religion
(1688): Traite de I'Amour de Dim (1697); Entre'tiens
d'un Philosophe Chretien el d' tin Pliilomphe Chinoia stir
I'Existence de Dieti (1708), etc. On this point, however, he
met with much censure and opposition from .\rnauld, Kegis,
and even from Hossuet : but in spite of the fierceness of the
controversy, he himself remained calm and l>enign to the
last. D. in Paris. Oct. 13. 1715, after a protractetl sickness
and much suffering. The system of .Malebranche is a
further development of the doctrines of I)es<'artes and es-
pecially of occasionalism. With Descartes he assunietl a
difference between matter and mind so absolute that no
transition from one to the other, no influence of one on the
other, is possible. The question then became: How is the
striking harmony between the material and spiritual phe-
nomena which pervades the whole world to be explained
when there is no causal connection between the two spheres f
To this Malebranche answered: All that exists, matter and
mind, and the movements going on in their respective
spheres, rests on God as its sole and immediate cause ; and
as (jod is one and the same, tlu-re must be a certain con-
sistency between the phenomena of the various sphere.\
even though that which takes pliae in one sphere is onlv a
causa occasiotiaJis, and not a causa efflciens for that which
occurs in another. Bodies are explained in his Search after
Truth as modifications of infinite extension which belongs to
tiod. In chap. vi. of bi>ok iii. he develops his famous prin-
ciple that '■ We see all things in (iod." \Ve see in (io<i the
archety|)es of the cor|)oreal world, and thus come to know
Uxlies indirectly. Mind is so different from matter that it
could not know it directly. This is his theory of occasi<m-
alism, while Leibnitz adopts pre-established "liarmony, and
Spinoza the theory that mind and matter are two phases
of one reality. .See his (Eiivres Completes {11 vols., Paris,
1712); CEurres choi.iies de MalebraucheCi vols., Paris,1846);
English translations of the Search after Truth and of yature
and Oraee, by T. Taylor (London, 1694).
Kevised by W. T. Harris.
Malerkt, maal-et'ski, .\ntoxi: poet and philologist; b. at
Obiuzerz. near Posen, Poland, in 1821 ; educated privately, at
Posen, and at Berlin ; won in 1844 the degree of Ph. I), by his
dissertalicm De Academia t-etere (The .\ncient Acaileinv);
lectured on Philology at Posen (1845-50), Cracow (1850-54),
Innsbruck (18.54-56). and finally became Professor of the
Polish Language and Literature at the University of Lw6w
(Lemberg), 1856-73. In 1881 he was appointed member of
the Austrian House of Lords. He wrote a numlK>r of liter-
ary essjiys; List zelaznt/(An Iron Letter. Posen, 18.54), a drama
depicting the life of seventeenth century serfs; Urochmry
u-ieniec (.\ Wreath of Peaflowers, Posen, 1855), a cometly ;
Jadwiga (Lemberg, 1860), a tragedy ; translated Sophocles's
Elektra and Antigone (Cracow, 1854); and published siteci-
mens of ancient Polish oratory in W'ybor mow slaropolskich,
etc. (Cracow, 1860). Juliiisz Stoiracki, jego iycie i dziela
(.Ful. Slowacki, his Life and Works, 2 vols., Lemlierg, 1866-
67) is highly Sained bv literary historians. His greatest
works are two epoch-making Polish grammars, comparative
and historical : Uramalykajizyka /wmAiVjo (Lemberg, 1863),
and (jramatykahitloryczno-porbwnaiccza, etc. (2 vols., Lem-
berg, 1879). J. J. KbAu
Mnlosherbes. maal zitrb', Chr£tie.v Gi'illai-me he La-
MoKiXox, de : statesman; b. in Paris. Dec. 6. 1721, of a rich
and influential family ; was educated by the Jesuits; studied
law and entered very early the civil service, in which he oc-
cupied with great honor the most responsible positions.
From 1750 to 1771 he was censor of the press and president
of the court of aids. In the former oflice he gained the es-
teem of all literary men by his lil>erality and courage; with-
out him probablv the Encyclopedic would never have been
printed. In the latter he attained still greater ix^pularity by
the firmness with which he op|Mised all arbitrar)- meii.sures
of the (iovernment and allextortiniis of the tax-farmers. In
1770, when Louis XV. dissolved the Parliament Ixcause
they would not register his tax-eilicis, Malesherbes prc-
seiiiod a memcir to His Majesty, advising the convocation
of the States-lieneral, for which action he was banished
from Paris. On the accession of Ixiuis XVI. he was re-
called to the court in 1774, and as he was now one of the
most popular men in France, he was n;adc Minister of the
Interior in the cabinet of Turgot. lie couhl ilo nothing,
however, against the follies, prejudii-es, and intrigue- if
the court : ami when he left tlie ministry in 1776, l-n.-' '! • r
with Turgot, he had lost much of his (Mipularity. lie lii. n
spent many years in travels in foreign eouiitries and on hui
estates, alwavs occupied by .some plans of j-nblic useful-
ness; anil when in 1792 Louis .\ VI. was a
the National Convention, he umiertiwik :
speaking with admirable courage, succcn... m ,i,.,r... _■
some impression. The inuiu'diate n-sull, however, of this
noble act was his own arrniiinmeiit in De*'., 1793, ami on
.Apr. 22, 1794, he was puillolined, togi-lher with M-vrral
members of his fainilr. He wrote si-veml essays and (Mini-
phlets. mostly on sul>ji>cf» ridating to p.ilitie«l economy and
finances. His (Eurres Choities were |>ublishctl in I80U.
iU
MA LET
MALICE
Malet. imia la , Claude Francois, de : conspirator; b.
June 'J.S. 17">4. at Dole, in tlic department of Jura. France:
enleredllie army in 1771 ; was bns;adier-general in 1711!). ami
commanded in Italy in 1804 under Prince Eujrene, lail was
dismissed from llie army in 1807, and confined in La
Force, suspccteil and in a mea.<ure convicted of liavin-; in-
trijrued ajiaiiist the emperor. While in La Force he plotted
a new conspiracy, but was apiin discovered, and Xapoleon
now ordered him to lie sliut up in a state prison. This
order was either disobeyed or forgotten, and in 1812 he
was allowed to take up his residence for the sake of his
health in the house of a physician in Paris, one Dubuisson.
Here he found the associates he needed, and planned with
great shrewdness and circumspection a coup d'elat, which
he e.xecuted in the night between Oct. 22 and 23 with an
astonisliin;; audacity and admirable skill. The first rumor
of the disastrous retreat from Moscow had just reached
Paris. At midnight Millet appeared in the barracks, an-
nounced that the emperor had been killed in Russia, rep-
resente<i himself as an emissary from the provisory gov-
ernment, and at the head of a" few companies of soldiers
arrested the chiefs of the police and the postal department,
whom he replaceil with his own accomplices, and was just
about taking possession of the military command of Paris
when Laborde, chief of the military police, recognized him,
disarmed and arrested him, and disclosed his fraud to the
soldiers. He was shot Oct. 2'J, 1812. See the exhaustive
representations by Laton and Dourille, both entitled Jlis-
totre de la CouHpivution de Malet — the former 1814, the
latter 1840.
Mullirrbe, miialSrb', FBAy^ois, de : poet and critic ; b. at
Caen, Normandy, in 155.x He enjoyed unusual advantages
of education, stiulying at home and at Paris, Heidelberg.
and Basel. He entered the service of the governor of Prov-
ence, after whose death (1586) he was for a time without em-
Slovment. He sought the favor of Henry III., and a i)oem
edicatcd to the latter brought him 500 crowns. In 1600 he
won the attention of Marie de Medicis by an ode welcoming
her to France, and in 1605 was given a position at court by
Henrv IV., whose poetical commissions he executed. Dur-
ing the rest of his life he continued to be a court poet, ad-
dressing flattering verses to Louis XIH. and Kichelieu, and
came to be the great authority of the world of letters. D.
Oct. 16, 1628. ills work is small in amount, consisting of a
few translations from Livy and Seneca, , some letters, and
one volume of Stances, Odes, Soimels, Epicjrammes, and
C/ianson-s. It owes its importance not to poetic feeling and
imagination, but to the purity and appropriateness of its lan-
guage and the harmony and polish of its versification. In
these respects Malherbe led a reform. The sixteenth cen-
tury had enriched both language and literature with a vast
amount of new materials, but, aside from implanting in all
rainds an enthusiastic admiration for the literatures of antiq-
uity, it had left free scope to individual caprice. There
wa.s absence of unity and authority. .Malherbe made the
French of Paris the standard, proscribed provincialisms, and
sought to decide hesitating usage in accordance with logic.
In versification he condemned hiatus and overflow, violent
inversions, and too easy rhymes, and demanded that the end
of the line and the cicsura in the alexandrine be marked by
a pause in the sense. He exercised on his own productions
the same criticism that he applied to others, and attained a
purity, clearness, and simplicity of language and a smooth-
ness, harmony, and elegance of versification that were un-
known before him and that at once became models. Thus
he was very influential in impressing upon French literature
the tendency it was to follow for two hundred years, and has
since been generally regarded as the inaugurator of French
classicism. His works were first collected and published in
1630, then with a commentary by Menage in 1666. The best
edition is in the Edition des Grands Ecrivains, by Lalanne
(Paris, 1860-65). Cf. Allain, Malherbe et lapoesie fraufaise
a la Jin dii XVI' sii'cle (Paris, 1892); Ferd. Brunot, La doc-
trine de Malherbe, d'apres son commentaire snr Desportes
(Paris, 1891). A. G. Canfield.
Malheur (maa-loor) Uiver : a river which rises by several
head-streams in the southeastern part of Oregon ; flows in a
northeasterly direction, and empties into the Snake river, on
the boundary between Oregon and Idaho.
MaHbran. ma'ale'ebniaiV, Mauia FelicitA : opera-singer;
b. in Paris, Mar. 24, 1808; a daughter of the celebrated
singer and singing-master, Manuel Garcia; made her dibiil
June 7, 1825, as Kosina in The Barber of Hcvitle in London ;
entered in the same year on an artistic tour through the
U. S. ; married (.Mar. 2,5, 1826) .M. Malibran, a French banker
of New York. After he had become a bankrupt she sepa-
rated from him, and returned the next year alone t<j Europe.
She appeared for the first time in Paris Jan. 14, 1828, as
Semiramis; sang for several years alternately in Lond<m
anil Paris, with occasional excursions to Italy and Belgium ;
married after the dissolution of her first marriage the fa-
mous violinist ile Beriot. .Mar. 29. 1836. 1). in Manchester,
England, Sept, 23, 1836, in con.seiiuence of a fall from her
horse. Her voice.a mezzo-soprano, beautiful liy nature, was
devehiped to perfection, antf to these musical advantages
were added a considerable dramatic talent, nuich natural
grace, a rich imagination, and an astonishing audacity in
following up her momentary inspirations.
Mii'Hc Acid [malic is from Lat. malum, apple] : a crys-
talli/ed substance that is found widely distril)uted in the
juices of plants. It was discovered by Scheele in unripo
apples. It is also found in the berries of the mountain-ash,
in cherries, gooseberries, strawberries, etc. It is obtained
most easily from the berries of the mountain ash which have
not quite reached ripeness. The berries are pressed and
boiled with milk of lime, when the acid passes into solution
as the calcium salt from which it is set free and purified.
Tartaric and malic acids are related sidistances, and both are
related to succinic acid. By chemical methods it is possible
to convert succinic acid into malic acid and this into tartaric
acid; and starting with tartaric acid, both malic acid and
succinic acid can be made from it. The relations between
the three substances are shown by the following formulas:
Cn,.CO,H CH(OH).CO,H CH(OH).CO,H
CH,.CO,II iHj.COjH 6H(0II).C0,n
Succiaic acid. Malic or hydroxy- Tartaric or dihy-
succiuic acid. droxysuecinic acid.
Malic acid is known in three forms. The natural variety is
optically activi% t\irning the plane of polarization to the
right or to the left, according to the concentration of the
solution. That variety which is made artificially is optically
inactive. The optically inactive variety can be split into
two optically active varieties, one of which is identical with
the natural acid, while the other turns the plane of polariza-
tion in the opposite direction under the same conditions.
When subjected to dry distillation malic acid is converted
into male'ic and fumaric acids and inaleic anhydride.
Ika Ke.msen.
MaUce [from Lat. mali tia, evilness, malice, deriv. of
ma'lus, bad) : in law, denotes (1) simply the absence of legal
excuse, (2) '" any corrujit motive, any wrong motive, any de-
parture from duty." In the first case it is called " malice
in law," in the second "express nuilice." In either sense
it is a vague term, and eminent judges have not hesitated
to declare it unfortunate. It is tlie chamelecm of legal
nomenclature, taking a dilTerent hue from each topic with
whic-h it is connected. Its varying shades of meaning are
described in the numerous articles on particular crimes and
torts.
Malicious Exercise of Rights. — The present article will
be confined to the iiKjuiry whether the performance of an
act which one has a right to do with a good motive is tor-
tious if actuated by malice. Undoubtedly the Koman law-
answered this quesiion in the allirinative. If a landowner
dug a well in his field ami thereliy drained his neighbor's
well, his act was legal if done to improve his own property,
but illegal if done t(i injure his neighbor's. This is under-
stood to be the rule in Scotland; and German jurists declare
that "the exercise of a right is not rendered unlawful by
the fact that another is damaged thereby ; it is only unlaw-
ful to exercise a right solely in order to injure another."
The common law gives no such clear and decisive answer.
In the language of Lord Justice liowen, it "presents us
with no scientilic analysis of the degree to which the intent
to harm, or, in the langutige of the civil law, the animus vicino
jioffH(/i', may enter into or affect the conception of a per-*
sonal wrong." In the case of digging or building on one's
land, the weight of authority seems to be oppcjsed to the
Konuin doctrine, and is in favor of permitting a landowner
to do maliciously whatever he may do in gond faith. {Hide-
out vs. Knox, 148 Mass. 368.) Accordingly, he may build a
fence or wall on his land for the sole purpose of olistructing
his neighlior's light or air; he may dig in his land with no
other object than to drain his neighbor's well ; he may cover
his premises with shanties and let them to objectionable ten-
MALICIOUS MISf-niEF
MALICIOUS PROSECUTION
495
ants, for till- mere sake of spiting the adjolninf; occupant of a
fusliionuble mansion, without committing a tort.
A man has the ri;;ht to enKage freely in traile. IIo may
exercise this right wiUiout incurring legal liability to another
trader, though his motive is to spite that other by cutting off
his gains, and not to benefit himself; but he must not dam-
age the other by fraud or misrepresentation; and he must
abstain from any intimiilation, obstruction, molcslation, or
intentional procurement of a violation of the other's rights,
without just cause or excuse. Mui/iil Sleam.ihip Co. vs.
McGregor, 'i'i (Queen's Bench Division 5U8; (18'.l2) Appeal
Cases 25.
A mortgagee has the right to foreclose his mortgage and
a creditor to collect his claim as soon as they mature. " The
law will not inquire into the motives of the partv exercising
such right, however iinfriendly and selfish." iiandall vs.
Uazeltun. 13 Allen (Muss.) 413.
As a rule, a person is free to contract with any one ; but
if A knows that B and C are parties to a contract, his right
to contract with cither of them becomes a qualified one.
Should he, having such knowledge, persuade either to break
his contract with the other and contract with himself, in-
tending thereby to injure that other, or to benefit himself at
the other's expense, and such injury follow, his act would be
wrongful in law and fact and would subject him to a suit
for damages. (Hoiven vs. Hall, 6 (Queen's Bench Division
333.) Lord Coleridge in this case strongly dissented from
the doctrine that the same person, for doing the same thing,
under the same circumstances, with the same result, is sub-
ject to an action or not, according to whether his inward
motive was selfish or unselfish, declaring, " I think the in-
quiries to which this view of the law would lead are danger-
ous and inexpedient inquiries for courts of justice; judges
are not fit for them, and juries are very unlit." His view
has been accepted in a number of jurisdictions, but the deci-
sion in Bowen vs. Hall has been generally followed in the
U. S. (see Aiu/le vs. Chicago, etc.. Railway, 151 V. S. 1 ; 14
U. S. Supreme Court Reporter 240, l)^i)4) : but it is submitted
that even under this doctrine it is not the malicious exercise
of the actor's right that is actionable, but the malicious inva-
sion of another's right. Francis M. Burdick.
Malicious Miscliief : in law, injuring the property of an-
other out of a spirit of wanton cruelty or wicked revenge.
It seems not to have been an offense at English common law,
but was made punishable by the statute of Westminster,
13 BM. I., St. I., c. 46, and a number of later acts of Parlia-
ment. (Stephen's History of Criminal Law, vol. iii., p. 188.)
In most of tlie U. S. it has been considered by the courts an
offense at common law ; but in nearly all of them it is now,
OS in Englanil, a statutory crime, embracing nearly every
form of physical injury inflicted with malicious intent upon
any kind of property of another, and in some States upon
one's own propcrtv. In the absence of a statutory provision
on the subject, malice means actual ill will against the owner
of the property, or wanton cruelty provocative of a breach
of the peace. See Wharton's Criminal Law, bk. 2, ch. xvi. ;
Bishop On Slaiutory Crimes, bk. 4, ch. xix., S 4.
Francis M. Burdick.
Malicious Erosociition : in law. the infliction of legal in-
jury upcMi another, by prosecuting him from an evil motive
and without probable cause. The plaintiff who brings an
action for this wrong must prove (1) that the prosecution of
which ho complains has been terminated in his favor; (2)
that there was a want of probable cause for the prosecution ;
(3) that it was undertaken in a malicious spirit ; and (4) that
it caused him legal damage. If he fails to establish either
of these positions, he can not recover.
Term illation of Former Suit. — The plaintiff is required to
show that the previous action has terminated in his favor,
in order to prevent his trying the same issue twice. Were
such double litigation permitted, the plaintiff "might re-
cover in this action, and yet lie afterward convicted on the
original prosecution." If the proceeding complained of does
not permit the prosecuted party an o|iportunity to contro-
vert the charge of the prosecutor, as in the case of an ex
parte attachment or a warrant to keep the peace, this re-
quirement has no application, and the party wronged may
bring his suit for malicious prosecution at once (Hyde vs.
Greiich, 62 Md. 577); but if the proceeding is one in which
the defendant has the right to a liearing and thus an oppor-
tunity to obtain a favorable decision, it docs not matter that
the law denies to him the right of appeal from the iU>cision.
The proceeding is terminated when it has been so disposed
of that the prosecutor must begin anew. Hence the refusal
of a grand jury to find an indiclnient; the discharge from
bail or imprisonment by a committing niagislnitc; the ver-
dict of not guilty upon a criminal trial; the voluntary
abandonment of a civil action without any compromise on
the part of the defendant therein are instances of teniiinaled
proceedings. Whether a nolle prosequi amounts to a final
dispfisilion of a criminal prosecution is a quesiion U[Hjn
which the courts arc at variance. As it ends tlie indictment
and compels the prosecution to begin anew, it ought to bo
treated as a final determination unless entered by the pro-
curement of the one prosecuted, and is in the nature of s
compromise. Brown vs. Handall, 36 Conn. 56.
M ant of Probable Cause. — A person is said to have proba-
ble cause for proceeding against another when he iHlieves,
on grounds that would warrant a reasonable man in believ-
ing, that the other is legally liable to such prosecution. If
the facts which are depended upon by the defendant, in a
suit for malicious prosecution, to show that he had probable
cause for the original proceeding, are in dispute, the jury are
to ascertain the facts and the judge is to decide whether
those facts constitute such cause. Where the facts arc un-
disputed the question is wilely for the judge. If a partv
lays all the facts of his case fairly before reputable couns<'I,
and acts in gooil faith upon the honest Ofiinion thus obtained,
though it may be erroneous, he acts with probable cause.
He must, however, state the facts fully and fairly, and there
must be no dishonest collusion between him and his counsel
in the matter, and he must believe in the legal liability of
the one against whom he proceeds. A judgment in favor
of the original prosecutor, unless obtained by fraud, is gen-
erally held to be conclusive evidence that he acted upon prob-
able cause, although it was subseqiienlly reversed {Crescent
Cilij, etc., vs. Butchers' I'nion, 120 L . S. 141) ; liut a judgment
against him is at most but prima facie evidence of the ab-
sence of probable cause. The holding by a committing mag-
istrate of a person charged with crime, for the grand jurv',
or the finding of an indictment by a grand jury, is prima
facie evidence that the complaining party acted with prob-
able cause. If, however, it is shown that the complainant
suppressed or misrepre.sented any material facts, or that he
assumed to state as facts what he did not know to be such,
and about which he had not taken reasonable care in in-
forming himself, or, if it appears that he did not honestly
believe in the charge that he preferred, his prima facie ease-
ls destroyed ; but it must be borne in mind that the |ilainliff
in a suit for malicious prosecution has the burden of proving
a want of jirobable cause, although this is a negative aver-
ment, and the facts relating thereto are peculiarly within
the knowledge of the defendant.
Malice. — 'I'he prosecutor must have acted from an indirect
and iinprfiper motive, and not in the furtherance of justice.
It is not essential, however, that he whs inspired by hatred
against the individual prosecuted. Whether his conduct
was malicious, in this sense, is a question of fact for the
jurv. They may infer malice from the same circumstances
that establish a want of probable cau.se, but they are not
bound to do so. The prosecution may have been instituted
without probable cause, and to that extent impro|>erly. and
vet the prosecutor may have been free from actual malice;
and it is malice in fact which the present plaintiff must
prove. Such malice is onlinarily establishwi by circum-
stantial evidence. A jury may infer its existence simply
from the zeal and activity displayed by the prest-nt defeinl-
ant in the prosecution complained of. An action for mali-
cious prosecution will lie against a corporation, if the wrong-
ful proceeding was instituted by its authorize<l agents. Their
malice, in such a case, is its malice. Reed vs. Home Hav-
ings-bank; 130 Mass. 443.
Legal Damage. — In the earlv case of Sarile vs. Roberts
(1 Lonl Raymond's Reports 374). 1/ord Holt dccIanMl ''■■'
there are three heads of damage » Inch will sup[iort an ..
for malicious prosecution: (fi) Damage to a man's j • •
as when he is taken into custody, (o) Damage to a nuiii '»
estate, by putting him to exjien.se. (r) Damage 1" hi* fair
fame and credit. Such is the nileto-<iay. .Veer!
malicious institution of bankruptcy or lunacy |
or the malicious seizure of the jH'rson or property . . <> r,
without probable cause, presents a case of legal dnmag^
Whether it is inflicted by the malicious institution of a civil
action, which does not involve scandal to reputation, or the
seizure of j>erson or pro|>erty, is a question u|Hin which the
courts differ. Aeoonling to the Knglish view, which has
been adopted in several of the U. S., the bringing of ao
496
MALICITES
MALLEUS
ordinary action does not as a " natural or nccussiiry ponsc-
quent'e involve any injury to a man's property, for this
reason, that the only costs which the law recognizes and for
which it will compensate him, are the costs properly incurred
in the action itself," {QuarU Hill Co. vs. Eyre. \l Queens
Bench Division, p. 6!K).) On the other hand, many courts
in the I'. S. hold that a person may be legally damaged by
the malicious institution of a civil suit, because the ta.\able
costs are so small that they may be no adeijuate compensa-
tion for the actual damagi's to which the groundless and
malicious proceeding has subjected him. Easlin vs. Sloc/c-
lon Bank, 66 California 123.
A person who maliciously instigates another to prosecute
a third without probable cause, and to his legal damage, is
liable, as he would have been had the proceeding been in
his own name.
Unauthorized Action in Another's Xame. — If one brings
an action against another, in the name of a third, without
authority, he is liable in tort to the defendant for the actual
damages sustained, even though he acts without malice
and with the bona fide belief that his act is authorized, or
will be ratified. If the suit is groundless and malicious, ex-
emplary or punitive damages may be recovered.
Malicious Abuse of Process. — A person may have obtained
legal process against another upon probable cause and in a
valid form, and yet commit a tort by employing it for some
unlawful purpose; as where he uses a warrant of arrest to
extort money, or to compel the execution of a paper, or the
surrender of a right. As this wrong consists, not in insti-
tuting the original prosecution, but in perverting lawful
process to the attainment of an object not within its proper
scope, it is immaterial to the maintenance of a suit for its
redress, whether the original proceeding has terminated or
was instituted with or without probable cause. The mali-
cious abuse of the process and the legal damage to the present
plaintiff constitute his cause of action. Wood vs. Uraves,
144 Mass. 365. Francis JI. Bl'rdick.
Malicites: See .VLnoxQiiAX Indians.
Malignant IMseasps: See Cancer.
Maliguant Pustule: See Anthrax.
Malinclie, or Mnlintzin (Mountain): See Tlascala.
Malinps: See Mechlin.
Malingering: See Feigned Disease.
Mallalieu, Wh.lard Francis, A. M., D. D. : bishop; b.
at Sutton, Mass., Dec. 11, 1828; educated at Fast (rroenwich
Academy, Rhode Island, Wesleyan Academy, Wilbraham,
Mass., and Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. ; joined
the New England conference in ISriH, and served in the pas-
torate until 1882 ; was presiding elder from 1882 till 1S84 :
was elected bishop in 1884. From 1884 to 1892 he resided
in New Orleans. A. O.
Mal'lard, or Greenhead : a very common wild-duck in
North America and Europe; known to science as Anas bo-
schas. It is the original from which have sprung almost
all the varieties of the domestic duck, excepting some which
are bred in China and Japan. The male is nearly 2 feet
long, and has a grass-gi'een neck and head, with a tint of
violet; a wliite ring around the ne<'k, brownish chestnut
below. The speculum is a violet pur]jle. The female is
smaller, and her plumage is plain brown. The mallard is
strictly monogamous, unlike the common domestic duck.
See Dlck. Revised by F. A. Lucas.
Mallarin^. maa'liiar'ma', Stephane: poet; b. in Paris,
Mar., 1842. His outward life has been uneventful, and has
been chiefly spent as teacher of English in the Lycee Fon-
tanes. As a literary man, however, he has been clief-d'ecole
of one of the strongest of the innovating groups of French
writers — the so-culled " Decadents." He has written much
for the organ of the school, Le Decadent, and for Le Parnasse
contemporain, and his often unintelligible style has given
rise to the liveliest discussions. In 1876 he published a thin
folio volume, illustrated by Manet, containing his curious
Jy'Apres-rnidi d'un faune. This has been foUoweil by Petite
philologie a I'usaye des classes et dii monde (1878); Les
Dieux antiques: nouvelte mtjtholoyie (1880); Beckford's
Vathek, with an eulirelv incomprehensible preface (1880) ;
Poesies (one fascicule only, 4to, 1887) ; Puemes d'Edyar Poe
(translated into French, 1888) ; Vers et prose : murceaux
choisia (1893). Several of his pieces are to be found in Paul
Verlaine's Les Poetes Maudils. See Edmund (losse. Ques-
tions at Issue (New York, 1893). A. R. Marsh.
-Malleability: See Metals.
Malleeo. imiiil-ya'ko ; province of Chili ; S. of Biobio, be-
tween Arauco and the Andes; area, 2,856 so. miles; esti-
mated po[)ulation (1891) 03,32'j. It is crossed by the river
Malleeo, and the portion lying in the central plain is com-
posed of rich agricultural laiul. Many of the inhabitants
are serai-civilized Araucanian Indians. Wheat-raising and
grazing are the principal industries. Angol, the capital,
has about 8,000 innabitants; Traiguen is an important com-
mercial center; and I'oUipulli and Victuria are thriving
towns. Herbert H. S-mith.
Mallemuek : See Mollvmawk.
Mallery, (iarrick : soldier and ethnologist ; b. in Wilkes-
binre. Pa., Apr. 23, 1831. He graduated at Yale College
in 1850; in 1853 was admitted to the bar of Philadelphia,
where he jiracticed law until the civil war, and then en-
tered the I, nion army; afterward was pronmled lieutenant-
colonel of volunteers and captain and brevet lieutenant-
colonel in the regular army. In the reconstruction period
in 1869-70, being on duty in Virginia as judge advocate on
the staff of the successive generals commanding, he was ap-
pointed secretary of state and adjutant-general of Virginia,
with the rank of brigadier-general. In Aug., 1870, he was
detailed with the chief signal officer of the army at Wash-
ington to carry into effect the legislation initiating the me-
teorological duties of the signal service, of which he was
soon appointed the executive officer, and for long periods
was acting chief signal officer. In 1876 he was ordered to
the command of Fort Rice in Dakota, and there made in-
vestigations into the pictographs and mythologies of the
North American Indians; in 1877 joined Maj. J. W. Powell,
then in charge of the survey of the Rocky Mountain region,
for duty in connection with the ethnology of the North
American Indians. In 1879 he retired from active service
on account of wounds received in action, ami was appointed
chief of the bureau of ethnology on its organization at Wash-
ington in that year. I), in Washington. D. C., Oct. 24. 1894.
Col. Mallery was presiilent of many societies and clubs — e.g.
the Aiilhnipological Society, the Cosmos Clul), the Philo-
soi)hical Society, and the Literary Society of Washington,
and vice-president of the American .Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, and president of the joint commission
of the six scientific societies of Washington. His most im-
portant works, some of which have been translated, include
A Calendar of the Dakota Aatiun (1877) ; Introduction to
the Study of Siyn Lanyuaye amony the Aorth American
Indians as Illustratiny the Gesture Speech of Mankind
(1880); .4 Collection of (lesture Siyns and Siynals of the
Xorth American Indians, with some Co«i/'«ri.w«.« (1880);
Siyn Lanynaye atnony North American Indians Compared
with that amony other Peoples and Deaf-mutes (1881) ; Pic-
toyraphs of the North American Indians {\SSi): Israelite
and Indian, a Parallel in Planes of Culture (1889) ; Greei-
iny by Gesture (1891); Picture-writiny of the American
Indians (1893). J. W. P.
Mallet, maa la'..Tii.Es Theodore Anatoi.e : civil engineer,
first designer of compound locomotives; b. in the canton of
Geneva.,Switzerland, in 1837 ; studied in France, graduating
at the Ecole Centrale in 18.58, with the dioloma of mechan-
ical engineer. Attached to the works of the Suez Canal, he
established the first workshops at Port Said and erected
there the first dredges; then became engineer of the general
dredging contract for the seaports of the kingdom of Italy,
He Wius specially occupied with steam-engines, both station-
ary and marine, and afterward studied the application of
the compounil engine to locomotives. This study, begun in
1873, led to the construction in 1875 of the compound loco-
motives of two cylinders for the railway from Bayonne to
Biarritz, which were the origin of the compound locomotive
now generally introduced on the best railways. In 1886 he
built the articulated four-cylinder compound locomotive,
the first for the Decauville railways (portable narrow gauge),
but their use has extended considerably since that time.
He has published many memoirs on marine and locoinotive
engines; has edited the Chronique and the Proeeedinys of
the Society of Civil Engineers of France since 1880. In
1877 he obtained the Fourneyron prize of the Institute of
France (Academy of Sciences) for the application of the
compound svstem of locomotives, and in 1885 the decora-
tion of the Legion of Honor. W. 11. Hutton.
Mnl'leus [Mod. Lat. = Lat. malleus, hammer] : in com-
parativu anatomy, a small bone forming one of the chain of
Ic'
MALLEUS
three bones in the infernal ear of mninmnls, Imt niorpholog-
ieally answerinj^ to the aua<lrale tmni- wlili wliicli Uie lower
jaw articulates in the lelilhyopsida and Sauroiisida.
Mnllplis: a genus of oysters allied to the pearl-oysters,
ami derivinf^ its name fnun its shape.
Mullock, William Hi'riikll: iiiithor; h. in Devonshire,
England, in 184!). He was educated at Ualiol College, Ox-
foi-d, where in 1871 he gained the Newdigate prize for a
IKjeni entitle<i The hl/imiis of Suez. He first attracted gen-
eral attention by The JVew liepublic (1877), a clever satire on
the confusion and doubt of contemporary thought, in the
form of a " symposium " between dilYerent leaders of English
jublic opinion, thinly disguised under fictitious names. A
ey to this wius soon after published, and the book passed
through numerous editions. Other writings of this author
are The Xew Paul and Virginia (1878); Is Life Worth
Living? (1879); Poems (1880); A liomanee of the Nme-
teenth Century (1881); Social Equality (1882); Property
and I'rogreitx(\m\) ; The Old Order Changes, a novel(1886) ;
In an Enchanted Island, experiences in Cyprus (1889);
Laliour anil Popular Welfare (1894). H. A. Beers.
Miillophaga: See Entomology and Lice.
Miillor)'. SxKPnEV Russell: #civil engineer; b. in Trini-
dad. West Indies, in 1813; was the son of a shipmaster of
Connecticut; settled with his parents at Key West, Fla., in
1820: was educated at Mobile and at Nazareth, Pa.; was
admitted to the bar at Key West in 1833; was inspector of
customs under .Jackson, and became county judge and judge
of probate for Taylor co., Fla. ; became in 184.") collector of
the port of Key West ; was U. S. Senator from Florida
1851-(il ; <lecline(i the appointment of minister to Spain in
18.>S, and in tliat year removed to I'ensacola ; became secre-
tary of the Confederate navv. After the war (18(i.")) he wjis
imprisoned, released on parole in 1800, and pardoned in 1807
by President Johnson. He afterward practiced law in Pen-
sai'ola. where he died Nov. 9, 1873.
Mallow Family: the Malvacea: A family of dicotyle-
donous plants, mostly herbs or shrubs (rarely trees) consist-
ing of about 800 species, which are widely distributed, but
most abundant in hot climates. Their leaves are simple
and alternate ; the stamens are indelinite in number and
united into a tube; the ovary is superior, ami for the most
part many-celled. There are about I2."> native species in
the U. S., besides a dozen or more which have been intro-
<iuccil, many of which are more or less weedy in habit.
Some mallows (J/n/cn) are grown for ornamental purposes,
as are also the rose mallow {I/ibiscus), hollyhock {Althira),
Callirlwe, etc. Okra, a species of Hibiscus, produces edible
lods which are much used, especially in the Southern U. S.
{y far the most important plants of the family are those
which produce cotton, which consists of the long hairs at-
tached to the seeds of Onssypium, natives of the warmer
portioift of the Olil Worid. The common cotton of culti-
vation, especially in the Southern U. S., is O. herbaceum.
See CoTTo.N. Charles E. Uessey.
Mallow Hemp: See Fibkr.
.Malum: Sec Dolly Vakdk.n.
Malinesbury, momz'ber-i, .James Harris, First Earl
of: diplomatist; b. in Salisbury, England, .\pr. 21, 1740;
was son of James Harris, the author of Hermes; studied
at O.\ford and Leyden : became secretary of legation at
Mailrid 1708, and in 1770, as charge d'affaires, foiled the
<lesigns of Spain on the Falkland islands; was ambassador
in Herlin 1772; in St. Petersburg 1770; at The Hague 1784:
supported Fox in the House of Commons; knighted 1780;
anil was made a baron 1788 in reward for treaties of alli-
ance negotiated with Holland and Prussia. He seceded
from the Whigs in 1793, and in the same year, he was
again ambassador at Berlin; negotiated the marriage of the
Prince <if Wales with Caroline of Brunswick 1794; was en-
faged in unsuccessful negotiations for peace with the
'ivnch republic 1790-97 ; wius created Earl of Malinesbury
and Viscount Fit/.-IIarris 1800. D. in London, Nov. 20,
1820. His Diaries and Correspondence (4 vols.. 1844) wi-re
edite<l bv his grandson, James Howard Harris, third Earl
of Malniesburv (1807-89). who also published The First
Lord Malmeshury, his Pamitt/ and Friends, a Series of
Letters from 1745 to 18S0 (2 vols., 1870).
Revised by F. M. Colby.
Malnipshitry. maamsber-i. William of : historian; b. in
Somersetshire, England, about 109."); became a monk and
258
MALOVE
497
fi
librarian of the mona-stpry at Malin«sbury, whence he took
his name, and wrote in Latin an historical'work which, next
to the Saxon Chronicle, is considered the most valuable au-
thority for -Vnglo-.Saxon times. D. in .Malniesburv alxmt
1143. 1 1 is llishiry of the Kings of England and its con-
tinuation, the Modern History, were pulilished in liatin bv
Sir Henry Savile (l.-illO) and by T. I), llardv (1840), and it
translation of Ih.' former by Kev. John Sharpe ap|H'ared in
181.'), ami again in Bohn's Antiquarian I,ibrary (1847).
Malmit: chief city in Southern Sweden; on the Sound
opposite Copenhagen (see map of Norway and Sweilen, ref.
14-D). It IS surrounded by a canal, outside of which are
two suburbs. It has four churches (one Roman Catholic), a
governor's residence, where Charles XV. died in 1872, ami
some other public buildings. The palace built in 14:14,
destroyed by the citizens in 1,5.34, and rebuilt by Christian
III., is now used as a prison. The chief industries consist
of ship-building and the manufacture of stockings, gloves,
soap, and tobacco. It hius an extensive trade with C'o[)en-'
hagen and the Baltic ports. The city gave its name to an
armistice formed there between Prussia and Denmark in
1848, suspending hostilities for an interval of seven months.
Pop. (18H9) 47,539. R. B. Anderson.
Malmspy, maam'zee [M. Eng. malvesie, from Fr. maivesie,
from Ital. nialrasia. from Mod. (ir. MoK/iBaalct. the original
place of manufacture] : originally a sweet white or red wine
from Monembasia (or Napoli di Malvasia). The name after-
ward came to be applied to other sweet Levantine wines,
and still later to any other very sweet wine.s. It is at pres-
ent applied especially to" malmsey madeira," which is much
weaker than standard madeira wine. It is understood that
all wines of this class are from over-ripe and partly dried
grapes. They have a peculiar bouquet.
.Malm'strom. Bernhakd Elis, Ph. D. : i>oet ; b. in Sweden
in 1811) : stiulied at I'psida, where he graduated 1842, and
in 18.")G was appointeil Professor of ^Esthetics and History
of Literature. In 1849 he was elected a member of the
Swedish Academy. .Among his [K)ems may be mentioned
the ep(« AriV((/«<''(1838). one of his earliest efforts, and tlu'
idyl Fiskarftlr/can rid Tynnelso (The Fisherman's Daugh-
ter, 1839). The elegy Angelika (1840) was awarded the
grand prize of the S\vedish -Academy, and is considered one
of tiie gems of Swedish poetry. About the same time he
published the dramatized poem Julianus, by which he
reached the zenith of his poetic productions. Two collec-
tions of his poems. /)i'A7cr. appeared 184.5 ami 1847. His
prose writings on literary subjects were mostly published
for the first lime in newspapers and periodicals, ami after-
wanl collected under the titles Litteratur historiska Sludirr
(1800-61) and Tal och estheliska afhandtingar (S|)eeclies
and .i-Esthetic Essays). His complete writings, Samlade
Skrifter, in eight volumes (1866-^69), five of which were
dedicated to academic lectures on the subject ivf the his-
tory of Swedish literature, were published after his death bv
K. F. Bergstedt. D. 1805. P. Grotii. '
Malmstriim. Karl tU-sTAF, Ph.D.: historian; b. in
Sweden in lS-.'2; brother of Bernhard E. Malmstriim, poet;
studied at I'psala, where he graduated in 1848. and was in
18.58 appointed Profes.sor of History and .Statistics. In 1878
he was called to a seat in the cabinet, and from 1878 to 1KS<)
was chief of the ecclesiastical deiiarlment. Since 1882 he
has Ih'cii keeper of the state arcnives. He was elected a
meinl)er of the Swedish A<-adeiny 1878. Among his writ-
ings are Sreriges politiska historia frnn Carl Xll.'s dmi til
Slatshvdlfningen 177~(TUiy Political History of Sweden from
the Deatii of Charles XII. to 1772, in 0"p»rts. 18.5.5-77);
Sreriges stalskunskap i kort saminandrag (Short llamlbook
of .Swedish Political Institutions. 180:1. many eilitions); ami
diverse essays in periodicals tri'ating subjects of .Sweilish
history. P. Grutii.
MnloilP, nia-liJn' : village : capital of Franklin oo., N. Y.
(for location of county, see map of New York. ref. l-I); on
the Salmon river, and the Cent. Vt. and the X. Y. Cent,
anil Hudson R. railways; (10 miles N. E. of ()i:'h-M^burg,
iniilway bet wien that city and Rouse's Point, li i« in an
agricultural region, with valuable timber ami mining sec-
tions tributary to it. and has maniifactoriis i^f »i~.liii coods,
1)a|H'r, flour, tanned leathiT, men's clothing. <li»'r>. .Na.-n anil
)limls. and foundry and machine-shop proiluct.". Othei*
iin|Mirtant interests are dairying and hay, hop, and |¥>t«t.i
raising. Then> are four weekly newspajxTs. Pop. (In80)
4,19:t ; (1890) 4,080. Euitoh or •' Farmer."
498
MALONE
MALTA
Malone, Kd.mo.ni>: Sliakspcarcan scholar; b. in Dublin.
Ireland, Oct. 4, 17-11 ; studicil at Trinity College IToO; was
called to the bar 1707; inherited a considerable fortune
soon after, and thenceforth devoted himself to literary (iiir-
siiits in London. He wrote on the Kowley poems (178i).
edited the works of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1797), of Dryden
(1800). and of W. l!. llumilton (IfdS). in each instance ac-
companied by a memoir, and jiul)lished a Hisluri/ of the
Enqlish Stage (1700). but is chietly known by his exposure
of Ireland's Shakspearean forgeries (1796). and by his crit-
ical edition of Shakspeare (11 vols.. 1790). The material
for another edition of Shakspeare was edited by James Bos-
well, the younger, and was piililisiied in 1821 (21 vols.). It
is known as the Variorum Shakspeare. Hallam character-
izes him as a dull commentator, but laborious and truth-
loving. D. in London, May 25. 1812. See Life by Sir
James Prior (1860). ' Revised by H. A. Beers.
Malory, or Maleore (trisyllabic). Sir Thomas, Knight:
English prose-writer of the fifteenth century. All that is
known of Malory is that he was a knight, and that he fin-
ished his Morte d' Arthur in the ninth year of the reign of
Edward IV.. in 1469 or 1470. This information is derived
from the closing words of the book it.sclf. It luis been
thought that he was a priest, but, though "Sir " could be
a parson's title, "Knight" is decisive against this conjec-
ture. The statement that he was a Welshman, made by
Bale, perhaps on the authority of Leland, is antecedently im-
probable to the last degree, nor are Bale and Leland so eare-
lul in their biographies of literary men that much weight
need be attached to their testimony. The author of the
Morte d'Arthur is most likely the Warwickshire Thomas
Malory. Knight, who died Mar. 14, 1470, aged apparently
about 70. Tlie name Malory (variously spelled but doubt-
less always trisyllabic) was of long standing in the adjacent
counties of Warwick, Leicester, and Northampton, and oc-
curs rather frequently elsewhere. Prof. Khts's conjecture
that it is the W elsh Maelor (Maelawr) is easy to refute.
The Morte d'Arthur is a prose compendium of what is
called the "Matter of Britain," i. e., of the romantic mate-
rial concerning King Arthur and the Knights of the Round
Table. The full title as it appears in the first edition
(printed by Caxton in 1485) descril)es the contents of the work
with sufficient fullness. The noble and joyous book entytled
Le Morte Darthur notwi/thstondi/ng it treatethof the Byrth,
Lyf, and Actes of the sayd Kyug Arthur, of his noble
Knyghtes of the liounde Table, tlieyr mervayllous Enquesfes
end Adventures, th' Achyevyng of the Sangreal, and in
th'ende the dolorotis Death and Departyng out of thys World
of them al. Beginning with an account of Arthur's parent-
age, it contains not only an account of his reign and his
death, but also pretty complete biographies of the most dis-
tinguished of his knights. The purpose of the compilation
was to reduce into order and compass the various cycles of
the Round Table Romances (Arthur, Merlin, Lancelot, Tris-
tan, etc.), and to make them accessible in English. Cax-
ton expressly states that Malory's sources were " certain
books of French." So far as the French books in ques-
tion can be identified, they prove to be various prose ro-
mances, later than the Old French verse romances of C'hres-
tien de Troyes and others, and containing manv alterations
and expansions of older romantic material. l)r. Sommer
finds that Malory used the prose .Merlin, the prose Lancelot,
and the prose Tristan. He also thinks that he derived nmch
material from the Middle English metrical romance La Morte
Arthure. which has been ascribed, on insufficient evidence,
to one Huchown. The sources of a considerable portion of
the work remain to be discovered. As was to be expected,
Malory rambles a good deal, but on the whole he has exe-
cuted his task with considerable judgment. The sources
from which he drew were often poor, and this accounts for
the debased form in which some of the episodes appear in
his work. The most serious defect of this kind concerns
the character of Sir Gawain, which is systematically black-
ened in the French prose romances in order to exalt Lan-
celot. It is of course impossible to tell how far Caxton
c+anged Malory's English or his matter, but probably
the alterations he made were trifiing. The success of the
Morte d'Arthur was immediate. Caxton's edition (1485)
was followed by six others in black letter, the last appear-
ing in 16;!4. During all this time tlie work, which hail be-
come the standard version of the Arthur story in England,
exercised a powerful influence on our literature. From
1634 it was not reprinted till the nuieteenth century. In
1816 two editions came out. and since then there have been
several others, of which the most important are that called
Southey's (1817), Thomas Wright's (1856), Dr. H. 0.skar
Somme'r's (London, 1890-91), and Dent's (1H!);J), which has
a preface by Prof. Rh^s. In 1868 Sir Edward Strachey
published a judiciously modernized and retrenched version,
intended primarily for boys. The standard edition is
Sommer's. which has an accurate text, very valuable studies
on the sources, a glossarv, full indexes, etc!, besides an essay
by Andrew Lang on Jialory's style. It will be observed
that the popularity of Malory's book was great in the Eliza-
bethan age, and tliat the revival of interest in it was con-
temporaneous with the romantic revival in our literature.
Its republication in 1816 put a large body of thoroughly
romantic material within the reach of evcrybiHly. The
effect was enormous. Modern English ideas of Arthur-
ian story are. except for specialists, derived almost entirely
from the Morte d'Arthur either directly or through Tenny-
son's Idylls of the King, for which Malory was a main
source. Malory's importance in this respect, as well as his
significance as an early writer of modern English prose, can
hardly be exaggerated. Apart from these considerations,
his merits as a story-teller are significant, though they
have been much exaggerated. He is usually clear but some-
what monotonous; only occasionally does he rise to such
heights as he reaches in the famous lament over Lancelot
(in the closing chapter). His style is simple, and at times
picturesque. For his language, see C. S. Baldwin. Inflec-
tions and Syntax of the Morte d'Arthur (Boston. 1894).
G. L. KiTTREUGE.
Malot. raaa'lo', Hector: novelist; b. at La Bouille, near
Rouen, France. May 20, 1830. His father, a notary, edu-
cated him for the law. but he never jiracticed. He served a
literary apprenticeship on Didot's liiographie generate, the
Journal pour tous, and in collaborating on dramatic works.
He gravitated surely toward the novel, and since his debut
in 1859 with Les Aniants, first part ot Les fictimesd'amour,
has been a prolific writer in that field, having written about
fifty volumes. His works show a keen observation, the field
of which is mainly French life under the second empire, an
interest in the moral aspects of society, and an occasional
tendency to sensation. His sympathy with children is
quick, and his most widely read book is a storv of children.
Sans Famille (1878, known in English as Ifo Relations).
Among his works are Un beau-frere (1869); Une bonne af-
faire (1870): L'Aiiberge du Monde (1875-76); L' Heritage
d'Arthur (1876); Le docteur Claude (1879); Conscience
(1889); Complices {\H9'3). A. G. Canfield.
Malpighi, ma"Jil-pee gee, MARrEi.Lo: anatomist; b. at
Crevalcuore, near Bologna, Italy. Mar. 10, 1628; held the
chair of Medicine successively at Pisa. Messina, and Bolo-
gna ; was called to Rome in 1691 by Innocent XII. as his
chief physician; died there Nov. 29, 1694. He was the first
to apply the newly invented microscope in the study of an-
atomy, and showed himself a sagacious observer, flis prin-
cipal discovery was that of the transition of the blood from
the arteries to the veins, described in his De Pubnonibus
(1061). In medical science various parts of the epidermis,
spleen, and kidneys still bear his name.
Malpla<|net, maalpla'a kii' : a village in the department
of Le Nord, France; 10 miles S. of Mons. in Belgium (see
map of France, ref. 2-(i); famous for the battle which took
place here (Sept. 11. 1709) between the French under Villars
and the allied British. Dutch, and Austriaiis under Marlbor-
ough and Eugene, resulting in favor of the allies and in the
capture of Mons.
Malpractice: See Jurisprudence, Medical.
Malt [O. Eng. mealt -.Gwrn. malz, malt; connected with
the root of Eng. verb melt} : barley which has been allowed
to pass through the earlier stages of germination, and then
dried to destroy its vitality and prevent further change.
See Beer and Adilteration.
Mal'tn : an island in the Mediterranean, belonging to
Great Britain; situated in lat. 35 53' N. and Ion. 14' 31'
E.. 58 miles from Sicily and 180 from Africa. It is the
principal island of the Maltese group, which, besides Malta,
comprises Gozo, Comino, Cominotto, and Tilfla. Area of
the whole group, 117 sq. miles; of Malta. 95. Pup. in 1890,
105.602. The surface is elevated and rocky and has only a
shallow layer of soil, but it is well cultivated, and i)roduces
wheat, cotton, figs, oranges, and grapes in abundance. Many
poUitoes are raised for the English market. The climate is
MALTK-BRl-X
MALVACE^
499
hot, but hpullhful. Snow is unknown, tlmneh Imil-stonns
occur. The sirocin, u Imt wind from llu' African ilcsfrl. on
its way across the MeilitiTranean hecnniinf; loaded with
siilty nioisturc, is almost unliearaljle, hut occurs only in Au-
gust ttn<l Sciplcinher, and hjnws for only a few hours at a
time. Kxcellent niurliK' is (|Uarried. The chief im|iiirtance,
however, llie island derives from its position as a station on
the ruule from Great Hritain via Kgypt to India, and its most
remarkalile features are the immensidy stronj; fortifications
wliieli I lie Hritisli have Ijuilt around the capilal, Valetta, the
founilations of which were laid by the Kni{,'lits of St. John.
JIalta was known to the Greeks under the name of Ogygia.
It was the residence of the nymph Calypso, whose fjrotto i.s
still shown. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians colonized
the island in turn, but at the close of the secon<l I'unic war
it became a Roman possession. In ."ili A. I). St. I'aul was
shipwrecked here, and the lei;end tells us that he founded
the first Christian congregation here. After the fall of the
Kastern Human empire the island was coni(uered by the
Vanilals in 4."i4, the Goths in 4!)4, the Bvzantines in .ISS,
the Arabs in 870, and the Nornuins in U)!)0, who united it
to Sicily. In ir^iO Charles V. gave it to the Knights of the
Order of St. Jiilin of .Jerusalem, who shortly before had
been driven liy the Turks from Uhodes. Ibro, too, they
were besieged by the Turks in to.")? and in l.^G."), but at the
latter siege Sultan Solyman was compelled to re-embark
with a loss of over '2."i,(XiO of his best tr<M)ps. In 17UW Bona-
parte took the island by treachery. In 1800 it was taken by
the Britisli, and they have held it since. The island is ruled
by a governor, a.ssisted by an executive council of ten mem-
bers, and by a legislative council of six ollicial an<l fourteen
elective meiubers. See Valktta. Revised by \V. B. Suaw.
Maltp-Bniii, Fr, pron. maalt brun', rightly Maltiie Con-
rad Bki in: geographer: b. at Thisted, .Jutland, Aug. 12,
177."). lie was destined for the Church, but preferred lit-
erature, theatricals, and politics, and very early in his life
became the favorite in all literary circles in Copenhagen.
The boldness, however, with which he advocated the princi-
ples of the French Revolution, and the rather unprinci])led
violence with which he attacked the state of affairs in Den-
mark, cau.sed considerable excitement, anil after .several
conflicts with the (tovernment he was exileil. He went to
Paris, where he applied himself with zeal to the study of
geography and politics. I). Dec. 14. 1820. For some years
he was joint editor of the Journal den Dibaln, anil several
of the papers he wrote for this journal have been collected
and republished by Nachet : but his fame rests on his geo-
graphical works. From 1803 to 180.5 he published, in con-
nection with Mentelle, Oeographie Malhfmntiiiue, J'lii/xi(/iic
el Polilitjiie, in 16 vols., and from 1810 to 182.5 he published
his Precis de Geoyraphie I'nirersulle. Geography was at
the beginning of the nineteenth century something almost
unknown, but Xapoleon's campaigns called attention to this
branch of knowledge, and made geography a necessary ele-
ment of a man's education; and to this new want Malte-
Bnii\ ministered with great talent and earnestness.
.Mallesc Vulture: See Eovptian Vllti-re.
Mal'tlin: a word first used bv Pliny and applied by him
to what he called an intlammable mud from the Euphrates.
In modern times the word has been used to designate those
forms of bitumen that resemble tar in consistence, and
hence are sometimes called mineral tar. It appears to be
the product of the gradual metamorphosis of certain forms
of petroleum under the influence of atmospheric oxygen.
by which the bitumen beconus richer in carbon. Whether
or no oxygen is a constituent of maltha is uncertain. It
seems to be produced from petroleum at any depth below
the surface to which oxygen dissolved in rain-water can
penetrate. It is a black viscous fluid, of a specific gravity
between '!) and 1, and usmilly contains in mechanical ad-
mixture 10 to 12 per cent, of water and air. It i.ssues from
springs with water and floats on |)ools of water, when it often
entangles insects or birds that touch its sticky surface in
their flight. It consists chemically of a very complex mix-
ture of compounds of carbon and hvdrogen, often with
oxygen and nitrogen in addition. Tliese substances dis-
solve each other: but their exact relations are not yet clear-
ly understfMid. (See Petroi.kim.) In many liM-alities mal-
tha is used in its natural state as a coarse lubricator. In
South America it is used, after the lighter oils, walex, and
air are driven off by boiling, to plug the seams of Imats.
It has been used from lime immemorial for similar pur-
poses on the banks of the Tigris ami Kuphrates. In the
constniction of ISabylon and Nineveh it was used to cement
in their places the great s<-ulpture<l slalw of alabaster that
adorned the pala<es of those cities. As coinpare<l with other
forms of bitumen, maltha is not abundant. S-e Bitumkn.
S. F. Pkckiiam.
Maltlip'iilee [Mml. Lat., named from ilallhir'a, the typ-
ical genus, from Gr. /ulxeq. a kind of fish, iierhaps the an-
glerl : a family of fishes of tiic order Pediculati, distin-
guished by the large, depressed anterior part and slender
tapering posterior part of the Inxly, which is usually cov-
ered with scattered spinous disks or tubercles. The head is
covered bv the integument in common with the shoulder-
girdle, anil this combination forms the anterior disk, which
is abruptly distinguished from the small posterior region;
the month is inferior, and the cleft mostly transverse; the
teeth are villiform; the branchial afK?rtures are small dorsal
slits, and in the upper axilUe of the ix-ctoral limbs; there
are five branchiostegal rays; the dorsal fins arc [)eculiarly
developed — the first being represented by a tentacle on or
under the snout, and the second being a small but true fin
(with four rays) on the slender bmly: the anal is like the
dorsal ; the pectorals are at the end of the long arms, which
appear to have elbows, and are flexed outward and to some
extent forward; the ventrals are small but perfect (with a
spine and five raysi, and far forward on the throat; the
sKcleton is fibro-cartilagiiious, and has seven or eight ab-
dominal and ten or eleven caudal vertebra- ; no air-bladder
or pyloric appendages are developed. The singular and gri>-
tcsque fishes belonging to this family arc found in warm
seas or in deep waters. They are able to progress on the
ground by clumsy leaps by means of the arms, which are
far behind the ventrals or representatives of the hind legs
of land vertebrates. Revised by I). S. Jordan.
Mal'thiis, Tfiomas Robert: expounder of the principle
of population ; b. at the Rookery in .Mbury, County of Sur-
rey, Kiigland, in 1766; was admitted at Jesus College, Cam-
bridge, in 1784, and graduateil with high honors in 1788.
In 17!t7 he received a fellowship at Cambridge. About the
same time he was admitted to holy orders, and took the
charge of a small parish in Surrey, dividing his time be-
tween parochial duties there and his studies in the university.
In 17118 the first edition of his work on population was pub-
lished anonymously — An Exsnij on the I'rinciples of f'upn-
laliiin a.i it AJfeclx llie Future Iiupriivemrnt of Soririt/, trith
Jieniarks on the Speculations of Mr. Godwin, Conitorcet,
and other Writers (1 vol. 8vo). 'I'his work created a st'U.sa-
tion at the time, and gained for Malthus his chief reputa-
tion. It went through several editions, the last of which
appeared in 1826 under the modified title. An Essay on the
Principles of Population, or a View of its Past and Present
Effects on Human Happiness, uith an Inquinj into our
Prospects respecting the Future Removal or Mitigation of
the Evils which it occasions. Its leading idea is that popu-
lation unchecked increa.ses in a geometrical ratio, while
food can be made to increasi' at most only in an arithmet-
ical ratio. Hence the inference that, in order to avoid the
evils of a population in excess of support, s<ime checks must
be applied to the increa.se of pi^pulatiou. Vice and mis«Ty,
shortening human life, come in as natural checks. That
which is most insisted on in the essay is the moral check of
abstinence from marriage and sexual intercourse on pruden-
tial considerations. (See Political Kionomy.) lie marrie<l
in 180.5, and the same year received the appointment of Pnv
fessor of History and Political Kconomy in the East India
College at Ilaileybury, in which position he continued till
his death. The' other published writings of Malthus are
Observations on the Effects of the Corn-laws, an hujuin/
into the Xature and J'rogresx of Hent (1815) ; lYinripUs of
Political Ertmomy (1820) ; and Definition* in Polilical
Economy (1827). I), at Bath, Dec. 21I, IKM.
Revised by A. T. IIadley.
Malting : See Beer.
Mains, miiii Ids', Atienne I.oiis: military engineer; b.
in Paris. July 2;{, 1775; studied mathematics and engineer-
ing at .Xli'zieres, and afterward at the I^;i;.le Polytwhnique ;
was employed in the nx'onstructioii of the fortifications of
Antwerp and Kelil ; became examiner at the lifile Poly-
tethnique in 1811. D. in I'ari.s, Feb. 2;i, 1812. He wa.s the
discoverer of the polarization of light by reflivtion, and his
memoir on the suliject. entitled Sur une IVoprielf dt In
Lumiere rrflechie par U* Corps diaphanes, rei-eived a priie
fri'in the .\eailemy.
Malrarrv: S<>e Mallow Fajiilv.
500
MALVERX
MAMMALS
Malvern, mawvorn: town; capital of Hot Spring co.,
Ark. (for location of county, see map of Arkansas, ref. 4-(,') ;
on tlie Hot Sprinjrs and the St, L., Iron Mt. and S. railways;
2.') miles S. E. of Hot Springs, 40 miles S. NV. of Little Kock.
It is in a cotton, grain, and fruit growing region, and has
two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1890) 1,52().
Malvern : town ; Mills co., la. (for location of county, see
map of Iowa, ref. 7-1)): on the Burlington Route, the
Omaha and .St. L., ami the Tabor and X. railways; 28 miles
S. E. of Council Hhifls. It is in an agricultural region, pro-
ducing abundantly corn and other cereals, vegetables, etc.,
and having large live-stock interests. There are 5 churches,
high school, commercial college, water-works, electric lights,
3 banks, and 2 periodicals, and a large cold storage-house,
elevators, creamerv, and brick and tile works- Pop. (1880)
748: (18H0) 1,003 ;'(180.")) 1,091. Editor of " Leader."
Malvern, Great : town ; in Worcestershire, England ; on
the eastern side of the Malvern Hills; 9 miles S. W. of
Worcester (sec map of England, ref. 10-G) : celebrated as a
watering-place. It has an interesting church in Gothic stvle.
Pop. (1891) 6.107.
Malvern Hill, Itnttle of: an engagement which oc-
curred during the civil war in the L^ S. JIalvern Hill, Va.,
the scene of the la.sl of the " Seven Days' fight " (July 1, 1803),
lies near the James river, about l.'i miles S. E. of Kichmond.
It rises by easy slopes on the N., E., and S. from the low
ground of Western Run and Turkey Island creek, Init on
the W. it falls awav by a steep bluff to the meadow-land of
a ravine and creek ruiniing directly to the .James river,
through which ravine a properly directed fire from the
Union gunboats could flank the western face of the hill. In
MctUellan's enforced change of base from the Pamunkcy
to the .James his army occupied this position on June 30,
repulsing at about 4 i'. M. an attack by a part of Holmes's
division in a sharp action known as the fight of Turkey
Bridge or Malvern Clilf. On the morning of Jidy 1 Mct'lel-
lan was in position and ready to meet the Confederates* at-
tack, lie was particularly strong in artillery, having .some
si.\ty field and ten siege guns sweejiing the ground over
which the Confederates mu.st advance. The gunboats as-
sisted with their fire during the action. About 10 A. M. the
Confederate skirmishers and artillery began to feel the
Union line, and from 1 to 4 p. Ji. desultory attacks were
made, which were repulsed principally by the artillery. At
about .5.30 p.-m. the main attack was made upon the Union
left and center under Morrell and Couch, and was pushed
with great vigor, but the magnificent work of the artillery,
seconded by the infantry fire which was largely reserved for
short range, repulsed ail attacks and drove back the Con-
federates with great slaughter, the Confederate losses being
admitted as more than double those of the Union troops.
The action ceased at 9 p. M., and the Union troops were im-
mediately put in motion for Harrison's Jjanding, which they
reached during the day (July 2), an<l took up their position
supported by the gunboats and with their conimunications
restored. See Battles and Leaders uf the Cin'l War, and
History of the Civil War in America, by the Comte de Paris.
James Merci-r.
Maniar'oneck : town; Westchester co., N. Y. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of New York, ref. 8-J) ; on Ijong
Island Sound, and the N. Y., X. II. and Hart. Railroad ; 22
miles X. E. of Xew York city. It is an attractive place for
summer residence, contains the residences of many Xew
York business men, and has 4 churches, 2 union scliools, a
State bank, a savings-bank, and 2 wecklv newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 1,863 ; (1890) 2,385.
Mameli, Gokfredo: patriot and poet: b. in Genoa in
1826. The son of a Sardinian naval officer, he studied at
the university at (ienoa, but early turned to poetry and
patriotism. In 1843 he wrote four' acts of a tragedy on a
theme connected with Genoese history. In 1846 he fired his
countrymen by his powerful song L'Alba. and on Sept. 8 of
the same year, when Genoa was doing honor to Pope Pius
IX., he produced his patriotic hymn, ufiou wliich his fume
chiefly rests, beginning
Fratelli d'ltnlm.
L'ltaliu s't> (]e»tu.
After this he began to be compared with Tvrtanis and Kc'ir-
ner. In 1848 he fought as a volunteer against Austria. In
1849 he went to Rome a.s one of Garibalili's volunteers, and
became aide-de-camp to the great [>alriot, dying in that
city, July 6, 1849, of a wound received a month before in a
desperate sortie upon the Ercnch besiegers. The best edi-
tion of his poems is that of Tortona, 1859; but that issued
at Genoa, with an introduction by Mazziui, should be con-
sulted. A. R. Marsu.
Manielii'eo [=Span. See Mamkmkks] : a Portuguese
wonl, originally the same as the English Manuduke ; ap-
plied in Brazil to the offspring of a Xcgro and an Indian.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Jesuits of
Paraguay gave this mime in an esiiecial manner to the slave-
hunters of Sao Paido who raided their missions, and who
were generally of mixed race. The so-called Republic of
the Mamelucos, described by Jesuit authors, never had any
real existence. H. H. S.
Mam'elnkes [Pr. mamelouk : Span, niameluco, from Arab.
mamluk; slave (captive or purchased); liter., i>ossessed,
owned; perf. partic. of malaka, possess] : a former class of
slaves in Egypt who became aim long remained the domi-
nant people of that country. Early in the thirteenth cen-
tury the Sultan of Egypt bought of Genghis Khan 12,000
slaves, mostly Tartars and 'J'urks. In 1242 Malek-el-Saleh
made some of them his body-guard. In 1250 this body-guard
killed his successor, Turan Shah, seized Egypt, and chose
for their sovereign not a man, but the Sultana Chagereh-ed-
Dorr. She married Ibeg Izzeddin, who founded the Baharite
or Tartar-j'Mamcluke dynasty, in its turn overthrown by Cir-
cassian slaves in 1382. The new Circassian-Mameluke dynasty
reigned till 1517, when Egypt was subdued by Sultan Selim I.
Though continuing subjects of the Ottoman empire, the
Mamelukes recfivered gradually their former power, but were
aliwost destroyed by Napoleon Bonaparte at the battle of
the Pyramids (1798). On the evacuation of Egypt by the
French they again assum(>d control, but were treacherously
massacred by Mehemet Ali (1811). The few survivors, es-
caping to New Dongola, were practically exterminated in
1820. The Mamelukes were famous for their courage and
skill in horsemanship. Their wives, who were of the same
stock as themselves and who were usually obtained by pur-
chase, were almost always childless in the untoward climate
of Egypt. Their few children were generally feeble and
short lived : hence they kept up their numbers by buying
slaves, to whom their property descended instead of from
father to son. E. A. Grosvenor.
Maniinni. ma"ii-nu'e-aa'ne"e, Terexzio, Count: philosoph-
ical writer and I'ducationist ; b. at Pesaro, Italy, in 1800 ;
was educated in Rome by the Jesuits, and became in 1831 a
member of the revolutionary provisional government of
Bologna. Being afterward pn)scril>ed, he was captured by
an Austrian vessel in the waters of Ancoiia, was conducted
to Venice, where he was kcjit a prisoner four months, and
then allowed to retire to France. He remained in Paris,
devoting himself to iihilosophical and literary studies until
1847. In 1848 Pius l.\. named him Jlinistcr of the Interior,
and after the death of Pelegrino Rossi he a.ssumed tempo-
rarily the duties of Minister of Foreign Affairs. Having
been elected deputy to the Roman constituent assembly,
Maniiani voted against the republic. On the arrival of the
French he retired to (ienoa, where he founded the .Vcadeinia
di Filosofia Italica. In 18.59 he was elected dc])Uty to Par-
liament, and afterward a[>pointed senator. In I8(i0 he be-
came Jlinister of Public Instruction, occupying at the same
time the chair of Philosophy and of History in the Univer-
sity of Turin. Afterward he was sent as minister from Italy
to Athens. He then presided in Ronu' over the superior
council of public inslructinn, ami edited a philosophical re-
view. I), in Rome. May 21, 18S.5. His principal writings
(besides a volume of iioems, in which the sacred hymns are
particularly noteworthy) are the following philosophical
works: liinnoramento delta Filosolia Antica Italiana
(Paris, 1834) : Diuloghi di Sciema (Pa'ris, 1848) ; Le Confes-
sioni di nn Metajisiro (2d. ed. Florence, 1865): Le Medi-
tazioni Cartesiane (Florence): D'lin niitivu Dirittu Kuropeo
(Turin. 1859); I'sicolor/ia di Kant (Rome, 1877); La lielig-
iijiie dcir Arrenire (Milan, 1879); Critica delta liivelasione
(i"\Iilan. 1880): (^uestioni sociali (Momc, 1882).
MamniaMia: See Ma.mmals.
Manininl.s [from Tjat. mamma'lis. jiertaining to or having
breasts; dcriv. uf niiiiii ina, brrast. pap, teat): the highest
cla.ss of the vertebrate branch of the animal kingdom, and
therefore the most specialized or highest group of living
creatures. The class includes all vertebrates with warm
blood, a heart of four chambers, the lower jaw composed of
two branches ai'liculatcd directly with the skull, and the
I
MAMMALS
501
body pnrtly or wholly covered with hair. It thus includes
mnn, all the hiiiry iiuadrupcds, and the various whale and
porpoise like aiiiirials which possess hair onlv in the enil)ry-
onie state and ofliii then only on the upper lip. The haliit
of bringing forth the young alive is not exclusively a char-
acter of the mainuials, being shared by various reptiles and
fishes. (Jn the other hand, the very lowest of the nmniinals,
the Monotrenies, lay eggs similar to those of the snakes, and
the nuirnmip or milk glands of the female are scarcely
diftcrentiated. The characters of the mammals may be
given in brief as follows:
y/oi'r. — Hair is found in some degree on all mammals and
in no other group. It is found in the embryo in whales
only, and then confined to the upper lip. In the porcu-
pines, hedgehogs, etc., the hair is stilTened into spiiu'S. In
some groups, as the armadillos, the skin is hardened into a
bonv ciu^e sometimes suggesting the shell of a turtle.
Skeleton. — The skeleton is highly developed and perfectly
o.ssified, its different fiarts more constant in the forms, num-
bers, and relations than in the reptiles and fishes. The ver-
tebral column is divided into five distinct regions:
1. Cervical (neck) vertebra>, usually seven in number, rarely
six or nine.
2. Dorsal (back) vertebra', variable in number, having
ribs attached.
3. Lumbar (loin) vertebra", without ribs.
4. Sacral vertebra', connected with bones of the pelvis,
and 5. Caudal (tail) vertebra", these varying greativ in num-
ber. In the Cetaceans and Sirenians, acjuatic >tBmmalia,
the pelvis and hinder limbs are wanting or aborted. In
this case the lumbar, sacral, and caudal vertebra; are indis-
tinguishable. The first two cervical vertebras are always
modified as the atlas and a.\is.
The skull is very characteristic, and may be divided into
four parts: (1) cranium, (2) lower jaw, (.'5) auditory ossicles,
(4) hyoidean apparatus. The cranium, as in other animals, is
the modified anterior continuation of the vertebral column.
The skull undergoes considerable change in development
from the low forms to the high ones, as well as witii age.
In the lower types the segmenteil or (pnusi-vertebrated char-
acter is much more evident, and is in correlation with the
development of the brain, whose several parts are more
nearly on a longitudinal axis. In the progress from the low
to the high forms the several regions of the brain become
concentrated and subordinated to the cerebrum. The skull
follows, and in man the cerebral cavity forms the largest
portion. In the lower forms the brain, and consequently
the cerebral cavity, increases but little, if any, after birth;
the subsequent growth being chiefly due to the development
of ridges for muscular insertion, air-cells, and the extension
of the jaw-l)ones. The brain also differs comparatively little
in size in the members of a natural family, although the
skulls may vary greatly : the differences as to the skulls be-
tween large and small animals are due chiefly to the out-
growth of bone. The skull is also modified to adapt the
animal to its surroundings, and conseiiuently in the acpiatie
forms, as the Cetaceans, it is excessively modified.
With the anterior ribs, at least, at their distal ends, arc
connected a chain of median bones or cartilages designated
by the common name of sternum. This apparatus is very
variable in its development.
(1) The cranium is most uniform in all the typos at the
posterior part, and deviates most at the ilisliil and peripheral
parts. The hiiuliiiost segment has an axial element (the
basinrripital), with which, on the resjwctive sides, are con-
nected two lateral ones (the eroecipital), chiefly bearing the
condyles for the articulation of the '• hacklKine," and these
are connected above by a keystone element (the mipraof-
eipilal): these four elements, always separately developed
in early life, in some of the lower forms (e. g. marsupials)
are persistent as separate bones throughout life, but in the
higher forms early coalesce into a single lione, the oc-cipital ;
they all bound the aperture through which the nervous sys-
tem enters the skull, the " foramen magnum." On the axial
line, in front of the basioccipital, also an unpaired bone, is
the ba.'tispltennid ; with the upper sides of this ore connected
dilated wing-like elements, one on each side (the alinplte-
noids); with the anterior surfaces another axial element
(the prM/^AcnoiVf) articulates; and with the upper margins
of this and the anterior of the alisphenoid two lateral ele-
ments (the or6i7o.ip/i<';ioiV/) are connecteil ; finally, with the
inferior surface of the previous axial bones, as well as with
processes of the alisplienoids, is connected a median vertical
element (the pterygoid) ; these several elements (i. e. basi-
sphcnoifl, alisphenoid, presphenoid, orbitosphenoid. and
pterygoid) arc in various degrees combined, all being uniletl
m the higher animals, including man. in a single bone — the
sphenoid: this itself, in its axial portion, llnallv coalesces
behind with the occipital. The roof of the skulf is formed,
in front of the supraoccipital element, first, liy two liones
(the piirietiil), which are chiefly eomiecle<l by their lateral
margins with the alisphenoid elements, and these are fol-
lowed forward by two other Ikhics (the/r«;i/(i/), c<jnnected
below with the orliitosphenoid elements: in front are the
nana/. The foremost axial lione is the mrKetlimoid, which
together with two lateral <ines (the elhmoliirliiiiiil and max-
illiiturbinal) form the conii»)und ethmoid. All the Iranes
thus far enumerated, or at lea.st the combinations, concur
together and with the periolic bones (hereinafter mentioned)
to form the cereliral chanil)er or calvariiim. The olfactory
chamber is in atlvance; its floor, and partly its sides, are
constituted in front by the intmnaxillary and nupramaxil-
laru bones, and behind by Ihe palatine ; its roof by the nastil
and in part ihe fruntal bones. Lenlged between the frontal,
supramaxillary, and palatine l)ones is one which enters into
the front inargin of the orbit, is in most a thin laminar lione,
and, being generally provided with a canal for the la(.-lirymal
gliUid, is called the lachrymal bone. The periotic bones,
already referred to, are inter[Hi>ed between the occipital,
|)urietal.Hnd sphenoid ones, ami are re|iresented,it is alleged,
in the embryo by three centers of ossification: these, how-
ever, very soon unite and form a sin(;Ie bone (X\\e periotic),
which includes the labyrinth of the inner ear; the antero-
internal portion of this forms the so-calleil "petrous" por-
tion, and the postero-internal the " mastoid " portion. With
this bone is connected, and often ankylosed (as in man), a
scale-like bone called the *yii«mo«j/, which emits from its
anterior borders the zygomatic |ir<K-ess to meet the malar or
cheek bone; from the inferior portion is develoiKjil the tym-
panic bone, which forms the auditory bulla so ordinarily
developed in mammals. These several elements frequently
coalesce and form a compound temporal bone.
(2) The lower jaw is composed of two simple rami (mandi-
bles), connecteil together at the symphysis, and each has a
more or less convex condyle by which it articulates with a
" glenoid cavity " at the base of the zygomatic process of the
squamosal bcme. In this simplicity of the rami and direct
articulation with the skull the mammals differ widely from
all other vertebrates.
A bar-like bone {malar or jngal) generally connects the
zygomatic processes of the squamosal and frontal bones, but
is frequently absent, as in many Insectivorcs, Edentates, and
Cetaceans.
The limbs are formed in the same general way, although
much modified by adaptation to the different functions in
the different groups. There are always four limbs, exceiil
in the marine forms, in which the hinder pair are usually
wanting.
The anterior limbs have each successively a long bone
(humerus), two parallel Ihhu's (radius and ulna), a group of
usually eight or nine small bones (carpal bones), a row of
longer bones (metacarpal) forming in man the palm of the
hand, and three rows of phalanges or finger-bones, the num-
ber and form varying niuch in different groups.
With the humerus is articulated the flattened shoulder-
bone or scapula, and in many forms the clavicle connects
the shoulder with the sternum. The clavicle present in man
is wanting in many forms.
The pelvis is formetl by the sacrum and two largo com-
pound iMines (inniiminata). each comiiosed of ilium, ischium,
and pubis. The hinder limbs are iormed of bones corrc-
siMinding to those of the fore limb, the femur, the parallel
til)ia uni\ fibula, the tarsus, inelatarsu.s, and phalanges. An
aililitionai twne, the patella or knee-cap, is usually jircsent,
protecting the knee-joint.
Muscular System. — The muscles are extremely varied in
the different groups. They are belter differentiatc<l than in
the lower forms. Only the diaphragm is peculiar to mam-
mals.
Sen-ous System. — The brain is highly devolopo<l ; th*
cerebrum always larger than the ceri-liellum — much mope so
in the lower forms, an<l excessively pn^pomlirant in Ihe
higher ones (especially in man^. While in tin- juwer forms
it leaves exposed the entire cerel>elliim. as well as the opitr
IoIm's and the olfactory ones, its inen^a.-ing volume in the
higher forms overlaps those parts, until liiially in man all
are covenil from view from alnive. The hemispheres of Ihe
cerebrum are connected (1) by an anterior commismre, and
502
MAMMALS
(2) by a great superior commissure, tlie corpus callosum;
these are developed in inverse proportion, in the lower forms
the anterior eonimissure being very large, while the corpus
callosum is very suniU ; in the liighcr forms the corpus cal-
losum is greatly developed, while the anterior eonnuissure is
extremely reduced. The cerebral hemisphere in the smaller
and inferior forms are nearly smooth, while in the hirgiT
and more highly organized ones thev are deeply convoluted.
The most characteristic feature in tlie brain of mammals is
the development of the corpus callosum.
Denial Syslem. — The teeth of mammals are usually well
developed and well distinguished. In the whalebone whsiles,
ant-eaters, and some related forms, they are wholly wanting.
The narwhal has but one tooth, while some porpoises have
200. Usually the teeth are divisible into incisors, canines,
and molars, and they are usually implanted by roots in the
jaws.
Alimenlaru System. — The alimentary canal and its ap-
pendages exhibit great variations, but offer nothing espe-
cially distinctive of the group.
Primitive IVIammals.
mie vary greatly; they are without teats in the Monotremes,
V)ut have them in the marsupials and ordinary mammals.
They are almost always on the inferior surface of the trunk,
and either abilominal, inguinal, or on the breast.
Evolution and Genetic delations. — The class of mammals
is so decidedly differentiated from all others, and its early
history is so fragmentary, that the exact line of descent of
its members is not a|)parent. It is, however, most probable
that the original progenitors of the class were modified from
the Dinosiinriiin reptiles, or near allies of those animals, and
that they culminated into the iiresent types at a compara-
tively early epoch, the earliest known forms — those found in
the Liassic formation — being quite specialized. Unquestion-
alily. the Monotremes are the most reptile-like ; the marsupi-
als and the placental mammals are successively divergent
and Specialized from the primitive type. The successive
dilTorentiation and develojiiiK'nt of the various orders of the
class may be exhibited in a diagrammatic form or genealog-
ical tree. In this the more generalizeil forms, or quasi-eldest,
are represented in each case by the left branch or fork:
Ornitliodelphia.
MODOtremata.
Didelphia.
Marsupiatia.
Monodelphia.
I
(Ineducabilia.)
(Edentate Series. )
Bruta.
1
(Educabilia.)
I
(Insectivorous Series.)
(Rodent Series.)
Glires.
Insectivora.
Cheiroptera.
r
(Mutilate Series.)
(Primate Series.)
Primates.
Sirenia. Cete.
(Ungulate Series.) (Feral Series.)
I
Feree.
Pinnipedia.
Proboscidea.
Circulatory System. — The blood has its red blood-corpus-
cles non-nucleated. The circulation is complete and closed,
the stream being received and transmitted by the right half
of the quadrilocular heart to the lungs for aiiration, therein
oxygenated and warmed, thence sent to the left side of the
heart, and finally transmitted through the system. Thus,
although resembling birds, mammals are distinguished from
the reptiles and inferior vertebrates.
Respiratory Sy.'item. — Respiration is effected in all cases
by inhalation of the air direct, and consequently by means
of the lungs. These are, in common with the heart, in a
special thoracic cavity, separated from the abdominal cavity
by the diaphragm. This diaphragm, by its alternate con-
traction and expansion, assists the lungs in their inhalation
and expulsion of air. The •wiii(l|)ipe or trachea bifurcates,
and sends special branches to the respective lungs.
Reproductive System.— The male and female organs, al-
though strictly homologous and in early embryonic life un-
distingnishable, become greatly differentiated in after life.
In the female the chief organs are the ovaries, which by ovi-
ducts communicate directly with the uterus, and thereby with
the vagina. In the male the testes (which are homologous
with the ovaries), although in the lower types abdominal, iu
the higher descend into external '".scrotal " pouches, and the
penis is almost always external. The eggs are in the lowest
type of consideral)le size, but in the others extremely small.
Impregnation is always effected internally. The fu'tus in
the lower type is not long carried in the mother's womb, but
is born in a comparatively immature stale, and attached to
the teats by the mother; in the higher type it is nourished
by means of a peculiar outgrowth in connection with the
embryo and wall of the uterus (the placenta) in the womb,
and when born is of considerable size and quite mature in
development.
The development of the uterus and its relations to the
vagina, as well as the development of the vagina and its
connections, exhibit several iiiodilicalions in the various
groups which are coincident with other phases of progress,
and mdicale successive stages of dilTerentialion.
For the nourishment of the new-born young a peculiar
provision is made in the development of certain glands
(mammary), which in the female are highly specialized and
secrete the milk. The position and number of these mam-
\ ~
Hyracoidea.
Toxodontia.
Ungulata.
Geogruphical Distribution. — Mammals exist in almost
every region of the globe, but were wanting, previous to
their introduction by man, in the Polynesian islands, as
well as in New Zealand. Monotremes are peculiar to Austral-
a.sia. Marsupials are now confined to Australasia and out-
lying islands and America; in the former numerous types
being represented, and in the latter but one — the opossums.
In.sectivores are wanting in tlie regions where marsupials
abound, but are well represented in the entire northern
hemisphere, as well as in Asia and Africa. Primates are
represented especially in the tro|)ical regions of Africa, Asia,
and America, but in very different forms, the lowest type
(Lemuroids) being now peculiar to the Old World, and best
develoi)ed in JIadaga.scar ; and in Africa and Asia the high-
est type (catarrhine monkeys and apes) is also existent, while
in America all the species are of an inferior type of monkeys
— the platyrrhine groui). The Kdentates are represented
oidy in warm countries, and have most members in Amer-
ica (the slotliss ant-eatei's, armadillos, and pichiegos). The
carnivorous mammals are quite widely distributed, extend-
ing almost between the extremes of the northern and south-
ern hemispheres, and under tlie same generic forms on at
least the continental areas of both the Old World and the
New, Australia alone having no representatives except of a
single species of dntr (Cunis dini/o). The /'c/i'(/(e (cat) and
Cnnidte (dog) families are especially thus distributed. The
others are more limited, (U- have a greater number of genera
restricted to limited countries. The ungulates are in recent
times much restricted ; the Eqnida' (horses) and Rhinoeero-
tidce (rhinoceroses) being iieculiar to the wanner regions of
tlie Old World, although horses have become feral and
greatly increased in iiumliers on the plains of South Amer-
ica. 'I'lie proboscidians (elephants) are now restricted to the
Old World ; one generic form (Loxodunia) being rejircsented
in Africa, and another (Elephas) in Asia. Hats, fitted by
their organization for extensive migrations, are found near-
ly everywhere; but many generic types, notwithstanding
their iippiireiit equal capability of extension, are ipiite con-
fined in their range. The Cetaceans are abundantly repre-
sented in the polar regions by peculiar genera and species,
but are also rich in types common to the entire tropical zone,
and have also several peculiar fresh-water types in the tro[)-
ics. About 2,5(X) species of Mammals are now recognized.
MAMMARY GLANDS
MAMMOTH
503
Geiilogical Hange. — For a lonp time it was believed that
no representatives of Mammalia existed previous to the
Tertiary epoch. The evidence, however, is now conclusive
of their existence in the Mesozoic, both in the Triassie and
oolitic perioiis, althciufjh only frapmenls, chiefly of lower
jaws, have been founcl. Theso reniuiiis have been mostly
attributed to the order of Marsupials. In the Tertiary
epoch numerous remarkable extinct types, representiiif;
even onlers without livinjj members, were in evidence, and
have furnished clews for the appreciation of the genetic re-
lations of the several t;roups of the class. Those of the U.S.
have been chicflv studied by Leidy, Cope, Marsh, Usbornc,
and Scott. Sec f'Ai.Ko.sToi.oov and Vkrtkdratks, Fossil.
C/ajmiJlrntiou. — Prof. Huxley has divided the mammals
into the followiii;; nrimary {;roups : (1) Sub-class Ornilhodel-
phia, with the miWr Jlonnireniala ; ("J) sub-class Oidelphia,
with the orilcr Mur.iiipiaUii ; and (;i) sub-class .Moiiodcl|itiia,
The Monodi-lphia are first discrimiiuited into (n) tlmse with
median incisor teeth developed (Edentata), ami (6) those
with median incisor teeth (leveloi)ed, and the latter into
(1) Non-decitluiita, includiuf; the orders I'lit/iiltild, Tojco-
dontia, Sirenia, and Cetiiceu ; and (2«) Deculiiata wilh a
zonary pitireiilii (Hyracoidia. I'robosiidea, and C'arnivora),
and {'ib) Deriilitafa irith d (tiiicijiJiil jilneeiifii (Kudenlia,
Insectivora, t'heiroptera. and I'rimati's). .Most modern
writers have followed substantially this arrarifjement, al-
though in some cases older names have been recognized for
some of the orders. Tiikodoke Gill.
Revised and abridged by I). S. Jordan.
BinLiooRAi'iiv. — The best general work on mammals is
An Inlriidiirtinn to the Study of Mamiiidln, iyirhig and Ex-
tinct, h\ Sir W. II. Flower and R. Lydckker (I.oiiilon, 18!»0).
The various catalogues and hand lists (if dilTereut groups,
published by the British .Musimiui, are useful for the ideiiti-
lication of species and references to literature on the sub-
ject. Those issued most recently are much the best, the
earlier catalogues being often unreliable and inaccurate.
Many descriptions of new or rare species, and lists of
the mammals of particular localities, are to be found in the
Proceedings of the Zoological StK'icty of London, and in
diderent American perioilicals.
For the distribution of mammals, see Murray, The Geo-
graphical iJixtribittion of Mammiil.s{l,it]\i\i<t\, lH()(i>; Wallace,
The Geographical DiMrihution of Animals (London, IHTB);
and .\llen. The Geographical Distribution of the Mammalia,
Bulletin of the L'. S. (ieol. Survey, iv., IHTH. For the em-
bryology, Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology
(London, 18»l)-81).
The Oslrographie des Mammi feres, Recents et Fossiles,
H. M. Ducrolay de Blainville (I'aris, 18;i!)-64), is an exhaus-
tive treatise on the subject. .Smaller but valuable works are
A Manual of the Anatomy of the Vertebrated Animals,
Huxley (London, IHT'J); Anatomy and Physiology of Verte-
brates, Owen (L<mdon, lH(i(5-0.S) ; Lessons in Elementary
Anatoniy. Mivart (London, lH7;j); and ,4u Introduction to
the Osteology of the Mammalia, Flower (London, 1S8.5).
For the classification of mammals, (iill's Arrangement of
the Families of Mammals (1S72), is important.
The only general works on North American mammals are
The <^u<ulrupeds of Xorth America, Auilubon and Bach-
man (;i vols., Xew York, 1S4()-,j4), and The Mammals of
yorth America, Baird (Philadelphia, 1K,5!»), both much out
of date. The greater number of new snccies are described
in yorth American Fauna, a perioilical liullctin of the Dept.
of Agriculture, the bulletins of the Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New
York, Proceedings V . S. Nat. Mus., Washington, ami iVo-
ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, I). C.
For particular groups, see Coues's Fur-bearing Animals
(.VHji<f/i(/«') (Washington, 1877); Allen. Monograph of yorth
American /'iii;ii/)f(/f.i( Wiushington, 18M0) ; Coues and .Mien,
Monographs of yorth American liodrntia (Washington,
1877); and Scammon, Marine Mammals of the yorlhiresi
Coast of yorth Amiricn (San Francisco, 1H74). Besides
these shoulil Im mentioned the monographs of True on the
Cetacea and H. S. Allen on the t'heiroptera. The chief re-
cent authorities in the U. S. are .Mien, C'mies, and Merriara.
I). S. JoROAN.
Mammary lilnnds Imammary is from Ijjt. mamma,
breast, pap): the organs which prcnluce milk; one of the
most characteristic and ilistiiictive marks of the mammalian
class of vertebrates. No animal except the nuimmals pro-
duces milk, or has anything apiiroachuig the character of a
mammary gland. Orilinarily the mammary glands of the
male are undeveloped. The male of the human race has
lieen known to secrete milk and actually nurse a child, and
during a few days after birth the bre».sts of Ijoth .m-xis se-
crete a small (juantitv of licpiiil resembling milk. The mam-
mary gland is of various structure in different animal.s. In
the brnithorhynchus it is a collectiiin of simple ca-cal ful-
lidcs, o|MMiing on the surface, without a nipple; an<l the
mother ajipears to iKissess the jHiwer of extruding the milk
into the mouth of the young animal. The t'etaceans liave
very simple mammary glands, and the teat is inclosi-d in a
slit. The marsupial mammals attach their young, in an ex-
ceedingly embryonic state, to the nipple, and the gland is
provided wilh a muscular apparatus by which the mother
fceils the feeble young creature at will, expressing the millc,
which flows into the stomach of her offsiiring. In the higher
animals the young arc fed by suction. The mother does not
feed her suckling, though hei cotuientius is apparently need-
ful to the free secretion of milk. 'I'hus it is well known
that if cows arc beaten or irritated before milking, the flow
of milk is small. The mammary glands are always in pairs,
and placed symmetrically on cither side of the mesial line
and on the ventral aspect of the body, but in number and
in position they vary greatly in the various species. Some
animals, like the cow, have often a pair or two of abortive
or undeveloped nipples, besides those which yield milk. In
the human s])ecies the mamma; consist of lol)es and lobules
of gland-tissue, with interlobular fibrous and fatty sulistance.
The lobules consist ultimately of little groups of vesicles
which open into minute ducts; the ducts converge into larger
ducts, which at the base of the nipple open into ampulltr or
reservoirs of milk. The nipple is slightly erectile, and in
the human species has several orifices for the discharge of
milk. The milk-ducts are lincil with pavement cpillulium.
Occasionally accessory rudimentary mammary glands are
observed on the chest, abdomen, shoulders, or elsewhere.
The gland itself is subject to many inflammatory, malig-
nant, cystic, and other diseases. Of these, one of the most
frequent is acute inflammation, an extremely painful affec-
tion occurring almost always during lactation. Hot stimu-
lating lotions and the careful drawing of the milk arc very
useful. The gland should be suspended in a bandage. If
it be not desirable to prolong the lactation, a solution of
atropia should be applied, which often arrests lactation, and
thus alleviates the di.sease remarkably; but if this lie applied,
the infant shouUl not be fed from the breast, unless after
the poisonous atropia has been carefully removed from the
surface by washing. The lireast is one of the common seats
of cancer in the female. This <lise(Lse is readily recognized
by its appearance, the pain it oc<-iu'ions, and by the deterior-
ation of the woman's health. Prompt removal may prolong
life, but does not often prevent spread of the disea.se or re-
currence in loco. Revised by William Pei-per.
Mammpp' Apple [mamtnee is from Haitian mamey]: the
fruit of trees of the order Guttiferte (Mammea americana
and M. a fricamt), f^niwing respectively in .South America
and the \Vest Indies and in Africa. The fruit of the Amer-
ican species is very agreeable to the taste. The tree is very
valuable for its timber.
Mammoth [from Russ. ma'mont, ma'mantu; cf. Tartar
mamma, earth, the mammoth being believed by some Tartar
triiies to have been a burrowing animal]: an extinct s|H-cies
(Elephas primigenius) of elephant, alMiut twice the weight
of the living s]>ecies, formerly abundant in the higher lali-
SkcletoD of nikniniulti.
tudes of both the Old ami Xew WorMs. Their remain* are
abundant in Siberia and .Maska, when' their tusks are gath-
504
MAMMOTH CAVE
MAN
ered as an article of export. The inainiiioth was closely re-
lated to the exisliiijj liulian elephant, and some uulhors
have considered them identical. It differs, however, in many
respects, and one or the most important of these differences
is found in the molar or ffrlndinj; teeth. These teeth are
broader than those of E. indicus, and have narrower, more
numerous, and close-set transvei'se plates and ridges. They
exemplify the extreme type of the peculiar elephantine den-
tition. The tusks are long and much curved, in some cases
forming a complete circle, but being directed outward they
dear the head, and the points are directed outward, down-
waril, and backward. Two principal sizes of tusks are found
— the larger averaging 9^, the smaller 5J, feet in length.
They seem to have belonged to males and females respec-
tively. Tusks have, however, lieen found over Vi feet in
length. This animal is better known than any other species
extinct before the historic period, as its remains have been
jierfectly preserved in the ice and frozen soil of the Arctic
regions. A fine specimen was discovered at the close of the
eighteenth century, in a cliff at the mouth of the river Lena.
The flesh was so well preserved that dogs and wild animals
fed upon it. The skin was thick, and covered with a red-
<lish wool and long black hairs. This skeleton is now pre-
served at St. Petersburg, and lueasures 16 ft. 4 in. from the
fore part of the skull to the end of the tail, which Ts imper-
fect. Parts of the skin of the head, the strong ligament of
the nape, which principally sustained the head, and the
hoofs remain upon the skeleton. The hairy covering en-
abled the mammoth to endure a much colder climate than
that to which the existing elephants are confined. Its food
consisted of the leaves aiul branches of northern pines, wil-
lows, birches, and other hardy trees, such as may now be
found along the isothermal of 40^ Fahr., which in that age
may have run as high as Xorthern Siberia, where these ani-
mals then lived in large herds. They roamed also over Eu-
rope, where they were contemporary with at least two kinds
of two-horned rhinoceroses, a hippopotanms, gigantic deer,
three kinds of wild oxen (two of which were of large size,
and one shaggy and maned). a tiger as large as that of Ben-
gal, and anotlier fierce carnivore of equal size, the Maclim-
rodua. togetluT with troops of hyienas, and a savage bear
larger than the grizzly of the Rocky Mountains. During
the PaUeolithic and Reindeer eras they were contemporary
with men, who have left rude delineations of this animal
engraved on the ivory of its own tusks. Much confusion
has existed among naturalists in regard to the species of
mammoth. C'uvier referred to the single species, E.primi-
geniuH, teeth from Europe, Northern Asia, and all North
America, from strata as early as the Lower Pliocene, and as
late as the frozen drift and ice-cliffs of Siberia, De Blain-
ville included the existing Indian elephant in the species,
thus giving it a range bcjth in time and sjiace unequaled by
any known mammal in a state of nature. Later naturalists
have more carefully discriminated the species, and restricted
its range to Europe, Northern Asia, and Northwestern North
America above the parallel of 40% and in time to the Qua-
ternary age. The mammoth of the warmer parts of North
America is regarded as a different species, E. americtuius,
and is comparatively little known, as the remains hitherto
found have consisted principally of teeth. These have often
been found associated with more numerous and better pre-
served remains of the mastodon. Prom the Tertiary of
Europe and Asia, Dr. Falconer enumerates ten species of
the genus Elephax, which he <livi<les into three sub-genera —
Euelephas, Luxudon. and Sli'yodun. No remains of elephants
have yet been fouiul below strata referred to the Miocene.
O. C. Marsh.
Mammoth t'live: believed to be the largest known cavern
in the world: near (jreen river. Central Kentucky. The Car-
boniferous limestone, which covers a large area in Kentucky
and adjacent States, abounds in caverns, whose underground
passages must measure many thousands of miles in length.
Mammoth Cave wius discovered in IHOi), and for a time it
was used chiefly to obtain niter for the manufacture of gun-
powder, especially during the war of 1812, the niter being
found in deposits on the floor of the cave, chiefly near the
entrance, and owing its origin to the accumulation of ani-
mal remains, especially of bats. In later years the cave
became a resort for travelers, and it is now a valuable prop-
erty on this account. It has never been carefully surveyed,
but its passages aggregate many miles in length. Its larger
chambers are beautifully ornamented with stalactites and
stalagmites. One chamber, called the Great City, is said to
cover a space of 2 acres. Some of the pa.ssages are occupied
by streams or pools. The cave air is dry, and almost constant
in temperature, seldom varying more than 2' from 53" P.
In summer tinu> the relatively cool air flows out from the
entrance, and external air is drawn down through sink-holes
in the rwif ; in winter the cold external air flows in at the
main entrance. The animals living in the cave are a few
species of fish, two siiecies of crayfish, and several insects,
as well as the bats that divide their time between the cave
and the outer air. Some species of the cave animals are white
and blind ; others have color and well-developed eyes. The
former are thought to have occupied the cave for long ages,
gradually adapting themselves to its darkness; the otfiers
are supposed to have been introducetl later. W. M. Davis.
Mams : See India.ns of Central Amkrica.
Mannin. Al (.\nuL Aubas Abdallaii), or .\h(]allah III. :
seventh caliph of the Aliasside dynasty; 1>. at liagda«l in
786; a son of Ilaroun-al-Raschid : governor of Khorassan
in 800; asceiuled the throne in 81:!. after the deposition and
death of his elder brother, Mohammed II. el Emin. He was
a mild and tnerciful prince, tolerant of other religions than
his own, but weak, irresolute, and unable to hold his empire
together. Several provinces declared themselves independ-
ent, an<i even over Syria and Egyjit he exercised only nomi-
nal authority. He was, however, distinguished as a patron
of literature and science. He himself wrote several books,
and, like his father, made Bagdad the center of learning.
He had the masterpieces of the Greeks translateil into Ara-
bic, aiul the first translation of Euclid ever made was dedi-
cated to him. When in Egypt he is said to have Iweome
excited over the tales of immense treasures concealed in the
Great Pyramid, and to have set many workmen at finding
an entrance. After jirodigious labor they effected a forced
passage, whereby he was enabled to make his way into what
has since been called "the king's chamber," there to behold
only the solitary sarcophagus of Cheops. By the forced
])assage then nuule visitors now penetrate to the interior of
the pyramid. He died in 834, near Tarsus, while marching
against the Byzantine emperor Theophilus.
E. A. Geosvenor.
Man: collectively, the whole human species. The scien-
tific study of man is sometimes called anthropology, al-
though this word has other meanings, and by French writers
is limited to the study of the physical structure of man.
(See Axthropoi.oov.) By whatever term designated, the
study of man should be regarded as a branch of natural
science, to be pursued under the guidance of accurate obser-
vation and experimental research, embracing all his nature
and all the manifestations of his activity, in the past as well
as in the jiresent, the whole co-ordinated in accordance with
the inductive methods of the other natural sciences. It in-
cludes, therefore, history and archaeology, as well as the ex-
amination of the living representatives of the species; as
ethnography, it must define the physical and mental char-
acteristics of races and peoples; and as ethnology and so-
ciology it must trace the intellectual or psychical develop-
ment of the various subdivisions of the species.
Zoological Position of 3lan. — In the realm of organic life
man is cliussed as a vertebrate animal, belonging to the di-
vision of the Mammalia and the order of Primates. In this
order he belongs to tlie highest family, that of the Homin-
icUe (Broca, Huxley), in which he is the sole species and
genus, under the title Homo mpiens. man the intelligent.
The two anatomical characteristics which beyond all others
distinguish hnu from the other members of the order of
primates are — 1, his erect ]iosition, which emdiles him to
walk upon his lower members only, leaving the higher, the
arms and hands, free for other uses; and 2. the retiuirkable
development of his brain, which confers upon him the in-
tellectual suiieriority which has finally made him the nuister
of the world. Besides these leading' differences, there are
many others less prominent or less constant. Among them
are the nearly e(|Ual size of his teeth, all other Prinuites
having a tendency to the elongation of the canine teeth;
the greater lengthcif the lower limbs as coui)iared with the
upper, the reverse lieing the case with apes and monkeys;
a different anatomical arrangement of the structure of the
foot, by which inuu walks on its sole, while anthro|)oids
turn it slightly on the side; the ])osition of the thund) on
the hand in opposition to the fingers, while in the anthro-
poids it is more on a line with them, and is less flexible;
and other minor points. It nuist be added that no one of
these traits is of such <i character as to separate man any
«
MAN
505
more widely from othor familips of the Primatos than these
in turn are separutcil amoiif; ihemsclves. Kven erect stature
is not a characteristic eitlier in infancy or in old age.
Hale of Mini's First Appearance on the Karth. — Before
the sciences of geol<if;y ami prehistoric archiL-olofjy hail been
developed there were no data by which the date of man's
first appearance on the earth could be even pucssed at.
The ancient Egyptians placed it about 25.0<JO years before
the time of the Greek historian lleroilotus, while illiterate
tribes imagined it occurred but a few generations back. In
Christian communities the chronology of the Old Testament
was very dilTen-ntly computed, in tJreat Britain the esti-
mate of Archbishop Ussher, that the creation of man took
place 40<M h. c, being generally received. It is now ac-
Knowledged bv every one that this is entirely inadequate, as
there are still standing temples in Kgypt whose founda-
tions were laid much earlier than that. We must turn to
geological measures of time in the discussion of the ques-
tion. Of the two latest great periods, the Tertiary and
Quaternary (see Geoloov). man apjiears to have existed only
in the latter. The evidences of his presence in the I'liocene
(or latest Tertiary), which have been alleged from time to
time, have not borne examination. In the t^uaternary the
inquiry arises. Did he appear before, during, or after the
remarkable lowering of temperature which took place about
the nii<ldle of it, known as the Glacial Epoch or the Great
Ice Age f The evidence is almost conclusive that he lived
in Western Kurope certainly, and in America perhaps, be-
fore this astonishing change occurred. His rude stone im-
plements have lieeii found in the river gravels of Knglaiid,
France, and Spain, associated in original deposition with
the bones of tropical animals, such as the hippopotamus,
the African elephant, and the hya-na. These belonged to
the preglacial fauna of those localities. From that geo-
logical peri(jd onward the remains of human handiwork are
constantly exluiined from many deposits; but when geolo-
gists are asked to assign in years the antiquity of the oldest
strata containing such remains their estimates vary greatly.
Some place them as far back as 2S0,tR)0 years (.Mortillet),
while others are not willing to assign them a greater ago
than the tenth of this amount, or even less (Uphaiii, Nadail-
lac). Omitting these extremes and following the average
estimates of several careful observers, we may assume yO,000
years lus the miniimiin time requisite to effect all the geologic
and physical changes which have taken |)lace since the dep-
osition of the earliest discovered remains of man's industry.
Unity or Plurality of Origin. — While it is generally con-
ceded that man is, zoiilogicallv, of one species, it by no
means follows from this that tliis species had but one ori-
gin ; that all its members are descended from one original
pair. Upon this qucsticm there has been and still is a wide
diversity of opinion. Those defending the view that there
was but one ancestral pair are known as nionogenists, while
those teaching a plurality of origins are called polygenists.
To the latter school belonged the elder Agassiz, who as-
sumed eight or nine centers of appearance for the human
race; Dr. S. G. Morton, who thought he could point out
twenty-two centers; Xott and Gliddon, who even taught a
specific diversity of races, followed Agassiz : and in recent
years the French school of polygenists have been ably rep-
resented by Topinard. Ilovelacque. and Ilerve, as well as
many other writers. The arguments advanced in support
of their views turn on the differences of the varieties of
men, the dilliculties in supjx)sing wide migrations in the
early history of the race, the less viability of the mixed
population, and the analogy of lower forms which are be-
lieved to have developed the same specific traits in uncon-
nected localities. A careful examination of these argu-
ments does not strengthen thein. All must acknowledge
that the differences between the varieties of the human
species are vastly less than between man and the highest
anthropoii), and those who believe that he developed from
such an ancestor need not hesitate to believe that his de-
scendants could diverge to the extent now visible in the
species. There is no good ground for assorting the le«
viability of mixed races when these arise under favorable
hygienic conditions, and the theory of dispersion from one
center becomes easy enough when suflicienl time is allowed.
Finally, the theory of a single origin is the siiiifiler. and it
is the rule in soieiitific rea.soning always to adopt the sim-
pler hypothesis when it explains the facts, l-rom these
considerations the majority of anthro|K)logists, h^^^.\\ in Ku-
rope and America, are inclined to favor the opinion that the
human species arose in some one locality, and spread Ihencc
over the face of the earth, following in this the fx>sition of
Darwin, who wrote ; " All the races of man agree in so many
unimportant details of structure, and in so many menial
peculiarities, that they can be accountMl for only' through
inheritance from a common progenitor."
Jiirtliplace of the Human Sptats. — It is not an idle
question, and it is one not beyond reply, to inquire where
on the globe man first came into l<eiiig.' Through b proc-
ess of exclusion we can define it with a certain amount of
precision. The oldest known reliiw of the race, the physi-
cal geography of the earth and its geologic history, are the
guides in this investigation. Wherever man first appi-ured,
it must have been where other of the highest I'riniales ul«>
lived, as he must be regarded as the last and highot devel-
opment of organic nature. This con.-ideral ion at once ex-
cludes the American continent, Australia, and many other
localities in which no high apes, those which are tailless and
have thirty-two teeth, have been discovered either living or
fossil. None of the oldest remains of man have lx>en ex-
humed in the high northern latitudes of Kuro[>c, Asia, or
America, nor in the islands of the oceans. In the early
t^uaternury, at the period man probably first appeared. Cen-
tral and Southern Africa and Central' and .Southern India
were large islands, cut off from the main Ixtdy of the east-
ern heiuisphere by broad seas (Sucss, Huxley). These and
allied considerations, which there is not space to recapitu-
late, lea<.l almost certainly to the conclusion that the birth-
place of man was somewhere on the southern slope of the
vast mountain chain which extends in an almost unbroken
line from the northern coast of Spain eastward to the Hima-
layas, and from our [jresent knowledge the western rather
than the eastern extremitv of this chain is that which offers
the higher probability of having been the cradle of the spe-
cies. There is much more to be said for that localilv than
for some sunken continent (the Atlantis or Ilaeckel's Lemu-
ria) as the scene of man's first activitv.
Theories of the Origin of Man. — The belief formerly en-
tertained was that man and the other species of animals
were the results of acts of special creation by the Divine
Will acting upon inanimate matter. When the laws of
change in organic forms came to be more closely studied it
became evident that such a view is consistent neither with
the highest conception of divinity nor with observed facts.
A universe requiring such constant interferences would be
inferior to one acting under grand and eternal laws, just as
any machine is less perfect the more freciuentlv it requires
the attention of its designer. In some form, therefore, the
theory of the evolution or transformation of one organic
form into another is alone that which at once satisfies the
reason and elevates religious thought. This marvelous pro<-
ess giH'S on, however, under such strange ami oliscure laws
that it is still far from lieing underslo<Kl. Darwin thought
that he had discovere<l in sexual selection, the survival of
the fittest, and the transmission of accidental and acquired
qualities, the main factors of change; but his explanations
have been greatly weakened and modified by later observers.
Ksjiocially with reference to man it has been found impossi-
ble to s«'cure proof that he came into existence, as Darwin
taught, by a series of slow and gradual modifications from
some extinct form "of a hairy qua<lrupe<l funiishe<l with a
tail and pointed ears, arbori'al in its habits." No "con-
necting links" l)etweon these widely diverse forms have
been exhumed in spile of the most prolonged and painstak-
ing search. Other theories of evolution, sup|xirted by abun-
dant observations, offer less difficult solutions of the enigma.
Kapiil acceleration in the evolutionary process has Ut-n ol>-
served in some organic forms under novel stimuli (Hyatt,
Cope); and that form of evolution known as prr unlluni. or
"with a iKuind," has l)oen abumlanlly illustratt-d liy conii>e-
tent observers (Meehan, .Mivart, Ferris). New fonns arise
by what seems to !«■ the action of chance, but undoubtwily
in obedience to laws unknown to us, and these forms arc
perpetuated and imiirovetl by favoring cinumslanccs. As
we know that the liighest qualities of humani' . ' v.
slri'iieth, ami genius — (H-casionally apjx'ar in ilie
when there is no trace of them in his an<e~tr\ -
den development of allied traits in the oi ' may
have gifted them and their children willi .■rilT
n>quisite to endow the species Man with the |.».»ir> which
are his own, This is by some calleil the dix?trine of hrlen>-
genesis.
Traits of I'rimernl Man. — No skeletons have vet been
discovere<l which could with any certainty l>c nitrilmted to
the man of the drift ; but in the caves of France and Bel*
506
MAN
giiira tluTC have been foiiml at least five more or less com-
i)lete which, from the nature of their surrounilinpi, must
nave been those of the ancient PaUeolitliic inhabitants.
Thcv have been carefully stnilied and brought into compari-
s«m with some of the oldest luiman remains from the tombs
of Kjfypt and the valley of the Euphrates (Virchow. Kohan).
The result is that neither in stature, cranial capacity, nuis-
cular development (as judged by the marks of the insertions
of muscles and the volume of the bones), nor in any other
ostcological criterion, did these earliest members of the spe-
cies ditler more from those now living than do these among
themselves in their ditTerent varieties. The many thousands
of years which have elapsed, and the extensive changes in
the'conditions of life, have exerted no marked and perma-
nent cllect on the osseous system, and therefore, we may
reasonably infer, none on the soft parts. All adaptations
have been strictly within the limits of specilic variation;
and we have no grounds for assigning to these earliest known
men an inferior brain or a lower intelligence than is seen
among various savage tribes still in existence. The tools
and weapons they manufactured were equal and often nota-
bly superior to those of the Tasmanians or Fuegians of
the nineteenth century ; and the etched figures on bones
which they left (see (.'ave-dwelleks) prove tliat an artistic
spirit and an appreciation of symmetry arrived very early in
the history of culture. On the other hand, an examination
of the most ancient relics of man's handiwork wherever
found proves conclusively that he began at the foot of the
ladder of culture, that his condition was one of utter sav-
agery, and that the idea once entertained that his fii'st state
was one of high civilization, from which he subsequently
fell, is utterly baseless. It is very doubtful whether he had
any other language for generations than emotional cries;
anil it is almost certain that for a nmch longer time he had
no religious conceptions whatever, because among his earli-
est remains no objects of a religious significance have been
found.
The Dissemination of the Species. — Man is by nature a
migratory and not a sedentary animal. His constitution
more than that of any other mammal enables him to bear
without injury the extremes of climate and the greatest va-
riations in temperature. At his origin for an indefinitely
long time the sources of his subsistence were exclusively
hunting and fishing, and these occupations always forced
him to wide wanderings in search of his food-supply. We
know from the character and location of the oldest signs of
his industry that his favorite home was along the shores of
seas and the banks of streams. These are the natural high-
ways of nations, and when urged by a scantiness of returns,
the pressure of foes, the desire for a more genial climate, or
simple restlessness, to extend his journeys, the roa<ls lay
ready-made before him. This explains why men seem al-
ready to have reached every continent before they had
emerged from what is known as the I'aheolithie or old Stone
Age. At a later time, but still far within the prehistoric
period, other motives led to a wide distribution of peoples.
The lust of conquest spurred to many a distant voyage by
sea or campaign by land ; and the establishment of com-
mercial relations l>rought very remote tribes into communi-
cation. Herodotus describes trade routes existing at and
long before his time from the Straits of Gibraltar to the
Euphrates valley, and in North America shells from the
I'acitic and obsidian from the Yellowstone Park were trans-
ported to the shores of the Delaware and the Hudson.
Causes of Variations in Man. — Those who accept the the-
ory of monogenism, or that all men are descended from one
original pair, have to explain by what natural causes the
races of men have come to dilfer so widely in their mental
and [jhysical characteristics as we find to be the case at the
present day. The problem is a complicated one, and a num-
lier of influences must be considered. First in importance
is the food-supply, which must be considered both in resiiect
to quantity and quality. Although man is by nature om-
nivorous, his organs are nuiterially modified by the charac-
ter of his sustenance, whether animal or vegetable, whether
easily digested or the reverse, whether abounding or lacking
in nitrogenous elenu'nts. Even more is his development in-
fluenced by its (piantity. Insulliciency infallibly leads to
degeneration an<l retardation or arrest of development, and
this in turn to mental or physical depravity. Mainly
through what he eats and drinks he becomes liulile to, or is
enabled to resist, the attacks of diseases; and this bears di-
rectly on his death or survival under given conditions.
Climate is next in importance, as its chief factors — drought
or hiunidity, heat or cold, cloudiness or sunlight — increase
or diminish the conditions of health or disease. The per-
nicious effects of nuilaria and other so-called " endendc "
diseases depend directly on climatic relations. Altitude
must also be considered. Its influence on the physical
traits is sometimes very coTispicuous, as among the Aymaras
of Peru. External causes of this nature react |>owerfully
on the emotional and intellectual faculties anil their activi-
ty. The heat of the tropics, as well as the cold of the Arctic
regions, militate against the highest energy of the iisychical
attributes. They tend to leave man nniler the influence of
the mighty forces of nature around 1dm, and prevent his
enuincipating himself from his merely animal life. See
Climate.
Areas of Characterization. — The general effects of such
influences as have just been described make themselves felt
over definite areas of wide extent. These have been called
areas of characterization (de Quatrefages), or geographical
provinces (Bastian), or natural kingdoms (Wallace). They
present thnjughout their length and breadth a prevailing
similarity of famia and flora extending in time throughout
most of the (Quaternary period or longer. In general terms
they correspond to the great continental areas, but rather
as these existed in early (Quaternary times than at the pres-
ent day. Euro|)e, for instance, was connecteil both with
Western Asia and Northern Africa. Undoubtedly man has
also been profoundly influenced by the same general causes
which define these zoological kingdoms. His separation
into various sub-species, characterized by indelible differ-
ences, arose at some remote epoch, when for a long time the
men of the primitive type were subjected to the contrasted
conditions of these areas, and the species being in its early
youth, and hence more susceptible to impressions than later,
became divided into its several races as we now know them,
the differences being constantly strengthened by close inter-
marriage.
Racial Characteristics. — We know that the characteris-
tics of races are of great antiquity and singular permanence,
for we find in the paintings on Egyptian tombs, dating three
or four thousand years before the Christian era, the traits of
the white and black races depicted as clearly as they exist
to-day. The most prominent of these characteristics is the
color of the skin. Its three chief shades are white or whit-
ish, yellow or olive, ami dark brown or black. Equally im-
portant and persistent is the character of the hair, which is
either straight, wavy or curly, or frizzly and woolly — pecul-
iarities which di'pend upon the shape of the single hairs,
whether cylindrical or flattened, the latter giving the
" kink " or twist, while the former lies straight and without
curliness. Of the features the most characteristic is the
nose, which is broad and flattened in some races, narrow
and prominent in others. The latter are called leptorhinic,
the furmer plati/rrhinic. Much attention has been paid to
the shape of the skull as an ethnic criterion, but it must be
said with little jjositive results. The chief measure consid-
ered is the jiroportion which its length bears to its width.
"When the head is notably long it is called clolichocephalic,
when shorter than the average, hrachycepltalic. The size
and permanence of the teeth, the proportions of the upper
and lower extremities, the greater or less obliquity of the
pelvic bones, and the persistence of fa>tal or infantile devel-
opments, have also considerable value in certain races and
nations. As for stature, muscular strength, longevity, and
corporeal symmetry, these can not be said to be characteris-
tics of any special race.
Classification of tlie Races of Men. — The differences
above referred to have been taken as the bases to divide the
species Man into a nundier of sub-sjiecies, varieties, or raiu'S,
some writers preferring one criterion, some another. The
founder of scientific antliro|)ology, Bhuneiduich (b. 1752),
established five races, which he named the Caucasian, Mon-
golian, Ethio|iian, Malayan, and American. This is the
groundwork of nwmy of the modern systems, but it is de-
fective in several respects, especially in applying the term
Caucasian to the white race and l'',thii>pian to the blacks.
The naturalist Cuvier sought to simplify it by a.ssuming
only three races, the white, the yellow, and the black — a
scheme still generally adopted in France, but objectionable
as confounding the American with the Asiatic varieties.
Huxley, llaeckel,and others have endeavored to define races
by the appearance of the hair, the former distinguishing
between the Australoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Xanlhro-
chroic (yellow-haired) types; while the latter reduced all to
two main varieties, the woolly haired, subdivided into the
MAN
507
flcccc-Imired and the tuft-haireil, and the smooth-hoirerl,
this again sulKlividt-d inlo the strulKht and the eurly haired.
The Swiss anatiiinist Ketzius maintained tliat llie sliaiie of
the skull and the l)ones of the face offered the most i>alient
traits, anil upon this established four suh-speoies — those with
narrow heads and proJLCtintj jaws; with narrow heads and
straifjht jaws; witti broad heads and projecting jaws; and
with broad heads and straight jaws. Others (F. MUller,
Latham) have classilied the races according to the peculiar-
ities of their languages ; and others, again (Waitz, llatzel),
according to their progress in culture. It is safe to say that
none of these schemes has given satisfaction, and, indeed,
owing to the extensive intermixture which has taken place
between races, it is ini|x>ssible to frame any which does not
reveal incompleteness in some directions. We are building
on secure ground, however, if we take as a point of de-
parture the great " areas of characterization " or zotilogical
provinces above referred to, and derive from them the fun-
(iamental variations of the human species. I'roceeiling from
these, we can classify the principal peoples of the earth in
the following manner without notable error:
I. TuE El-rafricax Race.
So called from its earliest historic location in Central and
Southern Europe, and in Northern Africa; portions of it
also occupied Eastern Asia. Its physical traits are a white
or whitisn color of the skin, wavy or curly hair, and a nar-
row, prominent nose. Its two branches are the South Med-
iterranean and the North Mediterranean, which embrace
the following stocks and groups or peoples:
A. South Mediterranean Branch: I. The Ilamilic stfX'k.
This includes the ancient Libyans and Numidians, and their
descendants, the modern Berbers, Kabyles, Tiiaregs, and re-
lated tribes of the Sahara Desert and Atlas Mountains; the
(lallas, Somalis, Danakils, and related tribes of East Africa
between the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean ; and in all
probability the ("opts or Ancient Egyptians, represented to-
day by the Fellaheen. II. The Semitic st<x'k. This seems
to have developed in Arabia, and includes the tribes of that
peninsula, ancient and modern. Colonies from it passed
into Africa, and became the Ethiopians or Geez, the Tigres,
the Amharas, the Harraris, and the modern Abyssinians.
All these speak Semitic dialects. Another early migration
journeyed eastward, and became the ancestors of the Svrians
and .\rameans, the Assyrians and Babylonians, the Israel-
ites, Samaritans, and modern Jews, as well as the I'ha'nicians
and Hittites of the Old Testament.
B. North Mediterranean Branch: I. The Euskaric stock.
The only representatives of this are the modern Basques,
descendeil from the ancient Iberians, and speaking a lan-
fuage without known affinities. II. The Aryan or Indo-
luropean stock. This includes most of the nations of Europe
and the non-Scmitie whites of Asia. It is now believed to
have originated in Western Europe, and to have migrated
easterly. Its main groups are (1) the Celtic peoples, as the
Welsh,' Irish, and Highland Scotch, the Manx and the Ar-
moricans of Brittany. (2) The Italic peoples, chief of whom
were the ancient l(omans and their descendants. (3) The
Illyric peoples, represented by the modern Albanians. (4)
The Hellenic peoples, embracing the ancient and modern
<ireeks. (.I) The Lettic peoples, who are found on the Baltic
Sea as Letts and Lithuanians. (0) The Teutonic peoples,
among whom were the (ioths and Vandal.s, the Angles and
Saxons, the Danes, Northmen, Franks, and Lombards. From
them are descended the modem Germans, Scandinavians,
Danes, Dutch, and English. (7) The Slavonic peoples, as
the Hussians, Poles, Bohemians, Servians, Montenegrins,
Dalmatians, and Croatians of modern Euroi>e. (t*) The
Indo-Eranic peoples, or .Asiatic Aryans, chief among whom
arc the Armenians, the Persians and Parsees, the tribes of
Afghanistan and Beluchistan, the Kurds and Ossetes, and
the Hindus of India, with many less important members.
III. The Caucasic peoples, living in and near the mountains
of the Caucasus range. The Ciri'assians. Georgians, Lc»-
ghians, Kists, and Mingrelians are the chief groups.
II. The AisTAKRicAN Race.
So called from its earliest location in Africa in itssouthem
or austral regions. Its physical trails arc a black or ilark
color of the skin and cycs.'hair frizzly or woolly, nose Hat
and broad. It is iliviileil into three branches, as follows :
I. The Negrillo Branch. Most of these are small in size,
and dwell near or S. of the ecpmlor. The e<|uatorial croup
is represented by the dwarfs or pygmies of the Congo iMisin,
known as Akkos, Tikkitikkis, f)bonpos, Dokos, etc., while
the more southern group includes the Bushmen, HoUeutols,
Namaquas, and Ijuaquas.
II. The Negro Branch. This includes the innumerable
triU-s and pettv imlions living between the Atlantic and
the Nile, S. of tin- Sahara Desert and N. of the Congo basin,
in the modern Guinea, Semgambia, and the Sudan. They
present the purest tvpes of the black race.
III. The Negroid iJranch. Divided into the Nubian group,
in which fall the Nubas, Barabras, Pouls, Nvamnvams, etc. ;
and the Bantu group, where are found the Cal^lrs, Zulus,
Bechuana.s, Suahelis, and numerous others. All of these
are probably the result of an intermixture of races.
III. The Asian Race.
Located originally in Central, hjisteni.and Northern Asia,
with an outlying branch in Northern EuroiH!. Its physical
traits are a yellow or olive color of the skin, hair straight
and black, nose medium and often depressed at the bridge.
Its two mahi branches are the Sinitic and the Sibiric ; mem-
bers of the former speak monosyllabic, tonic languages; of
the latter, agglutinative, polysyllabic tongues.
I. The Sinitic Branch. .So named from the I.,atin Hina
= Chiniu It embraces the Chinese pro]>er, the Tilictans, and
the Indo-Chinese of Siam, Annaiu, Burma, and Cochin
China.
II. The Sibiric Branch. So called from Siberia, the chief
geographical location of its niendjers; known also as Tura-
nian and Ural-.\ltaic. It isdivided inloanumlier of grouj>s:
(1) The Tungusic peoples — the Tungus, Manchus, and La-
nuits. (2) The Mongolic peoples, embracing the Mongols
and Kalmuck Tatars. (H) The Tataric peoiiles, among whom
are the Tatars (Tartars), Jakuts, Cossacks, and Turks of
Europe. (4) The Finnic peoples, with whom belong the
Finns, Lapps, and Magyars of Euroi>e, and the Samoyeds of
Siberia, (."i) The .Arctii- peoples — the Chukchis. Kamtchat-
kans, Ghiliaks, etc., of Northern Siberia. (6) The Japanese
peoples, represented by the modern Japanese of mixed de-
scent.
IV. The .Xmericax Race.
L^sually, though erroneously, called American Indians.
Their physical traits are a coppery or reddish color, hair
generally straight and dark, with a reiidish undertone, nose
medium or narrow. The racial peculiarities are strikingly
alike throughout the continent, so that the sub<iivisions art?
mainly geographical. Among the more important tribes in
the extreme north are the Eskimos and their connections,
the Aleutians, the Kolosch on the Pacific coast, and the
Tinneh or Athabascans, who roam over Northern British
-Vmerica. S. of them, at the time of the discovery, dwelt
the Iroquois and .\lgonkins. .Around the shore of the Gulf
of Mexico were the Creeks or Muskokees, the Choctaws, the
Timucuas in Florida, the Nahuas about Vera Cruz, the
Totonacos adjoining them, the Mayas in Yucatan, and nu-
merous smaller tribes. The three last named wen- semi-
civilized, as were also the Tarascos and Zap<itecs of Mexico,
the Mangues of Nicaragua, and the Iluetares of Costa Rica.
In South .\merica the most widely extemled families were
the Caribs, .\raw8cks, and Tupis, who possessed mosf of the
soil of Brazil and extended over I he West Indian -\rchii>elago.
The Botocudos continue to survive in a state of extreme
savagery in Central Brazil. On the plateau of Colombia
the JIuyscas or Cliib<-has had developed a mtxleralely high
culture, esi)ecially in fine gold-work. S. of them, the king-
dom of the Incas or Kechuas controlled the coast l>etween
the Andes and the s<'a for a distance of 1,500 miles, anil
erected architectural monuments which still excite the sur-
prise and admiration of travelers. The triljcs of the Gran
Chaco in the .\rgentine Republic were in a low stage of de-
velopment, like those of PatagiHiia and Tierra del Fuepi.
The .\raiicaniansof Chili were not much higher, but t-eeame
celebrate<l for their stubliorn resistance to the S|tanish and
their uiKpienchable lore of liberty.
V. IXSVLAB A.VD LiTTORAI, PEOPLES.
These can s<-aroely be said to constitute a ra<-e bv them-
selves, hut rather the fragments of various rai-es, muc\i inter-
mingled in blood. .\s a rule, they are dark in color, the
hair wavy or frizzly, the nos<^ medium or narrow. They
may Ih' classed as the Nigritic, Malayic, and Australi'c
branches.
I. The Nigritic Branch. This is rppresente<l by the true
Negritos, a small dark people. foun<l in manv of the tropic^
islands S. of Asia. They are known as Mineopics, Aetas,
508
MANABl
MANASSEH BEN ISRAEL
Mantras. Soraanfjs. otc. Resembling them in many respects
are the black Papuans of New (iuinoa ami the luljucenl isles,
and from some cross arose probably the less Negroid inhab-
itants of the Melanesian Archipelago, the Feejee islands, etc.
II. Tlie Mahiyic Brunch. This includes the Malays proper,
the IJuttuks and Dayuksof Borneo, the Tagals of the Philip-
pines, the .lavanese, the llovus of Jladagascar, etc., and
there is little doubt that with these should be grouped the
Maoris of New Zealand and the Polynesians, quite to the
Sandwich and Easter islands.
III. The Australic Branch. The Australians constitute
the typical meml)ersof this branch. The Tasmanians prob-
ably were allied to them, and, according to an opinion which
seems growing in favor, we shxiuld include in the same
branch, as related both in language and physical trails, what
are known as the Dravidians of India, who embrace the
Tamils, Telugus. {'anarese, Todas, Khonds, and many minor
tribes, although these have reached a far higher status of
culture than any Australian clan.
Authorities. — The following may be named as among
the leading recent authorilies on this subject: Brinton,
Itace.t ami Peoples (New York, I8UO1; llovehicque and Ilerve,
Precis d'Antkropologie (Paris, 1887); Hiitzel. Vnlkerkunde
(Leipzig. 1891); Schurtz, Ko/AfrAM«(/e (Leipzig, 1893) ; Topi-
narti, L' Homme dans la S^'ature (Paris, 1891); the same,
Elements d'Antkropologie Gen^raie (Paris,' 1890) ; Tylor,
Anthropology (London, 1881). D. G. Brinton.
Mann hi. miia-naa-bee',or Maiiari : a province of Ecuador;
on the Pacific coast, N. of Guayas, and directly under the
equator. Area, 9,427 sq. miles. It lies entirely in the coast
zone, consisting of comparatively low but much broken
lands, covered in part with heavy forest and watered by
several small rivers. Cacao and sugar are the principal
products. Pop. (1885) 64,284. Capital and principal town,
Puerto Viejo, which has about 6,000 inhabitants, and is the
seat of a bishop. H. II. S.
Manngiia. maanaa-gwatt : capital of Nicaragua; beauti-
fully situated near the southern shore of Lake Managua;
lat. 12° 7' N., Ion. 86' 12' W. (see map of Central America,
ref. 6-H). At the time of the conquest it was a large Indian
town, but under the Spaniards it was neglected and reduced
to an insignificant village. The rivalry of Leon and Gran-
ada led to the select ion of this place for the capital of the
republic in ISoo, and since then it has been steadily grow-
ing. It is now united by railway with Gran.ida, Leon, and
the Pacific port of Corinto. The houses and Government
buildings are unpretentious, but the city has been greatly
improved of late years. Most of the coilee exported from
Nicaragua comes from plantations around Managua. Po[).
estimated (1888) 16.700. Herbert II. Smith.
Managua. Lake : See Nraraoca.
Man'akin; a name given to the members of the family
Pipridte. a group of small birds peculiar to tropical and sub-
tropical America, having as
their most obvious characters
a, weak bill and the union of
the middle and outer toe for
about two - thirds of their
M iigth. The greater portion
■ I' the manakins are birds of
u'.'iy or striking plumage, red,
l>lue, yellow, chestnut, black,
and white occurring in vari-
ous combinations. The tail
is usually short and square.
A few are crested, and in some species several of the second-
aries are very curiously moilined in shape. The birds are
active, associate in small flocks, inhabit dense forests, and
feed on berries. " F. A. Lucas.
.Mnni'iDS. nuiii-nowz,' formerly Bnrra do liio Negro ; capi-
tal ami [>rincipal city of the slate of Amazonas, Brazil ; on
the left bank of the Uio Negro; 6 miles above its mouth
in the Aimizon, and about 1.000 mites bv the river from
Para; lat. 3 8 4 S., Ion. 60 0 12" \V. (see map of South
America, ref. :i-E). It was a Portuguese fort and village of
senii-civilizwl Indians, of small importance until 1853, when
it became the capital of the new province (now state) of
Amazona-s. With the opening of steam navigation on the
Amazon, it became a central point for the commerce of the
upper rivers, the JIadeira, Negro, Purus, etc., and esjiecinlly
for the trade in rubber; its exports of this product in 1891
were over 22,000,000 lb. Other important exports are cacao.
Goldeu-wiiij^ed iiiauakin.
Brazil-nuts, dried fish, etc. Ocean steamers now a,scend the
Amazon to Maniios. carrying their freights directly to Europe
and the U. S., but a portion of the trade is carried on tlirough
Puni. By itssituatmn Mamios must, in the near future, be-
come a city of great importance. The city contains several
well-built public edifices, barracks, schools, a library, museum
and a meteorological observatory. It is well supjilied with
water by an a(|Ue<luct half a mile long. The climate is
healthful, though warm (mean temperature. 7.S' R). Pop.
(189;j) about 20,000. Ukrhkrt II. Smith.
Manar'. (Julf of: a wide inlet of the Indian Ocean be-
tween Ceylon and the southern extremity of Iliiuluslan, and
separated from Palk's Strait by the islands of Kameswarani
and .Manar, and a low reef called Adam's Bridge.
Mauasqiian : town; Monmouth co., N. .1. (for location
of county, see map of New Jersey, ref. 4-E); on the Cent,
of N. J. and the Penn. railways; 15 miles S. of Long
Branch, 40 miles S. of New York city. Its location near
the Atlantic Ocean and on the line of popular watering-
places has made it a favorite summer resort. Pop. (1880)
not in census; (1890) 1,506; (lS!»5i 1,427.
Manassas Juuctiun, Battle of: See Bui.i, Run, Battle
OF.
Manas'.iell : the eldest son of Joseph; was adopted by
Jacob on his deathbed, and became the head of a trilx! of
Israel, which numbered 32.200 warrioi-s on the exodus from
Egypt and 52.700 on the entrance into Canaan. It receiyed
land on both sides of the Jordan — on the western side, be-
tween the tribes of Ksachar on the N. and E[)hraim on the
S. ; on the eastern side, N. of Gail. In the eastern part lay
the towns of Gadara, Gamala, Jabesh-Gilead, Gerasa, etc.
Manassell : the fourteenth King of Judah ; a son of Heze-
kiah ; reigned from 696 to 641 B. r. : became an open idola-
ter; was taken prisoner by the King of Assyria, ami de-
tained for several years at Babylon, but repented and was
restored to his kingdom. His later reign was marked by
zeal and prosperity. The apocryphal comiiosition called
The Prni/er of JIanasseh is received as canonical by the
Greek Church.
Manasseh hon Israel, also less commonly known as Ma-
nasse ben Josepli hen Israel : Hebrew writer; b. in Lisbon
in 1604. His I'ainily lied during the Inquisition to Holland,
settling in Amsterdam. In 1622 Manasseh was far enough
advanced in biblical and Talmudic studies to be ordained
rabbi. He was also a good linguist. Though a prolific
writer, he was merely a compiler. His extensive knowledge
made him sought after by such Christian scholars as Caspar
Barliius, John Gerhard Voss, and Daniel Iluet. Unfortunate-
ly, Mana.sseh was very early in life caught in the meshes of
the Cabbala ; and the Christian mysticism of the time, which
busied itself with apocalyptic reckonings, infiuenced him
greatly. In order to earn a livelihood he became a printer,
and set up the first Hebrew printing establishmeni in Amster-
dam. Shortly afterward he published his first large work,
Conciliador (16:12), in Spanish, in which he endeavored to
settle many ditlicullies met with in the Bible; but Manasseh
soon turneil to Ins more favorite studie.s. He believed that
the Messianic time was at hand, and that the ten lost tribes
had been found in America. Before, however, the Jews re-
turned to their native place, prophecy had said Ihev should
be scattered to the four corners of the globe. In Kiigland
the Jews had been forbidden to settle since tliey liad been
driven out in 1290. Manasseh .set his heart upon gaining for
his brethren permission once more to settle in England. He
composed a work, Kxperama de Israel (Amsterdam, 1650),
originally written in English, which he sent over to the stale
council with a Idler begging for the rcadmission of the Jews.
-•V favorable answerwas received from Lord Jliddlesex. The
Puritan movement in England had prepared tlies<iil. The
deeper stmly of the Old Testament had aroused a lively in-
terest in the people of the Book: but nothing came of the
attempt. On July 5, 1653, Manasseh renewed his petition
to the Barebone Parliament. Though he hail received his
pass, he hesitated to go, in the meanwhile publishing Pedni
(rloriosa u de In h'sidliia de yebxirhndnizar (.Vmslenlam,
1655), illustrated with four copper-plates by |{end)randt. At
last (about Oct. 25. 1655) he set out with some frinnls. Ho
laid an J/umlde Address to the I'rolertor before Cjomwell,
and published a Dictarnlion to the Commonwealth of Eng-
land. He was well received by Cromwell. A commission
was appointed to consider the mutter; but the opposition was
great. Manasseh found it necessary to refute the many cal-
I
MANATEK
MANCHESTER
509
ninnies which had hccn sprcml u'lroail roganlinK his people.
This lie did in his I'inUtriiB JuiUeurum (Ijimdoii, 16<)(!).
Cromwell was unable to carry his point; he dismi!>se<l
Manasseh, after prantinj; him a yearly pension of £100. On
his way back Mana.sseh dieil at Mi'ddelbiirK. Mar., 1657
Though the resettlement of the Jews was ri-tarileil, largely
by Manassch's own indiscreet actions, lie puveil the way.
In a short time the small miiiilier of .lews who had for years
secretly lived in Loudon was re-enforced by large numbers
from Holland.
Keferencks. — The older literature will be found in Stcin-
schneidor's tVi/<//o«M.«K'ohigne, 1645). The chief authority is
Kaysorling, Jahro. fur Uesch. den Judetttliums (1860, pp.
87, seq.). CI. also Griitz, deschiehte der Jitdeii (x., pp. 1:3,
seq., 8y, seq.); 11. J. Koeneii, (leschiedenix der Jvdtn in .Ae-
derlnnd (Lirecht, 184:i); Schaible, J)ie Jiiden in England
(Carlsruhe, 18(10, pp. Tyi, xeq.); I'apern uf the Auylu-Jewixh
llistorical Ksliibition (\io\u\i.}n, 1888); A. .Stern, Mnnasneh
ben Iitraelet Cromwell, lietite de.i J-Jlude.i «/«i('e»(1883, pp. 90,
seq.) ; Lucien Wolf, The Hesettlemenl of the Jews in £ng-
land. Jewish Chronicle (London, 1887); A Final i\'ote on
the He.ielllemenI, Jewish Chronicle (London, 1889); The Pe-
tition of the Jews of London to Cromwell (London, 1889).
lilCUAKU GoTTUEII„
Manatee', or Ijanian'tin : an aquatic herbivorous mam-
mal of the order Sirenia and genus .Manatus or Trichechus.
often termed sea-cow. The adult niaimtee is from 8 to 12
feet long, clumsily built, the round body merging gradually
into the tail, which is flattened and rounded at the end, quite
•lifTercnt from the flukes of the whale or dugong. Fore
limbs alone are present as flattened paiidles ; in one species,
^f. aiislralis, tho presence of the digits is indicated by nails.
The head is small, the lips thick and extensible, the eye little,
the ear a mere opening. The skin is thick, rather granular,
with a few deep wrinkles marking the points of movement,
and sparsely sprinkled with hairs. The bones are extremely
Tilt* manatee.
large and dense, and serve as balhust, rendering it easy for
the animal to gather the aquatic vegetation on which it feeds
and which it eats under water. Manatees are found in
America from Florida to the Amazon and in .some of the
rivers of Western Africa. They are occasionally found
along the coast, but their home is in quiet rivers anil estua-
ries. They are shy and sluggish, and are hunted for their
hide and flesh. The manatee is one of the animals whii'h it
is allowable for Roman Catholics to eat on fast-days. Three
or four species an- known — Manatus .<irnr,-)aiensis, from
Western Africa; M. latiroslris, from Florida and about the
Gulf of Mexico: M. aiistralis ami Jl. inunt/iii.s, from the
rivers of South America. F. A. Lucas.
Man'cha, La: an old province of .Spain, comprising the
modern province of Ciiidail I{eal and portions of Ti>ledo.
Albacete. and Cueiica. It r>cciipics the bare ami monotonous
elevated plateau ofl'enlral S|iain, wliic'h is Ixiunded S. bv
the Sierra Morena ami N. by the Alcarria. It is sparsely
peopled, and this circumstance, in connection with s<-an-ity
of water and the absence of ti-ees, give.s the region the dis-
mal aspect of a desert. Nevertheless, whenever a little irri-
gation is attempted — and there is no dillicully in rea(>liing
water by digging — great crops of wheal, rye, barley, wine,
oil, flax, etc., are raised. The mules reared in the pMvjnee
are considered the best in .Spain, and ihe mineral wealth is
considerable, quicksilver being prodinnl at Almaden, salt-
peter at Herencia and Alcazar de San .luan. The princi|>al
towns are .Mmodovar del CamiH). Ciudad Keal. and VaMe-
penas. The province, of whii'ii, during the Midille Ages,
the ea.stern portion was known a-s La .Manclia de .Aragon
and the western as La Mancha, is the scene of JJon (Quixote.
Mnnrlio, miuinsh : department of France, bordering on
the Kiigli>h Channel. Area, 2.289 »q. miles. The ground
is mostly low, and in many places even marshy, though a
range of hills traverses the deiiartmeiit from X.'to .S., U-ing
connected wilh the hills of Maine and Hrittaiiy on the S.,
and at various phtces forming quite pictures<|Ue'landsca|)es.
The soil is fertile; grain, flax, hemp, and apples are pro-
duced, and many thousand gallons of cider are made annu-
ally. Large cattle and very strong hors<-s are reared; al.so
slu'cp of an inferior kiiul. Of the entire area, more than
half is arable. The coast is often inhospitable and dan-
gerou.s. Between it and the Channel islands the tide flows
wilh tremendous force; the great Bav of Mont St.-Michel,
coniiirising an area of 60.000 acres, was coven-d with fore-st
until swallowed ui> bv Ihe tide of the year 709. I'op. (1891)
5i;i,815. Caiiital, St.-L6.
Man'fhcsfer: city and Uirough (parliamentary and mu-
nicipal); in Ihe southwest of Lancashire, Kiiglaiid ; on the
left bank of a narrow stream, the irwell. By rail it is \Ki^
miles N. W. of London and 32 miles N. E. ofLiverjKiol (see
map of England, ref. 7-G). It is the center of the English
cotton-manufacture, and both the seat and the headquarti-rs
of many industries. A number of bridges over the Irwell
connect' it with S.tLKoKD i.q. v.). which has a parliamentary
representation and a municipality of its own. The Irwell,
after receiving the waters of Ihe Medlock and Irk. falls into
the Mersey about 10 miles from Manchester. The area of
the municipal borough of Manchester is 6.349 acres, and of
the parliamentary borough 4.294 acres. For parliamentary
purposes it is divided into six electoral districts, each of
which returns one member to the House of Commons.
Thorouiihfares and I'lihlic I'arks. — Market Street, having
at its western end the Hoyal Exchange, the great mart of
the city, is the central thoroughfare. lieliiiul the Exchange
is St. Ann"s Square, one of the chief shopping quarters. It
leads into Deansgale, which is full of hands<jme .shops and
oflices. Out of Ueansgate is King .Street, in wliich are the
principal banks and insurance oflices. Portland .Street and
^losley Street contain many large warehouses of consid-
erable architectural pretensions. From St. Peter's .S<juare,
which divides Mosley Street into two, proceeds a great arte-
rial thoroughfare, Oxfonl Street. From the lioval Exchange
a thoroughfare runs northward past the catfie<lral to the
Bury New Koad. This ascends almost the only high grouml
in the inimediale vieinily of Manchester, and, traversing the
semi-fashionable suburb of Higher Brougliton (iiroiK-rly in
Salford), leails to Kersul Moor, from which is olilainable a
fine view of .Mani'hesler under its canopy of smoke. JIanv
of the wealthy business men reside in tlie suburbs .S. of the
city, and at .Sale, Bowdoii, and Allrincliam. in Cheshire.
Manchester proper has six public parks. Of these the chief
are l^ueeu's Park (:t0 acres), and, also on the northeast, the
pretty Philips Park (31 acre.s), in close proximity to the
densely pomiliited districts of Ancoals and Bradford. Alex-
andra Park (60 acres), the most extensive and piclures<|ue
of all, is at Moss Side, on the S. In the norlheiu-'teni and
very populous districts of the city there are five recreation-
grounds. At Old TrafTonl are situated the Koyal Botanical
Gardens. For Peel Park and other Salford open sjiaces,
see Sai.i-'orI).
Public liiiildinijs. — The principal of these is the «n>hi-
teilurally magniticeiil and [irofiisely decoraleil new Town
Hall (18t).S-T7) in AIIktI .Sipiare. considennl to be the finest
municipal building in the kingdom. It is Gothic in style,
covers 8,(X)0 s<). yards, ami contains more than 2.10 ro<im.s.
The building, site, etc., cost, uii to ISJK). more than £I.(HKI.-
0(H) .sterling. The new Uoyal Exchange (IH69). in Ihe Italian
style, is .sjiid to be the largest in Eumpe devoted tocomnier-
eial uses. The (ieiieral Posl-oflice (1S81-87I. U'tween Brown
.Street and S|iring(iardens. is in the Italian Kenaissance style,
and c-osl i'100,0(K). The same sum was ex|H'iided on Ihe
erection of Ihe .\ssize Courts (IS61-64I. (ireat Hucie Strrel.
a noble pile of buildings in Hccoraled Gothic. The .\rt tial-
lery in Mosley Stnvt, formerly the Hoyal Inslilution. n fine
biiililiiig. now belongs to Ihe coqMinilion, anil is '
ter what the National (iatlery is to I/<milon. Th^
Hall in Peter .St reel, f or imblic nuH'tiiic". concert >
on the site of that in which Ihe .\iili-('orn-law I !
its greatest meetings. The callunlral, the old |ui' • h
of Manchester, founde<l in 1422 and n'stopwl in nieiit liine.s,
has a fine choir, and il.s six side cha|H'ls make it. wilh the
exception of that of Coventry, the wiilest chiin'h in England.
The .Memorial Hall, in Albert .S<]uar<', is an oliflce built by
510
MANCIIKSTER
Nonconformists in memory of tlie 2.000 ministers ejected in
1662. Tlio Koyal Iiilirnmry (IT.Vi-iyW)). a spacious cuiad-
raii^'ila'' l>iiil>ling. is in I'icoaililly. an ciisteru tonlimialion
of Market Streetr It cuMtuins ;io() licds. and lias annually an
averajre of 4,(K)0 in- and more than 20.000 out-patients.
Ptiblic and Kditcaiional Instifutiuns, Sucieties, etc. —
Owens College, founded in 18-46 as a univei-sity in miniature
by John Owens, who bequeathed flOO.tXtO for the purnose. is
now. with some other provincial colleges, atliliated totlic new
Victoria University, the lieadipiarters of which are in Man-
chester. The tiratumar School. fi)un<led in 15!I2 by Hugh Old-
ham. IJishop of Kxeter. lias many exhibitions to Oxford and
Cambridge. I'hetham lIos|>ital, for the education of poor
boys.and the Chethani Library were founded in 1G51 liy Iluni-
phVev Chethani. Its library, open to the public, iirobably is
the oldest free library in the kingdom. There are 00 Hoard
schools and about IHO elementary schools, with an attend-
ance of more than 72.000 scholars. Manchester was the first
provincial town to avail itself of the Public Libraries .Vet of
1850. The headiiuarlcrs of the free pulilic libraries of Jlan-
chcster is that in the old Tiiwii Hall in King .Street. It con-
tains a reference library open to all comers, and a lending li-
brary. It has seven branch free-leniling libraries and news-
rooms, and the luimlier of volumes available for general use is
considerably more than 200.000. A technical school, with
workshops attacheii to it. is now supported by the corpora-
tion in connection with the old Jlcclianics' Institution. The
Manchester Athena'um. a literary institution with library.
news-room, and lecture-room, was founded l)y Kichard Cob-
den and others for young men of the middle class. Of the
many literary and scientific societies, the oldest, founded in
179lJ is the iLiterary and Philosophical Society. The Chet-
ham Society issues a valuable series of works on the history,
biography, and general antiiiuilies of Lancashire and Chesh-
ire. There are upward of 180 places of worship beli)iiging
to the Church of England, and about twice that niiinber
lielonging to Xonconformi.sts. There are 12 Roman Catho-
lic churches, several monasteries and convents, and 6 syna-
gogues. Manchester has five theaters, tlie chief of which,
the Theatre lloyal, has the most capacious stage of any out
of London. The principal music-hall is the Palace of Va-
rieties. The Manchester races are among the best attended
in the north of England. In 18!)3 the city contained 524
public-houses and 2.410 beer-houses.
Municipal Oocernmenf. — Manchester is governed by a
lord mayor and corporation. The corporation owns the
markets, gas-works, and water-works, and the local tram-
ways are mainly its property. It is now (1894) construi't-
ing, at an enormous cost, a system of water-works to liring
a new su[)ply of water from the Lake of Thirlmere in Cum-
berland ; and has obtained powers for the supplying of elec-
tric light. It has erected public baths and abattoirs, and
has laid out two public cemeteries. The public free libra-
ries and parks, the Technical School, the Art Gallery (for
which it has expended many thousands of pounds in the
purcha.se of works of arl) — all belong to it and are ad-
ministered by it. Tlic^ Manchester coriioratioii derives from
its markets, gas and water works, a large revenue, which
is applied to relieve the ratepayers and in public improve-
ments. In 1898 its in(rome from all sources was £1,254,647,
and its total expenditure £1,289.183. Manchester has also
an energetic school board, which has erected a number of
public elementary schools.
Mann fad ure.i. Commerce, etc. — There are still in Man-
chester proper a large nuiiiber of factories and works in
which tlie various processes of the cotton-inanufacturc,
calico-printing among them, are carried on, sometimes on a
very extensive scale, but cotton-spinning itself is receiling
from Manchester to outlying districts, ila'liine and boiler
making, iron-founding, chemical works, and literally hun-
dreds of other industries are displacing the ancient suprem-
acy of cottiiii. Manchester is, moreover, not only a great
manufacturing city, but a great emporium and commercial
center. .Most of the maiiuracturers and other producers of
the busy towns surrounding .Manchester — within 20 miles of
it there is a population of 8.()IM).000 — have places of business
in Manchester, and make the ex<liaiige their rendezvous.
Thus a worldwide commerce is centered in JIanchester. Its
enormous industrial interests are watched over by the cham-
ber of commerce. This boriv sometimes makes independent
inquiries at ilsuwn cost, and its suggestions in regard to in-
dustrial and other legislation and the duties of the imperial
Government in furtherance of commerce and nnvigalicin arc
always allentively considered by the ministry of the day.
The Ship-canal. — Jlanehester has ampip communication
by railway with all parts of Great Britain, and licfore the
railway era prolile<l Ijy canal coiiimuiiicatinn with the prin-
cipal centers of industry and jiopulation in Kngland. Its
chief tratlic was with Liverpool, through which it received
its imports of raw cotton ami foodstuirs. ami, like the other
districts of South Lancashire, exported its manufactured
textiles and the many other products of its industry. The
payments for Liverpool duck-dues and the carriage of goods
liy the Liverjioil ami Manchester Kaihvay were a consider-
aiile tax on the industries centered in Manchester, and it
was thought that a great saving wcmld be ellected if the
city were jilaced by a ship-canal in direct water com-
munication with the sea. In 1882, when Parliament was
asked to sanction the construction of a ship-canal from the
estuary of the Mersey to MancliestL'r. the underlaking was
so strongly opposed by Livcrpo^il that it was not until 1885,
and after an expenditure of £200.00(1. that the act of Parlia-
ment coiisliliiting the comjiany was passed. Its capital
was ultimately fixed at £10.000,000 .sterling, which was
raised with ditiicultv, not more than £8,000.000 being sul>-
scribed in the Maneliester district. The work was begun in
Nov., 1887. Before it was finished the whole cajiital of the
company was exhausted, ami the Maiu'hcster corjioration
advanced a loan of £5,000.000 sterling, on the eoiidilion,
whiili was agreed to. that it should have the virtual control
of the administration of the canal, through being repre-
sented by eleven inemljcrs on the board <if twenty-one di-
rectors. The canal was informally opened for traflic on
New Year's Day, 1894, and formally on May 21. with full
state ceremonies, Viy CJueen Victoria in per.son. The canal,
being much of its course a canalized river, is 35J miles
limg, twice the width of the Suez Canal, and has a deiith
of 26 feet, allowing vessels of the greatest burden to sail
from the Mersey to JIanchester. I''or a detailed description
of its route and the manner of its construction, see Suip-
CA.VALS.
From the extensive quays and wharfages at the principal
points on the canal, it has been described as one large dock.
At Manchester and Salford there are seven docks with a
total water area of 104 acres, and about 5 miles of quays,
occupying an area of 152 acres. \'\> to .lune. 1894, the chief
deveiopiiieiit of the canal traflic had been through coasting
vessels to and from Hritish ports, and with llulland, France,
and Spain. According to an oflieial report for the first five
months of 1894 the proceeds of traflic on the canal during
that period amounted to £88,701. The merchandise trans-
ported in seagoing vessels amounted to 211.915 tons; that
transported in barges to 63,785 tons ; while the passengers
numbered 823,056.
Populnfion, etc. — At the census of 1891 the population of
Manchester was 505.843. In 1898 the registrar-general es-
timated it at 515,598, and that of Salford at 208,481: to-
gether, 719,029, the largest urban population in the United
Kingdom with the exception of that of London. In 1881 the
po|mlation of Manchester was only 841.414: the sulisequent
increase has been in some measure due to the addition to Man-
chester in 1890 of outlving townships. t)f the population of
Manchester in 1891 26,894 persons (9,444 males and 16,950
females) were employed in the textile industries, chiefly cot-
ton, and 7,200 in tlie production of machinery of various
kinds. The foreign population. 8.941 in number, included
5.078 natives of Russia and Kussian Poland. 2,016 natives of
(icrmany and Austria-Hungary, and 431 natives of the U. S.
Ill 18!Ki'tlie death-rate was the very high one of 24'9 per
1.000.
J/iston/. — In the sixteenth century Manchester was noted
for its woolens, which, singularly enough, were called "cot-
tons" (supposed to be a corruiition of "coalings") long
before the textile nse of the cotton-plant was known in
England. Traces of tlie use of cotton woven in the textile
manufactories of Manchester are found loward the middle
of the seventeenth cenlury, but yarn spun of cotton was
used by the weaver only as weft and not as warp until in the
latter half nf the eighle'enth century textile fabrics wholly of
cotton were made possilile by llargreave.s's inventicui of the
spinning-jenny and Arkwright's of the rollers. (See Cot-
ton MAMKAc'rrKr.s and Laxcasiiihk under lli-ilnrti.) Man-
chester sided with the Parliament ill the great civil war iif
the .seventeenth century, while in the eighteenth century it
appears to have developed to some extent .laeolpite sym-
pathies. Except under Cromwell's Protectorate. iNlaii-
cliestcr was without parliamentary reiiresentalion. but the
Reform Act of 1882 gave it two memt>ers. In still more re-
MAXCHESTKR
MANCHURIA
ill
cent times it became very iraportiiiit politicallr a.s the head-
quarters of tlle A.NTI-foRN-LAW liKAOIK ((/. ('.'). Ill 1M53 it
was iiiailo a city by royal charter. A bishopric of Manchester
was created in 1847. See Baines, J/in/ury of lite Cuunly
Palnline uf Laiirimler (latest edition, lHS6-!»;t), vol. ii.,
uniler Parmh of Manchesler; Saintsbury, Mimchifsler, 1(W7
(a compact and lively history of Manclu'sler from the ear-
liest times to the date of publication); Kelly, Directory of
Lonatnliire, Lit-erjMol, and JJanchesler (18!»2).
Fra.scis Ksfinasse.
Miinchesler: town; Hartford co.. Conn, (for hxation of
county, see map of Connecticut, ref. H-I) ; on the IIiK-kanum
river, and the X. Y. and X. K liailroad ; 8 miles K. of
Hartford. It contains the silk-mills of one firm, which
cover about 8 acres of (ground and eni|iloy about 2,(X)0 per-
sons; it paper-mills; a manufactory of electric dynamos,
generators, and motors, and one of incandescent lamps; and
cotton. Woolen, slockini't, needle, and other factories. The
town is lichted by electricity, and has water and sewerage
systems, electric .streel-railwav, lii;,'h school library, and a
weekly ncwspai)er. Pop. (1880) 6,4«2 ; ( 181KI) 8,222.'
Editor ok " .Satiriiav IIkrald."
Mnnchpstor : city; capital fif Delaware in., la. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Iowa. ref. 4-^1) ; on the Maipioketa
river, and tlu> 111, Cent. Railroad ; 47 miles \V. of Dubucpie.
It hiLs a \\\)i\\ school, library and readiiif.'-rooin (found.-d in
188:3), conlainiu}; !l,()OU volumes, several mills and factories,
larRC dairy trade, and two weekly newspapers, an<l is priiu-i-
pallv enpiKed in farming and dairyinj^. Pop. (1880)2,27.5;
(18!m)2.:i44; (1895)2,683,
Mnnclicstpr: village; Washtenaw co., Mich, (for loca-
tion of county, see map ot Michigan, ref. 8-.J) ; on the Lake
Shore and Mich. S. Railway: 22 miles .S. of Ann Arl)or, 5.5
miles W. of Di'troit. It is in an agricultural region, has con-
siderable fruit interests, and contains large roller-process
flour-mills, several planing-mills, foundry and machine-
shops, brewery, stone-boat factory, book-publishing and sta-
tionery manufacturing-house, n-frigenilor-factory, electric-
light plant, and a weekly newspaper. Pop, (1880) 1,1.56;
(18!H)) 1,101 ; (1894) 1,162. " Editor of " Entkrprise."
Mancliostpr: city (sett!e<l in 1772, incorporated as the
town of Derryfield in 1751, name changed to .Manchester in
1810, made acily in 1846); one of the ca|iitals of Hillsboro
CO., X. II. (for lixation of county, see map of Xew Hamp-
shire, ref. 10-E); on both sides of the Merrimack river, at
the mouth of the Piscataipiog river.and on the Concord and
Montreal and the Hostoii and Maine railways ; 16 miles S. of
Concord. The .Vmoskeag Falls, the highest on the Mer-
rimack river, with a fall of .54 ft, 10 in., provide a valu-
able waliT-power, which is utilized by means of two canals
by four large manufacturing establishments. The city owes
its importance as a manufacturing center to the Anios-
keag .Manufacturing Company, which has controlled the
water-power of the .Merrimack river for many years. The
census returns of 1800 showed that 371 manufacturing es-
tablishments (renresenting .5;J industries) re|)orted. These
had a combined capital of |;21.4t!2.(}.8;t; emploved 14,467
persons; paid *o,.5.58,!M)2 for wages and ii:10.842,6'45 for ma-
terial ; anil had priHlucts valued at ^18,654,547. The prin-
cipal indiistrv was the manufiiiture of cotton goinls, which
had 4 establishments, ^14.017.554 capital, and il.617 em-
plovees; paid if :i.4 1 7.235 for wages and 4=6.441.521 for ma-
terials; and had products valued at if 10.!I57,21!I. Xext in
importance was tlie manufacture of foundry and machine-
shop products, whi<-h had 10 establishments, f.583,014 capi-
tal, and 205 employees; paid :jtl06.616 for wages and #317.-
4il4 for imiterials ; and had products valued at $.506.11,5.
The .Vmoskeag, .Manchester. Stark, and .Vinnry mills have
in the aggregate 478,(K)0 spindles and 15.H(Hi lixims. and
make about 287 miles of cloth imt day, including sheetings,
drillings, ginghams, denims, tickings, seamle.«s bags, etc.
The .Manchester locomotive-works, with a cajiital of f 150,-
000, have a capacity of .50 .\moskeag steam hre-engines |H-r
annum and 14 liK'omotives per monlh. Other manufactories
make about I'l.tMH) dozen pairs of stiK'kings imt annum. 26
tons of paper [mt day. and a large amount of edge-tiH>ls, tiles,
machinery, carriages, leather, boot sand shoes, wood-work, ale,
needles, etc. The citv ha-s a svstem of water-works com-
pleted in 1874 at a cost of if 1500.000, with a reservoir of
16,(X)O,0O0 gal, capacity, fed from I>ake Ma-ssaU'sic, 4 miles
from the city. Tlie city contains a Roman Catholic cathe-
dral, aciuleiny, convent, and orphan asylum ; Stale Industrial
School ; county coert-bouse ; L . S. Itovernmcnt building that
cost 1250.000; a hos[iital ; a high school, 8 grammar schoola,
and a training-scluxjl for leai-hers ; 5 public parks; public
library, with over 32,(K>0 volumes, foundi-d in 18.54 ; 5 na-
tional banks, with combined capital of |;.5.50,00(J, and 6 sav-
ings-banks, with surplus of $8.5,5,500; and 3 daily. 2 s<-ini-
weeklv, 8 weekly, and 6 monthly iM-riodicals. l^ip. (I88U)
32.630 ; (IH'jo, 44.126. Editor ok " L'.sio.s."
Muiichester : village; Adams co.. (). (for location of
county, see map of Ohio, ref. 8-1)) ; on the Ohio river, and
the Clies. and O. Railway; 40 miles \V. of Portsmouth. 72
miles E. by S. of Cineinnali. It is a 5liipping-|M>int for a
large agricultural n-gion, and has three churches. Soldiers'
Memorial Hall, weekly newspaper, flour and planing mills,
and a furniture-factory. Pop. (1880) 1,455; (18U0) 1 It65 •
(1893) estimated, 2,100.' Editor of " Si.i.VAL."
Mnnohpster: town; one of the capitals of Bennington
CO.. Vt. (fur location of county, sec niai> of Vermont, ref.
9-B); on the Battenkill river, and the Benn. and Rutland
Railway; ;J0 miles S. of Rutland. It is one of the oldest
settled towns in the .State, has a picturesijue mountain liga-
tion, contains several miles of marble sidewalk, and is a
(jopular summer resort. It is the seat of Burr and Burton
Seminary, and of a classical schoid for both sexes. Water
is bottled from newlv discovered mineral springs. Pop.
(1880) 1.928 ; (1890) l,i)07. Editor of " JotR.sAL."
Mniicliestor: citv; Chesterfield co., Va. (for location of
eounly. see map of Virginia, ref. 6-II) ; on the James river,
and the Richmoml and Danville Railroad ; on[iosite Rich-
mond. It is in an agricultural and coal-mining region, is
principally engaged in manufacturing, and has a daily
newsjiaper. Pop. (1880) .5,729 ; (1890) 9,246.
Maiiclipstcr New Cullp^e: a theological school at Ox-
ford, England, not connected with the university, but sup-
|K)rtcd mainly by Cnitariaiis for the education of'lluir min-
i.-^ters. It is a lineal succes.«or of the famous Warreiilon
Academy, in which Priestley taught and Malthus was edu-
cated. As Manchester Academy it received its first class
in 1786. It has had a migratory existence. In 180;J it was
moved to and remained in York till 1840, when it retunied
to Manchester. In 1853 it was transferred to London, and
in 1889 to Oxford, where it has Iwen housed in new build-
ings that compare favorably with those of the university.
It was first called Manchester Xew College on its return to
Manchester in 1840. Its most famous teacher was Dr. .lames
Martineau, who joined the faculty in 1840 and retired in
188.5. His department was that of mental, moral, and re-
ligious philosophy. The head of the college is now Dr.
James Druinnioiul; Prof. Charles B. I'ptoiianilProf. J. Estlin
Carpenter arc his colleagues in the departments of philoso-
phy. Xew Testament criticism, and Oriental languages and
religions. John W. Ciiadwick.
Manchinppl' [from Span. m«njnm7/o, deriv. of mamaua,
ap[ile] : a very poisonous evergreen tree of the West Indies,
the Ilij>pot»ane maiicinella, Iwlonging to the family Ku/ilior-
binceie. Its white lalex or juice burns the skin ujK)n which
it falls. To ta.ste its fragrant fruit would be ilangerous were
it not that the mouth is at once blisteretl by it. It isanirmed
that men have died from sleeping in its shade, but it is l»e-
lieved that the bark of the Bii/nutiia Iriiruxylun (which
often grows near by) is an antidote to the |iois<in. The
beautiful wimxI is of excellent tjuality, but is jMii.simous even
when dry. The bastanl manehineel of the West Indies, also
poisonous, is I'ameriirid Itili folia, family Apncynacrtr.
Manchuria : the land of the Manchus; an extensive re-
gion of Northeastern Asia, forming the most easterly part
of the Chinese empire. It extends from 40 to .53° 30 N.
lat.. and from 118 to 135 E. Imi. It is bouiidi-<l on the S.
by Kiirea and the (lulf of I.iao-tung. on the W. by .Mon-
golia, and N. and E. by Asiatic Russia, from which it is
separatwl by the Amur and the I'suri rivers. The country
formerly cxtemleil as far N. as 58 N. lat. and as far E. as
142 E. Ion., but in I860 the parts which lay N. of the .\mur
and E. of the I'suri were cwleil to Russia. (See Mahitihk
Provixce.) Its pn'sent area is cstimeti-d at 362.:tlO jxi.
miles, and its population (mostly Chinese) at from 7,5«»O,00O
to 18,000,000.
Phy»ienl Featurex. — Two well-marked natural divisions
present lhems«'lyes. one draining to the N. and the other
to the S.. the dividing line U'lng a slightly elev«te<I ridge
which .stri'lehes weslwanl to Mongolia from the Shan-alin
or I/ong While Mountains, the true main chain of the
mountain system of the country, which runs in parallel
512
MANCINI
MAND,=EANS
ridccs from N. E. to S. W. The northern division consists
of large plati-ttiis, bordered on thi- W. by the llinjian (or
Khingan) Mountains, and travursed by several broad valleys,
of whieh that of the Siingari is the most reinarkal>le. lioth
plateaus and mountains are covered witli many ilense forests,
in whieh roam the tiger and other wild aninuils. Jlost of
the heavy timt)er used in Xorlh China comes from the vir-
gin forests of .'\IaiK-huria, or from the neutral strip whicli
separates it from Korea. The valleys and the great alluvial
plains of the southern division are well cultivated, and yield
large crops of i)ulse, barley, wheat, millet, maize, rice, cotton,
indigo, tobacco, scsamum, etc. (iinseng and rhubarb arc
also extensively produced.
The chief rivers are the Sungari, the Ilurka, and the I'suri,
which rise on the north side of the Slian-aiin. and How north-
ward to the .\mur, and the Liao, wliich rises in Mongolia, and
flows K. and S. into the tiulf of Liao-lung. Simieuf tlic peaks
of the .Shan-alin attain heights of from 10.000 to I'J.OOO feet.
(ViHio/e.— The climate is healthful l)ut severe, the temper-
ature ranging from 10' F. below zero to 90' and !).") F. above.
The rivers are frozen from four and a half to five months
every year, during which all navigation ceases.
Divinions. — For administrative purposes Manchuria isdi-
Tided into three provinces — Liao-tungor SniNo-Kixo (q. r.) in
the S., Kirin in the center, and Tsitsiliar in the X. Mukden,
also known as Sliin-yang and Fung-t'ieii-foo, is the capital.
Inliabilants. — The Jlanchus, wlio now form about one-
twelfth of the population, are a Tartar people of Tungusic
origin, descendants of the .Jurchin or Niu-ehi, who overran
Xorthern Cliina in the twelfth century and cslablislied the
Kin or Golden dynasty (later overturned by the Mongols),
anil of the trilies who followed Xurhachu '(15.TJ-1626) and
his successors in his conquest of Liao-tungand Liao-si, in
the first half of tlic seventeenth century, who aided the
(."hinese general Wu-san-kwei in suppressing the rebel Li-
tse-ching, and who retained the country for themselves, es-
tablishing (in 104;i) the 'J'ct-Tsiiiff or "(ircat Pure" dynasty
now in power in Cliina. Though for military purposes they
are divided into "eight banners," they arc a (piict, inolTen-
sive people, noted for their politeness, ami are rapidly being
outnumbered by ('hinese settlers from the northern prov-
inces. They now speak the Chinese language, and Chinese
is the only language taught in their schools. Their own
language is practically dead. K. L.
.Maneini, miflin-cheenM : the name of an Italian family
whicli during the minority of Louis XIV. played a very
prominent part in the history of the French court. The
father, Miclicle Lorenzo Maneini, married in 1634 a sister
of Cardinal Mazarin ; she bore him five daughters, and to
proviile for this " battalion of nieces " by means of good
marriages was for several years the chief aim of their
uncle's policy. I. Laire (l(5:ir)-.57) married the Duke of
Mercoeur, and was mother of the Duke of Vcndome. II.
Olvmpb (16;i9-lT0H) married tli(' Prince of Carignan, and
was mother of Prince Eugene. 111. Marik (1640-1715) mar-
ried Prince Colonna, but left hira and died in obscurity.
Though unprepossessing in appearance, she was accom-
plished and attractive, and the young Louis XIV. became so
enamored of her that he proposed to marry her, but was pre-
vented by her uncle. 1\ . HoRTKXSK (l()4(;-!)!l) married the
Marquis of La .Meilleraye, who assumed the title of Duke of
Mazarin. V, Mahie-An.vb (1040-1714) married the Duke of
liouillon. It is said that they weiv all at one time or another
the mistresses of Louis XIV.
Mnncini, Pas(jiale Stanislas: lawyer and statesman;
b. near Ariano in 1817: at an early age became prominent
as a publicist ; took a lively part in the Xeapolitan move-
ments of 1848, after which he retired to Turin with his wife
(the gifted poetess, Laura Beatrice Oliva Maneini, who died
in 1869), anil there [iracticed with great success as ati advo-
cate. In IMol h(' was elected Professor iif International Law
in the University of Turin, where his lectures were enthusi-
astically praised. In IH.'j.'j Cavour invited Maneini to take
])art in the Consiglio ilel Contenzioso Diplomatico. As an
opposition member of Parliament the speeches of Man-,
cud were listened to with lively interest. In 1862 he was
for a short tinnr Minister of Public Instruction while Kat-
tazzi was president of the council. He afterward lived in
Rome, being at the .same time a dejmty in Parliament, a jiro-
fessor in the university, and an active advocate. In the peace
conference at (ihent in 187H Maneini, as representative from
Italy, was chosim president of llie congress, lie pulilislied
in 1873 his /'relnzitmi di Diriitu Jnttrnaziunale, and also
an a<Imirnhle essav on Maohiavelli. He was Minister of For-
eign Affairs in 1881-83. D. Dec, 1888.
Manco, maanko, called Manco Inca, Inca Manco, and by
some authors Manco Inia Vupan(iui, or Manco Capac 11.:
son of lliiaina Ca|iac, Inca sovereign of Peru, anil brother
of Hiiascar; b. aliout l.'iOO. After the ileatli of Atahualpa
and Huascar he became the rightful sovereign of the Inca
empire. As Pizarro and his Spaniards apjiroached Cuzco
(Xov., I.'i33) Manco, judging that resistance would ,be use-
less, went out to meet them peacefully: he proved his legal
claims, which were so far recognized that, by Pizarro's
order, he was crowned at Cuzco according to the ancient
ceremonies; but his sovereignty was little more than an
empty show, the Spaniards being now the real ina.sters of
Peru. Manco served them as a loyal ally, and even marched
with them against the hostile army of (juiziiuiz: later he
detailed an army to accompany Alniagro to Chili, but his
position became more and more irksome, until he wius virtu-
ally a ]irisoiier in Cuzco. In Apr., 1636. he escaped, speedily
raised an army of Indians, being recognized everywhere as
Inca, and for several months licsieged Cuzco, then under the
conimand of Hernando and Juan Pizarro. The Spaniards
were driven to great exireniities. losing many men, among
them .luan Pizarro; anil meanwhile other armies, acting
under the I ilea's orders, attacked the various S[iaiiish strong-
holds, .so that for a time they were threatened with. the loss
of Peru. Tlie pressing danger brought strong re-enforce-
ments from Panama, (iiiatiiiiala. and .Mexico. On the re-
turn of Almagro from Chili Manco attacked him at Yucay
(early in l.")37), but was defeated. Later in the same year
he was driven into the mountains between the rivers Apuri-
iiiac and Vilcamayu, where he maintained his independence
and kept up a predatory war on the S]ianiarils. When the
younger Almagro rebi'lled (lo41). Jlaiieo sent a force to as-
sist him. and on the defeat of that leader he gave refuge to
some of his fugitive fidlowers. In a iiuarrcl he was killed
by one of these men (1544). Herbert H. Smith,
Maiico Capac, or Ccapnc : See Incas.
Maiidsp'aiis: a religious sect in South Baliylonia. living
in great poverty in the marshy land near Wasit, Basra, Suk
Esh-Shiyuch, and in Chuzistan. Ignatius a .lesu in 1653
gave their numbers as 25.000: Sioulli in 1873 as 4,000.
'I'liey are erroneously called by Europeans "Christians of St.
John," " Xazarean.s,'' "Saba'ans." They call themselves Man-
da>ans — believers in Jhiinla (^vtSo-ii), i. c. jyuffTtKoi. Their
history is involved in great obscurity, their own traditions
in this respect being utterly worthless. They possess quite
an extensive religious literature, written in an Aranuean
dialect which is very similar to that. of the Babylonian Tal-
mud, and in a script similar to the one brought by Syriac
missionaries into Jlongolia and Manchuria. Their chief
works are Ginza (Treasure), called also A'/(//« liabbd (tireat
Book) ; Sidrd de Yahyd (Book of John), called also 7>('r<3.s/ie
detiKil/n' (Discourses of the Kings): (^oliisfa (Book of Songs) ;
D'limn; and A-\far Md/irds/iP (Book of the Signs of the
Zodiac). According to Xiildeke. these date from about 650-
900 A. I)., though they undoubtedly are ba.sed upon earlier
documents. It is diflicull to give a clear conception of
w hat the Manda^an religion teaches, as it shows very little
unity. It is a purely local religion, based upon old poly-
theistic ideas, to which elements have licen added drawn
from Baliylonian, Persian, .lewisli, Christ iaii, aiiel Jlani-
cha'an speculations. Acconling to Braiidl. lour layers can
be dislinguished in the earlier writings : (1) Oldest layer of
heathen linoslicism, jiolytheislic and full of mythological
ideas: (2) reproduction of Christian Gnostic ideas; (3) theo-
ries in regard to life after death, drawn from Persian
sources; (4) the .system of the " King of Light." which is
made up of Persian dualism and Christian iiionotheisiii.
The Niaiida'an religion seems to be based upon the idea
that the soul really belongs to a lielter world, that of the
First Life. It is only temporarily attached to the body;
it can be brought back to the world of spirit by the exercise
of those rights which the Maiuhean religion demands. The
ffods of lir/lit have cliained the powers of darkness in the
lower worid. Our world was created by the powers of the
Second Life, and was liailly made. Demons of darkness
try to drag men down from the world of light: but man
has been tauglil that he belongs to the higher regions. He
must worship the Mnnda of (ilori/, and must acquire that
cleanliness which is to lie found in rivers. In these he must
bathe, and then at death he will return to the shining ether.
To this original system many additions were made. The
MANDALAY
MAXDAML'S
513
story of John the Baptist must have reached the Miiiiila'ans
at ail early time, lie has become one of their henx^s.
'tther Christian eh'ments found entrance at u later date,
wlien they be;;an to style themselves Xazurui/f; bnt in
consei|uence of the Kesloriau propuKamla a hitler enmity
arose between tlif .MiiriiheiiMs anil ( utliolicism. They de-
clared the lluly Spirit and the Christian .Messiah, his son,
to be the authors of all false relijfion. They sneak of the
lyinf; prophet, who wius erneilied because of his lies. Chris-
tian institutions are said to be copied from those established
by their own Minula de JIayiif.
, LiTKKATiRK. — Ignatius a .)e.su, Karrntio . . . Christian-
crum Saneli Jtianiiis (Home, 16.'J2); 1). Chwolsohn, JJie
tSuabier iiiiil ilrr SsabiamitK (St. Petersburg, X^iTM); H.
I'etermann. lii'ixin tin Orient (Leipzi-;, ls(il: ii., pp. 8;i,
self.) ; M. X. Siouiri, Ktuths sur la reliyion den Soubbati
(I'aris, 1880); M. Xorberg, Codex yaxarif us (Ilafnial, 1817);
II. I'etermann, Tliesaurus, sen Liber Magnus (Leipzig,
1867); J. Kuliu},'. (^n/aula (.Stuttgart, 1867); T. XoKleke,
Mandaiir/ip (Iramiitatik (Halle, l87"i); A. .J. II. W. Hrandt,
Die Manddisclie Jieliqion (Leipzig. 188!>); Mandaische
tSchriflen . . . ubrrselzt und erifiulert (tiiitlingen. 18!)3) ;
Lagardc, Mittheilungen (iv., Gottingen, 181)1, pp. 12!t, seq.).
KiCUARU UOTTUEIL.
Man'dnlay : formerly capital of the kingdom of Burma,
and now uf British I'pper Burma: situated -i miles from
the Irawadi river, a little X. of Amarapura, the former capi-
tal (see map of X. India, ref. 8-L). It was founded in Wa'J,
and is laid out in three parallelograms, one within the
other, separated by walls, ditches, towers, palisa<li-s. and
other kinds of fortifications. The innermost iiarallelugram
is occupied by the king's palace, with a spiral tower rising
above his throne, and its gardens; the second by the mili-
tary and the government olTicials ; the thinl by the incr-
i-hants and mechanics. It was taken by the British in 18.'S5.
On Mar. 30, 1892, a large part of the city was burneil. I'op.
(IHlil) lHs,81.j. Revised by "Si. \V. Harrington,
Manda'iiins [Lat., liter., we command, 1st pers. plur. pres.
indie, of manda're, command] : a common-law writ issued
by a court (usually one of general jurisdiction) command-
ing the performance by the person (a public oflicer or officer
of a corporation) to whom it is issued of some particular
and spe<itic thing which the law j)rovides he shall do. Orig-
inally, in Kngland, law was administered by popular courts,
in which the people were at the .sjime time judges of the law-
anil of the fads. This sy.steni of [Hipidar courts soon gave
way to a .system of royal courts in which professional judges
learned in the law <iecided the (luestions of law, while the
<|ue.stions of fact were left to the juries, which are the direct
successors of the old popular courts. The substitution of
loyal and professional courts for popular tribunals was due to
the i.ssue by the king, who was from the earliest times coiisid-
erc<l to be the fountain of justice, of writs through which he
supplemented the injustice which was so characteristic of
the original system of popular courts. These writs origi-
nally issued from Chancery, and were m<Kleled upon the
writs which were developed on the Continent by the Carolin-
gian lawyers. Later, however, they were issued directly by
the royal courts tliems<'lves without the intervention of the
<diancellor. Soon most of the writs by which onlinary
actions at law were begun l)ecame wriis. as the law ex-
pressed it, ex debili) jnstillie, or writs of right, which issue<l
jLs of course upon the application of any person who deeme<l
himself aggrieved. While most of these writs U'came thus
open to any individual, certain of them still remainecl pre-
rogative in character — that is, the courts could n-fuse to
issue them if they thought the cause of justice would not be
subs<TVeil by their issue. Among these writs which re-
tained their prerogalivc character was the writ of miiiidamus.
Originally it was merely a means by which the crown might
exercise a general control over the action of its subordinate
ofTlcers. It finallv, however. U'caine one of the well-recog-
nized means by wliich one of the n>yal courts — namely, the
court of king's Wnch. in which the king was sup|Misecl al-
ways to l)e pre-si>nt — I'xercisecl the control, which on this ac-
count wius attributed to it over other trilmnals. While the
writ of mandamus became one of the well-recognized reme-
dies to be administered by the court of king's tK'neh, it
never became a remedy which was oi>cn to all individuals,
and which coiihl be made use of in the settlement of the or-
dinary relations of private life. It has always retained a
certain public character, and is even now made use of gen-
erally only where the public is concerned. It may not be
259
em|iloyed to enforce the |ierfonnance of an action by a
merely private person (Stale vs. Tolle, 71 Missouri (H.5. 'in
this ca.se the court refused to issue it in order to force an
executor to publish a notice of the sale of real estate. .See
also State vs. Turnpike fumpany, 10 Ohio State SOW, where
it was refusi-d to enforce the |HTformanec of a merely pri-
vate contract); but issues only to an administrative or in-
ferior judicial authority or to a municipal or a private cor-
p<iration where such private coriKiration is regarded as act-
ing somewhat as a fjoveniniental agent.
The only exception to the rule of the public nature (pf
this remedy is to lie found in .some cases of its i.ssue to ofli-
cers of private cor|K)rations. Thus it lies to <'ompel the sur-
render of cor|K>rate books and records to officers jprojierly
entitled to have them. (Ameriran Hailway t'raij Cuinpau'y
vs. Haven, 101 Milss. 398.) Here the theory of its Insuc is
that it is to the public ailvantage that officers in these cor-
porations shall jpcrform regularly the duties imposed ufHin
them by law. Another result of its public character is that
the people or the State is, nominally at least, a party to the
action which results from its issue." The title of the action
instituted by a writ of mandamus is almost invariably the
State or the [leople on the relation of sf^me private individual
against the perscm to whom the writ is issued.
The fact that the writ was originally issue<l by the
court of king's Ix-nch, the acknowledged su])erior of all
other Knglish courts, has, like other incidents of its origin
anil early history, had an imi>ortant inlluence in deciding
what court in tlie V. S. may issue it. This is determined
very largely by statute, but at the same time is deter-
minid in aicordance with its history. It is usually issued
by the common-law court of general jurisdiction, tfie court
which has inherited the jurisdiction of the court of king's
bench. As a result, it is not i.ssued by a court |ioss»>ssing ap-
pellate jurisdiction only. (State vs. )iiddle. 36 Indiana 138 ;
Con-ell vs. Buckelew, 14 California (>40.) The only (Kissible
exception to the rule is to be found in the case where the
writ is issued to enforce an already acquired juris<iiction, as,
for example, where it is issued to' enforce the payment of a
judgment already obtained in the a|i|iellate court, and which
some public authority has refused to satisfy. (A'x parte
Crane, 5 Peters 189. AV parte Bradley, 7 Wallace 365.) Fur-
ther, it may be issued by an ap|ii-llate court to an inferior
court, to order such court to exercise its jurisdiction, when
it may be regarded as is.sucd either in the exercise of an a\>-
pellate jurisdiction, fir as in aid of an already acijuired
jurisdiction. People vs. Haron, 18 .Mirhigan 247.
While the whole tendency of modern development has
been to assimilate the writ of mandamus more and more to
an ordinary action {Commonwealth vs. Denison, 24 Howard
66). never! lieless, as a result of its originally i)rerogative
characteristics the issue of the writ still lies in the discretion
of the court. This discretion, however, is a legal dis»retion,
and therefore the ile<ision of the court to which application
is made for its issue is geninilly reganUd as appealable.
(People vs. Hoard of Pulire. 107 ^ew York 2;t.5, anil People
v.s. Chapin, 104 Xew York 96.) Another effect of its origi-
nally prerogative chanicler is that it is at the present time an
extraordinary remedy, that is, it will never issue where there
is another a<fei|Uate remedy. {People v.s. llairkins, 46 Xew
Vork 9. and State vs. Supervisor. 26 Wisconsin 79.) It has
been held by the courts that neither a civil action for dam-
ages against oflicers for neglect of duty nor the remeily by
indictment is an a<le(|uate remedy. Peofile vs. tireiil, .58
Xew Vork 295, 306, and Fremont vs. Crippen, 10 Califor-
nia 211.
The purpose of tlie issue of the writ is also somewhat
peculiar. This is, as it originally was and as the meaning of
the Latin word by which the writ is known would imply, to
command directly the performance by the jiersou to whom
it is issued of some particular and s|K>cillc thing which the
law provides he shall do. It corres[«>nds as a public legal
remedy .somewhat to the private legal remedy of S|H-cinc
performance.
As the pur|)OSe of the writ i.i to enforce the performance
by public or fpiasi-public agencies of tli ' - ■' illy
requinti by the law, the writ will issue • ih'e
Government, both administrative lu.l ....iiter
what their rank may In? {Cniled Sftttirt, 108
United Slates 378): but will not i .Iml the dis-
cretion of even the humblest officer. Ihiriiii ■' cer
is of no signiflcani-e. The issue of the writ il .•«
allogelher u|>on the character of the duty, wiicui.r minis-
terial or discretionary, whose |>erfonnancc it is sought to
514
MAN DAN
MANDATE
enforce. Tlio only possible t'Xce|itioii to this rule is to be
found in the case of the President of the V. S., ajjainst
whiini the writ has never been issued, and against whom it
is fair to suppose it never will be issued, on account of the
reluctance of the court to interfere with the executive.
Most of the State courts extend this exception to llie
Governor also. (Sf(i/e vs. Drew, 17 Florida 07, and Slate
vs. 7'«H'«.s-. 8 (ieorgia ;}(ii»,;S7"2.) While the spirit of the rule as
todiscretion is the same when the iiiinnlamiis is issued to ad-
ministrative as it is when it is issued to judicial olVicers, the
fact that judicial oflieers have as a rule to perforu! only dis-
cretionary duties, wherea^s in the case of admiiii.stralive odi-
cers unmy. if not most, of theirduties are ministerial in char-
acter, a iiraclical difTerence arises from the application of
tills rule to these different authorities. Thus the maiKhiinns
almost never issues to inferior courts to compel the per-
foruumce of a specific action. It issues merely to force such
bodies to exercise their discretion where they have refused
toexerciseit, on the ground thattheduty of exercising their
discretion is a ministerial duty, while the way in which
they shall exercise it is of course a matter of discretion. (Ex
parte Loring. 94 Uniteil States 418.) The rule is the same
in the case of discretionary duties of administrative officers ;
here, as in the case of judic'ial officers, it is obligatory upon
them to exercise their discretion in some way, and their
negligence in this regard is considereil to be the violation of
a ministerial duty. People vs. Auditors. H'i New York 80.
While the main purpose of the mandamus is to protect
private rights from eiicroa<'hmcnt by the officers of the
Government, it is also made use of merely to maintain the
law, where no particular private right is violatid. While
there is some conflict upon this point, by far the l)etter rule,
both from the point of view of political expediency and from
that of legal authority, is that in the case of matters afTecling
the public as a whole any individual cil izen may apply to the
court for the issue of the mayidamiis to comjiel the per-
formance by public officers or corjjorations of duties im-
posed upon them by the lavr. {Lnion Pacific Uailway
Company vs. Hall, i)l United States .'J43, 3.w.) In these
cases not only the individual citizen, but also the proper of-
ficers of the Government, may apply to the court for the
writ. See Attorney General vs. Boaton, 123 Mass. 460.
The practice of the writ is, of course, regulated in detail
and somewhat differently by the statutes of the different
States, but generally as follows : The person desiring the
issue of the writ makes application by affidavits to the com-
petent court, which will then issue to tlie person against
whom it is demanded that it shall go, either a rule to show
cause why the m«nd(«»HS should not issue or what is known
as an alternative mandamus. This procedure ha^ the effect
of bringing the defendant into court, and on the return to
either the rule to show cause or the alternative mandamus,
the matter is decided upon its merits, and the iiuindamus is
either granted or refused. As has been said, the deeison
granting or refusing the writ is generally now regarded as
appealable. Frank J. Goodnow.
Maiidan : city; capita! of Morton co., N. I), (for location
of county, see map of North Dakota, ref. 3-D) ; on the Mis-
souri river at the mouth of the Heart river, and on the N.
Pac. Railroad : 5 miles W. of Bismarck, the Slate capital.
It is in a stock-raising region, has valuable coal mines in its
vicinity, ships large quantities of wool, and has three weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 23!); (1890) 1,328.
Miindans: See Skuax Ixdhns.
Manilu'ra. or Wandala : kingdom of Centr;il Africa. S.
of Horini ; emisists of a large, well-watered, very fertile, and
well-cultivated valley, partly encircled by high mountains.
The inhabitants are Mohammedan Negroes, who are indus-
trious in the manufacture of cotton fabrics and articles of
iron, and possess a celebrate<l bree<l of horses. The capital
is Doloo, with 30,000 iidiabitanls. The former capital.
Mora, was entirely destroyed in the war with Uonui in 1863.
Revised by C. C. Adams.
.tiandariii-diick : a species of dnck.Aix gulericulata.ra-
laled to the woiid-duck of North .\merica ; found in China
and .Japan. The plumage of the male is very gorgeous, va-
ried with brown, yellow, ami red, though the.se last two col-
ors are in subdued tints. Besides a crest of steel-green with
purplish reflections, there is a collar of loose reddish feathers,
and the innermost tertiary is modified into a fan shape, and
stands out from the rest of the wing. This duck is of'leii
kept in captivity, especiallv in China, where it is looked upon
as the emblem of conjugal attachment, F. A. Lucas.
Mandate [from Lat. maudn turn, command, mandate,
deriv. of maiida re, connuand] : at Ronum law, is a contract
by which the one party agrees to execute a commission re-
ceived from the other. The person commissioned (manJa-
larins) is bound to do what he has undertaken to do, pro-
vided it be lawful and possible, and is held to exercise
ordinary diligence, lie is of cour.se responsible for what-
ever comes into his haiuls in the execution of the commission.
The mandator is responsilile for expenses incurred by the
mandatary. The contract is a friendly one (ex amicilia);
an<l while the numdatary may receive a fee (honorarium,
satarium), he may not receive payment (merces). If it is
agreed that he shall be paid, the contract is not mandate,
but a hiring of service {Inralio conduetio operarum or open's).
Mandate may include an authorization to the mandatary
to represent the mandator in a legal act, e. g. in concluding
a contract or in conducting a law suit. In this case the
mandatary is the agent or attorney (/»w«rf//ttr) of the man-
dator. .Such an agent, however, must act in his own iwime.
The rights acquired do not vest directly in his princi|)al
(dominu.'i), but must be transferred to the latter. The lia-
bilities incurred are also primarily tho.se of the agent, al-
though his credil<irs may have recourse against the principal
on the ground that the latter has expressly or impliedly
authorized them to deal with the agent. An implieil guar-
anty of this sort does not result from the mandate to the
agent and his disclosure of his agency, but from other acts
of the [jfincipal, c. g. from his putting the agent in charge of
a ship or a shop.
" Qualified " ^[nndate.—'Vhc contract of mandate, how-
ever, may be simply a contract of guaranty. When, for ex-
ample, one person authorizes another to lend money or fur-
nish goods on CH'dit to a third persim, he who has given
sneh authorization is responsil)le as mandator for any re-
sultant loss. The reason for this extension of mandate was
a practical one. The regular contract of guaranty was a
formal contract (stipulatio); m.andalc was informal.
iVandalum artioriis. — In the appointment of a jirocurator
to represent the mandator in enforcing a right of action, the
Roman jurists found a means of ceding rights of action,
which in principle was not permitted. Tlie cessionary,
figured, tei-hnically. as a mere attorney, but it was agreed
between him and the mandator that he should kee|) what-
ever he obtained from the debtor. Ue is procurator in his
own interest — in rem suam.
Extinction of tlie Contract. — l\Iandate is revocable at the
pleasure of the mandator, and is exlinguislied by his ileath ;
imt such revocation or death does not affect the claim-of
the mandatary against the mandator or his heir for expenses
incurred before he learned that the mandate was at an end.
The procurator in rem suam was partially protected by im-
perial legislation against the results of such a technical ex-
tinction of his rights as cessionary.
MouERX EiKoi'EAX IjAW. — The law of agency in modern
Kurope is a further development of the Roman law of man-
date. As far as the relations tjetweeii prini'ipal and agent
are concerned, the Roman rules are substantially unchanged;
but the relations of principal and agent to thinl parties have
been wholly reconstructed. .Mediaeval practice worked out
the rules that the mandatary or procurator nught contract
in the name of his principal; that in such case all the
rights created by the contract were direc-tly and immedi-
ately vested in the principal; and that the liabilities in-
curred were not liabilities of the agent (so long ics he has
acted within the limits of his commission), but of the prin-
cipal. Strictly considered, these results do not flow from
the mandate to the agent, but from the grant of j)ower
(procuration, ro/Zmac/i/) which accompaines the mandate;
an<l some modern legislations (e. g. the Swiss federal law of
obligations and the lierman (draft) code) separate the law
of agency or representation ( Vertreluny) from the law of
mandate. In most of the Kuro])ean codes the whole subject
is treated muier the head of mandate (mandut. Auftrng).
The rules laid down are very similar to those of the English
common law. See Aukncv.-
The "qualified" mandate has pnictieally disappeared.
The contract of guaranty is in |irineiple iiiforiiuil. m) that
there is lu) need of having recourse to the tiiecuy of man-
date; and where special kimls of guaranty, or contracts of
guaranty involving more than a certain amount, ari>re<|uired
to be in writing, it is not admissible to' evade this reipiire-
ment by invoking the rules of mandate. M<jdern codes,
therefore, either ignore this form of nmndate, or declare
that it is governed by the rules of guaranty.
mandelgkp:n
MANES
515
Apart from the cases above ilispiisscil, inamlatc is still
rpcoi^nized in very tiiiieli tlie Kniiian seiisr, as a frioiidly
oontriu't of «'rviee. 'I'lu- rc<|iiircim-iit that the service shall
he firatiiitdiisly renilered is p-iierally iliseanleil ; hut ill
spite of the alNindoMiiieiit of this teeliiiieal tlistiiietinii be-
tween iiiaiiilale aixl liiio of serviee, the two are still treated
as distinct contracts.
Maniiatk ami Bailment. — At Roman law mandate might
incidentally include the transfer of pm|HTty for safe-keep-
inj; or for »>ther purposes. In such cilscs a "r»'al contract,"
or. in Kuftlish plira.sc, a " liailnieiil," is u.ss<K-iated with the
mandate, and at Konian law the proix-rty iniKht be recov-
ered either by action on the real contract or by action on
the niaiulate. It was piiplmbly thr<iu;,'h a inisconception of
thesi' Uoiium nilesthat the Koinaii term "iiiandatuin " came
to be u.sed. in Knglish common law. to designate a particu-
lar form of bailment. S<^e Haii.mknt.
LiTEBATiRE. — Domeiij^ct and dc I'eyronny, Tin Jfanihit
(3J ed. Paris. ISTIM: Ani.iiiu. 7>»r I'mcunitur iiiiil ili-r Mini-
dalarius (lleidelber';, 18e0) ; Le Jolis, JJit Maudiit (I'aris.
1S8.J). MuxRoE .Smith.
.Maii(ipl?r(>ii. Nils Manssox: critic; b. in Sweden in
1H13; slu<lied at the academies of Stockholm and Co[>en-
ha!;en. Anions; his wrilinjrs are Mniiumeiits sciiiuliiiiire.i dii
moi/eii age (lH55-6i) and Siimliiuinr tilt svenska odtiiiijK-
AM/«riV/i (t'olleclioiis lieuriiiK upon the History of .Swe<lish
Civilization. 18C0-(>8). Besides tliese he has published minor
writin<;s, jmrtly of a polemical iialuiv. P. O.
Man'dersoii. Charles Frlhekhk : soldier and lawyer ;
b. in I'hilailelphia. Feb. i», IKJT : received an excellent edu-
cation ; removed in llSoti to Canton, < >.. and studieil law ; was
admitted to practice and elected city solicitor. He entered
the L'nion army in 18l!l as first lieutenant in the Nineteenth
Ohio liegimeiit, and served Ihrnufih the civil war with great
bravery in >Iississippi. Alabama. Tennessee, and Kentucky,
taking part in all tlie principal engagements, rising to be
colonel and brevet brigadier-geueral of volunteers. At the
close of the war he resumed the practice of law at Canton.
<}. ; removed to Uinaha, Neb., in 1869. and ilevoted himself
to his profession, lie was elected to the U. S. Senate Jiui.
31, 18.S;t ; re-elected 1888 ; was president pro tern, of the Sen-
ate 1801-93.
Maiiileville. Berxarh: b. at Dordrecht (Port\ FIol-
laiid. iibiiul It'iTO ; studied meilicine, and tiHik his degree at
Leyden, Mar. 'M. Iti91. after wliich he settled in London as
a physician. Published AVt/* lirenxed, or a Collerlion of
Fatitex ill Famitiar Verse (1704); a Treatise of tlie IIi/po-
xhondriac and Jfysteric Piissiiiiin (ITU), highly comminded
by Dr. Johnson; T/ie (Iruiiibliiig-liire, or hnares turned
HoneM (17(V)); and in 1714 an enlargeil edition, undi'r the
title Tlie Fable of the lieen, or Prirnte i'iees Piililic Jii iietiLi
("Jd ed.. 17"2;'l. which whs censureil by Bi-rkeley and others,
and presented as a nuisance by the grand jury of Middlesi'X.
A second part of the Falile appeared in 1728, and both
parts in 1732. lie also published Free Thoughts on llelig-
ion (1720); Oriifin of Ilonor (1732); A Letter to Dion
(1732); and A Modest Defense of Public Stews (X'lW). He
was patronized by Lord Nlacclesfiehl, and died in Lon<lon.
Jan. 21. 17:«. Hevised by A. R. Marsh.
Maiiilevillc, or Mnnndevillp. Sir John: the repute<l
author of an early Knglish biHik of travels. According to the
account which he himself gives in the book, he was a native
of St. .\lbans; left Kngland in 1322. and traveled until l:{.'i7
in Turkey, .\nnenia. Tartary. Persia. .Syria, .\rabia, India,
Egypt and I'pper Egypt, and a great part of Ethiopia; was
for .some time in the employ of the Sultan of Egypt, and
wrote esr>ecially for the iM-nefit of pilgrims going to Jeru-
salem, where he had often l)een. The work was written in
i)opular St vie, was widely read, and translated in manuscript
into various langnages, and was one of the earliest of
printed books. It appears to have liccn first printed in Ger-
man about 147") : the earliest (ilate<l) English edition was in
1499. Cntil ipiile recently it was assumed that .Mandevillc
was a veritable person, if not the extensive traveler which he
claimed to be ; and he has been ealli-d the father of English
prose. Recent investigations have shown — (U that the
earliest known nianus<'ript of the work is Eren<h (ilated
1371). anil there is internal evidence that all othr^rs were de-
rived frcuu it ; (2) that the whole, or almost the whole, of the
matter is taken from earlier authors, especiidly from Will-
iam of Boldenside. a tJernian knight who visited Jerusalem
1222-2;^, from Eriar tidoric, who traveled in Asia 1310-20.
and from the Speculum of Vincent de Boauvois; there are
even statements taken from Pliny; (3) that the author is
iileiitical, in all prolutbility, with one Jean de Bourgogiie
(perhaps an Englishman I, who died at Liege in 1372 —
whether Bourgogiie or Maiideville was the tictitious name
is doiibtriil. Nolwilhstanding these facts, t here i-aii lie no
doubt that Manileville's travels wen- widely rejid and be-"
lievetl, and that they had c.>ii>id.rable iiillueiice in promot-
ing the spirit of discovery during the fourteenth and lif-
teelilh cellluiies. See Vule, riiZ/uii/ anil the Wiiij Tliither
(18G0); Scliouborn, Jiibtini/raphisrhe Fnl' rsurhuugen iibtr
die Ueise-Uesclireibiiiig drs Sir John Maiiderille (1840);
E. B. Nicholson and Sir 11. Vide in Fnci/clo/xidia liritan-
nica, Utli ed. ; Dictionary of National liini/raohy, arliclo
Mandeiille. Heriiert ll. Smitu.
Mnndiii'tro : a vast territory in Wi-stern Africiu extend-
ing E. of LilH'Ha and .Sierra Leone and N. of the European
i>os.se.ssions and Aslianlee on the tiulf of (iuinea. its northern
limit Ix-ing about 12 X. lat. It is mostly a high table-land.
Its people, supiKised to nuinlur .'i.OliO.tHHI, nre among the
tiliest specimens of the Negro tribes, and are divideii into
small states of consiilerable |iower, the largest of which is
the empire of Saniory, which, thoiij;h at war with the
French for years, is not yet fully subjugated. The most
powerful element in the population is the Fullic or Fellala,
whose influence is potent over a large part of the Western
and Central .Sudan. The inhabitants uf this region are
zealous Mohammedans, and everj' si'lllement has one or
more rudelv built inosi|Ues. The entire region is in France's
siiliere of influence, and the French exjilorer Binger has
ilone most to reveal it to the world. He crosse<l the entire
region (1887-88). and was the first Euro{>eaii to visit Kong,
its most iiup<irtant town. C. C. Adams.
Maiidiocn: See Manioc.
Man'dolin [from Ital. mandolinn, dimin. of mandola
O'y popular etymology) < Lat. pandii rn < dr. nySoipa]:
an instrument of music somewhat resembling I hi' guitar and
the lute. Its body is an open shell-slin|H'd box made of
strips of bent wood. It has four or five strings, which are
struck by the plectrum. The neck has a liiiger-board.
This instrument is chiefly Italian. Its sounds are peculiar,
but sweet and loud.
Mandrake [('. Eng. mandragorn, from Lat. martdra-
<7or(i« = (ir. ficwSfKry6oas. Cf. Fr. m(i(i(/ro,(/(;rc < Lat.] ; a
solanaceoiis pereniiiai herb, Mandragora vernalis, a native
of the warm parts of the Eastern continent. It is a naix-titie
poison, and was used by the ancients for its stioorifle and
ana'Sthetic effects. Anciently it was lK'lieve»l to have many
magical virtues : it could cure barrenness ; its forkcnl root
was likened to a man. and believed to possess a soul ; it
was believed to shriek so loudly when dug up that the per-
son removing it died. Conseqiieiilly, the earth was cari'-
fully loosened by one whose ears were stopja'd with wax,
and a black dog was attached by cords to the root to ilnig
it out. The name has been applied in the C. S. to /Wo-
pbylliim peltatiini, the JIay-apple, of the barberry family.
Mandrill [= man-ape, fiiim Eng. drill. H\n; with the
irvlix mini, given on account of its size: cf. Fr. in<iiiilrille :
tal. iniinilrilto] : a large. iKiwerful, and short-tailiil ImlxNiii
(t'ynocepbiitiis mormon) found in Northern and Western
.\friciu The appearance of the full-grown male is at once
ludicrous and repulsive. The sides of the long muzzle are
much swollen and of a brilliant blue, furrowinl with purple
and scarlet. The end of the nose is bright nnl, the chin has
a yellow beard, while the large is<-hinl callosities are resplen-
ile'nt with red and blue. It is a hideous brute, and excels in
cunning and strength, ils well as in fero<-ity. F. A. LrcAS.
Maildll'rla (anc Mandy rinm. or 3{ando nium): town
in a fertile part i^f the province of I.j'cce, Stmthern Italy
(see map of Italy, ref. 7-11). It was originally Cirwk si't-
tleinent, and .S. lif tin' town are ancient sepulchers in which
Grecl; vases of much interest have been f unil. Pliny men-
tions an intermittent spring which still exists here, and
there is another of great antiipiity issuing from au exca-
vation in a rock. Pop. about 8,870.
Manoesa : Sec Maxissa.
Ma'nps |Lat., from adj. stem mnni-. . ' ' '■"•',
translateil by the (ir. xci'to'I- '" '' '"'1'
guage the name given to the deail. c"i . ■• ihhU-
less spirits enjoving imiiiorlality like the gixls. and heni-c
the fn-i|ueiit formula i/i or diri mnnrs. Their alxKle lii in
the depths <if the earth, from which they emerge nt rcrtain
seas>ms. Altars wore erecle<l to them, and sacrifieos, eon-
516
MANET
MANGANESE
sistiiij; of fooil, drink. pcrfuiiu'S, ami flowers, were offeroil.
Lares (q. c), iimiu's. ami penii are difloroiit designations of
the spirits of the dead whieli can not always be distinguished
sharply. Manes corresponded, however, more nearly to the
Christian coneeption of the sonl, and accordingly the for-
mula dis nianibiis is even found on early Christian inscrip-
tions. tJ. L. Hk.ndkukson.
Maiiet, mali'na'.EDOL'ARD : genre and portrait painter; h.
in I'aris in 18:W; pupil of Couture; was awarded a second-
class medal at tlie Salon of 1881 ; decoration of the Legion
of Honor in 1882. Lie is generally recognized as the chief
of the impressionist school of painters in France, and his
pictures were for several years rejected by the jury at the
Salon. His nilluence on modern art has been very consider-
able and in tlie main for good, although his own works arc
of very unecpial merit. One of his most celelirated works,
Uli/m/iiii (KHtio). is in tlie Luxombonrg Gallery. Paris, and
at the Metropolitan Museum, New York, is a picture that
shows him at his best. The Boy with the Sward (1801). D.
in Paris. Apr. SO, 1883. William A. Cokkin.
Miin'etllO (beloved of Thoth); an Egyptian priest and
temple-st-ribe of Scbennytus (Thehneter) in the Northern
Delta; a contemporary of Ptolemy I., Soter (cf. Plutarch.
Isi.% c. 28), and of Ptolemy 11.. Philadelphus (28l)-24~ B. c).
He was employed about 260 b. r. by the latter to compile
from native sources a history of Kgypt and its gods. For
this task he was qualified by acquaintance with Greek as
well as Egyptian literature. A number of other works have
also been attributed to him, but all have perished. We pos-
sess only extracts made by Josephus, Eusebius, Africaniis,
and others. The quotations made by Josephus (Contra Ap-
ionem. i.. 14 ; Whiston's translation. New York, 1824, vol.
iv., p. 371 IT.) relate to the occupation and expulsion of the
Hyksos. Those by Eusebius cover the entire period (Eiixe-
bii Chroninirum Canunuiii ijuce siipermuit. ed. All'. Schoene,
2 vols., Berlin. 1866-7o ; Georgii Si/ncelli Chronogniplnn, in
Corpus Script. Uist. Byzant., Bonn, 1829, 2 vols. ; Scaliger,
Euisebii . . . Citron. Canon., lib. 2. Leydcn, IGOO). More
or less complete collections of the entire material are con-
tained in Jliiller's Fraginenta liisturiforum (jriecorum (4
vols., Paris. 1841-51, vol. ii.. p. ,'511-010. 1848); in Bunson's
Egypt's Place in Univer.ml History (1848, vol. i., p. 00.5 (T.) ;
in George Syncellns (see above) ; and in Cory's Ancient Frag-
ments (London. 18~(i, p. 104 IT.). -Maiietho ilivided the liis-
t«ry from Jleiies to Alexander into three parts (riijuoi), the
first including the first eleven dynasties (SunwrTeia), the sec-
ond extending from the twelfth to the nineteenth, and the
third from the twentieth to the thirtieth. (See Egypt.)
Before the first dynasty wa.s the mythological rule of the
gods and denii-gods (followers of llorus), extending over
immense [leriods. As the Egyptians possessed no fixed
era, the dynastic lists of Maiietho afford the only means
of dating events in Egyptian history. The dynasties ap-
jiear to have been based njion geographical or historical
considerations rather than upon heredity. Jlonumeiita!
lists, such as the tablet of Abydos (see Mem.noniu.m), do not
show any such divisions. Jlanctho"s li.st gives a high an-
ti(|uity to Menes, the first king: estimates vary between
Champollion's 5837 B.C. and Wilkinson's 2320 n. r. The
lower estimates are based upon the presumption of contem-
jioranoous dynasties. On the other hand, it is contended
that there is no monumental evidence of the fact to be
found, and it appears probable that Manetho himself ex-
cluded all but legitimate lines from his record.
Charles R. Gillett.
Man, Fall of: See Fall of Man.
Man'frfil : King of Sicily; b. in Sicily about 1232; a
natural s(jn (afterward legitimized) of Frellerick 11. of the
house of lloheiistaufcn ; received, on the death of his father
in 1250, the priiicijiality of Tarenlum, and acted as regent in
Italy during the absence of his lialf-brother, Conrad IV.
He subilued with great valor the insurrections in Capua,
Naples, and other cities, but his services were ill rewarded
by Conrail. In 1254 Conrad died, and Manfred was for the
second time appointed regent in Italy during the minority
of Conradin, and, on a rmuor of the death of Conradin ill
(iermany, he was proclaimed King of the Two Sicilies, and
crowned at Palermo, .Aug. 11. 1258. The rumor proved
false, but he now refused to alidicale; and when the pope.
Urban IV., put him under ban, he invaded the Papal Stales
and conquered all Tuscany after the victory at Jlontaperto,
Sept, 4, 1200. His government, thus consolidated, was vig-
orous and beiiencial to the country. He founded Manfre-
donia, built the harbor of Salerno, and established schools
in all the large cities. At his magnificent court poets and
scientists gathered together, ami he himself was the most
brilliant in the whole circle, a true Ilohenstaufen. Jlean-
while the pope. Urban IV., and after him Clement IV., ]>ut
up for sale in Europe the crown of Naples and Sicily, and
Cliarles of Anjoti. a bnnher of Louis l.\. of France, was
found to lx> the highest bidder. With a French army he
landed in Italy, was crowned in Rome .Ian. 0, 1200, and de-
feated Manfred, by treachery rather than by valor, in the
battle of Beneventb, Feb. 26, 1200. JIanfred" himself fell in
the battle, and, being under the pajial ban, was buried with-
out ceremonies under a heap of stones, afterxvard called
the "rock of roses." His wife and sons were imprisoned —
the former for eighteen, the latter for thirtyKine years.
Maiifredo'iiia : a maritime town in the province of Fog-
gia, Soutliern Italy ; on the Gulf of Mantrednnia ; about 23
miles N. E. of Foggia (see map of Italy, ref. 6-G). The
commerce of the port is very considerable, and several
European nations have consuls liere. It is also an impor-
tant fishing-station. The town itself is pleasantly situated
at the foot of Monte Gargano. The site was chosen by
Manfred in 1201. who induced the inhabitants of the large
but fever-stricken Siponto to settle here. The Turks de-
stroyed this town in 1020, and it has never recovered its for-
mer [irosperity. Pop. about 8,330.
Mangalur. or Mangalore': town of British India; in
the Presidency of Madras, on the Malabar coast, in lat. 12'
.52' N. (see map of S. India, ref. 0-C). It is jioorly built,
but stands in a fertile plain, surrounded with jialm-groves
and ]ilantations of rice and sugar, and has a large trade in
sandal-wood and rice. Pop. 32,100.
Man'gaiiose 1: Fr. ynangane.ie : Ital. tnnnganese, jirob.
(^orru]ited from Ijat. may'nes, magnet, or from nwgnesia,
because of certain resemblances] : a chemical element. The
earlier chemists considered the manganese ores !is contain-
ing some modifications of iron, but Pott in 1740. and otliei-s
subsequently. Kaim. Wiuterl, Scheele, and Bergniann, proved
that they contained a metal cheiiiically distinct from iron ;
and Galin, the master of Berzelius, first obtained the metal
manganese at a date not left on record. It was in examin-
ing the action of hydrochloric acid on pyrolusite, in the
course of his investigation of this very question, that Scheele
made the discovery of chlorine in 1774.
Manganese occurs widely distributed in nature, principally
in the form of the dioxide, MnOj, commonly called black
oxide of manganese, and known to mineralogists as pyrolu-
site. It occurs also as 4r(i»H//e, which is an oxide of the
composition MnjOj; as hausmannite, MiiaO, : manganile,
IIjI\Iii504; rhodocroisile, MnCOa, etc. The metal is isolated
from its oxides by heating them to a high temperature with
charcoal; by decomposing a solution of Hie chloride by
means of the electric current; by treating the fluoride with
metallic sodium. iManganese is a reddish-white metal with
a luster like that of iron. When it contains some iron and
carbon it is gray and looks like cast iron. It is about as
hard as this, is brittle, and can be powdered comparatively
easily. It melts at a temperature between the melting-point
of iron and that of |ilatiiiuni. Its specific gravity, accord-
ing to the method of preparation, is 6'85 to 7'!)9. It decom-
poses water willi evolution of hydrogen, slowly at the ordi-
nary teiniierature, nipidly at bdiliiig temperature. It dis-
solves easily in all dilute acids. It is not at all. or only very
slightly, magnetic. iMaiigaiiese forms valuable alloys witli
other metals, especijilly with iron. Pig-iron always contains
some manganese. Spiegel-iron contains upward of 5 per
cent, manganese; ferro-manganexe contains 20 per cent, or
more, and even as much as 80 per cent. Both spiegel-iron
and forro-nianganese are used in steel-making (See Iron.)
Mangane.ie lirim:e\s made by adding manganese toordinary
bronze. The symbol of manganese is Mn, and its atomic
weiglit 548. jiaiiganese forms a great variety of com-
pounds. Thus with oxygen it forms the following: MnO,
MiijO,, IMnjO., MnO,, MiijOt. Of the oxides the dioxide,
MnOj, or pyrolusite, is the most common. This occurs in
nature in considerable quantities. It is used chiefly in the
(ireparation of Ciilohink (7. v.). It is also used in Hie prep-
aration of OxvoKN (7. r.), and for the purpose of decoloriz-
ing glass. If added alone to colorless glass it gives it an
amethyst color, but when added to jioor glass with a green
color the two colors neutralize each other, and the gla.>-s be-
comes nearly colorless. Various atlempls have been made
to economize in the use of manganese dioxide in the jirepa-
MANGE
MANHATTAN'
5ir
rationof clilorinc, and Wcldun'H procens hits come into exten-
sive use as a result of llii-se elTorts. In tlie lirsl stage of the
manufacture of chlorine, hytlrochUiric acid at'ts ujion mun-
ganesc dioxide as represented in this equation :
MnO, + 4 nci = MnCl, 4- 21I,0 + CI,.
Tho products are manpinous chluride, chlorine, and
water. For the [ireparatiun of chlorine, tho chloride is, of
course, of no value ; but bv Weldon's process it can be
brouRht back a^ain to a condition in wliicli it has the [Kjwer
to give chlorine wlu'ii treated with li\dro<hloric aciil. It is
first treated with lime in solution when it is converted into
manptnesu hydroxide. Mn(OlI)i, and calcium chloride is
formed at the same tiuie :
MnCl, + Ca(OII), = Mn(OII), + CaCl,.
When this hydroxiilc. mixed with lime, is allowed to
stand in contact with the air it takes up oxy^'en.aml u com-
pound known as calcium manpinite is furmed. This has
the composition L'aAInOj or Ca.\Inj(>s, and is formed accord-
ing to one of the following equations:
Mn(OII), + Ca(OlI), + <) = eaMnO, -1- 211,0;
2Mn(011)a -t- Ca(t)ll), +2() = t:aMn,<), + :fll,U.
Both these compounds give chlorine when treated with
hydrochloric acid. The manganese again appears as the
chloride, and can be again converted into the manganile,
and so on. In practii'e. the waste liquor is mi.\ed with cal-
cium carbonate to neutralize the acid. After settling, lime
enough isaddi'il to precipitate the numganesc as hydroxide
and to form with Inis the manganitc. Then steam and air
are passed into this mixture, v hen the oxidation takes place,
the manganite being formeil.
Manganic Acid and the MiinganateK. — When treated with
energetic oxidizing agents in the presence of bases tho ox-
ides of manganese form manganates, of which j>ola.ssium
manganate, K,Mnl>4. may serve as an example. In compo-
sition the manganates are analogous to the sulphates and
chromatos, as shown by the formulas:
K,S(),. K,Cr(),. KjMnO,.
Potassium sulphate. Potassiuru cliromattv Pota.ssiuiii mant^nate.
When a solution of a manganate is treated with an acid
the manganic acid is set free ami is decomi>osed at once into
permanganic arid and manganese dioxide: or, when car-
bon dioxitle is passed into a solution of potassium nuinga-
nate, polasniiiin permanganate is formed. This has tho com-
position KMnOt. It is maimfaclured on the large scale, and
13 cxtensivelv us»'d in the laboratory, and acts as an oxidiz-
ing agent. It is nearly black, with a greenish luster. Its
solution in water has a purple or purplish-red color, accord-
ing to the concentration. When it gives up its oxygen it
becomes colorless in acid solution. The i>ormanganales and
manganates arc valuable disinfecting agents, and the sodium
salts are extensively used under the name of Candy's fluid.
Revised by Ira liEMsii.v.
Mange [formed as base to manqy, from Fr. mange, liter.,
eaton, porf. partic. of manger, kh'C\: a cutaneous disease of
ilogs, horsos, cattle, swine, and sheep, distinguishoil by the
t)rescnce of acuri or mites uixin tho skin, and also marked
>y scurfiness, itching, heat, and pimph^s. Sulphur oint-
ments, carbolic-acid wiishes, corrosive sublimate in weak
solution, and decoction of tobacco or of tlie green leaves of
Indian ^Hiko or itchwoed ( Veratriim viride) are all useful
applications. The afflicted animal shoulil be kept alone, for
the disease is contagious. Wlu-n the mites have Ix'on de-
strovoil the animal needs lilK-ral feeding, and |>erhap3 stjme
mild tonic, like iron. A little copperas dissolved in his
drink is generally sullicient.
Maiiirel-Miirzel: See M.iXtioi.o-wi'KZEi,.
Miin!;iau:alll. maan-ji"o-)i«-ga"iil l<"o, Lrioi, M. D. : g)'nip-
cologisl ; b. at .Mortara. Italy. .Iniio Ki. lx.')0 : was educated at
Universitv of I'avia: was assistant at the Midwives" School.
Milan, lstH-H2; Trofcssor of Obstetrics at the Tniversilv of
Sassari I.HH3-84 ; at I'niversily of Catania 1S.S4-«.H: since
18KS has tieen director of the olKtotrical and gviiH'c<ilogiral
clinic in the Great Hospital of Milan. He is liie author of
about forty professional essays in Italian medical journals.
Man'go [from I'ortug. manga, from Tamil mUnkdiAi the
fruit of an Kast Imlian Uiw Mangifera indica, of the family
AnacardiaceiT, now naturalized in most warm climates.
The tree is widesproading, and affords a dense shade. There
arc many varieties of the fruit, many of which are very fine
for desserts, having an aga'eable blending of sweetness and
acidity. The fruiLs of other s|)ecics of this genus are eaten,
but none of the others arc valuable. The tree is generally
raised from seeds, but the finer varieties are iiro|iagated by
layering and inarching.
Mangold-niirzel (= Germ., Uvt-nnit ; mangold, U-et +
leurzel. T»»l\: u-nally written mangel-wurzel in the L'. S.,
and often abbreviated to mangel or mangold ; a naino
ailopted into Knglish by farmers ami others to designate tho
largi-r and coarser varieties of the beet {liela vulgarix), ex-
tensively grown as foi«l fipr domestic animals. (.Si-e Bect.)
Mangolils are tmi coarse and rank for human food, and even
for cattle they are often harsh and irritant to the bowels
when first harvested : but in a few weeks they "riiK'ii " and
then they may be fed to all kinds of stock with great advan-
tage, thcjiigh t(M) lilHTal feeiling is lielieveil to have a diu-
retic ofTect. .Mangolds noeil a generous s<jil, clean culture,
and liberal manuring. As much as ;15 tons, or 1.2U0 bush.,
to the acre have been grown in favorable circumstances.
Kevised by L. H. Hailky.
Mang-ka : Sec Baxo-ka.
Man'gostcen [from Malay nifin/;iM/n. tho native name]:
the fruit of a small tree, (larcinia ma ngoMlana, of the family
GultiferiF.ti native of tho .Spice islands, now grown in many
tropical regions, mul cultivated in the Fjislorn Arcliipolag<).
The tree becomes alKiut 20 feet high and has some resem-
blance to the fir, though its leaves are large, oval, and glis-
tening. From the Jloliiccas it has Uiii introiluceil into
Ceylon and several [loints of .Southern .\sia, and even into
the Antilles, though not without difliculty. The fniit ex-
ternally resembles an orange, but is usually brownish red
rather than yellow. The outer riml is verv thick, rich in
tannin, ami verv astringent and inedible, but it is some-
times used medicinally in dysenteries. The edible |H>rtion
is a pull) which surrounds the seeds, large and five in num-
ber. This juicy pulp is describiHl as having the whiteness
and solubility of snow, and a delicate, delicious flavor. This
fruit is perfectly wholesome, and is very refreshing in fevers.
Tho tno is liiglily ornamental.
Man'groves [by analogy of grore (referring to its spread-
ing by forming new sti'ins) from Malay mant/gi-manggi. the
native name]: shrulis and trees of the fannly Rhizitphora-
ce(P, natives of the muildy coasts, tidal estuaries, and s«lt
niai-shes of hot countries, where they form dens<> thickets.
Hhizaphtira mangle and candelaria are the typical man-
groves. The mangrove is found in many troiiieal regions,
and is abundant 011 the coasts and keys of Hf.rida. Tho
fruit is eatable, tho bark useful in tanning. Most of the
mangroves are remarkable as invaders of the domains of tho
sea. which they slowly convert into dry laml. Their stems
put forth long aerial roots which extend down into tho wa-
ter; the .seeds germinate in the fruit, and send down a li>ng
and heavy riHit. which on falling sinks into the mud ; and
thus the mangrove swamp slowly gains upon the shallow
si'iis, spreading like a banyan-grove. The roots and stems
give lodgment ami shelter to innuineralilo bivalves, crabs,
and other aquatic animals of dilTereiit descriptions, while
the branches swarm with atpiatie binls. The wood of some
sjiecies is hanl, heavy, and ns«'ful in the arts, |>articularlT in
iHiat-building. Maiigrove-wiKKl is ofte.i brought to seaports
as part of a ship's dunnage. It is sold a.s firowiKjil. for which
s<iiiio spwies are excellent. The bark is also im|>ortiHi for
tanners use. and is useful for some kinds of woo<lwork. In
some countries there are other trees which share the habits
and the habitat of the mangrove, as the lAiijiinriilaria raee-
mosa (family Comhrtlaeeir) of the West Indies, Florida, etc.
The white mangroves (.IciVciiniVi) of Australasia, India,
South .-Vmoriea. etc.. are of the family Mijnpnrnceir, and have
the habit of true mangroves. The bark of some specii's (as
A. tomrnliMi) is excellent for tanning. The n'sin. the seols,
and the roots of this s|M'cies are used as fiKxl by the (xnir in
many countries. The ('unocnrpiiit raeemoiia. a mangrove of
Brazil (family Comltretareir) yields bark for tanning. Zan-
zibar eximrts to .\rabia i;roat numbers of mangrove (mIcs,
called •• Zanzibar raftiTs,' in trade.
Maniriies: See Indians ok Centrai. Amfrica.
Manhattan: city; capital of Riley i-o.. Kan. (for location
of county, s»'e map of Kansa.s, n'f. 4-II): at the junction of
the Big Blue and Kansas rivers; on the .\ti-h.. Top. and S.
Fo, the Chi., RiK'k Is. and I'ac, ami the riii..ii Pac. niil-
wavs: 4H miles W. of To|H-ka, It is in an agriiiiltiinil. fruit
and st<X'k raising region, ainl is noleil for its ma:;nosinn lime-
stone and cement. It contains marblc-works, iron-foundry.
51S
MAXIJATTAX COLLEGE
MANiniD.K
winiliiiill-fai'tory, sash and iloor factory, and 4 weekly anil
2 montlilv periodiottis, and is the seat of the Slate Airrieiil-
tural Coliege. Pop. (1!W0) 2,105; (1890) 3,004; (18!)")) 2,!IH0.
Editor of " KKfium-."
Manhattan Collegre: an institution in Xow York city,
wliiih Ivjran as a secondary soluxil shortly after the arrival
in New York eity of the Brothers of the Christian Schools
in 1853. In 18(j:{ the course of studies was made liroader
and higher, and the former Acaileiny of the Holy Infancy
was incorporated with the University of the State of New
York, em|iowered to confer degrees, and chartered as Man-
hattan College. The first graduates went fortli from its
halls in 1866. Its courses are chiefly two: one leading to
ttie degree of bachelor of arts, the other to that of bache-
lor of science. Besides these departments it includes a
polytechnic in.stitute in Fifty-ninth Street, New York city.
Known as De La Salle Institute, occupying the building for-
merly known as the Charlier Institute, where special atten-
tion is given to preparing students for civil engineering.
From its earliest clays the college has always oflered a busi-
ness course to those young men who sought immediate prep-
aration for commercial pursuits. The chief afliliations of
Manhattan College are St. Joseph's College, IJufTalo ; Sacred
Heart Academy, Classon-on-thc-Sound ; Christian Brothers'
Academy, Irvingtou: De La Salle Institute, Trov ; Christian
Brothers' Academy, .Vlbany ; and La Salle Academy, Provi-
dence. The Alumni Association of the college, numbering
over 400 mcmbei-s. is the oldest Roman Catholic society of
the kind in the city of Xew York. C. II. TnuKBiiii.
3Iuuiiattan Island : See New York, City op.
Manheiin: borough (founded in 1702 by Baron Henry
AVilliam .Stiegel, who established liere the first glass-works
in the V. S.) ; Lancaster co., Pa. (for location of county, see
map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6-11): on the Phila. and Reading
railroad ; 10 miles N. X. \V. of Lancaster. It has large steam
flour, saw, and [ilanfng mills, foundries, and machine-shops,
carriage and cigar factories, and an extensive mill-furnish-
ing plant; is in a rich agricultural region; and contains 2
national banks, with combined capital of .^210,000, an at-
tractive public park, and 2 weeklv newspapers. Pop. (1880)
1.606: (1890)2.070; (1893) 2.3i50. " Editor of " Sestlnkl."
Mani : See Central Ajiericax AxTiyiniES.
Mania: See Lnsanitv.
Man'iehaiisin [from Lat. JfanicluF us =(ir. Mcu/ixatos.
Maniclaeus, a Maniclucan] : a religious system which arose
toward the end of the third century in the Pci'sian empire,
compounded mainly of Persian Oualism, Huddliism, and
Syrian Gnosticism, and using certain Christian ideas as a
gioss for a healli<'n theosopliy. Its founder was Manes or
Mani, b. at Manlerin. Babylon, about 216 ; who ap)>eared on
Mar. 20, 242, jus a religious teacher in Babylon, but, being un-
successful there, he for forty years lived the life of a wan-
derer. He announced himself as the " Messenger of the True
God, "and among Christians as tlie promised Paraclete. Ke-
tuniing to Persia, he made at first a favorable impression
upon the king, but was finally crucified by liim at Gundesa-
pur, about 277.
Ancient Persian Dualism furnished the fundamental idea
of this svstem. In it good and evil were op|)i)sed from eter-
nity, and were represented by light and darkness. The good
god. Orrauzd, and his twelve sons, constituting the kingdom
of light, were in eternal warfare with Satan and his demons,
the kingdom of darkness. Inroads had been made by the
latter upon the former, and in order to guard the border-
land Crnuizd places over it an JKon (the mother of life), who
gives birth to the ideal man : who, assisted by the five pure
elements, enters on the contest, but is taken captive. An-
other iEon (the living Spirit) is now sent to his aid — not,
however, in time to prevent the kingdom of darkness from
swallowing up part of liis luminous essence (the soul of the
worldi. The reuniining part of the ideal man — the .lesus
Impalibilis — is now transported to the sun. Out of the
mixture of the luminous essence, thus absorbed, with the
kingdom of darkness, the living Spirit now creates this
present visible worhl, in order that from a process of |)uri-
lication now entered oti the ijarlicles of light may now re-
gain strength and freedom. From this mixture every nuin
hiLS, besides a soul of light, an evil soul ; the former of which
is to gain the victory by drawing to itself the piirtich's of
light s<'attere(l through nature, and especially in the vegeta-
ble world. While this purification is being accom[ilished
under the superintendeney of the ideal man residing in the
snn. and of the living Spirit, the evil demon.s on the other
lianil. arc* attempting by false n'ligions, as Judaism and
heathenism, to bind souls to the kingdom of night. At last
the ideal manin the sun — theChrist — tlescends in a seeming
bodily form, and aims by his doctrine to liberate the impris-
oned souls of light. He is seemingly killed by demons, but
it is oidy the phaidom of his body that is crucified: but his
doctrine is misapprehended and misrepresented by his apos-
tle.s, to restore which to its purity .Mani, the pronnsed Para-
clete, is sent. He was thus the head of the t'hurch, with
apostles, bishops, presbyters, deacons, and evangelists under
him. His community or Church was divided into the cate-
chumens or f(i»/i7orM, and the elect or perfect; the latter
to be supported by the former, while they, the elect, were to
practice the most rigf irons asceticism ami to abstain from
marriage and from sins of the mouth, the hand, and the
lM)dy. Baptism and the Lord's Supper — the former with oil,
the latter without wine — were part of the secret cei-einonial
of the perfect. They had no altars or images. The sun was
revered by them merely as a-jiresentative of'the ideal man,
or the principle of light. Fasts, prayers, ami readings from
Mani constituted their worship. Sunday was a festival de-
voted to the sun : but their great festival was the ainiiver-
san' of the nmrtyrdom of Jlaiii. The (Jld Testament they
rejected absolutely, and of the Xew they retained only what
had been revised and redacted by the Paraclete. Main.
In various forms and condiin;itions. and under variiuis
names, its main elements were soon after the death of its
founder widely ditTused through the Roman empire. Africa
was its chief scat in the West, and its chiei apostle then- was
Faustus of Mileve. who wrote apologies for it and against
Christianity. Through his influem-e Augustine was for a
time cai)tivated with its promises of occult ami profounder
wisdom, but afterward, disappointed and disgusted with its
emptiness, he wrote largely and with great earnestness
against it. From Valentinian I. (364-375) the Roman em-
|ierors i.ssued frecjuent and severe edi<'ts against it. In
-Africa it was also [lei'secuted by the Vandals, and whole
shiploads of its adherents (477) were transported by them
to the continent of Furope. M the time of Leo the Great
(a. 1). 440-461) nuniliers of them were found at Rome. The
sect was distinguished by rigorous formal asceticism, but
was accused of Antinomian iirinciples, and of the indul-
gence of secret lusts. The elenu'nts and principles of the
Jlanicha'an system were dilTused through .Spain through the
Priscillianists, a dualist ic sect, which, appearing 380, spread L
extensively, but was finally suppres.sed 5H3. Despite (he I
rigorous measures taken against Jhem in various countries,
the dements of their system a|ipear during the Middle Ages
in various mvstic and Gnostic school.s. such as the Paulicians
and the Catlierini, by whom its doctrines were widely dif-
fused through the south of France and Germany, where suc-
cessively they established their chief seats. Indeed, the
mystery of the origin of evil and the seeming dualism of hu-
man nature have ever tended to drive minds in the direction
of their s]ieculat ions, though entirely independent and ig-
norant of their system. Revised by S. M, Jackjso.n.
Manid'idiv [Mod. Lai., named from JJ/nn;'.'!. the typical
genus; from Lat. niti nen. ghoslsl: a family of mamnuds of
the order liniia or Krhntata and the sub-order SqiKimata.
The pangolins, or .scaly ant-eaters — as these animals arc
called — feed principally on termites, and are mostly terres-
trial in their haliits, although one .\frican species climbs
trees. They roll into a compact bull when attacked or
frightened. The tail of the long-tailcil manis (Mam's limgi-
caud(i) contains more vertebra' — forty-six to fifty — than that
of any other mamnud. They are at once distinguished from
all otlu'r mammals by the peculiar modification of the in-
tegumentary appendages, which are developed as large leaf-
like scales arranged in regular rows and simulating the ai>-
pearance of a pineaplile or jiine-nut : the body is elongated,
with a long, fiatteueil tail, and the .scales exl cm I on the tail
as well as tlie head, and somelimes the fc-ef ; so much dothev
mimic lizards that the' older authors confounded them witll
the latter under the nanu- Laccrhix: the feet are normal in
form, and the digits are developed in full number — i. e. five
to each fool — but the external are much shcu-teiu'd ; the ani-
mals, however, are cluli-footed. and walk on the outer side
of the feet. The skull is (piite peculiar, depressed conic in
laitlinc, with small inli'riuaxillaries; maxillarii's short, and
with the malar processi's declivous; the |ialalines expanded
in front; no malars or lachrynuds; a large lachrymal open-
ing; teeth are entirely wanting. The family has about eight
MANIIIIKI
MANIS
51<J
species. They Imvo liecn by some combined In a single ge-
niis, 811(1 by Uriiy (lividol ainori}; tivi- — viz., (1) Munin, (2)
Phatagin. (3) I'luilidnlns. (4) I'tmijutin, and (.')) Siniitnia;
the rcurust'ntativcs of the first and seeimd (.)/ri;iM), as well
as fifth (p'niis Smitlsid), j;r(>uiis inhabit Afrira, and those
of the third and fourth (^'onus Plmliiltilux). India.
Kevis<'d by F. A. Llias.
Xauilliki (niau-nee-heekee) I8lailil8: a I'olyriesian Kro"?
of twi'lve islands, occupied bv the Hritish in l.s.sy. Tliev lie
N. of the .SiK-ii'ty islamls ami \V. of the .Manjnesa;;. Ijetweeii
lats. 'A :!0 and V-i .S. and Ions. l.tO and lfi7 \V. .Area (com-
bined), .W sq. miles. Pop. estimated at 1,700. The natives
are professinj;; Christians. M. \V. 11.
Mnnira, or Miinillu: the capilal of Luzon and of t)ie
Siiaiiish .\rcliipchiu'o of the rhilippines; on the west coast
oi Luzon, hit. 14' :i.") X., Ion. 120 50 E., ou the west shore
of the circuhir Hay of .Manihi (;!0 miles across), and at the
mouth of the small I'lsij; riviT (see map of East Indies, ref.
S-(i). The city proper, or ilunila niiiratlii. i^ surrounded
by a wall, and is properly only a large fort containing nu-
merous public buildings. Its population, according lo the
census of 1M70, was 12.;il3. By a liK-al count in 1870 this
was increiLsed to 17,0.W. Most of the city lies outside the
walls.and, incluiling several suburbs of the natives, the total
population has been put at from 182,000 to 300,000, varying
probably with the number of suburbs included.
The climate of .Manila is hot and wet, but salubrious.
The mean leuiperature is HI F. The city is occasionally
swept by the terrible typhoons of the China Si.'a, and is also
subject to frecpient eartluiuakes, some of which are very de-
structive. The city possesses a well-ecjuipped observatory,
which is in the hands of the .lesuils.
Manila is celebrali'd for the .Ma.villa IIehp (g. v.) or abaca,
which it exports. lis chief manufacture is that of cigars or
cheroots, a stale monopoly until 18.82, which ix-cupies many
thousand workmen of both sexes, and is constantly grow-
ing. !);).200,000 cigars were exported in 1801.
The city wius founded in 1571 bv Miguel Lopi-z de Legaspi,
aud was surrounded with a wall in 15!)(l. It was invaded
by the British in 17(i2. Commerce with Spain was at first
carried on by way of Acapulco in Mexico, and it was not
until 1764 that Spanish vessels arrived by way of the Cape.
The port was opened to foreign ves.sels in 1789, but com-
merce did not really flourish until tiie privileges of the
Royal Company of the I'hilippines expired in 1834. Since
1880 Manila has been connected with Hongkong by tele-
graph. Mark W. Harrisuton.
Manil'ius. JFarits: Latin poet; wrote a didactic poem
in five l>ooks, Ailronomica, which Inis been preserved, but
of his life and age nothing is known, though it is probable
that he flourished under Augustus. The first manuscript
was discovered by I'oggio, and printed at Nuremberg in
14?2. Scaliger in"l57n, Bentley in 1739, and Jacob in 1846,
have published editions liased on several manuscrinls.
There is an English translation by Creech (1697) and a
French by Pingre (1786). Manilius shows great learning,
but is often obscure and sometimes stilted and forced.
There are occasional flashes of genius, and here and there
lines which haunt the memory like those of Lucretius, to
whom, however, .Manilius is as inferior in poetic fire as he is
ill .sustained enthusiasm. In diction he is most indebted
to Lucretius and Vergil. It seems singular that the poem
should be mentioned i>y no Koinaii writer, but in the age of
Constantino the (in-at it was known and used by the author
of the Latin treatise on astrology, .Iiilius Firmicu.s, and
Robin.son Ellis hiLs found some triu'es of imitation in earlier
writers. See his XorleK Mn>iiliiin(r aire dlK-sertnlinnefi in
Aslrunoiiiii-a ,l/(;;ii7(i (Oxford, 1891). M. Warren.
Maniria Heiup [named from Manila, capital of the
Philippines], or Ab'aca [the native munej : tlie fiber of a
plant resemoling the plaintain ami the lianuna. J/ii^o Iroylit-
<2j/((iriim, belonging to the family Mimaretp. It is cultivated
principally in the Philippine islands, ami the liber is olv
tained from the leaf-stalk of the [ilanl. It is largely im-
ported for the manufacture of cordage and canvits, which is
of the very best ipiality, exceeding hemp in durability, but
not in flexibility. t)ld Manilla is u.sod for pa)H'r-st<M-li, and
make^ a wrapping-painT of excellent <piality and great
strength. See FliiKR,
Ma'nior. Cassa'va, Jiicn, or Jf and lora[mnnf7 torn i.o from
Portug. mnniliora. from Tiini mnntliinr. rnxMivn is from
Vt. caxitare, from Span, emahe, from liuilian kamilii]: the
half-shrubby euiihorbiaeeous plant Jnnipha mnnihot (Ja-
trn/iliii innniliuf, !>.), extensively cultivated for food in
tropical America anil Africa; its original habilitt is un-
known. At the time of the coni|Uest, it was planted and
used by the American Indians frtim Floriila to Southern
Brazil, eonstitiiling the chief source of t<»M\ ut the agricul-
tural tribes in low ami hot lands. The plants are prnpa-
galetl by cuttings. The tuberous roots, which are the only
parts used for foinl, are graleil and |ja.sse<l through a siev'o
(sometimes after maceration in water), and the resulting
mass is subjected to jiressure. This ex|iels a juice which is
very poisonous. A small porlimi of the iwisonous priiK-iple
rcmam.s, but this is very volatile, and is rcinovwl by roa-st-
liig the mass in flat pans with constant stirring. The re-
sult is a nutritious ami palatalde meal, varying in quality
according to the mode of preparalion, ami capable of lieing
kept for a longtime. It is eaten in this state or is madu
into cakes. p(UTidge, etc. Soaked in water and allowe<l to
ferment, it furnisluts a mild ahoholic drink, much iisttl by
the Indian.s. Tapioca is the starchy matter precipilateil
from the poisonous juice ; the latter, after boiling, is used
as an ingredient of various sauces, and in the preparation of
the West Indian dish calleil iiepiM-'r-iHit. Jriiiipha ui/n,
Pohl, is an allied species, or probal>ly variety, which is free
from |H>isonous qualities, ami is eaten as a vegelalile, rousted
or boiled. Many minor varieties have bi-eii des<rilH'd, but
most botanists now regard them ils modifications of a single
species, produced by cultivation. 11. II. Smith.
Manipiir. or t'a.ssay : a feiidatorr state of India. Ijetween
.•\ssam and rp|)er Burma, in lats. 23 51' to 25 45' N., ami
Ions. 93 2 to 94" 40 E. An'a. 7.6(X» s<|. miles. Pop. 221.070,
mostly in the central valley — that of the river Namkathay,
a tributary of the Kyendwcn, and hence of the Irawa<li. It
is n very mountainous <c>iinlry: the highest points are in
the X. (sur|iassing8.(K)0 feet), and the heights det-reas«'towani
the S. The rivers drain towani the .S. to the Irawadi and
toward the W. lo the Meghnu. In the middle of the central
valley is Lake Ix>gtak, at an elevation of 2..500 feet, appar-
ently the remnant of an earlier lake of much larger size. It
varies much with the season, and emipties into the Namka-
thay river. The climate of the valley is temperate and
equable. The nights are fresh in the hot season; in the
cold .season there are (K-easional white frost.s. The rains are
mo*lerate. and the .S. W. wind [irevails during the year.
Then' are occasional earth(piukes, usually slight.
The only ores of value found so far are those of iron.
The forests an- dense, except in the central valley, and con-
tain the t<'ak, the wild lea-tree, the caoutchouc, tlie oak, and
the ash. The bambcK) is common. The elephant, rhinoce-
ros, tiger, leopard, deer. wiM Imflalo, and monkeys alxjund.
The principal culture is ri<e, but cotton, oil-seeds. i>epi)er,
tobacco, ginger, ami Indian wheat are raised, as well as
smaller (plant it ies of bananas, pineapples, mangoes, potattMS
of superior (piality, plums. |H-aches, and ajpiiles.
The inhabitants are kif Itiirmaii race with Xapi intermix-
ture. They profess llndiinHiiism. and this ap|><ars to l>c a
recent introduction. Their language is classifii^l by Cust as
Tibeto-Buriiian. They are emigrants by nature, and are com-
mon over I'pper Burma, where they are employed as jwrters
and drivers. The capital is Manipur. or Imphal.
The kingdom of .Nlanipur wils allied to the Indian Gov-
ernment in 1762. and came under its protectorate in 1826,
with an annual allowance of al>out if3.0(K) for care of the
British-Burmaii boundary. The revenue of the rajah is
$15.(M)0 to I20.0OO, and the military force iiuiiiImts alK.ut
27.000. The rajah was deixised by the luountaineers in
1891. The chief commissioner of .\s.snm wius sent to regu-
late the matter, when he and his e.seort and the resident agent
wen? suddenly attacked and killed. More British troo|v«
were at once s«'iit. and the chief oflicers of the rajahship were
taken and executed or exiled. Chura Chund, a young rela-
tion of the ex-rajah, was placed on thi' throne and a British
oflicer ap|>uinted to administer the state during his minority,
Mark W. IIarrinutos.
Mani|ilir (Biirman Imphal): the cnpitid of the slati- of
Mani|iiir: 236 miles X. W . of Mamlahiv. on the Namkathnv,
river; 2,330 feel aliove the sea. hit. '^4 4-1 N.. Irii 94 R
(see map of X. India, ref. 7-K). The eiiy <■■ -ider-
ablo S|>afe and is surrounded by a wall. \ very
numerous in the viciuily, some of them luini; r. niysub-
nrl«. M. W. II.
Manlit: a geiierul name for any meinl>er of the family
Masiuii>.« (ly. r.).
>-20
MAKISA
MANITOBA
Manis'a, or Manis'sa (mio. Mnijiifsin): town of Asia Mi-
nor, Asiatic Turkey ; on llie Hernios; about 25 miles X.S.of
Smyrna (see map of Turkey, ref. 5-1)). It is a large city,
containinj; more and tiiier public buililiufrs, mosipies, mina-
rets, public bjiths, and bazaars than Smyrna, and carrying
on an important trade in cotton, grain, and tobacco. This
last article is raised in the inunediate vicinity of the city,
and is considered the best of its kind in Asia Minor. The
streets of Manisa are generally protected against the sun by
overspreailing mats or vines. Pop. estimated at 50,01M).
Man, Isle of: an island of Great Britain: in the Irish
Sea; 16 miles distant from the nearest point of Scutland,
and 27 miles distant from the nearest points of England and
Ireland. Its length is 38 miles; breadth, 12i miles; and
area, 145,325 acres, of which two-thirds are cultivated. It
is travei'sed from X. to S. by mountain ranges, whose high-
est peak, Snaefell, rises 2,024 feet above the level of the sea.
The greater part of the island consists of clay: slate, zinc,
and, in a lesser degree, copper and iron are nuned, while
lead is abundant, nearly 5,000 tons being extracted annually.
The principal mine, at Laxey. on the east coast, is one of
the most important in the United Kingdom. Agriculture
and cattle-breeding are pursued to a considerable extent,
the climate being very favurable. The fisheries are rich,
and atTonl occupation to nearly 4,000 men and boys, the
pro<luce exceeiting £60,000 annually in value. The inhab-
itants are of t'eltic race, with an admixture of Scaniiiuavian,
and have a language of their own, the Manx — which, how-
ever, has been almost entirely supplanted by English. The
Isle of Man has a constitution and government of its own.
It has its own laws and law officers. The court of Tynwald
consists of the lieutenant-governor and council, and the
House of twenty-four Keys, or representatives. Since I.S66
the latter Inus been elected l)y the people every seven years.
The armorial bearings of Man are three legs in armor, con-
joined at the thighs. Pop. (18i)l) 55,5i)8. Principal towns,
Donghus (the modern capital), Castletown, Peel, and Kamsey.
See The Isle of Miin, its IHsfori/, etc.. liy Rev. ,1. G. t'um-
ming; Jlislori/ of the Ixle of Man, by Joseph Train ; Sur-
tinmt'x and Place-names of (he Isle of Man.UY A. W. Jloore
(IHOO). Revised by C. K. Adams.
Manistee': city (settled in 1841, incorporated as a city in
186!)); capital of iManistee co.. Mich, (for location of ci.unty,
see map of Michigan, ref. 5-II): on Lake Michigan, at the
month of the Manistee river, and on the Flint and Pere
Marquette and the Manistee and X. K. railways; 72 miles
X. of Muskegon. It is in the great peach and fruit belt of
Jlichigan; has an excellent harbor; and .ships annually
200.000,000 feet of lumber, and l.-irge ((uantities of sliingles,
lath, pickets, wood, bark, and salt. Tlie river is here navi-
gable fur vessels drawing 16 feet of water. The salt interest
has been developed rapidly, and the city claims to have the
largest vacuum evaporating salt plant in the world, which
in 1892 produced 6,205,000 bush. There are numerous
steam saw, shingle, ami |)laning mills, foundries and ma-
chine-shops, and furniture and other factories. The city
has the Holly system of water-works, gas and electric light
plants, electric street-railway, high school. 5 public and 5
parochial schools, 14 churc-hcs, hospital which cost ^85,000,
county infirmary, imlustrial home, driving-park association
with grounds covering 2U acres, 2 national Ijanks with com-
bined capital of ^200,000, a savings-bank with capital of
$50,000, and a daily and 5 weekly new-spapers. Pop. (1880)
6.9:50; (1890) 12,812 ; (1894) 13,449.
Editor op " Democrat."
Mnnistirpie. mfln-is-teek' : village (first mills erected in
1852, iui-orporaled in 1877); capital of Schoolcraft co., Mich,
(for location of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 2-ti) ; on
Lake .Michigan, at the mouth of the .Manis1i(|ue river, and
on the Minn., St. P. and Sanlt Ste. .Marie Uailway; midway
between Escanaba an<l St. Ignace. It contains 7 churches,
3 graded public schools, and mainifactoriesof pig-iron, lum-
ber, sash, doors, ami blinds, and has large shipping interests
and a semi-weeklv and li weekly n<'Wspapers. Pop. (1H80)
693; (1890) 2,940 ;' (1894) State census. 2.083.
KdiTOR ok " PlONHKR."
Manito'ba: a province of the Dominion of Canada, fre-
quently spoken of as "The Prairie Province," the other
divisions f)f Canada's prairie country, .Vssiniboia. Saskatche-
wan, and Alberta, being known as the Xorthwest Terri-
tories.
Ijornlion and Area. — It is a portion of the territory for-
merly known as Rupert's Land. In 1870 the Manitoba Act,
passed by the Parliament of Canada, defined the boundaries
of the new province of Manitobah, as it was at firet spelled,
which then comprised about 14,(MI0 sq. miles, with a popula-
tion of about 11.000, chiefiy half-breeds. In addition to
the.se, equally divided between men of French and British
origin, there wius a colony of descendants of Highlanders
and a few Englishmen, native Canadians, etc.; als<i about
220 Indians, the nnisses of the Crees, Blackfeel. and others
being \V. of Manitoba. 'I'lie province extemls from 52 50'
X'. lat. to the 49lh parallel (the international boundary-
line), which separates it from the .States of Minnesota arid
Xorth Dakota, and from the 95th meridian to 101 20 \V.
Ion. Area aliout 80,000 scj. miles, or over 51.(K10.0(H) acres.
Phijsictil Fctiliires. — The |irovince consists chielly of prai-
rie land, thimgli extensive tracts are covered with deciduous
trees, and at about 30 miles E. of Winnipeg (the capital)
begins a region of swamji intersected by ridges and spaces
of higher lands, the whole covered with spnice. a small
quantity of \vhite pine, tanuirack, cedar, balsam-willow (white
anil red), aspen, and Cottonwood, and, where fires have
cleared the ground, in some places groves of aspen. It is in
the main a fiat country, but contains several stretches of
liigli land, such as the so-called Riding Mountains, Turtle
.Mountain, Jloose Mountains, and the Porcupine Hills. There
are a great nunil)er ipf lakes in the province, some n\erely
shallow depressiims. The principal sheets of water are Lake
Winnipeg, 270 nnles long an<l from 20 to 60 miles broad ;
Lake Winnipegosis, 1.50 miles long and from 6 to 20 miles
broa<l : and Lake ^Manitoba, 130 miles long and about 20
miles wide in its broadest part. The [irincipal rivers are
the Reil. the Assiniboine, and the Winnipeg. The Red river
rises in Lake Traverse, Minnesota, and for a long distance
forms the bounilary between I^Iinnesota and XorihJ)akola.
It traverses Manitoba with many short and crooked stretches
and empties into Lake Winnipeg. On its course through
Jlanitoba it receives the Roseau and the Assiniboine rivers.
In the U. S. it is called the Reil River of the Xorth. It is a
muildy-colored stream, between banks of loose, pliable soil,
and is liable to occasional freshets. It is high in the
spring, but has cut itself so wide a channel that toward
the end of the fall it is hardly navigable even for tlat-
bottomed steamboats. The Assiniboine rises a little to
the X. W. of Manitiiba. but the greater part of its crooked
course is within that province, where it receives numerous
smaller streams, the cliief ones being the Little Saskatche-
wan, which unites with it near the city of Brandon, the
(^u'appelle, the Shell, the Birdtail, and the .Souris. The
Winnipeg river Hows out of the north emi of Lake of the
Woods, and empties into Lake Winnipeg near its southeast
corner. It is a rocky, rapid river, with over thirty falls and
rapids between the two lakes. All the waters of ;^Ianitoba
flow into Lake Winnijieg, and thence into Hudson Bay and
the Xorth Atlantic.
Geology. — The only minerals yet discovered are coal and,
in Lake Winnipeg, a deposit of iron. The coal is a lignite,
in some seiu^ons better than in others. It is largely used for
household purposes. In Lake of the Woods, touched by the
east boundary of the i)rovince, gold has been discovered and
two mines are in operation.
^oil and Prodiirlions. — The soil is generally a loam on a
clay bed. particularly rich in the valleys of the rivers. In
some parts it is lighter and dryer. Here and there are un-
productive alkaline sjiots or sandy liills. Every kind (pf root
and vegetable conimon to temperate climates grows luxu-
riantly. Grain of all kinds ripens well; the Manitoba Xo. 1
haril. the highest grade of red Fyfe wheat, famous through-
out the world, fetches the highest price in the London mar-
ket. Large fruits do not prosper, but currants and berries
yield well. In the woods are found wild grapes ami plums.
.V yield of 3 tons of wild hay to the acre is not unusual.
There is a variety of wihl flowers on the prairies, but the
resources of the province from a botanical point of view
have not been fully exploited.
Faunn. — There are many varieties of birds, ravens being
the only ones that remain through the winter. The song-
sparrow, the American robin, and the meadow-lark are the
principal songsters. Wild fowl are in gri'at abnnilance. in-
cluding the swan, merganser, goose, sheldrake, duck, snipe,
pelican, and plover. The Canada goose, the Arctic goose
or wavy, and the laughing-goose are the most common.
There are about 1 wenty varieties of duck and three of snipe.
Hawks, owls, eagles, ami other smaller birds of prey are in
all sections of the country. Prairie fowl are plentiful. The
rulTed grouse or willow-partridge is common, and the pino
MAMTOBA
521
partriil^'C is found in the more thickly wooilpd country.
Bisons in a wild sliite are not now foniid in Mimitobu. Elk
(wapiti) are killed in the wilder parts, the Vir;;iniH rleer is
common, and in some parts of the wooded distriiis carilHm
are olduined. There are two kinds of wolves — the prairie-
wolf, or coyote, anil the larger and liereer tiinber-wolf.
The hear, fox, lieaver. mink, ami other fur animals, though
rapidly deereasin;; wherever settlement is maile, are still
found in the province, the eastern and northern portions of
which, being heavily wooded and sparsely settled, afford
quiet retreats.
Climate. — The cliinati' is cold in winter, the mercury some-
times, though rarely, falling; to — M . The province i.s very
heallhful, and not sul)jeet to violent storms. The winter
begins about the close of Xovendier and his(s until .\pril;
the spring is short : summer lasts from June to the bej^inninj^
of .September ; ancl the autumn is a Uelij;htful season, some-
times broken with rain. In a period of eleven years the
maximum temperature was y.l:i4 ; iniiunium. 40 51° : and
mean, :t;i06 . I'he mean annual rainfall was 16'J77 inches;
mean snowfall, 52'TJ in.; mean nundier of days on which
rain fell, 69; of snowfall, 4."i. Navi';atii>n opened In-tween
Apr. 13 and May 2, and closed between Oct. 2M and NoV. 21.
Divisions. — Manitoba is divided into seventy or^'anized
niral municipalities (besides cities, towns, and unorganized
districts), each governed bv a reeve and council, and for
electoral purposes is dividiMl into forty divisions for the pro-
vincial legislature, and seven divisions for the House of Com-
mons at Ottawa. These seven are Winnipeg, Selkirk, Lisgar,
Hraiulon, Mnniuette, Macdonald. and I'rovenchcr.
Primipdl Ci/ifx. — The principal cities, with population
in 1H!)1, are Winnipeg, Ihi' capital of the province, 2.').042
(INiHi, yH.OdO) ; Mrandon. the most important gniin-nuirket.
3,778 (189(i, ri.r.(MI): and I'ortage la Prairie, on the Assiiii-
boine river ami three railways, H,3(i:i (l.'SlHi, 4.000).
Oovernmetit. — The government of the province is admin-
istered by a lii'ulenant-governor, apjiointed liy the governor
in council of Canaila for a term of live years, with an ex-
ecutive council of five membei-s. belonging to the legislature
and responsible to it. and a single house of representatives
called Ine legislative assembly, composed of forty members
elected by popular vote for a term of four years. The prov-
ince solids two senators (apfwinted for life by the feileral
cabinet) and seven popularly elected nuMubers of I he legis-
lature to the federal I'arliaiuent at Ottawa. There are a
chief justice and three puisne juilges of the court of (jueen's
bench, and three county court judges.
J'lipiilalinn ami I{arej<. — In 1881 there were 6.5,9.54 inhab-
itanl.s, but 3,094 were taken off and added to Ontario when
the boundary was changi'd ; in 1891 there were 1.52,500, of
whom 108,017 were Canadian born and 44,489 of foreign
birth (Kngland ami Wales, 10.017; .Scotland. 7,443; Irelaml,
4,5.53; L'. S.. 3.(103 ; (termany. 857; Scanilinavia, 3,746; Uus-
sia, 0,220; France, 474; and miscellaneous, 2,110). There
were also 4,230 Indians on reservations.
Induntries. — Outside of Winnipeg the i)rincipal industry
is farming in its several branches and tlie various m'cupa-
tions connected therewith. There is some lumbering, but
the principal supjily is from the country round the Lake of
the Woods. In the city of Winnipeg and its suburb. St.
Boniface, across the Ked river, there is a variety of manufac-
turing inilustrics, though as yet these are on a small scale.
Winni|ieg has a large nuudur of branches of the principal
banks of the Dominion, as well as of Canadian, English, anil
U. S. insurance and loan and mortgage companies. In the
other cities ami towns banks, insurance companies, and loan
compi.nies are represented by branches or agents. In 1894
there were in all twenty-eight local and branch banks and
twenty-five private banking firms. At a great number of
points there are grain elevators, the properly somelimes of
the railways and sometimes of private firms, and at every
such point there is a market for grain, with close market
nuotations. Mills at Winnipeg, Keewatin, and other places
through the province, constitute a large flour interest.
Finanre. — Manitoba derives its means from a subsidy
grantcil by the Dominion under the British North .\inerica
Act on a basis of population, as is done in the ease of all
the provinces. The amount ap|)ortioned to Manitoba is
$435,.590. In addition, the province derives revenue from
licenses, law stamps, succession duties, lands, and registra-
tion fees.
Means nf Cnmmunicalinn. — Besides the onlinary high-
ways between inunicijialilies. Manitoba is well served with
railways. The Canadian I'lwific Railway Company's main
line enters the province near the north end of Ijike of tho
Woods, and, pa-ssing through Winni|M-g, traverM-s the prov-
ince in u westerly direction, continuing on to the I'acilic
coast at Vancouver. This company hius five brunch lines
ra<liating from Winnipeg, liesides others in the Northwest
Territories. In addilion to these, the Northeni I'acifie Kail-
way has three branrhes in Ihe province connecting with its
system in North Dakota and Minin'Solu, and Ihe mure north-
ern portion of the province is served for about 225 inll.s
from I'ortage hi I'rairie by the Manitoba and Northw.
Hallway. There are no canals nor river connections, ■ \ . i :
so far as the lower part of Bed river is served by the sleuiii-
boat that at intervals goes from Selkirk on the west bunk to
the (iraiid Kapids of the .S<iskatchewun unil the [Miints on
Luke Winnipeg.
C/iKrc/ic.v. — There is no state church in Manitoba, each
ileiiomiiiation sup|M)rting its own ecch-siasiicul esiablish-
ment ; but there are a great number of churches ihroughout
the province. The Bomun Catholic Church is presidedover
by an archiiishop, under whose jurisiliction are all the
churches, convents, ami schools of Ihe denomination in Iho
nrovinee. The .\nglicaii Church has an archbishop at its
Iicail, who in 1894 was primate of all Canada; and the I'res-
byterian, Methodist, and other denominations are well or-
ganized.
Sc/iooh. — The separate schofd system was maintained in
Manitoba till 1888, when Ihe provincial legislulure piussed
an act confining Ihe government subsidy to nndenomimi-
tioiial schools. This act was challenged as lieing unconsti-
tutional, but wius sustained by the local court of queen's
bench, whose decision was revci-sed by Ihe Supreme Court
of Canada, but reaflirmed by the judicial commitlee of the
privy council in Iif)ndon, the final court of appeal. A
" Remedial .\ct " (possible under the constitution of Cannda)
was demanded by the adviK-ates of separate schiMils, but in
1895 had not been granted. There are four denouiinulional
collegiate institutions in Winnipeg — the Anglican. Roman
Catholic. McthoilisI, and I'resbylcriaii — and a collcgi' for
women, an undenominational university, orgunizeil only for
the conferring of degrees. The amount of money paid for
educalion by the government in 1.S93 wius ^18.5.037.07. The
aggregate number of scholars in the public schools in 1893
was 28.7(H).
Charilnhle and Penal Institutions. — There is one [leni-
tentiary in Manitoba, 16 miles from Winnipeg; a lunatic
asylum in the city of Brandon, and one at .Selkirk; and
court-houses and jails al these cities and at I'ortage la
t'ruirie, the centers of Ihe three judicial di.slricls. There is
a general hospital at Winnii«'g, mainly sup|M)rtc-d by volun-
tary contributions, though the provincial government makes
an annual grant to it and payment is made by [uitii'iils in
private wards. There are hospitals in SI. Boniface. Bramlon,
and Morden. a deaf and dumb a.sylum and a Children's
Home in Winnipeg, and a Home for Iiicuraliles in I'orlage
la I'rairie. The deaf and dumb asylum and the Home for
Incurables are supporle<l by the provincial governnieiil, the
other instilulions by municipal and guvcriimcnt grants and
voluntary contributions.
Ifi.ilnri/. — The history of Manitolui properly dates back to
1812, when Lord Stdkirk obtained a grant of laml from tho
Hudson Bay Com|iuny, then owner and ruler of the country
under a charier granted by Charles II. He then s<-nt out
via Hudson Bay a company of Sulherlundshire Highland-
ers. These, after various vicissitudes, s<'ltled at Kildonan
along the west bank of Ri'*! river. alKiiit 4 miles N. of
what is now Winnipeg. Frequent disturbani-es took place
between the enniloyees of the company and the Northwest
Fur Company, in one of which tiov. S'm|ile of Ihe first-
named company was killed; but on the amalgnmalion of
the companiis and the |ieaceful eslablishmenl of Fi^rt (iarry
as a central lrading-|>ost at the junction of Ihe Riil and
.\ssinilHiine rivers, u s«>llleinent of French hnlf-bree<ls, Eng-
lish holf-breed.s. dis<liarged |H'nsioners of the British nrmy.
missionaries, and ri'tiri'd employees of the conifiany spran);
up, nidiutiiig from the fort up und ilown Ihe two rivers.
In 1807 arrangements were made for •■iirrendering the
territorial jiossi'ssions of the Hudson Bay Compuiiv to
the British tiovernment. to 1k' Iran-ferred by il lo ( ana-
du. the nominal consideralion iM-inc t"l(io.(HiO in ea«h, c-er-
tain res«-rvBlions around the comimnv's (""sIs, and one-
twentieth of Ihut part of Ru|MTl's Land known as ihe "fer-
tile belt." The Iransfi-r being muile. the iderical ailvisers of
the French hulf-breols — alaniie<l al a |Mis>ible influx of Knf»-
lisli-s|H'akiiig I'roteslantii from Onlario — indurrd a sectioa
MANITOBA LAKK
JIAXN
of the From-li half-breeds to resist the entry of Willinm >Ifie-
dougal, whom Oiimila had sent up as tirst Koveriior, together
with the public olllcers aceonipanying him. Having; eom-
pelled hiiu to return to I'embina. on the frontier of the I'. S.,
the insurgents, headed by a half-breed named Louis Kiel
(subsequent ly hanged for ineiling another rebellion in the
Xorthwest Territories in 1)S85), seized Fort (iarry. imprisoned
the ollieers and other Hudson Hay t'ompany's prominent
settlers, and ended bv shooting a t'anadian named Thomas
Scott, whom they had tried and condemned by a so-called
court martial. Kiel established a provisional government,
which livstcd until a force was sent up under Col. (now Lord)
Wolselev, via Lake Superior and the Hudson Hay Com-
pany's liateaux route. This force, a regiment of Hritish in-
fantry (.Sixtieth Hilles), two battalions of Canadian volun-
teers, and a few artillerymen ami (•ngineers. arrived in the
Red river on Aug. 22, 1870, and. hindiiig near Kprt (iarry
on the 24th, took possession of the place and hamled over
the civil government to Donald A. Smith, the chief of
the Hudson Hay Coniminy. In a few days a new lieutenant-
governor (.\danis .Vrcliibald) arrived from Ottawa, and, be-
ing duly installed, the constitutional life of Manitoba com-
menced under the Canadian Act of Parliament ( 187(1), called
the Manitoba Act. The names of the several lieutenant-
governors who have held this office since the restoration of
order bv the Red river expedition are Adams Archibald.
Alexander Morris, Joseph Cauchon, James Co.x Aikens, and
John C. Schultz.
The first election for the provincial legislature took place
on Mar. 2. 1871, and for the members for the House of Com-
mons on Dec. 27, 1870. In 1871 Wemys Simpson was sent
to negotiate treaties with the Indians, and since the comple-
tion of this duty there has been no interruption of peace.
In 1878 the government of Canada began the construction
of a line of railway from Emerson, on the international
boundary, to Winnijieg, and a line from Thunder Hay, on
Lake .Superior, to \\ innipeg. The rapid construction of the
Canadian Pacific Railway and its many branches ijuickly
converted the province into a great wheat-growing distfict,
with market centers at all the principal railway points.
Al'TIIokities. — llargraves, Hed liii<er; parliamentarv doc-
uments; ManUoha Free Press (newspaper): Brvce, ilrini-
tohn, its Infancy. Orowlh, and Present Condition : The
Western World; }ilti(;oun, JIanitul/a and the Great North-
west. Jl()i,vNEix St, Jonx.
Manitoba Lako (Ind. Manitowanan, or Straits of Mani-
tou) : one of the three great lakes of the |)rovince of Mani-
tol)a, Iviiig between Lake \Viniii])egosis and Lake Winni-
peg, ft is in lat. TM" to .52" X., Ion. i)8 ' to IIHJ \V. ; 80 miles
long by 20 broad ; area about 1,800 sq. miles ; of very irreg-
ular form; 751 feet above the sea, and 121 above Lake
\Viniii))eg, into which it empties through St. Martin's Lake,
and 20 fei^t below W'innipegosis, from which it receives the
drainage through the short Waterhen river. Otherwise it
receives but little drainage. The shores are for the most
part unsettled ; the few residents arc mostly Scindinavians.
JI. W. II.
.Man'itoii [Amer. Indian]: among the North American
Indians of Algonquin stock, a name applied to any object of
religiotis reverence or dread, wliether it be a divinity, an
evil spirit, a fetich, or an amulet. Gilche Jlan-ilnn (the
Great .Spirit i is the Su|ireine Being.
Mniiltoii'liii Islands [corruption of Indian Maniloirin.
divinity]: a line of rocky islands in the north end of Lake
Huron, continuous geologically with theSaugeen peninsula,
separating Lake Huron proper from (Jeorgian Bay and the
North Channel. They an', in order from the K., Fitzwilliam.
firauil Maniloulin, ('ocklmrn. or Little Manitoulin, and
DrummDiid islands. The first three belong to Ontario, the
last to ."Michigan. The largest and most important is (irand
Manitoulin. It is very irregular in outline, having many
ileep bays, especially from the N. ; is about 80 miles long by
20 broiwl ; has a rough, irregular surface, innumerable lakes
and streams, and is covered with forests of pines, spriKies,
and cedars. The largest lake is Tecumsel li. area .W sq. miles.
wviiT the center of the islanil. It has three dilTi-n'ril outlets
to three distinct bays. Cockburn island has a diameter of
7 miles. The two islands together have an area of 1.182 sq.
miles, and a population of about 2,000. more than half be-
ing Iirdian.s. The latter belong to the Algonijuin race.
The soil is [loor and the climate coM for crops. The lakes
and ponds abound in fish, and the islands make an agreea-
ble summer resort. ."^Iakk W. llAKiti.Ntrro.N.
Maniton Springs: town: El I'a.so co., Col. (for location
of county, see map of Colorailo, ref, 4-E) ; cm the Denver
and Rio. G. and the Col. Midlaiui railways: 6 miles N. \V.
of Colorado Springs, the countv-seat. It is in tlie fool-ldlls
at the base of the famous Pike's Peak, and is completely
surrounded by hills, on which are many ta.-teful cottages.
Six mineral springs, the Shoshi.ne (sulph'uri, the Navajo ami
Manitou (both resembling seltzer-water), the Ute (soda), the
L'te (iron), and the Little Chief, give the town its name.
The town has an independent system of water-works, aiul
an electric-light plant, both completed in 1887, a new union
public school, several private schools, 4 churches. 5 largo
and manv small hotels, numerous boarding-houses, and a
weekly newspaper. I'oj). (1880) 422 ; (18i)0) 1,4;}9.
Editor of '• Jourxal."
Mauitowoi-': city; caiiital of Manitowoc co.. Wis. (for
location (if county, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 5-K); on
Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Manitowoc river, and
on the Chi. and N. \V. Uailway ; 75 miles N. of Milwaukee.
It has a good harbor, direct steamboat communication with
Milwaukee, Wis., and Ludington, Mich., and a considerable
lake trade. There are foundries, machine-shops, tanneries,
ship-yards, and edge and agricultural tool works, a subscrip-
tion library, and six weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 6:i07-
(1800) 7,710; (1895) 9.427. " Editor of "Pilot." '
Maiiizales. mali-nw-zaa'Ias : a city at the extreme south-
ern eiul (if the department of Antioquia, Colombia; on a
plateau K. of the river Cauca. 6.988 feet above the sea. It
is in the midst of a rich grazing district, on the road lead-
ing from the ujiper Cauca to Antioquia, and near a pass in
the Andes by \yhich easy access is obtained to Bogotj'u It
was founded in 1848, and hius had a more rapid growth than
any other city of Colondiia. though it suffered greatly from
the earthquaki^s of 1875 and 1878. Owing to its position it
is the military key to the Cauca valley, and has been a iioint
of great imjiortance in the civil wars of that region. Mani-
zales has a large trade in cacao, which is brought from the
plantations of the upper Cauca. On the side of the Ruiz
yolcano. near the city, there are hot sjirings, mtich used by
invalids, and the wjiter is brought iu pipes into the city
itself. Pop. (1892) 14,()(«. IT. II. S.M1TH.
Manka'to : city; cajiital of Blue Earth co., Minn, (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Minnesota, ref. 11-D); on the
Minnesota river, at the mouth of the Blue Earth river, and
on the Chi., Mil. and St. P.. the Clii. and N. W., the Chi.,
St, P.. ^linii. and Om.. and the Minn, and St. L. railways;
86 miles .S. by W. of SI. Paul. 14(1 mil(.s W. of Wiiuma. ' It
is in an agrieullur.il and timber region, with extensive stone
quarries in and around it. The industries comprise the
manufacture of woolen goods, linseed oil. flour, cement,
fiber ware, brick and lime, foundry and machine-shop prod-
ucts, furniture. l>ipe. and candy. There are 8 national banks
with combined cajiital of $;!.50.000. a State normal school,
public library, board of trade, and 2 daily, 6 weekly, and 2
monthly iieriodicals. Pop. (1880) 5..5.50 ; ('l890) 8.8:i8 ; {1895)
10,17;!. Kditok of ■■ FiiiiK Phkss."
itiuiikind : See Max.
Manley, Mrs. Dk La RiviiiRE: author: b. in the island
of (iiiernsey in 1672. She published several scandalous
novels, the best known of which is Secret J/emoirs and
Manners of Several Persons of Quality of Both Sej-es:
from The, New Atlantis (1709). a licentious satire on distin-
guished public characters. The author published a key to
this, entitled Jfemoirs of Enrojie (1710). The printer and
publisher of The Ni'ic Atlantis were arrested by warrant
from the Secretary of State. Among Mrs. Stanley's other
books were a collection of letters, and 'J'hc J'oirer of Lore :
in Seven Novels (1720). D. in 1724. II. A. IJkkhs.
Mann, Horace, LL. D. : educationist and philanthro-
pist: b. at Franklin, Mass., Jlay 4, 1796; giadiiated at
Brown rniversity lsi9: studied law at Lilelilield, Coini. ;
was admitted to the bar ln2;i, and settled in Dedhain, Ma.ss.,
whence he removed to Boston in 18:i:{. He early entered
liolilical life, having been elected to the Assembly in 1H27,
and six years later to the Senate of Jlassacliuseds. (If (he
latter body he became president in 18:!(l. He i(lenlifi(Ml
himself from (lie firs( with all good causes, and had been
selected to codify the laws of the State when his life work
came to him. In 18:{7 (he Legislature appointed a board of
i>ducation to rcvi.sc and reorganize the common-school sy.s-
lem of the State. Mr. Mann was chosen secretary (o tliis
board. The pay was inade(pnite, and the duties most try-
MANN
MANNING
523
irig; nevertlu'lfss he took uii tlic work wilh joy. I'nM-lflsti-
ly putting iLside tho most fluttcriiitj o|i|iortuiiitu-.s in olliur
directions, he (K-voUhI hiiiiselT wilh iihsolute singleiniiuleil-
ness to the reforrii of the sehools of .Miuvsmihiisells. His
twelve yeiirs of siTvice in I his ollice were i-|»j<'h-niHkin(;. not
only in the eihieational history of .Massaihusetls, hut in that
of the U. S. lus well, lie sou^'lit to Inin;; alionl iie>ileil re-
forms c hie tly ill three ways — 1, hy a series of teaehi-rs' eon-
ferences ; 2, through u periodieiil, Tlii- 1 'iiminint-Kchdol Jimr-
nal, which he foiiiideil and edited himself; .'l, most impor-
tant of all, throii;;h the annual Ji'i-jmrl that he was required
to miike to the lioard. The twelve volumes of (hesi- Ji'fjxirts
(18:57-48) are edueali(mal ehussies. In 1H4.'{ he visited Ku-
rope for the iiurpose of stuilyinj; forei;;n selnml svstenis at
first haiiil. The results of this tour of inspect ion. ils pub-
lished in his seventh report, stirred up hitter hoslilily. In-
deed, all his work was aeeomplishnl in the face of uncoin-
promisinp: opposition from lu'arly all possible sources. In
1848 Mr. Mann wius elected to CoiiiLtress to llll the vacancy
caused liy the death of John yuiney Adams, and was re-
elected in Noveiidierof thi' same year and apiin in IH.'jII. In
the opinion of many, one of his purposes in ;;oin;; to Wash-
ington was to aid in estahlishing a national liunau of edu-
cation, but in this he was not smcessfnl, if he really cher-
ished such a hope. Krom 1852 until his diath, Aug. 2, 18.5'J,
ho was presiilent of Antioch College, Yellow .Springs, O.
The supreme work of .Mr. .Mann was the rem(«leling of the
school system of Massachusetts. He introiluced many of the
features which are now wididy accepted as invaluaijle ele-
ments of the school systems of the I'.S., and to him as much
us to any one person is due the foundingof normal schools in
the U.S. " liarely have great abilities, inisellish devotion,
and brilliant success been so united in the course of a single
life." In addition to the Ripiirl/i. his chief published work.s
arc : Lecture nn Ediiriilinn (Uoslon, 1840) ; Lerliireis tin Ed-
ucalivn (Host on, 1H4.')| ; (hi the SImli/ of I'liysiologi/ in
ScfwoU; A /Vic Tliuinjhlx for ii )'iiiiii(/ Man (IS.jO); .SV<n-
rry. Letters, and S/)ier/ie.i (IS.ll); Leititres an Intemper-
«Hre (1852): I'uwerK and Duties uf Wuinaii (185;)); besides
nuinemtis lectures and addresses. See his biography bv his
widow, Mary Peabody Mann (Boston, 1H(J,5) ; Boon'c, 7iV/i(-
cntion in the United Stateti (1890) ; (ionly. /i'mc and Groiit/i
of the yormut-scliool Idea in the United Stnten (181)2).
C. II. TlllRHKR.
Mann, Matiibw Derbyshirk, A.M.. M. D. : gvniecolo-
gist ; I), at Utica. X. Y., .Inly 12, 184.'i : graduated' at Yale
in 1867; at the nu-clicul ilepartmenl of ColiMubia College in
1871: formerly was lecturer in the College of I'hysicians
and Surgeons, New York, and in the Yale Medical School
in 1803; is Professor of (iyiuecology ami Obstetrics in the
University of Buffalo, New York. He is the author of a
Text-book on Prescription UV(7i;i(/llM7!)) ; anil editor of Tlie
Ameririm System of (iynircototj)/ (1887-88).
Mann, William .Iilii:s, I». 1)., LIj. I). : theological pro-
fessor and author: b. in Stuttgart, (iermany, .May 20, 1810;
was educated at the University of Ti'ibingen : settled in the
U. S. in 1845. following his sciioolmate and life-long friend.
l>r. I'hiliti .SehalT : wiis pastor in I'hihidelpliia. first in the
Kefonned ((ieriuan) chuiih l^lt0-5ll, ami fr 1850 to 18K4
of Zion's anil .St. Mielmel's church, the mother of tho Lu-
theran churches of Philaclelphia ; was professor in the The-
ologiial .Seminary (now at .Ml. .Airy. Philailelphia) from ils
estalilishmenl in 18(il until within a few monthsof his death
in Boston. Mass., .Iiiiie 20, 1H02. He wius coeditor wilh
Dr. Si'haff of Iter Deutsche Kirchenfrettnd, vtA\\r\\n\\v\\ to
J/erzoi/s Ji'eiil-h'nryrlopndie, and was a conslant writer to the
Qennan periodical pii'xs in the U. S. and Kuro|>i'. His two
most important works are The Life nnd Times of Henry
J/elchior Jliihlenlieri/ (Philadelphia. 18.S7), and, with the aid
of Dr. Beale M. .Schmncker. and Dr. W. (iermanii. lUi anno-
tated edition of the so-called lliillesclie Sachrichlen (the re-
jiorls of the fouudei-s of the Kill lieran Church in Pennsyl-
vania to the Orphan Housi' in Halh'). Of this work one vol-
lune hiLS appeared (.Mlentown. ISNO). See Meiiioriiil. bv Dr.
A. Simeth, and Memoir, by Kinma T. Mann. IkiIIi pidilished
in Philailelphia in ISO:t. ' Ulnrv M .Iai ous.
Manna[= Lat. = Or. ^ulvra. from Hcb. miin ; .Arab, rnnrtn,
niannu, liter., favor. Cf. Heb. moii, gift): the concrete
juice of a small tree native in the countries on the Miililer-
raneiin coilsI, the Frnxinnsiirniis. The manna of commerce
is obtained exclusively from Sicily. It is in the form of
cream-colored, brittle, spongy (lakes of an agreeable sweet
tASte, and contains a large percentagi* of a |>eculiar sugar
called miinnite. .Manna is n gi'ntle laxative, and cK'i-asion-
ally is used as such in meilieine, especially in the cjise of
children, from its pleasant taste. It is an ingredient of the
old "black draught." The manna (Arab. m«ii) of the Sina-
itic peninsula is found, during the month of .liine onlv. on
the twigs and branches of the shrub turfa. whose liolaiiical
name is said by Porter to \n; Tamorix i/nlliru. ,SmMll pots
of it are kept forsjdeal the convent of .Mt. Sinai. The pres-
ent annual yii'ld of the |H'ninsulu is 5U0 ur OUU lb. only. See
l-'ooll.
Maniin-g-rasH: the |H>piilar name for species of Olyeeria,
grasses growing in wet places in the teiii|ieratc regions of
nearly every (|Uarter of the world. (I. Jtiiitiin* (called also
lloating maniia-gra.ss) is prized as afTordiiig abiimlant hay
of very fair i|uality; and in Poland and parts of (iermany
the nutritious and palatable seed is collwlcd and used as a
grain under the name of Polish manna.
Manners. .lon.v .Iamks Uoiikrt. K.O., LL. D., D. C. L.,
P. ('.. by courtesy Lord .Toils .Mannkks: statesman; b. at
Belvoir Castle, Kiicestersliiie, Kngland, Dec. 13. im8 ; son of
the liftli Duke of Kntland; educated at Kton and at Trinity
College, Cambridge; was a member of the Camden Sxiely,
and took n deep interest in church restorations. He was I'n
Parliament 1S41-47 fur .Newark. 18-'iO-57 for ( 'olchester, and
1857-74 for North Leicestershire. In 1H,52 he iH-came first
commissioner of [iiiblic works, and again in 1M.)M and IH(i»J,
in Lord Derby's administration. When the Conservatives
again came into power, in 1874, he was ap|M>inted [K>stmas-
ler-geiieral. and he held that position until they went out of
oflicc in 1880. In the brief .Salisbury government of 1HK5 he
took the same ofiice, and in the ministry of lnHfl-02 he was
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, also under Lonl Salis-
bury. Hy the death of his bn.ther, ill 1S87. he succeedinl to
the title of Duke of Kntland. He has published two volumes
of [locins, ami some other works..
Mannhardt. mimnha''art, .Iohanx Wn.nKLM Kmani'el:
writer on mythology and ethnology ; b. in rriedriehslailt. in
Schleswig, (.jermunv. Mar. 20, IKll ; studied in Berlin and Til-
bingeii ; became edit^ir in 18.55 of the Zeitsr.hrift Jiir deiitsrhe
Mytholuyie, mid Sitlenkiinde ; was privat docenl in Berlin
1H.5K; but subseiiuenl ly leliied on account of ill-hcHlth. D.
ill Danlzic, Dei'. 25. isso. Mannhardl's wurk was exclusively
devoted lo liermaiiic niylliology and comparative ethnol-
ogy. Of his siieiililic contributions may be menlioned Wuld-
inid Feldktilte (2 vols., 1S77), and esiMcially his Mytholoijisrhe
/^or«f/i iin(/e»,j>nblished alter his deatii by Patzig (.Stnuw-
burg, 1H84). see Biuyrupliische Jahrbiiclier (vol. iv., IWI,
pp. 1 IT.). .\LKKKU Gi nr.MA.H.
Mannlioiiii. maan him, or Manliriin : town in the grand
duchy of Baden, Oerinany: at the iiillux of the Nwkar in
the Hliinc; .5:! miles .S. of Frankfort (si'e map of (terinan
Kinpiri'. ref. (>-D). It is well built, very regularly laid out,
and contains a ducal palace, which is one of the largest
buildings of the kind in liermany, and s^'veral finechun-hes.
Its manufactures are imponanl, and ils trade is largi- and
in<'rensing. It is connected by a fine liridge (built lH<J,>-68)
with Liidwigshafen, on the opposite bank of the Khine. and
has a goiMl harbor and extensive docks. Pop. (1800) 70,0.58.
.Maniilieliii (Jold : S'e Brass.
Manning : town ; Carroll co., la. (for location of county,
see mail of lowa, ref. .5-K); on the Chi. and N. W. and tiio
Chi.. M^il.and St. P. railways: 42 miles N. W. of Des Moines.
It is in a farming region and is a grain and live-stock mar-
ket. Pop. (1890) l,2:{:t; (189.5) 1.144.
Manning: town (county set olT from Sumter 1SS.5. town
foundeil as Iheconnty-seal in IXXfi): capital of Clarendon eo.,
S. C. (for location of coiintv, siv map of .S<iulh Carolina, ref.
0-K) ; on the Central Knilriuid of S. C. ; 70 miles K. by..S of
Columbia, 77 miles N. W. of Charleston. It is in an BL'riciil-
tural and lumln'riiig region, and has severtd ■ i I
.s«hiMils for while and colon-d people, and two w
|>a|K'rs. Pop. (1WM»> 1.0G9. KiUToK ot i,-..-.
.Manning:. Damki., LL. D. : editor and |M>litii'iaii : b. in
Alliany. N. Y.. .May 1«. I«.St ; entered i.h. om.e ■ ' ri.. (/-
A«Hy . I n/M/t as an appri'iitice ill 1H42. and ms- I
the various stag«'S of the service till he in I- ■•
BssiM'iate editor, and in 18~)conlnilliiig pniprielor. Al tho
same lime he tiMik a very a«'tive part in )«i|itic», lierame a
menilH'r of the Democniiic .Si;r ne in l.*<7tV ami
was its MH-retary in IS70-H) lo man in 1KM|-.>M.
He was a delegn'le to the natioi,,,, ,i, ....- nitie convenlions
of 1876, 188(), and IH84, was eliairm«n of thnt buily in 1890,
524
MANNING
MANSFELD
and of the New York delopitioii to the convention of 1884.
He was a])|H)into<l Seerelary of Treasury in Mar., 1885, by
President Cleveland ; resij^ncd in Apr., 1887, on account of
ill-liealtli, and liecanie president of the Western National
Bank ..f New York city. I), at Albany, Dec. 24, 1887.
Maiiuinur, IIknrv Kuwaud, Cardinal: b. at Tott<>ridge,
Ilertfiirdsliire, Knsrland, .July b">. 1808; studied theology at
the rnivei-sity of Oxford, ami was appointed rector of Lav-
in,E;ton and GratTliani in Sussex in is;i4, and Archdeacon of
Chichester in 1840; but the (iorhani case occasioned him to
give up in 18."! 1 his |)refennents in the Anglican Church
and join the Konian Catholic. After residing for several
yeai-s in Konic, he was ordained a priest in 1857, and ap-
pointed rector of .St. Helen and St. Mary's, Bayswater, and
on the death of Cardinal Wisenuin in 1865 he was nominated
Archbishop of Westminster, lie was created a cardinal
Mar. 15, 1875. He founded the Roman Catholic Univei-sity
of Kensington, Oct. 15, 1874, and took a very active part in
the Council of the Vatican, defending the dogma of the
infallibility of the pope. Cardinal Manning was a Chris-
tian socialist, public spirited, broad in his sympathies, and
a friend of the laboring classes. D. .Jan. 14, 1893. The
most prominent of his writings are The Eternal Priest-
hood, llrliijio Viatoris, The True Storij of the Vatican
Council, Independence of the Holy See, Four (Jreat Evils
of the Dai/, Fourfold Sovereignty of God ; Hie Temporal
Mission of the Holy Ghost (18G5) ; 'Jlie 'Temporal Power of
the Pope (1866); England and Christendom (1867); Petri
Privilegium (1871); Ceesarism and Ultrnmontanism (1874);
The Internal Mission of the Holy Ghost (1875) ; Sin and
its Consequences {ISIG) ; The Catholic Church ayid Modern
Society (1880), etc. Cardinal .Manning replied to Mr. Glad-
stone's Expostulation, in The Vatican Decrees in their
Bearing on Civil Allegiance (1875).
Mauuite: See Manna.
Manoa : See Ki. Dorado.
Maiioel do Nascimeiito, maa-n«-erdo-na"a-se"e-mento,
Francisco: poet; b. in Lisbon, Portugal, Dec. 31, 1734.
Though he was ordained priest in 17.54, his intellectual
sympathies were with the rationalists of his time, and he
was an admirer of the French Encyclopaedists. In conse-
quence he was accused liefore the Inquisition tjy his former
teacher of Latin, Antonio Felix Mendes, of reading and dis-
seminating ]inihibited books. This was .lune 22, 1778, and
on .liily VA Mancjcl fled from Portugal to France, never to
return. In Paris he wrote and published, under the name
Filinto Elysio (by which he is lietter known than by his
own), the greater ^lart of his poetical works. His first model
was Horace, and his experiments with Iloratian meters, which
curiously anticipate those of the modern Italian " Veristi,"
give him an important place in the history of the poetic art
in Portugal. His opinions are always rationalistic in religion
and liberal in politics, as may be seen in his ode to Wash-
ington. He excels rather in perfecticm of form than in
poetic enthusiasm or imaginative impulse. Living in Paris
during the beginnings of the liomantie movement in
France, he saw the possibilities of this remarkable change
of taste, and tried to make it known to his countrymen by
translating into Portuguese (Chateaubriand's Martyrs and
Wieland's Olieron. He also made a version of La Fon-
taine's Fables. See Oliras comjjletas de Filinto Elysio (2<1
ed., 11 vols., Paris, 1S17-1!)); Ohras, etc. (new edition, ed. by
Solano Constancio, 23 vols., Lisbon, 1836-4(1). D. in Paris,
181i). A. K. Marsh.
Man-of-war Bird: See Friuate-iurd.
Manoin'ctcr: See Pneumatics.
Mauri(|iiP, ma'hn-ree'kd, .Ioroe : Spanish poet. The
date of his birth is unknown; he was killed in 1470 in a
skirmish during an insurrection against the .Spanish king.
The son of Kodrigo Manrique, Count of Paredes, and the
nephew of Oomez .Manrique, bolh of whom were also poets
(see the Cancionero de Gomez Manrique, ed. by I). Antonio
Paz y Melia, 2 vols., Madrid, 18H.5-St6), he belonged to one
of the oMest and most famous families of Spain. We have
from him several love poems, prinleil in tlie Cancioneros,
and, what his fame rests iqion, a poem in roplas de arte
mayor upon the death of his falluT in 1476. This work
is commonly known by the simple title of Coplas de Man-
rique, as well befits its character, for few poems in the
Spanish language are more simiilc, more sincere, or more
profoundly moving. The Coplas were lirst printed in 14!)2,
and at once jiroduced a deep impression. They have often
been j)rinted since, both alone and in the Cancioneros. In
the sixteenth century it became the fashion to accompany
them with commentaries, or glosas, whether in prose or
verse, no less than five such having come down to ns. For
a time ihiix glosas much interfered with the popularity of
the original poem. The Coplas arc printed in vcilumc xxxv.
of l{iva<leneyra's liihtioteca de Aulons EspaiioUs (.Madrid,
1872) ; also with an Knglish tnin>lalioii by II. W. Longfellow
(Boston. 1833 : the translation often since, in all editions of
Longfellow's irorA'.*). A. K. Marsh.
Maiisart. nniiin'saar , .Jri-ES Hardouin : architect; b. ia
Paris, Apr. 16, 1646; son of the painter Haphael Ilardouin,
and grand-nephew of Nicholas F. MansafI, from whom ho
took the name by which he is known. One of his earliest
works is the Cathedral of Hlois, a curious piece of belated
(iothic. He was emploved by the king's oflicers to erect
pavilions at the five angles of the chateau at St.-Gerinain-
en-Laye, but these were nevercompleted, because Louis XIV.
gave up St.-Gerniain as a residence about 1680, and they
have since been destroyed. He was in great favor with the
king, a member of llie Academy of Fine Arts from its com-
mencement, and architect of the king by sjiecial order, be-
fore the great undertaking of his life, the Chateau of Ver-
sailles, upon which lie began lo work about 1678. He built,
during the same year.s, the royal chateau and pavilions at
Marly, was made a noble in 16H3, was named first architect
of the king soon after, and in 16!)3 received the order of St,
Michael. Constant ly engaged upon the most important work,
he was still the representative of a style aial a way of look-
ing at architectural problems which show little inspiration
and little originality. These, however, were not the virtues
of the art of the reign of Louis XIV.; Mansarl is a perfect
embodiment of the tendencies of his age. 1). at Marly, May
11, 1708. HUSSEI.L STlR(iIS.
Mansart. Nicholas Francois; architect; b. in Paris,
Jan. 23, 1.5il8. His brother-in-law. Germain Gauthier, was
an architect of standing, and JIansart may have studied
with him. His early work was in Paris, but has perished.
The Hotel Carnavalet, in which is now the Museum of
the Citv of Paris, took ils present shape under his direction.
The Hotel Toulouse, now the Bank of Fiance, was his work
in its original form. About 1635 lie began the wing of
Gaston d'Urleaiis at the Chateau of Hlois, a building which,
though overshadowed by the superior interest of the earlier
parts of the chateau, has great value in its peculiar style.
He was constantly occujiied till his death in important
work in Paris and elsewhere, and became titular architect
of the king and member of the council of state. I), in
Paris, Sept. 33, 166(>. Ki'ssell Sturgis.
Maii'spl, Hknhv Loniueville. I). D. : metaphysician; b.
at Cosgrove, Northamptonshire, Knglaml, Oct. 6, 1H20; was
educated at Merchant Taylore' School and at St..Iohn"s Col-
lege, Oxford, where he became a fellow in 1842; was or-
dained priest of the Anglican Church 1H45; became reader
in Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Magdalen College,
Oxford; delivered in 1H58 the Hampton lecture on I'he
Limits of lieligious Thought: became Wayidlete Professor
of Philosophv 1859; Begins Professor of Church History
and canon of Christ Church 1867; dean of St. Paul's 1M6H.
1). in London, .Inly 31. 1S71. Besides the Banipton lecture
volume aforesaid, his chief works are Prolegomena Logica,
(1H51); J/eta/>hysics(Eiirycloj>a'dia liritannica, 1857); ?Vie
Philosophy of the Conditioned (1H66). He was one of the
editors of Hamilton's Lectures. Dean Maiisel was an ele-
gant writer; in philosophy he was a follower of Hamilton.
A iiosthumous work. The Gnostic Heresies of the First and
Second Centuries, preceded by a menioir, was published in
1874. ' Revised by W. S. Pkrkv.
Mansfcld, Peter Frne.st II., Count : Protestant leader in
the Tliirl V Years' war : son of Peter Frnest I., Count Mans-
fcld (1517-1604): b. at Luxemburg in 1580; entered the
Au.strian service in 1609, but angered at his ill-treatment by
the Archduke Leo])old lie went over to (he Protestant side,
and on the outbreak of the Thirty Years' war joined the
Bohomian ri'licls. He won a victory over Tilly at Wies-
locli in ](i32. and worried llic- imperialists bv his repealed
ravages of their doininioiis. Whin tlieCount Palatine Fred-
erick gave up the struggle, Mansleld took service with the
Nelherlanders, but on the renewal of the war he returned
to Germany with an army of 12.000 men, raised for the most
part in Fiigland. He met with a crnshiiig defeat at the
hands of Walleiistein in the battle of Dessau. .\|ir. 25, 16"26.
I), at Racowilza, Bosnia, Nov. 29, 1626.
MANSFIELD
525
Muiis'flc-ht : town : in tlic couiitv of N'oiUiiclimii, Enxlund
(see iMiip (if Knglaiiil, ref. H-l). It liiis a Kniimimr st-liool
founded in l.Wl, u town-hall, inaniifiu-tiires of lace-tliread
and iron, mid a large trade in corn, malt, and euttle. I'op.
(1S!)1) ir),!f,>-).
Muiisllidil : town ; lirlstol co.. Moss, (for location of
oounly. see map of Massaclnisetts, ref. 5-1) ; un the l{uni-
fonl river, anil the X. V., N. 11. ami Hart. Uadmad; 24
miles S. of Bost(jn. It contains H churches, a lii;;li school, 8
grammar schools, puljlic lilirary (1H«4), ;i hotels, co-operativo
bank, and a weekly newspaper. The iiulustries comprise man-
ufacture of jewelry, straw goods, liaski'ls, shoes, machinists'
tools, founilrv products, knives, lioilers, and varn. I'op. (IWO)
2,Tii"> : I IN'.IO)' ;!,432 ; (18U">) 3,722. Editok ok " Nkws."
Muiislli'ld : city; capital of Richland co., O. (for location
of county, see nmp of Ohio, ref. U-F); on the Bait, and O.,
the Erie, the I\'nn.,and the Pitts., ('in., Chi. ami St. L. rail-
ways; IHO miles X. E. of Cincinnati. It is in an agricultural
region ; has manufactories of agricultural implements, flour,
stoves, pumps, and mimerous minor articles: and has a
wholesale mercantile trade aggregating |:i,00(),()UU annually.
The city contains a Holly system of water-works, electric
lights, electric street-railway. 2 libraries (Mansfield Lvcoum
and Memorial), 2 public parks, 9 public-school buildings, 2
national banks (combiiu>d capital lj;2r)(),(KM)), 2 State banks
(capital $231,0(X)), an incorporated bank (capital |.")(X),0()0),
a private bank, and 2 daily and 5 weeklv newspapers. Fop.
(1880) It.H.W; (181I0) 13,47:}". Euitok ok •• Xkws."
Mansileld : borough; Allegheny co., I'a. (for li«ation of
county, see man of IVniisylvania. ref. 5-H) ; on the I'itls.,
Chartiers and Vough. and" the Pitts., ('in., Chi. and St. L.
railways; 5 miles \V. of Pittsburg. It is in a coal and lead
mining and natural-gas region, and ha-s manufactories of
lumber, sheet iron, glass, ami locks, and a weeklv and two
monthly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 1,172 ; (1890) 2,352.
Munsflcld : borough ; Tioga co.. Pa. (for location of coun-
ty, sei' map of Pennsylvania, ref. 2-F); on the X. Y., Lake
trie and \V. Railroad ; 30 miles S. \V. of Elmira, X. Y. It
is in an agricultural region, contains a .State normal school,
and has a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,611; (18U0)
1,762.
Munsfleld, Ebwaro Dekri.vo, LL. D. : journalist and
author; b. at Xew Haven, Conn., Aug. 17, 1801 ; graduated
at the U. S. Military Academy in 181!), but declined ap-
pointment in the army, and graduated at the College of
New Jersey 1822 ; studied law at the Litchfield (Conn.)
Law School, and was admitted to the bar in Cotinecticut,
but immeiliately removed to (Jhio, where in 1836 he was
elected Professor of Constitutiomd Law in Cincinnati Col-
lege. Leaving the profession of the law for that of public
writer, he was editor of T/ie Cinrinnnli C/ironic/e 1836-49,
of T/ie Minx 1849-52, of The Cineinnnii Gazelle 18."i7, and
of T/ie Railroad liecord 1854-72 ; and for several years con-
tributed to T/ie yew Vork Timen over the signature of T>/-
eraii Obnerrer; was commissioner of statistics for the State
of Ohio 1857-67. He wils the author of riilil!/ nf Malhe-
vialir/i, I'oliticnl (inimiiiar, Trealise on Conxliliitioniil Law,
Legal Highls of It'omen, Life of (leneral Scolt, J/inlory of
the Mexican War, A mericnn L'diirntioii, a volume of Personal
Memories, and other works. The degree of A. M. was con-
ferrinl on him by the College of Xew .lersey and that of LL. D.
by Marietta College, Ohio. He was a member of the Sociele
Fran(;aise Statistique UniyerscUe. D. at Morrow, O., Oct.
27, 1880.
Mansfleld, .losEPti Kino Fkxno: soldier; b. nt Xew
Haven, Conn., Dec. 22, 1803; graduated at West Point and
was appointeil a si'coml lieutenant of engineers in 1822.
Prior to 1846 Mansfield was engaged entirely on engineer-
ing duty on the Atlantic and (iulf coasts. In the war with
Mexico, as chief engineer of (ten. Taylor's army, he distin-
guished himself ami was inade brevet colonel. Returning
to duty with his corps (in which he had attained a cai>-
taincy in 1838) at the close of the war. he was for five years
a member of the board of engineers for fortifications on the
Atlatitic and Pacific coasts, when he was ap|iointeiI tl85;i)
insnector-general of the army, with the rank of colonel,
which i>osition he held at the outbrwik of the civil war. In
Apr., 1861, he was placed in command of the department of
Washington, and at once began the work of fortifying the
capital, receiving the api>ointment of brigailier-geiienil of
volunteers the following month. In Novemlier he was trans-
ferred to the command of Newport News, partici|mting in
the capture nf Norfolk, May 10, 1862; was transferred in
command of Suffolk .June-Sept., 1862; promoted major-
general of volunteers in July; assigned to the comtnand of
a divisir)!! in the Army of the Potomac Sept. 10, at the liead
of which, a week later, at the battle of .Vntietam, he received
wounds from the effects of which he died the next day,
Sept. 18, 1862, at Sharpsburg, Md.
ManRfli'ld. Riciiahd; actor; b. on the island of Heligo-
land, May 24. 1H57; siKMit his early youth in the U. S. lie
was the son of Mine. .'^lansfielil-Rudersilorff. the singer. He
studied for the Eiusl Indian civil service, but abamloned the
idea of pursuing that career for busines.s, afterward for
literary and artistic work, in lx)th of which he was unsuccess-
ful. In 1877 he made his appearance at St. (ieorge's Hall,
London, at a musical entertainment, but failed to tuake an
impression. After undergoing many hardshiiis, he Iniveled
through the English provinces playing small parts in (iil-
bert and Sullivan's comic operas. In London he afterward
appeared in comic oin-ra, in comedy, and in tragiily. In
Sept. 26, 1878, he iiiade his first appearance in the l'. S. at
the Standard theater in Xew York, as Dromez, in the o]Kra
Les Manleanx Xoirti, anil was favorably receive<l. In the
production of A Parisian Uomanee at the I'nion Sipiare
theater, Jan. 10, 1883, he made an instant hit as Haron
Chevrial. He began his career as a star May 3, 18H6. at the
Madison Scpiare theater, Xew York, in the plav of Priiiee
Karl. The characters with which he is mr>st identified are
Dr. Jekvll and Mr. Hyde, in the dramatize<l form of that
story; 'I'ittlebaf Titmouse, in 7'eii Thousand a Year; and
Beau Mrumimll. in the play of that nam<-. He ap[>oare<l in
I)r. Ji-kijll and Mr. llijde in London in 1HS8, at the Lyceum
theater, and subse(|uenlly as Richard III. On Sept. 12,
1892, he a|ipeared at Daly's theater, Xew York, in Joseph
Hatton's dramatization of 2'Ae Hcarlet Letter.
B. B. Vallestise.
Mansfield, Wii.LUM MrBRAT. Earl of: Chief Justice of
England; b. at Scone. Perthshire, S<'otland, Mar. 2. 1705;
wa-s the fourth son of Viscount Stonnont, a .Scottish noble-
man of Jacobite opinions; educated at Westminster S<ho<il,
at Christchurch, O.\ford, and at Lincoln's Inn. he Iraveleil in
France and Italy in company with the young Duke of Port-
land ; was called to the bar in 1730, and, setllingin Ixmdon,
soon aci|iiireil almost a monopoly of a lucrative practice
consisting of appeals from the Scottish court of s»'ssions to
the House of Lonls. At the same time he cultivated the
society of men of letters, especially of Pope, who often sjing
his praises, and being endowed with a fine presence, engag-
ing manners, great oratorical fiowers, untiring industry, and
keen judi<'ial insight, he rose rapidly in his profession : was
soon in the receipt of an annual in<'omeof i'3.(HX); married in
1738 a tlaughter of the Earl of Winchelsea; wa-s elected to
Parliament in Xov.. 1742. on the downfall of Wal|>ole. and
in the .same month received the appointment <if solicitiir-
general from the ministry of Lord Wilmington. The
.Jacobite rebellion of 1745, favored as it was by many of his
relatives, exposed JIurray to an accusation of disloyalty,
which was presented to the cabinet and afterwanl to the
House of Peers, but without result, his only reply being the
energy, conjoineil with iniKleration and impartiality, with
which he conducted the prosecution against Lonl Loval
ami other noblemen who were convicted of lreii.s<in. In
1747, and again in 17.54. Murray was re-electetl to Parliament,
was in May of the latter year a|>iMiinted attorney-general,
and on Xov. 8, 17.50. chief ju.slice of the king's iH'iich, with
the title of Baron Mansfield and a s<'at in the caliinet. In
1757, while filling tem|Mirarily the post of Chancellor of the
Exclie(|Uer, he effect eil the coalition between Pitt, Fox, and
Xewcasile which resulted in the formation of the ministry
of the former. For more than thirty years Lonl Maiisfiild
pn'sided over the chief British Iridunal, gaining goMen
opinions for his promptness, division, etiuity, ami integrity,
but gradually losing [Mipular favor by Mis ilwided leaning
toward Toryism and the " principle of authority." In the
American trouliles conso<|iient iiihiU the npialof tlie .Stamp
Act he gave his opinion that the colo';i..ts mu«t .-ulimit t<i
the authority of Parliament Nfore their grievMnce- cnuld l>e
considered. In the trial of WiMKlfnll, the pul'li-her of Ju-
nius's letters, he held that the jury was comin'tent only to
pron<«ince u|H>n the fact of publication and the "son.M" of
the pB|M'r," not uiMvn any iiuestion of law ; and this view he
steadfastly maintained. His liesl W(.rk. howeviT, was done
ill the domain of mercantile law, whiih he rv<lucnl to a fj*-
teniatic and harmonious form. He wu crea(c<l Earl of
526
MANSFIELD
MAXTI
Maii^fu'Kl in 1770: Imd his house in Blonmsl>ury Square
sacked ill 17S0 tlunii^ the CJoixlon riots, for which loss lie
refused all coiiii>ensjilion : retired fmui the bench June 4,
17fl8,anddietl al llitchj.'tile. Mar. 20, ITiKJ. Having left i.o
issue, the barony expired with him ; the earldom, with most
of his large fortune, descended to his nephew, David Mur-
ray, Viscount Storniont. See his Life by Koscoe tiy^S),
Lord CampbeU's Lives of the Chief Justices, and Foss's
Jiiili/es of t^nyland.
Maiisltelil. Mount : the highest of the Green Mountains :
in I'ambridu'e, Lamoille Co., Vt. Its most elevated part is
^;i^^\i feet above sea-level. The mountain itself presents a
gnuul appearance, and the view from the summit isone-of the
finest in New Knglaiid, embracing the Adirondaeks and Lake
Champlain, the While and Green Mnunlains, and in clear
weather the mountains about Monlieal, 70 miles distant.
Maiisillu de (Jiircia, maan-seel y.m-da-gajir-sce aa, Ed-
UARDA {yiansitla): author; b. in Buenos Ay res in 1838. In
18.55 she married Don Manuel K. Garcia, a diplomatist. Her
fii-st novel, El Medico de San Luis, ajuieared in 18.57. and
was followed by Luriu ilirondn : Pablo o la rida en las
pampas (publisiied also in French at Paris), etc. She de-
scribed Argentine national customs and historical episodes
with considerable skill. Besides novels, she has written nu-
merous short sketches, a drama, etc. II. H. S.
MaiisIailghU>r : at the common law, the unlawful and
felonious killing of another without any malice express or
implied ; that i.s, without the intent to kill, either proved by
direct evidence or infeneil from the facts of the liomicide,
which raises the crime to murder. (See Malice.) It is
commonly separated into two classes, the involuntary and
the voluntary. Involuntary manslaughter is the aeciclental
killing of another by one doing an unlawful act, not a fel-
ony, or the causing of another's death through oulpable
neglect of a duty: voluntary manslatighter arises when
upon a sudden quarrel two persons fight and one kills the
other, or when one greatly provokes another by personal
violence, and that otlier immediately kills him. In both of
these instances of voluntary manslaughter the clement
which characterizes it is the heat of passion under which
the act was done, and the want of time for the anger to
cool and for reason to resume its sway over the man. In
most, if not all, the U, S. the crime is entirely defined and
regulated by statutes, which, however, in general closely
conform to the common-law principle, but add thereto a
number of special cases found to lie necessary by the exi-
gencies of modern society, and reduce to manslaughter
some modes of killing which at the common law would
have been murder. While the common law knew no grades
or degrees of the offense, the statutes separate it into sev-
eral degrees, according to the amount of culpability. The
highest degree genenuly embraces cases of accidental kill-
ing while the slaver is engaged in the commission of some
crime which at the common law would have rendered the
homicide a murder; and often some other particular of-
fenses which were not specially provided for at the common
law, such as killing in the act of procuring an abortion, and
the like. The degrees then succeeding generally include
all cases of unintentional killing while in a heat of passion,
while the remaining grades cover all the particular in-
stances of homicide through negligence and wherever not
entirely ex('usal)le or justifiable. The [lunishment is im-
prisonment in the Stale prison for dilTerent periods of time,
varying with the degree of the crime. For the details of
their provisions the statutes must be consulted. See Homi-
cide and Mihder; also Wharton's and Bishop's Criminal
Laif; and Stephen's Digest of the Criminal Laa:
Revised by F. .STiK<iEs .\llex.
Manso: See Pueblo Indians.
.Maiit. UicHARD. I). D. : bishop and author; b. at South-
ampton, England, Feb. 12, 177<): was educated at Winches-
ter Schoiil anil at Trinity ('ollege, Oxford ; became fellow
of Oriel (Jollege 17!t8; was incumbent of several parishes in
and near Lomlon ; bt'Came Bishop of Killaloe 1H20, of Down
and Connor 1M;!:{, and of Dromore (in aildilioii) 1842. I), at
Ballymoney, Irelaml, Nov. 2. 1H4.S. He is chiefly known as
one of the authors of an Annotated /Utile {'.i vols., 1814),
known as D'Oyly and Maul's, which had an immense cir-
culation ill (ireat Britain, and was republished in New York,
with a<lditions by Bisli^p Hobarl (2 vols., 1818-20). His
Hampton Lectures for IHll pius,sed Ihroiigli sevc^ral editions.
His greatest work, History of the Church of Ireland from
the Reformation to the lievoliition (2 vols., 1840), passed to a
second edition the year following. He is also the author
ol Ancient Hymns, from the Jioman Jireviary, with Origi-
nal J/ynins (l\iii~). His annotated edition of the Book of
('oinmoii I'rayer was the iiasis of Bislioji T. t'. Brownell's
Family I'vayrr-liook. wliiili Ijils maintained its place in
theological literature for upward of fifty years.
Kevised by W. S. I'krrv.
Mantegazza. Paolo : physician and anihropologist ; h. at
Moiiza, Italy, IKil ; studied at Pisa, Milan, and Pavia :
made professor at Pavia in 18.5M. then Professor of Anthro-
pology in the Institiito di Studii Superiori in Florence, and
director of the Florence School of Anthropology. His prin-
cipal works are Fisioloyia del Piarere (Milan, (illi ed. 1800) :
]• isiologia del Amore; Le L'stasi L'liiane; Fisiotogia del
Dolore, Physiognomie et V Expression (French trans. Paris,
2d ed.). J. M. B.
Mantegnn, nuiiin-tan'ya'ii, Andrea: painter; b. at
Padua, Italy, in 14;i0; li pupil of Siiuarcione, who recog-
nized his genius and adopted him as his son when he was
quite a child. When a chapel in the Church of the Ere-
mitaiii in Padua was allotted to S(|iiaivione to paint, he in-
trusted the work to his two pupils, Andrea Mantegna and
Niccolo Pizzolo. Manlegna's frescoes in the Ereinilaiii re-
ceived immediate recognition from all his fellow artists ex-
cepting Squareione, who, incensed at his marrying the
daughter of Jacopo Bellini, the head of the rival school of
art, refused to see his adopted son after this. Mantegna
then painted two saints on the princi^ial door of the Basil-
ica of St. Anthony, and a .S'^ Mark Writing the Gospel for
the Church of St. Justina, both in Padua. At this period of
his career he went to Venice anil painted with the Bellinis,
thus acquiring a greater mastery over color. He returned
to Padua, then went to Verona, where he worked in Sta.
Maria degli Organi, and painted the altarpiece ior San
Zeno and other works. At the invitation of the Manpiis
Lodovico Gonzaga he went to Mantua, where he executed
many important works for him, besides establishing a school
of painting, and received a house and lands and the title of
cavalier from the Duke of Mantua. Pope Innocent VIII.
then required him to go to Home to decorate the Belvedere
chapel. He executed this work with infinite pains and in-
creased his fame by its great beauty, though he had no
reason to feel well satisfied by the pontilT's treatment of
him. His love of the antique, which had always been great,
increased after his sojourn in Kome. He '•eturned to Man-
tua, which he never left after this, painting almost entirely
for the duke, with the exception of sniull easel-pictuies
which he sent to his native cily. Mantegna was also a
skillful architect. He designed and built the Church of Sta.
Maria clella Viltoria in remembrance of the victory over the
French at Fornovo, and decorated this temple with a com-
memorative picture of the event. He contributed greatly
to the art of engraving, as he was <me of the first in Italy to
engraveon metal for printing. (See F^ngravixu.) Mantegna's
fame was great in his own time. Arioslo celebrated him to-
gether with Leonardo da Vinci and Giovanni Bellini. D. at
Mantua, 1.500. W. J. Stillman.
Mantpiifl'pl. maan toi-ffl, Edwin Hans Carl, von. Baron :
field-miiishal : b. al Magdeburg. Prussia, Feb. 24. 180!t; en-
tered the regiment of guard-dragoons in 1826, anil became
aide-de-camp to the king in 1848. He often held very im-
portant positions, especially of a diplomatic character, ex-
ercised a decisive influence on the reorganization of the
Prussian army, and was made a lieutenant-general in lS(il.
He was verv active in the negotiatifuis between Austria and
Prussia which ended with tin- coiniinion of Gastein. and
was in 18(>5 appointed governor of Schleswig. In 18(i0 he
commanded the army of the Main. In the Franco-German
war he drove Bourbaki across the .Swiss frontier. In 1873
he was made a field-marshal, and in 187H he wius appointed
governor of .Vlsace-Lorraine. D. at Carlsbad,. I une 17, 1885,
Maii'ti: cily (settled in 184i») : capital of San Pete co.,
Ul. (for locatiim of county, see map of I'lah, ref. 5-M): on
the liio (irariile. W. and the San Pele Val. railways; MIniiles
S. of Provo. 120 miles S. of Sail Lake Cily. It is in an agri-
cull iiral and sheep-raising reijion. and has an annual pro-
duclion of ab,.ut 100.000 bush, of small grain ami. 5011,000 lb.
of wool. The city contains 3 Morinoii clmrches, a Presbyte-
rian church. Mormon seminary, Presbyterian seminary, 4
district schools, and a Mormon temple built on a hill of
soli.l rock, begun 1877, completed 1888. cost about $1,500,-
000, The assessed valuation of taxable properly in 18U3
MANTIXEA
mAnu
o-^i
was $750,000. Pop. (IWO) 1,748; (I«ItO) 1,050; (WX,) 2.»28.
KUITOR OK ■• UkI'OKTKK."
Mant!ii<>'a (in <ir. VlayrlKia): one of tlic oldest and most
impoiiaiil eilies of An ailiii, situated on tlie brook Ophis in
tlie narrow part of the plain of Tejrea. The plain is inarsliy
aiid malarious, and the Ophis was always a souree of ilanjier
to the city, and once was the cause of its capture. The city
was formed in the liftli century u. c. by the union of Ave
villages, into which I he Spartans dissolved it again from
885-371 B.C. In ;503 h. <■. it became famous as the scene
of the battle between the Thebans and the .Spartans in
which lC|iaminonilas fell. From 222 u.c. up to tlie time of
Hadrian the city liore the name of Antigoneia. Hadrian
built here a splendid temple in honor of Antinous. The
city was of great extent and the plan of its streets and the
stpuire of the theater could be seen even before the excava-
tions that Were made by the French, l)egiiming in 1H87.
See liiil/rUn ih Correspondance lltllinique (xiv., pp. 6.5-90
anil pp. 2-15-271). J. K. S. STEHRbTT.
9Iaiiti(|iieira, maun-tee-ka'-nut, Serra da: a mountain
chain of SoutlieiLsli'rn Hrazil, trending X. E., parallel to the
coast and 40 to 70 milc^s distant from it ; extending from
Paraml it crosses Sao I'aulo, and separates Kio de .Janeiro
and Kspirito .Santo from Minas Geraes; after giving off a
western branch, theSerrado Kspinha<;0, it subsides into hills
and is lost in liahia. Locally it has various names. In its
culminating portion (lats. 24 -20 .S.) it is separated from the
sea by a lower chain, the Serra do .Mar, the valley between
the two being occupied by the river Parahyba. It divides
rivers flowing to the Parahyba and Igua|R' from those
which flow to the Parana. AH the mountains mentioned
are properly parts of one system, the Brazilian coast range,
which in various subdivisions extends from Kio Cirande do
Sul to the river .Sao Francisco. The Manliqueira range is,
on the whole, higher than any other of the division, and
contains the highest peak in Hrazil, Itatiaia {q. v.).
Hkkeiekt II. .Smith.
Mantis [Mod. Lat., from Or. /idims, prophet, seer] : a re-
markable genus of large orthopterous insects, raptorial in
their habits, and kinrln'd to the Pliasmidie, or walking-
sticks, from which Mnntin ani\ some four other genera have
been separated and nuule a family, the Manliihe. They are
popularly called walking-leaves, race-horses, soothsayers, or
prophets. When watching for their prey these creatures
assume i sort of kru'eling jxisture, doubling the great spiny
fore legs under the thorax. Hence they were once believed
to be engaged in prayer. The Hottentots regard the alight-
ing of the local s|iecies, M. fau«lti, on any pei"son as a token
of saintlincss and an omen of good fortune. There are nu-
merous Sfiecies. M. iirgenlinn of South America devours
small binls. M. nirolina is found in the U. .S., where in-
sects of the curious mimetic genus Manlispn, though neu-
roptorous, have the appearance and habits of the true Man-
tid(F.
Mantis Shrimp : a peculiar form of Crustacea belonging
to the Stomaliipuila, and probably deriving its common name
from a remote rest'iublanco to the mantis insects. The.se
forms, which belong to the genus Scpiilla, live in burrows in
the sea-bottom and dilTer from most crustaceans in that
they Jo not carry their eggs alxiut with them.
Man'to (in Gr. Mojtw) : in (ireek mythology, a daughter
of Tiresias, the blind seer of Thelx-s. After the capture of
Thebes by the Kpigoni of the Seven Heroes, Manto fell to
Alcni.i'on. son of .\mpliiaraus, by whom she liecame the
mother of Amphilochus and Tisiphone. Alcinieon then
presented her to the oracle at Delphi. According to an-
other myth, both Tiresias anil .Manto were presented by the
Kpigoni to Uie Delphian Apollo, who sent Manto to t'olo-
pnon, in Asia Minor, in order to found the oracle of the
t'larian .Apollo. Here she marrieil the Cretan seer lihacius,
and by him became the mother of .Mopsus, another di>tin-
guished seer. J. It. .S. SxERRtrfT.
Man'tna (Ital. Mnnlnvn): city of Xorthern Italy; chief
city in the province of Milan, the strongest fortress of the
celebnited (Quadrilateral, and even of Italv (see !nap of
Italv, ref. :i-C). It is in iat. 4.5' 07 45' N.. h.u. 2.s 27 XV
E., 8 miles N. of the Po. 05 miles E. S. E. of .Milan. an.I HO
feet alH)ve the level of the -Adriatic. This town is built on
two islands formed by the Mincio. which here spreading out
creates a lake that encircles the city. The channel or canal
between the two islands dividing the city is called the liio.
Mantua, though its fortress and citadel arc of immense |
strength, has a still more certain defense in the stagnant
water that surrounds it, and that proves far more diwlly to
l«>sii-ging armies than to those within the walK The streets
and sijiuires are liroiul and regular, and the public ami pri-
vate buildings have a grand medin-val asjH'ct, anil are very
rich in works of art. The town has live gates and a dock-
yard, called Porta Cateiui, whence there is navigable com-
munication with the Po. making it an inifiortant port. The
Cathedral of .Mantua was designed by Oiulio Homano, and
contains fine frescoes. The Cliurch of .St. Andrea is mag-
nificent, that of Santa Uarbara verv elepint. .St. Martino
and St. Egido arc churches of the sixth century. The old
ducal palace is very sumptuous, with frescoes by Mantegna,
Giiilio Koniano, etc. Mantua was one of the |>olilical and
ndigious centers of the Etruscans, t'asar In-'towed ujion it
the i)rivilege of Komun citizenship. It was the birthplace
of Vergil (70 n. c). In .568 it was not yet surroundeil by
water. In the eleventh c-entury it belonged to the cele-
brated Countess Matilda, and after her death pass<-d to the
Emperor of Germany. In 1;{2H the iluchv wils governed by
huigi Gonzaga. the (irst of an illustrious house that retaineil
its |u>wcr for 870 years. In 170H it again fell to Austria,
but was well governed only by Joseph II. Wurinst-r. the
Austrian general, surrendered it to bonaparte on Feb. 3,
1707. after which it became a part of the Cisal[iine republic.
In 1H14. having changed masters several times meanwhile,
it siibiiiilted again to Austria, and was treated with cruel
severity until the treaty of Vienna (Oct. 1. 1IS($6) made it a
part of'the kingdom of'ltaly. Poi.. (1 HMD 28.048.
Kevi.sed by C. K. Adams.
Mann, or Mcnn [Sanskrit ttiohm-, man, mankind. Manu];
.1 revered name in Indie literature. In its oldest usage
the woni denotes man primeval, representative man. Manu,
father of mankind, a sort of hrrox rpoui/miMi of the race.
More particularly, however, Mnnu is the name given to the
legendary Hindu law-giver, a Minos of the Prahinans, and
supIH)sititious author of the Mdnava-dhnrmn-raslra, the
ordinances ot .Manu, or law-book of the .Manavans, the
earliest and most important law-code of India.
The existence of Manu as a historical jiersonage is now
denied ; the coile bearing the name is reganled as a collec-
tion of institutions of "man," founded on Hindu tradition
and usage from time immemorial. The growth of the idea
of a personal and authoritative author for such a work is
natural and is easy to conceive. Manu. to whom the code
is a.scribed, is looked upon in Indie literature as an actual
figure. He is called Sriii/ninl/hui'a J/ohh, the self-existent
Manu. and is regarded as the first of a series of Manus,
each of whom presides over a period of time called Mnn-
riinlara, cycle of .Manu, consisting of myriads of years. Six
of these ages of JIanu are supposed to have elapsed; we
are living in the seventh, which was instituted by \'uivas-
iii/n Miiitu ; there are seven such ages still to come.
The Afiiiinra-d/inrma-ffmlrn. institutes of Manu. or ortii-
nances of the Manavans, as above saiil, is clainie<l by tradi-
tion to be the work of a divinely inspired author and law-
giver, Manu. It is further asserteil that this legislator im-
parted the ewle to Bhrgii, who in luni liecame the jiromul-
gatiir to men. The fact presumably is that the collection
of ordinances in question is based on the Dhamia-sfitra of
the Maiiavan school, and is ultimately traceable liack to the
Sutra works of the Veilic s<'hools. In its jin-sent form the
code consists of twelve books, and comi)ris«>s 2.085 fluknx. or
metrical couplets, or inon' than .5,000 verses. Tie-
treats of the duties of a Krahinan in the different sta.
hislife; of marriage anil ceninonial observances; the.i -
of a king; the mutual relations of the castes; of civil ■
criminal law; and of (x-nance and expiation. Thi- : r-
iKMik dealing with the oriein of the univers*-. and tli^ i.i'
biHik treating of philosopliicnl principli-s and final h^i: ; :
ness. are regarded as later additions to the work. As i
age of the code, .Sanskrit scholars Were inclined at lir-
assign to it a hoarv aniiquity; the coii><-nsii~
now lines not place t)iis work earlier thiiii tin- <!
The laws of Manu have ofli-n b.-in .-.b'.- 1 hum
The standanl edition of the l.xl m |.t,v,,,i
.Vi/H'iivi /Miir«i<i-«'(5.i^r<i illii- r.«lf if Miiim. I.iii
ohler text editions are by (t. C.- Ilaiighlon (\f-
and lioiseleur I>eslo!iL'''hHMij>« ll'iiri'- IKtni. A
native edit ions have iil-
laliiin by a Europian i-
cullaand I<oniloii, 17!>t -■'■ . ,. ,,...; -•
leiir IVslongi-hamps, Loi» dr Manou Iradutin (I'aris. 1838).
52S
MANUAL TRAINING
Jloro reoeiit are Burnell and Hopkins. 7^? Ordinanri-.s of
Manu, Tninslalr<l, tvith an Introduction (London, ltSb4) ;
Georg Biililer, The Laws of Manu Translated, witli ex-
tracts from the coninientaries. and with Introduction (Ox-
ford, 18H6). Tliere are special treatises on tlie code liv E.
W. Hopkins, Cf. Biililer, Gr. Johaeiitj;en, K. West. A. Weber,
and others. The oldest native eomnicntarv on Manu is by
Medhatithi, and is called J/((HHi/«i*7i^« ; it is referred by
scholars to the ninth century of our era.
A. V. Williams Jackson.
Maiiiinl Triiinin^: the training of the hand in the use
of tools and in practical draftinjr, as a part of a system of
general education. Tlio work with the tools is done in such
materials as wood, iron, brass, tin, clay, cardboani, and
paper, and the drafting consists in the preparation of work-
ing drawings suited to such tool-work. The term manual
training docs not include kindergarten work, laboratory
work in science, and illustrative teaching on the one hand,
orthe teaching of trades on the other.
Origin and Deielopment. — At the time when tool-work
and practical drafting were first introduced into a scheme
for general educatinn. trade schools, where the use of cer-
tain tools and mechanical processes were taught, were nu-
merous in every country in Europe. The aim was in every
case a particular trade, the methods were only those of a
trade, and the result was craftsmen of a particular trade,
whether hatters, weavers, basket-makers, locksmiths, machin-
ists, etc. Similarly, on the other side, there were in every
civilized land professional schools where drafting was taught,
and where more or less tool-work was incorporated into the
curriculum of engineers and occasionally of architects. All
such training was regarded as "special" in both the higher
and the lower grades. This was the state of things till 1876.
It is true that in every country there were educatiirs who
claimed a general value for tool-training and for drafting,
anil that occasionally young men learne<l trades and even
professions, not for the purpose of following them, but for the
general value theirdiseipline afforded. Jloreover, an exceed-
ingly important step forward had been taken in Russia by
Victor Delia Vos, director of the Imperial Technical .School
forGovernment engineers at St. Petersburg, as early as 1868.
Possibly he got his idea from Uuo Cygna?us, in Finland, where
certain elementary work had been introduced into the lower
schools as early as 1806. His improvement consisted in the
discovery of the true scientific method of tool-instruction.
Previously boys had learned trades by working at them, be-
ginning with coarse work reijuiring no skill, taking their
chances as occasion olTered for learning new processes and
the proper use of tools, with no systematic instruction or
logical sequence of steps. Delia Vos conceived the plan of
first teaching the elements of a certain kind of tool-work
systematically, by means of models and drawings and prac-
tice exercises, before any attempt should be made at the ex-
ecution of trade work. His mutto was "'instruction before
construction," as reported by Pmf. .1. 1). Runkle, of Boston.
who made a full report upon the Russian exiiibit at the
Centennial Exposition at Philadolpliia in 1876. The dis-
covery of Delia Vos started a revolution in tool-instruction
which is still going on. Its value consisted not so much in
his analysis and in the special exercises he employed as in
the principle that every tool, every )irocess. and every mate-
rial should be aiialyzeil, and lliat the elements should be
presented and mastered in order accoriling to scicntilio prin-
ciples.
Sloijd. — Thus far no mention has been made of Sweden's
contribution to the origin of manual training, the sloyd
(Swed. sliijd, skill, dexterity) system. This has been partly
because in point of fact manual (raining was firndy estab-
lished in the U. .S. with no aid from .Sweden, and partly
because sloyd as it exists to-day is more the product of non-
Swe<lish than Swedish thought and experience. In the be-
ginning »/«yt/ was essentially trade-work in the elementary
schools. Gradually its general value was recognized, and a
series of whittling exercises was evolved, each one of which
led to an article of use in the pupil's home. A series of
flower-sticks, handles, wooden spoons, etc., from twenty to
a hundred. alTcjnh-d op|)ortunity to lieconu- skillful with cer-
tain tools and to secure cousidi>rable nu'ntal and moral dis-
cipline; hut the system lacked both breadth and variety.
In 1876 very few to<ds were used ; no joints, the essential
parts in constructive work, were taught, or very few; and
no dniHings were nuide or used by the puiiils, but every-
thing was made from models by com|)arison.
Since 1876 Otto Solomon, the director of the Normal
School at Naas, has made great progress in developing genu-
ine manual training. The number of tools has been greatly
increased, the scope of exercises has been extended, and
exact drawings have been introduee<l ; for elementary classes
this leaves little to be desired. The idea of use in every fin-
ished exercise is still retained, but the order in which ele-
ments are taken up and the care with which all details arc
attended to render the sacrifice of ideals to uses so small as
to be scarcely worthy of attenticm. The fact that individual
instruction is still in vogue in the best Swedish schools is by
no means a nccessjiry one. for the class method is entirely
applicable. It is thus evident that by 1876 the time was ripe
for a manual-training school.
The general method of tool instruction seemed to have
been found, anil there was a growing feeling in the public
mind that education should touch practical life at more
points ; that a general aciiuaintance with the materials
used in the arts and the tools and processes eniiiloyed in in-
dustrial life was worth the getting. What was now neces-
sary was that suitable tools and materials should be selected ;
that they should be classified into separate shops or labora-
tories; that all the elenuMits of pencil, pen. and brush work
which enter into the most elalmrate drawings of construc-
tive work should be progressively arranged ; that thisdrawing
and tool-work should be incorporated into a curriculum of
science, mathematics, and language in such a way that
neither feature should seem to be subordinate ; and then,
most difiicult of all, that the community or individuals
should be persuaded to furnish the money to establish and
maintain such a school. This work was undertaken simul-
taneously in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
at Washington University, St. Louis, in connection with
high-grade technical schools. Prof. Runkle in Boston or-
ganized in 1877, in connection with the institute, a school
for special students in the mechanic arts. In St. Louis,
where all engineering students had had some shop-work for
several years, three shops were organized in 1877, and an ap-
peal was made for a manual-training school of secondaiy
grade.
Encouraged by the success of summer classes of younger
pupils and a class of some twenty boys from a preparatory
school, as well as by the reports from api)rentiee schools in
Paris and elsewhere, the .St. Louis Manual-training Sch-jol
was established in the spring of 1879. Money for ground,
building, equipment, and support was subscribed, and the
school was opened the following year. Sejit.. 1880. Various
ex]ieriments had been made with whittling-schools. and tem-
porary classes in Massachusetts and elsewhere, as well as in
St. Louis, previously to the establishment of this school, but
no properly called numual-t raining school, in which a broad
range of shop-work and a thorough course in drafting were
required of every pupil, and where the object of the course
was neither a trade nor a profession, but a general educa-
tion, had ever been organized before.
Success of Manual-training Schools. — The St. Lotiis
school has continued with increasing popularity and success.
The building was eidarged in 1882. but is still far too small
for the demand. The records of the graduates are a stand-
ing recommendation of manual training. The general
desire to know what becomes of I he graduates has led to t he
publication of Tlie Record of Alumni of tlie St. Louis schoid.
'I'he success of the St. Louis school quickly atlracled the
attention of educators, and papers were read at Saratoga be-
fore the National Education Association in 1882 and 188^,
and afterward published in The I'opular Science Monthly,
giving the full theory and method and ajiparent results of
the school. Interest was quickened in every quarter, and
almost simultaneously inanual-training schools were oigiiii-
izeil in Cliicago, Ball imore. Toledo (in 1881). and Phihulel-
jihia (in 188.")). In Chicago and 'J'oledo the expense was
borne by individuals or [irivate corporations, as had been
done in St. Louis; in Biiltimore and Philadelphia the schools
were integral parts of t lie systems of free public schools. All
these schools have been successful beyond the most sanguine
expectations. The Chicago school has been enlarged and
siippleiuented bv a manual-training high school, supported
by the city. The Baltimore school luis ujiward of .lOO
pupils, while Pliihidilpliia has two manual-training high
schools, and is planiiing lor a third.
Since 188.5 manual-training schools and manual-training
coui-ses in existing high schools have multiplied. Manual
training is iin inlegral part of the curriculum in every agri-
cultural and mechanical college in the U..S. These colleges
MANUAL TiCAlNlNU
529
inclmlo secondary instruction in connection with the man-
ual training, nnil as the students are less intent upon traile
anil ])rofessiunal life than students in classical colle{,'es, they
nuiy with propriety he saicl to take manual Iraininn as a fea-
ture in their e<lueal inn. 'I'liere were seventy exhihits of shop-
work anil drawing in the Liberal Arts liii'ililinf; at C'liieaKo,
not eountiiif; the nunieruus Koniaii t'atlinlic and foreijin
schools, and nniny schools (probably as nniny more) aro
known to have si'ut no exhibits.
The most n'markalile manual-traininp hif;h schools of re-
cent orijanizal ion are llni.se of Louisville, Providence. Denver,
Hoston, the Drexel Institute of I'hiladelphia, Armour Insti-
tute of Chicago, and the still unfinished Teachers' College of
New Vork city.
The Curriculum. — There is^cat uniformity in the curric-
ula and methods of the regular nmnual-t raining sehi>i>ls.
The conditions of admission are usually the sjime as for oilier
secondary schools, i. e. the completion of eiKht years of
primary and ^'ramrnar school-work, making; the minimum
ajie iif admissiiiM about fourteen yeai-s. Tin- len;;tli of the
course varies from three to four years. The curriculum
generally inidudes parallel courses in —
L Mdthemalics. — Alj^ebra, geometry (plane and solid)
triKonometry, and astroiu>rny or mechanics.
IL Science. — Botany, chemistry (with laboratory practice),
physics (with laboratory practice), geology, and some branch
of biology.
IlL Langunge and Literature. — Composition, rhetoric,
history, civics, starulard authors, with opportunities in some
schools for French, (ierman, and Latin. In some schools
manual training enters largely into the classical courses.
IV'. Drawini/. — Free-hand (from objects) ; projections and
sections, design (sometimes with clay modeling), lettering;
instrumental lining, details, intersections, developments,
isometrics, tinting, graining, shadows and shading, tracing,
and perspective.
V. Tuol-work. — .loinery, wood-carving, wood-turning,
pattern-making, molding, ciusting (generally in jplasler), forg-
ing iron and steel, brazing and soldering, chipping, tiling,
turning, planing, drilling, fitting and finishing metal-work.
The order of subjects differs slightly in ilifferent schools,
but there is a siibstaiilial agreement. It is evident that the
combination of IV. and V. makes the manual-training school
unlike any other school and justifies the name. I.. IL, and
III. are taken for granted in a manual-training schiM)l, just
as mathematics, science, and modern languages are taken
for granted in a "Latin school." The daily programme gener-
ally assigns two periods to sho|)-work, one to drawing, and
one each to mathematics, science, and language. In all regu-
lar manual-training schools all departments are in full oper-
ation at all hours of the school day.
Methixl of Innlrucliun. — Class instruction is given in the
shops and drawing-room as well as in other subjects, and a
series of extra exercises is drawn upon to meet the wants of
ra|)id and skillful workers. The instruction is similar to a
science lecture. Pupils must be seated so that they can both
see and hear. The teacher explains the purpose of each ex-
ercise, what new steps are to be taken, what new tools or new-
uses of old tools are reiiuireil, and illustrates all by actual
Work before his pupils. This full gemral instruction issu|)-
Elemented later by such repetitions to individuals as may
e necessary. The luaximum sizes of working <livisions in
charge of a single teacher vary from thirty in wood-work to
■eighteen or twenty in metal-work. Kxperience does not seem
to approve the plan of two instructors for one large class; it
is belter to diviile the class. In drawing, instruction may
be givi'u to a large class and assistants may su[iervise the
work in progress. In elementary shop-work in the Boston
grammar schools the usual size of a working division is
thirty, and instruction or demonstration has been given to
classes of sixty.
Shoo exercises are always made from drawings, usually
made oy the pupils themselves. The forms of the exercises
or models for the shop and drawing-riMim vary in dilTen>nt
schools, but the aim is substantially the sjime — viz.. to em-
body in logical order, and without unneiessiiry n']M^tition, all
typical forms and priK'csses, and to develop all the functions
of the tools and instruments, .\ltliougli these considenit ions
are based on the nature of tools and materials and not par-
ticularly on the nature of the nieiilal and physical powers
of the pupils, the result gives general satisfaction.
Manual Training in the (Iramuiar (IraileK. — No sooner
was the highly educational character of manual training rec-
ognizee! than came the imperative demand for a manual
■2fiO
training for the lower grades. It was argued, if manual
training invigorates the mind, a.ssi>ts in the formation of
habits of close observation and precise execution in second-
ary schools where the numU'r of pupils is small, how im-
portant it is that it should be iiilrinluced in the gramiiiar
(some said in the iirimary) grades where the nuiiiliir of pujiiN
IS very great. Tlie answer to this argument was twofold :
secondary education was to lie matlf so attractive and with-
al so valuable by means of manual training that iiiipiU weru
to be drawn in increasing numbers to secondary s<Iiiki1> ; imd,
S4-condly, any attempt to engraft regular shop-work like that
alreatlv described u|khi the grammar schools would partially
fail. Nevertheless, the demand diil not eease. and scores of
people in all parts of the L'. S. eiitired upon the work of
devising exercises and specifying the appliances for ele-
nieiitary tool-work. It is needless to say that a large major-
ity of such attempts have failed. The most conspicuous
cause for failure has been the unwise effort to encourage the
factory idea of producing articles of immediate value. The
unwisdom of such efforts is easily shown. First, immediate
utility is not sought for in other branches, such as arithme-
tic, penmanship, music, and science; the object in all such
is to master fundamental principles and processes. The nre-
cininent value of such training should never be jeopardized
by the trifling value of a concrete product. ,Second, in the
construction of a useful article as an e<lucational exercise
the attention which ought In be given lij the mastering of
details is absorbed by one's iiilrresi in the efficiency of the
article or machine itself. JIaiiy a l>oy has been encouragi'd
to construct a steam-engine with entire disregard (because
ho is entirely ignorant) of the proper treatment of joints,
bearings, and fittings, and been flattered by unreasonable
praise because "the machine would go."
The educational exhibit at the Columbian Exposition at
Chicago contained several admirable reiin-senlations of
courses in elementary wo(Hlwork and S[H-ciriiations as to
methods and appliances. Contributions from New York and
Boston deserve special mention. It is safe to say that the
problem of elrnientary manual training has been sul»slan-
tially solved, and that to this solution ideas from the Swedish
Hhaitl have contributed much, though by no means the whole.
For the Boston systems which have been subjected to the
test of actual school use for two or thri'e years, the reader is
referred to the Annual lieporl of the school committee of
Boston for is'.ti.
Needlework is often spoken of as a species of manual
training, though it would seem to involve the mastering of
no totils proiierly .so called, and has no occasion for the con-
struction of exact drawings. Needlework has been very
thoroughly developed in the public schools of Boston and
Philadelphia. Cooking has been extensively taught in con-
nection with the grnuimar schools of Boston thn>iigli the
liberality of two ladies. The Be/xirl already nientionetl
speaks of "fourteen co<,>king-scliools attended by public-
school pupils." Many high sdioolsand academies and regu-
lar manual-training scIukiIs have intrixliieiil light wooil-
work, drafting, sewing and fitting, and the elements of cook-
ing into the training of young women, (hie of the most suc-
cessful of these, as well as one of the earliest, is the Scott
Manual-training School of Toledo. Much remains to be done
before the elements of ciK>king can l>e so prest'nted as to har-
monize with the scientific melho<l of teaching. The nature
of the materials and the list of fundamental processes must
be studied thoroughly before edible pro<lucts are thought of.
Objections. — As woulil 1« ex|>ected, manual training ha<
not gained its pn-sent foothold without a struggle. It wa<
resisted at every step by sevemi classes of |K'oiile: first, by
those who Were unwilling to admit that the old systi'in of
schooling lacked any es^'Utial feature of an all-round educa-
tion, and who believed that whether formental or moral dis-
cipline, or tus a pn'panition for the duties of life, it was suffi-
cient. Sej'ond, others feared that the effe<t of the intHMlue-
tion of tool-work would lie to dwarf and narrow the mind
and to corrupt and lower the aims and ambitions of pupils.
Third, not a fi'wof \\\v teachers, particularly tho<e who wire
in charge of S4 hools, felt that new and unfamiliar siil'i<<l<
were claiming admission as schixd subjects, which would at
once place former teachers at a di.sjiilvanlap". !u"'i"nint, U>T
the most [Mirt, of what manual training wn > Imt it
aime<l at, they iip|His«'<l it naturally, ami itn •■ 'cpn-
sonte<l it. It has fairly met and I 1 'i- It
has l>een abundantly shown thai srvixX
etliicational ami moral value. Ti \ . utiles
all around us. Instead of lowering aims, it has savrtl manjr
530
MAXUCODE
iMANURE
a iliscourapi'il bov and lifted whole classes to a lii]L;licr appre-
ciation uf life and its duties, and to a purer and more manly
ambition. Now tliat teachers are trained in the theories
and methods of correct numual trainiiijf, selfish opposition is
no longer to l)e anticipated. The hiijh (pialily of its intel-
lectual discipline, tlie wholesome etiecl upon habits, tastes,
and aims, anil its marked ellicicncy as a preparation for the
duties and responsibilities of life — all these have ai;ain and
again in many places been so clearly dcmonstraled that they
arc no longer to be denied. Though only a part of ele-
mentary and secondary education, manual training is des-
tined to be recognized in every community as something
that should enter into the education of every boy and girl.
Among those not already mentioned who have, in their sev-
eral centers, arouseel interest and organized elVort in the
direction of manual-training work are Dr. Felix Adier, of
New York ; President James McAlister, of Philadelphia; an<l
Col. Augustus .Jacobson, of I'hieago, In like manner the
movement for manual training in Kngland owes much to
the Icadei-ship of Sir Philip Magnus, Lord Playfair, and
William Mather, M. P. The literature of manual iniiiiing is
largely unwritten, haborcomraissiuners. Slate and naticjnal.
have prepared extensive reports upon the theory and the
practice of manual training, and the reports of the L', S.
commissioners of education contain valuable statistics an<l
discussions. Aside from these a few books have been pub-
lished on the general theory or its details. The principal
ones are Manual Training, by Charles II. Ham (N'ew York) ;
How to Ukc Wood-workini) Tools (Boston); 'Jhc Manual-
training Sriiodt, hy C. M. Woodward (Boston); First Les-
sons in Metal-iriirk: by Prof. A. G. C'oniiJton (Xew York);
Tool-work, by Prof, (ioss, of Perdue L iiiversity, Lafayette,
Ind. ; Manual Training in Education, by C. M. Woodward
(London and Xew York). Very valuable papers on I his sulj-
ject have been publishi'il by Dr. Nicholas M. Butler, at one
time president of the Teachers' College, Xew York city.
C. M. WoOUWABD.
Maiincodp : a name for certain birds of paradise of the
genera P/iongf/uma and Manucodia. They are 15 to 18
inches in length, of a beautiful steel blue, and have the
third and fourth toes united for some distance. The name
was adopted by the English from the French, by whom it
was used as an abbreviation of the Latin Manuniditila. this
in turn being a Latinization of the Malay manukdewata —
bird of the god.s. Intended originally for the king bird of
paradise and its allies, it was for 200 years applied to any
bird of paradise, and is now bestowed upon species whose
place in the family Paradiseidce has been questioned.
P. A. Lucas.
Manuel, .Icax, Don (Infante de Espaiia) : prince and
writer; b. at Fscalona, Spain, May .'5, 1282 ; d. in 134!). He
was a nephew of Ai^t'oxso X. (q. i:) and a cousin of Sntieho
IV., by the latter of whom he was educated and admitted
to great intimacy. Ills public life was a restless and turbu-
lent one. Before he was thirty he hail attained the highest
oflices in the state; and when Ferdinand IV. died, in i:il2.
leaving his son Alfonso XL. oidy thirteen months old. lie
was a prominent figure in the troubles that ensued. In i;)2()
he became joint regent of Spain, and managed affairs skill-
fully in the interests of the young moiiai-eh. The latter,
however, when he came of age. showeil little gratitude, and
as a result Don .Juan undertook to vindicate his position by
arms. Alfonso yielded and made promises, which in l;i27
ho broke. This lime Don .Juan actually rebelled, and c;ir-
ried on war with the king till V.',:i'>, when "the latter was com-
pletely victorious. The ideas of the time were such, however,
that the beaten infante was able to return to the king's serv-
ice, and even became eomniamler-in-ehief against the Moors,
over whom he continued to win victories almost up to the
raonient of his death. The chief claim of Don .Juan Maimcl
to remembrance comes not from his public career, but from
the fact that he was one of the first and one of the best of
Spanish prose-writers. Despite the agitatii>ns of his life, he
wrote in a style of singular simiilicity aiul charm ; and few
Spanish authors have succeedeil so well in giving to their
words the calmness, the weight, the richness which come only
from long experience ami rellect ion. and which we find every-
where in him. Two lists of his works drawn up by hiniself
have come ilown to us. but they do not coincide, nor does
either correspond exactly with the works themselves as we
have them. In his edition in vol. li. of Rivadeneyra's Jii-
blioteca de Autnres KspaHoli'S (.Madrid, I88-I), I). Pa.scual de
Gayangos prints the following: Libra dfl cahaltrro y del
escudero ; Tracfado sohre lats annas de su fani ilia ; Libro de
casligus 6 conse/os pnra su hijo; De las nianeras del amor;
Libro de tos Jistados; Libro de loa Fruilea prediradores;
Libra de J'atronio (more connnonly known as Kl Conde
Lucanor); Tractudoenque seprueba . . . que Sanria Maria
esid en cuerpo y alma en I'araisu. Besides these we have Kl
libro de la Caza (ed. by U. Baist. Halle. 1880). There exist
also in manuscript, in the Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid, two
chronicles (a longer and a shorter) which have never been
printed. The titles of several other works are preserved, but
the works themselves have not yet been found. Of all tlio
above, the Conde Lucanor has been by far the most popular,
and is the most interesting. It is es.sentially a collection of
tales (fifty in number) intended for edification, after tho
Urienlal fashion. The model was probably the Disciplina
Clericatis ol Petrus Alplujnsus (see Kxkmi'LA-hooks), a col-
lection of stories in Latin nnide some two centuries earlier.
The Oriental inlluence is strong in both, though Manuel by
no means confines hiniself to such material. Several of tho
hitter's tales are models of brief and witty narration. Tho
Conde Lucanvr was printed first by Argote de Molina (.Se-
ville, l.'JTo: lateral Madrid. l(i-i;!). Of modern editions we
have that of A. Keller (Stuttgart. ISoO), that in the Tesoro
de Aulores iluslres (Barcelona, 18.53), and that of (iayangos
cited above. There is a German translation by .1. von Eich-
endorff (Berlin, 1840. with Eiig. trans, about 1886) ; a French
by A. de Puibusque (with Life, Paris, 18.54) : and an English
by .James York, London, 186JS ; new ed. 1888)). See G. Baist,
Alter u. Te.rtUberlie.ferung der iSchriften 1). Juan Manuela
(Halle. 1881). " A. K. Maksh.
Manuel I., Comneims: Byzantine emperor; b. in 1122;
succeeded his father. .John II., in 114i!. As he was sur-
rounded by jKiwerful and restless enemies, his reign was a
succession of campaigns against Geisa II.. of Hungary, the
Servians, Roger of Sicily, the Egyptians. Raymond of An-
tioch, and the Seldjuk Turks. A valiant and sagacious
soldier, generally successful in battle, he was an unscrupu-
lous and oppressive sovereign. At ]\lyriocephalus, in Pisidia,
he suffered a terrible defeat from the Turks, over whom he
afterward gained some successes, but a profound melancholy
took possession of him; he abdicated and became a monk.
He (lied in 1180. E. A. Grosvexor.
Manuel II.. Pnla>ologus: Byzantine emperor; b. in
1348; succeeded his father, .John V.. in 13!)1. Little was
left for him to rule over. The Byzantine eiii|iire had never
recovered from its conquest by the Latin crusaders, and,
though it had been restored by the Greeks, comjirised at the
close of the fourteenth century hardly anything more than
Constantinople, The Ottoman power was rapidly extend-
ing. B;ii'czid 1. had forced the timorous .lolm X. to give
him Manuel as a hostage, but on his father's death Manuel
escaped from the Ottoman camp and was crowned, lie
made a journey (1400-02) to Italy, France, and England to
entreat help against the Ottomans, but everywhere in vain.
Soon after his return Constantinople was besieged by liaTc-
zid ; its cajiture seemed imminent, when the sudden inva-
sion of Asia Jlinor by Tamerlane called off the besiegers.
It was again attacked in 1423 by Mourad II.. when cannon
were used for the first time in siege, but was heroically and
successfully defended by Manuel. Although Jlamiel was
brave, generous, elociuent, intelligent, and jiatriotic, he had
to contend all his life against desperate odds. It was im-
possible to resuscitate his empire, but he did his utmost in
delaying its fall. D. in 142.5. E. A. Gkosve.nor.
Manure [from O. Fr. manuvrer, to cultivate by hand >
Fr. inanu'urrer; Lat. nninus. hand + opera, work); in the
broadest sense.any sidistance applied to the soil for the pur-
pose of increasing its fertility; in the narrower, ordinary
use of tho term, the excrements of farm animals, either
mixi'd or unmixed with straw or other absorbents. The
quantity, as well as the quality, produced per year and per
1,000 lb. of live weight of the various kinds of animals is
extremely variable. The weight of the voidings of cows fed
on succulent foods exclusively is equal to tlirei'-fourths the
weight of the food consumed, while the voidings of animals
which are feil on dry matter exceed the weight of the food
two to three times.
Boussingault gives the following averages of manure |iro-
duction :
Yearly voidings of a horse (900 lb.) solids and liquids 7J tons.
•' cow(1.4«0" ) •• "4 "
" " " sheep (135 " ) " " i "
pig (i;«- ) •' '• 1} ••
MANURE
MANL'SCRIPT
531
Extcndeil cxpciinicnts at tlii' C'Drnell University agriciil-
turiil oxperiiueiit station gave the following it-sults \>vr day,
per 1,0(M) lb. of live weight :
Sheep :t41 III.
Calves «7-K ••
Pigs Ha-6 "
Cows 74'1 "
Horses 4«-8 "
Fowls ay08 "
Animals fed on a highly nitrogenous or narrow ration (as
1 : 4), as were the pigs at the Cornell station, eonsuine large
quantities of water and produce a large amount of manure,
while those fed on a carlionaeeous or wide ration (as 1 : U)
consume lompiiratively little water ami produ<e less.
Some of the general conditions allccting the production of
manure may be stated as follows. The value of maimre
proihiced by animals is from HO to ."JO per cent, of the cost
of the food they consume. Young animals produce piKirer
nuinure than mature ones. The excrements ot animals which
give a product, lus milk or young, are poorer than those from
non-pioductive animals. The more abumlanl the ration useil,
the less complete will be the digestion and the greater the
value of the manure produced. Concentrated and nitroge-
nous foods result in richer excrements than unconcentrated
or carbonaceous foods, iligh sailing and excessively succu-
lent foods lower the value of the manure. The amount and
kind of bedding affect not oidy the quantity but the value
per ton very considerably. Animals kept in cold quarters
ilrink little water, digest their food closely, and make a ma-
nure snuill in ajuouiit and poor in (|Uality.
Value of Jliiniiieg. — Rich niaiuires are relatively more
valuable per unit of contained fertility than poor ones, be-
cause the plant-food they contain is more readily soluble,
hence more available for the young plant, which is benefited
far nu)ie by extra nourishment in early than in later growth.
Coarsi'. low-grade manures are often weathered or rotted, in
order to improve their quality and solubility, though some
loss of plant-food may occur. .Vs a rule, a uiiit of plant-food
in high-grade fertilizers or manures is worth more than one
in low grades ; if the ipiality of manure has been reduced by
neglect, the value of each unit of fertility left is decreased.
VALUE PER TOX.*
Kind of manure. Value per ton.
.Sheep |3.;{0
Calve,s 2.17
Pigs 3.29
Cows 2.03
Horses 2.21
TAI.fE PER YEAR PER 1,000 LB. LIVE WEIGHT OK ANIMAL.
Kind of auiiiml. Value per year.
Fowls f")l.l6
Sheep 26.0!)
Calves 24.4.1
Pigs (iO.HH
Cows 2!f.27
Horses 27.74
Wtmte of manure occurs from allowing it to be .scattered
over by-places and around the outer eilges of large yards;
from heating, which dissipates the nitrogenous compounds
in the form of ammonia. Manures which have been broken
down by heating may have parted with so large an amount
of water that the value per Ion may have been increased,
though the total amount of plant-food nuiy have been
greatly iliminishcd. When manures are exposed in the open
yards or heaped out under the eaves of the biiililing. their
values are greatly reduced. In the northern and central
parts of Ihe U. .S.'the rainfall exceeds ;iO inches per annum.
Slany of the nuMlern barns cover a quarter of an acre of
ground, and the Imrn-yards twice as much. An inch of
rainfall means 100 tons of water upon each acre: 30 inches
means 3.(MX) Ions |M'r acre, or 750 tons from the eaves of
the fartn buildings, anil 1,500 tons on Ihe open barn-yanls
per year. KxiK-rience shows ihe common and wasteful
practice of heaping manures. The los.s of manure ox|K>se<l
to heavy rains for any length of time is usually very
great, tlie onlv expeplion being where they are too dry. as
occurs s<imeliiiies where In-dding is liberally siipplieil.
• Nitrogen is c<>mpu(i>il nt 1"), pliospliMrie aeid «. and p-ilasli nt -11
cents per p<ilind n-speelivf^lv. The \nlMf of llif iiinnun' priHlinfd
per venr Ls bas«l on ihe value determin^l for Ihf wlnOT ini>iilh«
The' amount and value of miinnri- pnHhKt^l hy plKs. given in the
table, is at least a tliird larger than the usual avcraKv.
The average rainfall at Ithaca, N. Y.. for six months.
April to September, is 1»:( incheii for 1H82-04. The
loss of value in numun's exp<«ed at Itha<a. in looso
heaps of from 2 to 10 tons, during the six months was aa
follows : ,
1K80, horse-manure 42 tier cent
IMSKI, " 02 ••
IWtO. cow-niunnre 30
lS«y, mixed compiu'ted 9 ••
Kainit, gypsum, dry earth, and salt are all iisij to prevent
wasting of manures in the stable and when hea|K-d. If they
are spread as soon as made, up(ui laiul occupied by plants,
little loss of fertility is sustained. If not immediately a|>-
plied. manures should be kept under cover or in deep com-
pacted heaps.
L'lten uf Manure. — JIannres are used to furnish plant-
fowl, to improve the physical condition of the soil, ami to
conserve and increase heat and moisture. From 10 to 40
tons of manure is usually applied per acre, by machine or by
hand. Too liberal an application is wiLsteful, uidess. as iii
early gardening, the object is to warm the .soil and force the
plants ahead of the seiuson. Ten to twenty times as much
fo<«l is sometimes given to plants as thev call use.
Five tons of aviragc barn manure contain: Xitrogen, 60
lb.: phosphate, 30 lb. ; [Milash, 47 lb.
Twentv-five bush, of wheat with straw contain : Xitrogen,
45 lb.; pliosphoric acid, 18 lb.; potash. 27 lb.
In general farming, economy requires that such culture
be given that the plant can obtain more than one-half of il.s
food directly from the soil wilhoul the aid of manures. The
first crop recovers u<i\ more than half of the iilaiil-f<io<l con-
tained ill a moderate application of them. Harn manures aro
relatively poor in mineral matters and rich in nitrogenous
eomponiids; therefore they should be used in connection
with potash and phosphoric aciil. The planl-food coiilaiiied
in farm manures is less valuable by about one-third than
that C'liilaincd in high-grade fertilizers, because it is not
so available. If considerable iM'iiefit is received from the
physical action of the manures in addition to that realized
from the plant-fcjod they contain, then their value would
probably equal that given in the above tables, p'arm ma-
nures should be spread thinly in the autumn on the surface
where plants are growing, thus following nature's mo<les of
action. Sec Fertii.izeb.s. I. P. Roberts.
Manuscript [from Lat. manuxrriplum, liter., a thing
written by hand; hki »".'-■, luiiid -(- wrin /i/.i. f>erf. partic. of
sen here, write ; abbreviiiti'd M.S., pi. M.S.S.] : anv writing,
usually a written book or document. JIanu><rijits are dis-
tinguished, on the one hand, from inscriptions, on the other,
from printed books.
The oldest MS.S. left us are Egyptian, and date from
2.500 years or more n. r. They are written in characters
already alphalietic, with recti and ink. on papyrus. This
substance, the standard writing material of antiquity and
the prototype of our modern paper, was made from a rush
(the ('i/periis papyrus oi LinniiMis). then aliundant through-
out Egypt, as still in the ujiper Nile, by slitting its stem
lengthwise into strips, placing one layer of thes<- transversely
over another, ami pasting, hammering, and pressing the two
into union and smooiluiess. (Uher niaterial.s — the leaves
and bark of trees, talilets of woimI or ivory, [lotlerv. skins,
linen cloth, sheets of lead — were in carlv use for writing,
anil have left us memorials in such familiar words as " li-
brary." •' code," and "book"; but from Egypt the use of
the more convenient [lapyrus spreatl. like the alphnlMt itself,
to Ihe other Mediterranean lands. One form of book, how-
ever, besidi-s the papyrus M.S.. remained in use throughout
the classical time, and indei^il almost to miMlern days — the
waxed lalilet. It ccuisisted of two. tliriH?, or nion- leaves of
wiM«l. joined at one edge like the leaves of a modern biKik,
and held by rings serving as hinges, hjich leaf had s
raised margin, like a child's slate at the present dav, and
the sunken center was covered with wax. on whitli one
wrote with a metal ftijlux, whoso other end wh« tint toned
or roundoil for rubbing out the writing by - j the
wax. It was this form of Iwifik, us<'d not ^ c ni-
oranda and letters, biil for accounts ami lr;;..i j - uiii,nl.s.
which was known as codex and whirh lent l~dh fonn
and name to the media'val MS., the pan^nt of the nualeni
liook. In antiquity the more common fonn, though even
for the brittle papyrus the co<lex was not unknown, was
that of the roll — rohimrn. The shwts of papyrus were
pasloU together, end to end, to any de«ir\'d length, Iho
532
MANUSCRIPT
MANZONI
width of the roll varying from 6 inches, in the earliest
times, to 10 or 15 in tlie later. In Koman times one end of
the roll was atlixeil to a wooden or ivory roller, whieli llms
became the core of the roll. A label bearing the title of the
book was attached to the outside of the rolled-iip .MS.: and
it wiis usual to provide the whole with a velUiui case, often
gayly coloreil. The lines of the writing ran not crosswise
of the roll, but lengthwise, in narrow cnlumns, exposed one
by one. like pages, as one unrolled the MS. The right side of
the MS., therefore, was that where the liber of the papyrus
ran lengthwise of the roll, guiding the pen of the scribe and
making ruled lines uiniecessary. At Alexandria under the
Ptolemies, where book-making for commerce was first thor-
oughly systematizei^, and Inter at Rome and at Athens, the
production of MSS. was carried on upon a large scale,
trained slaves being employed by hundreds as copyists, cor-
rectors, and binders, and editions of ."iOO or 1,000 copies
produced. From very early times, besiiles papyrus, skins
were in use, even in Kgypt, as a writing mateiial : but nut
till the second century a. c. did the increasing demand for
books and the competition of Pergamos with Alexandria as
a literary center lead to such improvement in their prepara-
tion that they could rival papyrus. And it wjis yet several
centuries before this " Pergamos paper," carta Pergametia,
our parchment, as it was called from the town whence it
came, became with the decline cif Medilerraiu'an commerce
the usual material for MSS. througtiout Europe. Papyrus
did not ilisaiipear entirely indeed till in the twelfth century
the cheajier paper, whose manufacture was then creejiing
westward from the Orient, crowded it from use and in-
herited its name. With the advent of parchment (or vd-
lum. as it is indilTereiitly call(>d). the codex, or tablet, form
of .MS. gradually supjilanted the roll.
The ordinary pen of the ancients was the reed, though
metal pens were not unknown. The quill is first menti(med
in the sixth century a. d., but from that time became the
exclusive implement in the West. Ink has been much the
same since the earliest times, that of the ancients deriving
its black usually from soot, while in the Middle Ages gall-
nuts were more often used. Colored inks were also early
in use, and the eustum of illuminating MSS. — i. e. of adorn-
ing them with variegated letters or with pictures — was
known to the ancients, and never p.assed from use till its
culmination in beauty in the closing centuries of the Mid-
dle Ages. It is from the favorite red {ruhrica, minium),
beloved both for head-lines and for initials, that we get
our words ruiric and miniature. See Illuminated Manu-
SCKIl'TS.
Introduced into the mona.steries by Cassiodorius in the
sixth century and adopted by the early Benedictines, the
i)rciduction of MSS. fmnid tlnTe for ages its chief licime.
The Irish mmdis and their Xorthumbrian disciples had in-
dejiendently turned to the same form of activity, and with
a zeal that outran that of the Continent. Wlien the two
impulses met in the convent schools of Charles the Great
his vigorous encouragement gave to the work of transcrip-
tion an imp(^tus that never <lieil out. Throughout western
Christendom every alibey had its scriptorium or writing-
room, and the copying of books was cuunted one of tiie
most meritorio\is of monkish tasks, profitable for this world
and for the next: but in the thirteenth century, with the
rise of the universities, there grew )ij) again a body of lay
copyists, into whose hands the making and sale of M.SS.
gradually passed. It was not till nearly a century after tlie
invention of printing that the work (jf these professional
scribes ceased to compete with the cheaper lint coarser jirod-
ucts of the press. The scarcity and cost of parchment led
often to the erasure of a writing with s|ionge, pumice-stone,
or knife, and the use of the sheet for a fresh writing. .Such
rewritten MS.S. are pa/impsents. (.See Palimi-sest.) TIu'
science which treats of the ilecii)herinent of MSS. is pala'og-
raphy, the older name of <li[)lomatics being now restricti'd
to the science which verifies and interprets documents (di-
plomas). The best slmly on the book-making of the ancients
is Birt's Das antikc liiicliwi'scn ; on the work of the media--
val scribes, the exhaustive monograph of VVatteiibach, Das
Schriftwesen im Mitti'lallcr. In hnglish, not to mention
older works, may be named Middh'ton's Illiiminatcrl Manu-
scripts; yiaihiu's lioii/:s in Manuscript : Putnam's ,-lK//ior,t
ana their I'lililic in Ancient Times: and in French, Moli-
tner's Les J\/anuscrits ct les Miniatures. ,See also the works
cited in PAi,.T.ooKAPnv. especially Thompson's Ilandbuok.
See BiBLloaRAPiiv, Book, and PaL/Eoorapiiv.
Gkorue L. Bt'RR.
Mnnu'tiiis (Manuzio, Manuzzi, Maniicci), Aldus: head
of a family of printers of the Renaissance period; b. at
Sermonetta, in the terriI(^ry of Bassanu, Italy, in 144it or
1450; studied in Ferrara and Rome; Wiis for a time tutor
in several ducal fandlies of Italy; learned Creek in Veronii
under the celebrated Cuarini ; and in 1488 established a
printing-house in Venice, from which issued no fewer than
twenty-eight so-called ediliones principcs of classical au-
thor.s, to all of which he wrote elaljorate introductions.
The first book ever printed in (ireek letters issued from his
|iress (1494). lie also substituted for the then current
Cothic or monk's tvpe a new one, the so-called Cursive, more
familiar to us uni'ler the nanu> of Italics, which was first
used in the edition of Vergil (1501), some credit for the suc-
cessful innovation being also due to his skillful engraver,
Francesco of Bologmi. He died of wounds inflicte<l by an
assassin Feb. 6, 1515. See Schiick. Aldus Manutius und
seine Zeitgeno.iseti (Berlin. lH(i2) ; F. Didot, Aide Manuce
et ri/eltenisme a \'enise (Paris, 1875) ; Renouard, yl7iM«/f»
de I'imprimerie des Aides (iid ed. Paris, 18ii4). — Paui.I's, son
of the former, b. ,Iune 12, 1512, took charge of his father's
printing establishment in 15;W. 1). Apr. 6, 1574. He is
best known for his editions of the Church fathers and of the
coini)lete works of Cicero, as well as for numerous leariu'd
commentaries to thai author. — Aliu'S the younger, son of
Paulus. b. Feb. V.i. 1547. tauglit the classical languages for
a time; then took up his father's business, but as he was
more of a scholar than a jiractical printer, the famous house
fell into decay after !(08 eilitions of tireek, Roman, and Ital-
ian classics had gone forth from its pres.scs. D. as the head
of the Typograjihia Vaticana in Rome, Oct. 27, 15U7. The
Aldine editions, though at the present day not so highly
prized by bibliophiles as formerly, are among the most
beautifid specimens of the typograi)lier's art. Their dis-
tinguishing mark is an anchor entwined by a dolphin with
the motto Sudarit et alsit or Festitia lente.
Alfred Gudeman.
Manx, or Mauks, Language ; the old dialect of the Isle
of Man, still spoken by about a quarter of the population.
It is a Celtic language, and forms with the Irish and the
Gaelic of Scotland the Irish-Gaelic branch of the Celtic
family. From these sister dialects it is grammatically not
far removed, but as it is written in a different orthography —
one derived from the Knglish — it appears in its external form
quite distinct. The orthograpliy liecame established through
tlie most important literary work in the language, the Bible
translation of 1771-75. Literary records from an earlier
period than the eighth century do not exist. The JIanx
Society (since 1858) is seeking to rescue as much as possible
of the langimge, which is yielding place to the Knglish.
This society has published Kelly's gramnnir (185U-70) and
the Manx Dictionary (1866). The Christmas carols called
carve/s. sung on Christnms eve, form the chief constituent
of the literature. A general sumnmry of the remnants of
Manx is given by Jeinier in the Transactions of the Philo-
loyical Society of London (1875). See Celtic Lanouaoes.
R. TlIURNEYSEN.
Manzanillo. malm-zali-neelyo ; principal port of (he state
of Cdlima, Mexico; on a bay of the Pacific Ocean; hit. W
3' 14" S., Ion. 104 1!) 49' W. (see nnij) of Mexico, ref. 7-F).
Population about 2,000. The harbcjr admits large vessels,
and there is an active trade with San Fraiu'isco. the princi-
pal exports being silver ore ami agricultural jiroduets. The
importance of the place has increased since it has been
uiiiled by railway with the city of Colima. II. H. S.
Manzoni, nniiin-zo nee, Ai.essaxuro, Count: poet and
writer; b. at Milan, Italy, I\lar. 7, 1785. His mother was
(iiulia, daughter of the Marijuis Cesare Beccaria, author of
the famous treatise Dei dellUi e delle pene. He studied at
iMerateand Lugano, afterwaril at .Milan and Pavia.at the last
of wliii'h places lie took his degree before he was twenty. In
1805 111' Went to Paris, where his mother had been living at
the house of a friend. Carlo liiiboiiati. .Slmrtly before Irn-
boiiati had died, and .Manzoni wrote in his honor liis Versi
scioiti {WW,). He found his mother intimate with the cir-
cle of JIme. Condorcel at .\uteuil, the last group of adherents
to the philosophy of the eiglileeuth century. With these
men the young poet also became hitiniate, and for a time he
shareil their skeptical opinions. With Faiiriel, in partii'ular,
he entered upon a friemlsliip that long emlureil. At this
time he wrote Ins I'ranin (1807). In 1808 he married Fn-
richetta Blondel, daughter of aGeiioese banker and a Protes-
tant. About the sunie time his ojiiidons in regard to religion
MAORIS
MAP
533
began to olianpc, ami lie finally came to be a firm C'atliolic,
carryinjj his wife with him into his new faith. In his Initi
sacri. written from 1H12 to lUti (1st cd. IblS), he is ardently
Christian ; and in his (Mgervaziurti sultn morale callulic'a
(1819) ho stoutly defends Catholicism against the attacks of
the Protestant historian Sismondi. Kstablished at Milan,
Manzoni bepm in IHKi his first trajjcdy, Jl Coiile di Cur-
maijniilii, puliiislied at Miliiii in 182(J, ami dediciited to l-"au-
riel. This, the first romantic drama in Italian, was received
with small favor by the poet's countrymen ; but the (ierman
Gfwthe, in an article in the Stuttgart review, L'rber KtinM
und Alterl/iiim, Ix'stowed ujion it and its author the highest
praise. On the death of Napoleon in 1H21, Manzoni wrote
his famous oile, Jl ciiujue tnayyiu; and in the same year
another almost a^ famous, Marzu 1,SJ1. In IWi appeared a
second tragedy, Adrlchi, whose importance the Italians again
failed to recognize at first. It was difiicult for persons ac-
customed to dramatic successes due mainly to style und
constructive skiil to understand the purpose of an' author
who was endeavoring to depict the original facts of human
emotion ami experience — albeit sentimental facts — after the
manner of the romanticists. In 1827 ap[)eured the three
volumes of the work that most closely associates itself with
Manzimi's name, the romance / Promeasi Sponi (Eng. trans.,
Bohn's Library, 188:!). Though in appearance an historical
novel like Scott's, this is really more nearly allied to Werther
than to the Waverley novels. The interest is inward, psy-
chologic, sentimental, rather than outward and picturesque.
The briefi'r sequel Art Storia delta Cvlonna infame, written
in 1821) has both an historical and a moral purpose, and is
not properly a romance. After the ap[)eurance of these
works, Manzoni became absorbed in crilical and linguistic
?[Uestions, especially in that always burning one of the true
orm of the language of Italian prose. Converted to the view
that Tuscan is the proper model, he defended it in a series
of e.-vsays, and in 1840 published a new edition (the third) of
/ PromesKi Spiisi, rewritten in pure Tuscan. This gave rise
to violent discussions, which have not yet ceascil. .Manzoni"s
last years were spent at Milan in retirement, devoid of great
literary enterprises. He took no active part in the politics
of his country, though he sympathized with the efforts to
bring about a united Italy. When this had been accom-
plished, he was made a life senator by the new (iovernnieiit
(1860) and given a pension of 12.00() francs. I), at Milan,
May 22. 187-'t. The first collected edition of his works was
that with critical notes by X. Tommitseo (6 vols., Florence,
1828-29) ; atid many have been published since, e. g. Opere
Complete (2 vols., Milan, 1875-81). See also his Opere in-
edite e rare, edited, with a Life, by Bonglii (2 vols., Jlilan,
1883, seq.) ; his Lettere, edited by G. Sforza (3 vols., 1882,
aeq.)\ his Poesie, new edition by G. Mestica (1888); his
Scrilli vari siilta lingua italinna (1868) ; Saucr, Alessandro
Manzoni (Prague, 1872) ; A. Stoppani, / priini anni di A.
Manzoni (ISH) ; de Gubernatis, Alessandro Manzoni (\S'iil) ;
C Cantii, Alessandro Manzoni : lieminiscenze (2 vols., 1882) ;
Stampa, .1. Manzoni. la sua famigtia, i suoi amici (1885);
Vismara, Jiiblioyrajia Manzoniana (Milan, 1875).
A. R. Marsh.
Maoris, maao-reez [native name]: a Polynesian people
of New Zealand, numbering (18!)1) 41,993, probably far less
than half the population a century ago. Many of them
live in that part of the North island comprising about
10,00() sq. miles, known as the King Country. This district
was .set apart for their use (1840) by Great Britain. The
chiefs, seeing that their authority over the tribes diminished
with the ailvance of Kuropean settlement, convened a great
tribal gathering (1854), and it was decided that no lanil
shouM be sold to the Government, that no roads should be
maile by Kuropeans within the area, and that a king should
be selecteil to reign over the .Maoris. Thesi- provisions were
all carried out. While the .Maoris arc still scattered over a
considerable part of North and Middle islands, the King
Country in the \V. of North island is exclusively occu)>icd
by them. As late as 1HH3 it wil< not considere<l safe for a
white man to travel in their terrilopi-, though in that year
J. H. Kerry-Nicholls explore<l the I\ing Countrv for two
months without incurring .serious risks. They )mve n^iw
come to live on excellent terms with the white colonists.
The Maoris are among the finest of the s<>-<alled siivape
races. Physically they were, when first known, among the
finest specimens of the human race. Their half-savage,
half-civilized mode of life, however, lia.s caused rapid de-
terioration. The few tattooed warriors of the old school
who are left nre much superior, physically and mentally, to
the younger natives. They have fallen a prey to some' ex-
tent to the vices of civilization, and particularly to the irn-
miMlerate use of tobacco, among Ixjth old and young. For-
merly the most elaborately and Iteautifully tattooed of sa»--
age peoples, the practice has fallen into almost entire disu.se.
Their legends with regard to their migration to New Zealand
are very detailed. They say that 400 or 5(XI years ago their
fathers reached their present home from the' island of 11a-
vaiki, which is supposed to be one of the Tonga group.
Their physi()ue, language, customs, and legends leave no
room for doubt that they are pure Polynesian. Human re-
mains, evidently of Papuan origin, have led to the conclu-
sion that the Maoris were not the aboriginal [H'ople of New
Zealand, but that they exterminated the people they found
there when they took possession of the islands. Cannibal-
ism and polygamy were once common. For further in-
formation see Maori Mementos, by Sir George Grev. gov-
ernor of New Zealand (Auckland, 1R5.5) ; also his J'oli/ne-
sian Myllioloyy ( Lonilon, 1855); Mythology of the Aew
Zealanders, in Jlaori (London, 1854); On the Aatire Sunyt
of New Zealand, by J. A. iJavies (ap|)endix to the forego-
ing) ; The A eir Zealand Government and the Maori War
of liHJ3-VJf (LoikIoii, 1864); Jmportant luformalion rtlatire
to New Zealand (Sydney, 1839) ; A Summer's Excursion in
New Zealand (London. 18.54); Kongo W'hakapepeha, etc.,
or Proverbial and Popular Sayings of the Ancestors of the
New Zealand Itace, by Sir (jeorge Grey (London. 1857);
The New Zealanders (London, 1830) ; Voyages de M. I' Abbe
de Rochun aux Jndes Orientates (Paris. 178^^); Mars<len's
Visit to New Zealand (1820); Nicholas, Voyage to Neic
Zealand; Kerry-Nicholls, The King Country (London, 1884).
C. C. Adams.
Map [from Fr. mappe in mappe-monde, map of the world
< Lat. map pa mundi. liter., cloth of the world]: a graphic
representation on a suitable scale and on a plane surface
showing the relative distances and directions between known
positions, or an illustration of jihysical. statistical, and other
a.scertaineil facts. If a map refers to the earth's surface and
the points are sulliciently numeroiis.il will define the bound-
aries of the continents, the location of islands, cities, etc. ;
the courses of rivers, ranges of mountains, and otherfeatures
that will depict truthfully the surface in ininiature. If it
illustrates tlie celestial sphere or rcfiresents statistics of
population, commerce, natural history, physical phenomena,
etc., it may be called a chart. The line between map and
chart is not so clearly defined that it can always be under-
stood, but generally those graphic representations that are
plotted on a geographic basis from isolated or )nde|>endeiit
facts or points, as distinguished from inlerde|>endent points
forming the outline of a continent, or from statistical data,
are called charts, when the geographic basis alone woulil l»e
designated a map. The representations of hydrographic
surveys prepared for the use of the mariner in navigation
are also called charts for analogous reasons. "Map "was
originally the designation in Knglish of all representations
of facts shown graphically ; but in modern practice the tend-
ency is to confine the u^c of the word to representations of
the land surface of the earth. and todistinguish illustrations
of celestial, statistical, physical, hyilrograpliic, and other
cla.s.sos of ascertained facts as charts. In other tongues,
however, the word chart seems to have general applica-
tion.
Map compilation is an art requiring skill and judgment
only acquired through experience, that the map may gi»o
due prominence to the salient features in proportion to their
importance, without impairing its iwrspicuitv. The publi-
cations are issued in various forms tiiat must ilepeml largely
on the purposes they are designed to serve. The pro|>erties
of the projection, t lie representation of the nieridiaiis and
fiarallels that measure geographic distances, is one of the
irst im|Mirlance. as \\\»tn this proje<-lion rests the relative
accuracy of thedifferent parts. If form ami area are mainly
ilesired. a projection to sjtlisfy these conditions is ne<ess«ry.
It is impossilile to P'U out the surface of a si'liere on a
plane, and onlv small areas of such a large splierv as the
earth can be ilevelo|H-d without sensible error; the projec-
tion tends to minimize the distorli^'n of the parts of the
repn'senlation, but it is iinprailieablc to develop or repre-
sent an area of the earth's surface larger than otic wpiare de-
gree without sensible distortion of some of the [wrts. All
maps. Iherefon". covering siuh areas as a hemisphere or con-
tinent are only conventional representations of area, though
534
MAP
affording: precise geographic data for all its parts. Sec
Projection.
The oKiost map extant is believed to be a pafiyrus roll in
the Turin .Miiseuiu, supposed to represent a gold-ininin};
district in Xubia, and wliieh, it is e.stiniated, was drawn
about B.C. lOOO. Ana.\iiuunder of Miletus, a scholar of tlic
Greek school of philosophy, who lived from B.C. 611 to 5J7,
is reputed to be the first man wlio jittempted to draw a
map of the worhl. I>ica'urchus of Messina, in Sicily, a
pupil of AristotU' (ii. c. ;ilO). is credited with hiivins; drawn a
map dividing the then known world into parts. lie worked
on the assumption that it was one and a lialf times as larjie
as it was broad, and dividinj; it into two parts by a straight
line made wliat may be considered the liist represenlalion
of a parallel of lalituile. Eratosthenes, the keeper of the
Alexandrian Library, born at Cyrene, u. c. 270, is believed
to be the tirsl wlio tried to measure the magnitude of the
«artli and to collect into a scienlitic treatise the scattered in-
formation respectinir places and continents. He improved
on Diciearcluis in his ilivision of the worhl, by drawiii<; on
his map additional lines parallel to the first, and others at
right angles to the parallehs, dividing the area into sections
for convenience of description, but really constructing a
primitive projection an<l practically instituting the system
of reference that is still maintained, though of course
greatly improved by our knowledge of the size and figure of
the earth permittiiig the sections to represent definite meas-
ures. The astronomer llipparchus of Uithynia (u. c. 1.^0)
criticised the work of Kratostheues, and contended that tlu>
map of the world should be constructed from known posi-
tions determined astronomically. It does not apju-ar tliat
Hipparchus made any attempt to construct a nuij) on the
principle he enunciated; and there is no record that the
utility of the method was fully a|>preciated until the secmul
century of the Christian era" when Claudius Ptolemy con-
structed his series of twenty-six maps, together with a gen-
eral map of the then known world. Ptolemy's maps were a
material advance, and though containing many errors and
great exaggerations from an erroneous com])utation for the
length of a degree of longituile. they exhibit more com-
pletely the geographic knowledge of the epoch than any
other maps of prior or subsequent epochs to the sixteenth
century.
In liiediiEval times the scientific mapping of Ptolemy
seems to have been supplanted in Kurope by sentimental
representations in wliich the holy city of .Jerusalem is made
the central point of the world, with all other lanils circling
around it, and the oire.-ui encompassing the whole on the
outer' margin. The llerefonl map of the world, drawn (m
vellum by Uichard de llaldingham about the end of the
thirteenth century is perhaps the best example of this style
of construction. The spirit of true geography during this
period found a resting-place for a time with the Arabians.
The treatises on geograiihy and travels by Abulfeda, Edrisi,
Leo Africanus, lliu Katuta. and others, are still interesting
and valuable ; but the A raliians were divided into two schools,
one advocating the compilation of itineraries describing
routes and provinces without reference to geographic posi-
tions from astronomical observations, while the other con-
fined the maps to a representation of the positions deter-
mined astronomically, ignoring the valuable information
that might have been added from the itineraries, with the
result that mathematical geography that had received an
early place and made some ailvanee was ultimately omitted
altogether. Ibn llaukal (!)T6 a. D.)iscrcdited with the decla-
ration that mathematical division only brought confusion
into geography.
The Komans had little more than compilations of itinera-
ries, and do not appear at any time to have attem|>ted the
scientific methods of construction. The Peutingerian table,
of which alleged copies have been f)reserved, is sui)posed to
have been made about '2;J0a. d. It is one of the most famous
of historical maps, and exhibits the ndlilary roads of the
empire and the whole world known to the Romans, from
Britain to Farther Irxlia. Its original form is not well as-
certained, but there is strong reason to believe it was cither
circular or oval, after the usual conception of the earth's
boundaries. It can not be fairly called a map, for, though
it was doubtless e(instrucle(l to aiil in the political and mili-
tary administration, for wliich jiurposc! all their maps seem
to have been designed, and shows the names of places and
distances between them by the routes of travel, it does not
give the bearings or directions between the places. The
Italians, however, introduced the com|)a,ss nnip in the
thirteenth century, marking an approach of the return to
scientific map-making developod by the revival of Ptolemy
in the sixteenth century. Since then there has been a gen-
erous rivalry among civilized nations to improve the meth-
ods and obtain the data to construct a map that shall be
correct and mathematically true.
In the seventeenth century great strides were made in
geography, aiul the volumes of maps published by private
individuals excel in costly elaboration the publiealions of
the present day. Fair examples of this style will be found
in the nine folios of the great atlas of Joainies Ulaeu, pub-
lished at Amsterdam about 1560; that of de Wit, also pre-
pared in Amsterdam about thirty years later; and the atlas
of Sanson, geographer to the French king, published in
three huge folio volumes in Paris between 1690-U6. The
survey of China, given out in the name of Hre du llalde,
was among the most important gi'ograpliic works published
in the early years of the eighteenth century. It wiis the
work of a number of Jesuit missionaries who gained admit-
tance into China about the end of the fifteenth century;
this great work was completed in 1718, and still forms the
basis for maps of the interior of the empire. It should be
mentioned, however, that native Chinese maps of high value
existeil previously to this .Jesuit survey, and that in both
China and Japan geography and nuip-making had made
great progress independently of the advance in the science
by the Mediterranean and Kumpcan countries. The Japan-
ese maps of the present da\"preseiit a still greater advance,
and are a mark of the aptitude of this ]ieculiar people.
The improvements in map-making from the inception of
the art to the artistic rejiresentations of the modern work-
man are very marked. The greater accuracy and more com-
plete detail "obtained in the surveys have exerted a decided
influence on the style, especially in the nineteenth cen-
tury. The first maps were necessarily com|iiled from itin-
eraries of travelers, and though controlled in a measure by
determinations of latitudes, were greatly in error in longi-
tudes, even after the sphericity of the globe was recognized
as a fact. The discovery of the nuignetic needle and its ap-
plication to navigation toward the close of the twelfth cen-
tury marked a great improvement in the reliability of itin-
eraries, and the system of trigonometric surveying introiluced
in the beginning of the sixteenth century furnished a still
more reliable method of controlling distances and directions.
In the eighteenth century (1761) the chronometer was in-
vented, affording a ready means for ascertaining differences
in longitude, and soon alter the reconstruction of the map
of the world was begun. .Since tlieti the electric telegraph
has supplemented the chronometer for longitudes; new
methods and improved instrmnents have simplified astro-
nomical observations; the civilized tuitions have completed,
or have well advanced, detailed surveys of their territories,
and obtained the outlines ot nearly all accessible regions with
an accuracy so far surpassing former etforts that cartog-
raphers have experienced a confidence in the permanency
of their com|iilaticins that has inspired them to pulilish their
work in more artistic form, or when dealing with the detail
of more limited areas to devise symbols that would render
the representation at once perspicuous and the most useful.
The publication of the nnip of France by the Cassinis in
the eighteenthcentury (17.50-i)3) attracted' the attention of
all civilized governments. It was the first extended map
constructed upon a trigonometric base exemplifying the
l>rinciples of scientific map-making, and jiresented the mer-
its of the system so forcibly that tlie empirical methods
formerly in use soon became obsolete.
Near the close of the eighteenth century surveying had
been developed into a science, but it is only within the pres-
ent century the methoils of the .science have been perfected
so that they will permit a ra|iid and reliable determination
of the features of a region for cartograjihic purposes. The
explorer can now maintain an itinerary of his wanderings
over the land with the ease the navigator can record the
courses he has sailed over the waters of the ocean. The
facilities for travel and nuiintenance of parties in the field
are also so vastly superior thai, especially within the present
generation, exploration has made wipudcrful strides, and
has so reduced the regions of hypothetical or uidinown geog-
raphy llial there is left over llie wlmlc habilable wurld an
area scarcely larger than the I'. .S. thai has not been ex-
plored and mapped with reasoiudile fullness.
Terrestrial iiuiiis may be divided into two general classes,
j/fni/nip/iic and la/mffrapliic; the former representing the
salient natural features, as mountains ami rivers, the politi-
MAP
MAI'ES
535
cal divisions, etc., of a rejjion, generally embracing a large
area; ami the latter re]ireseiiiiiig the same features with
I he (letiiils thereiif in ailililiun, ami the cultural' details,
such lU) the plans of towns and villages, the roads, farms,
etc. Many attempts have been nuide to classify maps under
these two heads by the scale upon which liny are drawn ;
but the greater detail obtained in modern surveys renders a
chussifieation by this factor impracticable. It is manifest
that to map a region of which we have a very imperfect
knowledge, on a large scale, will not supply the detail
requisite for a topographical map; and thai many regions
of comparatively little detail can be mapped witii ])erfect
clearness on a nnich smaller scale than other regions of an
equal area but much greater detail. It is therefore |>referred
to designate all those maps that arc generalizations, that
show only salient features, as (jeugraphic, and those that
show the actual form ami detail as topuijruphic — no matter
how large the scale. A further division has been made to
classify all maps on a scale larger than one ten-thousandth
part of nature as plans, but this is also objectionable if the
information depicted on the map is the criterion : there are
drawings, however, sometimes showing topographic detail,
that are properly and universally called plans.
The gcograjihio map is usually the base for charts illus-
trating econoinic statistics, as population, industries, etc.:
the topographic map for natural history and phenomena,
especially when the elevation above the sea is an essential
in the interpretation of the classifications, as in animal and
plant life. Both classes are used in the construction of hy-
drographic charts, the selection having to depend upon the
purposi' the hydrographio data is to subserve.
The globe furnishes the fairest information of the relation
of the geographic features of the earth's surface, and also of
celestial geogra[ihy; but it is cumbersome, and limits the
scale to sucli a small proportion of nature that its use is
necessarily restricted. Globes will usually be found from a
few inches to 3 or 4 feet in diameter. The largest ever maile
was e.xhibited at the Paris Exposition in 1H.S!(. Its diameter
was one-millionth part of the diameter of the earth, alniut
42 feet. Stairways and galhriis Were constructed to facili-
tate its examination. A section of a glol)e on the same scale,
representing the L'. S. ami Territory of Alaska, was exhibited
by the L'. .S. Coast and (ieodetic Survey at the World's Fair,
('hicago, 18'.K). It was also so large that a gallery was neces-
sary. It dilTered from the Paris globe in that it represented
the elevations of the surface of the earth above sea-level, il-
lustrating most forcibly the comparative insignificance of
the highest mountains.
lU'lief-inaps are a form of illustrating geography that
have found much favor. Their construction is labori-
ous, and they are necessjirily limited in their application
and generally have their greatest value in physiography.
As they show the irregularities of the surface they are also
instructive to the student of geology, and when made in
sections placed side by side, with the various strata colored
on their edges to show the dips and formations below the
surface in a<ldilion to the exposures, they convey a bet-
ter conception of the earth's structure than any other
method.
The undulations of the earth's surface, forming moun-
tains, hills, aixi valleys, have generally been represented on
maps by hachiires, or some other shading developed from
rays of light falling vertically, or in some instances at an
oblique angle. Kufimr's grand atlas of .Switzerland repre-
sents the elevations in hachure.s, and is one of the finest ex-
amnles of this system. On geographic maps the system is
still very generally followed when mountain ranges or other
material elevations are to be shown, llachuring was also
used on topographic niajis until the early part of the nine-
teenth century, when the system of cnrifit iif equal eleralion,
or contuiirs. as they are generally calleil, was introduced,
and that has since become almost universal in its application.
The contour system is the most valuable that has been de-
vised for expri'ssing the relief of the topography. Each eon-
tour must be conceived as representing a new shore-line on
the supposition that water has risen on the hill-sides a given
interval; assuming an interval of 20 feet, a hill of 100 feet
height would thus be delineated by five contours; where the
slo|>e of the hill-side is grailual the contours wouM be com-
paratively far apart, where It is steep they wciuld be close to-
gether, the horiz.mtal distance between the contours being
variable, deiH'iidiiig upon the grade, while the vertical inter-
val is a predelerniined fixed quantity. Similarly the forms
of occun beds are brought out by contour lines represontiug
<lepths of the water. All the great |>owersr)f the worM Imvo
completeil, or have well ailvaiiced. tojiographic surveys, biLV-nl
upon precis*' triaiigiilation.aml delineating with greater or
less detail the natural and artificial (works of mun) features
within their bounilaries. Unfortunately, the toixigrajihic
surveys are not all of equal precision; it is very seldom that
the features representeil by contours are delineateil with al>-
solule truthfulness. Generally the to|>ographers onlv at-
tempt to represent a generalization of the natural fonns
that will be reailily recognized and sufiiciently precise to
|)ermit identification on the grouinl of any locality s«decte<J
on the map; where such sun'evs have been made they form
the basis of all ma|»s, being reiluced to the geogra[ihic and
atlas forms for general information, but retaineil in forms
nearly like the manuscript surveys for detaileil information
required for governmental, local, and economic pur[Mis«-s.
A small portion only of the worlil can be mapped with
great precision ; much the greater part of it. except the bare
boundaries, is compiled from itineraries of explorers, mili-
tary expeditions, reports of governors of provinces, and simi-
lar sources. The fie<|uent revision necessary in adding the
most recent exploraliims in the comparatively unknown
regions is a constant source of annoyance to map-makers,
from which they will not be relieved until the arts of civili-
zation have conquered the xvhole world. There are few
maps covering any considerable area more detailed than the
geographic. Majis are [lublished by the cartograiihers of
many nations, and present the art of map-making in many
forms; which may excel, it would be inviilious to say, but
the student will be amply rewanled who examines the more
recent publications by the French: they have also pr<Mluce<l
some of the most artistic and intelligible to[Migrapliic maps
of recent date, comliining the systiiii of contours with shad-
ing and coloring that is most [pleasing to the eye and intelli-
gent expression of form. The ordinance survey of tireat
Britain lias a standard system of representation for the very
|)rccise surveys that have been made on the Briti>h islands,
in which the'detail is given \vith great minuteness on the
larger scales, and grailually eliminated by fixed rules through
various scales to the geographic map with its bare outlines
and siilient features only. The Geological Survey of the
L'. .S. has developed a system, by eliminating the detail not
considered necessary for the puri)ose the maps are to sul)-
scrve, that presents great clearness. The hills are shown by
contours without any attenii)t to emiihasize the declivitiw
and accidents of the ground lieyond the natural expression
of the contours: all verdure is omitted, and only those arti-
ficial or cultural details are given that can be considered to
have a public or corporate value. Celestial and economic
charts are published in a great variety of forms by all civil-
ized nations; the rcfHirts of the V. S. census jiresent some of
the best statistical charts. The U. S. Coast and GeiKletic
Sur\-ey and the hydrographic olTicc of the U. S. navy pulv
lisli hydrographic charts <if artistic and practical merit. The
British Ailmiralty is the most extensive publisher of nnn-
tical charts in the world, but the artistic merits of the sheets
are subordinated to their practical usefulness.
An interesting example of the ca|>abilitics of modem
workmen to reproduce will be found in the collection of
old maps recently issued by the Geographical Sx'iely of
Berlin in comnieniorati<m of the four hundredth anniver-
sary i>f the dis<'oyery of .America, illustrating that event by
the reproduction of maps showing the early discoveries sjid
development of the continental outlines.
Ancient maps on laldels of stone can \>e seen at Home,
and maps on vellum can be found in many national muse-
ums. In mo<leni times the most valiialile maps are en-
graved on copper, sometimes on stone, ami Ihow intemiwl
to meet only an ephemenil ilemaml are ilrawn i^n pa|*r anil
published by .«ome of the cheap and exp<Mlili..u* imciIkmIs
have been devised with the intermediary of photog-
that
raphy,
Hkrbekt G. Oudes.
Mapen, or Map, NVai.tkk : archdeacon and poet ; b. in
England, prolmlily in llerefonlshin-. alxmt the midille of
the twelfth century : studieil in Paris: b.iaifie a noted the-
ologian; a favorite of Henry II., by wIimih he »»> s<nl on
missions to the French ami papal uMir" ■ •■ " 'f.SU
Paul and of .Salislniry. pre<-entcir if I t of
Weslburv. Gh'Uci'slershire. and Ar • ''\ford
(lllMt). 1). about 1210. He wn>le many .\Mniian-Kn'nch
and Ijitin poems on festive and Torunritie i«pics. as alw in
prose in both laiiguagi-s. but the : » <'f the |Mi<>ms
now attributed to hiin hiLs been - , ^estioned. The
536
MAPLE
MARACAIBO, GULF OF
Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes were
edited by Tlioiniis Wriglit for the Camden Society in 1841,
and the i)ro30 work, De 2\'ugis Curialium, in 1850.
Kevised by IL A. Beers.
Maple [0. Eng. mapol. mapolder. Cf. O. IL Germ, maz-
zoltra > Mod. Cierm. miisshuliler] : a name given to trees of
the genus -leer and family Supiiidiictie ; natives of Norlli
America, Asia, and Europe. Many of them arc noble shade
and timber trees. The American species are the following :
(1) The sugar-ninple {A. saccharhmm), called also liard or
rock maple, and its variety, iiiyriim, the black maple. In
Canada and the northern I'lart of the U. ,S. great (piantities
of sugar of good quality are made by boiling the saj) of this
tree. It is a handsome park and forest tree, and is prized
as firewood and tind)er. It is used extensively in making
furniture, especially the peculiar forms of the wood called
birdscye and curled nuiple. (2) The white maple or silver
maple (.1. dani/carpiim). a fine shade tree: its soft and
white wood is not of value as fuel or timber, but is used fur
making shoemakers' lasts, (ii) The red or swamp maple
{A. rubntin). whii'h sliares with the preceding the name of
soft maple, the red blossoms of which appear considerably
later, but lief ore the leaves. The wood is like that of the
silver maple. (4) The striped maple (A. pennstjlvanUum),
sometimes called moosewood, and (Ty) the mountain maple
(A. spicatum) are small trees or tall shrubs of little impor-
tance, although the former is planted for ornament. Their
flowers appear later than the leaves. These are the Atlan-
tic U. S. species. In the Rocky Mountains occur (6) A. yla-
brum, a handsome small tree, anil (7) A. grandidentatum, oi
larger size. Finally Oregon and California have two spe-
cies— (8) the vine maple (A. circinatum), a small tree or
large shrub which obtained its popular name either from a
sarmentose habit which it affects m its native swamps or on
low banks of streams, or from the rounded and many-lobed
leaves, which may be likened to those of the grapevine ; (0)
the large-leaved maple (A. macrophyllum), a very handsome
tree, but never very large ; its timber hard and close-
grained, and greatly valued in Oregon, this and an ash be-
ing the principal hanl-wood trees of the region. To the
foregoing may be added two species of box-elders now
placed in this genus — (10) A. negundo of the Eastern U. S.
and (11) A. californicuin of the Pacific slope. The box-
elders are often called ash-leaved maples. (See Box-elder.)
Of European species, the species commonly planted in the
U. S. for slmde and ornament are the Norway maple (.1.
platannidt'.s). a round-headed tree with bright green leaves,
most like those of sugar-maple, and the sycamore maple (A.
pseudoplatanus), in England called simply sycamore, known
by its large leaves, long and reddish stalks, and the lobes
acute ami poiiitcil. both hardy trees of rapid growth and
good timber. The wood of the latter is much used in Europe
for carving. Revised by Charles E. Bessev.
Mapleson, James IIenrv: operatic manager: b. in Lon-
don in 18:53. At the age of fourteen he entered the London
Royal Academy of .Music, where he remained two years. In
1848 he iilayed first violin in the orchestra of Her Majesty's
theater in London. In the season of 1849 he went out as a
manager into the provinces, having a company which con-
tained among other artists Sontag, Lalilache, and Thalberg.
He spent some years in Englanil cultivating his voice, but
he was attacked by an affection of the throat, and after an
operation found that the career of a vocalist would be closed
to him. In IH.'iO, after having acted as business agent and
manager of several traveling companies, he translated i:ito
Italian for Lumley, of Her Majesty's theater, the libretto of
Balfe's lioliemian (Jirl. In 1858 he liecame the recognized
director of Italian opera in London at Drury Lane theater.
The seascm of 1860 was prosperous financially, and Maple-
son was at this time associated svith the lessee of several
theaters in London. In isiil Adelina Patti appeared under
Mapleson's management, and he lost CD.OOO by the venture.
The season of I8(5'J was spent in labor at Her .Majesty's the-
ater. He paid €4vO(X) lus ailvance rent and anfitlier t4,000
as security, and began again. On June 11, 1803, he first
produced FumhI in London. His first tour in the U. S. was
made in 1878. He made other visits in 1880, 1881. 1884,
of his new jiro(ln<'l
ere Faiint, In lid
barmen. Ildmlcl. and FaUtaJT. He wrote The MapUxon
Memuii-H (Chicago, 1888). B. B. Vallexti.ne.
and 1885-86. Some of his new jiro(ln<'tiiins to English-
.speakiiiK audiences were Faiint, I'n Jiiilln in Musrlicra,
Maple-sugar : See Sugar.
Maqnet, maiika', AuorsxE: novelist and plavwright ; b.
in Pans, Sept. 13, 1813 ; li. Jan. 10, 1887. He w'as educated
at the College Charlemagne, where in 1831 he was apjwinted
professor. He turned later to lileraluri', and became cul-
laborateur with Alexandre Dunnis in some of the latter's
most famous novels and their dramati/Jitiims — Ijea trois
MiiiiS(piel<iires..J/unte i'hrislo, Ln rrine Maryat, Vinyl an»
apiis, Les (^uaranti'-citu/, etc. The announcement of this
fact in a sensational way by Eugene de iMirecourt in his J/ki-
son Aleuiindre Duimis el rum/niynii' (1845) ]irodu<'e(l one of
the worst literary scandals of the period. After his separa-
tion from Uumas, Maquet produced a nundier of novels,
most of which he also dramatized — Lti belle Uabrielle (1853),
with its continuation. La maisun du baiyneur (1856); Le
comie de Lavernie (1855): L'envers et Vendroil (1858); La
ruse blanche (185!)): the fancifid talcs Vuyaye mi pays hhu
(185!)). The dramatization of La mnison du baiyneur (1864)
was particularly successful, as was also the phiy Le IlHimard
de Bercheny. A. R. JIarsh.
Maqiioketa, ma-kr/ke'eta : city ; capital of Jackson co., la.
(for location of comity, see map of luwa, ref. 4-L): on the
JIaipioketa river, and the Chi. and N. \V. and the Chi., Mil.
and St. P. railways: 40 miles N. of Davenport. It is in a
timber, grain-growing, and live-stock region ; contains the
Boariluian Library Institute, a national bank with capital
of .i!50.00l), 3 private banks, and 4 weekly newspapers; and
has manufactories of Hour, woolen goods, machinerv, and
cigars. Pup. (1880) '2,467 ; (18'J0) 3,077 ; (18t)5) 3,448. '
Marabou Stork [Vr. maraboul\: a large stork {Leplop-
lilos niarahim or crumenifer) of \\ estern Africa, having a
huge bill and an enormous (louch on the neck. This is not,
as is commonly supposed, a crop, but is an air sac, and has
no connection with the gull,et. The marabou is a good
scavenger, and is valued for its services. The maraliou
feathers of commerce are the axillaries (<) and under fail cov-
erts of this bird and of the East Indian adjutiuit (L. argala).
F. A. L.
Marabouts [Arab. Mordbil, steadfast]: a kind of half
priestly caste in the N. \V. of Africa, descendants of the
Ahnoriivide sovereigns of Spain and ^lofocco. They pro-
fess to exercise miraculous powers, and are greatly revered
by the common Jlussulmaiis. They preside in all pojiular
assemblies, ami decide intertribal and important questions.
Though dependent upon alms, they are very liberally sup-
]iorted. The French in Algeria have many times felt their
|)ower. Pilgrimages are made to their tombs and sacrifices
and |iraycrs offered. The famous sheik Abd-el-Kader be-
longed ti) their number. K. A. Grosvenor.
Maracaibo, ma1i-ra"ii-ki bo : capital and principal city and
port of the state of Falcon, Venezuela: on the west side of
the |iassage or strait connecting Lake Maracaibo with the
ocean, at the northern end of the lake; hit. 10 35 N., Ion.
71' 45 \V. (see map of South America, ref. 1-C). It is built
on low land, and has a nicturcscpic appearance, due to
the numerous cocoanut palms around it ; the streets are
badly paved and gloomy, owing to the high houses, and
the heat is intense, the mean being 83' F. Water is ob-
tained from cisterns, and is often bad. The pleasant sub-
urb of Ilatitos, to the S., contains many of the finest resi-
dences. Maracailio is the center of trade not only for the
lake towns, hut of a large portion of the states of Falcon and
Los Andes and of Eastern Colombia, The most important
article of export is coffee, most of which goes to the U. S. ;
other exports are cacao, hides, dyewoods, cattle, cocoanut
oil, and drugs. The harl)or is good, but as large ves,sels can
not reach this jioint a railway is projec'leil to Cojoro. a sea-
port near the Colombian frontier. Alfiuger. in 15;.'!), had a
slave-trailing station at this point. A settlement made in
1568 was destroyed by Corsaii's, but it was relmilt by Pache-
co in 1571. The prosperity of the ])ort dates from the de-
struction of (iibraltar, by the pirate I'dlonais, at the south
end of the lake (HiliS), tlie commerce of thai place finding
this new outlet. Maracailio was long the literary center of
Venezuela, anil was especially renowned for its Jesuit col-
lege. Its inliabitants are still noird for their intelligence,
and the place has several educational inslilulious. Pop.
(188!)) 34,'284. I1i:kiii:kt H. Smitu.
Maracaibo. (iulf of. or (Jiilf of Voiu-zuela: an inlet of
the Ciirilibean Sea; in the coast of Northwestern Venezuela ;
betwi>eii the peninsulas of Paraguaiia on the E. and (ioajira
on till- W. At its southern end it receives the oullel of
Lake .Maracaibo, which lies in the same depression, and is
MARACAIBO, LAKE
MARASMUS
537
only separated from it by islands and points of alluvial
land. H. H. S.
Maracuihn, Lake: a preat sheet of water in Xorthwcst-
eni VuiitziR-lu. iyiri^ principally within the state of Falcon,
but at its soulhuaslrrn end horderinj; on Los Andes. Area
(according; to L. Viniciit, 1H!»0), H,;ji(2 s<|. miles. Its outlet,
opposite the city of .Miiriicuilio, is Hi miles wide; below it
broadens, but 20 miles from Manicaibo is again shut in by
several islands, between which it communicates with the
Gulf of Miiiacuibo. Strictly speaking, the so-calle<l lake is
a deep gulf, but owing to it.s narrow entrance and to the
numerous small rivers which discharge themselves into it,
the water is fresh, l)ceomiiig brackish or salt in the imrth-
ern nart during high tides or with long-continued northerly
winus; ordinarily the elTeet of the tides is only observable
in a slight rise and fall of the waters. The depth in parts
reaches .j(X) feet, but vessels drawing more than 10 feet can
not enter, owing to sand-bars in the passages l>etween the
above-ineiiliuinil i>lanils. Lake Muracaibo ociMiiiics an ex-
tensive basin which has been partly tilled in with alluvium,
leaving numerous swani|)S and small lakes, which communi-
cate with the larger one. The banks are low, in parts of difli-
cult access, owing to the shallows, and about the southern
end very uidiealthful. Toward the outlet the land is some-
what higher and free from malaria, but the heat in all
parts of the basin is very great. Small steamers now ply
regularly on the lake. The waters abound in fish. The en-
tratice to the lake was discovered in l.jOO by Kodrigo de
Bastidas an<l .Juan de la Cosa. They found villages of the
Indians built on piles in the shallow water, and, fancifully
comparing them with Venice, called the region Venezuela,
a name which hius been extendeil to a much larger territory.
Indian houses on piles are still found in this region.
Herbert H. Smith.
Mu'ratrha: town; in the province of Azerbijan, Persia;
on the Siiti, whose waters are conducted through canals over
a large territory and employed for irrigation (see map of
Persia and Arabia, ref. 1-F). The raisins of this vicinity
are considered the \>est in Persia. The manufactures ot
glass are considerable. Close by are the famous Maragha
marl)le-pits, where the marble is cut in slabs so thin that it
is nearly transparent. It is much appreciated throughout
Persia. This place wius the caj'ital of the possessions of
Ilolagoa, grandson of (ii'iighis Khan. It was also the resi-
dence of the astronomer Nassiredin of the thirteenth cen-
tury, lie had an observatory here with which he fixed the
geographical position in close accordance with modern de-
terminations. Pop. (1S85) 13,2.iO.
l{evised by M. \V. Habrisotox.
Marals' dps f ricrnps River [Fr., swans' marsh] : a stream
which rises in Wabaunsee eo., Kan., Hows in a tortuous
K. S. K. course, I'J.") miles to the Missouri line, near Fort
Scott, and takes the name of Osaoe River (q. v.). It re-
ceives numerous streams and drains a fertile region.
Marnjo. maa-raa-^ho (on old maps sometimes called Jo-
•nncM): a large islanil of the state of Parii. Brazil; on the
southeastern siile of the mouth of the Amazon, between
that river and the Parii. and separated from the continent
on the S. \V. by a network of channels, through which a
portion of the .Vmazonian water flows to the Para. Length
about 120 miles, breadth from 80 to 100 miles; area, almut
10,000 s<j. miles. The surface is perfectly flat and, in great
part, of alluvial formation, but traces of an older framework
of rock are seen along the southern and western sides, ami
hence this is not, strictly s|H>aking, a delta island, as are
many smaller ones adjoining it. During the period of
heaviest rains (February to.lune), and at the time of the
annual river-floods, large [mrtioiis of the surface are over-
flowed, though only to a small clepth. Alxmt one-third of
the island on the S. \V. is covered with forests and abounds
in rul>ber-trees, but is very unheallhful. It is, howi'ver, the
seat of the principal setlh'meiits, and supports several thou-
sand rubber-gatherers, who live miserably in the swamps.
The remainder of the island consists of oiH-n lanrls varied
with occasional gmvesaiid, in the northern part, with exten-
sive swamps called mim/loiii/nn. The grass-lands are p'nerally
healthful, and afford excellent piL-iturage ; large henis an-
kept on them, though for weeks tiigether the cattle are
obliged to wade over the flixxled lands in s<'arch of food.
Horses, formerly numerous, have nearly disappeared, owing
to the ravages of a disease common on low and wet ground.
There are a number of navigable rivers, or, nither. drainage
channels; the largest, called the Arary, leads to a small |
lake of the same name almost preciHely in the center of the-
island. In this lake there is an artificial island of prehi.s-
Ujrie origin, well known to arclueologiiits from the large
number of interesting objects obtaineil on it. Marajo
abounds in game and fish. .S-e Penna, A lllia de Jtaraju
(1870); Kdwards, vl Vuyaye up the Amuzuu {\>*T)').
liEKBKHT II. Smith.
MuranliSo, miiJi-raan-yowiV, in old b(Mjks Maranliuin : a
northea.-lern state of Brazil; bounded X. by the Atlantic,
S. K. by Piauhy, and W. by Goyaz and Para; area. M'.Tiii
s<i. miles. Most of the inti-rior'is induch-d in the Brazilian
plateau, which is much broken by deep river vallevs, so
that the surface is very irregular; there are no true moun-
tains, and probably the highest portions of the jilateau do
not attain 3,000 feet. Adjoining the coast there is a strip
of low land from 20 to 50 miles wide. In the northern and
coast regions there are extensive forests, continuous with
those of the .\nuiZon. The southern part is more o(>en, and
its climate resembles that of C'eani. having a well-marked
dry s«'asoii ; the periodical droughts which are so destruc-
tive farther K. are also felt here, but are less severe than in
Cearii. Besides the Paranahyba, which sefmrates this state
from Piauhy, and the Tocunlins, which divides it from
Goyaz, there are a number of considerable rivers flowing
to the Atlantic; of these the Itapecuru, Pindare, Mearira,
and others are navigable. The only harbor of imiKirtance
is the Bay of .Sao .lose or Maranhtlo. The climate is warm,
but in most (daces healthful. The soil of the coast region
and valleys is very rich, giving excellent crops of sugar,
rice, and cotton, which constitute the principal ex|)orts.
(trazing is a prominent and growing industry in the inte-
rior. Large areas in the southern and western parts of the
state are inhabited only bv wild Indians. Maranhao, though
Iving within the region claiineil by Portugal, was first set-
tled by the French in 1()12. They were driven out in IG1.5
by the Portuguese, who retained possession of the region
excejit from 1(541 to 1([44. when it was in the jKissession of
the Dutch. In 1021 (Vara, Maranhito, anrl Para were erect-
ed into the state of Maraidiilo, indei>endent of Brazil, ami
only subject to Portugal. Cearil was sul)se<iuently detached;
the state wius divided into various captaincies which by
suppressing and changes were reiluced to four, Piauhy, Ma-
ranhilo. Para, and Rio Xegro (now Ainazonas); these corre-
sp(Uid to the modern states. The slate of Maranhiio was
suppressed in 1774, the captaincies lx?coming subject to the
viceroyalty of Brazil ; the captaincy of Maranhio, with
some changes in the boundary, became a province under
the empire, and finally a state in 1891. Pop. of slate (esti-
mated, lHiI4) .").")0,063. Capital. Maranhito. Caxias, Alcan-
tara, and Ita[>ecuru are considerable towns. See C. A.
Maroues, Ilirrinnario hixlorico i/eiiifra//>iiro da provincia
do Maranhiio (IS70) and .1 proriticia do MaranhTio (1876);
Wells, Three Thousand Jfiles through Hrazil (1886); and
the historical works of Berredo and Candirlo Mendes de Al-
meida. IIekiiert II. Smith.
Maranhiio: capital, principal city, and port of the state
of Maranhiio; on the northwest side of the islandof SJo Luiz,
which is situated at the entrance of the Bay of .Suo Ji>s«' and
is separateil from the mainland on the .S. by the Bay of .SAo
Man-OS and a narrow channel (s«>o ma|i of South America,
ref. ;Mi). The city is on two low hills, ami the streets are
verv steefi, but they are wide and the town is substantially
built. The climate is warm (maximum, \H F., ininimuin,
76 ) but healthful; yellow fever is seldom prevalent. The
[Mirt is good, but the entrance is s<iniewhat iliflieult, and
very deep-dmiight vessels can not pa.-v-* it. Small steamers
ply on the neighboring rivers. Maranhiio was foun<le<l by
Pop. (181)2) with the immeiliate vicia-
the Freni-h in 1612
itv, 38,(K)0.
Herbert H, SMrrn.
Marafion, ma'ii-rnan-yon' : the name given by Penivians
to the .\iiiazon. (teogra|ihers pMierally ri'strict ihe name to
the L'p|>er Amazon l>eyond the limits of Brazil. Sec
Amazon.
Maraschino, miia-nia-skee'no: See LiijfEm.
Manis'iiiiiH [Mo<I. Jjtt.. from Or. tiapaauit. a quenching,
a dying away, di-riv. of fLopalrtir. put • V (of fire).
[>ass. go out, die or waste away): a iz' ' "- "f 'ho
entire UWly, including all Ihe liv.ues if _ -. <lei)end-
ent <m one or mope of many causes. Two general ciaaarf
may l>e deseriboil.
1. Premature marasmui' — a decline, a* ahovp. due to anr
di.sease which may mluce the general strength and nutn-
538
MAHAT
MAKBACII
tion for a lonK-onitiimcl periml, by virtue of inal-ftssiniila-
tion or too nipid tissue disititofrration ; the eiiusalivc fac-
tors bciiii; so varied necessarily indicates tliat there must be
many phases of tliis condition. In the new-liorn infant
marasmus may result from premature birth, exhaust iveha-ni-
orrhasies. hereditary syphilis, suppuration, chronic liiarrha-a,
or early occurrence of an infectious disease. Most fre-
quently, however, it is seen somewhat later, as the result of
insutlicicnt and improper nourishment (not an actual lack
of food) generally in bottle-fed infants, especially those
with poor hygienic surroumlings, causing a disturbance in
the ab.sorptioa of the nutritive elements in the inlestine.
In these cases, when not too far advanced, much can usu-
ally be done l)y careful attention to the proper articles of
diet and general mamigenient. In adults this condition
sometimes follows chronic diseiiscs in which the system is
drained, such as recurring luemorrhagcs, prolonged suppu-
ration, chronic diarrliiea, long-cunt inued fevers, as in tuber-
culosis, syphilis, diabetes, malignant tumors, and some dis-
eases of the blood. It may also be brought about by some
forms of mental disefise als well as by continued privation
or the excessive use of intoxicants. Among its symptoms
may be mentioned a marked loss of flesh and strength, gen-
eral weakness, with a pale and shriveled skin. The hair
falls out anil often turns gray. The nails do not grow. In
severe cases the blood may coagulate in some of the veins.
The outlook for these cases depends on the cause of the con-
dition, but is usually grave, as it generally is the precursor
of death. Treatment of this condition must also vary and
is decided by the physician on the merits of each case.
2. Senile marasmus is a similar condition seen in old age;
the seventieth year is said to be the time of its most fre-
quent occurrence. No direct causes for this wasting are
necessary, as it is the result of natural decline in the vital-
ity of the tissues, etc., and therefore must occur to some ex-
tent at an earlier or later period, not being due to any ir-
regularity in assimilation or disintegration. It is iisually
seen earlier in the poorer classes of society — people who have
done very hard work and at the same time have had poor
nourishment and bad hygienic surroundings; in these, well-
marked senile decay may often be noted at the age of fifty.
These changes are seen in all the tissues and consist in an
atro|ihy of the parts, and at the same time more or less
fatty aiid calcareous degeneration. This condition need not
exist in the same measure throughout all parts; some organs
may be exempt. The calcareous degeneration is frequently
seen in the arteries (atheroma), changing their walls and re-
sulting also in a lack of elasticity. In this state they are
more liable to rujiture especially in the brain, allowing
hjEmorrhages (apoplexy) and consequent paralysis. In the
bones this increase of calcareous matter is also noted, mak-
ing them more liable to fracture. A fatty change is observed
in the muscles and in the heart, accounting for the loss of
power, etc. The hair falls out. The digestive glands atro-
phy. In the same measure retrograde changes to a greater
or less degree are observed in all other parts of the body.
A. Jacobi and F. E. Sondekn.
Marat, maa'raa', Jean PAirL: French revolutionist; b.
at Houdry, Xeuchatel, .Switzerland, May 24, 1744, of Prot-
estant parents; stmlied physical science and medicine, read
much, acquiring miscellaneous knowledge; traveled for sev-
eral years, and practiced as a physician in London, where
he published an Eamnj on Mnn, a sharp attack on the phi-
losophy of Ilelvetius. In 177-t he i)ul)lished at Kdinburgh
7'he ChniiiH of Slarery, translated into French in 17!)3
under the title of Les Chainea de VEsclavage; settled in
Paris in 1773; practiced as a physician with considerable
success; wrote .several books on optics and electricity, and
at last entered the service of the Count of Artois, after-
ward Charles X., by whom he was appointed brevet physi-
cian to the guards. TIk^ Kcvolulion drew him from his
profession anil turned him into a ]v>litical fanatic. His
domimint motives seem to have been a fierce hatred of all
iiKMiualities in the social or political system, and a constant
suspicion of the ruling powers. This naturally drew to his
side the worse elements in the state, over whom he soon
fained an extraordinary influence. Ills paper, //\l»u' </«
^eii/ile. begun under the title of Lf I'liblicisle I'an'sieii and
contiiiueil as />»- •Juiirniil Jc ta Jii'/tiililii/uc Fran<;uise, was
a power in France during its whole lifetime, from .Sept. 12,
17.S!). to .luly 1-1, \~%\. The virulence of hisattiuks, his con-
tinual cry of treachery on Ihc^ part of the government,
brought lipon him the anger of all parties. In 1790 he was
forced to take refuge in Lonilon, but returned (o Paris two
months later and continued to publish the Ami dn I'eiiph.
He was al this time hiding in the cellai-s and sewers of the
city, where he contracted a jiainful skin diseiise. These
hardships further end)ittered him, and he grew more violent
than ever against royalists and tiirondisls. The guilt of
the September massjicres rests in great measure upon him,
but this served oidy to enhance his power in the commune.
He was elected to the Convention, where he wits soon in-
volved in a life and death struggle with the Girondists.
The latter were at first successful, and Marat was brought
before the Kevolutionary Tribunal, but he was acquitted,
returned in triumph to the Convention, and led the move-
ment which resulted in their downfall. He dui not, how-
ever, live to see his enemies brought lo the guillotine. The
disease contracted in the sewers of Paris was closing his
life, and he would probably not have lived more than a few
days, when he was stabbed (July l:i, 17!)U) by Charlotte Cor-
day. His body was brought to the Pantheon, his portrait
hung in the hall of the Convention, and a pension was voted
to his mistress, but hardly two years elapsed before this en-
thusiasm gave way to general indignation and disgust. His
portrait and his body were transferred t(j other and more
proper places. See F. Chevremont, Jean I'aul JIaral, es-
prit iwhtique, accomjHujni de sa vie scieiitifiqne.pulilique, el
privee (1881). F. 51. Colby.
Mar'atlion (in Gr. UlapaAJiv) : a plain on the coast of At-
tica ; about 0 miles long, \i miles wide.and 22 miles K. N. K.
of Athens. The river Cliaradrus runs through it, and two
little hamlets (V'rana and Marathona) are on its western
edge, under the hills. The battle fought there in Sept., 4U0
B. c, is one of the most important in history. Ancient ac-
counts of it, however, are ine.xact and contradict orv. On
tlie Greek side there were 9,000 or 10.t)00 Athenians aiid 1,000
Plala'ans; on the Persian side al least lOO.OUO, and perhaps
200,000. There fell of the Persians li,40l), and of the Greeks
only 192, who were buried un<ier the mound which still re-
mains. The mound was |iartially excavated by Schlienumn
in 1884; but he did not dig deep enough, for in the excava-
tions made by the Greek Archa'ological Society in 1890 a
quantity of burnt bones were found, as well as a number
of vases which certainly belong to the fifth century H. c, and
prove that the Ijurnl bones are those of the 192 Athenians.
Revised by J. K. S. Sterrett.
Marathon: village; Cortland co., X. Y. (for location of
county, .see map of Xew York, ref. S-G); on the Tioughni-
oga river and the Del.. Lack, and W. Kailroad ; HO miles X.
of Binghamton, oO miles S. of Syracuse. It is in a farming
and dairy region, ships large quantities of butter, cheese,
and live stock, and has a large tannery and several manu-
factories. Pop. (1880) 1,006; (1890) 1,198.
Marat'ta, Carlo: painter; b. at Camerino, near Ancona,
Italy, in l()2r); studied art in Home. A -\'n/iiv7^ painted
in 10.50 attracted [uiblic attention to his talent. Alexander
\'II. employed him, as also succeeding popes up to Clement
XI., who made him a Knight of the Order of Christ, and in-
trusted nmny works to him both in Kome and Urbino.
Maratta was also named |)ainter in ordinary lo Louis XIV.
of France. It was he who restored the Raphael frescoes in
the Vatican and in the Farnesina. He decorated the cupola
of the cathedral at Urbino with frescoes of his own, which
were destroyed by the earthipiake of 1782, but preferred
painting pictures of the INladonna. His most important
works are >S7. ( VoVo, in the Church of St. Carlo in Unme. and
thti JJapfium (if JcxHf^ CliriK/,nl the Certosa. wliic'h has been
repeateil in mosaic at .St. Peter's. JIany of his works remain
in Rome, where he directed a school of painting till he died,
in that city, in 1713. He also jiainted on gla.ss, and was an
architect and engraver, W. J. Stillman.
Maravatio, nura-ra1i-va"!i-tee'o : a town in the northeastern
part of the state of Miclioacan, Jlexico; 40 niih^s ]•]. ^^ K.
of Morelia; on the Mexican Xational Railroad; (5.C12 feet
above the sea (see nnip of Mexico, ref. 7-G). It lies in a
broad, grassy plain, surrounded by mountain ridges. In the
rainy season I'xteusive marshes are formed in the vicinitv.
Pop." about 9,0tt0. H. II. S."
Murbadl. Jomann : theologian : b. at Lindau, on the liake
of Constance, Aug. 24, 1521 : studieil theology at Witten-
berg; and was in ir>4G appointeil ]ia.stor of the Church of
St. Xicholas, in Strassburg; afterward also Profc.s,sor of
Theology and director of the church convention; ami died
there Mar. 17, 1581. He was one of those Lutheran Iheolo-
MARBLE
639
giiins who l)y their e.xirlusiveiiess and jealousy eaiised so
much disturbance in tlie Protestant churches. ' Sirafishurf;
had oriffinally adopted the Swiss Itefuriuation, but Uutzer's
long residence there, and his zeal for a reconciliation be-
tween Calvinism and Liitheranism, hud f^iveii its chureh a
decided stamp of toleration. Nevertheless, as soon a.s Mar-
bach settled in the city, confusion and persecution be^^n.
Uutzer's catechism was supplanted by liUlhcr's.lhe Keforme<l
hymns were struck out of the hymn-book, etc. Soiije of the
Kefornied pastors ami professors left the city, and thosi-who
wished to renuiin were compelled to subscribe to the C'on-
feasio Augiixlana. UeviseU by S. M. Jackson.
Marble [M. Knjr. murlwl, marbre. from (). Fr. iiiarhle.
miirbrc < Ijut. mar iiuir, from (Jr. iiipixapos, stone, marble;
oiigiiuilly connected, probably, with ijJipvattat. to li(;ht, .Sanskr.
virndli, sinite. dash in pieces, but afterward intcrpreteil as
relateil to/xop^po), sparkle, and thought of us the "sparkliiif;
stone"]: any stone composed essentially of carbonate of
lime alone, or the carbonates of lime and maj;nesia in vary-
ing proportions, which, owin;; to its color and texture, is
sulTiciently beautiful for a hi^'h grade of buildin<; material,
or for inonumontui or decorative work, (ieologically such
marbles dilTcr fniin ordinary limestones and dolomites only
in that the metaniorphic action to which they have been
subjected has been just sufiicient to develop in them the
essential color and structural features. As a matter of fact
many marbles are less metamorphosed than are other stones
to which the name limestone is still apiilied. The term is,
indeed, a popidar or commercial one, and is lackiiij; in scien-
tific precision. The essential qimlities of a marble. tiPKetlier
with other facts relative to texture and color, have already
been given in the article Buildi.vo-stose (q. v.), and need
not lie repealed here.
The principal sources of marbles in the V. S. are the Iwds
of Palaeozoic limestone and dolomite bordering the Appa-
la<-hian Mountain system. Im|iortant belts extend in a
general north and south direction throughout Western Ver-
mont, Massachusetts, and CVhinecticut. The product is, a.s
a rule, white or deep blue-gray in color, the finest grades
occurring in Vermont, where the quarrying iiulustry is an
important feature, particularly in and about the towns of
West Uulland and Proctor, in Rutland County. This State
aUine now produces some 60 per cent, of the entire output
of the quarries in the L'. S. A compact siliceous dolomite
of a chocolate-red atid white variegated color, and of Cam-
brian age, occurs at Malletfs liay on the shore of Lake
Chaniiihiin, and is utilizeil for flooring tili^s and general in-
terior decoration; it is known commercially as Winooski
marble. A black, highlv fossiliferous stone m-curs on Isle
\m .Motle in the same lake, and is used for similar purposes.
The marbles along this belt in Massachusetts and Coimecti-
cut arc all dolomitic. of a white color and graimlar texture,
and best suited for building purposes. A coarse, snow-white
Archa'an dolomite, occurring in Westchester co.. New York,
has in times |)ast been extensively used for general buililing
nnder the name of snowllake marble. Another coarse build-
ing marble, but of a gray color and belonging to this same
geological horizon, occurs at Oouvemeur. in St. Lawrence
fo., N. V. Colored, highly fossiliferous marbles, well adapted
for furniture and interior decoration, are founil at Platts-
burg and ('hazy, in Clinton County, in this <iiine State.
White and blue-gray l)uilding nnirbles occur in the Lower
Silurian beds of Montgomery co., Piu Prior to 1840 these
were much more exteii-sively utilized than at present.
Isolated areas of crystalline granular dolr>mite, of a white
color, in Raltimorc co., JIil., furnish an excellent building
marble, but this, on account of its color and texture, is
not w<dl adapted for decorative work. A coarse, calcareous
conglomi'rate. of Tria.ssic age, outcropping in Frederick
County. ha.s been usi'd as a nuirble in tlie columns of the
old Hall of Representatives in the Capitol buililing at Wash-
ington, but the cost of working is t<H) great to make it of
any pnutical value. At various points thri>ughout the val-
ley of Kast Tennessee beds of hmestoiie, belonging to the
Trenton and XiLshville scries, furnish the highest graile of
decorative nuirble at [iresent known in the I-jistern U. S,
The colors are gray, pink, cliocolate-ri'il and brown, the
latter varieties being variegateil with white, and highly fos-
siliferous. (Quarries in Pitkin ami Chepikee Counties, in
Northern fJeorgia. furnish uidiinifed quantities of while,
blue-gniy, ami llesli-pink marble, admirably adapte<l for
general structural pur|ioses, but rather too coarse in texlun-
for a high-grade decorative stone, in the Rocky .Mountain
region are many im|>ortant sources of marble which are be-
ginning to attract attention, but which, with one or two ex-
ceptions, arc too little develo|ied. A granular dolomite of a
white color, (x'curring lu'ar the town of Keeler, in Inyo Co.,
California, hiLs been put upon the market a.s a nuirble for
both building and decorative work. Other stones, the value
of which is yet to lie decided, oc-ciir at various [lointii in
Wiuihington, Idaho, Colorailo. anil Arizona.
The so-called onyx marbles are in reality travertines or
cave deposits. That is, they result not from the metamor-
phism of beds of calcareous organisms, but are chemical de-
posits from the waters of springs and streams. Such are
among the most beautiful of all marbles, as well as the most
expensive, bringing s<jmetiiiies as much as if20 a cubic finit
; in the rough slate. The colors are pearly white. anilH'r, vel-
, low, red, and green, often decked, veined, and inottlcil in
figures of marvelous beauty, Sloius of this ty[>e have U-en
in use from a very early period in human history. ' Mention
is made of them in the writings of Herodotus anil Pliny, and
abundant traces of their extensive utilization are foiind in
ruins of Fgy[>tian and Roman civilization extending back
some thousjinds of years prior to the beginning of the ('hris-
tian era. In literature the stone is known under various
names, as orii/jr. uni/chites. alabaster, alabanlntrit, und On fil-
ial alabaster — names which are misleading, inasmuch as the
true onyx is a banded variety of chalcedony, while alabaster
is a variety of gypsum.
The derivation of the name is interesting, but can be only
briefly touched U|K)n here. The original (ireek wonl from
which our word alabaster was derived was 'aAd/3a<rrpoi, and
is said to have lieen derived from 'a-, not, and Ao^tj. a han-
dle, or Ka$e7f. to hold, in allusion to the little liaiidl> I ■'-^.
phial-like, or amphora-shaped perfume vi-ssel constiir '• ,|
from it. The word after a time passed from the II. ng
made to the substance of which it was made, though Pliny
mentions an Kgyiitian town called Alabastron, where the
manufacture of tlie vessels was carried on. Be this us it
may. the name alabaster, as now used by all authorities, ap-
]ilies only to a white though sometimes variously mottleil
and veined variety of gy|psuiM, a calcium sulphate, while the
onyx marbles are of calcium carbonate, und mineralogically
mainly calcite.
Stones of this type, derived mainly from caverns and
clefts in Eocene limestones near Cairo, were early made use
of by the Egy[ptians for making small articles, such as jugs,
Ijowls, spoons, canopic vases, and aniphor.e, employed to
hold olTerings to the gods, the ashes of the dead, and for
other religious and domestic pur|Kises. We find it thus util-
ized as early as the second dyiuLsty, or shortly after the
arrival of .Abraham in Egypt (I!»20b. c.). The collections
of the New York Historical Society, the British Jluseiim,
and various continental museums contain many objects of
this nature taken from Egyptian as well as Greek. Roman,
and Etruscan ruins. The same material was also useil for
statuettes, sarcophagi, wainscolings, and even for the con-
struction of exterior walls, as in the celebrated " alabaster
mosque " near Cairo.
The ancient sources of stones of this class seem fo have
been muinlv the stulagmitic de|Kisits in the E<x-ene lime-
stones of F'gypt. and travertines in the province of Orun,
Algeria. More recently deimsits near Lake Oroimiiah, in
Persia, and from various cavenis in Italy have furni»hed
considerable (|Uanlities of material forlinal use. The prin-
cipal American soiin-es are Siutheni Mexico, particularly
sporadic areas in the state of Piiebia; the fieninsuln of
Lower California, S. of San Quenlin : ."san Luis Oliis|Hi co.,
Cal. ; and Yavajiai co., Ariz. The jin-vailing color of the
Arizona stone is green, with shades of yellow, bniwn. and
ojiaque red. That of California is while, veincil with nil
and brown or injected with smoky clouds. The Lower
California stone is pi'arl white, gn-enish, or ros<- coloml,
beautifully veined and translucent. That of Mexico pnifr
all shades of while, gray, gn-en, yellow, and brown. The
American material is now used niainir for fiimitiire tliI>^
lavatories, and wainscoting". The •ilnlnu'niilic dei>>r.it.^ in
caves sometimes yield snin' ' ' .
which is also culled onyx. I
so defective and so |>oor 111 I ;-
cial im|Kirtanee.
The venlantiqiie marbles, sn callrd.nre <-rp<-nfinnn--rr^k«,
usually variegateil with more or
ginous matter. The jirevailingi '
often sln-akeil and blotched with » hi'. . i !• » ii. re I. 'i I'l'i' K.
Though very iH-uutiful, und su»-eptil>le of a high, lustrous
540
MARBLE
MARBURG, THE CONFERENCE OP
polish, the colors are cold, and do not readily liarinoni7.e
with their surroundinp*. Their use is therefore very limited,
being confined niaiidy to ooliinins for statues and small nb-
jects of art. The stone oceui-s naturally in a biully jointed
condition, wcathei-s poorly when exposed, and is therefore
suitable only for interior work. There are several large
deposits of this material within the limits of the U. S.,
upon which quarries have from time to time been oi)ened.
The result has in nearly every instance been financially dis-
astrous for the reasons already mentioned. The more im-
portant localities which have thus far been operated upon
in the U. .S. are at Deer Isle. Me.; Roxbury, Vl.; Lynnfield,
Mass.; Milford, Conn. : Kssex co., N. V. ; Harford co., Md. ;
on the (iila river in New Mexico; and near the town of
Victor, in San Bernardino co., Cal. The jjrincipal foreign
sources of the stone are the Lizard district, Cornwall, fjUg-
land ; County Gahvay, Ireland: and tionoa, Italy. It is
from the !a.st-namcd source that is obtained almost the entire
supply of such stone in the markets of the U. S.
Below are given the statistics of marble production in the
U. S. for the year 1889. The remarkable variation in the
column of values is due to the varying quality of the stone
in different localities, a fair grade of building marble bring-
ing but from seventy-five cents to a dollar a cubic foot, while
a first-quality stone for interior decoration or tor statuary
may bring eight or ten times as much.
California
Georgia
5!arylan<J
New York
Tennessee
Vermont
All other States.
Totals.
Product, cub. ft.
V>lue.
33.798
?87,0:M
250.000
196.230
.S.33,305
139.810
1,171,550
354,197
309.709
419.467
1,088.305
2,169,560
153,552
121.850
3,320,213
$3,488,170
The following list includes the principal foreign marbles :
Bardigtio: a high grade of marble of a blue-gray color,
traversed by dark lines; from ^lontalto, on the .southern
borders of Tuscany, Italy. Black and Gold: a compact
Ijlaek limestone with gold-colored veins ; also from Italy.
Bougard: a dark-gray and white stone variously mottled
and clouded with yellow, pink, and brown; from Nassau,
Germany. Urocali-He: a light-yellow stone traversed with
veins and blotches of dull red ;" from the French Pyrenees.
Campan: a [lale yellowish-green stone niciltleil with white;
a dark-green variety containing red blotches is known as
Campan rouge, from the Hautes-Pyrences. Carrara : a gen-
eral name given to any of the white or blue-gray marbles
from Carrara, Italy. Cauneif, see Griotte. Ci'polino : a
white crystalline marble with veins of greenish mica; from
Italy. Ftor di Persicor : a whitish stone injected with veins
and clouds of red or purple; from Albania. Egi/ptian ala-
baster: a cave deposit, see O.NV.x. Fire marble. ''Formosa: a
dark-gray and white stone mottled and blotched with pink,
yellow, or red ; from Nassau, Germany. GiaUo atitico : an-
tique yellow; a yellow marble used by the ancient Greeks
and Romans; the source is supposed to have been Algeria.
Orio/le: a brilliant red inarl)le from the French Pyrenees.
Jri^h blark: a high grade of black nmrble from near Gal-
way, Ireland. Laudxrape marble : a limestone injected with
metallic oxides in such a manner that when cut alimg certain
planes an effect is proiluccd closely simulating a landscape.
Zanguedoc: a brilliant red or scarlet marble from the .Mon-
tague Noire, in the French Pyrenees. It is usually blotched
with white. Lumachelle: an indurated shell lin'iestone in
which the shells still preserve the nearly lining, whereby a
beautifully iridescent effect is produced' on a polished sur-
face. Lisbon ijellouf marble : a comjiait yellow marble some-
what resembling the deeper-colored varii'ties uf the Siena,
but less beautiful; from Kstremoz, Portugal. Mischio:
a calcareous breccia of a violet or reddish color; from Ser-
ravez/.a, Italy. Sero Aniicu de Praia, or Verde di Pralu:
a decii-green serpentinous marble ; obtained from Tus-
cany, Italy, yiimidian marble: a gcnend name f(jr an ex-
tremely variable type of nnirblcs fnuiid in the pmvinces of
Africa and Mauritania, in Algeria; the prevailing colors are
pink, yellow, and nil, but all interTnediate shades occur;
many varieties arc true breccias, and others conglomerates.
Urienlal alabanler: a name erroneously given to certain
travertines and cave deposits used by the ancients in the
manufacture of small olijecis of art; the stone is |)resuin-
ably identical with the so-called onyx from Kgypt and Al-
geria. Paonazza: also called pavonazetta and Phrygian
marble; so called from its resemblance to the idumage of
the peacock; a compact siliceous limestone of green verg-
ing U|)on blue and gray colors, and with alternating bands
of while. Parian : a white granular statuary marble from
the island of Paros; one of the most esteemed of ancient
statuary marbles. Parmazzu: a white marble variegated
by a coarse network of dark lines: from Northern Italy.
Penlellic: a famous statuary marble from Mt. Pentcllicus,
near Athens. J'elil Granil : a comjiact bluish limestone, a
polished surface of which shows innumerable tine white
points or asterisks caused by fossil crinoids and polyps ; from
the Ecausines, Belgium. Parlor, .see under lilaci; and Gold.
Rosso Aniico. or Rouge aniique: a dull-red marble saiil to
have been obtained from Cynopolis and Damaristiea, and
used by the Etruscans and Uomans. Ruin marble: a brec-
ciated limestone of a light color: from Florence, Italy; it
takes its name from a fancied resemblance of the markings
on a polished surface to ancient ruins. SI. Anne : a Belgian
marble of a deep blue-black color diversified with white
lines. St. Battme: a yellow marble with brown and red
veins; from the province of Var. France. Sarrancolin : a
beautiful stone of a prevailing dcep-retl color, with white,
brown, green, and orange in veins and blotches; from the
province of Auie in the French Pyrenees. .S'lVjin : a com-
pact limestone of a prevailing yellowish color, though often
diversified with drab and iiurple in veins and dashes; it is
one of the most esteemed of foreign or domestic marbles for
interior decoration. Statuary : any marble of a pure-white
color and granular texture such as fils it for making statues ;
the ancients obtained their choicest varieties from Mt. Pen-
tcllicus anil the island of Paros; nearly all that is now to
be had is from quarries near Carrara, Italy. tli<iugh a small
amount has been produceil from the quarries in Uutlaiul, \'t.
George P. Merrill.
Marble, Manton; journalist; b. at Worcester, Ma.ss.,
Nov. 16, 1835; gnuhiated at the Cnivcrsity of Rochester in
1855; became a writer for newspapei-s in Boston and New
York ; took part in founding The S'ew York- World in 1860,
and became its editor and proprietor in 1862. Retiring
from the e<litorial management of the paper in 1876, he
went to Europe as delegate to the bimetallic congress in
1885. In 1878 he published A Secret Chapter of Political
Ilisliiry, for the purpose of defending the claims of Samuel
,1. Tilden to the presidency ; and in 1888 w;vs elected to the
presidency of the Manhattan Club in New York.
Marblchead : town ; Essex co., Mas.s. (for location of
count V, sec map of Massachusetts, ref. l-I) ; on Massachu-
setts liay, and the Bo.slon and Elaine Railroad; 3 miles E.
of Salem, 4 miles N. E. of Lynn. It has a deep and spa-
cious harbor, nearly landlocked, and was for many years a
noted fishing-port, but this industry is practically extinct,
and the principal business is the inaiuifacture of children's
shoes, 't'he town is a |iopular summer resort and the yacht-
ing center of New England, and has two national banks
with combined capital of $2-10,01)0, a savings-bank, and a
weekly newspaper. Abbott Hall contains a.jiublic library,
free reading-room, and an art gallery in which are a number
of celebrated paintings, inclucling Willard's Yankee Doodle,
Pop. (1880) 7,467; (18'J0) 8,302; (18!)5) 7,671.
Editor ok " Messenger."
Marbois : See Bakb^-Marbois.
Mar'blirp, Germ. pron. maarboorrh (anc. Matiacum):
town; in Hesse-Nassau, Prussia; on the Lahn ; 48 miles
S. \V. of Cassel (see map of German I'jnpire, ref. 5-1)). It
is a quaint old town, climbing the sides of a hill whose top
is crowned with a castle dating from the thirteenth century,
formerly the residence of the landgraves of Hesse, afterward
a pri.son.and now a kind of historical museum. The Church
of St. Elizabeth is a fine building erected in 1235-83 by the
grand-master of the Teutonic order and eontaiuing the
tomb and silver .sarcophagus of St. Kliziibcth of Hungary.
The town is the seat of a university founde<l .May 30, 1.527,
and attended bv about 840 students. It was the first
university established without papal conlinnation. Its li-
brary contains 140.000 volumes. .Manufactures of leather
anil ciirtlirnwiirc are carried on. Pop. (I8!)l) 14,.520.
Marburg. The Conference of: a conference which took
place Oct. 2-.'5, 1.52!), between the Swiss and the German
Reformer.s, and was brought about by Landgrave Philip
of Hesse for the purpo.se of putting an end to the con-
troversy concerning the Lord's Supper. Zwingli Wius anx-
MARCANTONIO
MAKCH
541
ions for rcfonfiliatiini and (l("c|ily moved, hut Luther was
cold and stubliorn. and rcfuseil Zwin-jli's hand of brotlier-
hood. Vet at the conclusion Ixitli parties si;;neil a com-
mon confession wliicli set fortli their afjreenient upon every-
tliin;; save the presence of Christ in the Kucliarist, and ujnin
that they agreed to dilTer. The assertion of this substantial
unity was the si},'nilicaiicc of the conference. Tho agree-
ment prepared the way for the Augsljurf; Confession. See
the full account in Schaff's Church Ilixtnry, vol. vi., 620,
aqq. KeviseU by S. .M. Jackson.
Marrantoiiio: engraver. Sec Enoravino and Kaimo.nui.
Marcraii. inaar sd . Krax<;ois .Sevkrin ues Gravie rs : gen-
eral: b. at Chart res, Krance,. Mar. 1,1709; studied first law, but
enlisted in 178.> in the army ; became noted for his valor and
magnanimity; fought with great distinction in 1792 in the
army of the Arilennes; was made a general of division in
1793; commanded with success in the Vendee in 179:5; de-
cided the victory at Kleurus, .lune 2(5. 1794 ; took Coblentz
in 1794, and Kdnigstein in 1796. but was mortally wouiuled
on a reconnoissaiice at Altenkirchen in lihenish I'russia,
Sept. 20. 1790. and dieil three days after. Monuments in
his honor were raised both in Cliartres and Coblentz. In
1889 his remains were deposited in the Pantheon.
Marcel i no : town ; Linn co.. Mo. (for location of counfv,
sec map of Missouri, ref. 2-F) ; on the Atch., Top. and S. I"''e
Kailway; 100 miles N. K. of Kansas City. It is in an agri-
cultural and minitig region, and has a scmi-raonthly and
two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1890) 1.977.
Marcplli'nus. SAtxT: a bishop of Rome who succeeded
Caius on .lune :!0. 290. and died Oct. 2.j, 30.5. The Liher Pon-
lijiailin states that under an outburst of persi'cution Jliir-
cellinus became a Ihurijicatus — that is, a Christian who sjic-
rificed incense on the altar of some idol in order to escape
persecution; but later he repented of his action, and was
" beheade«l and crowned with martvrdom," and the statement
is accepted even by Ronwm Catholic writers.
Marcel'llis : the name of a plebeian familv of ancient
Rome, belonging to ihe yens Claudia. The earliest member
of it to attain distinction was (1) Marci's C'LAirms Marckl-
i.i's, b. about 208 n. r. Ilis military successes began with the
victory over the Insubrian Gauls in 222, in his first con-
sulship, when, having slain the leader of the enemy with
his own han<l, he iledicated for the last time in Roman his-
tf)ry the spolia opima to Jupiter Feretrius. After the battle
of Camral he diu elTicient service against Hannibal as prse-
for and proconsul; but he is chiefly remembered as the
conqueror of Sicily. In 214 B. c, when consul for the third
time, he went over to Sicily to make headway against the
Carthaginian successes there, and after taking Leontini
directed his o|>erations against Syracuse, whicdi was de-
fended by the engineering skill of the famous Archimedes.
His efforts to storm the city proved unavailing, and the as-
sault was changed into a siege which la.sled two years, when
it was fituillv captured. The town was plundered by the
Romans, and many of its art treasures were removed to
Rome, lie continued to l>e one of the leading generals
placed in the field against Hannibal, in a battle with whom,
near Venusia, he was defeated and slain in 208 n. c, being
in his fifth consulship. Hannibal caused his bodv to Iw
burned and all due rites to l»e performed over it. " Jlis pos-
terity contiiuieil in great splendor down to (2) Marcellvs,
the son of (iaius Marcellus and Octavio, the sister of Au-
ustus. He died very young, in the ollice of a'dile, soon after
e had married Julia, the emperor's daughter. To do
honor to his memory Oetavia iledicated to liim a library,
and Augustus a theater, ami these public works liore his
name." (I'ltitarrh.) Augustus had destineil the young .Mar-
cellus thus referred to by I'lutarch to be his successor,
and great hopes had been entertained of him. A famous
and touching passjige of the sixth ^Uneid is devoted to his
memory. He died in the year 23 B.C. at the age of twenty.
G. L. He.s'druksox.
Marcplliis I., Saist: a Roman; said to have become
Bishop of Rome in 308, and to have been forced by Max-
entiiis the emperor to become a slave in his stables. D. 310.
— Marcei.hs II.. Pope (M/ircello Cervini). was canlinal-
legate of Julius 111. at Trent; Ix-came pope, retaining his
own name. 1>. May 1, \'>'>'>. after a pontificate of twenty-
two days.
March [from 0. Fr. marrli, mars > Mod. Fr. mars <
Ijat, Mnr/iiix (sc. mensis), March, liter., the month of Mars
{q. p.)): the third month of the year, consisting of thirty-
^;
one days. In the ancient Roman year it was the first
month, and was so ri-<'koned in many Kuro[>caii countries
until the adoption of the Gregorian calendar.
March (Lat. ,1/nriM, Slav. J/oroi/vi): the principal river
of Moravia. It passi>s bv (tlinlUz. forms for some distance
the iHiundary U-twei-n itungary and .Moravia and Austria
prr>per, and enters the I»anube t miles above I'resburg. It
IS mivigable .")(» miles from its mouth. The jilain between
the lower March and the Daimbe has often U-en the theater
of war ; here were fought the battles of Aspern and 1-Jisling
and of Wagram.
March, ArziAs: Catalan p(H-t. The date of his birth is
unknown, but he died well on in years, at Valencia, Nov.
4, U.W, (or .Mar. 3, 1459). His family was a wealthy and
eminent one, and he was given an education beiittiiig his
rank. He shows familiarity with many of the authors of
antiquity, and he was well acijuainted with Italian ]Kielrv.
His life was sjM'Ut in association with [H'rsons of distinction,
one of his chief frieiuls iM-ing the Prince I). Carlos de Via-
na. He seeiiis to have taken part in the con(|Uest of Naples
by Alfonso V. By general cons«'nt he is the liest fMjot in the
whole history of Catalan literature. Though he was ac-
quainted witli the ilecaying poetry of the troubadours, he
came under the influence of the Italian Petrarch, and. as a
consequence, he abandoneil that which was conventional
and trivial in the older style. At the same time, he was not
a servile imitator of his new miuster. There is much fresh-
ness and sincerity in his manner, though he is not free from
obscurities. We have from him ninety-three love songs.
Cauls ci'amor; eight laments. Cants ie Mori; fourti-en
moral poems, C'a;i/« murah; a beautiful devotional |>oem.
Cant espirilual ; and a Demanda fela a la Senyora Xa
Tecla de Jiorja. The fame of Auzias March was great even
during his lifetime, and his influence was strong on the
poets <if neighboring Spain. The Mar(|uis of .Santillana
praised him, and, in the early sixteenth centurv, Bosian,
Garcilaso de la Vega, and Mendoza were all under obliga-
tions to him. He was twice translated into Spanish — by
Baltasar de Romani and Jorge de Monteinayor, the f<pnner
version ap|)eariiig in 1.J39, in the same year with the editio
prinrepx of the original. In the seventeenth century he was
rendered into Latin by Vicente .Mariner {Op. omn. poelira el
oraluria C J/., Tournay, 1033). Besides five editions of tho
original during the sixteenth century, we have one by Fran-
cesch Pelayo Briz (Barcelona, 1864); another by F. I'ayos y
Antony (Barcelona, 1884); and a critical text'is proiiiised
by Amedee Pages. See also J. Rubid v Ors. Auxias Marrh
y SM fporn (Barcelona, 1864); Helfferich, liaymund Lull u.
die Anfiinye der ratalanischen Lileratur (Berlin, IM-W);
Denk, Geachichte der allralal. Zi/cro/ur (Munich, 1893);
A. Pages, Documents inedils retail fs d la vie d' Auzias
March (in Uumania, xvii., p. 186, seq.). A critical Life,
with German translation of the poems, is announcinl by
Denk. A. R. Marsh.
Marrli. Francis Andrew, LL. P., L. II. D. : philologist;
b. at .Millbury, Mass.. Oct. 25. 1825; graduated at Andierst
College 1845; was tutor in Andierst 1847—19; was a>lmitte<l
to the bar in New York Slate 1850; was tutor ISVi-Se;
Adj. Professor of Belles-lA'ttres and Knglish Literature
18.56-57; lecturer on Constitutional and Public Ijiw and
the Roman Law 1875-77; librarian; Pmfessor of Knglish
Language andi'omparative I'hilology 1857 — all in I>afayette
College; was president of the American Philological Asso-
ciation 187:5-74; and has lioen iiresident of the .S|H>lling Re-
form Association since 1876. He siicci-edeti James Russ^dl
Lowell as pr«>sident of the .Minlern Ijinguage Association of
America in 1891. He is a member of a number of leametl
s<«ieties in the V . S. anil in Kwro|n'. He is the author of
The Jielalion of the Study of Jurisprudence to the Ori-
gin and Progress of the Baconian Philosophy (\fA>*); llam-
Uton's Theory of Perception and I'hilosophy of the Condi-
tioned (I860): .i .Method of Philoloijiral Study of ll,e Kng-
lish Language (IHCyTi) ; A Par.ter and Anah. ' " ,«
(1869); Comimrative (Iraminar of the .1
guage (1870); Anglo-Saxon linul. r \\>'.{i r-
ous articles on philosophy and j » and
cycloiMiHlias. Kditor of y^ii/in // ..f the
American workers for the I/isli-rmtJ LugUtJt Jjtciiunary
of the Philological Society (England, 1879).
C. II. Thi-rber.
March. Jons: colonial soldier; b. in Newburr. Mass.,
June 10. 16.58; sorvnl as captain under Sir F.dmund Andnts
in the campaign a^inst the French and Indians in lOHH;
542
MARCIIAXl)
MARCY
coiniiiandcd the fort tit Peinaquid 16!)2-05; as major he
cominaiiclod tho tr<v)|>s raised in 16il7 to meet the forces un-
der fount de Frontcnae, aii(\ won the famous battle of Ua-
inariscotta. Ue served with dislinetion in the wars of 1703
and 1707, and commanded the ill-advised and unsueoessfnl
ex|)edition sent by tiov. Dudley aj;aiiist the tort at Port
Royal, now Anna|iolis, Nova Scotia. He ilieil in 1725. He
was esteemed the foremost military leader in New Kng-
land up to the time of the Port Royal ex|iedition.tlie failure
of which Muiy fairly be charged in part to the (iovcriior who
sent hiiu out. and io the oHicers of the IJeptfoid which was
the convoy of the expedition. C. H. Tnf HUKR.
Mnreliailil. maar sha'aiV, Felix, JI. U. : pathologist ; b. at
Halle. Oct. ii. 184G: graduiited M. D. at the University of
Berlin in 1870: served in the medical corps of the German
army from 1870tolS76: was assistant in the Hallo Patho-
logical Institute from 187(5 to 1879, and in that of Hreslau
from 187S) to 1881 : in 1881 became Professor of Pathological
Anatomy and General Pathology in the Univei-sity of Gies-
sen; subsetiuently was called to the same chair at Jlarburg.
He is the author of numerous papers on pathological topics
published in current medical journals. S. T. Akmstuo.nu.
Marcliiind, Felix Gabriel: lieutenant-colonel: Cana-
dian imiuber of Parliament; b. at St. John's, Province of
Quebec, .Ian. !). IS-ii : was eilucatcd at St. Hyacinthe College,
and admitted a notary in 18.55. He has been a member of
the Legislative Assembly, Province of Quebec, since 187:i:
was provincial secretary from 1878 to 187!). when he was ap-
pointed commissioner of crown lands : resigned the same
year; and was Speaker 1887-93. He w'as in command of a
brigade of militia during the Fenian excitement in 1870;
holds from the Government of France the decoration of
officer of Public Instruction ; founded and was for several
years editor and pro])rietor of Le Frnnrn-Canad ien news-
f)aper; and is now leader of the Liberal party in the Legis-
ature of Quebec. He is the author of Fnlennlh: Left Faux
BriUdiits: Faqnino; Comedies; and Jlaniiel el Formulaire
du notarial. Neil Macdonald.
Marchiafara, maar-ke"e-aa-faavaa, Ettore, M. D. : pa-
thologist ; li. in Rome, Italy, Jan. ;i. 1847 ; graduated M. D.
at the Univei-sity of Rome: in 1872. after graduation, was
assistant in Tommasi Crudeli's pathological laboratory; in
1882 was appointed Professor of Pathological Anatomy in
Rome, subsequently leaving that chair to take that of Hy-
giene, lie is particularly known by his studies of the a'ti-
ology of malaria, at first accepting Tommasi Crudeli's and
Klebs's Bacillus malari(p, but subsequently acknowledging
that Laveran's Ilcmnalozoi'ni malarial was the true cause of
paludal poisoning. He is the author of a number of pa|)ers
on pathological topics published in current journals.
S. T. Armstro.nu.
Marching [from 0. Fr. marcher, walk, march < Ijat.
•macca re. den v. of jhotchs, hammer] : in military tactics,
the movement of troops in ranks or tiles, in lines, columns,
or other tactical anangemeiits. On long marches the route
step is employed, an ordinary walk, the men preserving their
places in the ranks. In musters, reviews, parades, drills,
and the like the cadenced step, in common, quick, or double-
quick time is employed. Music, preferably that of the drum
and life, assists in keeping the time and step. iMarshal Saxe
has the credit of being the first general in modern times to
fierfeet the system of marching, but many improvements
lave been made upon his system.
Mar'fion : Gnostic philosopher; the son of a bishop of
Sinope in Pont us; was excommunicated by his father on ac-
count of his heretical views; went to Rome about 140; as-
sociated with the Syrian Gnostic Cerdon : formed a new
Gnostic system ami fouiid(Ml a sect, the .Marcionites, which
found many adherents in Syria. Fgypt, and Palestine, and
continued as a separate sect till the sixth century. Some
maintain that he eslalilished the tirst known canon of sacred
books, from which, however, he excluded many writings
which now belong to the New Testament. He hated Juda-
ism, and the great object of his theological speculation was
to eliminate from the doctrinal system of Christianity all
those Judaizing elements which had crept in by tradition,
but the absolute breach which he endeavored fo establish
between the New and the Old Testaments aroused a most de-
cided opposition; all the great Christian teachers of the
time wrote against him. It was not the merely speculative
portion of his system which fascinated people, but its practi-
cal, moral portion, its austere asceticism. Not only flesh and
wine, the circus and the thcp.ter, were forbidden, but every-
thing ornamental, the very elegance of refined social forms,
was hioked upon with contempt, if not with horror. Mar-
riage was rejected, and inartynlnni set forth as the true
crown of human life. Concerning Ihe so-called Marcion's
Gospel, .see the respective writings of F. C. Baur, Hilgen-
feld. and Volkmar.
Mai'conian'iii [liter., border-men; cf. Germ, mnr/.-, boun-
dary]: a German trilie, lii-st settled in the regions between
the Neckaranil the Main; accompanied .\riovistus when in
the time of Ca-sjir he invaded (ianl, but were later on led by
their own chief. Maroboduus. into the land of the Boii (Bo-
hemia), which they conquered, and where they mainlaine<l a
staiuling army of 70.000 lighting men. Maroboduus's rule was
of short duration, however; he was compelled to flee from
his country, sought refuge with the Roman emperor, Tibe-
rius, and died at Ravenna. The .Marcomauni continued, nev-
ertheless, to be the ruling people in Itohemia, and soon they
began to push forward toward the Daiiulie. Marcus .Vure-
lius was occupieil in war with them duringaliiiost hiswhole
reign, from 161 to 180, and prevented them from effecting
a settlement in Italy, but not from occupying the lands
along the Danube, whence they made repeated incursions
into the frontier province of the Roman empire. AboiiL
270 they invaded Italy, but with varying success. From
this time their name .seldom appears in history, and in the
following century the traces of the tribe are lost.
Marco Polo : See Polo, JIarco.
Marcoii', nniarkoo', Jtles: geologist: b. Ai)r. 20, 1824,
at .Salins, in the department of Jura, France; studied geol-
ogy; received in 1847 employment at the pala-ontologieal
collection of the mu.seum of the Sorbonne: made extensive
scientific travels in the U. S. 1848-50, 1853-.54, and 1860;
was api>ointed Profes,sor in Geology at Zurich in 18.55. As
results of his explorations in the V. S., jiarlly undertaken in
connection with Agassi/,, he published in F.nglish 6>«/u</iV((i
Jlap of lite L'uiti'd States {185;i) Jind (reotogi/ of ^urth
America (IHHo). He also published Drias el jf>('o.s (1859) ;
Carte geolo(/i/jue de la Terre (1862); Derniers Trataux sur
le Drias el le Trias en liussie (1870) : and Mapotica peologica
americana (Bulletin 7, U. S. Geological Survey, 1884).
Mnr'cus: bishop of Rome; came to that dignity in 336,
and died Oct. 7 of that year. He is said to have initiated
the custom, still maintained, in virtue of which the new
pope is consecrated by the Bishop of Ostia. It was already
the custom at the beginning of the fifth century.
Mar'c'iis .\iire'liiis Antoiii'niis: See Antoni.vus, Mar-
cus .VlHELIt^S.
Marcy, IIexrv Orlando, A.M., M. D. : surgeon; b. at
Otis, Mass., .lune 2;i. 18H7: received his preliminary and
classical education at Wilbraham .\cademy and Amherst
College; graduated ;\1. 1). at Harvard Medical School in
1863; entered U.S. volunteers as assistant surgeon immedi-
ati'ly after graduation, and was eventually ]U-omoted to Ihe
niiik of medical director; after the close of the civil war
studied in F'urope; in 1880 removed to Boston, where he
has since resided. He was president of the American Acad-
emy of Medicine in 1882. and of the American Medical A.s,so-
ciation in 1892, ami is a member of many medical societies.
He translated from the Italian I'lreolaiii's work IVie i'tricu-
lar (Hands of the I'terus (1880). lie is the author of many
journal papers and of T/ie Aualomij and Surgical Treat-
ment of Hernia (New York. 1892). S. T. Ar.mstronu.
Marcv, Raxdoli'H Barxes: soldier; b. in Greenwich,
Mass., A -r. 9. 1812; graduated at West Point in 1832; be-
came first lieutenant Fifteenth Infantry 1837; during tho
Mexican war fought at the battles of Palo Alto and Uesaca
de la I'alma May, 1846: ]ironioted to a captaincy .May 18,
18^6: he was engaged for several years in Ihe exiiloration
of the Ki'd river country, in operations against the Senii-
iioles, and in the I'tah I'Xpedition 1857-.58; became pay-
niastc'r. with Ihe rank of major, 1859; was inspect or-geiierid.
with the rank of colonel, .\ug., 1861: was chief of stalT to
Gen. MeClellan (his son-in-law) in West ^'irginia, on the
Peninsula, and in .Maryland, and was appointed brigadier-
general of volunteers Sept. 23. 1861 ; he was engaged ])rin-
cijially in inspection duly until the close of the war; was
a|ipoinle(i brigadier-general anil in>ipei-tor-general l'. S. army
Dec. 12. 1868; retired Jan.2,18HI. D.at ( Irange, N. J.. Nov.
22. 1887. He published F.rjaloralioti (if Hie Red Hirer in
isr,l (18.53): The I'rairie Traveler (18,59); and Personal
Uecollectiona (1866). Revised by James Mercub.
MAUCY
MAURNCO
543
iMarry, Wi 1,1,1 AM I>KAiiNEn: statrsiimn ; li. at SoiitlibridRp,
iMu.--s., Dec. ly, llbH ; KmclimtLMl in IHUH al Un.wii Uiiivuniity ;
was for u litiie a tcuthrr, but bei-aiiie u lawyer in Troy,
N. Y. : scTveJ as an ntliciT of voliiiiloiTs in tlie war of
1812-14, ciiptiirint; at Si. Kesris. Cnnailu, lln^ lirsl prisoTicrs
and till' first tla^ taken on laml in llic war: iHcaini- in IHIU
reiunli-r of Tn^y, and for a time ('(irnlnetcil the Tmy liuil-
(irt, tlii'M a Icadini; anti-I'Vderalist or);aii. He was a nieni-
hi-r of the" Albany rcjfeney," ami showed skill as a practi-
cal oolitician. He was made comptroller in \Hi\\; a judge
of tlie State .Supreme Court in 182!) : and wius i.hosen I'. S.
Senator in 18;!1, but resiijneil thisoffiee in ls:i:i upon being
eleeted (iovernor of New York, to wliieh position he was
twice re-eleeted, but defeateil in INtS hy W. 11. .Seward.
In 183U I'residenl Van liuren appoinleil him eonimis-
sioiier to adjust the Mexiean claims, and in IK4.") Presi-
dent Polk selected liim as Secretary of War. During his
term of oflice the war with Mexico occurred, in which he
displayeil great ability, as well as in the settlement of
numerous inlricale diplomat iciiucsl ions. In ln."i;i President
Pierce appointed him Secretary of .Slate, in which capacity
he aildeil to his already established reputation as a states-
man of a high order. Many of his slate papers are nuif-
terly produ<tions. lie retired on the accession of Mr. Bu-
chanan to the presidency, and died at ISallston .Spa, July 4,
]N.-)T.
Marry. .M<Mint : called by the Indians Takawus, or the
"cloud-split let"; the highest land in New York State: is in
the town of Keenc, in Kssex County, in a cluster containing
several of the highest of the Adirondack;. It is 5,37!) feet
in altitude,
Mardi (iras: See Nkw Orleans, La,
Murdin. maar-deen' : town of .Vsiatic Turkey, in the dis-
trict of Diarbekir (see map of Turkey, ref. 6-1). It is built
on the steep sides of a rock whose top is crowned with a
castle, and pre>ents a very picturesque aspect. It is diflicult
of access, and has long beeTi a place of refuge for persecuted
religionist.s. About half the nopulalion is Christian of vari-
ous, now unusual, sects and recent Roman Catholic and
Protestant converts. The .lews pos.sess there a very ancient
synagogue, ami the Kurds are Mohammedans. The town is
full of mo.s(|ues and cha|K'ls, and the sects uungle harmoni-
ously. It is the seat of a .lacobite library anil several .Jaco-
bite institutions, and carries on a considerable trade. Pop.
15.000. Revised by M. \V. Habhisuton.
Mardo'niu!) (in flr. MapSinos) : a son of Oobryas, one of
the .Seven Persians. lie uutrried Artjizostra, the daughter
of Darius Ilystaspis. He was coinmauder-iii-chief of the
Persian expeilitioii of 4!t.'J B.C. against (ireece, but the de-
struction of the fleet bv a storm off Mt, Athos as well as
reverses by land induced him to return to .\sia. He was re-
lieved of his command by Darius because of his ill-success.
After the death of Darius he was restored to royal favor,
and in 4H0 n. c. we find him one of the trusted generals of
Xerxes in his expedition against Greece, .\ftcr the disas-
trous baltle of Salamis, Jlardonius persuaded Xerxes to re-
turn to Asia anil leave hirn behind with 2(iO,0<K» Persian
troops to complete the sniijugalion of (ireece. He wintcre<l
in 'Inessaly, and sent Alexander 1.. King of Macedonia, to
treat with the Athenians separately, offering them great
freedom in return for submission to Persia: but failing to
win or to fri^'hlen the .Athenians, he marched au'ainst
Athens in the spring of 47il B.C. with an armv of ;i(»o.lHKI.
and ravaiied tlie city for the mm'oihI time. I pon thi' ap-
proach of the S|>arlan army from the P<'li>|Kmnesiis. he n--
tired into H(cotia followed bv the combined (ireck forces,
amounting to 1 lO.WK). In the' battle of Platn-n. in .Sept., 4711
II. c, the Persian armv was utterly n>uted, and Mardonius
himself was killed while lighting bravelv.
J. R, S. Sterrett.
Mar^rlial, niaa'ra'shaal', Pierre Svlvain: atheiMical
writer; b. in Paris, Fraiue, Aug. 1.5, 17.50; studied law. and
was admitted as an advocate, but soon devoted hims*df ex-
clusively to lileratnre; ac<|uireil by his earlier verges some
reputation and the a|>|Miintment of sub-librarian at the Col-
lege .Mazarin ; took Lucretius as his model: published some
" fragments of a moral poem on tiod" (1781). in which he
avowetl atheistical opinions; wrote a panxly upon the
Psalms, purporting to be translations from an ancient MS.
(1784), for which he was dismis.s<'d from his |>ost : issued an
Almanarh drs honnMen (Irni (1788). in which a calendar of
his own invention repliu'od the usual ti.sts of wiiiits; wrote.
besides other works, hymns in honor of the codd<-»s of rea-
son (17«.5); the Voijuyeg de I'l/lhiujuruHiXlW); and. with the
astronomer Lalande, a JJirtOmniiire dm Alheen atu-irn*
el modtrnes (1800). D. at Montruuge, near Paris, Jan. 18
180:}.
Mare iHlnnd : an island in the N. K. part of .San I'ablo
Bay, near Vallejo. Solano co.. Cnl., with which it is con-
nected by ferry. It has a U. S. navy-yard, sectional flouting
dcH'k. and naval arsenal.
Marc'k. maa rek. Jan Ji.spKicn (Jan z Ilvfzdy): novelist;
b. at Libliii, B<i|ii'iiiia. Nov. 4. 1801 ; studieil theology; was
ordaiiii'd jiriest in 1H2<5: ofliciatcd in various parishes. D.
at Jvialovice. Nov. ;I, ls.5;t. His literary career extends from
1S2() to 184fl. lidmf (Poems) apfx'ared at Pnigiic. 182;};
then followed Koiiralink;/ (Lilies of the Valley. 2 vols, of
novels. Pra;;iie. 1H24. 182ti). From lH2(i till lM4:t he con-
tributed poems and novels to several Bohemian periodicals.
During tlic years lS4:i-17 he puldishid his collated works,
Zdhnnii' tpini/. in t.n volumes, at Prague. The first two
volumes contain ballads, h-gend.s. and short [hk-iiis ; the
other eight, novels: Zndmnxli z priijezdu (Ac(|Uaintances
from the Arcade); I/arfenire CtUe llariH-r); der/mre v
PruKJrh (The Bohemians in Pru.ssia) ; Xncti-h na Kiiftrori
(.\ Night at Kaeerov), etc.; and two historical romances:
Jarohiii'r z Ilrddhu (:! vols.) and Miintifkdr (Tlic (jiiack. 2
vols.). Ilis patriotic romances found many readers, and
some were translated into (ierman. .\n unjiist critiilsm ov
his Mdxtifkdr. published 1846, so impressed him that ho
gave up all literary work. J. J. Krau
Marem'HiP(anc. Orn Mari'tiinn): a name applied to a vast,
marshy, unhealthfiil territory in Italy, lionlering on the Tyr-
rhene Sea. from the mouth of the .Magra to that of the Yol-
turno. It covers about I.tKX) sq. miles, and isdiviileil into the
Tuscan .Man'inma anrl the Roman .Maremma. llie.se being
again subdivided. This great tract is covered with .stagnanl
water or immense deposits of seaweed, inlersperst'd with
thorny thickel.s. wild forests, and verdant meadows. Dur-
ing the winter it is frequented by A|>i-iinine shepherds and
haunted by lawless persons. In summer the fertile por-
tions are cultivateil on a large scale by pi'a.sants who de-
scend from the mountains of Lui-ca, fro'm the Sabine Ilills,
and the .\brn/.zi to plow and sow. then return home to
wait for the harvest, when they redescend for as sliort a
timcas possible. Kven this costs hiindreils of lives every vi'ar.
There are few villages, or even roads, in the Maremme, an<l
the (M'stifiTOMs exhalationsexteiid even to the nioreelevaled
portions. They are. however. lea.st felt on the >lo|n>s de-
scending to the Arno and the Tiber. In Etniscan times
this region was ileiisely populateil, anil excavations show
that an elaborate system of draiiia;;e was in u.s<". Drain-
ing on. a large .s<'ale, with careful cultivation and extensive
planting of trees, may in time overcome the malaria, and
the effects which have already. followe»l wherever such ef-
forts have been inmie are encouraging. The railway oix-ned
along the Tyrrhene shore has piiKluced verv favonible re-
sults. Reviseil by M. W. IIakrinoto.v.
Mnrenco. Carlo: playwright ; b. at Cassolo, Italy, May
1, lisiMl. His parents liviHl at Ceva, and the pi*-t always re-
ganled this as his native place, as his youth was sfient there.
He studied jiirispruilence at Turin, and nveived his degree
at the age of eigliteeJi. He was more attracted to the drama,
however, than to law. and early began to try his hand at
writing plays. In 1S27 he had his first smvess with the
tragedy liutntdelmoitte. brought out at Turin. In this, as in
his succeeding plays, Mareni'o's manner is essi'iitially that
of Alfieri, though he wils much inlliienceil also by .Manznni.
His characters are severe, grandios*-, and ri-mote from the
actual world ; while religious and patriotic fi-eliiig finds ex-
pression in ehxjiient, but al times S4^mewhat boinl«aslic. sen-
tences. Of his subsequent tragedies the follow i.tu-
ally plaveil : J,<i tdinii/lia /■''uirnri, AdeliMi. .1,' 'no-
fannii /.. Ln I'm dr' fuloinri •^•■•- •^ m,. n li,' ri„,
v.. i:}t). Ao/., and .Mareiii-o's g' -. I)y
T. Williams. I^ndon, IKTitl). /> Ho
wrote also, but never proiluce<l iq^.n lli' ■ PuHiitt,
EzZflino Terzo, I'grninn, I^ fiu^rro Arnatdo
da Hri-ivia. Crrilia dn '' . D. at Sa-
vons, S«'pt. 2(1. 1X46. S ''. run /'•iijt/t-
unia di utritne poijtir.t!,. ,. ....... .\. R. MaKsu.
Marvnco. Leopolko. Count : poi't ; son of Carlo Maren-
co; I., al Ceva. Pi.ilmont. Italy. Nov. H. 18:11. At the tft
of twenty he brought out with sncees" the Iragwly LnMla
5U
MAREXGO
MARGARET
?^
Orsini. The same year (1S31) lie obtained a position in the
ministry of finance, but foiuul liiniself unfitted for such
employment. Later he taught Italian literature in Holojjna
(18G0-6-1) and in Milan (1864-71), but found this also little
to his taste, and devoted himself to a literary career at Tu-
rin, llis Picarda Donati. m which Ristori acted, then his
Saffo and SperoneUn. established his reputation. Subse-
quently the lyric and idyllic elements in his genius became
more prominent, and his plays seemed for a time likely to
indicate a new direction for Italian dramatists. In his C'e-
Jesle.idillio campestre he took his material from the life of
the fields ; in his // ghiacciajo del Monte liianco. from that
of the mountaineer; in his (fiuryio Gandi. from that of the
seafarer. In U falcon ie re di Pietro Ardena, and others, he
reverted to the knightly period of the .Middle .\ges. He has
also written many comedies: Un malo esempio in fainiglta;
Lei/ lire ed esenipi; Lo spiritismo: jSupplicio di Tantalo;
OH amori del nonno ; Quel die nostra non e, etc. A col-
lected edition of his dramatic works in twenty volumes ap-
peared at Turin (188:!, seq.). A. R. Marsu.
Mareii'go : a village of Italy, in the province of Alessan-
dria ; famous for the battle fought here between Xapoleon
and the Austrians. This battle closed one of Napoleon's
most brilliant campaigns. While Moreau engaged the at-
tention of the Austrians in South Germany, Napoleon, who
■in the spring of 18tK) had secretly gathered a second ar;ny in
the south of Frani-e, su<ldenly crossed the Alps at the Great
St.-Bernard. and appeared in the [ilains of Lombardy, in
the rear of the .Vnstrian general Melas. who, not expecting an
attack from that (juarter, had advanced to Genoa. C'om-
)letelv cut off from retreat. .Melas joined battle with the
''renc'h at Marengo, June 14. 180<), and suffered a crushing
defeat. Owing to the advantageous jiosition of the French,
this single action decided the campaign, and the Austrian
general was at once forced to make terms.
Marengo : city (settled in 183.5. incor|iorated as a town in
18.57. and as a city in 1893) ; McIIenry co.. 111. (for location
■of county, see ma]) of Illinois, ref. 1-F) ; on the Chi. and
N. \V. Railway ; ()(i miles N. \V. of Chicago. It is in a farm-
ing region devoted almost exclusively to dairying and fruit-
culture; has a steam-foundry, stove-works, and canning-
factory ; and contains (i churches, water- works, electric lights,
«nd 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,264; (1890) 1,445;
(1893) estimated, 2,000. Editor of " Republica.n."
Marengo : city ; capital of Iowa eo., la. (for location of
<'ounty, see map of Iowa, ref. .5-1) ; on the Io\va river, and
the Chi.. Rock Is. ami Pac. Railway ; 27 miles S. \V. of Ce-
dar Rapids, 30 miles W. X. W. of Iowa City. It is the cen-
ter of a hirge prairie region, and has two weekly newspapers.
Pop. (18SU) 1.738; (1890) 1,710; (189.5) 2,027.
.Harenliolz-Bulow, maaren-holtz-biilo. Bertha von Bi5-
Low, Haroness : the principal apostle of Proebel's kindergar-
ten idea, and the foremost authority on it; b. Jlar. 1.5, 1816.
In 1H49 she made the aciiuaintance of Froebel. and through
her intercession the injunction laid against his institution
by the Prussian (iovernment was removed. In 18.55 she
held meetings in her own parlors at Paris, and hud the sup-
port of Michelel, t^uinet. Abbe Michaud. and other distin-
guished people. Her lectures were in substance jiublished,
and went through two editions. She assisted personally in
the establishment of kindergartens in (iermany. Switzer-
land, Holland. Belgium, England, and Italy (aided in Flor-
ence by the influence' of Mrs. (ieorge P. Marsh) ; in Berlin
she lectureil gratuitously during three years in a normal
school for the education of kindcrgartners. Her lectures in
Italy were condensed into a )>amphlet. which was translated
from the French into Kriglish, anil printed in The Circular
ttf Iiiformaliim (U. S. bureau of education), for .Inly, 1872.
Other works are The Kindergarten, The Educdlional Mis-
sion of Woman. The Child and its lieing, Worl; and the
A'eH' Education According to Froeliel's Mettiod. and Die
Erscheinungen der Xeit und die Aufgnhen der Erzieliung
(Dresden. 1879). She became chief lecturer in the new col-
lege for kindcrgartners in Dresden, and xvrote rendniscences
of Froebel in the monthly magazine Erzielinng der (legen-
wart. which wi're translated into English and |)ublished in
the U. S. by Mrs. Horace .Mann (Boston. 1877).
Ei.iZAMKTii p. Peabodv. Revised by C. K. Adams.
Mnreo'tis. Lake, or Itirket-el-.Marint [Arab.. Lake of
Maryul j : ii sail lake or marsh in l.n«,-r F.gypt, in the west-
ern part of the Delta, 30 miles long, 15 miles broad; sepa-
rated from the Mediterranean by a narrow isthmus of sand.
It had been perfectly dry for three centuries, when in 1801,
during the war between England and France, the English,
ascertaining that the tract of land lay below the level of the
sea, and having some military purpose in view, dug through
the isthmus and let in the waters, resulting in the submer-
gence of forty villages and hamlets and a decrease in the
salubrity of Alexandria, This passage was closed by Mehe-
met All, but the six>t is yet an uninhabitable marsh.
Revised by M. \V. Harrington.
Maret, IIuoi'es Bernard, Duke of Bassano: di[ilomatist ;
b. at Dijon, France, May 1, 1763; at the beginning of the
Revolution edited the liulletin (afterward the Monileur
L'niversel), which reported the proceedings of the Constitu-
ent Asseiubly; in 1792 was appointed to the ministry of
Foreign Affairs, and in the following year was sent as ambas-
sador to Naples, but on the way fell into the hands of the
Austrians, wlio held him jiri-soner till 1795, when he was ex-
changed for the daughter of Louis .W'l. Under the con-
sulate and empire his influence rapidly increased, owing to
the favor of Napoleon, who made him general secretary of
the consulate in 1799, Secretary of State in 1804, and em-
ployed him on many important missions. In 1811 he was
nuide Duke of Bassano. and appointed Minister of Foreign
Affairs. During the Hundred Days he was again .Secretary
of Slate, but on the restoration of the Bourbons was banished
from France. Under the Orleans monarchy ho was recalled,
regained his peerage in 1831. and in 1834 was for a short
time president of the cabinet. I), in Paris. May 13. 1839.
See Ernouf, Maret, Due de Bassano (Paris, 1884). 'F. M. C.
Maretzek, Max: conductor, composer, and teacher; b.
in Brilnn, Moravia. June 28, 1821 ; graduated at the Uni-
versity of Vienna ; studied medicine for two yeare, and mu-
sic under .leyfried. Composed an ojiera, Hamlet, in 1843,
which was produced at Briinii and other places. He con-
ducted the orchestra in tiermany. France, and England, and
was assistant to Balfe in London in 1844. Removed to the
U. .S. in 1848 and was nuinager of Italian opera in New York
from 1849 to 1878. Since then he has devoted himself to
teaching. He composed the opera Sleepy Hollow in 1879 to
a libretto by Charles Gayler, and also some chamber and or-
chestral music, piano pieces, and songs. D. E. Hervev.
Marey, maara', Stienne Jules: physiologist; b. at
Beaune, in the ilepartment of Cote-d"Or, France, Mar. 5,
1830; studied medicine in Paris, and was appointed Profes-
sor in Natural History at the (.'ollege de Prance in 1869.
llis La Machine Animale, resting on many original and in-
genious experimental researches on the movements of ani-
mals, was translated into English, entitled Animate Mechan-
ism (New York, 1874). He has also written Physiologie
expirimentale (4 vols., 1875-80) ; La methode grapliiqiie
dans les sciences ejtperinientales (1878-84) ; La circulation
du sang (1881) ; and Le vol des oiseaux (1890).
Marfo'ri, Carlos : favorite of Queen Isabella II. of
Spain ; b. in 1818, the son of an Italian cook ; obtained an
olVice in the Spanish civil service through the influence of
(ien. Narvaez. He afterward became a deputy and counsel-
or in the administi'ation of various financial associations,
and was known to Queen Isabella, who held him in high es-
teem. Always in lus.sociation with Narvaez, who soon learned
to ap]ireciate the value of his friendship, he by <legrees ob-
tained political influence, and in 1866, when Narvaez be-
came minister, Jlarfori was appointed governor of Madrid
and chief of the royal household. Hated anil scoffed at by
the people, he was overloaded with honors by the queen.
He contributed more than all her political mistakes to un-
dermine her position. In 1868. when the revidution broke
out, she was told from all sides, even by Napoleon HI., that
the dismission of Marfori was the only means of preserving
the throne, but she remained faithful to her favorite, and
sacrificed her crown. During her exile in Paris and other
places Marfori continued to In- {hi.- nuiitre de la maison of
the queen. He returned to .Spain in 187.5. D. June 2, 1893.
Mai-'giirPt. Queen of Scotland (called The Saint): b. in
Hungary about 1040; was graml-niece of King Edward the
Confessor and daugliler of Edward, son of Edmund Iron-
side, who was driven into exile by Canute. .She resided at
the English court at the time of the Norman compiest, when
she accompanied her brother, Edgar Atheling, in his flight
to Scotland. .She there attracted the ailmiratiiui of King
Malcolm Caninore, whom she married in 1069 and earned
canonization by her efforts in diffusing Christianity, and es-
pecially by connecting the Scottish with the Roman Church.
i
MARGARET OF ANGOULfiME
MARGAUX
545
D. in Nov. lO'JH, a few ilays after the deutti of her liiisband,
who was killeil in battle while fighting against the Knglish!
She was eanonized in 1251, and adopted as the patron saint
of Scotland in 1073.
Man^aret of An^oiileine : Sec Maroueritk d'Angou-
Lf;.MK.
Marirurct of .Vnjoii : queen of Henry VI. of England,
an<l daugliler of Uiiie, Count <if Provence; I), at l*ont-ii-
Mousson, Lorraine, .Mar. 2.), 1429; married Apr. 22, 1445;
became unpopular in Englaml on account of the cession of
the nrovinces of .Maine and Anjou, then in the hands of the
English, to her father. The king l)eing subject to protracted
iieriods of imbecility, she .soon became the real ruler of the
kingdom. The opposition of the Duke of York, who claimed
the throne by an elder line of descent, gave rise to the
Wars of the Koscs, which openivl with the battle of .St.
Albans in 1455, and which continued thence for several
reigns. Margaret was forced to flee to Scotland, but her
part^ soon rallieil. She invaded England, killed the Duke
of York at Wakefield (1460); released her captive husband
by the second battle of St. Albans Feb. 17, 14()1 ; was her-
self defeated at the great buttle of Towtou Mar. 2'J, and
forced to escape to Scotland and France; made another un-
successful invasion 1462; succeeded bv the aid of Warwick
the "king-maker" in momentarilv remstating Henry u|>on
the throne 1470; but Warwick being killeil at Harnei, ."\lar-
garet was defeated and captured at Tewkesburv Mav 4,
1471, her only son. Prince Edward, being killed, and'ihe
king put to death soon after. Margaret was put in prison
in tne Tower or at Windsor until 1475, wluMi she was tun-
sonicd by Louis XI. of France at the cost of the independ-
ence of Provence, ceded to that monarch bv her father.
She lived in strict seclusion thenceforth at Iteculce, near
Angers, and died at Dampierre, Aug. 25, 1481.
Margaret of lleniiiark : (jueen-regnant of the three Scan-
diiuivian kingdoms; b. in Copenhagi'u in i;!5;5, a daughter
of Valdemar IV. Atterdag, King of Denmark, and married
in her tenth year (Apr. !), l;56:}) to llaco VIM., King of Nor-
way, to whom she liore in 1371 a son. Olaf. In 1375 Olaf
succeeded his grandfather us King of Denmark, and in 1380
his father as King of Norway. During his minority Mar-
garet conducted the government of both countries, and this
dillicult task she fulfilled with so much discretion and vigor
that on the death of t)laf in i;}«7 the estates of both king-
<loms chose her queen-regnant, and left to her to appoint
lier successi^r. In Sweden a large party was strongly op-
posed to the king, Albert of Mecklenburg, and opened ne-
gotiations with Margaret; and as Albert always had shown
himself very hostile to her, she sent her general, Ivar Lykku,
into Sweden with an army. On Feb. 24, 138!), the com-
bined Danish-Swedish army defeated Albert's tierman mer-
cenaries at Falkiipiiig. The king himself was captured, and
detained in prison for seven years, and after a short struggle
with his party Margaret wai acknowledged (lueen-regnant
also of Sweden. She combined in her person a high degree
of womanly fascination with a rare force of churucter. She
was courageous, but she was also shrewd, and in her politi-
cal actions she was led probably less by personal ambition
than by plans of far-seeing statesmanship. On July 20,
1397, she promulgated an act of union between the three
Scandinavian kingdoms, the .so-called (.'almar Union, drawn
up and agreed upon by emissaries from all three countries;
and this uct shows that her idea was not to get i>ossession of
as much land as possible, but to form a powerful Northern
empire. During her lifetime her plan succeeded in spite of
the jealousies of the three pco|)les, but her successor. Eric of
Pomerania, was an inetlicient rnler. and soon after her ileath
(Oct. 28. 1412) the Calniar L'nion became the source of many
calamities to the three Scandinavian countries. Her vigor-
ous and able rule has caused her to be runked among the
great (lueens of history, and to be known as "tho Seiniramis
of the North."
Margaret of Navarre : See Marouerite D'AsoouLftsiE.
Margaret of Pnrnia : a daughter of Charles V. by Mar-
garet van (iliieri^l ; b. in Brussels in 1522; was educated at
the court of .Mary, l^ueen Dowager of Hungary, whom she
somewhat resembled. .She was first married in 1.536 to Ales-
sandro of Jleilici, Duke of Florence (who was lussassinatcd
in the following year), and then in 1542 to Ottnvio Farneso.
Duke of Parma and Piacenza, to whom she lH)ro a son, the
celebrated general, Alexander Farnesc. She was masculine
both in her ap|iearancu and in her tastes. With a some-
261
what imperious temper she united kindly and lionest spirit,
great shrewdness in judging character, ami skill in han-
dling political affairs. In l.5.5!» Philip II. niaile her regent of
the Netherlands, which position she filled for eight years,
attempting the well-nigh imoossible task of reconciling tho
principles of Philip II. and the inslinclsof the Dutch. Her
regency murks the beginning of the revolt of the Nellier-
lands. .She hud some sympathy for the Netherlanders, and
in 1.564 she dismissed Cardinal (jninvella, immediately after
which her relations to Philip II. U-cume des[(erule. In 1.507
she retired to Italy, richly endowed by the king, and not
unregretted by the' people. D. at Orto'na in 1.5»6. A fine
delineation of her cliaraeler an<l history is fouml in Pres-
Col t's I'l, Hip II. See also M ol ley, Uige of the Dutch liepublic.
Margar'ii- Acid ami Margarine [from Lat. mnrgari ta
and (ir. iiapyaptTris. pearl ; so called from its crystallizing in
pearly scales | : Hy the action of potash on cyanide of cctvl
(margaronitrile) there is produced, besides cetylic ether, c'c-
tylic aldehyde, ammonia, and other products, a |K)tassic salt
of an acid which has the composition CiilIjiO,, intermediate
between palmitic acid, Ciolli,0,. and stearic acid, Ci.HnO,.
This acid exhibits all the properties of a pure fatly acid. It
melts at 5!)!t C., and can not be resolved into acids differing
in melting-point. This is the only process by which niar-
garic acid can be prepared. The acids obtained from natu-
ral oils and fats by saponification, to which the name and
formula of margaric acid were applied, were mi.xtures of
stearic acid with palmitic acid or otner acids of lower melt-
ing-point. Ira Hkmse.v.
^ Margarita, ma5ir-ga5i-ree'taa [.Span., pearlj : an island of
Venezuela ; in the Caribbean .Sea, 15 miles N. of the penin-
sula of .\raya; between 10' 50 and 11° 10 N. lat., and 63*
50 and 64 30 W. Ion. Area about 4.50 sq. miles. It con-
sists of two mountainous masses, almost cut off from each
other by a lagoon ; the highest point, called Macanao, is
4,.500 feet above the sea. The climate is warm, but equable
and very healthful, and it is much recommended for jiersons
suffering from pulmonary complaints. Much of the soil is
sterile, only the valleys being available for agriculture ; the
principal industries are the excellent fisheries of the vicinity,
and salt-making. The small islands of Cubagua and Coch'e,
to the .S., und severul neighboring i.slets are united with
Margarita in the province of Nueva Esparto. The group
was discovered by Columbus in 1498; shortly after rich
pearl-banks were found in the vicinity, and the .Spanish
pearl-fishers founded Nueva Cadiz on Cubagua about 1515,
this being the earliest European settlement of the coast ; it
was abandoned in 1519, but a fort was built on JIargarita in
152.5. The pearl-banks are now unproductive. The islands
suffered greatly during the war for independence (1810-22),
owing to their attachment to the patriot cause. Pop. nearly
40.000, largely com|)osed of civilized Guayipierie Indians,
Principal town, Asuncion. Herbert H. Smith.
Margarito'ne : sculptor, painter, and architect: b. 'at
Arezzo. Italy, the date being slateil as 1212, 1216. and 1236.
Before Cimabue and Giotto, he was the most esteemed paint-
er of his day. After working in the Byzantine manner, he
formed a style of his own. He painted many frescoes in
Arezzo that have been destroyed. There still exists a Ma-
donna and Christ in the Church of St. Francis, and another
work at the convent of Sorgiano, as also one in the Church
of Santa Crtx-e of Florence. He painted on canvas, and dec-
orated his figures with halos and diadems of rai.se<l gesso,
which he gilde<l anil toned. His architectural works are the
palace of the governor, and the Church of San Ciriaco at
Ancona. He also worked on the cathedral of his native
town, designed by Arnolf<xia Lapo. He sculptured in the
bishop's paliwe, Arezzo, a monument to Pope (Jrvgory X.,
which is very simple and realistic in certain details. His
later years were embittered by Cimabue 's success<-s. which
decreased his own popularity. D. ot Arezzo ttl">ul 1290.
W.J. .Stillman.
Margate : a sea[)ort-town on the isle of Thanet, Kent
County. England; 74 miles E. bv S. of Ix)niion (si-e map of
England, ref. 12-M). Its fisheries are imi>ortant. but it is
l)est known as a fashionnble watering-place, much freiinented
during the summer. It has two old churches, an asylum for
the deaf and dumb, a sea-bathing infirmary. asst-mbly-riHims.
a theater, zot^lotrical gunlens, and a pier 900 feet in length.
Pop. (180I)21,:J6U.
Marc'anx. moarg>'« : village ; in the department of Gi-
ronde, France ; on the left bunk of the Gironde ; 14 miles
546
MARGHILAN
MAKIAGER
X. W. of Bordeaux. Near it is the Italian villa Clifitcau Jfar-
pmx, which gives its name to a line red wine. Pop. (181)1)
l.'Jl.").
Marsrhilan, niaar-gee-liln' : capital of the Russian prov-
ince of Ferghana. Turkestan, Central Asia : 40 miles E. S. E.
of the old capital. Khokan, 1.475 feet above sea-level; lat.
40° 28' N., Ion. 71" 43' E. ; pop. (1887) 26,080 (see map of
Asia, ref. 4-E). This place was chosen as capital because
of its salubrity, though the Russian town of New Marghilan
is actually 10 miles S. of the old. The inhabitants are
mostly Sarts, with some Tajiks and a few ,Iews. The chief
industry is the manufacture of camel's hair and woolen stuffs
and of silks. The climate is severe ; in 1881 the nuiximum
temperature was 104', the minimum was 2° P. ; the rainfall
was 10 inches, and there were two days of snow. JIarghilan
is a very ancient city, and contains many monuments of an-
tiquity. A tra»litiou says that Alexander the Great died
nearby and was buried here. iSlAUK W. Hakri.nuton.
Marsroliouth. maar-go lee-oot, Moses, I^h. D. : divine and
author : b. at .Suwalki, Poland, Dec. 3, 1820, of .lewish par-
ents: was converted to Christianity in 1838, while on a visit
in Liverpool: studied at Trinity College, Dublin : took or-
ders in the Church of England 1844, ami after holding bene-
fices in Liverpool and Glasnevin. became assistant minister
of St. Paul's, Onslow Square. Kensington, London, and in
1877 vicar of Little Linford, Buckinghamshire. lie wrote
much u|)on the religious prospects of tlie.Iewisli race, contrib-
uteil to Cassell's Bible Dictionary, wrotc^ a Uisliiry of the
Jews in Great Britain (3 vols.. London, 18.jl); Fundament-
al Principles of Modern Judaism Investigated (London,
184.3); A Pilgrimage to the Land of mg Fathers (2 vols.,
1850) ; The Lord's Prayer no Adaptation of existing Jewish
Petitions (1876) : ISome Triumphs and Trophies of the Liglit
of the World (1882). 1). in London. Fel). 25, 1881. See his
autobiography in his Fundamental Principles, and his
memoir in Some Triumphs. Revised by S. JI. Jacksov.
Marguerite d'Angoiileme, niaar'greet' daan'goo lera',
known also as Marguf.rite de Valois, de-vaalwa'a', Mar-
guerite d'Alexvox, -da'ahiiin son', and Marguerite de Na-
varre, -de-naa'vaar' : daughter of Charles d'Orleans, Count
of Angouleme, and elder sister of Francis I. ; b. Apr. 11, 1492.
She had great natural gifts of mind and person, loved study,
and learned Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, English, and
even Hebrew. In 1.509 she was married to Charles III.,
Duke of Alen<;on, but the marriage was not happy, ller
husl)and perished in the battle of Pavia. She made the dif-
ficult journey to Madrid to be near her brother Francis in
his captivity, and was largely instrumental in effecting his
release. In 1527 she married Henri d'Albret, Count of
Beam and King of Navarre, by whom she had one daughter,
Jeanne, mother of Henry IV. At her court at Nerac she
exten<led a large and liberal tolerance, if not sympathy, to
Protestant ideas, protected Marot and other refugees f'rom
religious persecution, and was herself accused of heresy.
She surrounded herself with scholars and poets and was a
generous patron of art and letters, rivaling if not surpass-
ing Francis I. in furthering the movement of the Renais-
sance. She cultivated literature industriously. Her best-
known work is the collectiim of Contes de la Reine de Ifa-
varre. stories inspired plainly by those of Boccaccio, and
cast in the same form as the Decameron ; they purport to bo
told by a company of ladies anil gentlemen to while away
the time during which they are detaini;d iiy a freshet in the
Pyrenees. The work was interrupted by the mourning into
which she was plunged by the death of Francis I. (1547),
when she had completed oidy seventy-two tales, or seven of
the ten days of which it was to consist ; hence its common
name, the Heplameron. These stories, while sufficiently
marked by the gay and fraidc sensuality of the Renaissance,
have a more delicate sentiment than those of Boccaccio,
and are the pretext for sulitle discussions on q\iestions of
morals or courtesy. She wrote also a large number of
poems and other works, some of which appeared in 1547
with the title Marguerites de la Marguerite des Princesses,
and Leitres and Memoires that reflect t he graces of her mind
and character. D. Dec. 21, 1549. The Jhjitameron has
been best edited by Leroux de Lincy (3 vols., 18.5li-.54) ; the
Leitres h\ (ienin (2 vols., 1842-43); the Marguerites by F.
Frank (4 vols., 1873-74). A. G. Cani-ield.
Marguerite do Valois, dc-va'ii'hva'ji', known also as Mar-
guerite DE France, -dc-friuuis', and MARGUERrrn de Na-
varre: daughter of Henrv II. and Catherine de' iMedici; b.
at .St.-Germain-en-Jjaye, May 14, 1552. She was married to
Henry of Navarre, afterward Henry IV., onlv a week before
the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). W'hile Henry lied
she remained at court till 1578. when she rejoined liim at
Nerac. In licentiousness of morals she rivaled her liusband,
with whom she did not long remain, going to occupy the cas-
tle of Usson in Auvergne. After Henry's accession as Henry
IV. her marriage was amudled by Clement VIII. (1599). In
1005 she removed to Paris, where she cultivated the society
of scholars and men of letters. I). Mar. 27, 1015, the last
legitimate Valois. She left Leitres and Memoires of con-
sideralile value, published by Guessard. 1842. The Memoires
were also published by Lalanne in 1858. A. G. Cankield.
Marheilieke.maar-hi nf-kcPniLii"i"KoxRAD: theologian;
b. at Hildesheim. Hanover, Jlay 1, 1780; studied at Got-
tingen; became Professor of Theology in 1805 at Erlangen,
in 1807 at Heidelberg, in 1811 at Berlin, where he was also
ai>pointed [lastor of Trinity church, and where he died May
31, 1840. One of his princijial works is his (irundlehrender
christlichen Dogmatik, of which the first edition (Berlin,
1819) is based on the philosophy of Sclielling, the second
(1827) on that of Hegel. The attempt to mediate a full
harmony V)et ween the data of science and the doctrines of
Christianity by raising both into a higher, iileal, speculative
sphere, the sphere of truth, is here undertaken with great
ingenuity, but the enthusiasm with which the book was re-
ceived has waned, and the standpoint from which Marheineke
wrote his philosophical works, and even his sermons, has been
given up as barren. His Oeschichte der deutschen Reforma-
tion (4 vols., 1816-34) is of lasting worth.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Mari'a Christi'na : Queen of Spain ; b. at Naples, Italy,
Apr. 27, 1806; a daughter of Francis I., King of the Two
Sicilies ; was married, Dec. 11. 1829. to Ferdinand VII., King
of Spain, his fourth wife. On Mar. 29, 1830, when the (pieen
declared herself pregnant, the king abolished the Salic law of
inheritance, to which the Bourbons had conformed. an<i ac-
cording to which only the male members of the family could
inherit the throne, and reintroduced, by a pragmatic sanction,
the old Castilian law, according to which the crown could be
inherited also by females. On Oct. 10, 1830. the queen bore
a daughter. Isabella (afterward Queen Isabella II.), and im-
mediately the court and the country became divided into
two parties, the Carlists and the Christinos. the former
headed l)y Don Carlos, brother to the king, heir-presumptive
to the throne according to the Salic law, and supported by
the L'ltramontane clergy and the absolutists — the latter
headed by JIaria Christina, vindicating the throne for her
daughter according to the ])ragnuitic sanction, and sup-
ported by the liberals. On the death of the king (Sept. 29,
1833) the two parties took up arms, and a civil war began
which lasted till 1840. devastating the country and demor-
alizing the people. Meanwhile .Maria ClirLstina, who was
appointed regent during the minority of Isaliella II. soon
lost the popularity she had g.nined by her alliance with the
liberals. She was intrinsically imiifferent in political mat-
ters. Imt her instincts were alisolutist rather than constitu-
tional. Her subserviency to the policy of Louis Philippe
placed her in opposition to the progressists or radicals, who
found much sympathy in England; and her [lersonal rela-
tions gave general scandal ; she bore ten children to one
Fernando Muiioz, a member of her body-guard, created
Duke of Kianzares, to whom she was not puliliclv nuirried
until Oct. 13, 1844. (.)n Oct. 12. 1840. she was coiu]ielled to
abdicate the regency to Espartcro and leave the ciaintry.
.She resided for some years in Paris, but returned after the
fall of Espartcro in 1844 to Spain, and although Isabella II.
had been declared of age in 1843. Maria continued to meddle
with the government, uutil she was once more expelled in
1854. For ten years slie lived in France. Italy, and Eng-
land, and returned in 1804 to Spain, whence, by the revolu-
tion which dethroned l:iueen Isabella, she was again expelled
in 1868. She returned after the accession of her grandson,
Alfonso XII., to the throne, in 1876. D. Aug. 22, 1878.
' Revised by C. K. Adams.
Mariagor. P.: novelist; b. in Denmark in 1827. In
18.53 he |iublislu'd an anonymous tale, and in the following
year translated Balzac. Scrilie. etc.. and a number of popu-
lar scicntilic works friim the French and German, the first
being Flammariou's Inhabited Worlds, now in its fourth
edition. Fra Hellas : Fein nntike Forlirllingrr (From
Hellas: Five Anticpie Tales. 1881) marks a new departure
in Danish literature, being an attempt to reproduce Greek
culture similar to Ebcr's to rejiroduce Egyptian. It met
MARIA LOUISA
MARIE ANTOINETTE
547
with immodiato success, and was translated into several lan-
puHges. It was followed by Den sitlsle Lamia, og undre
antike Fortmllinger (The Last Lamia, and Other Aniique
Talcs, 1884); J/at/lhareren paa RhodoH (The I'otentato of
Rhodes, 1885); Syliarin, >\ drama; Dionninyi-n af h'yrene,
0(j andre antike Fort(Pllin(jer (The Ijiieen of Cyrene. and
other Anliiiiie Tales, 18!»1) ; and AV lirytlup i Kalakdiiiberne
(A Marriune in the Catacombs, 1893). 1). K. DouoK.
Marin Louisa : Kmpress of the French ; b. Dec. 12, 1701 ;
a dauf^htor of the Arrhdiike Francis of Austria; was mar-
ried Apr. 2, 1810, at Paris, to Najioleon I., who had obtained
a divorce from his wife, the Ii,ni[iress Josephine, for the
sake of this connection with Austria, and bore him a son
Mar. 20, 1811. During the campaifrns of 1812 and 18i:t she
was appointed recent, and her actions under the dillicult
circumstances were marked bv aliiiity and dignity. .She
wius not allowed to follow her husband when he abdicated
and went to Kll)a. .She took up her residence in Schiin-
brunn, near V'ieniui, where she remained also during the
ilundrcMl Days. By the Peace of Paris, Parma, Piacen/.a,
and Gua-stalla were given to her. After the death of Na-
S)leon she contracted a marriage with Count Niepperg. 1>.
ec. 18, 1847. See Famous Women of (lie French (.'ourl,
bv Imbert de Saint-.\maiid, translated by Thomas Sargeant
Perry (New York, 1890-1)1).
Mariana, maa-n'e-aa naa. Jtax, de : historian ; b. at Ta-
lavera. S[iiiin, in 1537 ; educated at the University of .\lcala ;
joined the .Society of Jesus in 1.554 ; was Professor of Theol-
ogy in the Jesuit College at Rome 1.561-65 ; was afterward a
lecturer on divinity in Sicily and in Paris 1569-74 ; settled at
Toledo 1574 ; wrote a treatise. De Rege et Regis Institutione
(Toledo. 1.599). which was burned by the hangman in Paris
on account of its justification of tyrannicide; published va-
rious works on theolngical and political topics, and a Gen-
eral Bislon/ of Scairt (1592-1609 ; Kng. trans. London, 1699,
2 parts). t>. at Toledo, Feb. 6, 1623.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Mariaiina : a town of the state of Minas Geraes, Brazil ;
5 miles K. .S. E. of Ouro Preto; at the northetist base of the
Itacolumi Mountain (see map of South America, rcf. 6-0).
It was founded in 1699 by gold-miners, and during the
eighteenth century was one of the richest mining-towns of
Brazil. The washings are now almost abandoned, and the
town is important onlv as being the seat of the Bishop of
Minas. Pop. about 8.000. H. H. S.
Marianna: village (incorporated in 1874); capital of
Lee CO.. .\rk. (for location of county, see map of Arkansas,
ref. 3-K); on L'Anguille river at the head of navigation,
and on the .St, L., Iron Mt. and S. Railway ; 45 miles W. of
Memphi.s. It is in a corn and cotton growing region ; is an
important cotton-shipping point ; and has 2 public and 3
private schools, several churches, and 2 wecklv newspapers.
Pop. (1880) 627 ; (1890) 1,120 ; (1893) estimated", 1.400.
EOITOR OK " I.NDEX.'
Marianne Islands: See Ladro.ves.
.Mari'a Tliere'sa : Archduchess of Austria, Queen of
Hungary and Bohemia, and Kmpress of Germany; b. in
Vienna, .May 13, 1717 ; a daughter of the Emperor Charles
VI.; was declared sole heir of all the possessions of the
house of Ilapsburg by the Prac.siatic Sa.mtion ((/. v.). and
married (Feb. 12. 1736) to Francis Stephen, grand Duke of
Tuscany. On the death of her father (Oct. 20. 1740) she as-
cended the throne, and on Nov. 21 in the same year ap-
pointed her husband coregent, but in spite of the prag-
matic sanction claims to various parts of her inheritance
were raised immediately from different siiles. a formidable
alliance was formed against her between .Spain. France.
Bavaria. Saxony, and Prussia, ami the Austrian War of
Succession (see Sitcession Wars) was opened by the inva-
sion of Silesia by Frederick II. The heroic resoluteness
of the young empress, however, and the chivalrous enthu-
siasm of the Hungarian [leople. saved her crown, and hy
the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Dct. 18.1748) she lost only
Parma ami Piacenza to .Spain and Silesia to Prussia, while
her husband was re<'Ogriizeil as Emperor of Germany : but
the loss of Silesia she couhl never forget. In 17.53 Prince
Kaunitz, in whom the empress soon learned to put entire
confidence, became Austrian chancellor, and he succeeded in
forming an alliance between .\ustria, France, Saxony, and
Russia for the humiliation of Prussia. Maria Theresa even
stooped so far, in order to obtain revenge on Frederick IL.
as to write a letter to Madame do Pompadour and address
her as "My dear cousin;" but the Seven Years' War
(q. v.), although conducted by Au.stria with great vigor and
some success, brought no result ; the Peace of Ilulxrt.sburg
(Feb. 15. 1763) left .Silesia a Prussian pos.session. On Aug.
18. 1765, the Emperor Francis I. died, and Maria Theresa
took her eldest s<in, Joseph, as coregent. Hi.-. (Milicy was
decidedly one of aggrandizenu-nt, and it was probably duo
to his intluence that she participated, though not untd she
received the consent of the f)ope, in the first partition of Po-
land (Aug. 5, 1772), which brought Galicia and Ludomeria
under the Austrian dominion. Turkey was coni|ielled to
cede Bukowina (Feb. 25. 1777). but the plan of annexing
Bavaria was foiled, and the Austrian intluence in Gcnnany
received a severe check by the fornuition of the so-called
Furslenbund under the auspices of Frederick II. In tho
interior her governtnent was successful, and marked with
great energy and wisdom. The finances, the weakest [joint
in the Austrian household, were improved by the em|)eror
and Count Haugwitz. The army, previously an ineffective
and disorderly mob, was organized and strengthened by
Joseph and Count Lasey. .Servitude and torture were alxjl-
isheu, a number of schools of different grades establishe<l,
and a better criminal code was introduced ; imiirovemeiils
partly due to the exertions of Van Swielen. Although she
was a pious Catholic, and not disposed to be indulgent to
her Protestant subjects, Marie Theresa had an o[>en eye fur
the abuses of the Roman Church, and stopped them at many
points. She forbade the priests to be present at the making
of wills, and any person, male or female, to take inonastio
vows before his twenty-fifth vear, and in 1773 she expelleil
the Jesuits. D. at Vienna, Nov. 29, 1780, leaving four sons,
of whom the oldest, Joseph II., succeeded her, and six daugh-
ters, of whom the next to the youngest was Marie Antoinette.
Evi-n Frederick II. of Prussia, her great adversary, bore tes-
timony to the purity and nobleness of her personal charac-
ter, writing to d'Alembert on the occasion of her death : " I
have slied tears at her death — sincere tears. She was an
honor to her sex and to the throne. I have waged wars
against her, but I have never been her enemy." Sec Duller,-
Maria Theresa und ihre Zeit (1843—44, 2 vols.); Wolf,
Oesterreich unler Maria Theresa (Vienna, 1855); Lothcisen,
Oeslerreieh unter Maria Theresa (1860).
Mariaz'ell: a village of .Styria, Austria-Hungary, about
60 miles S. W. of Vienna (see map of Austria-Hungary, ref.
5-E) ; celebrated for its mineral springs, and a favorite
place of pilgrimage. It is situated in the Styrian Aljis, on
the Salza. a tributary of the Enns, an affluent of the Dan-
ube, 2,927 feel above the sea. Pop. ll.(XK). It is annually
visited by about lOO.CKK) pilgrims, the object of veneration
being an image of the Virgin, dating from 1157. in a chapel
erected in 1363, which has been incorporated into a cliunh
built in 1644. Near by are important iron-foundries.
M. W. H.
Maricopa Indians: See Yisian Indians.
Marie, pseudonym of Antoinette Mevn: a Norwegian
writer, whose latest books have l)een published under the
new pseudonvm Jioli/er Birch. The first iMiok of this au-
thor, / Tiism'grkel (Between the Lights, 1875; 3d e<i. 1881),
won her many friends, and her [K>pularity steadily in-
creased. She is a fluent but not a great writer. Most of
her books have been translated into Swedish and German.
Thev include Ojennem Kamp (Through Struggles, 1876);
Fra Min Fodrhi/ (From mv Native Town, 1877); I del
suite (In the Home Circle, '18781 ; Ved egen Kraft t (By
her own Power* 1879); lljemmel (At Home, 1881); I en-
somme Timer (During l^onely Hours. IKS.')); Fra Fars og
Mors Tid (From Father's and Mother's Tiniel; Jhjorckrs
lilts (The House of Dyoeke: a Dream, 1885); I'rnwtde
Blomster (Dried Flowers, a manuscript, 18891 ; Drum og
Virkelighed (Dream and Real Life, 1891); Siiinde Tider
(From Times Gone By, 1893). P. Gbotu.
Marie Antoinette, nniii reeiiiin twiia net' : Queen of
France; the fiflluhiiighterof Maria Then'S^i and Francis 1.;
b. in Vienna, Nov. 2. 17.55; married at Versjiille.s May 16,
1770. to the ilauphin (afterward Louis .\V1.), to whom she
liore four children, of whom two died in infancy : the other
two were liouis .Wll. and the Duchess of Angouleme. Her
jMisition at the French court was difliiult from the very first,
and it soon became ilangenius. Then' was a ilifferenee of
character between her and the |>eople among whieh she had
come to live which provi^l fatal in the end. Her morals
wen- )>erfectly pure, ami her heart full of n<ible and gener-
ous instincts; but she felt u hau^rbiv iiul, i..iidence of oti-
biS
MARIE DE MfiDICIS
MARIETTA COLLEGE
quette, ceremonies, public opinion, etc., and in her character
gay levity ami impulsive caprices were singularly mixed up
with iriiioc'-'nce, virtue, and elevated purposes. At, the
French court every vice was coraiiiittod, but none was
shown; an ele{;ant hypocrisy covered the rottenness. It
was evident that such a diaracter umler such circuinslances
could not escape slander and intrigue, and after the affair
of the diamond neckUice in 1785 the youn^ queen was
completely overwhelmed and ruined by them. The in-
dolence of her husband and the desperate state of affairs
compelled her to meddle with politics. The character of
her husband prevented him from following her influence,
and the result was a series of half measures which became
blunders, and of violence which ended in weak submis-
sion. At the outbreak of the Revolution she was actually
hated by the French people, and after the unfortunate
attempt at flight (.luiie 21, 17U1) her doom was certain;
but her character developed with the situation, and under
the horrors which surrounded her she grew heroic. Al-
though broken both in body and mind, when jilaced
after a long imprisonment before the Revolutionary Tri-
bunal (Oct. in, 1793), she flung back the accusation of
having seduced her own son with an indigiuition which
made every heart in the room tremble ; and during the two
hours' ride to the scaflfold on Oct. 16, between rows of stern
soldiers and under the execrations of a furious mob, she
preserved her dignity to the last. See Memoirts, by Wi'her
(1822); Lafont d'Aiisonne (1824); Mme. Campau (1820);
JTistoire, by Goncourt (1859) ; and Famous Women of Ike
French Court, bv Imbert de SaiTit-Aniand, translated by
Thomas Sargeant Perry (New York, 1890-91).
Revised by C. K. Ad.\ms.
Marie de M£diciS : Queen of Prance ; b. at Florence,
Apr. 26, 1573 ; daughter of Francis L, Grand Duke of Tus-
cany; was married Dec. 16. 1600, to Henry IV., King of
France, to whom she bore in the next year a son, afterward
Louis XIIL She was beautiful, passionate, ambitious, but
singularly low and mean; Henry always avoided her, and
she was not crowned until the day before his assassination
(May 13, 1610). From this time she conducted the govern-
ment together with her favorites, the C'oncinis, till the con-
spiracy of de Luynes (.\pr. 14, 1617), after which she was
contined in the Castle of lilois. On the death of de Luynes
(Dec. 14, 1621) she returned to the court and took her ]ilace
m the king's council, having been reconciled to him by
Richelieu ; but, jealous of the growing power of the new
minister, she began intriguing against hira, too, and was
sent once more from the court in 1630, and confined in the
Castle of Compiegne. Theni« she escaped, wandered sev-
eral years in Kngland and the Netherlands, and died at
Cologne, July 3, 1642, in miserable circumstances.
Marie Oalante. maa-ree gaa-laant' (Span. Marigalante):
one of the French West Indian islands ; 17 miles E. S. E. of
Guadeloupe, of which it is a political de|)endency. Area,
63 sq. miles. It is nearly cintular in form, mainly of cal-
careous formation, and the greatest elevation is '675 feet.
The clinuite is dry, and there are few streams. The princi-
pal product is sugar. There are whale-fisheries of some im-
portance off the coast. Pop. (1890) 13,850. The principal
town is Grand Rourg. H. H. S.
Marienbad, ma"ii-reeen-ba"ivd : a small town of Bohemia;
18 miles S. of Carlsbad; pictures(|uely sitiintcd among
wooded hills at an elevation of 2,007 feet, and much fre-
quented as a watering-place and on ac<'ount of its saline
springs (see nuip of Austria-Hungary, rcf. 3-C). The waters
resemlde those of Carlsbad, but are cold and contain more
purgative salt. They are used both internally and exter-
nally in cases of gout, skin diseases, rheumatism, etc. The
baths arc annually visited by about 15,000 persons. The
pcTinanent po|)ulation is about 2.000.
Marienbiir;;. -boorrh : town of Prussia, on the Nogat ; 27
miles S. E. of Dantzic (see nuin of German Empire, ref. 2-J).
Its ca-stlc, a nuignilieenl and imposing edifice of Gothic
architecture, was erected from 1274 to 1341 by the knights
of the Teutonic order, whose griind-masters resided there
for .several centuries. At lln; time the building was one
of the strongest castles in Europe. Under Polish rule it
was allowed to fall into decay, but it was carefully restored
in the beginning of the nineteenth century. The town
has a normal school, several chemical-factories, impor-
tant cattle, horse, and wool markets, and a considerable
triwle in grain, linen, feathers, brushes, etc. Pop. (1890)
10,279.
Marlenwerder, viSr-der: city of West Prussia; 45 railoa
S. S. E. of Dantzic (see map of German Empire, ref. 2-J). It
is a handsome city, with many fine buildings, among which
is the cathedral from the fourteenth century, and the castle
built by the knights of the Teutonic order in the thirteenth
century. It has many benevolent and educational institu-
tions, and some manufactures. Pop. (1890) 8,552.
Mari(>ton, nuiii ri-d ton', P.ml : poet and critic; b. at
Lyons, France, in 1802. He has been an ardent participator
in the recent literary movement in Southern France, and a
friend of Mistral, Aubanel, and the other poets of the new
Provencal school. He is chancellor of the Society of Feli-
brige, and was in 1891 niajoral of the Society for Provence
proper. He is also ilircctor of the Jiei'ue felibreenne, the
Parisian organ of the school. He has published three vol-
umes of verse — Viole d'amour, Jlellas. and .Souvenauce.
Also a large number of articles and books devoted to the
interests of his friends. Among these may be mentioned
Bonaparte iry««(1882); Aui/uste Foures(i88^i) ; Un filibre
limousin (1883); Theodur Aubanel (1883); Le mouvement
fiamand (1884): iJiscours stir la jeunesse provengale (1884);
Josephin Soulary et la plc'iade lyonnaise (1884) ; and par-
ticularly La terre provenfale (1890). A. R. Marsh.
Mariet'ta: city (founded in 1833); capital of Cobb Co.,
Ga. (for location of county, see map of Georgia, ref. 2-G) ;
on the ^Marietta and N. Ga. and the W. and the Atlantic
railways; 20 miles N. of Atlanta. It is in an agricultural
and stock-raising region, and has several marble-mills, flour
and paper mills, knitting and chair factories, iron-foundry,
sash, door, and blind mills, and paper, twine, carriage, and
excelsior works. Pop. (1880) 2,227 ; (1890) 3,384 ; (1893) es-
timated, 3,500. Editor of " Journal."
Marietta: city (settled in 1788); capital of Washington
CO., 0. (for location of county, sec map of Ohio, ref. 7-II);
on the Ohio river, at the mouth of the Jluskingum, and on
the Bait, and O. S. W., the Cleve. and Marietta, the Toledo
and 0. Cent. Ext., and the Zanesv. and O. railways ; 80 miles
S. E. of Zanesville, 115 S. E. of Columbus, 175 S. of Cleve-
land. It is in the great oil region of Ohio and West Vir-
ginia, and within a few miles of rich coal and iron deposits;
is principally engaged in manufacturing and river com-
merce; and has flour, ]ilaning, and saw mills, carriage, tub,
bucket, and chair factories ; foundries and machine-shops ;
tanneries, breweries, car-sho[)s, oil-works, boat-yard, and
tool-works. The city is the seat of Marietta College. There
are 2 national banks with combined cajiital of .^200,000, a
private bank, and 3 weekly and 2 other periodicals. The
limits of the city were enlarged in is;i0 bv the annexation
of the village of Harmar. Pop. (1880) 5,444 ; (1890) 8,273.
Editor of " Reuister."
Marietta : borough ; Lancaster co.. Pa. (for location of
county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 0-11); on the Susque-
hanna river, and the Penn. Railroad; 25 miles E. of Harris-
burg, 81 miles W. of Philadelphia. It has iron-furnaces,
rolling-mill, foundry and maeliine-sliop, saw and planing
mills, liollow-ware and cnanu'ling works, and agricultiiral-
implemeiit factory; is the Eastern market for the timber
and lumber brought down the river, and contains a national
bank with capital of $100,000, a private bank, a lyceum of
natural liistorv (founded in 1S72). with library, and two
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2.503 ; (1890) 2,402.
Marietta College: an institution at Marietta, 0.; lo-
cated where the first settlement of the " territory northwest
of the river Ohio" was made, Apr. 7, 1788. The college
was founded by the sons of thi' iiit)iieers, among whom were
many graduates of Yale and lliirvard. It was opened for
instruction in 1833 as the .'\larietta Collegiate Institute and
Western Teachers' Seminary, but in 1835 a new charter was
obtained, under the name Marietta College. In its course
of study and general arrangements the college has adhered
to the New England type. The college is independent alike
of ecclesiastical and of State control, having a self-perpetu-
ating board of trustees. Though not denoniiualional, its
alllliations are rather with the Coiigiegatii>iial and Presby-
terian bodies. There are two courses of .study, of four years
each, leading to tin' degrees of B. A. and B. Ph. The latter
course subslitules t he modern languages for the Greek. The
first class graduate<l in 1838, and the whole number of gradu-
ates to 1894 is 600. In 1894 the college had 317 students
and a faculty of 20. In cabinets, apparatus, etc., the college
is well fitted for its work. The miiiilii-r of voIiimics in the
college and society libraries is about 50,000. The library is
MAKIF.TTE
MARINE INSURANCE
549
specially rich iiiworks of American history anil of the early
history of the Northwest, including many VHli.ablo manu-
scripts. The president is (18114) J. W.Simpson, I). I)., \Aj. I).
Revised by C. 11. TniKUER.
Marlctlp, miiii ri'e-cf, Auouste fiuoCARn : an-lueologist ;
known a.s .Mariette I'asha; b. at Boulogne-siir-.Mer, France,
Feb. 11, 1H21 ; became professor in the college of his native
place at the age of twenty, llavinfj become interested in
Kgyptology, he removed to Paris in 1H4S, where he taught
the science for two years. Seeing no propitious o|)ening at
home he secured an appointment in 1S50 to visit Kgynt upon
a mission of excavation and research. During the following
thirty years he devoteil himself to similar jiursuits, working
principally at Sai|(jarah, the Seraiieum at Memphis, at Aby-
dos, Tliilifs, Kdfu, Dendenih, and Tanis. The founding of
the Kgyptian .Museum at Bulak (afterward at Uizeh, and
soon to be placed in a suitable and s|)ecial building) was
due to his efforts, and of it he was long the director, as well
as inspector-general anrl guardian of the national nionu-
ment.s. He died at Cairo. Kgypt, Jan. 18, 1881. He was
firincipally noted as an archaeologist, not as a decipherer of
he hieroglyphic writing. His publications were largely at
the expense of the khedive, and related principally to the
historical materials which he discovereil. The following
are among his best-known books: Choix de monuments
(Paris, 1856): Deir d Bnhari (Leipzig^ 1877): Karnak
(Leipzig, 1875): Abydos (Paris, 1880): Denderak (4 vols,
and supplement, Paris. 186y-80); Jlonumenis nf I'pper
Egypt (London, 1877; Boston, 181)0). C. li. Gillett.
Mar'igold : a popular name for various yellow-flowered
plants, but especially for those of the genera Tagetes and
Calendula, of the order Compositce. The so-called African
and French marigolds arc of the first-mentioned genus.
Both are South American. The true marigold (Ca/enrfu/a
officinalis), indigenous to the south of Europe, has long
been cultivated in gardens, and is prized in domestic medi-
cine. It is sometimes employed in flavoring soups. See
Caltha.
Muri'na, called by the Indians Mnlintzin : mistress of
Hernando Cortes ; b. in Goazacoaico (Campeche) about 1501.
Accounts of her early life varv. but for some reason she was
sold into slavery among the ^laya Indians of Tabasco; in
1519 the Tabascan chief gave her, with other girls, to the
Spaniards of Cortes's expedition. She soon acquired the
Spanish language, and owing to her knowledge of Mexican
she was of great assistance to Cortes as an interpreter. Ma-
rina followed Cortes to Mexico, was present during the
siege, and is a prominent character in the events of that
p<?rio«l. Of the children whom she bore to Cort<?s, one, Mar-
tin, became prominent in later history. In 1524 she was
married to .luan Jaramillo. a Spanish cajitain, who subse-
quently held lucrative offices in Mexico: .Marina wii-s living
there as late as 1500, but the date of her death is unknown.
11. II. Smitu.
Marine City: city (founded in ISiB) : St. Clair co., Mich,
(for location of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 7-K); on
the St. Clair river; 20 miles S. of Port Huron. It contains
4 ship-yards, 4 mills for sawing lumber and ship timber, 2
salt-blocks, stave and heading, hoop, pianing, and flour
mills, foundry and boiler and machine shops, and sash,
door, and blind factories. There are 2 savings-banks with
combined capital of ^7.5.000, and 2 weekly newspapers.
Pop. (1880) 1,073; (1890) 3,208; (1894) 3.48.5.
Editor of " Maqnet."
Marine (ilue : See Glue.
Marine Insurance: the system by which owners of ves-
sels are insured against jwcuniary loss caused by shipwreck
or other disaster at sea.
History. — Marine insurance may be regarded as a neces-
sity of commerce ; it has ever followed in its wake. It prob-
ably had its origin when maritime ventures were specially
ex(K)se<l to the depredation of iiirates. In its inception it
seems to have partaken more of the charailer of loans, still
known, but practiceil under different conditions, as bot-
tomry and respondentia, the first meaning mortgage of a
ship, and the second loan on the car^'o. Large premiums
were paid for these loans to cover interest for use of the
money as well as for the maritime risk, Ik-cbusc in case of
shipwreck or capture the lender lost the money loaned.
Suetonius refers to the Emperor Claudius as probably the
contriver of marine insurance. It is stated that at a time of
corn famine in Rome (a. u. 43) Claudius encouragetl the
merchants to send ships for supplies, guaranteeing to [)ay
for the value of vessel and cargo in the event of wreck or
capture. Further record gives the use of the same system
in Italy in 1194. An ordinance of Barcelona imlieales tlutt
marine insurance wa-s known in Spain prior to 14;J5.
Policies appear to have Ijcen hrst issued in Florence in
1523. The development of marine insurance into a system
may be traced to the commercial activity of the Mediterra-
nean states. Its intrrMluction into Northern Euro|ie was
doubtless through the Hanseatic League, whose early ojier-
ations at Wisby, and later at Bruges, gave an ini|>etu.s to the
practice. The latter place was one of the great marts of the
league, and indeed was acknowledged as the metrofwlis of
thcworliTs commerce; in it, it is stated, a chamber of insur-
ance was established as early as 131 1. The merchants of the
steel-yard located on the 'Ihames, Ixmdon, w^re the repre-
sentatives of the league in England. It is interesting to
follow the record of their operations, and to notice the ex-
tent of their influence on the commercial activity of that
country. For several centuries they seem to have held sway
and had enormous privileges accorded to them by the van-
ous stivereigns. International intercourse through them
doubtless gave marine insurance its foothold in Englaml.
In the reign of Elizabeth the steel-yard was close<l, and the
merchants were exiKdled from the kiiigilom. The first stat-
ute regarding marine insurance was passed by the English
Parliament in 1001.
While the merchants of the .steel-yard introduced marine
insurance in Kiigland, it is to the Lombards who emigrated
there the middle of the thirteenth centurj- that the tiractice
owes the rules and regulations handed down to this day.
The form of policy now generally ustnl is suljstantially the
same as one arranged by them, drawn from the original
forms used in Florence, Pisa, Venice, and Barcelona. Origi-
nating in such an early perio<l, its language is quaint and
somewhat incoherent, but, as has been remarked by a leamctl
judge, through a prolonged scries of judicial decisions it luis
" obtained a clear and definite meaning"; and again, "every
word of it has been weighed in the judicial balances and as-
signed its proper value." The decisions of the learned Lord
Mansfield have specially eontribute<l to that end.
Origin of Lloyd's. — The business of marine insurance
was originally done by individual merchants and money-
lenders. The one seeking protection to his venture filled lip
the policy and submilte<l it to the one whose [irotection ho
sougiit ; if the risk was accepted by the latter he iimlerwrole
the policy, i. e. signed it. an<l thus became the underirriter.
In the latter part of the seventeenth century coffee-houses
were numerous in London, and they were the resort of mer-
chants aiul underwriters. One of these bouses, locate<l in
Tower Street and kept by Edward Llovd, became famous
on account of information concerning shi[>s and maritime
matters furnished by Mr. Lloyd. In the summer of 1696
he began to |iublish a small sheet called Lloyd's yetrs,
which was suppressed by the Government after seventy-sii
nuinlwrs had been issued. In 1726 the publi<-ation was
revived in an enlarged and improved form, and has contin-
ued, changing its title only, to Lloyd's List. In this hum-
ble beginning originated the extensive system of individual
unilerwriting known as "Lloyd's" in London and copie<i in
various forms throughout the ctimmen'ial world. Slarine
insurance at Lli>yd's increas<Hl largely. (Set? Lu>vd"s.) In
1810. during the war, one risk on treasure Imlen on the frig-
ate Diana, valued at ItViO.tKlO, was insurol there from Vera
Cruz to England at 4 per cent, premium.
Insurance by joint-stock coinptinies originatetl with the
Dutch in connection with their trading companies, but at
first it did not meet with much favnr in England. Through
the efforts of Lord Chetwynd and I»rd t)iislow in 1720
two coni|uinies were chartered — the I.oiidi>ii .\ssuraiice and
the Royal Exchange — for each of which the large sum of
i"3(Kl.t)tlO was |>aid to the Government ; the com|>anies were
granted a mono|K>ly of the business of marine insurance;
under their charters all but private underwriters were ex-
cluded from becoming insurers in the future. In lt<10 a
parliamentary investigation of the ci>ni!'.;r; of the business
of those companies was made and stremg au|H'als pre.-H'Uted
for the rejieal of the monoiRily to enable the iii<'ori«or«lion
of a large com|>any, liut the effort failetl, mainly thrtiugh
the influence of individual underwriters. In 1824 lhere(<eal
was accomplislieil, and the largt" coni[iany was chartenxl.
In the investigation re'femxl to it was itis<-<>vere<l that out
of a total estiinatc<l value of i:!62..'>;ts,900 iiisure<l in the
kingdom in 1809, the charterol com|<anies ha<l insured an
550
MARINE INSURANCE
MARINES
insignificant part, nearly the whole Imving been insured
at Lloyd's.
.Scope and Definition of Policy. — First, as to the scope
of the policy. The risks insured against are fully set forth
in the bodv, and may lie epitomized as '■ perils of the sea,"
and include all marine hazards resulting from the violent
action of the elemenU, all casualties as distinguished from
the ordinary undiftturbed prosecution of the voyage; they
are such as the ordinary agencv of man may not prevent.
The policy does not assume liability for loss or injury aris-
ing from causes inheretit in the article insured. Second,
policies are distinguished by different names. A voyage
policy is one covering a specific voyage, as from New Vork
to Liverpool. A time policy is one covering a designated
period of time, for example, on a ship for one year. An
open policy is one in which an amount is insured without
expressed falue of the goods, that being left to be deter-
mined by the invoice, as " on 100 cases merchandise." The
same designation is given to a form of policy common in the
U. S., particularly in New York. It is issued to avoid mul-
tiplying policies, and made for a nominal amount, and in-
sures only such risks as are accepted and indoreed on it by
the underwriters upon application of the merchant. This
latter is also sometimes called a general policy. A special
policy is one insuring a specific risk, with name of vessel,
etc. A floating policy is one insuring by vessel or vessels.
A wager policy is one that shows on the face of it the as-
sured has no interest in the property. This class of insur-
ance, i. e. without interest, was quite common in England,
but modern legislation has ever aimed to eliminate a gam-
bling element from marine insurance. Under statute 19
George II., insurances without interest were declared ille-
fal. In many States of the U. S. similar enactments exist,
nsurances are, however, still made " policy proof of inter-
est," but recovery for loss under such policies is not encour-
aged by the courts. It is important to observe that an in-
terest in the property insured is an indispensable condition
in all marine insurances.
It has been seen that the printed policy has been clearly
defined by judicial decisions. The original conditions are,
however, frequently modified or changed by clauses written,
or printed in red. For example, the risk of capture or
seizure is included among the perils enumerated as covered,
but invariably a clause, commonly called " war clause," is
inserted exonerating the underwriter from loss occasioned
by those perils. When they are assumed the clause is
waived, for which, in case of war, a considerable advance in
premmm is charged. In like manner the measure of liabil-
ity for loss in respect to other perils may be increased or
curtailed by clauses, as may be agreed upon by the assured
and assurer.
Jt should be observed that written conditions supersede
anything in the printed wording to ti'hich they are opposed.
Definition of Terms. — The word "average," frequently
occurring in connection with marine insurance, is a name
applied to certain descriptions of loss. There are two kinds
of average : particular average and general average. The
first means damage or partial damage to the ship or to the
{)articular subject to wnich it relates. The second compre-
lends all loss arising out of a voluntary sacrifice made of
any part of the ship or cargo to prevent loss of the whole,
or to rescue the whole adventure from unusual peril. All
extraordinary expenses incurred for the general good are
likewise included in that definition. The main principle of
general average has been derived from the " Rhodian law,"
but all commercial nations have endeavored to bring its
practice within the highest rules of equity. Several inter-
national congresses have been held on the subject, notably
those at York, England, in 1864, and at Antwerp in 1877; a
new code was adopted and ilesignaled York-Antwer[) rules.
This code is frequently referred to as a basis of agreement
in general average questions. An insurance made free of
particular average excludes partial loss or damage. In Eng-
lish iiolicies, however, it is invariably qualified by the clause
"unless the vessel be stranded, sunk, burnt, or in collision."
Some American compaincs have modified the qualification
by making it " unless caused by stranding, sinking, burning
or collision tfilh another vessel." In the latter form the ele-
ment of uncertainty as to the cause of damage is removed.
Insurances made free of general and particular averages
reduce the liability under the policy to total loss only.
There may V)e an actual as well a-s constructive total loss.
Actual when the property insured is absolutely lost or de-
stroyed by the perils insured against. Constructive when
by any of those perils the voyage can not be performed, or
the property is so damaged as to be of little value.
Under the head memorandum the policy excludes claim
for |mrticular average on certain articles and those which
are perishable in their nwn nature. It also names the per
centum of average at which others are insured. Thus grain,
being one of the articles excluded, would not be insured
against particular average unless specially provided for in
writing.
Duration of the Risk. — Insurance on a ship begins at the
port from which insured, and c<mtinues until moored at
anchor for twentv-four hours in good safety at the port to
which insured. Insurance on cargo begins immediately fol-
lowing the loading of it in the vessel, and continues until
thedischargcof it at the port of destination. If it is the cus-
tom of the port to convey goods in lighters from the ship to
the shore, tney are insured until so landed. Insurance on
freight, i. e. earnings of the ship for transporting the cargo,
begins and terminates simultaneously with the insurance
on the cargo. When an insurance is made on chartered
freight, i. e. freight to be earned under a charter, the policy
attaches as soon as the vessel sails on the voyage covered,
although she may be destined to a distant port for cargo.
Marine Underwriting in the United States. — There is no
jevidence that marine insurance was practiced to any extent
in the North American colonies, nor for some time after the
establishment of the Government of the U. S. There were
a few individual underwriters, and associations were also
formed for underwriting ; but it was not until 1793 that the
General Assembly of Pennsylvania chartered a company
with the title Insurance Company of North America. The
first company chartered by the State of New York was the
New York Insurance Company in 1798, with a capital of
$500,000. During the nineteenth century twenty-six com-
panies have been chartered by that State, of which one only
continues in active business; the others have failed or liqui-
dated. There are also in New York two underwriting asso-
ciations conducted by attorneys for the benefit of subscrib-
ers, one of which is named United States Lloyd's.
JIutual Companies. — A company chartered in New York
in 1834 to do insurance on a mutual basis met with unex-
ampled success at first, and drew a large part of the business
from the stock companies. The profits of the latter compa-
nies accrued to their stockholder, while in this new method
the profits reverted to the dealers, thus giving them their
insurance at cost. The latter system became at once popu-
lar. Many of the stock companies liijuidated in 1842. and
reorganized on the mutual plan. Among the number was
the Atlantic, now known as the Atlantic Mutual, a company
that presents an interesting phase in marine underwriting,
both in respect to the system by which it is characterized
and the development of its business. American companies
in the seaports of the U. S. have passed through the same
experience as those in New York, and the business of ma-
rine insurance is now largely done through the agencies of
Hrilish companies.
Probably on no other commercial subject has there been
so much written as on marine insurance. The subjoined
list gives some of the more important works on the subject:
Phillips, A Treatise on the Law of Jnsurarice ; Arnould, A
Treat Lie on the Law of Insurance and Average; Benecke,
A Treatise on the Principles of Indemnity in Marine In-
surance; Emerigon, A Treatise on Insurance, translated
from the French, with notes; Diier. The Law and Practice
of Marine Insurance; Parsons, -4 Treatise on the Law of
Marine Insurance; Martin, A Ili.Htory of Lloyd's and of
Marine Insurance in Ureal liritain; Park, A System of
the Law of Marine Insurance. A. A. Haven.
Mnrine'o : town in the province of Palermo, Sicily; in a
grain, vine, and olive bearing district, about 15 miles S. of
the city of Palermo (see map of Italy, rcf. 9-E). In a little
country church near Marinco are some very fine frescoes of
the fourteenth century. Ficuzza, an old feudal seat and a
favorite summer retreat of Ferdinand III., is in this vicinity.
Pop. about 9.600.
Mariner's Compass: See Compass.
Marines [from Lat. niari'nus. pertaining to the sea, ma-
rine; deriv. of mare, sea|: troops enlisted for service on
board men-of-war and at naval stations. Considered in the
light of infantry serving afloat, marines are, as a distinct
corps, coeval with navies. Among the Greeks they were
known as epibatw, a class described by historians as the
fighting men who served exclusively on lx)ard ships of war.
MARINES
MARINI
551
Though armed like the infuntry on shore, they were yet <lis-
tiiict from the land troops, and entirely unlike tlic rowers or
mariners who served in the fleet. The number of epibatu>
assigned to each vessel bore about the same proportion to
the crew as the numbi>r <<( marines to the crew of a modern
man-of-war. In the Komiiti navy marines were styleil das-
sidrii mililes. In the early history of the Kn^jlish navy we
rrad of men-at-iirins still serving afloat, tlu'ir armor and
wcjipons dilleriiif; but little from those of the ancients. The
Scandiiuivians culled them biM-karler or sea-soldiers — that
is, cjirls, or sturdy fellows, wlio fouRht in boats. Later they
were called supra-satienles, a word .still preserved in the
Sptmish sobrenalienle. The Genoese crossbowmen. the best
marines of the jieriod, were in the thirteenth century em-
ployed, and very liif;lilv esteemed, in the Kn(;lish navy. In
Aug., 1387, Sir Ilenry I'ercy ("Gunpowder Percy") was ap-
pointed "captain of all the men-at-arms and archers of the
fleet." He was. in fact, commandant of marines.
With the introiluction and gradual increase of naval ord-
nance the occupation of men-at-arms afloat pa.ssed away.
The earliest employment of marines under their present
form was in 16.^3, when .\dmiral Blake embarked a number
of soldiers to act as small-arms men (Schoniberg's Chrnnul-
oj?y, vol. i., p. 51) in the battle with von Tronip off Port-
land. .Subsequentlv, in 1004, troops from the line were de-
tailed for service atioat, and came to be called marine sol-
diers, or marines. (Grose's Military Aniiguilies of the
English Army.) For good conduct in battle, but more par-
ticularly for steadfiusi loyalty during the great mutinies in
the fleet at the N'ore and at Spithead, thev were, in general
orders dated Apr. 20, 1H()2. styled Hoyal Murines. The Royal
Murine forces of Great Britain are divided into two branches:
the Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal Marine Light In-
fantry, comprising 14.(K)0 men. They are obliged to serve
for fourteen years, and then may re-engage for seven years.
At the expiration of the twenty-one years' service they are
pensioned. The artillery consists of one division, quartered
at Plymouth, and the infantry of three divisions, quartered
at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Plymouth.
The U. S. .Marine Corps was first established by the act of
Congress of Nov. 10, ITT."), authorizing the enlistment of two
battalions, to be styled " first and .second battalions of ma-
rines." After the adoption of the present Constitution anil
the reconstruction of the navy, the Marine Corps was again
called intoexistence by the act of .lulv 11, 1798, "establish-
ing and organizing a marine corps." Bv this act the Marine
Corps is at anv time liable to do duty in the forts and gar-
risons of the L'. .S. on the seacoast or any other duty on
shore, as the President mav direct. The corps consists of 1
colonel comman<lant, 1 colonel, 2 lieutenant-colonels, 1 atl-
jutant and inspector, 1 quartermaster. 1 paymaster, 4 majors,
2 assistant quartermasters, 20 captains, .'tO first lieutenants,
12 second lieutenants; also 1 sergeant-major, 1 quarter-
master-sergeant. 1 leailer of band, 1 drum-major. 50 first
sergeants, 140 sergeants, 180 corporals, 30 musicians, 90
drummers and fifers. 25 apprentices learning music, and 1.5T5
privates; total, 2.1T5. The Xaval Appropriation Act t\\t-
proved Aug. 5, 1882, enacts that from the naval cadets
(Xaval Academy, .Annapolis) who successfullv complete the
six years' course appointments shall be made to fill vacan-
cies in the lower grades of the line and engineer corps of
the navy, and of the Marine Corp.i. in the order of merit, as
determined by the academy board of the Naval .\cademy,
the assignment to be made bv the .'^ecretury of the Navy
on the reconimemlation of said iHiard. Marine oflicers are
on the same footing as to rank, pay, and allowances as simi-
lar grades in the infantry; take precedence of like rank in
the volunteers and mililin; may Vie a.ssoi-iated with oflieers
of the army on courts martial, the senior to preside; are
promoted up to colonel by s<'niority ; can not exercise com-
mand over navy-yanls or vessels of the l'. S. ; and no ofli-
cer can absent hims<'lf without leave until notified of the
acceptance of his resignation. The stall is separate from
the line and apjiointed by the President by selection. The
colonel commandant is alsf) appointed by selection. Oflieers
may be ailvanced thirty numlH-rs in rank for gallant conduct
in battle or extraordinarv heroism, and retire at the age of
sixty-four. (See Iaiws I'nited Slates yury.) The judge-
advocate-general of the navy may be appointetl from the ofli-
eers of the Marine Corps. Privates enlist for five years.
The recruit must be at leiLst 5 ft. 5 in. high, betwetMi eigh-
teen and thirty-flve years of age, able to n'ad and write, of
steady habits, unmarried, well made, and in gixxi health.
Civdit is given to both oflieers and men for previous service
in the volunteer anny or navy, and re-enlistment in either
the armv or the Maritie Corps within thirty days after hon-
orable discharge will count as continuous service, which
brings increa.se of pay. Marines are exempt from arrest for
debt or contract. 'I'he marine guard of the Chicago, flagship,
consists of 1 captain, 1 lieutenunl, 4 sergeants, 5 cor[K)rals, 2
musicians, and 43 privates; total. .W. Other vessels of simi-
lar size, like the Baltimore, Newark, .Sun Francisco, etc.,
carry 1 commissioneil <ifllccr, .1 sergeants, 3 cor|Mirals, 2
musicians, and 32 privates; total, 41. A fourth rate, like
the Petrel, is entitleil to 1 sergeant, 2 cor|Kirals, and 7 pri-
vates; total, 10. The marine guard constitutes the polii'c
force, and is an indispensable clement of the organization
of a ship of war. Marines mav be detached for service on
board the armed vcs.sels of the C S., and the President tnar
detach, and ap[Miint for service on board said vess«>ls. such
oflieers of said corps as he may deem necessary. (.Sec. Itilfl,
Itevised Statutes.) The Murine Corps shall at all times be
subject to the rules and regulations for the better government
of the navy, excei)t when detached for service with the army
bv order of the President, when they come under armv reg-
ulations. The headquarters of the corps and the " school of
application" for the instruction of officers and enlisted
men are at the L". S. nnirine barracks. Washingtim, I). C.
.See History of the United States Marine Corps, bv CapL
R. S. Collum, U. S. M. C. S. B. Luck.
Marinette: city; capital of Marinette co.. Wis. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 4-F); on Green
Bav, at the mouth of the Menominee river, and on the Chi.
and X. W. and the Chi.. Mil. and St. P. railways ; 49 miles
X. by E. of Green Bay. It has an excellent harlH)r, in
which the U. S. Government has expended over $27-5,000
for improvements, and is near large tracts of valuable hard
and soft wood forests, and btnis of iron ore. Two bridges,
one of wootl, the other of iron (cost if 75.(X)0), connect the
city with Menominee, Mich., on the other side of the river.
There are 14 churches, 5 public-school buildings (cost f 100,-
000), water-works (cost $200,000). public park, driving-park
with a half-mile track. 3 cemeteries, 2 national banks with
combined capital of $200,000, electric lights, electric street-
railway, and a daily and 4 weekly newspapers. The city
has a large lake trallic. and is principully engaged in the
lumber industrv, and in pulp and pa|ier making. Pop.
(1880)2,750; (lti90) 11,523; (1895i 1.5.2.s«.
Editor ok " North Stab."
Marini. mau-reenee, Giovaxbattista : poet ; b. in Xaplcs,
Italy, Oct. 18, 1509. Ilis father, a lawyer, wished to bring
him up in the same profession, but found him more inclined
to poetry and dissipation than to serious studies. At length,
weary of his spendthrift habits, he turned him out of his
house. The vouth was saved from misery for the time, how-
ever, bv the I'rince of Conca, grand admiral of Xajiles, who
made fiini his secretary. In his family Marini made the
valuable acquaintance of Tortjuato Ta.ss<i. In 1598 a dis-
graceful escapmle obliged him to flee from Xajiles, and he
went to Rome. Here he so<m made friends among the
great, but toward 1002 he went to Venice to see through the
press a collection of his poems. La Lira (3 parts, 1002-14).
Returning to Rome in 160;{ he lived with Canlinal .Aldo-
brandini, whom he ac<'ompanie<l to Ravenna a little later.
In 1008 we find him living in Turin, where he found favor
for a lime at the ducal court. In 1015, however, he went
to Paris, where he was kindly treated by Marie de' Meiiici
and by Louis XIII. His literary fame was now very gn-at,
and he exercised a powerful influence u|)on the ideals, not
only of Italian, but also of French writers. For a time, in-
deed, his style was the model to which all elegant poets
strove to conform, and Marinism, like Euphuism in England
and Gongorism in Spain, becanu" a vcritublc di^'iix-. In
1023 he returned to Italy, and after a time in Turin he s»'t-
tled in Rome, where he was shown cxtraonlinary honor, and
made Prince of the Academy of the " I'mori.-'li." Finally,
he went back to Xaples. where the splendor of his n-i-eption
w(Ls in marke<l contrast to the maimer of his de|ittrture vears
before. IX at Naples. Mar. 25. 1025. F-w; 'ex-
erted a greater influence than he uiKin their ihe\
ami it must In- admitted that real exnlUii. -work
in part justify this. His ideals, however, Uilh moral and
literary, wert' mainly vicious, and show us the divaying
Renaissance at its worst. Besides the collection of p<H'ms
mentionetl alMive. Marini wrote many other works, but the
most im|>orlant is the long f>oem of 45,000 verses, en-
titled Adone (l.st e<l. Paris. 1023). Though purp<irting
552
MARINO
MARION
to deal with the love of Venus ami Adonis, the poem
was used by its author as a receptacle for all kinds of
matters. Much autobiographical information, for example,
is to bo found in it. The work is extremely licentious, and
the stvie is often painfiiUv mannered. See V. Mango, Le
fonti deir Adotie (1 urin. 1891 ). Also M. Mcngliini, La vita
e le opcre di Giambattista JIarini (Konie, 1888).
A. K. Marsh.
Marino, mn")i-rce'no : town in the province of Rome, Italy;
beautifidly situated on a slope of ihe Alban Hills; 12 miles
S. E. of the city of Rome (see map of Italy, ref. 6-K). The
walls and towers present a very picturcs(iue appearance ; its
streets and squares are broad, and the public buildings,
especially the churches, are well worthy of notice, botli for
their external architecture and their interior decorations.
In 1347 it was the scene of a conflict between Rienzi and
the great Orsini family, after which it was for a long time
in the hands of the (,'olonna, who still have large possessions
here. There is more manufacturing industry in this place
than is usnal in this iiart of Italy. Marino was the birth-
place of the celebrated Victoria Colonna. Pop. 6,070.
Mario, ma~a-ree'(i, Gu'seppe, Marquis di Candia: opera-
singer ; b. at Cagliari, Sardinia, Oct. 18, 1810 ; served for
some time in the Sardinian army, from which he resigned,
and, when his resignation was not accepted, succeeded in
escaping to Paris. Having received a fine musical educa-
tion, and possessing an admirable tenor voice, whicli he im-
proveil by two years' study in Paris, he accepted an en-
gagement in opera, and made his debut, under the assumed
name of Mario, in Robert le Diable. lie soon became the
acknowledged leading tenor, and was a great favorite in
England and on the Continent. He married Giulia Grisi,
by whom he had several children. In 1854, in company
with Grisi, he fulfilled a successful operatic engagement in
the principal cities of the U. S. In 1871 he retired from the
stage in London, but in 1872 appeared in concert in the
U. S. with poor success, his voice having lost its beauty. D.
iQ Rome, Deo. 11,1883.
Marioi'atry [from Gr. Mapia, Mary + \arpda. priestly
service, worsiiipj: the worship of Jlary, the mother of
Jesus. This has no foundation whatever in the New Testa-
ment, but developed naturally as Jesus became the Church
doctrine and less the Friend of man, the Klder Brother of the
whole human family. The heart of the Church found in
the mother of Jesus the tenderness and sympathy the intel-
lect had deprived it of when it formulated its cold and ab-
stract theories of the person of Jesus from the idea of Christ
as the God-Man. Before the close of the fourth century
there had been produced a considerable amount of apocry-
phal and legendary descriptions intended to supplement
the meager information which the Gospels give concerning
the mother of Jesus. From the Nestorian controversy this
whole movement received a decided impetus. The question
arose and was hotly discussed whether Mary should be
styled " mother of God," or only " mother of Christ." Nes-
torius rejected the former title as inappropriate, but was
condemned by the Synod of Ephesus (431), and the Fathers
who had defended "mother of God" were accomj)anied with
torchlights and incense-burning from the assembly-room of
the synod through the illumined city to tlieir respective
stopping-places. Thus the worship of Mary was established,
and it rapidly increased during the next centuries. After
the iconoclastic controversies, images of her became very
frequent not only in the churches ami houses, but also in
the streets and along the roads, and it l)eeame customary to
light candles and burn incense in front of them. Number-
less miracles were wrought by her relics and images, and
Saturday was consecrated to her memory. The Synod of
Toulouse (122!)) fined people for neglecting her worship.
The modern Roman C'hurch, under the impetus of Pius
IX., has declared (1854) that Mary was immaculatelv con-
ceived. The Protestant position is that her worship lirings
to her the homage, trust, and affection which rightly be-
long to her Son alone. See Mary.
Revised by S. M. Jackso.v.
Marion : town ; capital of Perry co., Ala. (for location of
county, see map of Alabama, ref. 5-C) ; on the K. Tenn.,
Va. and Ga. Rjidway: 30 miles N. W. of Selma. It is the
seat of the Marion Veuiale .Seuiinarv (non-sectarian, char-
terc<l 1836), Jndson Female Institute '(Baptist, openeil 1839),
and Marion Military Institute (non-sectarian, opened 1887);
is principally engaged in agriculture ; and has weekly and
quarterly periodicals. Pop. (1880) 2,074 ; (1890) 1,982!
Marion: city; capital of Williamson co.. 111. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Illinois, ref. 11-K); on the St. L.,
Alt. and Terre II. Railroad : 1 72 miles S. by E. of Springfiehl.
It is in an agriculture and coal region, has woolen and cot-
ton mills, and contains 6 churches, graded public school,
county buildings, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880)
881; (1890) 1,338; (1893) estimated, 1,800.
Editor of " Leader."
Marion : city : capital of Grant co.. Ind. (for location of
county, see maji of Indiana, ref. 4-F) ; on the Mississinewa
river, and the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L., the Pitts., Cin.,
Chi. and St. L., and the Toledo, St. L. and Kan. City rail-
ways ; 41 miles S. E. of Logansport, 67 miles N. E. of Iml-
ianapolis. It is an agricultural, fruit-growing, and natural-
gas region; has 72 numufacturing establishments, including'
10 glass-factories, malleable-iron works, and flour and roll-
ing mills: is the seat of a national soldiers' home which
cost over $1,000,000: and has a normal college, high-school
building which cost |60.000. electric street-railway, and a
monthly, 2 daily, and 2 weekly periodicals. Pop. (1880)
3,182 ; (1890) 8,769. Editor of " Chronicle."
Marion : city ; capital of Linn co., la. (for location of
county, see map of Iowa. ref. 4-J); on the Chi.. Jlil. and St.
P. Railway : 6 miles N. E. of Cedar Rapi<ls, 70 miles .S. W.
of Dubu(jue. It has important manufactures, including
foundry products, flour, carriages, furniture, and agricul-
tural imjilements, and 2 public parks and 3 weekly news-
papers. Pop. (1880) 1,939; (1890) 3,094; (1895) 3,766.
Marion: city: capital of Marion co., Kan. (for location
of county, see map of Kansas, ref. 6-G) ; on the CottonwoiKi
river, and the Chi., Rock Is. and Pac. and the Atch., Top.
and S. Fe railways; 104 miles S. W. of Topeka. It is in an
agricultural, fruit-growing, and stock-raising region ; con-
tains 4 churches, 2 public schools, several public parks, and
valuable mineral springs; and has an iron-foundry, flour-
mills, an<i 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 857; (1890>
2,047 ; (1895) 2,077. Editor of " Record."
Marion : city ; capital Marion co., O. (for location of
county, see map of Ohio, ref. 4-E); on the Cleve., Cin., Chi.
and St. L., the Col., Hock. Vai. and Toledo, the Col., San-
dusky and Hock. Val., and the Erie railways ; 40 miles N. of
Columbus. It is in an agricultural region ; has large steam-
shovel works, malleable-iron works, thresher and engine
works, track-sulky and mattress factories, and lime-kilns;
and contains a normal school, business college, 2 State banks
with combined ca[)ilal of .$425,000, a banking company with
capital of $200,000, and a private bank, and 2 daily, a semi-
weekly, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,899 ; (1890)
8,327. Editor ok '• Evextnq Star."
Marion : town ; capital of Marion co.. S. C. (for location of
county, see map of South Carolina, ref. 5-G) : on the Wil-
mington, Col. and Augusta Railroad; 85 miles W. of Wil-
mington, N. C, 125 miles E. by N. of Columbia. The Great
Peedee river, navigable for steamboats, is 8 miles distant.
The town is in a cotton-growing region, and has two week-
ly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 824; (1890) 1,640.
Marion : town : capital of Smyth co., Va. (for location of
county, see map of Virginia, ref. 7-C) ; on the Norfolk and
Western Railroad : 160 miles W. of Lynchburg. It is in an
agricultural, mining, and cattle-raising region; has flour-
mills, iron-foundry, and agricultural-implement works; and
contains Marion Fenuile College, a high school, and two
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 919 ; (1890) 1,651.
Marion, Francis : soldier ; b. at Winyaw, near George-
town, S. C, in 1732, of Huguenot ancestry; received a very
limited education ; went to sea at the age of sixteen, ana
barely escaped with his life from a vessel that foundered on
a voyage to the West Indies. He volunteered in the expe-
dition of Gov. Lvttletcin against the Cherokees (1759), and
was a captain in Middleton's regiment in 1701. He served
with honor in the Revolutionary war. taking part in the de-
fense of Fort Moultrie, in the siege of Savannah, and in the
defense of Charleston, but his most noteworthy aeliieve-
nu'Uts belong to the last two years of the war. during which
he maintained a harassing partisan warfare against the
British. He recruited a few companies from anumg his
neighbors, who were ol)liged to conlent themselves with the
rudest arms and ec|uipmenls. and joined Gen. Gates in
North Carolina, but this re-enforcement met only with ridi-
cule on account of its ragged condition. Marion was re-
turning from a bootless errand against the British boats on
the neighboring rivers at the time Gales was defeated at
I
I
MARIONETTES
MARITIME PROVINCE
553
Camden (August), and falling suddenly upon the British
guards he succeeded in rescuing the Continental prisfjners.
A few days later ho surprised and dispersed in quick suc-
cession two bodies of Tories, baflled pursuit by Tarlcton,
and from that time was for more than two years engaged
in a constant scries of adventurous forays and mana-uvers
which procured him the name of the ■•t)WHm[) Fox," and
laid a basis for a thousand legendary tales. He oecusionally
undertook more formal warfare in the capture of British
outposts, and took part in several buttles in connection with
the army of (ireene. After the evacuation of Charleston
(Dec, 1782) Marion disbanded his forces and resumed the
life of a farmer, and married a la<ly of wealth. He served
in the State Semite and the constitutional convention of
1790, was until 1794 a general of the State militia, ami
died on his plantation near Eutaw, Feb. 29. 179.'5. See his
Life, by Uorry and Weems, and that by W. G. Simms.
Marionettes' [plur. of marionette ■=■ Fr., liter., dimin. of
Marie. .Mary), or I'lip'pets [from O. Fr. poiipette, doll,
pujmet ; cf. Fr. poup^e. doll < deriv. of Lat. puppa, girl,
doll] : small figures set in motion on a miniature stage by
a concealed mechanism of springs and wires or cords, to rep-
resent the action of a pantomime. This amusement was
known both to the Greeks and Romans (Gr. iyiXfiara vevpi-
o-rwrra; Lat. imagiincuta), htis been popular in Italy ever
since the Mid<lle Ages under the name of fantoccini, and
was introduced into France in the time of Charles IX. In
England the puppet-show Wfis common in the time of Eliza-
beth, as may be gathered from allusions in Hamlet, Two
Oenttemen of Verona, and Ben Jonson's Jiartholomew Fair.
Regular dramas were sometimes attempted, as in the case
of Jonson's Bartholomew Fair, so named from the locality
in London which was then the chief resort of puppet-players.
Puppets were still popular in the days of Swift and The
Spectator, but for a century and a half thereafter were rare-
ly seen except at country fairs or as strolling "Punch-and-
judy shows, ' until in 1872 they reappeared in London, uiuler
the name of " marionettes," as a French novelty, and were
exhibited for munv months with very complete apparatus
and scenery at the figyptian Hall. Since that time the mari-
onettes have l>een represented in various parts of the U. S.
and in the Spanish-American republics. See PfNCH.
Mnrlotte'8' Law: the principle, called otherwise Borle's
Lmv. tlml if the temperature remains the same the volume
of a gas will vary inversely as the pressure. This formula
was enunciated independently both by Mariotte (a French
physicist, d. 1684) and Bovlk (g. e.), and is found very nearly
true in experiment with gases not too near their point of
condensation. With those which under severe pressure be-
come liquefied, departures from the law occur, which are
wider the more nearly the point of liquefaction is approached,
the diminution of volume being more than proj)ortional to
the increa.se of pressure. See Gas and Heat. E. L. N.
Mariiittl. L. : See Gallesiia, Antonio Carlo Nai-oleone.
Mariposa Lilies [mnripasn is Span, for butterfly]: popu-
lar name for s|)ecies of Calochortus, a genus of liliaceous
plants, all natives of the
Western I". S. and Mexico.
They grow from corms,
uroiiuciiig .sparingly leafy,
herbaceous stems, bearing
large, showy, terminal flow-
ers, consisting of three outer
narrow segments, and three
inner broad ones, which
are mostly glandular and
Ijeardeil. Thirty-two spe-
cies are known, of which
C. venuMua, C. liiteim, and
C. pnleheUns of Califor-
nia, and C. nnlallii and
C fftinninonii of the Rooky
Mountains, are U'st known.
Many s[)eeies are cultivated
in garilens in the U. S. and
Europe; they arc sometimes called butterfly lilies.
Charles E. Be,ssev.
Mariposan Indians, or Ynkiits Indians [.Varipoiuin is
from the Spanish maripona. butterfly, the name of a county
of California; yoA-u/« signifies Indian or Indians in the na-
tive tongue]: a linguistic stock of North .Vmerican Imlians
comprising the Cholovone and Yukuts divisions. At the
Flower of Calochortus vmtutus.
time of the American possession the latter inliabited a terri-
tory embracing that part of California liounde<l on the N.
by Fresno river up to the point of junction with the San
Joaquin, thence by a line running to the northeast corner
of tlie Salinan territory, aliout Big Panixjlie creek, San
Benito County, on the \\ . by a somewhat irregular line ex-
tending from iSan Ik-nito to Mt. Pinos. The eastern boundary
was the secondary range of the Sierra Nevada. The CholJ-
vone division occupied the east bank of the San Jowjuin,
from the Stanislaus to the [Mjint where the Sun Jomjuin
turns westward to enter Suisun Bay, being thus se|iarated
from the Yokuls by Moquelumnan stf>ck. Unlike most of
the California tribes, the ^Ia^ipos«n, partieularlv the S'okuta
group (which embraced some twenty-four smalf triU*), dis-
played great political solidarity, and hence were more cap-
able of iK'ing ^roui>ed into coherent masses, before the ad-
vent of the whites. Their villages were very small. Every
large natural division, such as a river-valley," constituted tb'o
domain of a tribe, which had its hereditary chief.
The food-supply of the Mariposan Indians included a
number of farinaceous products, besides caterpillars, grass-
hoppers, a huge succulent worm resembling the toljaeco-
worm, dogs, and even skunks. The coyote and rattlesnake
were considered sacred, the former being revered as the
creator of the universe. Their medical treatment was chicflv
by scarifications with flints, since it was l>elieved that all
diseases resided in the blooti. Sweat-houses were in use by
the Mariposan as well as, probably, by all other California
tribes. .Sorcery prevailed, and their wizards induceil de-
lirium by chewing jimson (Datura) seeds, their ravings
while under its influence being regarded as divinely in-
spired oracles.
As a race the Mariposan tribes were considered peaceful.
Although they celebrated a war-dance they took no scal|>s.
They were devoted to gambling, the women having a sejui-
rate game similar to dice-throwing. JIarriage among the
Y'okuts was by purchase, and before the appearance of the
whites all the Mariposan tribes, unlike the northern natives,
were comparatively virtuous. Infanticide was practiced in
case of deformity. Cremation was common to ail the tribes
of this stock except the Chukchansi, who were said to bum
only those who died a violent death, or were snake-bitten.
Among the ceremonials of the Y'okutswas the weird "dauee
for the dead " which was continued for nearly a week.
In 18.")0 the population of the various Mari|)osan tribes was
probably between 2.0(X) and 3.000. .According to the census of
18!I0 but 1G7, classed as "desert Indians," survived. These
are under the mission agency of California.
Authorities. — Powers, 7'ribex of California, Contribu-
iions to Sorth American Ethnology, iii. (Washington, 1877) ;
Bancroft, History of California, vols, i.-vii. (San Francisco,
1884-90). See Inuu.ns OK "NoRTU America. F. W. Houok.
Maritime Law: See I.ntersatio.sal Law.
Maritime ProTince (in Russian, /Vi'morsAniVi OblasD:
the province which occupies the eastern coast of Siberia, in-
cluding all the adjacent islandsexeeptSaghalin, which is an
independent province. It is Iwunded on the N. by the Arctic
Ocean, on the E. by Bering Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the
Sea of Japan, and on the S. by Korea. On the W. it is
sei)arate<l from Manchuria by the Usuri river as far as
Lake Khanka. and S. of that bv the coast watershe<l ; from
the .\mur province and Yakutsk generally by the watershed
of the eastern coast. The western boundary terminates in
the Bay of Chaoun, on the .Arctic Ocean, in Ion. 170 E. .\s
thus limited, the province is long and narrow, extending
from 42 19 N. to 70' N., and having a breadth varying
from only a few miles on the Sea of Okhot.sk to over 400
within the .Arctic circle. The total area is 71.5,982 s<|. miles,
of which a.SOO is in islamls and ;».4()0 in Inkes. l'o\>. (1889)
102.786. The coasts have abundant harbors, but they are
all closed by freezing for a part of the year. The interior
is generally mountainous, except l»'yond iheAn-tic eirt-lc,
where Inrge plains or tundras pn'vail. The Amur river
[lasses through the province N. W. from the junction of
the I'suri. a distance of about 700 miles. The I'suri rises
in Ijikc Khanka, and flows N. HM or 400 miles until it
joins the .Amur. The only other large river is the .Xnuilvr,
within the .Arctic circle. It is a considerable stnam. with
a length of probably 700 miles, emptying into tlietiulfof
Ana<lyr of Bering Sea. The climate ri~i«-mbles that of the
east coast of North .America fn>m Baflin's Land to New
England. AtK>ut the .Amur it is like the Province of Ouelx*,
and to the southward like New England. The soil is in
55i
MARITZA
MARK
E laces excellent, the summers are hot, and the rainfall suf-
cient. It is a promising region for immigration, ami elTorts
arc being made by the Hiissian (iovernmont to till it with
Russians rather than with the t'hinese, who are rapidly
flowing in. For the I'suri region free passage was given
to Russians in the following numbers for the years named :
1883, 1.596 persons; 1884, J,87y: 1885, 2.458'; 188ti, 2.847.
The capital was at first Nikolaeisk, at the mouth of the
Amur, but was later moved to Kabarofka, at the junction
of the Usuri. Later the southern part of the province was
acquired, and the capital was moved to Vladivostok, a mag-
nificent port near the southeast angle of t lie province, a place
now strongly fortified. Mark W. IIakkinuton.
Maritza [anc. //■in/.'!, famous in mythology! : principal
river of European Turkey. It rises in the Halkans, flows
generally S. K., becomes navigable at Adrianople, and emp-
ties into the ^Egean Sea at Enos.
Mar'iiis, Gaus: a Roman general; was born in 155
B. r. at Ar|>inum, the birthplace of Cicero. His parents
were of humble station, although it has been suggested that
the lowliness of his origin has been exaggerated. A career
was opened to him by the fact that at the siege of Numan-
tia (in 134) he attracted the attention of the younger Scipio
Africanus, because of his valor. Fifteen years later he ap-
pears in the otVice of a tribune of the people, in which his
opposition to the aristocracy was pronounced from the first.
A little later he acquired distincticm and influence by
marrying Julia, a Roman lady of prominent family, the
aunt of .lulius Ca'sar. In lO'.t he was Icgatus in the army of
Qiiintus Metellus. who was directing the operation of the
long-drawn-out war against Jugurtha in Africa. Here he
speedily became known as an efTicient officer, and won the
sympathy of his sokliers to an unusual extent, thus paving
the way to preferment in office. In the year 107 he was
elected consul, and intrusted with the task of bringing tlic
war with Jugurtha to a close. This he succeeded in doing,
although much credit was due to the efficient aid of his
questor Sulla, who secured possessitm of the person of Ju-
gurtha. At the time of JIarius's return from Africa, Italy
was threatened with invasion from the north by vast hordes
of Cimbri and Teutons. For years they had menaced the
northern frontier, and had defeated many Roman armies
that had been sent against them. In expectation of a con-
test with them Marius was elected consul for the third time
in 103 n. c. and again in 102. In this year the barbarians
returning from Spain were plaiuiing to invade Italy. ( )ne
portion (if them, consisting of Teutons, was met by Marius
on the Rhone at Aix and totally annihilated. The Cindjri
meantime had entered Northern Italy by the eastern defiles
of the Aljis, and in the following year they, too, were at-
tacked and overwhelmingly defeated at Vercelli. Marius
returned to Rome in triumph and was received with unpre-
cedented marks of honor. He was elected to the consulship
again in the year 100, but in peace he was unable to main-
tain the leading position wliieli war had confcrri'd upon
him, and accordingly we hear nothing of him for a iuind)er
of years. At the end of the social war in 88 B. c. he suc-
ceeded by violent and unconstitutional means in securing
for himself the command of the war against Mithridatcs,
which the senate had already intrusted to SuUa. The lat-
ter, however, was in possession of the army, an<l Marius had
to flee for safety, first to Minlurna? (where a fruitless elTnrt
was made to kill him) and then to Africa. Meantime Sulla
had proceeded against Mithridatcs, and in his absence Rome
was the scene of great confusion and disorder, during which
Marius returned. He allied himself with C'inna, the consul
of the popular party, who had been excluded from Ronu' by
his colleague Octavius, and togetlier they inaugurated a reign
of terror ami vengeance such as Rome had never before
seen. They were designated as consuls for the following
year, 86 n. c. during which Marius died at the age of sev-
enty. JIarius was a soldier and nothing else ; his influence
on subsequent events of Roman history consisted chiefly in
the establishment of an army of paid and professional sol-
diers in place of a citizen militia, and in the introduction of
better methods of handling the legion. Many of the most
characteristic features of Roman military organization and
discipline date from his innovations; but the brilliancy of
his victories over Jugurtha and the Cimbri ami Teutons
was heavily shadowed by the unscrupulousness and ferocity
which he displayed in his old age. U. L. HKNDaicKso.N.
Marivaiix. nuia'ree vo', I'ierre Cari.et ue CuAMni.AiN,
de : dramatist and novelist ; b. in I'aris, France, Feb. 4, 1688.
His first literary efforts were travesties and novels: Phnr-
snmon. oh les f'olie'S romanexqiies (1712), a parody of Dun
(Quixote; Kffetii mirprenantu de la Ki/mpatlu'e (I'llS); llomere
t ra vest i (Mid) ; La Voitxire embourbee (1714). Losing a part
of his modest means in the speculations of Law he turned to
journalism, without much success, publishing in 1722-23 Le
Spectateur franfai.1 in imitation of Aildison, and later two
other periodicals, L' Indigent philusophe and Le Cabinet du
phildKiiplie. His chief fame is due to his comedies, which to
the number of twenty-eight were given at the Theatre Italien
and the Theatre Franyais between 1720 and 1756. The best
of these, as the Jeu de rAmuur et du JIa.iard (1730), Le Legs
(1736), Les Fansses Confidences (1737), and L'A'preiwe
(1740), have held their place upon the stage, atid are among
the best representatives of French comeily. His strength is
in minute psychological analysis. Incidents count for lit-
tle, and there are no strongly individualized characters or
striking pictures of society; but a pa.ssion or sentiment is
followe<l, in its birth, growth, or transformation, with the
nicest skill tlirough all its intricate turnings and doublings,
advances, hesitations, and retreats. The delicate analysis
of sentiment in nicely chosen and refined phrase is so con-
sjiicuously his mark that it has since been called mariian-
claye. The same qualities are found in his later novels,
both unfinished. La Vie de Mariane (1731—41) and Le
I'ai/sa?i iKtrvmu (1735-36), which have been of influence
for the English novel. His (JCuvres completes were j)ub-
lished in 1827-30 (10 vols.) ; his best comedies, as Theatre
clioisi, are in the collections of Gamier and Didot. Cf. G.
Larroumet, Marivaux : sa vie et ses muvres (Paris, 1882).
A. G. Caneield.
Mar'jornni [.M. Eng. mar/oran, from one of the Rom.
langs. ; cf. Span., I'rovcnc;., Ital. majorana. Mod. Fr. mar-
Jolaine; \inder influence of popular etymology corrupted
from Lat. a/na'raciis =:Gr. afiipaxo!]: a po]iular name for
several aromatic labiate herbs of the genus Oriqanum.
The common marjoram (0. vulgare) has been naturalized in
the U. S. from Europe. Its leaves are used in cookery, and
its essential oil is employed in liniments. The sweet mar-
joram of the gardens, 0. majorana of the south of Europe
and the Levant, is much pleasanter in odor and taste than
0. vulgare, and is employed in garnishing meats and sea-
soning soups.
Marjoribanks, maarchbSnks, Edward, Lord Tweed-
mouth': statesnuin; b. in London, England, July 8, 1849.
He was educated at Oxford, and was called to the bar in
is74. He was Liberal member of Parliament for Herwick-
shire in 1880; moved the address in answer to the sj)eech
from the throne in 1883; became second whip of the Liberal
party in 1886; and patronage secretary to the treasury in
Air. Gladstone's administration in 1892. He became Lord
Tweedmouth on the death of his father March 4, 1894.
Mark [= Germ. mark-< M. II. Germ, inarc, marke, half-
jiound of silver or gold, M. Eng. and 0. Eng. tnare, O. N.
m({rk. Origin obscure] : a term employed since the middle
of the eleventh century, throughout the states of Germany
and also in Spain and Portugal, to signify a half-pound
weight of gold or silver. The same term has also been used
in many of these states to designate the unit of account in
their monetary systems. These monetary units were origi-
nally identical with the unit of weight, but by the continual
degnuliilion and debasement of the coinage came in the
lapse of Uuw to represent very inferior and, in different
stales, very unequal values. Thus the silver mark current
of Hamburg became worth no more than l.s-. 2Jt/. sterling =
.$0.29, the mark banco = Is. 5-57(/. = $0.35^. A mark also
was used in England, equal to 13«. 4</. = ^3.24J ; and an-
other in Scotland, equal to 13if/. = $0.27. In most of the
(ierman states it has been the usage during the past century
or two to fix the standard of the silver coins in actual use
by <ieclaring what numlier of such coins shall be struck
from one mark by weight of pure silver, the standard mark
being the mark o'f Cologne, containing 3,608 English grains,
exceeding half an avoirdupois pound by 108 grains. Thus
llj thalers of Lubeck were coined from one Cologne mark
of fine silver, and 14 thalers of Prussia from one such Co-
logne mark.
Since the formation of the German empire the term
" mark " has been applied to the standard unit of the im-
[jerial monetary system, the value being lixed by the enact-
ment that 139i'teii-mark pieces, or 693 twenty-mark jiieces,
shall be made from one Gernnui pound (5(io grammes) of
fine gold. A mark of the empire has therefore the value of
MARK
555
fO.23-8213 of the money of the U. S. As the standard of
fold coinatje is but iiine-lenths tine, a ten-mark piece weighs
9825 grammes = ti I ^SUa {Trains, and a twentv-raark piece
7-965 grammes = 1221)18 grains tr.))-. '
Mark, Saint [Mark is from Lat. Jfarcim, whence fir.
MofiKoj]: the author of the second book of the New Testa-
ment. I. Ai/c— Tliere was in the primitive Church an
office which occupied an intermediate position between the
apostolate and the ministry— namely, that of tvnugeUnl or
missionary of the second order, suboVdinate to the a|)ostles
<Eph. iv. 11). .Mark belonged to this diuss of ecck'siastical
functionaries. He is believed to have been a native of Je-
rusalem, where his mother, called Marv, owned a house
(Acts xii. 12). His Israelitic name was John, but to this
■was added, according to a Jewish custom of thai time, the
Roman surname of Mark. A singidar tradition preserved
in some old documents tells that he was of priestly descent,
and, having once embraced Christianity, he cut off one
finger in order that the defect might make him unsuitable
for the performance of any service in the temple.* The
first part of this tradition is supported by the circumstance
that, according to Col. iv. 10, he was a cousin of Barnabas
the Lcvitc. He was no doubt w<m to the faith by St. Pe-
ter, who was a friend of his faTnily (Acts xii. 13, 'l4), and
calls him his «on in the same spiritual sense of the word in
which Paul gives this name to Titus and Timothy (1 Pet. v.
13). The Gospel of Mark contains a short narrative, omitted
in the other Gospels, of a young man who, observing what
took place at Gethsemane,'fled when surprised by the con-
stables, leaving behind him the hnen robe in which he was
wrap|)ed. The fact that the evangelist recorded this inci-
dent, which is of no particular interest, lends niiturallv to
the conclusion that this young man was Murk himself, who,
living in the vicinity, heard the noise and wouUl see what
was going on. .Mark aj.pears for the first time in the evan-
gelical history in Acts xiii., when, alxiut the year 44, Paul
and Barnabas set out on their first missionary journey
among the pagans to the island of Cyprus and the adjacent
parts of Asia Minor. (In their arrival in the wild regions
of the Taurus Mountains, Mark left the two missionaries
and returned to Jerusalem; and this circumstance was the
reason why on his second journey St. Paul absolutely re-
fused to have him for a companion.' though Barnabas, whom
their relationship no doubt made more lenient, insisted on
it. The two missionaries then separated, Paul taking Silas
along with him, instead of Barnabas, and Timothy instea<i
of .Mark, while Barnabas, together with Mark, weiit to the
island of Cyprus, and thence to other countries which are
not specially mentioned in the history (Acts xv. 37, neq.).
Later on, however, Mark became reconciled to St. Paul.
We find them together at Rome about the year 62, when
Paul remembers him to the Colossians and f hilemon (Col.
iv. 10: Philem. 24), and toward the close of his life Paul
called him a second time to stay with him as a coadjutor
'•profitable for the ministry " (2 'tim. iv. 11). Nevertheless,
.Afark appears to have been most closely connected with Pe-
ter. A tradition, almost unanimous, designates him as the
companion of Peter, either his secretary or his internreter.
It is difficult, however, to ascertain at what time Mark thus
accompanied Peter. In 62, when he was in Rome with
Paul, Peter was certainly not there, since he is not men-
tioned in the Kpistles written during the Roman captivity
(Colossians, Kphesians. Philemon, and Philippians). It mus't
have been either before or after. If before, it is necessary
to consider the city of Babylon, whence Peter wrote his
First Epistle (1 Pet. v. 13), a!s Babylon pro|>er, situated on
the Euphrates, and to admit that bi'fore Peter went to the
(X-cident he had visited, together with Mark, the numerous
Jewish settlements in Syria and Mesopotamia; but, then,
why shoulil Mark separate from him and go to Rome to
stay with PaiiH If o//er, there remains only the year 03
and the first half of 64 for the voyages of Mark with Peter,
which is a very short term. In this case it must Iw ailmitted
that at the time when the Epistle to the Colossians was sent
off, Mark himself was going to the Orient (iv. 10); that he
met Peter in Asia Minor, accompanied him, and went with
him to Rome, whence Peter wrote his First Epi-stle to the
churches of Asia. If so, Babylon is usi'd figuratively for
Rome, which, indeed, is the conception of most of the Fa-
thers. Several ancient writers attribute to Mark the foun-
• This (n p«'rhap8 ttie rea.<ton why (he Philn»nphumma call him
the «oAo3o^KTvAo<. the '*Rtump-flii(fere<1." thoiiKh It would be poioil-
ble to HxplHin thLs suroaine froiu the luuliUted stAt« of the la«t |i«rt
of his UosiH-l.
dation of the Church of Alexandria. According to them
he was the first bishop of that Church, died there, and left
the episcopal see to Anianus.* At all events, it was from
Alexandria that in the Middle Ages the Venetians carried
his ashes, ami deitosiled them in the cathedral to which
they gave his name. It is (Mjssible that Barnabas and Mark
after leaving Paul went to Alexandria, where there was a
numerous and rich Jewish imnulation wishing to have the
Gospel preached to them. When St. Paul wrote the Eiiis-
tle to the Romans, in the winter of 58-59, he deilared that
all the great centers of the Urient were evangelized, and
that there was no more room for his labor in those coun-
tries (Rom. IV.). Could he have spoken thus if no mission-
ary had as yet visited Egypt* If Mark and Baniabas are
the founders of the Church of this country, it is easy to un-
derstand that it was hither Mark went when in 64 Peter
died at Rome during the pcrsitutions of Nero. Chrysos-
tom, moreover, asserts that it was at Alexandria ho com-
posed his Gospl. Thus the career of Mark, although not
so very conspicuous, is nevertheless very interesting. lie
forms a connecting link between the great apostles. At-
tached now to Barnaba-s. now to Paul, and now to Peter,
he resembles a comet which successively traverses the orbits
of the great planets, accompanying them for some mo-
ments, though always preserving its independence: and
to these personal relations correspond the relations between
his and the three other Gospels.
II. Gospel.— The testimonies of the Fathers relative to
our second canonical Gospel are nearly unanimous with
respect to the following three points: (1) That it was com-
posed by the evangelist Mark ; (2) that Mark wrote it from
the narrations which he heard from the lips of Peter in the
churches which he visited together with him; (3) that it
was written at Rome, and on the demand of the Christians
of that capital. With respect to the first point, it follows
from the title, "according to Mark," which title the work
must have received at the time when the collection of our
Gospels was made; that is, at the latest, in the first half of
the second century. With respect to the second point, we
will only quote the tradition given by Papias, ana by him
received from an ancient presbyter of Palestine called John,
who by some is identified with the ai)Ostle .St. John : " Mark,
having become the secretary of Peter, wrote down exactly
all that he remembered of the words and deeds of Christ,
though not in order. For he had never himself heard or
accompanied the Lord, but, as above mentioned, he accom-
panied Peter, and Peter made his narrations according to
the demands of the moment, and not for the purpose of
jjiving a complete exposition of the discourses of the IjOftl.
Thus Mark has made no fault in writing down the facta
detached as he remembered them, simply wishing not to
omit anything of what he had heard, nor to alter it." With
respect to the third point, the composition of the Gospel as
having taken place at Rome, we have a detailed testimony
in two passages of Clement of Alexandria, of which we give
this one : "As Peter preached the Gospel publicly at Rome,
and stated several words of Christ in the presence of a num-
ber of prominent men, these desired to keep firmly in their
memory what they had heard, and applied to Mark, the
companion of the apostle, who afterward wrote those ac-
counts, which are called the Gosi>el acconiinp to Mark."
The contents of the Gospel itself confirm these three points.
To begin with the last : (1) Is it not evident that the sec-
ond Gospel was written for Christians of |iagan origin,
since it omits throughout the evidence of the .Missiahship
of Jesus drawn from the prophecies of the Old Testament,
and gives explanations of Jewish customs unnecessary to
Christians of Hebrew origin t The most striking example
is found in Mark vii. 1-4, especially when compared with
Malt. XV. 1-2, destined for converted Jews. Furthermore,
is it not evident that these Christians were of Latin origin,
since Mark alwavs prefers I>atin terms, IlelleniziHl, to the
Greek terms, ami in the account of the p^"ir widow even
transfers the Greek money into Roman (xii. 42), which Luke
does not f Dws it not follow from the notice ridating to
Simon of Cyrene, "the father of Alexandi-r and Rufus " (it.
21 ), that these were Latin ri'aiiers. since Rufus was a member
of the chun'h of Rome (Rom. xvi. 13i, and thi " 'tail
coulil interest none who were not iHTsonnllv b' - ith
the members of the family f (2) It is as iikl': .hat
the statements of Peter must have served as a liaius for the
work. A multitude of small details lK>tniy the remem-
brance of an eye-witnes.'<: "And he was in tHe hinder part
• ElUM-bliui. Hitloria Hrrltnattica, It., M.
556
MARK
MARKET
of the ship, asleep on a pillow " (iv. 38) ; " and he, casting;
atcai/ his garment, rose, and came to ,Iesus " <x. 50) ; " And
when he had looked around about on them with anger, being
grieved for the hardness of their hearts, he siiitli unto the
man" (iii. 5); " Anti looking up to hearen, he sighed, and
saith unto him " (vil. 34) ; " Then Jesus beholding him. loved
him" (X. 21). Who else but an eye-witness, (juite near
Jesus, and observinf; with deep interest his impressions, can
have seized this flash of love in his eye and introduced such
a feature in the narrative f The same conehision follows
from the Aramaic expressions which Mark inserts, such as
Abba, Talilha-cumi, etc. The narrator reproduces the very
words of the Lord, whose voice he seems to hear; but this
witness so intimate can not be he who anions; the disciples
loved Jesus most; it must be ho who admired him most,
Throuj;hout the whole narrative he strives at one aim only
— to impress the reader with that admiration which ]iene-
trated all who came in contact with Jesus: and uU people
were amazed imd filled with fear, etc., are ex|)ressions com-
mon throughout the whole narrative, but such expressions
make us immediately think of Peter, the passioiuite admirer
and enthusiastic confessor of Christ. Of whom else could
we think when reading the scene between Jesus and his dis-
ciples at Ciesarea Philippi (viii. 2T-;W)? Our evangelist
here reports the crushing words of Jesus to Peter: "Get
thee beliind me, Satan; for thou savorest not the things
that be of God, but the things that be of men"; but he
omits the honoring words which preceded immediately,
" And I sav also unto thee, that thou art Pet^r, and upon
this rock I will build my Church " — two traits which are
closely connected in the account of Matthew (xvi, 13-33).
Such a manner of narrating must eit her proceed from Peter
himself or from a declared enemy of his; the latter suppo-
sition would be absurd. It is also in this Gospel alone that
we find mentioned the crowing of the cock twice, a little
trait which makes the denial of Peter still more inexcusable.
In the Acts (x.) we find a specimen of Peter's manner of
teaching while founding or traveling in order to build up
the churches. This speech of the apostle at Cornelius is a
sketch of the history of Jesus, exactly such as it is devel-
oped into details in our second Gospel : it is, indeed, as it
. has sometimes been called, the Gospel of Mark in a nutshell.
(3) The authorship of Mark might be inferred from the two
following facts, even if we had no tradition: First, the style
of our Gospel is so absolutely different from that of the
First Epistle generally attributed to Peter that even though
the statements belong to Peter the narrative must have
proceeded from another; next, in his Kpistle, Peter calls
JIark his son, thus designating hiiu as his spiritual heir,
with whom he had deposited his most precious treasure, his
personal acfpiaintance with Jesus. The resemblance be-
tween this work and those of Matthew and Luke has been
opposed to the explanation of the origin of Mark's Gospel
which we have given, as if he had drawn his narration from
them. The freshness and originality of his work forbid us
to suppose that he had used those of the two others; but
ought not the problem to be solved in quite a different
manner? An apostolical tradition concerning the acts and
discourses of Jesus was formed at Jerusalem, first in Ara-
maic and then in Greek, and on account of its purity and
simplicity immediately received a fixed form, which was
reproduced nearly identically in the reports of the apostles
and evangelists. It is this narrative — so to speak, stereo-
typed— which constitutes the foundation of our first three
(idspcls, and it is from this the striking resemblance be-
tween .Matthew and Mark arises. Matthew first wrote
down this tradition at Jerusalem; Peter reproduced it in
the churches through oral recital, introducing oidy such
minor significant details as sprang from his personal re-
membrance. Thus the double fact which we have indi-
cated may be easily explained ; on the one hand, the com-
mon foutulation for Mark ami Matthew; on the other, the
small iiicturesque features which characterize the narra-
tive of the former, Klostermann supposes that Mark
wrote with the work of Matthew before him, but such
a supposition materializes the relation between the two
evangelists in a manner open to very serious oldections,
from which our exnlanalion is exempted. If Marie wrote,
or began to write, (lis (iospel at Rome, it dates from the
year 64 or O-'), which date corresponds to a reuwirk with
which he interrupts the discourse of Jesus on the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem (xiii.). In the passage indicating the
signs which shall shfiw to the Christians of Juda'a the mo-
ment when they must flee in order to escape from the calus-
trophe which threatens the country, Mark, like Matthew,
interrupts the discourse of Jesus in order to fix the atten-
tion of the reader on the imi)ortance of the indication:
"Let him that readeth understand" (14). This remark,
which no doubt was use<l when the discourse was repeated
in the churches of Palestine, proves that the present form
of the discourse belongs to tlie time before the desiruction
of Jerusalem, At all events, the notice relating to the two
sons of Simon of Cyrene shows that they were personally
known to those for whom the (iospel was destined, and that
the composition of the work thus belongs to the time of the
apostles. The end of the second Gospel, from verse 9 of
chapter xvi., is lacking in the oldest manuscripts (C, Sinai-
ticus and C. Vaticanux), and even the Fathers mention this
gap. How is it to be explained, and whence is derived
the traditional termination of the GospeH Did Mark die
before finishing the work, or has the last leaf of his numu-
script been lost i Has another ecclesiastical writer finished
the narrative? Surely Mark could not stop with the word
ydp. with which the eighth verse terminates. Furthermore,
an angel had promised an ajiparition of Jesus, and the au-
thor must have had the intention of narrating it. Is it not
possible that it was the persecution of Nero during the so-
journ of Peter at Rome in 64 which caused the interruption
of the work of Mark, and that an incomplete copy remained
at Rome, whence the mamiscripts having no conclusion,
while the copy which JIark carried along with him was com-
pleted afterward, and hence the form which has finally pre-
vailed in the Church? As to the plan of the work, which
Papias found inconsistent with the historical order, it seems
very natural, on the contrary, from our point of view. The
author having placed Jesus in the center of his activity at
Capernaum, shows us how this activity expands in every
direction through excursions more and more prolonged,
though at the end of each excursion the Lord always re-
turns to Capernaum.* His final departure for Jerusalem
thus appears as his last missionary voyage. The Gospel
of Mark is the most picturesque delineation of the mm-
istry of Jesus in its otlice of evangelization ; and the first
and the last words of the work confirm this view: "The
beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God "
(i. 1) ; " And they went forth, and preached everywhere, the
Lord working with them, and confirming the word with
signs following" (xvi. 20). Thus fnun heaven Jesus still
continues through his apostles that office of evangelization
which he filled iiiraself so faithfully during his ministry on
earth. See Godet, The Origin of the Four Oospels. in his
^Studies on the Xew Tfstament, translated into English,
published in London, lt<76. Frei>£ric Godet.
Murk Diiren : See DCren.
Market : the meeting together of people for the purpose
of buying and selling commodities; secondarily, the place
where such meeting is held, and in a more general sense the
region or locality where anything is or may be bought or
sold. The need of assembling in order to exchange com-
modities arose as soon as man emerged from the savage
state — that is, as soon as the division of labor began to di-
versifv production. During the Middle Ages the markets
and F'airs (q. v.) afforded the only means for the exchange
of goods, the retail shop being an institution of modern
growth. The market, as well iis the fair, from which it is
distinguished by its local and more permanent character,
was subjei'l to the complicated regulative system that char-
acterized the economic policy of media'val towns. The
principle oi justum pretium, or fair iirice — that the state
sliouhi fix the 'jn-ice m the interest of the individual — ex-
pressed itself ni numerous restrictions, such as the laws
against forestalling or buying goods on their way to market
with a view to enhancing their price, and against the kin-
dred offenses of regraling aiul engrossing, which were noth-
ing more than the ordimiry operations of retail trade. These
and other restraints on trade have been swe|)t away with
the rise of the modern commercial spirit and the doctrine
of laissez (aire. With the increase of trade, to<i, the market
ceased to lie the sole place in the town for purchase and sale,
as the scattered shops of retail dealers pcrforiucd many of
its functions, and the markets of modern towns confine
themselves as a rule to the sale of certain classes of goods.
As a result, they are no longer the important source of profit
to the state that they were in the Middle Ages, when the
levying of market tolls was one of the most lucrative ma-
• Ch. i. ■i\-4r> : ii. l-v. 20 (Oadnra, El : v. 21-vi. 5i (Bethsalda and
.Inlins. N ); vi. .Vl-viii. ai lI'luiMiicia. N.) ; viii. 2J-lx. 00 (Cajsarea
I'hilippi, N.) ; x. «eq. UVruja aud Jerusalem),
MARKET OVERT
MARLBOROUGH
557
norial rights. In the U. S. markets have not been such inj-
portnnt foiitiircs of town life as in Kiiroije, hccati.sc of the
coiniiarativrly recent settlement of the country, nor can the
market buililiufjs be compared with the solid aiicl imposing
structures common in the older communities. The term is
often used by political economists in a technical and re-
stricted sense, applyin<j to a single jrroup of exchanRers and
to a particular article of uniform quality, its when it is said
that there can be but one price for a K'ven comnxxlity at
any time in the same market. The statement would be' ob-
viously untrue if the term market as here used included
wholesalers, retailers, and importers, and referred to several
grades of the article sold. F. M. Colby.
Market Overt [from 0. Fr., liter., open market] : an open
and public market, legally constituted by charter or pre-
scription. In the country the boundaries of each nuirket-
place are defined, ami the market-days are fixed. In the
citv of London, every day except Sunday is a market -dav,
and everv shop in which goods arc exposi'd publicly for sale
is a market overt for such things as the owner ordinarily
sells there. By English common law, the bona-Jule pur-
chaser of goods in market overt gets a valid title to them,
although his vendor had neither title nor authority to sell.
This exception to the general rule, that no one can give a
better title to goods than he has, never obtained recognition
in Scotland nor in the V. S. Even in England the tendency
of courts and Parliament has been to limit its application.
It never protected the purchaser of goods belonging to the
crown, nor one acting in bad faith, nor one who began or
completed the treaty of sale out of the fixed limits of mar-
ket overt, nor one buying between sunset or sunrise. The
courts have uniformly insisted that transactions are not to
have the benefit of the market overt exception, unless they
have been so conducted "as to give the fullest opportunity
to the man whose goods have been taken to make pursuit
of them, and prevent their l>eing sold." Hence it has been
held that a sale by sample in a market overt is not within
the exception, nor a sale to a London shopkeeper of goods
in which he dealt, nor a sale by him in a show-room over his
shop to which customers were only admitted on special in-
vitation. Moreover, as this exception exists for the benefit
of the innocent purchaser, an inn(x;ent vendor of g<x>ds
without a valid title in market overt can not take advantage
of it, but is liable to the rightful owner for conversion.
As early as 1.5.")."i a statute was passed regulating the sale
of horses in market overt, and providing that the property
in the:n should not pass, as against the true owner, unless
the pres*ribed requirements were complied with. t>lher
statutes provide that proj)crty, though sold in market overt,
shall revest in the true owner, upon the conviction for felony
or mi.sdemeanor by or on behalf of such owner of the per-
son stealing, taking, obtaining, extorting, embezzling, con-
verting, or dis|iosing of the property. This legislation ex-
tends to property obtained by any criminal method, the
early eommon-lnw rule that in the case of stolen goods the
plaintiff in a procee<ling by apjieal, in which he established
the theft, was entitled to their restitution, though they had
been sold in market overt. It has been held that these
statutes apply to chattels which have been intentionally
transferred by the true owner to one obtaining the transfer,
pursuant to a contract of sale, itself obtained by an indict-
able fraud, and sold bv the latter in market overt to an
innocent purchaser. (bentUy vs. Vilmonl, 12 Apj>eal Cases
471.) Such legislation has gone far towanl nullifving the
peculiar rule governing sales in market overt, but (m.s l>ecn
modified to some extent by the Sale of Goods Act, IWi;) (SO
and .17 Vict., cap. 71). For the rules laid down in the mod-
cTii European coiles, sec I'osskssio.n".
F'raNCIS M. HlBDIfK.
Mnrkliani, Clements RonKar: traveler, geographer, and
historian; b. at .Siillingfieet, Vorkshire. England, ,Tuly 20.
ItWO. lie was educated at Westminster: entered the navy
as a cadet in 184-1; served in the I'acific sfiuadn>n, allaining
the rank of lieutenant; and in IS-VJ ai'companied an Arctic
expedition in search of .Sir .lohn Franklin. Leaving the
navy, he traveled in Peru 18.">2-.')4 ; and in 1M6() visited Peru
and India as commissioner to intriHluce eiiuhona-plants into
the latter country. He uccom|ianieil the .Vbvssinian expe<li-
tion as geognipher 18(}T-t>8. Mr. Markham has held various
j)ositions in the (iovernment de|)artmeiits. and was apiminted
assistant secretary of the India ofllce in 1867. taking charge
of the geographical department in li^x. Among his nu-
merous works are Franklin's /'ou/a/f/w (1852); L'uicu and
Lima (1856) ; TrattU in Pmi and India (1862) ; a Quiehua
Grammar and liirtionaryilHiKi); tlintory of the Ahysninian
Erped i I ion (IHd'J); /Wurian Jiark (IHK)}; The War brixrren
Peruand (Vii/i (1882) ; The Threshold of the Cnknotm Re-
gion (relating to Arctic exploration, 1874); a Sketch of tht
History of Persia (187.1): and History of Peru (181«). As
secretary of the Hakluyt Swiety he has edited a numlier of
its editions of old works, principally relating to Peru and
the Amazon; he has Iwen s«'cretary of the Roval (ii^jgraph-
ical So<'iety, and has contributeil to its publications; edited
Ocean Highways, a monthly publicaticm niergwl in 1874 into
The Ueogrnphical Magazine ; ami from 1871 wrote the valu-
able annual reports on the Material I'rogress of India. His
studies on Peru arc iiarticularly valuable.
Herbert H. Smitb.
Markland, Jeremiah: cla.ssical scholar; b. at Chililwall,
England, Oct. 2!», 16!i:t; studied in Lonilon and Cambridge.
For many years a traveling tutor, he lived a life of schol-
arly leisure' after 174:i. I), at Milton, in Surrey, July 7, 1776.
Apart from valuable text critical emendations to Lysias and
Euripides, two of whose plays he edited, he is now chieflv
known for his learned edit ion of the Sihtr of Statins and for
liis Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Bnilus, whose au-
thenticity he denied, thus starting a famous controversv,
which has now been definitively settled in favor of their
genuineness. Markland alsf> condemned Cicero's orations
PtisI reditiim in senatii. Ad Qui rites, pro domo, and the De
haruspicum responsis as spurious, which hypercritical ver-
dict subse()uently found an ingenious but eipially unsuc-
cessful champion in F. A. Wolf. Alfred Gudeman.
Marks. Henry Stacv: genre and decorative painter; b.
in London, Sept. 13, 1829. lie was a pupil of the Royal Acad-
emy, Limdon, and of Picot, Paris; was elected a Royal
Academician in 1878. Among his pictures arc St. Frailcia
I^eaching to the Birds (1870) ana Hermit and Pelican*
(1888). Studio in London. W. A. C.
Marl: See Limestone.
Marlborough : city (incorporated in 1890) ; Middlesex co..
Mass, (for location of countv, see map of Massachusetts, ref.
2-11); on the Fitchburg and the X. V., X. H. and Hart, rail-
ways; 1.5 miles E. of Worcester, 25 miles W. of Boston. It
is in a choice fruit-growing region : contains Luke Williams,
covering 73 acres, city-hall which cost :f8o.(XX). a public li-
brary with over 12.(K)0 volumes. Unitarian iiarish library
founded in 1847, soldiers' monument, gas and electric light
plants, electric street-railway, 2 national banks with cuin-
hined capital of 1^300,000, a .savings-bank, and a daily, a
monthly, and 4 weekly news[)ai)ers, and is widely noted for
its extensive manufacture of boots and shoes. Pop. (1880)
10,127 ; (18110) 13,805 ; (1805) 14,077. Editor ok " Times."
Marlborough, John Chirchill, First Duke of: soldier
and statesiimn: b. at Ashe, Devonshire. Englaiul. June 24,
16.10. son of Sir Winston Churchill, who obtained for him
shortly after the Kest<iration an appointment as i>agc to
the Duke of York, afterwani James 11. Al*ut the same
time his sister Araln^lla was appointe<l maid-of-lionor to
Anne Hvde, Duchess of York, and soon iK'came mistress
to the prince. It was probably to this cinumstance that
young Churchill was indebted for rapid promotion in the
army, which he entered in 1767 as ensign in the Guards. In
1672-77 he served with the rank of captain of GnMiadiers in
the corps sent to co-oponitc with Fnim-c against Holland,
and distinguished himself at the sieges of Nymwegen and
Maestricht. attracting the attention of Turenne and of Ix>uis
X IV., by whose favor he was pMumtcd to the rank of colonel.
At the Peace of Nymwegen (1078) he rctumi-d to England,
received a lucrative position in the household of the Duke
of York, and increased his influence at court by marriago
with Sarah Jennings, niaiil-of-honor to the Duchess, cele-
brated for her beauty and talent, who had bc<>n the must
intimate friend of the Princi-ss Anne from childhooil. He
now became the c-onstant and favorite comjianion of the
Duke of York, his confidant in his inten-ourv with Charles
II. and with the King of France, to wh-in ' ■• ■■; re-
|H'atedly on swrvt mis>ions. He was cnati-.l 1 hill
of Aymouth in the [>eerago of Sialiiiul in 1' - . the
following year was given the command of the only n'giment
of Dragoons then existing in EnL-l.-md. <>n the d.'fith of
Charles IL, Churchill was sent as u \1V,
to announce the atvession of Jar las
to sue for a ctmtinuancc of the Irin.ji mh;; - iM.i]iislii|>,
alhanco, and subsidies. On his reluni from this successful
558
MARLBOROUGH DOG
MARMONT
negotiation he was created brieailier-general and Baron
Churchill of Sandridge in the English peerage, rendered
good service in tlie suppression of Monmouth's rebellion,
and was advanced to nuijor-general. He did not scruple,
however, when the follies of James rendered his downfall
imminent, to enter into treasonable correspondence with the
Prince of Orange, nor to desert with many of his officers to
the invading army (1688) at the critical moment. lie re-
ceived the reward of his baseness in the earldom of Marl-
borough (Apr. 9, 168!l) and a commission as lieutenant-gen-
eral; was in command of the English forces in Flanders
(1(>89) and in Ireland (IGUO), where he captured Cork and
Kinsale. but in Itilia was suddenly dismissed from all his
official posts and thrown into the Tower in consequence of
the partial discovery of treasonable intrigues with the ex-
iled king. He was soon released from prison, but not re-
stored to favor, and spent the ensuing years of the reign of
William in false protestations of loyalty, soliciting military
command while carrying on secret correspondence with
James, and employing every artifice to strengthen his favor
with Anne as the probable successor to the throne. In 1698
William so far restored Marlborough to favor as to ai)point
him governor to Anne's infant son, the Duke of Gloucester.
On the accession of Anne (1T02), Marlborough, who had re-
cently been employed in military and diplomatic service in
Holland, became at once the most inlluential subject of the
new queen, since to his own favor at court was added that
of Lady Marlborough, and that of his son-in-law Godolphin,
who became Prime Minister. He was at once intrusted with
the chief command of the armies of the formidiible alliance
then combined against France. His subsequent history for
several years is merged in the military annals of England,
and may be summarized as consisting of an extraordinary
series of victories and a no less remarkable succession of
rewards and honors. The capture of Liege (Oct. 29, 1702)
brought him the dukedom of Jlarlborough and the thanks
of Parliament: other successes were afterwanl recognized
by the grant of the celebrated manor of Woodstock, on which
Blcnheiui Palace was erected at the expense of Government.
With the aid of Prince Eugene he terminated the campaign
of 1704 by the important victory of Blenheim (Aug. 13). In
the following vears he gained the notable battles of Tirle-
nionl (Julv 18, 1705), liamillies (Mav 23, 1706), Oudenarde
(July 11, 1708), Tournay (July 28. 1709). Malplaquet (Sept.
11, 1709), aiul Bouchain (Sept., 1711); w,is made a prince
of the German empire; was rewarded liy a magnificent pen-
sion (£5.000) by act of Parliament of 1706. Marlborough
returned to England in Oct., 1711, but was charged with
peculation shortly after, and the duchess having fallen from
Anne's favor in the same year, the Tory ministry of Ilarley
succeeded to power. Jlarlborough was dismissed from all
his offices Jan. 1, 1712. and retired to Germany, where he
became an energetic partisan of the Hanoverian succession;
returned to England at the accession of George I. (1714), by
whom he was restored to his offices and honors. He rendered
prompt service in the direction of the campaign of 1715
against the Pretender, passed the remainder of his life in
quiet enjoyment of his immense wealth, died at Windsor
Lodge, June 16, 1722, and was buried in W^estminster Abbey.
He left no son. but the title has been perpetuated through
the descendants of his second daughter. Through the brill-
iancy of his military genius Marlborough long found .apolo-
gists as well as admirers among the historians of Englanil, but
the bare recital of unquestioned facts convicts him of numer-
ous treasons under aggravated circumstances of ingratitude.
Due justice was firsl meted out to him from this point of
view in Lord Macaulay's celelirated I/itslory of England.
His great military and political talents were intuitive, as his
education was extremely limited. The Duchess of Marl-
borough survived until Oct. 18, 1744, having lived long
enough to discern the rising greatness of the elder Pitt, to
whom she IjecpieHtluMl till. 000. .See Murray's //e/^frs nnd
Dtspatclienof Mnrlhorouqh (5 vols., 1845-46); Coxe's Memoirs
(3 vols.. 1817-19); Alison's Life (2 vols.. 1847); and Saiiits-
bury's Mi>rt!/orouf/h, in the series English Worthies (1885).
Revised by C. K. Ada.ms.
MarUioruiigli Dog: See Blenheim Dog.
IHarlin : town ; capital of Falls co., Tex. (for location of
county, see map of Ti^xas, ref. 3-1): near the Brazos river;
on the llnus. and Tex. Cent. Railroad; 97 miles N. E. of
Austin. It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region,
and has two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) not in census;
(1890) 2,058.
Marlitt. E. (pseudonym for Ei'Qenie Joein): novelist ; b.at
Arnstadl. Germany, Dec. 25. 1825 ; went in 1842 to Vienna in
order to study singing. She met with much success as a
singer, but soon lost Tier voice, and became comjianion to
the Princess of Scliwarzl)urg-Son<lershausen. who had assist-
ed her in obtaining her education. She renniined with the
princess until 18ti3, and then began to publish novels in Die
Oiirtenlnube, an illustrated journal. Her novels, Onldelse
(1867), Das Gelieimnisx der alien Jlamsell (1868), Reic/is-
gratin Gisela (186SI), J)ax Heideprimesschen (1872), Die
zurile Fran (1874), Im IJause des Commerzienralhs (1877),
Im Schilliiig.iliof (ISHi). Amimanns Magd (1880), Die Frau
mil den KarfunkeUteinen (1885), reached a number of edi-
tions. She gained her popularity both by her clever narra-
tive style and by cautiously appealing not oidy to the senti-
mentality but also to the lower instincts of a class of readers
who cared little for the higher demands of art. D. June 22,
18S7. Jfi.ius Goebel.
Marlowe. CnuisToriiER: <1 ramatist; b.at Canterbury, Eng-
lamt, about 1504; studied at King'sSchool, Canterbury, and at
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, and graduated 1583 ; pro-
duced upcm the stage in 1586 the first part of his tragedy of
Tamburlaine, which, though filled with extravagant flights,
exhibited more poetic genius and better dramatic cond^ina-
tion than any previous English play. In 1588 he brought
out his Tragical I/islury of tlie Life and Death of l)r.
Faustus. A second part of Tamburlaine wa.s added in
1.590. and he wrote two other plays. The Jew of Malta and
Edward II. Several anonymous dramas are generally at-
tributed to Marlowe, and by many critics he is believed to
be the author of the second and third parts of //eHry VI.,
included in Shakspeare's works. He also made translations
from (Jvid, and wrote the first portion of a narrative poem,
Hero and Leander, which was completed by George C'hap-
nian. He died from a wound received in a quarrel at Dept-
ford, June 16, 1593. The best edition of his works is that
of Dyce (3 vols., 1850). See E.nglish Literature.
Revised by H. A. Beers.
Marniier. mirarmi-a', Xavier: writer; b. at Poiitarlier,
Doubs, France, June 24, 1809 ; engaged in journalism and
various literary entejrprises, and spent a large portion of his
time in traveling. He visited Switzerland and Holland in
1830. Germanv 1832, the Scandinavian countries 1836-38.
Russia 1842, the East 1845, Algeria 1846. and America 1849.
In 1846 he was appointed librarian at the library of St.
Genevieve, in Paris, and in 1870 he was elected a member of
the Academy. Besides translations of dramas by Goethe and
Schiller, novels by HofTinann. .Scandinavian folk-lore, etc.,
he published I/isloire de I'lslande (1838) ; Langue et lillira-
ture islandaises (1838) ; Ilistoire de la litti'ratnre en Dane-
mark et en Suede (1830) : Lettres stir la liussie, la Einlande
et la Pologne (2 vols., 1843); Du Rhin au A'lV (1846); Let-
tres sur I'Amerique (1852, 2 vols.) ; Lettres stir I'Adriatiqiie
et Montenegro (1854) ; Voyage en Snis.te (1861) ^ -^f* voyages
de Nils a la recherche de I'ideal (1869) ; Les Etats-Unis et
le Canada (1874) ; Nottveaux recits de voyages (1879) ; Voy-
ages et litteratttre (1888); and some novels: Les fiances du
Spitzberg (18.58); (razida (I860); Les llasards de la Vie
(1869>; Cimarosa (1867); Les drames du ctetir (1868); Une
grande dame russe (1876). He has also published some vol-
umes of verse : Esgtiisses poetiques (1830) ; Poesies d'tm
voyageur (1841). D. in Paris. Oct. 11, 1892. A. K. .Marsm.
Mar'nioL Josk: author; b. in Buenos Ayres, Argentine
Republic, about 1818. He was proscribed during the dicta-
torship of Rosas, and spent many years in exile, traveling
extensively in .South America; in the civil wars which led
to the expulsion of Rosas he took an active part ; subse-
quently was senator and ileputy to congress from Buenos
Ayres, and was director of llie national library. His works
include many poems, several dramas, and La Amalia, a ro-
mance of the time of Rosas: this has been translated into
French and (ierman. D. in Buenos Ayres, Aug. 12, 1871.
A volume of his poetical ami draiiialie works was published
in Paris in 1875. Heriiert II. Smith.
Mnnnniit. malir'mon'. Afot-sTE Fri^;i)erk- Loiis Viesse.
de, Duke of liagusa: marshal of FraiU'e; b. at Chatillon-
sur-Seiiie. department of Cote-d'Or, France, July 20, 1774,
received a military education; was aide-de-camp to Napo-
leon in 1796: aeeompanii'<l him to Kgy|>l : was ma<le gen-
eral of ilivision after t lie battle of Marengo, commanded the
forces in Dalmalia. 1806 lo 1SII9 ; joineil the great army the
<lav before the battle of Wagram. and was made a niarshid
on the battle-field uf Znayin; served in Portugal and Spain
MAUMOXTEL
MAKONl
559
in 1811-12, where he lost the battle of SalaTniiiuii (July 22,
1812) and was severely wounded. In 1814 he eonirnaiided
the troops in and around I'aris, and compelled Napoleon to
abdicate by evacuating the capital and enlerinff into nego-
tiations with the allied jwiwers. For this reason Xapoleon
excluded him, on his return from Klba, from the ncneral
amnesty, and he was conipelled to Uee, while afterward
Ijouis -Will, made him a peer of France ami loaded him
with honors. 11<^ lived mostly in retirement, until in IbiiO
(!harlcs X. called him to I'aris to (|Uell the revolution of
.luly. In this he failed, and so great was the indignation
he exeite<l that his nana' was struck from the lists of the
French army. Afterward he resided mostly in Vienna.
I), at Venice, Mar. 2, lH.'yi. llis Mrinoires (!) vols., Paris.
18,')(i-o7) are important for the history of his time.
Mnrmnilt<>l, nmar mun-tel, Jkan Fihn<;ois: author; b.
at Hort, in Ijimousiii. France, .July 11, 1723. He stuilicd to
enter the Ciiurch, but his taste for letters drew him away,
and under the patronage of Voltaire he went to I'aris (174.J)
to live liy his pen. lie began with journalism and the dra-
ma, winning success with the tragedies Denys le Tijran
(1748) and AriHtomhu (174!l). In 17.")3 he became necre-
laire des bdliments at Versailles; in 1758 and 17.5!) edited
the Mereure ; passed eleven days in the IJastilc for a p<dil ical
satire in 1700; was in 17(!ii chosen to the Academy, of which
he liccaine in 17H;i iiermanent secretary. 1). Dec. 31, 17!tft.
He wrote much, and some of his tragedies, his I'untts mo-
roMX (1701), the novels BeliKaire (1767), one chapter of which
was con<lemned as heretical by the Sorbonne for its plea for
religious toleration, ami Lf.'i Incag (1778), hiul an immense
popularity. 0( more permanent value are his Puelu/iie
fraii^ftise (1763), his contributions to the Knei/clupeilii; col-
lected as Aliments de Litl^ralure (1787), and his Memnires.
His CEuvres were coUecteil in 178()-H7 in 17 vols. Tour-
neux has given a good edition of liis Memoirex (:} vols., I'aris,
18'Jl). A. ti. (.'anfield.
Mur'iiiora. or Marina'ni, Soa of (anc. Pmpnnlis) : a body
of water which separates Kuropean from Asiatic Turkey, and
communicates with the Black Sea by the Strait of Constan-
tinople, or Bosphorus, ami with the Jp'gean Sea by the Strait
of the Dardanelles (anc. llrUexpont). It is lH.j miles long
and 4.i miles broad. The island of Marmora, in this sea, is
famous for its fine marble and alabaster.
Mnr'mo>i«>t [fmni Fr. marmmiMt, (picer little figure, ugly
little boy< how \m\. mannore turn, marble figure, deriv. of
Lat. m«r »i/<r, marlile. See Mariu.k]: a name applied to
various small South .American monkeys of the family Midi-
diT and genera iln/ia/e, Midii.i, etc. They are the nearest
of all the true monkeys to the I'rosimiaj or lemuriue t^uailru-
The marmowt.
mana. The thumbs are not opfM>sable, nor js the tail pre-
hensile. Their nails are long and sharp. These creatures
are harmless, afTettionate. and often very lieautiful. They
are, however, very delicate, anil in ciwl climates soon die if
exposed. The Ilapale jacehus is one of the best-known
species.
Mar'niot (= Fr., ape, grote8<|uc little figure, child (as
term of endearment), marmot ; cf. O. Fr. merme. little, and
Fr. marmnille, troop of children ; all < dcrivs. of Ijit. mini-
mum, least]: a name given to the larger riMlent nianimiils
belonging to the s<|uirrid family. The typical sjiecies of
nuirmot is Arrlomijx mnrmiilla, the Kuroi>ean marmot,
which is abundant in the Alps. The Old World has sev-
eral other species. The best-known American s|>e<ies is
Arctomi/g iiioiiax, the wc»Mlchuck or ground-hog, which i.s
very abundant K. of the Mississippi. Its flesh is s<imetinie»
eaten, but is not good. Its fur is not of much value. The
Pacific coast region has several s[R'cies. (.See S<ifBi».e.)
Clo-scly akin to the marmots are the prairie-dogs (Cynomyn),
which some, indeed, include in the genus Arelomya, to which
the marmots belong. See I'kaikie-uoo.
Marne: department of France, along the S<'ine and the
Marne. Area, y,1.5'J sip miles. In the southern part the soil
is very fertile and much grain is raise<l ; the northern part is
chalky ami sandy, but pHnluce-s excellent wine, among which
are several varieties of the famous champagne wine. Sheep
of a good breed are reared here, and a great numlter of mill-
stones arc quarried. Jlore than three-fourths of the total
area is aral)le land. The principal manufactures are of
woolens iiroduccd in the vicinity of Keims, and consist of
flannels, merinoes, tartans, shawls, etc. Po|). (181)1) 434,61)2.
Capital, Chalons-sur-Marnc.
Marnix, PniLiiM", van : theologian, diplomatist, and au-
thor: baron of Sainte-Aldegonile : b. in Brussil<. LIJIH; was
educated in Geneva under Calvin and Ueza; in the Nether-
lands from 1.560 to 1508 worked against Simnish injlitical
and religious tyranny : was exiled with William of Orange,
whose praises he sang in his Willinm'H Lay. In 1573 he was
a prisoner of thcSpanianls. He played a prominent part in
politics, but for a time was under suspicion for his dealings
with the French. In 1.58:t-(<5 he was burgomaster of .\nt-
wern, ami it was laid to his charge that the city surrendered
to tlie .Spaniards in the latter year without stipulating for
religious liberty. During the rest of his life he lived (piietly
upon his estates. He died in Leyden. Dec. 15, 15118. whither
he had gone to supcrinteml a translation of the Bible into
Dutch. His complete works appean'd Brussels 1857-.')9. 7
vols., and his theological writings at The Hague 1871-78, 2
parts. Among his works may be mentioned his rhymed
version in Dutch of the Psjdins (l."i!ll); his Traicle du
Sacremenf de la Sni'ncle Cene dii Srijitieiir (Leyden, 1.5Ult),
and his satire on the Koman Church, iJe Biencorfg der helige
roomerhe. keerke (1569; n. e. under name of T. Fisoharts,
by J. Eiselein, .St. Ciallen, 1H47). See his Life, by K. tjuinet
(Urussels, 18.')4); ami by the Roman Catholic Albenlink-
Thijm (liajirlem, 1878). Samiel Macallev Jackso.n.
Maroa: city; Macon co.. III. (for location of county, see
map of Illinois, ref. 6-K); on the 111. Cent, and the Vaiulalia
line railways; 13 miles .V. of Decatur, the county-seat. It
is in an agricultural region, and has several large grain
warehouses, grain elevator, flour-mills, library association
(foumleil in 1H70), and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880)
STll; (1><'-'0| 1.164.
.Marocco : state of Northwest Africa. See Morocco.
Maroclieltl, nwiii-ro-kel ti"e. Carlo, Haron : sculptor; b.
at Turin. Italy, in 1805. naturalized and educated in r'rance ;
began his studies under Bosio; visileil Italy, and exhibited
in 1829 in Paris a group, A Oirl I'laying irilh a Dug. which
attracted much attention. He n>sided in Paris and pro-
duced many works, and after 1S4S riMnoveil to I.rt>ndon,
where he ilied in 1867. His principal works art> an equi-s-
trian statue of Kmmanuel Philitx'rt at Turin and a colossid
statue of Kichard Cieur-<le-Lion in Lonilon, Ix-sidi-s busts
and statues of Prince .Mliert, the (Jueen, etc. His sculpture
was popular, striking, full of lively inlen-sl and vigor of
treatment, but it was extremely defective in technical and
s<'ulptun's<^ue qualities.
Mnroni. miui-rM-m>o'. called Marowijse by the Dutch : a
riv.Tof (tuiana,s<>paratingthe Dutch fromthe Fri'nch colony.
It rises in the highlands mar the frontier-- ..f Hraril. tnki-s a
genend northerly i'Mur»t'anil emptier into ihe .Vllaiitic after
a course of alniut 425 miles. Seagoing ve— hI- can axi nd to
the Armina fall, .'lO miles from the mouth, and alnive that
there are considerable sln-lches of navigable water. The
lower |H>rti(m is in fwrts nearly a mile wiile, oiid Ihe luinks
are covered with heavy forvst. The n'gion ol>out Ihe upper
river is inliabite<l only by Indians anil mnroon Nepmes.
Gold is obtained in cun.siderablc quantities about the lower
560
MARONITES
MARQUETRY
falls. The Cottica channul forms a navi<;iible waterway be-
tween the lower Maroni and the Surinam, parallel ti> tlie
coast. Herbekt 11. Smith.
Mar'onites: a Christian people of Syria who take their
name from their first monothelitie bishop, John Maroii or
Maro, who died 701 A. D. Their number is estimated at
from 200.000 to 2')0,000. They live chiefly in the north part
of the Lebanon, but are found also all over the Lebanon
and the Anti-Lebanon, with a few in the larger cities of
Syria, They are Roman Catholics of the Syrian Rite {</. r.).
They have a patriarch who lives at Canubin, a monastery
near the foot of Lebanon, but who bears, in common with
live other dignitaries, the title of Patriarch of Antioch.
They have also metroi)olitans of Tyre, Damascus, Aleppo,
Tripoli, and Cyprus, besides seven bishops. They were an-
ciently nionothelites, but having joined in the socoml cru-
sade against the Saracens, in 11H2 renounced tlieir heresy
before the Latin Patriarch of Antioch, Aimcric 111. In
1445 they were more formally united to the Roman Catholic
Church.' They are hospitable towani all Christians; have
since 1840 been deadly enemies of their neighbors, the
Druses; s|ieak Arabic or Greek; consider the Syriac their
sacred language, and make use of Syro-Chalda>an books,
which they do not understand. Their secular clergy may
marry before ordination, and the Eucharist is administered
under both kinds. They have a great number of celilmte
monks and nuns, who follow the rule of St. Anthony, take
no vows, but fast often, and never eat meat. The Slaron-
ites suffered much from the Druses, who are far inferior to
them in numbers, and who were, it appears, the injured
party at the origin of the bloody war of 1860.
Maroons' [from Fr. viarron (in ni-gre marron, with clip-
ping of ci-), from .Span, negro cimarron (from cimarron. wild,
fugitive), lit., fugitive Negro]: a name formerly used in
Jamaica for runaway slaves and their descendants. It has
been applied to a similar class in Guiana, where, however,
thev are generally known as bush Negroes. See Guiana
and Jamaica. H. H. S.
Maros': a river of Europe which rises in Transylvania,
near the frontier of Jloldavia, flows in a western direction
into Hungary, and joins the Theiss opposite to Szegedin,
after a course of about 400 miles, for tiie greater part of
which it is navigable.
Marot. maitro', Clement: poet; b. at Cahors, France, in
1495 (1497 *). His father, Jean Marot, was a poet and x'alet
de chambre of Francis 1. At the age of ten he was taken to
Paris, and later entered the basoclte to study law, but left it
soon to become page in the service of Nicolas de Xeuville,
Seigneur de V'illeroy. His poetical talent was already de-
claring itself in translations and imitations from Latin poets
and in light verses. In 1515 he dedicated an allegorical
poem, the Temple de Cupidon. to Francis I., at whose rec-
ommendation he was attached to the suite of his sister, Jlar-
guerite d'Angoulume (1519). He accompanied the king in
the fielil in 1.520 and took part in the Italian campaign
«nding in the batte of Pavia (1525), in which he was wound-
ed and taken prisoner. Soon released, he returned to
France, fell under the suspicion of holding Protestant
opinions, and, though he vigorously denied them, was
thrown into the Chatelet. By the friendly intervention
of the Bishop of Chartres he was transferred to Chartres,
where his confinement was freed of all hardship. During
it he composed V liufer. a satire on his imprisonment in the
Chatelet. lie was set at liberty by Francis I. (1527). but was
soon in prison again for aiding the escape of a prisoner; an
epistle in verse to the king again freed him. Meanwhile
his father died, and he succeeded to his place as vnh> de
chambre of the king. In 15IJ3 a selection of his epistles,
elegies, and other verses was pul)lished with the title Ado-
lescence Clementine, aixi was followed the next year by a
second. His relations with Protestants, and probably his
own unguarded speech, subjected him again to the susi>i-
oion of heresy, and he fled to the court of his patroness.
Marguerite, now Queen of Navarre (15:34), and, insecure
even there, crossed into Italy and took refuge flrst at Fer-
rara and then at Venice. He returned to Lyons in 15;i(),
where new dilliculties awaited him in the quarrel which an
inferior rival, .Sagon, brought upon him. This endi'il to
Ids advantage, and he again enjoyed court favor till 154^,
when his translation of the first fifty P.salms, at first encour-
aged by Francis I., was condemned by the Sorbonne; but
Ids translation was completed by Heza. and is used in the
French Protestant churches. He fled to Geneva, but gave
offense to the austere society there, and went to Turin,
where he died in 1544. Besides writing original verse, he
edited the Roman de la Hose and the poems of Villon. He
is easily the foremost poet of his time, but it is not depth
and seriousness that recommend him, but vivacity, sprightly
wit, agile grace, and esprit yaulois. At first following in
the steps of the rhetorical school, he later freed himself from
its pedantic Latinizing tendency, felt the influence of Vil-
lon, and achieved a siui|ile, easv, and fluent style that was
like the familiar vernacular, lie used the old forms of the
ballade and the rondeau with effect, but excelled in his ele-
gies, eclogues, and epistles, the last of which, especially by
their qualities of grace, lightness, and badinage, have flxed
upon this manner the name style marotique. His works
were collected in 1538 (4 vols.), and more completely in
1.544 (4 vols.). Recent editions are by Jannet (4 vols., Paris,
1868-72), and B. Pitteau (4 vols., Paris, 1884). A very thor-
ough edition in six volumes was begun by G. Guiffrev (vol.
ii., 1876; vol. iii., 1881). A very valuable edition of Marot's
(Eiivres clioisies has been published by E. Voizard (Paris,
1890). See the Life of Marot, by Douen (2 vols., Paris,
1878-79). A. G. Canfield.
Mar'<niar(U, Joachim : classical scholar ; b. in Dantzic,
Germany, Ai)r. 19, 1812; studied from 1830-34 in Beriin
and Leipzig ; was director of a gymnasium in Gotha, where
he died Nov. 30. 1882. He was widely known as the author
of the Itomische iStaatsverwaltung (2d ed. 1881) and Privat-
leben der Homer (2d. cd. 188G. by Mau), forming vols. iv.
and vii. of Mominsen-Marquardl's Uandbuch der romischen
Altertliumer. A. G.
Marque, Letters of [from Fr. lettres de marque; cf.
Germ, mark, sign, symbol, seal] : in international law, the
consent of a government, expressed in a formal permission,
that a certain vessel may act as a privateer when the requi-
site bonds and formalities have been given or complied with.
The words are explained best by the French lettres de
marque — i. e. of stamp, or stamped letters, like leltres de
cachet, letters of seal, or scaled with the king's signet, but
specially giving authority to arrest. They are, then,
stamped letters allowing reprisals or private warfare. See
Privateering. T. D. Woolsev.
Marquesas (maar-ka'saas) Islands (French, Les Mar-
quises; named by the discoverer, Mendana, /«.f Marquesas
de Mendoza, after the wife of the Viceroy of Peru): archi-
pelago in Eastern Oceania, belonging to France since 1842 ;
in hits. 7° 55' to 10° 30' S., and Ions. 138° 40 to 140" 46' W.,
consisting of twelve islands; total area, 492 sq. miles; pop.
(1889) 5.0.54. The largest island is Nukahiva; area, 18(5 sq.
miles; pop, 988; greatest elevation (and highest in the group),
3,840 feet. The second in size is Ilivaoa ; area, 155 sq. miles ;
pop. 2.636. It is the most densely pojiulaled. Only six of
the islands are inhabited. They are all mountainous, with
great depths of water close to them, and poor harbors. The
climate is warm and humid, but not unhealthful. The
rainy season is from May to September, with a short rainy
season in January. 'J'he winils are from the N. E. and
S. E., and storms are rare. The surface of the islands is
furrowed with deep valleys, and it is to these valleys that
life is, for Ihe most i)arl, confineil. Vegetation is here pro-
fuse and luxuriant. The commonest tree is that of the
breadfruit, which furnishes a large share of the food of the
natives. The land an<l air fauna are poor, but the marine
fauna is very rich. The inhabitants are closely allied to the
Tahitians. and have the reputation of having the finest phys-
ical forms known. Tattooing is universally practiced. Can-
nibalism was practiced as late as 1807. They profess Roman
Catliolicism almost universally. They were early visited by
Protestant missionaries, who yielded to the Roman Cath-
olics in 1858. The natives are warlike and skillful, yet
hospitable, affectionate, and indolent. There are few for-
eigners on the islands, mostly deserters from vessels or
Ciiinese. The political administration is under the Tahiti
Government through a naval lieutenant, resident on Nuka-
hiva, and the native chiefs. The .southeastern islands were
discovered by Mendana in 1.595, and ('apt. Cook touched
there on his second voyage in 1772. The northwestern is-
lands, which are .somewlint separated and are sometimes
called Washington islands, were discovered in 1791 by a
caj)tain named Ingrahain from the U. S. See Clavcl. Les
Marquisiens, etudes physiologiques. aiithropoloyiqiies, el eth-
nogruphiques (WST)). Mark W . Harrinoton.
Marquetry, or Marqiieterie [from Fr. tnarquelerie, do-
riv. of iiiarqacler, checker, inlay, dcriv, of marque, mark,
MARQUETTE
MAKKIAGK
5G1
siRn]: llip (ii'coration of a surface liy thin sheets of wood,
ivory, inelul, tortoise-shell, or the like, arranged in patterns
for oriminent. The tliin sheets of wood are like tlios<- iise<i
in Venkkrinii (</. v.), but nianmetry consists in rnakinf; a
pattern of different veneers, laid edjie to ed^e, with or with-
out other materials than wood. Marquetry differs from
common iiilayiufr, because there is no cuttiiij; of (;rooves or
sunken patterns in a solid surface, but all is done by a kind
of mosaic of thin jjieces put upon the solicl backing. Houle-
work (calli'd often in English Buhl-wokk, q. v.) is a variety
of maripietry. Klsskll .Stikuis.
Marquette: city; capital of Marquette co., Mich, (for
hwation of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 2-K); on Luke
Superior, and the Uuluth, S. Shore and Atlantic Railway;
425 miles N. of Chicago. It is an important shippiiig-[)oint,
having regular steamboat communication with all the prin-
cipal cities on the (ileal Lakes. It contains a Roman Catho-
lic cathedral and convent, 2 libraries (the .State, founded in
1873, and the I'eter White Public, founded in Wn). a pub-
lic natural i)ark, a national bank with capital of $1.')0,(KX),
a .State bank with capital of if 100.000, and a private bank,
and a monthly, 2 claily, and '.i weekly periodicals. The city
has iron mines, brownslone quarries, l)last furnaces, rolling
and pow<ler mills, foundries and imichine-shops, and large
lumber interests. Pop. (1880) 4.6i)0; (1H!»0) !).Oi):i ; (1894)
y,T24. KUITOR OF •' MiMNd JolR.SAL."
Marqnptte, .Iacvi'Ks : missionary ; b. at Laon, France, in
\H'-i~ ; sailed in l(i(i(i as a .Jesuit missionary to Camilla;
founded the mission of .Sault Ste. .Marie in 'l6(i8; went in
lt)l!!l from La I'ointe du Saint Esprit (now in Michigan) to
.Mackinaw, where in 1(571 he built a chapel; accoinjianied
.loliet in his expedition of 1673 down the Wisconsin and
Mississippi, and returned via the Illinois river and (ireen
Buy. Wis.; opened in 187,'> the mission at Kaskaskia, but,
finding his strength failing, set out to return to Mackinaw.
I), on the journev. May 18. 167.i. near the mouth of .Mar-
quette river, in what is now Micliigan. In Shea's Di-iairenj
iiml Kxphralion of the Mississippi Vd/Zeu (New York, 1852)
tliere are translations of his narrative and journal.
.Miirqiioz, inaar kath, Josk Arnaldo: poet; b. in Peru
about 1H25. In early life he took part in the civil wars;
was several times banished, and resided in Chili, Cuba, and
the V. S. He was private secretary of President F^heniquc
in 1851, and subsequently held consular and diplomatic po-
sitions. Manpiez is regarded as the best of the modern
Peruvian poets, both for [lurity of diction and richness of
poetic sentiment. His first verses date from 1848. and ap-
beared in various journal.s. In 18G2 he pulilished the col-
lection Niilas perdidns. which was followed by various
others, mainly in the lyric style; his Flnr de Aiel is par-
ticularly admired. .Ma'r(|Uez edited, at different times, sev-
eral journals. Among his prose works are Kl I'erii y la
Espnila miidfriKi and liecuerdos de un riaye d log Eslados
Unidos de Ainerint. He was killed in the defense of Lima
against Hie Chilians, Jan. 15, 1881. Hkkiiekt II. Smith.
Marquoz, Lko.nardo: soldier; b. in Mexico about 1820.
He was an adherent of Santa Anna, headed a movement in
his favor in 184!l. and during his last presidency (18.");t-.')5)
had important military <'ommands. In the " Hi^form war"
(18.58-60) he was one of the most trusted generals of Ziiloaga
and Miramon, and after their defeat by Juarez, he continued
to wage an irregular wartare on that president, finallv sup-
portinj^the French intervention 1862-04. .Maximilian' made
niin minister to Constantinople, but the dangers threatenini;
the empire brought liiin back in Oct., 18(56, and he took
command of a division. He was sent to Mexico in Mar.
1867, with directions to take charge of the defense of that
city, form a new cabinet, and organize re-enforcements for
the relief of t^ucretaro; but Diaz, having ri'duced Puebla,
brought all his forceps against .Mar<|uez, who, after various
reverses, was driven into the city; tinding resistance ho[>o-
less, and having heard of the death of Maximilian, he re-
signed his command on June 1!), and es<aped to Havana,
where he took up his resilience. He was expnvssly ex-
cluded from the amnesty of 1870. Manpiez liiis Invii ac-
cused of great cruelt.v, and was nicknameil the "liger of
Tacubaya," in allusion to his massjicre of prisoners at that
place in .\i)r., 18,")!l; in this, however, ho ai-ted under the
orders of .^Iil•amon. Heriikkt II. S.MITII.
Marquis, or .ManjUpas [readaptcd to Fr. from M. Eiip.
markis, from (>. Fr. markis, marquis > Fr. r/KiruiiiVi; cf.
Germ. mark, boundarv, and the title markgraf, nearly
26a
equivalent to marquis]: a British title of nobility, next in
rank below that of duke, and next above that of earl. Like
the ancient English title of lord-mareher uud the (ierman
one of Markgraf, it originally signified an officer who gov-
erned u mark or frontier district. As an honorarv title it was
first bestowed in England in i;W6. A marquis is adilressed
as "the most honorable." The title of his wife is " marchion-
ess," and she is also aiidressed as " most lionorable," or oa
"your liulyship."
.Marquis. David Caliiou.n, D. D., LL. D. : minister and
professor; b. in Lawrence co.. Pa.. Nov. 15, 18:t4 ; was edu-
cateii at Jcffer.s<jn Collegi' anil Western and .McCorniick
Theological Seminaries ; was a teacher 1857-60; pastor of a
Presbyterian church at Decatur, 111., 186;}-66 ; of the North
Presbyterian church, Chicago, 1866-70; of Westminster
church, Halliinore, 1870-78; of Lafayette Park church, St.
Louis, 1878-8M: moderator of the General .■\ss<'mblv at
Minneapolis 1886; since 18H;t has been I'rofe.ssor of S'ew
Testament Literature and Exegesis in McCormiek Tlieo-
logieul Seminary. He has published occasional articles, and
is now (1893) preparing a Life of Christ, for use as a text-
book in schools. C. K. HovT.
Marradi. maar-raadee, Giova.n.m : p(K?t : b. in 1852 at Leg-
horn, Italy. He studied at Pisa and Florence, ami in the
latter |)lace, in 1877, joined. Guido Hiagi and Severino F'er-
rari in founding the literary periodical / iiuori (iuliardi. By
the name (ioliardi he and his a.s.s<Kiates were for a time
known. After the failure of the periiMlical, he published,
under the pseudonym O. ^f. Labronio. a, volume entitled
Canzoni modeme (IHTH). He has since jirodiiced Epiredio:
poesie (1880) ; Fantasie marine (1881) ; fiicordi /iriVi (Rome,
1884); Puesie (Turin, 1887); .Vi/oci Caitii (Milan, 1891).
Marradi has felt strongly the innuencc of Carducci, and
echoes the note of paganism and naturalism that is charac-
teristic of his master. His style has often a rare and [>cr-
sonal perfection of its own. ' A. R. .Marsh.
Marri : a sanitarium in Northern India. See Mirree.
Marriage [M. Eng. mariage. from O. F'r., deriv. of ma-
rier. marry < Lat. marilii re. wed. marry, deriv. of mari Ins,
husband, deriv. of dkis. ma ris. man. male, husband] : the
contract by which a man and a woman assume the status or
relation of husband and wife, or the status itself.
Historical Outline of the Ccstoms and Laws op
Marriage.
I. Early Custom and Law.— 77ie et-olulion of marriage
begins with the appropriation of one or more women by
one man. The earliest form of comjilete a|ipropriation
seems to be irife-caplure from a hostile horde. The right
established by such a capture is ownership; the woman is
the man's properly, his slave. The second form of mar-
riage, which develops insensibly out of the first, is irife-piir-
chase. As the older and smaller hordes are nnile<l into
tribes, by conquest or defensive federation, and as the tril)es,
under the operation of the sjune causes, grow larger and are
welded into sonielhing like stales, wife-<-aptiire U'<'omes
more and more difficult. Such capture is legally in'rmissi-
ble only out of the limit of the tribe or state ; wit din these
limits it is a breach of the peace, and a wrong to the wom-
an's kinsman ; it has t)eeome theft. If. therefore, a wife is
sought within the tribe, she must be bought; at first from
her clan ; at a later period, when the clan is in pPK-ess of
dissolution, from her father or guanlian. Like the captured
wife, the purchased wife is still, in legal theory, the hus-
band's pro|>erly, but her actual |M)siiion rapidly improves.
Her kinsmen are members of the same community; ther
claim the right to protect her against cruel treatment an^
to exact vengeance or [nnalty it her hiisljand puts her to
death or puts her awav without gixxl cause, 'rliis pnjfcc-
tion extends to her children also. Rights Ix'gin to be at-
tributed to the wife and mother, and these rights, however
slight and faintly marked, differentiate her fn^m the slave.
This evolution is often hastened by religious influences.
Among many i)eoples a religious marriage supj>h'iiients the
sale or is sni'tstituted for it; the relation thus iniliateil is a
religious relation, and the wife is protectwl by the priests^
Even where no such religious marriage is develo|>ed, the
sale of the wife tends to bi-conie fictitious. A svmbolic
consideration, a ring or n coin, is sulistitutiKl for t^e pur-
chase-money, and marriage, thoiiph lodiiiically a sale, is
really a di.stinct contract. It is stilK of course, in every earlT
system of law a contract N-lween the man and the woman's
father or guanlian; the latter "gives her to be marrit-d,"
562
MARRIAGE
and her consent is not necessary. When tlic woman's con-
sent begins to be regarded as essential, niurriage has prac-
ticjilly readied its modern form.
Polygamy. — In the normal evolution of initrriage polyg-
amy (or rather polygyny, a plurality of wives) and monog-
amy may exist side by siile ; but for obvious reasons po-
lygamy can never be a general system. Only the most
powerful or most wealthy members of a community can
capture or purchase a plurality of wives.
JIanus-marriaye and the Patriarchal JVicon/..— The form
of marriage above described, which rests upon the iip|iro-
priation of the woman by the man, is called by Semitic
scholars the ba'al or ownership marriage; by students of
Indo-Germanic custom the mfiHHs-marriage. In early Ro-
man and in early Teutonic law marriage brings the wonum
into the "hand" (munus. miinl) of lier husband; and it
seems certain that these words originally designated pus-
session or proprietorship. The theory that /Hn«i(«-marriage
is the primitive form of marriage is in accord with the so-
called patriarchal theory, but docs not involve the accept-
ance of the latter theory in its broadest form, as set forth
by Maine, according to whom all early social organization
is based on the patriarchal family.
Promisriiity. (I ronp-marriages. Polyandry, and Marriage
without Marital Pouvr. — There are several other theories
regarding the earliest form of the family. Some modern
writers hold that the primitive horde was itself a single
undifTerentiated family, with complete promiscuity or he-
tairism. Others a.ssert tliat the earliest marriages were
group-marriages in a narrower sense ; a number of hus-
bands in every case holding a number of wives in common,
and a number of such matrimonial groups being included
within the horde. Others again (notably McLennan) declare
that polyandry, a system under which one woman maintains
more or less permanent relations with a number of hus-
bands, is a primitive (if not the primitive) form of the fam-
ily. Still others maintain that a frequent (if not universal)
form of early nuirriage is tliat in which the wife remains in
her own horde and the husband is a<lopted into it. In none
of these forms of association is there any marital proprie-
torship or any considerable degree of marital authority.
Paternal authority does not exist over the children ; the
woman is the head of the family {matriarchate).
These theories rest partly on customs actually prevailing
in modern times, or said to have prevailed in the past
among many savage or barbarous peoples, and partly upon
early methods of tracing kinship. The evidence furnished
by actual custom is, however, by no means conclusive.
Promiscuity, polyandry, etc., arc sporadic, not general, phe-
nomena ; and in many cases it is probable that they repre-
sent comparatively late conditions, due not to normal evo-
lution but to social degeneration. It should also be observed
that general license outside of the marriage relation proves
nothing as to the nature of marriage itself; and that the
selling or lending of wives, so frequently noticed among
barbarous peoples, is rather an assertion than a negation of
marital ownership. More important is the evidence fur-
nished by early systems of kinship. It is coini/ig to be
generally conce<led that in the earliest stages of social evo-
lution relationship is not traced through the male line at
all, but exclusively through the female {Mutterrecht, uterine
or ciignalic relationship). It also seems clear that kinship
between father and child, wlien it comes to be recognized,
is generally based on the power of the husband over the
mother, her child being regarded a.s his child because she is
his pro[)erty. These facts are explained by the opponents
of the patriarchal theory by asserting that in primitive so-
ciety there is cither no marriage at all, or no marriage to a
single husl)and, or that in primitive monandrous marriage
the husliand does not own his wife. The latest an<i most
careful investigations, however, seem to shcjw that there is
no necessary coiniection between the earliest theories of
kinship and the earliest organization of the family, llela-
tionshii) to the mother and through the mother is flr.st rec-
ognized because it is the most obvious and most certain
form of relationship. \Vc find that relatiunsliip to the
father and through the father is ignored by many of the
lowest savages, in spite of tlie fad that their marriages are
uniforndy monandrous, anil that the husbanil has the full-
est power over the wife. In a nmch higlier stage of social
development, moreover, at the period of fully develnped
clan organization, the method of tracing relationship seems
to depend primarily not upon the form of the family, but
upon the custom of the clan. According to its own theory,
the clan is always based on kinship; the tie which holds it
together is always a tie of blood. If, now, the clan were
regularly perpetuated \>y endogamy, i.e. by internnirriages
between its members, it would not be forced to choose be-
tween "mother-right" and "father-right"; but this is not
the case; exogamy, or a system of cross-marriages between
clans, is the rule;, and in order that each <dan may estab-
lish and preserve a distinct and separate existence, the chil-
dren of such cross-marriages must be assigned either to the
mother's clan or to the father's. With the acceptance of a
uniform rule of assiginnent, each clan perpetuates itself
through one exclusive line of descent, either through the
female line or through the male line; aiul the line which is
excluded by clan custom is practically ignored by the entire
community. It is perfectly conceivalile that the female
line maybe chosen; and in this case " mother-right " will
maintain itself long after paternity has become certain ;
Imt this solution of the question seems to be exceptional,
or at least transitional. As a rule, the woman is taken into
the man's clan, capture and purchase alike bring her there,
and her children are accounted members of his clan. This
certaiidy was the system which |irevailed among the Aryan
or Indo-Germanic races. Among them the clan name de-
scended in the right nude line, as our modern family names
still descend. Among them, as long as the gentile or clan
organization was still strong, kinship through the male line
(agnatic relationship) was either the only legal kinship, as
was the case for centuries at Home, or it was at least the
more important form of kinshi)). Cf. the position lussigned
in early German law to the " sword-kin " (Schicertmagen).
Conflu.'iiona. — In view of the above facts, it appears very
doubtful whether promiscuity or group-marriage or poly-
andry can be regarded as a really primitive type of social
organization ; and it seems certain that none of them is a
general type. It may be added that none of these forms of
sexual association is really entitled to be called marriage ;
and it is not easy to see how any one of them can have fur-
nished even a starting-point in the evoluticm of monandrous
marriage. It is equally doubtful whether the form of mar-
riage in which the husband enters the wife's family is a
really primitive form ; and it is certain that it is not the
starling-point from which Indo-Germanic marriage has been
derived.
Literature. — Maine. Ancient Law (Ivondon, 1st ed. 1861 ;
7th cd. 187S) ; Barly IIi.^tory of Institutions (4th ed. 1885) ;
Earh/ Law and Custom (1883) ; Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht
(Stut'tgart, 18(>I); Autii/uarische Briefe (Strassburg, 1880-
86) ; Morgan, Systems of Consangiiinity (Smithsonian con-
tributions, vol. xvii.) ; Ancient Society (London, 1877); JIc-
liCniuin, Studies in Ancient History (London, 1876) ; The
Patriarchal Theory (1885); 1 1 earn. The Aryan Household
(liOndon, 187!)); von Dargun, Mutterrecht und Raubehe
(Uresluu, 1S88): Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht (Leipzig. 1892);
Lippert, (leschichte (/pr /'nmi/ie (Stuttgart, 1884); Giraud-
Teulon. Ijcs Origines du Mariage (Geneva, 1884); Kobert-
son Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (t'ani-
brirlge, 1885); Starcke, The Primitive Family (transl. New
York, 1889) ; Post, Entwickelung.^geschichte dea Familien-
rechts (Leipzig, 1889) ; Westermarck, History of Human
Marriage (London, 1H91).
II. Roman Law. — Karly Roman marriage was based on
the acquisition, by the husband, of manna. In early Roman
legends there are traces of wife-capture ; but this form of
marriage is not recognized in the sacral law (leges regi(F) nor
in the Twelve Tables. Manus (and therefore marriage) was
estal)lishcd among the patricians by a religious ceremony
(confarreatio); among the (ilebeians by ]>urchase (co-emptio).
We find also in early Roman law that if a man exercises
jnarital authority over a woman for a year, he acquires
manus as he woulil accjuire any other property right, viz.,
by ]irescription (iisu.t). From the marriage by prescription
there was ultimatelv developed a. free, con.sensual marriage,
without manus. The acipiisition of manus could be de-
feated by a brief annual absence of the wife from her hus-
band's honu> ; and it came to be recognized that, even with-
out tnanus, the voluntary union was legally a marriage. In
the late Roman law this free union was the general form of
marriage. It was based ujion the agreement of the man and
the wojnan (consensus, non concubitus, farit nuplia,'<), al-
though, if either of the parties was under jiaternal authority
the consent of the father also was necessary to t he validity
of the contract.
Marriage wius regidarly preceded by betrothal (sponsnlia) ;
but the engagement to marry was not capable of specific en-
MARRIAGE
5G3
forcemcnt, nor, in the later development of the law, could
any petmlly l)e recovercil for l)reach of the proini.se.
MarriiiKe was di^s.sol^ll)le at pleasure by either party. The
Roman jurists descrilicd iiiarriajfe as the shariuf; of for-
tune, good or ill, for life (euiimrliiim umnin vilie); but they
nu>ant a voluntary sharing, and held that a promise tiot to
exereise the right of divorce was invalid hfciiiinf iminur-
al. The Christian emperoi-s endeavored to check unrea-
sonable divorce by penalty, ami Justinian forbade divurvo
by mutual couscnt— a prohibition which bis successor re-
pealed.
Literati-re. — Uossbach, Romische Ehe (StuttKart, 1853);
Karlowa, HumUrhe Ehe iind Miinug (IJonn, 1H6H).
HI. Karlv Teutonic Law. — In the earliest written laws
of the Scandinavians, Germans, Anglo-Saxon.s, etc., wife-
purchase (liraulkauf) is the normal form of nuirriage ; but
wife-stealing (Frnuenraiib) is still recognized as establish-
ing the relation of husband and wife (Uaubehe). at leaiit
when the customary penalty (a certain number of cows or
horses) has been paiil. Among many German tribes the
penalty paid for abduction and the price paid in buying a
wife are identical in amount. \Vife-purcha.se, like other
contracts of sale, falls into the two stages of sjile and de-
livery. Sale consists in the agreement to deliver, accom-
panied by the payment of a part of the price (arrha), or the
fiving of a pledge ( Wette, wadium) to bind the bargain.
)clivery of the bride was frequently clothed in the form of
abduction, followed by the payment of the full price by
the bridegroom and his kinsmen to the bride's kinsmen.
" Bride-purchase," says Ileusler, "is essentially nothing but
an alxluction previously agreed U|K)n." At a later peri<Hl
both the pledge and the price are [laid to the woman's father
or guardian, and at a still later i)eriod to the wonnin herself.
The moilern betrothal ring represents the wadium of the
primitive sale. The marriage settlement made by the hus-
band represents the full payment of what was once [wnalty
and afterward price. \\ hether, in Teutonic law, the rela-
tion of husband ami wife was established by the sale or by
the delivery, by the betrothal ( Vtrlobung) or by the mar-
riage ceremony (Trauung) is disputed. Solim asserts that
the betrothal, according to Teutonic ideas, was not an agree-
ment to marry but a contract of marriage, and that the
ceremonies of delivery represented simply the execution of
the contract. (C'f. the etymological connection between Wri-
te and the Knglish " wedding," and the introduction of the
troth-plighting into modern marriage services). Others — and
this is the general opinion — hold that the matrimonial rela-
tion was established by the giving of the bride to her hus-
band. Ileusler asserts that the relation was fully estab-
lished or "consummated " only by cimcubilna {copula rar-
na/in). As a matter of fact, Teutonic custom seems to have
attached .some results of marriage to the betrothal, others to
the ceremony of marriage, ami yi't others to its consumma-
tion. All these ideas had an inllucnce upon the develop-
ment of the canon law.
Karlv Teutonic custom allowed the husband to put the
wife away for cause (e. g. adultery, barrenness), and it prob-
ably recognized divorce by mutual consent.
Literature. — See esiwcially the controversial literature
of Sohm and F''riedberg : Sohin, EhesrhtieKSung (Weimar,
1875); Friedberg, Verlnbung uiid 7Vawi(»p (Leipzig, 1876);
Sohin, TniHung iiiul Verlohuiig (Weimar, 1876) ; and Zur
TraHungnfrage (lleilbronn. 1879). t'f. also Ileusler, Iii.iti-
tulionen des Deulnchen Prii'alrechls (Leipzig, 1886), ii., 277-
292 : Hrunncr, Deutsche Rechtagesehichte (Leipzig, 1887),
i.. 70-^1.
IV. Roman EccLESiASTirAL Law. — The mcdiirval Church
declared marriage a sacrament. It therefore claimed, ami
obtained, an exclusive jurisdiction over matrimonial cases ;
and in the exercise of this jurisdiction it developed a uni-
form law of marriage for the entire Christian world.
The I'hurch accepted the doctrine of the Roman civil
law, that marriage is established by the consent or agree-
ment of the parties. It accepteil the Roman age of con-
gent, viz., fourteen for males, twelve for females. It rejected
the Roman reiiuircment of parental consent. It was cus-
tomary, throughout the Middle Ages, to celebrate the troth-
plighting at the church diHir(fi<f n.ilium rfrlrMir. in farif
uclesiir) and then to constu'rale the marriage within the
church ; it was al.so customary to recpiire the previous pul)-
lication of banns; but until' the Council of Trent, in the
cixteenth century, the clandestine, unconsecrated marriage
was completelv valiil.
Wf/rr)//m/ (;i^oii.«i/ia).— Starting with the Roman idea of
betrothal as a mere contract to marry at some future time,
the Church was neverllielcss strongly influenced in the early
Miildle Ages by Teutonic u.sages, and dwlared that lic-
trothal established at least an inchoate marriage (matrimo-
tiium iiiilialum). In the Gallican Church, however, the
Roman theory was retained, and a di.stinction drawn l>e-
tween Mpoimalia dt fuluro and df //rceaeiili. This distinc-
tion was accepted by the Church as a whole in the twelfth
century (.Alexander III.), but some concessions were ma<lo
to Teutonic ideas. An agreement in /ira-Mritti (e. g. aecipio,
I take) constituted a valiil canonical marriage; but sucli a
marriage, if not consummateil, could Ik- dissolved by a vow of
celibacy on either side, and also by pajial dis|ien.sa{ion. An
agreement de fnluro (e. g. acciptam, 1 will take) was not
marriage, but if followed by cuncubilua it Iwcainc niai'-
riage. The cuncxibitus was said to create a |iresiiniption of
consent in prifxenti. and this presumption wa.s an ab.sulute
one. i. e. pr<Hif of the contrary was excluded.
Jlindrancrs (impedimenla). — The Church establisheil a
formidable list of im|)ediments to marriage, s<mie of which
mmle the marriage voidable {impedimenta dirimeiilia),
while others did not have this effect, but simply subjected the
parties to ecclesiastical censure {impedimenta impedientia
or pruhibitirn). To the latter class belonged, for example,
the disregard of ecclesiastical rules concerning banns, and
precontract (de fuluro) between cither of the parties and a
thiril person. 1 o the f(jrmer cla.ss {impedimenta dirimenlia)
belonged, for exam pie, lack of consent, whet her due to insanity
or essential error; lack of free ctinsent, as in the ca.sc of iii-
timidutinn; legal inca[iacity to give a binding consent bc-
causi' of iKin-age : ami liii-k of physical fitness (impolenlia).
Precontract de pranenti, i. e. the existence of a previous
marriage, a previous solemn vow of celibacy, and difference
of religion also excluded marriage. The greatest innovation
introduced by the Church consisted in its list of imiK'dimcnta
based on relationship {cognatio). The Roman an<i the Teu-
tonic law excluded marriage in oqly a few ca-ses of very near
relationship. The canon law forbade marriage between
bloo(l-relaIives(fOH.in"(7«infr): between each party to a pre-
vious marriage (or to an unlawful copula) and the relatives
of the other parly {afflne.t); and it ailded to these inifx'di-
ments the so-called "spiritual relationship," cstablishitl by
participation in the sacraments of baptism and confirma-
tion. Refore 1S13 the iin|R'dinicnts of consanguinity and
afliiiity extended to the .seventh degree (e. g. to sixth cous-
ins), and marriage wils forbidden not only with affine* but
with affineK of affinen; but InniKcnl III. abolished the latter
rule, and limited the prohibitions based on consanguinity
and aflinity lo the fourth degree (e. g. third cousins). All
impediments of kinship, except between luscendants and de-
scendants and brother and sister, may be removed by dis-
pensation.
Separation. — The most important inference which the
Church drew from the sacramental character of marriage
was the indissolubility of the union, save by death. It re-
fused to permit any si-paration a vinculo (divorce), and per-
mitted only separation from lied and board.
The most peculiar feature of the canon law, viz.. its ex-
tended list of impediments base<l on actual, legal, and spirit-
ual kinship, has been varioiislv exfilained. Some of the early
Protestant Reformers insistwl that the Church meant to sup-
ply a substitute for divorce by permitting freijuent annul-
ment of marriages. Others declared that its motive was fis-
cal ; that many prohibitions were creali-d in onler that many
<lis[)cnsations might lie solil. MiMlern historical investigation
has discovered better and more probable n'asons for the pol-
icy of the Church. After the disappearance of the marriace
by capture, a strong tendency appeared, at least among tlie
Germans, toward marriage within the Sippe. or boily of rela-
tiims, the motive being to keep proi^erly in the Sippr; and
throughout the Middle Ages — indeeil, until the nineteenth
centurv — the tendency of Kuro|H'an village life has Ini-n
toward marriage within the villagi'. In those [uirls of the
Continent that have been least affiNieil by modem migratory
tendencies, villages may .still l«e found where all the inhabi-
tants ar»' more or less nearly conniiliMl l.y l>liHid or mar-
riage. The prohibitions of ihi- Church, in forcing men to
secK wives oulsiilc of the narniw circle of their kinsfolk, ex-
ercised a iM-neficent influence in checking these tendencio*
to inbreeding.
Council of Trent.— The raliility of clamlestine marriafrrs
belwet'n minors was recogiiizml as one of the most objec-
tionable features of the mediirval law of marriage. The
Council of Trent declared thai iiiarriap' must take place in
564
MARRIAGR
the presence of the parish priest and two witnesses, ami
that no elantlestine marriage sliould be held liindin';.
liiTKRATiRK. — Worlvs on canon law (jiiti ranonieum, droit
eanoniqne, Kirchenrecht), public and private, contain the
canon law of marriage; works on the public law alone do
not. Two of the most recent treatises on the Catholic law
of marriage are Ksniein, Le Manage en Droit Canonique
(Paris, 18(11). and Bender, Handbiich dex Kalholischen Eke-
rechts (4th ed. Freiburg i. Br,, 1891). For the liistory, see
Freisen, GeschicMe des Canonischen Eherechts (Tubingen,
1888). For the doctrine of sponsalia, see Solim and Fried-
berg, cited above, and Seliling, Die VertOlmisse im Kanon-
iachen Heehte (Leipzig, 1887).
, V, Protestant Kcci.ksiasticai. Imw. — The Protestant
Reformation brought with it numerous changes in the law of
marriage, the most important of which resulted from the re-
jection of the sacramental theory. In some territories these
changes were made by ecclesiastical authority, in others by
secular legislation ; but until the nineteenth century legisla-
tion was generally guided by the opinions of the Church au-
thorities. In Germany the territorial princes were thought
to deal with marriage rather in their capacity of supreme
bishops than in that of secular rulers.
Betrothal and Marriage. — Luther protested against the
Catholic distinction between sponsalia de fnturo and de
prirsenti, on the ground that it was foreign to the instincts
and language of his coiintrymen. "Wilt thou" and "I
will," he declared, were not, in German, irrlm de futuro;
they cx|)ressed simply volition, consent. lie therefore in-
sisted that all betrothals, unless expressly made subject to
condition precedent (e. g. " if my parents consent "), or term
precedent (e.g. "if you will wait a year for me "), expressed
a present matrimonial consent, and constituted at least an
inchoate marriage. This view was dominant in Germany
until the eighteenth century.
The evil of clandestine marriages, which was rather exag-
gerated than lessened by Luther"s theory of betrothal, was
met in different ways in different German territories. Con-
sent of parents was demanded, or the presence of witnesses,
or an ecclesiastical ceremony. Church marriage was re-
garded as the usual and regular consummation of the inchoate
marriage established by troth-plighting; but it was still
held that any sort of betrothal followed by conciibitus es-
tablished a marriage, a rule which made the requirement
of publicity illusory.
Bohmer {Jus Ecclesiasticiim Protestantium, Flalle, 1714)
reintroduced the Roman distinctions. He held that xpon-
salia are always, in principle, de fnturo ; that the consent
giveh in betrothal is not a consent to marriage, but to be-
trothal. Betrothal followed by concubilu.i constitutes in-
deed a " natural " marriage, but by positive law the bene-
diction of the Chunli is necessary to its legal recognition.
The ecclesiastical marriage is therefore the only perfect
marriage. The views of Bohmer were generally incorporated
iti (iermaii legislation during the latter part of the eighteenth
and the early part of the nineteenth century.
ITie CIturc/i of England adhered, as far as these questions
were concerned, to the older ecclesiastical law. Whether
this was precisely the same as the ecclesiastical law of the
Continent — whether the latter had not been supplemented
and modified by Knglish legislation, ecclesiastical and secu-
lar— is a matter of dispute. Jlany authorities hold that
neither spousal ia de pripsenti nor sponsalia de futuro with
subsequent copula constituted a ])erfect marriage at Eng-
lish ecclesiastical law without a priestly benediction. (See
Queen vs. Millis, 10 Clark ami Finelly, where the judges
were equally divided.) It is also nuiintained that the lire-
sumption of present consent derived from the copula was
not absolute; that proof to the contrary was admissible.
All uncertainty was removed by statutes passed in the
reigns of (ieorge II. and George IV„ requiring a <'hurch
marriage preceded by publication of banns, excejA in the
case of marriage by special license, and making any other
sort of marriage invalid. The first of these statuti'S (Lord
llardwicke's .\ct, 2G(ieo. II., c. 33) nuide even such a mar-
riage void in the case of minors, unless the consent of the
parents or guardians had been obtained ; but this provision
was afterward ri-pealed.
None of these statutes applied to Scotland, and their pas-
sage gave rise to a great number of elopements to that
country. .See Grkt.va (Jrkkn.
Hindrances. — Protestant ecclesiastical law rejected the
theory of spiritual kinship, and narrowed llie imiiediuients
resulting from consanguinity or athnity. In (iermany the
I new rules were based in gome territories upon the Roman
civil law, in others upon the Mosaic law (Leviticus xviii.).
In Englaiui llie Leviti<al degrees were adopted bv acts
passed in the reign of Henry VIII. This system limited
the impediments of consanguinity and atlinity to the second
degree, and permitted certain marriages within that degree,
e. g. between first cousins.
Divorce. — The Protestant churches of the Continent re-
garded divorce a vinculo as permissible : in some cases for
adultery only, in others for malicious desertion and cruelty,
and by reason of the condemnation of either party to im-
prisonment at lianl labor — particularly in those ca.ses where
a more humane ten<lency in legislation had substituted the
penalty of im])risonment for an earlier penalty of death,
riie Church of England, on the contrary, opposed the grant-
ing of divorce for any cause, and where divorces were granted
by special act of Parliament the ecclesiastical authorities
were unwilling to sanction a second marriage.
LiTKKATiRK. — For Germany, works on Church law. Cath-
olic and Protestant, e. g. IIin,scliius, Kirclienrectit (Berlin,
1869-88); Friedberg. Kirchenreclit (Leipzig, 1889). For
England: Jkiru. Ecclesiastical Law {diU ed. London, 1842);
Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law (London, 1873).
VI. Modern Legislation. — Europe. — The modem state
regards marriage as (primarily, at least) a civil relation, and
even in Catholic states marriage and divorce are governed
to-day by civil legislation. The most imjiortant changes in-
troduced by modern legislation are lus follows: (1) The age
of consent is generally raised. (2) The consent of parents or
guardians is generally made a condition of validity during
minority, and in some states for several years after major-
ity (so, e. g.. in France, Italy, and Germany). (3) Marriage
must be publicly contracted. The earliest form of C()TO/«(/-
sory jnihlic marriage was, as we have seen, the church mar-
riage. In this form the principle of i>ul)licity was intro-
duced into the Catholic states of Europe by the Council of
Trent; into Protestant Germany and England by civil leg-
islation. The church marriage meant, at first, marriage
acconling to the rites of the established Church of each
country ; but the irritation excited by subjecting the adhe-
rents of other confessions, orof no confession, to such a form
of marriage has led in some states to the recognition of
marriages celebrated according to the rites of any recog-
nized confession, and ultimately to the general establish-
ment of civil marriage, i. e. marriage before a secular of-
ficial. In England marriages before justices of the peace
were authorized under the (L'ommonwealth, but disappeared
with the Restoration. In the nineteenth century the act of 6
and 7 Wm. IV., c. 85 (su|iplemented by acts of 1 Vict., c. 22,
and 19 and 20 Vict., c. 119) furnishes an option between
marriage according to the forms of the established Church,
marriage according to the forms of other confessions, and
marriage before a "registrar." An optional or "faculta-
tive " civil marriage exists also in Austria, ."^pain, and Por-
tugal. In a larger number of continental states, however,
conflicts with the Catholic Church — arising, in general,
from the refusal of that Church to recognize the rules es-
tablished by the state; in particular from its opposition to
marriages between Catholics and non-Catholics, or its at-
tempt to make the celebration of such "mixed marriages"
conditional on a pleiige that the children .shall be brought
up in the Catholic faith — have resulted in the establishment
of the obligatory civil marriage, e. g. in France. Italy, Ger-
many, Holland, and .Switzerland. The civil marriage is reg-
ularly preceded by no! ices modeled on the banns of the Cath-
olic Church, and sul)serving the same ]Hir]iose of publicity.
The requirement of [uiblic marriage' has swept away all
doubt as to the nature of bitrotlial. It is merely an agree-
ment to marry at some future time. It gives no claim for
specific performance. That breach of promise of marriage
creates a claim for damages is denieii or disputed in many
states, but alhrmed in (iermany.
Hindrances. — .According to the law of most Protestant
and some Catholic states, consanguinity is a bar to mar-
riage only between ascendants and descendants (/(«<'« recta),
lirothers and sisters, uncle and niece, and nephew ami aunt.
Some states (e. g. Prussia) limit the collat<Tal impe<liment
to brothers and sistei-s. .Mliiiity in some Protestant states
(e. g. Prussia) is a bar only in the right line, and not between
collaterals. Englaml still adheres to the prohibition of mar-
riage with the deceased wife's sister. Even in those Cath-
olic slates which cling most closely to the Roman ecclesias-
tical law tliere is a tendency to limit the impediments of
consanguinity and atlinity to the third degree.
MARRIAGE
565
Divorce a rinrulo is pcncriillv permitted, but for causes
■wlilfli vury creatly. Ituly, Spain, ami I'ortuKul f;raiil no
alisolutc divorce. Auslriii grHiit^ it only to non-rathulics.
LiTKKATiRE. — For coniiiaris(jn of the laws of the principal
countries, see (ilasson, Jluriai/i' Civil ('2<1. eil. Pans. 1K80) ;
GrilriwaUl, Die KluseliliiKKung (Vienna. IWl); \Vri;;lit,
Renort on Marriage and Divorce (\Viusliin(;toti. IbHll).
Vniteil Stales. — The so-called "coniniuii-law marriage"
rccofjnizi'd in the V. S. is simply the canonical marriage In"
agreement i/e /invnenli. An agreement de fiiluro, tliongii
followed liy cohabitation, does not establish marriage. Co-
habitation is merely evidence of an agreement de prtmenli,
and is by no means conclusive evidence. In a few of the
States consent is not suiricient to constitute marriage with-
out a pulilic ceremony or actual consummation. The law of
Louisiana rcfiuircs the observance of certain forms and so-
lemnities. In Nevada marriages between minors reipiire
parental consent, and failing such consent, the marriage a|>-
pears to be invalid. In the other commonwealths all rules
regarding parental consent, solemnization of marriage
by clergymen or secular magistrates, notices of intention,
issue of licenses, etc., are merely directory, or entail no fur-
ther result than the punishment (usually by fine) of the par-
tics or clergymen, or magistrates, who ifisregard them. The
system which prevails in the V. S. accordingly offers an
election between religious marriage, civil marriage, and
completely formless marriage. It may be added thiit it would
be practically impossible for any single commonwealth to
suppress clandestine marriages, as its rules would not affect
marriages contracted by its citizens beyond its borders.
In the absence of statutory provision to the contrary, the
age of consent is the canonical age, viz., fourteen for males,
and twelve for females. In many of the States the age has
been raised, and varies from sixteen to twenty-one in the
case of males, and from fourteen to eighteen for females.
All of the States prohibit marriage between iLscendants
anil descendants (linea recta), and between brothers and sis-
ters of the full or half blood. Nearly all prohibit marriage
between uncle and niece, or aunt and nephew. Ten .States
forbid marriage between first cousin.s. Allinity is usually a
bar only in the right line, i. e. between step-parents and
step-children, and between father-in-law aiul daughter-in-
law, etc. ; but in a few States close collateral alTinity is made
a bar. Marriages within the prohibited degrees are generally
declared to be void. In many States marriage is unlawful
between whites and persons of .African descent, and in a few
between whites and Indians or .Mongolians.
Divorce is granted in all the States and Territories e-xcent
South Carolina and New Mexico. The causes vary greatly
in different States, some granting divorces only for adul-
tery, some even for incompatibility of temper.
LlTERATi'RK. — |{isho|>. Marriage and Divorce (Olh ed.
Boston, 18S1): Noble, Complete Vieiv of the State Laws of
Marriage and Divorce (New York, 1H*I2); Robinson, J/(ir-
riage and Divorce (Chicago, 1(<84) ; Stewart, Marriage and
Divorce (San Francisco, 1884): .Snyder, Geography of Mar-
riage, or Legal Perplexities of Wedlock in the Lniled States
(New York, 18S!i); Wright, Jieport on Marriage and Di-
vorce (Washington, 1889). Mlnkok Smith.
Ge.veral Laws Oover.ni.so Marriahe is Great Britai.v
and the u.mted states.
The word marriage in law, as well as in popular usage, is
commonly useil of two things which are in their nature
widely different — namely, a contract, that is, the act, the
series of ads. or the ceremony by which a man and a woman
agree Ui live together as husband and wife ; and a " status,"
that is, the condition or relationship toward one another and
toward the community which is contemplateil in and arises
out of the contrait. Technically, this status is the condi-
tion or relationship in which a man and a woman may law-
fully cohabit as husband and wife.
The marriage status is distinguished from a contract by
the facts that when once created liy the marriage contract it
can not be dissolved or abrogated l«y the act of the parties;
that incapacity of one of the parlies to [H-rform its duties
does not affect its continneil existence; that it entls only
with death or dissolution by legal pr<K-ess; that a minor can
not avoiil its continuance if he enterwl into it when of the
age of consent; that no suit for damages will lie for non-
performance of its duties; ami that the causes for which it
can be dissolved by legal process can be validly change<l by
legislation without yiolatiiig the obligation of a contract,
and also change with the domicile of the j>ersons marrieil.
Agreement or Promise to Marry and its Jireaeh. — In tlm
nature of the case there is customarily, and practically al-
ways, an agreement or jiromisc to marry lietween the parties
preliminary to the act of marrying, which constitutes a con-
tract governed by the same legal principles as to cajjacity
of parties, consideration, etc., as other contracts.
This contract may be proven, like any other contract, by
any words or acts siini<iiiil to show that the parties mutu-
ally expected and assented to the future entry into the state
of matriinony by intermarrying. Hoth jiartic-s to the con-
tract must vie of marriageable age, or otherwise it will bo
void, and if one be a minor, the contract, like other con-
tracts, is voidable at his option, but bin<liiig on the ulult.
The miilual i)roniises or a.-sents may !« the only considera-
tions; the time of performance, like that of any other con-
tract is, when not expressly fixed, such a lime as is rea.s<>n-
able under the circumstances of tlie case. The contract can
not be specifically enforced under any circumstances, but
the defaulting party is liable in a suit for damages, in
awarding which the jury may, besides actual pecuniary
damages, take into consideration the loss of worldly ailvan-
tage reasonably expected from the marriage by the [)laintiff,
wounded feelings, the mortification arising from the breach,
and the po.sitive injury to the plaintiff's prus|)ects in life.
In Great Britain, and generally in the U. S., seduction under
promise of marriage may legally be shown in an aggravation
of damages, and in any case it is practically iin|>ossible to
keep the knowlediie of the fact from the jury. A breach of
the contract which will be a sufficient basis for an action in
damages may arise from the fact of a i)er>on promising to
marry when he knows tliat he is legally disi^piulified, or is
incapable of performing the duties of the marriage relation
(lus one already married or one impotent), from his rendering
it impossible for him to fulfill the contract (as by marrying
another), or from words or acts showing his intent not to do
so, or from his failure to fulfill it at the proper time, or on
such request as the law requires. It is generally held in the
case of a woman that she need only prove that she held her-
self in readiness and willingness to be marrie<l. The con-
tract may be rescinded by one party bv reason of its becom-
ing unsjife or imjiropcr for him to celebrate the marriage by
reason of bad health ; for the fraud or deception of the other
party, such as the concealment of previous unchastity or the
disposal of property in a manner injurious to his interests,
witliout his consent ; for the occummce of such physical in-
firmity (as total blindness or deafnes.s) as incapacitates the
other party from properly fulfilling the marital duties ; for
dure.ss, ami for iiustaKc of fact which goes to the essence of
the contract. Either party may also rescind it for ill-con-
duct of the other party occurring subsequently to the prom-
ise, what constitutes such ill-conduct as to justify rescission
being necessarily left without exact definition, but in any
case being less than would be necessary to constitute a
ground for divorce; thus subsiHjueiit la.sin ious conduct not
amounting to fornication might be a .sufficient ground for
rescinding the contract, though not for obtaining a divorce.
Of the Marriage Contract itself. Valid, Invalid, or Void,
and Voidable. — Any marriage ccmtract by which the parties
completely a.ssume the lepil relation of husband and wife is
valid. Tothisend it is necessary to follow only those formali-
ties required by the unwritten law an<l those statutory ones
without the observance of which the statutes expressly pro-
vide that no valiil marriage can take place, all other statu-
tory formalities being bv the policy of the law held to be
directory merely, the failure to observe them not afTet'ting
the validity of the marriage, but subjecting the negligent
parties to a penalty, usually a fine of small amount. In
the L". S. at the unwritten (or common) law and in Scotland
any agreement by which the parties intend to assume the
legal relationship of husband and wife is a valid marriage;
whether more is required in Kiigland (and Ireland) is a mat-
ter of dispute. S-e al)oye under the subdivision of Prolettant
Ecclesiastical Laip.
An invaliil or void marriage contract is one which docs
m>t alter the status of the parties, and which without any
legal priK'eeding may lie treated as of no effitt l)y all jht-
soiis under all circumstances. Such marriage contracts in
general are those between persons uniler some civil dis-
ability, as prior marriage or idiiH'V, etc. — that is. those dis-
abilities wliich the i>olicy of the' law will not allow the
parties to waive. A voidalilo marrinp- is one which by n'»-
mm of some hindrance may l)e set asiiVe in a legal prix-eiding
instituted for that piir|Hi.se, liiit until then is valid, and the
validity of which can not be attacked after the death of
5CC
MARKIAGE
either of the parties, nor collaterally at any time. When
set aside it generally becomes void from the befrinning.
The hindrances which make a marriage voidable are such
as were originally canonical disabilities, as consanguinity,
affinity, impotence, etc., or those which the policy of the
law now allows the parties to waive, althougli these facts
are not infrequently made absolute disabilities by statute.
See above (under the subdivisions Jioman L'cclesianliral
Law, Protestitnt Erchfiantiial Law, and Modem Legisla-
tion) for mention of the disabilities imposed by the eccle-
siastical law and by statutes.
Capacity, or Competency, ok the Parties. — The disabili-
ties which are now recognized as making a marriage con-
tract void or voidable are want of age of consent; mental
incapacity to enter into the contract ; physical incapiicity to
perform the marriage functions; consanguinity (or blood-
relationship) and affinity (or relationship by marriage); the
condition of being a slave ; racial difference ; and a previous
marriage still continuing.
At the common law the age. of consent at which a boy or
a girl becomes capable of entering into a valid marriage con-
tract without the consent of the parents is fixed at fourteen
and twelve years respectively, the age for this purpose being
d liferent from that of majority, and fixed with reference to
the probable age of attaining puberty, the years being derived
from the Roman law. A marriage by a child under the age
of consent and over seven years of age is voidable by the
child upon reaching the age of consent, and a marriage by
parties under seven years of age is void, and a nu're nullity.
The age of consent has now been very generally changed by
statute. See under the sub-heading Modern Legislation,
above.
The law with regard to mental capacilij of the parties to a
marriage to enter into the contract is an application of the
general rule governing the formation of contracts — namely,
that the parties must be capable of understanding the nature
and conse(iuences of the contract entered into. No exact
definition can be given of what constitutes such mental ca^
pacity, but it is sufficient to say that the questitm will be
decided by considering the simple nature of the contract
entered into, and that it is only the immediate consequences
that must be understood by the parties, and not those remote
and secondary oiu's, such as property rights, etc. This mental
incapacity may arise from mental unsoundness, or from in-
toxication, or any other cause. (See Insaxity and JxToxi-
catio.n.) So a niarriage entered into by a person during a
lucid interval is good at the common law, and subsequent
insanity would not invalidate the marriage or be a ground
for divorce except under statutory provisions.
Physical incapacilij. or impotence, is the irremediable
incapacity of a party to a marriage to have any reasonable
sexual intercourse with the other party, and in order to
render the marriage voidable (see above) or to be a ground
for divorce must have existed at the time of the marriage
and have continued unchanged. Mere barrenness or sterility
does not render the marriage voidable, nor is it a ground
for divorce. A marriage declared void for impotence is
void from the beginning, and a statute making impotence
a ground of ilivorce is construed as providing tiiat tlie mar-
riage is a nullity if the divorce be granted.
A marriage by a person already married to another at the
time of the second marriage is of course void absolutelv ;
and no decree of court or legal process is necessary to make
it so, but it is void ab initio, the capa<-ity of the parties to
contract a future marriage being uualTccted by a bigamous
marriage. The celebration of such a second nuiri-iage con-
stitutes bigamy or polygamy, which was not punishable
as a crime, except in the ecclesiastical courts, in England
until the time of James I. The; act is now, however, a statu-
tory offense both in (ireat Hrilain and in the U. S. At the
commim law the children of a bigamous marriage are ille-
gitimate, but by statute in some States tlii^y are made legiti-
mate. If, however, a husband or wife has been absent and
unheard from for seven years, the other does not commit a
crime in contracting a second marriage, although if the ab-
sent party afterward returns or be proved to be living, the
second marriage is void except as otherwise provided by
statute. Sec> Hioamy.
Of the other lnrii//ririties or hindrances: («) Helationship
within the prohibited degrees renders the marriage voidable.
{Sec Roman Kcclesiastical Law, Protestant Ecclesiastical
Law, and Modern Legislation, above; and see also Incest.)
In England the prohibited degrees were established by ;S2
Henry VI II., eh. 3B, which, in the absence of statutes, is the
law in the U. S. (A) The laws governing the marriage of
slaves are now of historical importance only. The cases are
not all in harmony, but in general it is settled that slaves
were capable of entering into a certain inchoate or imper-
fect nuirriage relationship, which on emancipation and con-
tinued cohabitation became a complete marriage with no
further acts of the |iarties. (c) Difference of race is an im-
pediment only when so provided by .statute, and in uumy of
the States marriage between per.sons belonging to different
races (miscegenation) is forbidden, and the celebration of
such a marriage is made a crime.
Marriage Accomplished by Fraud, Error, or Duress. — Al-
though the form or ceremony of a legal marriage may have
been goiu' through with, if either by reason of fraud, error
(or mistake), or duress there is no such meeting of the minds
of the parties as is essential in the ca.se of an ordinary con-
tract the status of nuirriage does not arise. The party who
acted under fraud, duress, or error may have the marriage
declared null and void, or may ratify it, on discovery of the
fraud or error. The ratification may be by words or by acts
alone, as by continued cohabitation. The fraud or error for
which a marriage may be declared void must be such as
affects the capacity of the parties to properly fulfill the rela-
tions to one another of husliand and wife, or the consent of
the parties to the entering into or assuming the duties of this
relation. Thus pregnancy at the time of the marriage by a
party other than the husband is a sufficient ground for
avoiding the marriage, but not deception as to the health,
previous chastity, or wealth of the other party.
Foreign Marriages. — The institution of marriage is of
such a nature and so universal tliat public policy demaiuls
that the validity of nuirriages wherever celebrated, whether
by persons in the land of their domicile, or by persons not
in the country of their donii<ile, but while abroad in a for-
eign laiul, shall be recognized as valid everywhere if valid
under the laws of the country where celebrated, unless such
marriage be of such a nature as to be inconsistent with the
general rules of propriety or morality according to the
standards of civilized nations. With some exce|)tions,
which can not be particularly noted here, this is the almost
universal rule ; and the practice in this matter may be con-
tra.sted with that followed as to recognizing foreign divorces,
where domicile of one party at least is necessary to the
validity of a divorce.
Marriage Brocage Contracts and Contracts in Restraint
of Marriage. — A contract by which one person undertakes
to bring about or negotiate a marriage (technically calle<i a
marriage brocage contract) is void as against public ijolicy,
without regard to whom the consideration is to be paid,
since such contracts tend to bring about marriages through
fraiul and collusion, or marriages for unworthy purposes.
Contracts in restraint of marriage are also wholly voiil, for
the policy of the law is to favor and u]>hold marriage con-
tracts. So a gift or bequest made to a donee upon the con-
dition that the donee never marry, or do not nuirry for a
considerable length of time during which a nuirriage might
lawfidly be celebrated, is void, except uiulcr certain peculiar
circumstances where theiliclates of common morality would
suggest the refraining from marriage although lawful.
The foregoing brief sketch, based upon the comimm law
of England (and Ireland) an<i the U. S., will serve as an out-
line of the laws of Scotland upon this subject, since (with
l\u'. above-noted exception of the recognition of irregular
marriages; see Gretna CiReen) they differ from those of
England chiefly in matters too unimiiorlant or too technical
to be noted here. For a bibliography and further informa-
tion ius to the effect of marriage on the rights and duties of
the parties, see Married Women. F. Sturoes Allen.
Medical Aspects of Marriaoe.
Marriage may improve or may injure the health of the
contrai'liiig jiartics, and the jirobabilities of healthy off-
spring from any given marriage depend to a certain extent
upon the physical characti'ristics of ea<-h of the parents. At
all ages over twenty years flic death-rates of married males
are less than those of the inimarried, and at all ages over
twenty-five the death-rates of married females are less than
those of the unniarricil. .At all ages the deatli-rates of wid-
owers ar(! gri'Htcr llian tlii>s(' of men who are eitlu'r married
or have never been marriiil. while at ages lictween twenty
and forty the death-rate of widows is greater than that of
other women, and over forty it is greater than that of mar-
ried women, but less than that of single women. This will
be seen by the following table, compiled by Ilertillon, show-
MAKRIAGE
MAIIKIKD WOMEN
se*:
ing the avcragp annual cloath-ratcs per 1,000 of each class in
Franco during llio ten years 1850-8.'):
AGES.
MAUta.
rsHALca.
SlD(l..
Uuitod.
WUonrv
Sloib.
UtrrM.
WbVnri.
16-80
6-89
I2'N8
10 17
11-51
13 15
1682
1900
25 8
32 1
45 92
5K-5
881
123 0
202 7
2I>H i
2H20
4800
5I'S2
H U2
6 2»
8 82
7-52
OM
11-47
15-61
21-5
326
44 8
715
IM 5
182 8
228 6
2r90
8570
7740
49 6
21-81
19 17
17-50
18-89
22 2
20-8
»4 17
47 5
B2 97
95 4
14;V9
221 8
2ii3 a;
319 0
3W 0
7-53
8-:i2
902
9-H7
10-87
13-28
15-71
2U 1(7
26 90
40-52
58-3
H5-5
140 5
222 5
30.-r0
311 1
8S7-7
I1-H6
9 92
N-98
9 36
9 29
10 14
10 09
14 11
I'J 29
30 75
45 3
72 BO
109 4
172 5
216-1
256-3
4160
ao-a
2^1 62
SS-SO
16 <l
15 03
12-73
80-3S
85-«
40-4S
4&-S0
JO-86
15 20
SIMM
24 47
«MI5
37 07
«.70
70-78
86 1
78-80
«M5
85-80
90-K
flS-
I9H-0
264 0
31I8 0
It can also be shown by statistics that insanity, intompcr-
ance, siiiciile, criiiic, and deaths from certain fcirms u( dis-
ease, as for instance, cholera, are less freipient anions; the
married than among tlie nnmarricd. It does not, however,
follow that these differences in death-rates, and the cor-
respondingly greater longevity of married persons, are duo
wholly, or even partially, to marriage, or that marriage is a
means of preventing disease and prolonging life to the extent
which figures might seem to indicate. Normal, healthy,
energetic men and women arc more likely to marrv than
those who are deformed, feeble, or affected with clirr)nic
disease, and therefore their death-rates should bo lower.
This will probably not lu-coiint for all the difference, the
married state being somewhat healthier than the unmar-
ried, especially for males. The excess of mortality is greater
in inonKs than it is in nuns. The death-rates of both youths
and girls who marry before twenty years of age is very high ;
and such marriages are, in almost all cases, unailvisjtblo on
hygienic grounds, especially for girls, who are liable to be-
come chronic invalids as the result.
So far as health only is concerned, the best age for mar-
riage in the L'. 8. is for males from 23 to 26 years, and for
females from 21 to 2o years. The probabilities of offspring
are decidedly affccteii bv the age at which marriage takes
place: thus of males umler 30 years of age marrying, about
t(4 per cent, have children, while of males marrving between
40 and 50 years of age, 87 per cent, have children; and of
females marrying at the age of from 20 to 25 years. Ho |ier
tent, produce offspring, while of those marrying between 33
anil 37 years, 50 per cent, have one or more children. The
special dangers to health connected with married life affect
the wonum, as a rule, more than the man; they arc due
chiefly to the transmission of disease from the husband, and
to the perils connected with pregnancy and childlH'aring.
The nealth of the children depends to a considerable ex-
tent npon the health of each j)arent, and to some extent
upon their relationship and relative race, but the popular
belief that the marriage of near blood relations tends to
produce certain ilegenerations and deformities in the chil-
aren is, in the main, erroneous.
The resulls upon the offspring of consanguineous mar-
riages depend, not on the consanguinity, but on the health
of each parent. If in each parent — no matter whether they
are blood relations or not — there is a tendency, small or
great, to abnormity of structure or function of some organ
or system of organs, that tendency will l)o, as a rule, in-
creased in the children, and thus such affections as gout, in-
s^inity, deaf-mutism, tubercular disease, or deformities of
various kinds may be directly or indirectly produced or
aggravated: but in a cnnsanguineous marriage the risk of
transmitting and incn-asing a family tendencv or taint is
evidently somewhat greater than in a marriage Wlween i>er-
sons not related. It may be said that the possibility of
transmitting good conditions of certain organs is also great-
er; and this is true; as has been shown by Francis (ialton
in his studies on natural inheritance, but it must l>e remem-
bered that the strength of a chain is measureil bv that of its
weakest link, and that the fact that certain links or parts
of links have l)een thickeiieii or strengtheneil avails nothing
to prevent the catastrophe resulting from the thinning or
weakening of other links or parts of links. The marriage
of people of different races sometimes pnvluccs a healthier
ancl at other times a more sickly offspring. The general
rule appears to be that the first results of the cross are often
strong and healthy, but that these must marrv among the
purer blo<xl to secure a iwrf»eluulion of healt)iy offspring.
The children of mulatloes of the .second or third'geiieration
do not seem to be so healthy as those of tlie original races,
but definite statistics on this point, covering numlicrs suffi-
ciently large to make the results reliable, have not as vet
been obtained. J. s. UiLU.\u8'.
.Marriage Itruca^e Contract: .Sec Mabeiaoe.
Married >Voiiien : liy the celebration of the marriage
contrail, the parlies,_a.s already stated (see Markiage). place
themselves in a new status or conililion both as regards each
other and as regards the public in general; and the ca|iaci-
ties, rights, and n-lations of the parties arising out of that
.status are regulated by the general rules of law ri'lating to
marriage, and, with the exception of their mutual pro|«.'rty
rights, can not \>c varied by any act or agreement of the (Ar-
ties made either before or after the marriage contrat-t. (See
Property Itiyhta, below.) That is, Ihev can not give to the
one or the oilier the right to do or refrain from doing any
act or duty denied or enjoined by the general laws regulat-
ing the personal rights and duties of the parties staniling in
the marriage relatimi. Thus the husbanil can not bv any
agreement between himself arul his wife, either before or
after marriage, waive his right to change his and her domi-
cile, or avoid such liability for her debts as the law im|iose3.
These ca[)acities, rights, and relations are so nir>.ny and so
varieil in their nature, and the laws relating to thein are so
inanifold and complex, that the most that can lie attempted
in the space here available is to give a summarv statemetit
of the general rights and duties of the husband and wife
with respect to each other anil to third persons, omitting
whatever is technical, exceptional, or obsolete in character.
The confusion due to the wide reach and complexity of these
laws is increa.sed by the important changes which" thev are
now undergoing by rea.son of the influence of changing
public opinion, the numerous and uncertain changes made
by statute, and in .some of the U. S. by reason of the i)rej«ence
of conflicting systems of law relating to the same subject-
matter. The laws which still form the basis of the jurispru-
dence of Kngland (and Ireland) and the L'. S. on this subject
arc those of the common law of Kngland, and, except where
it is otherwise stated, these alone are referred to in this
article. The laws of Scotland do not differ from those of
Kngland sufliciently to make necessarva separate statement
of them. The community system (which is an outgrowth of
the Hoinan law) will be only briefly referred to under I'rop-
erty Jiights (below) ; and statutory changes will 1* mentioned
only so far as it is possible to state their general tendency.
They are so varied, contradictory, and often uncertain, that
more is impossible here. The general results of marriage
upon the rights and capacities of the parties may be con-
sidered with res|H'ct to —
The Snmeg of the Parties. — The husband retains bis
name unchangeii, but the legal surname of the woman is
immediately changed to that of her husliand, and this con-
tinues to be her name until she is lawfully married again,
or until she acquires or lawfully assumes a uew one. See
Namks, Law ok.
Tlie Permnal Rightn. — These have been but little changed
by statute, but such changes in law as have taken place have
mostly arisen from the growing dis|)osition of the c-ourls to
liHik u[>on the parties as standing u|)on an equality, follow-
ing the change of j)ublic opinion as to the profier degree
of independence to be as.serted by and acconU-d to the wife.
The entrance upon the marriage status necessarily im|N>se9
certain restraints n|>on the personal lilicrty of both of the
parties. They are mutually Uiund to live in the society and
companionship of one another as husband and nife. and a
refusal so to do is a breach of the marital duties and may
amount to what will be construed to lie legal dest'riion. or
to Ih' such cnielty as will justify a divorce, where cruelty is
a ground for divorce. What degree of default or miscon-
duct by either partv shall constitute a refusal of such so-
ciety or cnmi>anii>n-hip is neces-iiirily incapable of anv exact
definition, mutmil love and affei-tinn, solicitude for tlie wel-
fare of offspring, and self-n'sjiei-t being, in the nature of the
ca-so. much more eflicienl than any interference of the law
in rcgnlaling the conduct of the imrties.
The old common law in Kngland recngninxl the right of
the husband to correct his wife by curjMiral punishment,
and to restrain and regulate her in her nilions in manr
wavs which would now !><• considerc^d tinilal. and lie hel5
unlawful. He can not to-dnv luwfullv inflict actual rio-
568
MARRIED WOMEN
lencc upon Jier nor for(il)ly koen her a prisoner against her
will. lie may, however, if possible, in any reasonable man-
ner not anuiuntinj; to force, as by moral coercion, rennlale
the piinjr or coniinj; of his wife, and under certain circuni-
stanies the application of gentle force or passive restraint
might be justihable, since the law is loath to interfere l>e-
tween husl>and and wife except upon clear necessity. Guard-
ianship over the persons (and in some places the property)
of minors ceases upon marriage. See Guardian.
The Home or Domicile, and its Government. — The hus-
band has the leMl right to fix the place of domicile, and
any refusal of the wife to live in the place chosen by the
husband is a desertion by her. His domicile is hers, and it
is her legal duty to reside with him wherever he sees fit to
live, and so long as they remain married she can not by liv-
ing in a jurisdiction other than that of his domicile acrpiire
there a legal domicile, except for the purposes of obtaining
a divorce or some other redress for a lireach of marital dut ies
by him. In the application of this rule, however, llie courts
at present would be less harsh than formerly in England,
and would not force upon the wife a change of domicile not
made by the husband in good faith. .Since many of the
rights and capacities of the wife depend upon her domicile,
this is often a question of importance. See Domicile.
The citizenship, like the domicile, of the wife is the same
as that of the husband, so that if an alien woman marry a
citizen of the U. S. she becomes thereby a citizen of the
U. .S., and when both are aliens the wife becomes a citizen
at the same time her husband does liy his naturalization.
In the regulation of the household the voice of the hus-
band is supreme, the extent to which he may go in as-
serting his right being limited only by the endurance of the
wife, providing that he keep within the bounils of what the
law construes to be such cruelty as will enable the wife to
demand and receive a sup[)ort separate from him or to olj-
tain a divorce. This varies greatly, and what would be con-
sidered his le^al right in the matter in England, where the
law is still strict in the recognition of this right of the hus-
band, might suffice in some of the U. S. to enable the wife
to obtain one or the other of the above-mentioned remedies.
Support by the Husband and Services by the Wife. — The
husband is bound to provide a home and support for the
wife and their offspring which shall be in keeping with his
circumstances and means in life ; and the wife on her part
is bound to render such domestic services as these circum-
stances and means render reasonable, and to accommodate
herself to whatever unfortunate vicissitudes may attend
him. She can not in any case claim compensation out of
his estate for services rendered to him.
Whenever the husband refuses to support his wife in a
manner suitable to his circumstances and condition in life,
she by operation of law becomes his agent with power to
pledge his credit and make him liable for obligations in-
curred by her in purchasing such things as may be necessary
for such supiiort, even to one who supplies them against his
express orders. If he offers her a home and support such
as he deems consistent with and suitable to his means and
station, in order to make him liable there must be very
strong evidence to prove that his judgment was perverted
or merely one simulated for sinister motives, since it is the
policy of the law to allow him great discretion in deciding
what expenditures are and what are not warranted. If he
offers her a suitable home and support, but by his conduct
make it impossible or intolerable for her to accept it, she is
not bound to accept of it, but may leave the home and
pledge his credit as fully as if lie had refused to support
her. In any case, however, those who furnish her necessaries
do so at their own peril of being able to prove that the facts
were such as to justify them, and what are necessaries must
be detennined by the exigencies of each case, depending
upon the means and [losition of the husVmnd.
Property I{iii/it.s.—Al the common law the celebration of
the marriage vi-sls in the husband (1) absolutely, all of her
personal property in her possession, an<l (he right during the
marriage or as administrator after her death to ap[iro|]riate
or reduce to his possession all of her choses in action (l)ills,
debts due her, etc.), her leasehold estates, and her personal
estates in expectancy. What constitutes a reduction to pos-
session varies with the circumstances, but the general state-
ment is that the hu.sbaud must acquire the title to the prop-
erty by the exercise of acts of ownership inlende<i to pro-
duce that result, and that mere actuiil p(jsscssion by him is
not sufficient unless accompanied with the intent to tiecome
the owner of the property. The chattels real (leases, estates
for years, etc.) of the wife are exceptional, in that upon her
death his title to them is absolute without any act of owner-
ship on his part, and upon his death they vest absolutely in
her unless he has during coverture niaile an absolute aliena-
tion or disposition of the whole term. (2) The right to
manage and receive as absolutely his own the profits of her
real estate during their joint lives, ami after her death the
right to the life estate of curtesy therein, he surviving and
having had issue by her during her life. (.See Estates.) Of
this property the wife upon the death of her hu.sband re-
ceives liack absolutely as her own her real estate, such per-
sonal jiroperty as he has not by some a<t appropriated as
his own, and her iiersonal ornaments and clotliing suitable
to her condition, known as her paraphernalia.
Property ac(|iiired by the wife subsequent to marriage is
governed by the same rules as that held by her when mar-
ried, and so at the common law (which has generally lieen
abrogated in this respect) the earnings of the wife in what-
ever capacity belong absolutely to the husband, and he (or
his agent) alone can receipt for them. The.se rights of the
husband do not, however, extend to the property placed in
trust for her sole and separate use; and equity abridges
them with respect to her other property by protecting and
enforcing any marriage settlements made between them, her
equity to a settlement, and her right to a similar settlement
of a proportion (usually a half) of property coming to him
in her right during iimrriage.
While at the common law, as just stated, all of the wife's
property held by her absolutely goes to her husband, at
equity she may have a separate estate (i. e. an estate limited
to her sole and separate use ; see Uses and Trl'ST) which she
may manage, and with reference to which she may contract,
and sue and be sued, in her own name, in a manner much
the same as if uiiniarried. The doctrine of the separate
estate of the wife is a comparatively late development of the
equity courts of England ; and in the U. S., owing to the lack
of courts with equitable jurisdiction, the subject has gener-
ally been regulated by statutes, which have in general gone
further than the ecpiity doctrine in recognizing the wife's
separate estate, and have in many States provided that the
property of a woman married thereafter, or thereafter ac-
quired by a married woman, should remain her separate
property, giving hi'r all or practically all of the powers of
an unmarried woman with respect to it. The sef)arate prop-
erty of a married woman may be given to her by third
parties, or it may be settled upon her by her husband by a
contract (post-nuptial settlement) which is binding upon him
except it be in fraud of third parties, the consideratiim of
love and affection being sullicient to make him a trustee of
the property for her.
The parties to a marriage may, however, by a contract
(marriage settlement) in the nature of a conveyance or trust
deed, entered into or agreed to be entered into (by promises
and agreements called marriage articles) before marriage,
vary their mutual proi)erty rights from those which they
would otherwise have liy operation of law. The considera-
tion of such a contract may be either the promise of mar-
riage itself (as is more often the case) or any other valuable
consideration. The marriage settlement by its terms secures
land or trust jiroperty as a provision for the widow (usually
as a jointure in lieu of dower; see Jointure) and for the A
children, and (sometimes) for the husband. Such a settle- \
ment may be made or iironiised by third parties upon the
consideration of the promise of marriage, and is tlien en-
forceable against them. The objec-t of making a marriage
settlement is frecpicntly to preserve intact family estates.
The wife, on her part, obtains by the marriage no interest .
in or right of control over the property of the husband, ex- ■
cept a certain right of inheritance to a share in his personal "
property (which he may generally defeat by will, except as
to the paraphernalia), and the right to Dower (q. v.).
These pro])erty rights of the husband and wife have, how-
ever, been very generally changed both in (ireat Hritain
and in the V . S. by statutes which more or less completely
take away the rights of the husband to the properly of the
wife (enabling her to restrain and manage as her own with
some or all the powers of an unmarried woman the property,
real or personal, which belongs to her at the time of mar-
riage, leaving untouched the common-law rights of dower
and curtesy, or substituting for them some statutxiry equiv-
alent), and which give a corresponding exemption to the hus-
band from lialiilily for tlu' anie-nuplial delits of the wife.
Ante-nuptial Debts of the Wife. — The husband, whether in-
fant or adult, immediately upon the marriage becomes jointly
MARRIED WOMEN
569
liable with the wife for nil her outstnndinK ilrlits and i>hli(»a-
tions (whftlicr iirisirif; from oontriiot or tort), wliiilovi-r be
their amoiinl iiml however little [iropcrty shi- brings to him,
evcnnotwitlistiindinff thiit he miiy Imvc been purposely kept
by her in iKiioriuice of her debts. This liiiliility eontituies,
however, only so lon^ as coverture lasts, neitlier he nor his
estate bcint; liable unless the debt or oblipilion is brought
to judgment before the termination of the MUirriago by the
death of cither i>arty or by ilivoroc. Her liability revives
immediately upon such termination to the same extent that
it existed previous to the marriage; and upon her death,
leaving him s\irviving, anv clioses in action not reduced to
possession by liini during lier lifetiuK! l)ecome liable for the
payment of the debts, even though they be in his hands as
her administrator.
Tnrtu finil Crimes of the Wife. — For the frauds and torts
of the wife committed during coverture the husband is
jointly responsible (in damages only) in an action which
must be brought against them both a.s codefendants, and to
charge him must be brought to judgment during coverture.
If she commit a tort or crime in his presence (actual or con-
structive), it \-i prima facie presumed that she does it under
coercion by him, and he alone is liable; but this presump-
tion may be rebutted by evidence showing that she was
under no coercion. 1 n t he case of crimes of the most heinous
character, such as treason, murder, and robbery, the pre-
sumption of coercion does not exist, and in any case the
ecneral tendency is to hold the wife alone responsible, un-
less the husband is near enough to exert such influence as
amounts to coercion.
Tiirts agninul (he Wife. — As a natural result of the wife's
incapacity to accjuire personal iiroperty of her own during
coverture, she can not during coverture recover damages for
torts against her person or character committed during that
time. Her husband, however, uniy bring suit in his own
name for injury done him by reason of his being deprived
thereby of her services or her society and companionshi|i ;
and with her as coplaintill he may sue for anil recover
damages for such injury as she herself has sustained. If
the marriage be terminated, she surviving, before judgment
is taken, the right survives to her, and she may recover the
damages for herself.
Agency of the Wife. — The wife may be the agent of third
parlies in the same way that any otlier person may be, so
long as such agency charges her with no obligations. She
may be also the agent of her husband in the same way, and
she practically always is his agent for the purpose of pur-
chasing articles for use in the family. If the articles so pur-
chased are not such as the law holds to be necessities for her
support (see above), the question as to whether the husband
is oound bv the acts of the wife in making such purchases
is governed by the same rule which governs in the case of
any other agency — namely, whether as a matter of fact he
had made her his agent for the purpose, or so acted as to
estop himself from denying that she was his agent. The
simple fait that the two live together as husband an<l wife
is onlinarily held to raise a presumption that she is actually
invested by him with the authority ordinarily bestowed
upon the wife, and is rightfully making such purchase as
sne deems necessary. As a rule, a husband who supplies
his wife with reiusonable necessaries mav prohiliit third per-
sons from selling to her on his credit, but actual notice is
necessary to be elTectual, and a newspaper advertisement of
warning (in the absence of statutory pntvision to the con-
trary) will not be sufllcient, except to those who have had
actual notice thereby.
H'i'/('» (.'apacih/ to Make a Will. — At the common law a
married woman can not by will dispose of her fee to real
properly hehl by her husband by virtue of their marriage,
she being deiiieil this right by the Statute of Wills (:i2
Uenry VlIL.c. 1) and a subseipient statute (:t4 Henry VIII.,
c. 5). Neither can she by will abridge the rights of her hus-
band to her pei-somil property; but a will of hers dis|>osinR
of her choses in action is valid upon her death, unless her
husband asserts his right to them by reducing them to his
possessi<in. Her separate estate, however (see I'Tojterly
Hi(lhls. above), she is free to devise in any way she sees fit,
and statutes have now very generally been passed removing
her incapacity with respect to her other proiierty.
Capacity of t lie I'artiex to Contract. — The capacity of the
husband to n'lako contracts with third parties is as full after
nuirriage as before. The wife, on the other hand, at the
common law is totally incapable of contracting either alone
or in conjunction with her husband (except in certain s|)e-
cial cases, as in ea.se of the Civii, Dratii <q. e.) of the huii-
Imnd, or of some s|MK'ial custom (as that of sole trailers
in London), and any contract entered into by her during
coverture is absolutely void, binding neither her nor her
husband, and not lieing made enforceable against her by
her sulisei|iii'nt promise ma<le after the termination of cov-
erture, if this promise be without consideraliun. In eijuily,
however, she may make conlracls which are binding uixiii
herse[iarate estate, and which will be enfoned against it in
an action Is Kkm (</. i:). Her common-law cajjacity, how-
ever, has now been very much enlarged, both in Great
Hritain and in the L'.S.. by statutes expressly enabling her
to contract, and by separale-projierty acts enlarging her ca-
pacities by implication. In Kiigland. lus a consequence of
lier general disjibility to make a contract, the wife could not
convey her dower interest in the estate of her husband, even
by joining with him in a deed of conveyance, but only by
the methods of a fine and common recovery, in which' the
husband must I* a joint party. (.See Kink and He<overv,
Common.) In the V. S. fine ami recovery have never l)een
recognized, but either by legislation or by early colonial
usage the wife may bar her dower l)y joining with the hus-
band in due form in conveying the land, but she thereby
merely releiuses her dower right therein, and is not bound
by any covenants maile in the deed of conveyance.
At the common law neither husband norwi'fc can contract
directly with the other, but through the intervention of
third parties the husband can validly contract with his wife,
while lier general disability to contract prevents her from
contracting with him to the same extent its with any other
person. Wherever, thenfore, a thinl [larly can lie inter-
posed she may bind her separate estate in transuctiiins with
liim as with any other pcrsf)n, although such transjictions
would be readily set aside by a court of equity upon any
suspicion of fraud or umlue influence on his part. K<|uity
courts, however, will give effect, as against the husband, to
many transactions made directly between them, such as the
conveyance of laiuis to her for a money consideration or as
a reasonable provision for her, by making him her trustee.
Incapacity to Tentify. — Neither a husband nor a wife is
competent to testify in any action or causi-, civil or criminal,
in wnich the other is a party, or in which the result of the
decision will be to fix the interests or liability of the other,
though not a party. An exceptiim is made to this rule in
certain cases where public policy reipiires it, as in those
cases where the testimony of one party is necessary to afford
protection from personal injury by the other, or is neces-
sary to make it [lossible to obtain such redress as the law
affords for wrongs at the hands of the other. Either party,
however, may testify in collateral proceedings, that is in
proceedings not immediately affecting the interests of either
of them, even though such testimony may tend to incrim-
inate the other. This rule rests partly upon the com-
mon-law rule, which precludes a party from Ix-ing a witness
in his own liehalf (the legal interests of husband and wife
being identical), and partly upon public policy, which for-
bi<ls any violation of the confitlence and fidelity to one
another'which the interests of society demands should exist
between them. For this latter reason neither party is al-
loweil to testify to any matters communicated to the other
during the continuance of the marriage, even though neither
of them be a party to oc interested in the action. Neither
this or the preceding disability can Ix; waive<l by the i««r-
ties, nor is either removed by the termination o^ the mar-
riage. In Great Hritain and in many of the U. S. statutes
have been passed removing to a greater or less degree the
disability to testify basiMl upon the interest of the i>artii'S
(es|MH>ially in civil casi-s). but gi^nerally confirming the rule
of the inviolability of communications made durinj; mar-
riage.
Legal Remedies against each other. — Formerly in Eng-
lan<l, by a resort to a suit for the "restitution of conjugal
rights,'' an order could bo obtained commamling a marrieil
person unreasonably refusing cohabitation to nnurn lher»"to,
lor disobeilience to which onler such juirtv was liable to be
imprisoned for contempt of court. This n. " i-ngir
exists as such there, ncvr has it ever Ix-en r^ i- in
force in the U. S.. so that there is no way oi .: the
spe<Mfic p<'rformanec of the dutii-s of mnrringi- e»eept by
c<im|)ellinga defaulting husljand to support the wife seinrate
from himself, and by refusing to a defaulling wife the right
to sup(>ort by her hiislumd, anil by standJMg n>ndy to grant
to eitner party a ilivon-e from the other for such default or
misconduct as the law of the domicile makes a ground for
570
MARRIED WOMEN
MARROW
divorce. At the common law neither party can sue the
other, for they both constitute but one person at hiw, so
that for injuries by one to the person or jiroperty of the
other no suit in damages can be maintained ; but resort for
protection most be had to the criminal hiw, \vl\ere for this
)urpose cither is a competent witness af;iiiiisl tlie other.
Equity, however, and imulern statutory law have worked a
chaiifie in this matter (thus a wife may brinj: an equitable
action apiinst her husband for the enforcement of her eipiity
to a settlement and to enforce other equitable riplits) ; and
by some statutes she is permitted to bring an action at law
against her husband for damages to her separate estate.
For fuller treatment, see Stephen's Ilisiurtj of the Crimi-
nal Law of England; Stephen's Diye.st of the Tmw of
I
Evidence ; Bishmi 0)i Marriac/e, Divorce, and Separation;
Bishop On the Law of J'
nai Law. Schouler's fjnmestic Relations: Parsons On Con-
Married ]\'omen ; Bishop's Crimi-
lracl.i: (Ireenleaf 0?t Evidence; Lush's Lam of Hnxhand
and M'ife : Lush's Married Women's Rights and Liabili-
ties; Wharton's Law Lexicon; Kent's Commentaries.
P. Stuboes Allen.
Roman and ErROPEAN Law.
In the Roman law the wife in rnami was as completely
subjected to her husband's authority as were his children.
Her legal position was that of a daughter. Whatever prop-
erty she possessed before marriage or acquired after marriage
was his. On the other hand, if the wife survived the hus-
band she had an etpial share with their children in his
estate. With the disappearance of the ?»a»«5-marriage, the
position of the wife was radically changed. The husband
acquired no rights over her property. It was usual, however,
since the husband was still reponsible for his wife's mainte-
nance, for the bride's father or the bride herself to place in
the l)riilegroom's hands a dowry (dos), the yield or income
from which Wiis to be used for "defraying the expenses of
matrimony." On the dissolution of the marriage by the
death of cither party, or by divorce, the husband or his heir
was regularly bound to restore the dowry or its equivalent
to the wife or to her heirs.
It was also customary for the bridegroom to settle prop-
erty upon the bride (donatio ante nujitias). This settlement
was usually equal in amount to the dos. and as in the case
of the dos, the income was intended to be used in meeting
the expenses of the marriage. The principal, however, was
intended as a [irovision for the wife in case of the husband's
prior decease, for with the disappearance of the manus-
marriage the widow had lost her right to a daughter's share
<)f her liusband's estate. This settlement, until the time of
Justinian, had to be made before marriage, because gifts
from wife to husband or from husband to wife were invalid.
The later form of I{oraan marriage imposed no restraints
nj)on the personal liberty or capacity of the married woman.
The husband had a summary remeily against any third per-
son who deprived him of his wife's society (interdictuni de
uxore exhibenda), and this ran even against her father; but
he had no power to force his wife to live with him against
her will. Certain limitations were imposed upon the ca-
pacity of women to bind themselves by contract, but those
ntlecfed all women, married or unmarried, and were mainly
intended for their protection.
Mediaeval Law of Ewrope. — In early Teutonic law, at the
period when wife-purchase had become a mere ceremony,
the portion (Ausrade, Aiissteuer) which the wife brings with
her from her father's house and the property settled upon
her by the husband (dos or dower in the English sense, tier-
man, Witthum) constituted a sort of common famibj estate.
It was all in the seizin (saisina, Gewere) of the husband,
but the realty at least was tied np (verfanaen) so that the
husliand could not destroy the eventual rights of his widow
and children. On this basis there grew up, in Germany, the
Netherlands, and Northern France, a great variety of local
customs, (ierman writers divide these customs into two or
three principal groups, according to the greater or less stress
laid upon the union of the husband's and the wife's proper-
ty, the greater or less power of disposal attributed to the
husband, and tlie extent to which the rules governing the
joint property survive the dissolution of the marriage and
modify the law of iidieritancc. These grou[)S are (1) commu-
nity oi' goods ((ruleri;i-mein.schaft).ii sort of joint-ownership,
and (2) common administration ( Verwaltitngsgemeinscliaft,
or Oiilervereinigun;/), under which the wifes portion re-
mains, in theory at least, her property. I'nder both systems
the husband's power to dispose of movable proi>erty is prac-
tically unlimited, but Iiis power to alienate realty is re-
stricted. Under both systems the wife has no power to dis-
pose of property, or to contract debts except in ordinary
household affairs (SchlHsselgewalt). Under the svslein of full
comnuinity the joint property is liable for the debts of each
party ; umler the other system the wife's realty is not liable
for the husliand's debts. In manv localities the second sys-
tem is applied to the property wliich the wife has brought
into the marriage, ana the first system to later aecpiests
(partikuldre Outergemeinschaft). In the later Middle Ages,
under the influence of Roman ideas, the secon<i system was
sometiuu'S modified by declaring that the husband's powers
are simply tho.se of a usufructuary (imusfrtictus maritalis).
.U'ter the marriage is dissolved by the death of either party,
the complete or limited comnuinity often continues be-
tween the surviving spouse and the children. If there are
no children, and if complete community existed, the surviv-
ing spouse sometimes takes half and sometimes all of the
joint property. In the ease of Verivaltungsgemeitischaft,
the childless widow usually takes out of the estate what she
brought into it and whatever was specially settled upon her.
With the rcccpliou of the Roman civil law at the close of
the Jliddle Ages the system of separate jiroperty (separa-
tion de biens, Outertrennung) and tlie Roman dotal system
obtained sporadic recognition in Northern and Northwestern
Europe. In Southern Europe the Konian ideas, though
modified by local usage, had remained dominant through
the Middle'Ages.
The provincial customs of the Middle Ages and the legis-
lation of modern European states have developed endless
variations and combinations of the systems above described.
In the (ierman empire at the present time (1894) there are
said to be about 100 distinct systems.
Modern Legislation. — In all modern legislations the law of
matrimonial property is merely subsidiary law, i. e. it takes
effect only in the absence of ante-nuptial contract. In the
codes of Austria and Italy the law is substantially Roman.
The provisions of the French law represent a compromise
between the Roman and the Teutonic systems. In the ab-
sence of any contract the Code Napoleon subjects the wife's
property to a system of jiartial community (community of
movables and acquests), but it lays down special rules for
a community limited to acquests, for complete or " universal
community," for complete separation of property, and for
the dotal system; and it provides that the parties may
elect anyone of these systems by ante-nuptial contract — un-
less they prefer to make other arrangements. The German
draft code proposes a similar coni|jromise; but in the ab-
sence of special contract it proposes to place the wife's
proiierty in the administration and usufruct of the husband.
Under any system of community the power of the mar-
ried woman to dispose of property and to contract debts is
of course, restricted. Even under the system of separate
property, the older codes imposed restrictions upon the wife,
tint the tendency of modern legislation is to remove them.
The German draft code requires the consent of the husband
only W'lien the wife contracts to render personal service.
As regards the personal relations of husband and wife,
European law generally recognizes a superior authority of
the husband in matters of common concern. He deter-
mines the place of residence, and except in case of seiiara-
tion, or of desertion of the wife by the husband, her (lomi-
cile is necessarily his. lie has usually an action, not merely
against third persons, but against the wife for "restitu-
tion of conjugal rights": but the tendency of modern legis-
lation is to exclude the forcible execution of a judgment in
his favor.
LiTEKATURE. — Czvlarz, Romisches Dotalrecht (Giessen,
1870): Gide, La Dot en Droit Romain (Paris, 1872); Folle-
ville, Contrat du Mariage (Paris, 1882); Ileusler, Instiiu-
tionen des deutschen Privatrechts (Leipzig, 188C). ii., 2i)2-
430; Neubauer, Eheliches anterreclU (2d ed. Berlin, 1889);
Motive zum Deutsclien Gesetzbuch (Berlin, 1888), iv. 104-
552. MuNHOE Smith.
Miirroiv [Lat. medulla ; M. Eng. maron, man/ < 0. Kng.
mearg : O. 11. (Jerm. marg > Mod. {ienn. marl;, marrow;
cognate with O. Sloven, mozgu, Avest. mazga, Sanskr.
ma/Jan. pith, marrow]: the substance which fills the central
canal of the long bones of the adult, the largest of the Ha-
versian canals, anil the hollows in cancellous bone. In the
cavities of long bones of the adult it is of the vellow or
fatty variety, of which 9G per cent, is fat: in tlie young
subject and in some of the bones of the adult, it is of the
MARROW MEN
MARSCn.VKR
671
Tcil anil watery variety, which is almost without fat. The
latter form is active in the [irtMliietion of the reil corpuscles
of the blooil. ami therefore is most abumlaiit in that lime of
life — viz., embryonal life — when blood formation is most ac-
tive. In cases of severe ana'mia, after ha-morrluiKes, etc.,
the same necessity for rapid production of [iloml exists, and
the marrow returns from its fatty character to the red or
fictul condition. The red character of the marrow is there-
fore a feature in pernicious ana'mia, in leuka-mia, in the
cachexia of cancer, and in other conditions.
Revised by William Pepper.
Marrow Men : certain Scotch I'resliyterians who defended
the book T/ie Marrow of Modern Dicinity. !5ee I'kesuy-
TEKIAN ClIIRCII.
Mar'ryat, Capt. Frederick: novelist: b. in London,
Enchuid. .July 10, 1792; entered the Uritish navy in 1812 as
a mi<lsliiprnan : took part in many naval engagements with
the French, gaining great credit by rescuing drowning ship-
mates on more than one occasion; served on the American
squadron 1812-1.5; wasengaged in the action on Lake I'ont-
chartrain in 1814. Having attained the rank of cagitain and
the command of a vessel in the Channel squadron, he began
in 182!) the j>ublication of a scries of nautical romances which
proved a linlliant success. The first was Frank Mildmay ; or,
The j\'((i'«/ Officer, followed in the next year by Tlie King's
Own. lie wrote in all twenty-four novels : Snarhy-yoiviWil)
is generally considered the best. He was also the author of a
Code of Signals for Vessels employed in the Merchant Serv-
ice (1*17) ; of a record of travel in the V. S., A Diary in
America, with Remarks on its Institutions (WiO); and of
numerous miscellaneous work.s. D. at Langham, Norfolk,
Aug. 2. 1848. See his Life and Correspondence (2 vols.,
1872), by his daughter Florence, now Mrs. Francis Lean,
who has also written several successful novels.
Revised by II. A. Beers.
Mars fLat., derivation disputed, ef. form Marors perhaps
> *Mac-vi>ni ((ir. ^x-l*- t''e fighter]: next to Jupiter the
principal national god of the Italic peoples, ami, under the
name of (^uiRiNus (q. v.), worshiped as the father of Romu-
lus and ancestor of the Roman people. He .seems to have
been conceived of not only as a god of war and strife, but
also as a god of nature, especially of the awakening year,
bestowing fertilitv upon fields and flocks. This is indicated
by the fact that March {.Marliiin), the fii-st month of spring
and the begiiuiing of the old Roman year, was sacred to
him, a.s well as by other evidence, especially certain rites
connecting his worship with Juno as goddess of marriage
and birth. At a later time familiarity with tJreek mytho-
logical ideas caused him to become identified with Ares
(g. v.), and henceforth his character as a war-goil became
more sharplv defined. In this capacity he was 'character-
ized especially by the epithet gradivus (i. e. who strides to
the fray), which seems to have been used in the worship
of Mars by the college of the Salii (g. v.). The most im-
jKirtant and most sacre<l celebrations in his honor took place
in the month of March, and were performed especially in
the sacred field of Mars (Campus Martins) between the city
and the Tiber on the north. From the time of Augustus,
who founded the magnificent temple of -Mars in the Forum
Augusti, he was worshipe<l as the avenger of the murder
of Caisar (Mars I'ltor). The symbols or characteristic at-
tributes of Mars were thie wolf, the woodpecker, and the
spear. G. L. IIendrkkson.
Mars [named from the god Mars (q. t-.)] : the nearest
of the superior planets; his orbit being next outside that
of the earth, and the fourth in order of distance from the
Bun. There is no planet which can be studied under such
favorable circumstances as Mars; for, though Venus in in-
ferior conjunction is nearer to us than ^Inrs in opposition,
yet Venus then turns her darkeneil hemisphere toward the
earth. Accordingly, ever since the invention of the tcle-
8coi>e, Mars has been a favorite object of obser\'ation. So
far back lus 1643 Fontana, of Xaples. detecte<i spots on the
surface of Mui-s, and suspected the planet's rotation. Cas-
sini's more trustworthy observations were commeiu'ed in
1066 in Hologna. In about a month he had satisfied himself
that the planet, rotates on its axis once in 24h. 4<lm. As-
tronomers at Rome, however, assigned a rolation-|ieriod of
only i;th., which Cassiui explained by showing that they hml
mistaken two opposite faces of the planet (not greatly un-
like) for one and the same aspect. The peri(xl of rotation
of Mars on his axis is now fixed at 24h. ;!7ni. 23s.
In 1877 Schiaparelli, at Milan, thought that he dctcctcU
a network of fine lines, which ho called canals, fiassing over
the e(|uatorial regions of the planet. Their nature is still
an o|>i-n question. As they mu.st be at least 60 miles wide,
the term "canals" seems a misnomer.
Among the markings of Mars, a whiteness around the
south pole of the planet had been alrea<ly nnticeil for sixty
vcars when Maraldi first paid s|M-cial attention to the i>ecul-
larity. lie found that the outskirts of this white region
were subject to notable variations, and even while his ob-
servations were in progress the fainter (Kirtion of the sjMit
disapi)eared. At this time the northern pilar regions had
not Ven carefully examined, U-iiig, in fact, only brought
favorably into view, as regards the |K)siiion of the i>olar
axis, when Mars is near his aphelion, but Sir W. Herschel,
whose powerful teles<-ope enabled him to disregard the
planet's changes of opposition-distance, detcctetl a similar
whiteness around the northern iiole of the planet. He
was soon led to ascribe the peculiarity to the probable ex-
istence of ice and snow around the [Hilar regions of Mars.
'•The analogy between Mars and the earth," he wrote, "is
j)erhaps by far the greatest in the whole solar system.
I'heir diurnal motion is nearly the same, the obliquity of
their respective ecliptics not very different ; of all the supe-
rior planets, the distance of .Mars from the sun is by far the
nearest alike to that of the earth; nor will the length of
the Martial year appear very different from what we enjoy
when compared to the surprising duration of the years of
Jupiter, Saturn, and the Ueorgium Sidu.s. If we then find
that the glol>e we iidiabit has its polar region frozen and
covered with mountains of ice and snow, that only partially
melt when alternately cx|)Oseil to the sun, I may well Iw
f)ermilted to surmise that the same causes may probably
lave the same effect on the globe of Mars; that the bright
polar spots are owing to the vivid rcHection of light from
frozen regions ; and that the reduction of these spots is to
be ascrilied to their being exi)Osed to the sun."
Satellites of Mars.—\n Aug., 1877, Prof. Hall, of the
V . S. Naval Observatory, discovered two satellites of Mars.
They are so minute as to be visilile only with very powerful
telescopes. Their most remarkable feature is the rapid
revolution of the inner one, which takes j)lacc in less than
eight hours, so that to an inhabitant of Mars it rises in the
west and sets in the east. Revised by S. Newcomb.
Mars. Anne Fran^oise Hippolyte Roi-tet-Mo.nvel : ac-
tress; b. in Paris, Feb. 5, 1779; a daughter of Jacques
Monvel, acting at the Theatre Fran(;ais, and Mars-Boutet,
acting at the theater of Versailles; entered very early on
the stage; made in 1800 a great impression by her iires»'n-
tation of the deaf and dumb J^irl in I'Abbt' de V£pee: was
soon acknowledged as the greatest actress ever seen in cer-
tain roles, the so-called grandes coquettes, Agnes, Celiniene.
Klmire, etc.: achieved a triumph oy her imnersonation of
tiabrielle de Belle-Isle, a girl of twenty, herself being sixty ;
retired from the stage in 1841, honored, admired, and rich.
I). Mar. 20. 1847.
Mursa'la [from Arab. Mersa'Ali. liter., port of'AIi]: a
maritime town of Sicily ; in the province of "Trapani ; about
19 miles S. S. W. of the [xirt of Trai>ani; in lat. 27 47 N.,
Ion. 30 0'} K. (see map of Italy, ref. 9-1)). The back coun-
try is fertile, the town itself well built and well fortified,
and the public edifices contain many objects of historic and
artistic interest. The splendid harbor was destroyed in
1567 in order to prevent it from being occupie<l by Turkish
pirates. The port has l)een reconstructed, and the city is
now flourishing. Its trade consists chiefly in inarsala wine,
which muih resembles sherry, and is a favorite iii Great
Britain. Marsala occupies nearly the site of the old Car-
thaginian Lih/bipum, and here are curiously gvainted st'pul-
chers cut in tfie solid rock, the ancient Grotto of the Sibyl
with its prophetic well, rare old mosaics, etc.. which may be
seen outside the western pate. May 11. 1860. GaribaMi
lande<l here with his heroic thousand, and liepin the roMmn-
tic campaign whii'h so ipnominiously terminated the king-
dom of the Two .Sicilies. Pop. 19,7:12.
Marsoh'npr. IlEiNRirn: composer; b. at Zittau. in Sax-
ony. .\Mg. 16. 1796; studie<l law for s<ime lime at the I'ni-
versity of Leii)zig. but devoted himself exclusively to music
after 1817, when he eoinfiosed his first o[H>rB; f)«-nme in
18*1 musical director of the o|>eni at I>res<ien; went in 1881
to Hanover as chapel-master to the king. H. then- I)ec. 14.
1861. Of his numerous compositions, the two operas 7^e
X'nmpyre (1828) and J/an* //riViiK? (IKtt) were well received,
and are still often |H>rformed in Germany.
572
MARSDEN
MARS 11
Mars'deii. Sami-el: missionary; b. at Ilorsfurth. near
Lei'ils, Knglanil. July 28, 17(54, of' humble |iaii-nla^'i- ; was
at first a trailcstiian at Leeds ami a member of the W'eslcyan
Methodist Church, but after some years joined the t'liurili
of Enjiland. prepared fi>r the ministry at St. John's t'ollcfie,
Cambridfce, and in lTy4 went as eliapliun to the recently
establishe(l penal colony at Parramalla, near Sydney, Aus-
tralia. After a visit to England he purchased a small viffesel,
the Active, at his own expense, anu went to New /.ealand,
where he was well received by the natives. Marsden con-
tinued to reside in Australia, but visited Xew Zealand at in-
tervals: in time persuaded the natives to adopt a fixed form
of government, provideil for the preparation of a grammar
and dictionary of the Maori language, and lived to see the
islanders generally Christianized, and himself to be regarded
as the ■• apostle ofXew Zealand."' I), at Windsor, near Syd-
ney, Australia, May 12, 1838. See his Life by J. H. Marsden
(London, 185!)).
Marsd<'ii. William, D. C. L. : Orientalist ; b. in Dublin,
Ireland, Nov. 16, 17">4: entered in 1771 the civil service of
the Eiist India Company at Bencoolen, Sumatra: became
principal secretary to the colonial government; studied the
Malav language and literature: returned to England in
177H: pulilished a Histary of Su7nalm (l~Si)\ a tlrammiir
and Dictiuuanj of the Malay Language (1S13); a transla-
tion of Trareln of Marco /'o^o (1817); and Xumismata Ori-
entalia (1823-25). In 1795 he was appointed chief secretary
to the admiralty: in 1834 presented his fine collection of
coins and medals to the British Museum, and his Oriental
librarv to King's College, London. I), near London, Oct.
6, 1836. Revised by Be.nj. Iue Wheeler.
Marseillaise, ma'arsd yaz' : the grand anthem of the
French Revolution, composed, both words and music, in
1792 by Rouget de Lisle, an olficer of artillery at Strassburg.
It was called the war-song of the army of the Rhine. The
name Marseillaise was given it in Paris from the incorrect
report that it had originated at Marseilles.
Marseilles, nniiir-salz (anc. Massilia) : principal seaport
of France and capital of the department of Bouches-du-
Rhone; on the northeastern shore of the Gulf of Lyons; in
lat. 43° 18' N., Ion. 5' 22' E. (see map of France, ref. 9-II).
The old part of the city consists mostly of narrow, crooked,
and even dirty streets, with a few spacious squares, and is
separated froin the lu^w part, with its liroad, straiglit streets
and magnificent quays along the harbors, by an elegant
avenue running from the Porte d'Aix. a fine triumphal arch
at the northern entrance of the city, to the Porte de Rome,
which to the S. leads into tiie Prado, the principal prome-
nade. The most elegant jiart of the new city is the Canne-
biere, a street running from the above-mentioned avenue to
the old harbor, and containing, besides several public build-
ings, the most i)rominent hotels and the most brilliant shops.
The liveliest and most characteristic part of Marseilles is
the quays, thronged with ]ieoi)le from Algeria, Egypt, Syria,
and all parts of Europe. Of the public buildings, none has
any great architectural merit ; the most remarkable are the
cathedral, situated in the old town, on the site of an ancient
temple of Diana, and the town-house, the Bourse, and the
mint in the new town, but the whole city presents a pic-
turesque aspect, rising anipliitheiitricnlly around the bay,
and surrounded with hills covered with olive-groves, vine-
yards, and elegant villas. The educational and benevolent
institutions are numerous. There are a library of 80,000
volumes, several active .scientific societies, a hydrographic
institution, a botanical garden, an observatory, a lyceum.
an excellent medical school, several free industrial and
commercial schools, an academy of Oriental languages, etc.
The manufacturing industry is very nourishing, esiiecially
of soap, leather, glass, porcelain, liqueurs, etc. Its princi-
pal importance the city derives from its commerce, ex-
tending to all ports of the Mediterranean Sea. The old
harbor comprises a basin 1,000 yards long, 'i'iO yards broad,
from 18 to 24 feet deep, covering an area of 70 acres,
and capable of accommodating about 1.200 merchant ves-
sels; it is defended by Fort .St. Nicolas and Fort. .St. Jean.
The new harbor. La Jollielle. forme(l by a breakwater 1.300
vanls long, wits ojiened in 1H5.5. Still more recently the
basin callcil Dieu-Donnc, admitting the largest men-of-war,
was formed between the islands of Ratonneau an<l Pomegue.
both fortified. Four lighthouses show the wav into the
harbors. In 1891 9,014 vessels, of 5,307.619 tons burden,
entered the port, and 9,065 vessels, of 5,303,201 tons burden,
cleared.
Marseilles was fotinded in the sixth century B. c. by Pho-
ca^ans from Asia Minor. In the fourth century u. c. it sent
its traders into the Baltic (see Pvtiieas), and had founded
a number of ports on the .Mediterrani'an Sea, In 49 i(. c. it
was conquered by Ca'sar and united to the Roman repub-
lic: Cicero calls it at this time the Athens of (iaul. In the
ninth century of our era it belonged to Burgundy, in the
thirteenth to Provence; in 1481 it was united to France.
During the Revolution it suffered severely from Freron's
atrocities, but it rose rapidly after the Restoration, and the
conquest by the French of Algeria gave its commerce a
powerful impulse. Pop. (1891) 321,499; commune, 403,749.
Marseilles: city: La Salle co.. 111. (for location of
county, see map of Illinois, ref. 3-E): (m the Illinois river,
and the Chi., Rock Is. and Pac. Railway ; 8 miles E. of Ot-
tawa, the county-seat, 77 miles S. \V. of Chicago. A dam
nearly 1,000 feet long at the rapids of the river here affords
the city excellent water-power, which is utilized in the man-
ufacture of Hour, paper, agricultural implements, and other
articles. The city has several grain elevators, a large trade
in grain, and three weekly newsiia[>ers. Pop. (1880) 1,882 ;
(1890) 2,210.
Marsh, Arthur Richmond : scholar; b. at Newport, R. I.,
Oct. 3, 1861: A. B., Harvard, IKS! ; Professor of English,
University of Kansas, 1886-89 ; traveleil in Europe 1889-91 ;
Assistant Professor of Comparative Literature, Harvard,
since 1891; author of articles and reviews in American
Journal of Archnology, Nation, Andover lieview. Harvard
Studies and Notes, etc., and associate editor in charge of
the department of foreign literature in Juluison's Universal
Cyclopcrdia 1892- .
Marsh, tiEORCE Perkins, LL.D: philologist and diploma-
tist; b. at Woodstock, Vt., Mar. 15, 1801 : graduated at Dart-
mouth College in 1820 ; studieil law at Burlingt(m, Vt., and
practiced at the bar; was elected in 1835 a member of the
supreme executive council of the State : studied ccmiparative
philology, and printed privately a translation of Rask's
Icelandic Orammar (1838) ; ws'is a member of Congress
from 1842 to 1849, when he was appointed minister resident
at Constantinople; went on a special mission to Greece in
1852 ; traveled extensively in Europe ; returned to the U. S.
in 1854; ]iublished in 1856 The Camel, his Organisation,
JIahils. and I 'ses, considered ivith Reference to h is Introduc-
tion into the United States : served as railroad commissioner
in Verm<mt 1857-59; delivered in 1859 a course of thirty Lec-
tures on the English Language (published 1861) at Colum-
bia College, New York, and in tljc winter of 1860-61 a sec-
ond course on the same subject before the Lowell Institute
at Boston, '/'he Origin and History of the English Lan-
guage {\m\iiished in 1862); published in 1861 a largely an-
notated edition of the first volume of Wedgwood's Etymol-
ogy. He also wrote Man and Nature (1864), which was re-
issued with important additions in 1874, with the title 77ie
Earth as Modified by Human Action. Jlr. Marsh was ap-
pointed in 1861 U. S. minister to Italy, a post he retained
till his death July 24, 1882. A revised edition of his com-
plete works was |>ublished in 1885. His Life and Letters,
compiled bv his widow, were p\d>lished in 1888. He had an
extensive library of Scandinavian literature, part of which
became the jiropcrty of the University of \ermont. — His
second wife, Caroline Crane, b. at Berkeley, Mass., Dec. 1,
1816, published in 1857 The Hallig. or the fiheepfold in the
Waters, translated from the German of Biernatski, with a
biograjihical sketch of the author, and in 1860 a volume en-
titled Wolfe of the Knoll, and Other Poems.
Marsh, Hi:iti!ERT. I). D. : bishop and bihlical critic; b. at
Faversham, Kent. England, Dee. 10. 1757: educated at St.
John's College, Caml)ridge; studied theology at the Univer-
sities of Giittiugen and Leipzig: published a number of pam-
I)hlets in Geriium in defense of the war policy of England,
which olitained him a pension from Pitt: returned to Cam-
bridge in 1792, and iiublished a translation of Michaelis's
Introduction to the A'ew Testament (4 vols.. 179:i- 1 801), ac-
companied by an extended eonuiientary — a work which first
maiie known'iu England the results of the liililieal researches
of the founders of the modern school of (ierman criticism,
aiul which aceordinglv excited discussion and provoked oppo-
sition from conservative English theologians. In 1807 Marsh
became Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity at Camliridpe,
and published an extended Course of Lectures on the Criti-
cism and /ii/rrprelation of the liihic (7 jiarts, 1809-23), con-
sisting chielly of a popularization of the views of (ierman
scholars. In 1812 he published a History of the Transla-
MAKSIl
MAKSIIALI,
573
tinnx of the Srri/j/iireH; in ISlIt Hone I'ettiKgirtp ; V)ecamo
Hishop of Llundiiir 1M16, of I'eterhorouKh IHl!); wroU- im-
liicrous minor treatises on tlieologv, |iolities. and classii-al
topics. 1). at l'fU'rl)orou;,'h, Mav 1, IWill. JJishop Marsh
was the most learned and acute l'>nKlish theolotfian of liis
time, and excelled in {xjlemics, biblical criticism, and lin-
guistics. Revised by W. S. 1'krky.
Marsh, Otrxiel Charles, Ph. D., LIj. I). : pahcontolopst ;
b. at Lockport, N. Y., Oct. 29, 1»31. He grailuated at Yale
College in IHfiO and at the Yale Scientific ,S<'ho<)l in 1S62,
and from 1862 to 1865 studied in the Universities of Berlin,
Ileidelber);, and Breslau. Returning to the L'. S., he was
appointed Professor of I'ulieontology in Yale College in 1866,
a position he still retains. Ho has devoted himself espe-
cially to the invcstigution of the e.xlinct vertebrate animals
of the Rocky Mountain districts, and nearly every year since
1868 has organized scientific expeditions to those regions.
In these explorations more than 1,000 new species of verte-
brates have been discovercil, many of.which represent new
orders and others not before discovered in Americiu Of
the.se, more than 400 have already been described by Prof.
Marsh in ]mpers, most of which have appeared in The Amer-
ican Journal of Science. These papers are more than 200
in number. Since 1876 he has been engaged in preparing a
series of reports, to be published by the Government, giving
full illustrated descriptions of his western discoveries. The
first of these, on the Odontornithes, or birds with teeth (34
plates), was issued in 1880, and a second memoir, on the
Dinocerain (.56 plates), appeared in 1884. .\ third volume,
on the SauropoJa (1)0 plates), is (18U4) nearly completed, and
several others are in preparation. In 1878 Prof. Alarsh wa-s
president of the American Association for the .\dvancement
of Science. Since 1882 he has been vertebrate pala'ontologist
of the U. S. fieolngical Survey. In 188:i he was elected
president of the National Academy of Sciences, ami held
that odice until IS!)."). He is a fellow of the Geological
Society of I>ondon, and received from it in 1877 the first
Bigsby medal. He is also a member of many other scien-
tifU' boilies. Ill 1866 he received the degree of Ph. I), from
Hciilelbcrg University, and that of LL. D. from Harvard.
Marshal [from (). Fr. maresrhal > Vr. marechal, togeth-
er with Itaf. mariscalco. Span, marincal, etc., from the
Teutonic; cf. O. H. Germ, marahwnlc. M. II. Germ, mar-
schntc, stable-keeper; marah, horse (cf. Eng. mare) + scale,
servant > Mod. Germ, schalk. A Low Latin translation,
comes slahitli, ha.s yielded also Kng. cnnstalile. Kr. conne-
tabte] : originally the person who had charge of the king's
horses. When chivalry bi-came the only im|K)rtant secular
Eiirsuit, and nearly all oflices about the royal courts were
lied by noblemen, the marshal's position became one of
great importance, anil finally in England there was ap-
pointed an earl-niarshal, who at present has only a cere-
monial dignity except as the head of the College of Heralds.
The nllii-e is hereditary with the Dukes of Norfolk. In
Scotland there was an hereditary earl-marischal of the Keith
family, but the oflice is now in abeyance. There are also
knight-marshals. The highest military title in most Euro-
pean armies is marshal (field-marshal, marechal de camp,
t'eld-marschall, Feldzengmeister). This title is of direct
desc'cnt from feudal times, when the marshal was the king's
cs<iuire and commanded the advance-guaril. The gradual
increase of his authority in the array after a time leclto the
creation of a distinct military otlicc of tins name. In the
U. S. a marshal is an ollicer of the I'. S. courts, whose du-
ties correspond to those of the sheriff of the State govcrn-
inents. Tlierc is one U. S. marshal in each judicial district.
The title is also applied to the chi^ police odlcer of small
municipalities.
Marshall: city; capital of Clark co.. 111. (for location of
county, see map of Illinois, ref. 7-G); on the Cleve., C^n.,
Chi. and St. L. and the Vandalia railways; 16J miles S. W.
of Terie Haute. Iiid. It is in a farming ami stock-raising
region; has fiour and woolen mills ami considerable mer-
cantile trade; and contains 7 churches, high school. 2 gram-
mar schools, ami 4 weeklv newspapers. Pop. ( 1 880) 1 ,8.8,") ;
(1890) I.IKK). ' Editor OK •• II KRALD."
Marshall; city; capital of Calhoun co.. Mi<li. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 8-1); on the Kala-
mazoo river, and the Cin.. .lack, and Mack, and the Mich.
Cent, railways; 108 miles \V. of Heiroil. It is in an agri-
cultural region; c(mluiiis 9 churches..") pnlilie schools, Ro-
man Catholic school, ami a daily and 2 weekly newspaj^rs;
and manufactures caskets, bicycles, school-scats, carriages.
(Methodist Episcopal, owned 1873), of Bishop College (Bap
tist, opened 1881), and of a non-sectarian female institute,
has water-works supplied by artesian wells. 2 ni
with combined capital of f 17").000. and 2 daily
I .stoves, furnaces, and windmills. Pop. (1880) 3,795; (1890)
3,968; (18!)4) 4.599. Editor ok ••Chko.nklk."
Marshall; village; capital of Lyon co.. Minn, (for loca-
tion of ciiiiiity, see map of .MinneHota, ref. 10-B); on the
Redwooil river, and the Chi. and N. \V. and the (ireat N.
railways; 150 miles S. W. of St. Paul. It is in an agricul-
tural and stix-k-raisiiig region ; ships much wheat, (lax. iM'ef,
ami iiork ; and has a county court-house which cost <>:tt).<X)0,
public high school, 2 grammar schools, 6 chun-hes. steam-
roller flour-mill, and 2 weeklv ncwspa|pers. Pop. (18X0) 961 ;
(1890) 1,203; (1895) 1,744. ' Editor of " Re i-oRTfJi."
Marshall: city (founded in 18:!9); capital of .Saline co.,
Mo. (for location of countv, s«'e map of Missf>uri, ref. 3-F);
on the Chi. and .\lton and the Mo. I'ac. railways; 84 miles
E. of Kansas City, 85 miles N. W. of .lefTers<in City. It is
in an agricultural region; is the seat of Mis.s<>uri Valley
College (Cumberland Presbyterian); and contains 7 churches
for white people and 4 for colorwl, 3 large public-s<:liooI
buildings, St. Aavier's AcacU'iny (Roman Catholic), a Roman
Catholic convent, and 2 dailv anil 3 weeklv newspajjers.
Pop. (1880) 2,701 ; (1890) 4,297'; (1893) estimated, 6.000.
Editor of " Uemoirat-New.s."
Marshall: city; capital of Harrison co., Tex. (for loca-
tii>n of county, see maji of Texas, ref. 2-K) ; on the Tex. and
Pac. and the Paris, >[ar>hall and .Sabine Pass railways; 40
miles W. of Shrcvc|)ort. 2.50 miles N. E. of Galveston. It is
in an agricultural and luinliering region, has numerous
mineral springs and valuable depo.siis of iron in its vicinity,
and is becoming an iniiiortant manufacturing place. It
contains the machine-shops of the Tex. and Pac. Radway, a
car-wheel foundry, ice-fiu-tory. gin-factory, several saw,
planing, and wood-working mills, furniture-factory, and
cotton-compress. Marshall is the seat of Wiley University
niiHt oiH^ned 18731. < if Bishon ('olIei?e iBap-
It
s. 2 national lianks
pital of 1175.000. and 2 daily and 2 weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 5,624; (1890) 7.207; (1894) esti-
iimiiil. ii.iMM). Editor ok "Star,"
Mnrshnll. .\i.irei>, M. .\.: political economist; b. in
England in 1842; was educated at Cambridge; was lecturer
on Moral .Science at St. John's College in that university
1866-67; was ap|x)inted principal of University College,
Bristol, 1877; lecturer on Political Economy at (ialiol Col-
lege, Oxford, 1883; Professor of Political Economy, Cam-
bridge, 1884. He is the author of h'conomics of Industry
(1879) and The principles of Economics (1890-91).
Marshall. A. Milxes, M. D., D. Sc., F. R. S. : naturalist ;
b. in Kngland in 1852; entered Ixmdon University, where
he received the degree of B. A. in 1870; then entered St.
John's College, Cambridge, in 1871, graduating as senior in
the natural science tri[ios in 1874: studie<l at Dr. Dohm's
zoological station at Naples for a few months, when he re-
turned to Cambridge to assist Prof. Balfour in organizing
the cla-sses of comparative morphology ; was ap|ioiiite<l Pro-
fessor of Ztx'ilogy at Owens College, Manchester, in 18711;
was elected F. R.S. in 1885; entered St. Bartholomew's Hos-
pital in 1887: and in the -same year was electol a fellow of
.St. John's College, and in due time took the ilegn^e of M. 1).
at Cambridge, lie received the degree of D. Sc. from London
University. He took an active part in organizing the courses
of study for the Victoria University. His most iin|n>rtant
publication is The Fray: an InlroHuction to Anatomy and
Histology (London, 1883). D. Dec. 31, 1893.
S. T. Armstboxo.
Marshall. IIimimirev: soldier, lawyer, ami legislator; b,
in Uniiikfiirt co.. Kv., Jan. 13, 1812; gradiiatoil from the
U. S. Military Academy in 18;i2, but resigned from the aniiy
Apr. 30, 18;W; was admitted to the bar. and iiractic.^1 his
profession first at Frankfort till 18;t4. then ut f,oiiisville till
the outbreak of the war with .Mi'xico. wln-n he IinI the First
Kentucky Cavalry to the s<at of war as its loli.nil. and was
eiigage<l at the battle of Buena Vista. On the dLsbaiidment
of his n-gimeiit he retunied to his native State, ami settlwl
on a farm in Henry County. In 1849 he was chosen ri'pre-
sentative to CongrJ-s-s. and re-<'le<'t.Ml in 1851 ; in lS,")2_PlT!»i-
dent Fillmon- appointed him con - ..f the U. .S. to
the empire of China, which was »■ 1 ton first -claas
mission; re<'alled in 1K53. and pra. ■■ :n Washington;
elwte<l to Congress from Keiilucky iri IH.V), and re-elected
in 1857. Although oii|Mise<l to wtession, he es|>ou9ed the
Confederate cause in S»pU, 1861, and was appointed brigm-
574
MARSUALL
MARSH-GAS
dicr-gencral ; rcsigncJ his commission shortly after, and
was elected to the Confederate Congress; practiced law in
Richmond, Va., for a time, snbscipiently returning to Louis-
ville, Ky., wliere he died Mar. 2S, 1872.
Mai'slinll. John, LIj. D. : jurist : 1). at Germantown, Fau-
3uier CO., Va., Sept. 24, 175.5, the eUlest of the fifteen cliil-
ren of Col. 'I'hoMias Marshall, a small planter, who served
with great honor sis an olVuer of the Revolution. The son
never attended a college, but in his general education, which
he received almost entirely at home, he was made familiar with
the best of English literature. At the age of eighteen he
began the study of law, but gave this up to join the colonial
army in 1775, from which time till 1779 he was an officer in
active service, distinguishing himself alike in the field and
in courts martial, where he often acted as judge-mlvocate.
In 1779, while on det.iched service in Virginia, he attended
George Wythe's law lectures at William an<l Mary College,
and in 1780 was licensed to practice. In 1781 he resigned
his commission and entered unon the practice of law, and
in 1783 married and selected Richmond as his permanent
residence: he was elected a member of the Legislature of
Virginia, and in 1788 of the Virginia convention for ratify-
ing the U. S. Constitution, in which latter he distinguished
himself as an advocate of the Constitution, the adoption of
which by Virginia was due to the arguments of James Madi-
son and himself. His marked discretion and fairness, and
his great powers as a reasoner had quickly been recognized,
and he wjis frecpiently called upon to exert his influence in
the support of the measures of Washington's administration.
He declined the U. S. attorney-generalship, a seat on the
bench of the Supreme Court, and other important positions;
went in 1798 with Pinckncy and Gerry as envoy to France,
which he and Pinckney were ordered to leave on account of
their federalistic views ; entered Congress in 1799, where he
was one of the ablest Federalists in the House; was ap-
pointe<l in 1800 Secretary of War, and soon after Secretary
of State: and in 1801, having been nominated Chief Justice
of the U. S. by President Adams, was confirmed by the
Senate without a dissenting vote. His work in this office,
which he held until 1835, has nuide him the greatest of
American jurists, and one of the greatest jurists of any age
or country. His decisions, which are very numerous, are
marked by sturdy justice, breadth of view, and a simple,
convincing logic, and liy his decisions on constitutional
questions he did more than atiy other one man to establish
such an interpretation of the Constitution as would support
the dignity and power of the Federal Government and the
power of the Supreme Court of the U, S. to deny the con-
stitutionality of acts of Congress or of State Legislatures.
Among his decisions upon con.stitutional questions which
are of especial importance may be mentioned those in the
cases of Marbunj vs. Madison (1 Cranch 158), Dartmoulh
College vs. Woodward (4 Wheatoii 518), JlcCulloch vs. State
of Maryland (4 Wheat lui IJIG), and SI urges vs. Crowyiuishield
(4 Wheaton 122). His Life of Wasldngton (5 vols., 1805;
abridged and improved, 1 vol., 1832) and his Bistory of the
Coloniesare more valuable to the historian than to the general
reader. Chief Justice Marshall wjis a man greater in wis-
dom than in learning, a sincere Christian, and a true phi-
lanthropist. He wa-s tall, ungraceful, and somewhat awk-
ward in manner, but most genial and kindly in private
life, and was loved and venerated Ijy his family and his asso-
ciates. D. in Philatlelphia, July 6, 1835.
Revised by F. Sturges Allen.
Marshall, William Calder, R. A.: sculptor; b. in Edin-
burgh. Scotland, in I8Ki; studied sculpture in London un-
der Chantrey and Hailey; visited Rome in 1836; took up
his permanent residence in London in 1839. Marshall was
one of the three sculplr)rs employed for the decoration of
the new houses of Parliament, for which he executed statues
of Lord Clarendon and Lord Somers. He designed the
statue of Sir Rdiert Pi-el at Manchester, that of Jenner
(in Kensington (iardens), that of Campbell in Westmin-
ster Abbey, and other public statues and groups, but he is
best known by a number of popular works of sentiment,
such as the well-known Sabrina, which has been copied in
many forms. D. in London, June 16, 1894.
IHnrsliall Aroliipelacro : a large group of coral islands
in Micronesia, l)elween the parallels 5 and 12° N. and the
meridians 160 and 175' K. ; consisting of ituunnerable
islets in two prin<'ipal ranges running S. K. and X. W. The
eastern is called the Ratak group, and the western the
lUlik group. They have belonged to Germany since 1885.
The Ratak islands have an area of 51 so. miles, the Ralik of
107 sij. miles, making a total of 158. '1 he population (1891)
was about 15,0tK), of whom 118 were strangers. The ma-
joritv of the latter were settled on the lagoon of Valiiit on
the island of Vabvor, formerly Horham island, near the
southern end of the Ralik islands. Pandanus, breadfruit,
arrowroot, and cocoanut-palms are the only foruis of vegeta-
tion sujjported by the thin layer of soil. Cojua is the only
article of export. Cattle can not support themselves on
these islands. JIark W. llAitKi.NOToN.
Marshalling: See Heraldry.
Marshalltonii : city; capital of Marshall co., la. (for
location of countv, see map of Iowa. ref. 4-11); on the la.
Cent., the Chi. and X. W., and the Clii. and (it. West, rail-
ways ; 70 miles W. of Collar Rapids. It is in an agricultural
region, and has a high school, 5 ward schools, public library.
State Soldiers' Home, 2 national banks with capital of ij;2(X),-
000, a State bank with capital of ^100,000, and an incor-
porated bank with capital of $50,000, and a daily and 7
weekly newspapers. There are furniture, pickle, vinegar,
and soap factories, foundries an<l maeliine-sliops, flour and
oil mills, grain elevators, pork and beef i)acking houses, and
glucose, starch, and canning and bottling works. Pop. (1880)
6,240; (1890)8,914; (1895) 1U.U49.
Editor of " Times-Republican."
Mar'shnlsea Prison : a prison in Southwark, London ;
built in the twelfth century, and )ilaced under the control
of the king's marshal of the household. It was opened by
the Gordon rioters in 1780. It was long a king's bench
frison, but, like the Fleet, became a poor debtors prison.
t was abolished, with the ancient Marshalsea, in 1849,
Marshflold : town : Coos co.. Ore. (for location of county,
see map of ( ii'eg(m, ref. 5-A) ; on Coos Bay, and the Coos
Bay, Rose and East. Railroad ; 110 miles S. by W. of Salem,
38(3 miles X'. of San Francisco. It is in an agricultural
region, ships large quantities of coal and lumber, and has
considerable ship-building interests and three weeklv news-
papers. Pop. (1880) 642; (1890) 1,461.
Marshfleld : city; Wood co.. Wis. (for location of county,
sec map of Wisconsin, ref. 5-D) ; on the Chi., St. P., Minn,
and Oin., the Mil.. Lake Sh. and W., the Port Edw., Cent,
and N.. and the Wis. Cent, railways ; 160 miles E. by S. of
St. Paul. Minn., 180 miles X'. W. of Milwaukee. It contains
6 churches, high school. 3 ward schools, Roman Catholic and
Lutheran .schools, St. Joseph's Hospital, a water-cure sani-
tarium, a national bank with capital of $50,000. a State
bank with capital of $25,700, and 3 weekly newspapers.
The principal industries are the manufacture of pine and
hardwood lumber, furniture, beer barrels and kegs, staves,
headings, veneers, and machinery. Marshfleld was totally
destroyed by fire in 1887. The great hardwood timber-
lands of Wisconsin form the chief source of the citv's
prosperity. Pop. (1880) 669 ; (1890) 3,4.50 ; (1895) 4..586.
Editor ov " Xews."
Marsh-gas ((Jerin. sumpfgas, grubcngas ; Fr. gaz de mo-
rals) : light carliureted hydrogen, methane, fire-damp; a
gas of the composition CH, which is formed in nature under
a variety of conditions. The name marsh-gas is given to
it because it is formed in marshes. Wherever vegetable
matter undergoes decomposition without free access of air,
as under water, the carbon and hydrogen combine to some
extent in the form of marsh-gas. The gas seen arising in
bubbles from a |)ool of stagnant water always contains the
gas, mixed generally with other gases. It is found in the
gases of the alimentary canal of human Ijeings. and in enor-
mous quantities in some coal mines, where it issues from
crevices in the earth. Further, it is a constituent of Natu-
ral Gas {g. v.). It is formed when organic matter is heated
without access of air. as in the destructive distillation of coal
in the manufacture of illuminating gas. (.See (iAS-LluHTlNu.)
Mixed with air it is highly explosive. and is the cause of many
of the explosions in coal mines. The explosion is caused by
contact with a flame or sjiark, which starts chemical action
between the gas and the oxygen. This proceeils with great
ra[)idily throughout the mass, and the heat evolved causes
great exjiansion. The products of the action of oxygen on
marsh-gas are carbon dioxide (Carhoxic Acid, (j. v.) and
water :
CH. -1-40 = CO, -^ 211,0.
Miners are well acquainted with the fact that after an ex-
plosion the air left in the mine causes sufloeation. They
call it choke-damp, a name which is applied frequently to
MAESH-IIAWK
MAKSTON MOOH
575
the compound carbon dioxide, CO,. The use of the s<ifety-
laiiip hus to some extent proteeted the miners from the ex-
plosions to wliieh tliey lire subject. The entire structure of
organic clieniistry is based on the conception that tlie
molecule or smiiUest fiurticlo of mursh-pis consists of an
atom of curbcjii holding in combination four atoms of hy-
drogen, eacli in the same way. Each of these atoms of hy-
drogen can be replacc<l by other atoms or groups, and thus
all compounils of carbon can be formed. All the facts of or-
ganic chemistry find a simple and satisfactory explanation
on this assumption. Sec Hvukocarho.ns. Ika Uemse.n.
Marsh-hank, or Harrier: common name in the U.S.
for the Ciiciis hiKisonius, a large urul rapacious bird found
in all parts of North America. The marsh-hawk of Europe
and .\frica is Circus cijaneua.
Hursh-lioii : a name applied to the clapper rail, called
also salt-water marsh-hen {/{alius crepilans), and to the
Rallus elfijans (fresh-water marsh-hen, king-rail), ganie-
binls of the U. S., rarely seen except by sportsmen and natu-
ralists. Sec Kail.
Mars Hill : .See Areopaous.
Marshmallntv: an herbof the mallow family, the Allhaa
officituiliK. a native of the Old World, but naturalized in the
U. S., principally in salt-marshes. The plant is remarkably
mucilaginous, and is used chiefly in domestic practice as a
denuilcent in coughs and diseases of the bowels and kidneys.
It appears to have mild diuretic virtues.
Marsiiman. Joshua, D. D. : b. at Westbury-Leigh, Wilt-
shire, England. Apr. 20, 1768; went to India in 171(9 as a
Baptist missionary; resided chiefly at Serampore; gained a
competent knowledge of Bengalee, Sanskrit, and Chinese ;
prepared Chinese translations of Genesis, the four Gospels,
and the Epistles to the Komans and the Corinthians; pub-
lished a Dissertation on the Cliararlers and Sounds of lite
C/iini'se Laufiuaqe (IHO'.I); The Works of Confucius, con-
taining the Oriyinal Tejct, with a Translation (1811); (7a-
vis Sinica, Elements of Chinese Grammar (1814); and a
Defense of the Deiti/ and Atonement of Jesus Christ (1822),
in reply to Kammohun Hoy. He aided Dr. Carey in the
preparation of his Sanslirit Grammar and Bengalee and
English Dirlionarg. D. at Serampore, Dec. 5, 1837.
Mursh-murigold : See Caltha.
Marsli-roscmory, or Sen-laveiiiler: a salt-marsh plant,
the Slalice limoniuin. coiniiii>ii along the Atlantic shores of
the U. S., Canada, and Europe. There are many varieties,
by some botanists regarded lus one species. Its root abounds
in tannic acid, of which it contains nearly 12.5 jier cent. It
is used in medicine, especially as a renicily for sore mouth
anil sore throat, and is best prepared by infusion.
Marsh's Test : Sec Arsenious Oxide.
Marsh Trefoil : See Buck Bea.v.
Mursllia: See Fer.vworts.
Marslpohran'ehia [.Mod. Lat.; Gr. pJifatitot. pouch -(-
Ppiyxiov, gill] : a class of vertebrates generally confounded
wilh the lislu's, but distinguished by nniny remarkable |>ccul-
iarilies. The skeleton is of an inferior type, the notochord
or embryonal vertebral column being persistent. The skull
is in a most rudimentary condition, and represented by a
small brain-case and capsules for the organs of sense (audi-
tory and olfactory), as well as by an ethmo-vomerine plate ;
the inferior apfwndages are developed as elements desig-
nateil (US (1) the subocular arch, wilh a mela-plerygoid or
"superior (puidratc," and an " inferior i|uadrate " portion ;
(2) a '• palalo-ptervgoid " element ; and ('i) a " stylohyal proc-
ess"'; labial cartilages form also a prominent feature of the
skull; bones or cartilages representing the upper as well as
lower jaws are entirely wantmg; the branchuil appanitits is
sustaineil by a basket-like skeleton : no limbs are iievcloped,
and coiisetpienlly no scapular arch or [udvic girdle. The
brain, though snuiU, is distinctly developed, and diHerenli-
ateil into the brain proper and medulla oblongata; the for-
mer is composed, as in the higher forms, of the "mesen-
cephalon," " thalamencephalon," " |)roseneephalon," and
"rninencephalon"; the latter is small, wilh a fourth ventricde
conspicuous from above; and the "cerelxdium " very nidi-
mentary. The auditory apparatus is very simple, Ix'ing re(>-
resented by a single membranous tube without any ilifTer-
entiation into canals and vestibules, as in the Ihijtrrotreli,
or, at most, as in the Ifi/peronrlii. wilh two semicircular
canals and a sacculated vestibule. The olfactory apparatus
consists of a median sac, which is provided with but a
single external ajK-rture. 1'he heart is distinctly deveIo[)c<l,
and is divided into an auricle and ventricle, the former hav-
ing in fn.nt a venous sinus; and the whole is inclosed in a
•• jwricardiiim," which connects with the peritoneal cavity.
The intestinal canahis simple, the liver spi-cialized as such,
and the kidneys well develojK-d, and wilh ureters opening
behind into the rectum. The organs of generation have no
ducts, but ili^^harge into the abdumcn, from which they de-
part by an abdominal jiore.
The class thus distinguished is refiresented by verv few
species, but these exhibit two radically distinct tv|is of
structure, anil have been dilTerenliat.ir into two orders—
(1) lli/peroartii. in which the tube terminates in a blind sac
and its posterior end; and (2) llgjirrutrtti, in which the
narial canal jierforales the pharyngeal roof and connects
with the pharviix. These two orders difl'er very dccidnlly
from each oilier in the skelelon. armature of the mouth,
ovulation, etc. For details sec under the respective titles.
A remarkable metamorphosis is undergone by the repre-
sentatives of the order ih/peroartii (i. e. the I'etroinvzon-
tids or lampreys), but the transformations of the llyptr-'
otreti (i. e. Myxiiie or hags) are unknown ; and tliis is a gap
most desirable to be filled, as no general cliaractcrs can be
specified respecting the embryology of the class until these
are made known. The species of the class arc found both
in fresh and salt waters, the IVtromyzontids having mem-
bers in all temperale and sub-teiiii>erate countries; while
the Myxinoids are represented in the cold waters of the
northern hemisphere by Myxina-, a-s well as along the shores
of a considerable portion of the Pacific — e. g. in the Japan-
ese and Chinese seas. California, Chili, and Australia. Al-
though no representatives of the class have been found in
a fossil condition, their absence in the older strata is un-
doubtedly due rather to the diflicullv connected with the
preservation of the readily destructible cartilaginous skele-
ton than to their actual absence. It is, indeed, proliable
that the order was extensively represented in past times,
and that it was more abundantly develojR'd than any other
type. Tueoikire Gili_
Mars la Tour, maarlaa'toor' : a village on the road from
Metz to Verdun; 10 miles to the W. of Metz (.see map of
German Empire, ref. 0-C) ; noted for the batlle which took
place here Aug. 16, 1870, and which is often called after this
place, though generally after Vionville, a village situated
farther to the h.. and nearer the center of the battle.
Marston. John: dramatist; b. in England about 1.575;
was educated at Corpus Chrisli College, dxfonl; iK-came
lecturer at the Middle Temple, London, in 151»3, ami was
author of eight dramas aiicl two volumes of iMjcins which
were edited by J. (t. Ilalliwell (IKIO. 3 vols.), and the
dramas again by liullen (3 vols., 188,5). He aided Ben Jon-
son and George Chapman in writing the comedy of East-
ward Ilo '. (160*)). which caused the imprisonment of I he three
writers on account of its satires uikhi the .Scotch. The best
of his dramas is The Malcontent (1604), a tragi-comeily,
originally written by John Webster, but recast by Marsto'n
and dedicated to Ben Jonson. 1). about 1634.
Beviscil by H. A. Beers.
Marston, Pdilip Bovrke: poet; b. in Ixindon, 18.50; d.
Feb. 14. 1887. lie was the son of John Weslland Marston,
a playwright an<l novelist, ami was blind from early child-
hood, lie was the subject of Hake's |x>em The Blind Boy
and of Mrs. Craik's Philip, my AVik/. His publications are
Song 7'i</p (1871); All in Al} (1874); Wind Voices (18*4);
For a Song's Sake {ISS'): Garden Secrets, with a biograph-
ical sketch by liOnise (.'. Moullon (1887^. Sec also Song
Tide, with introductory memoir by William .sharp (1888).
II. A. Beers.
Marston Moor: an open plain, 8 miles from York, Eng-
land, memorable as the scene of the victory gained (July 2,
1644) by the allied Parliamentary and Si'otch armiis. i-oin-
manded respeclively by Lord Fairfax and the Earl of
Ix'ven, over the royal forces under Prince Kui'crl. York
was then held bv the royalists, and had bi-en liosieped by
Fairfax. When T"rince liupert advanced to its n-lief, Fair-
fax drew off to Marston Moor. FmiU army i-on..islc<l of
alxnit 2.5.000 men. Thebatllelicgan with n cannonajieonlwth
sides, but wilh little effect. Kiiiiert chargi><l wilh his cav-
alry toward evening, ami dis|ierxMl llie left wing of the Par-
liamenlary forces, the commamlers of which flt><l, but the
fortunes of the day were relrievwl by Leslie's .Scotch regi-
menls ami Cromwell's brigade of " Ironsides," who captured
the enemy's artillery, taking 1,500 prisoners and 100 colors.
576
MAKSTKAXD
MAKSYAS
Pour thousand royalists were killed. The result was the sur-
render of York to Ij<jrd Fairfax a few days later, which
made the Parliamentary cause triumphant throughout tiie
north of England.
Mnrstraiul. N'iliiklm Xkolai : painter ; b. in Copenhagen,
Dec. U'-t. ISIO ; studied at the academy at Copenhagen, in Mu-
nich, and Home ; d. Mar. 20, 1873. His works are exceed-
ingly numerous and all excellent. He had a most fertile
genius, and all that he touched turned into art. With the
exception of Thorwaldsen he is the greatest artist that Den-
mark has produced. K. B. A.
Marsupia'Ua [Mod. Lat., from Lat. »iarsu'pium, pouch,
bag, from Gr. ^lapffinriov, dimin. of udoawos, fidpatiros, |>ouch,
purse] : the only generally recognized order of the mamma-
lian sub-class Hidelphia, comprising the opossum.s. kanga-
roos, wombats, and related types. The characters which dif-
ferentiate the group as a sub-class will be found under Mam-
mals, and the common ordinal characters will alone be given
here. The brain is small in comparison with the size of the
'body, the cerebrum but little convoluted and only i)artially
covering the olfactory lubes and cerebellum. Tlie anterior
commissure is large, and the hippoeampal fissure continued
forward over the small corpus callosum. The bones of the
skull remain separate for a long time, or throughout life.
There are usually two or more vacuities — sometimes conflu-
ent— in the bony palate, and, except in Tarsipedidw, the
posterior angle of the lower jaw is bent inward. The num-
ber of thoracico-lumbar vertebne is always nineteen ; the
number of pairs of ribs usually thirteen. The radius and
ulna are present, and the forearm is capable of rotation.
The pelvis, in all marsupials save Thylacinus, has moder-
ately h)ng bones articulating with the pubis, arising from
ossification in the inner tendons of the external oblique
muscles.
The muscles of the hind limbs in most (the saltatorial
types being excepted) present a peculiar modification in
that the flcror luiujuf! iliiji/orum pedis " is inserted fleshy
into the fibula, and the knee and ankle joints are so modi-
fied as, through the action of the muscle so inserted, to ad-
mit of rotary movenu-nts of the hind foot."
The teeth are peculiar in that there is only one perfect
set, none having deciduous predecessors except one on each
side of each jaw, the hindmost (and indicated as such by its
development) of the premolars; in other respects the teeth
vary greatly; they frei|uently, however, are peculiar in the
great numl)er (.i x2) of upjier incisors, and in the number
of true molars (4 x 2) in each jaw.
The heart is peculiar in the absence of a/y.ssfi oralis and
annulus oralis in the right auricle; and in all it receives
the two veiue cares siiperiores by two separate inlets.
The living marsupials re[iresent two distinct types of foot
structure — the chorisodacli/loiis, in which the toes are all
free, and the syndadijlous. in wliii-h the second and third
toes are muc^h reduced in size, and closely connected to-
gether in a common integument, which leaves only the claws
visible, and gives the impression of a single toe with two
claws.
The chorLsodactylous marsupials are represented by three
very distinct families, two of which {Dasi/urid(B and Jli/r-
mecohiid(v) are confined to Australia, and one (Diddphidi-
d(B) to America, one species advancing far up into the U. S.
The syndac'tylous marsupials exhibit in their dentition
two very decided types. In one the incisors arc permanent-
ly rooted, »nd in the lower jaw are either two large incisor
teeth opposed to six in the upper, or six in the lower op-
po.sed to ei-jht or ten in the upper. All these arc inserted
by roots. I'o this group belong the Phascolnrrtidip, Plin-
langi.ilid(p, 'rarsipiUida\ an<i Jfac.ropidm. In the other in
both jaws the incisor tcolh are like those of rodents, there
being two in each jaw, continually reproduced, and growing
in a subcircular direclion. To this group belongs the single
family J'/iitsro/omyiilir.
The marsupial pouch is developed in all the living rep-
resentatives iif the oriler exc'Cpt T/iilomys dnr.sif/crn (the
opossum of South America), which <lerives its name from
carrying its young upon lis hack, with their tails swung
around their mnthers. This pouch is formed, according
to William S. Hariuird, " by the infolding of the skin. Its
concavity opens on the median line of the abdomen, and
extends iiaclcward and laterally, forming a kind of double
bag, in the bottom of which the milk-glands open through
long papillne."
The genital organs, as to their superior modifications, have
been noticed under Mammals. The young arc not connected
with their mothers by a placenta, by means of which they
are nourished for some time before birth, but are born in a
very helpless condition, and, even in the largest species, do
not exceed half an inch in length nor more than a few grains
in weight; the organs are in a very undevelopi-d condition,
and the animal is naked, blind, and jierfectly hel|iless; its
fore limbs are more developed than the hind ones. The
newly born aninuil is taken by the nu>ther with her lips
and transferred to the pouch, where it instinctively grasps
and clings to the teat to which it is presented, and the cor-
ners of the mouth growing around it, the anhnal remains
clinging to the teat for several weeks, and until it has at-
tained a considerable size and the adult characters have
been in a large degree assumed. Although it is thus capable
of grasping and clinging to the nipple, it is, however, at
first incapable of directly sucking, and the milk is furnished
l)y the mother through the compression of the gland bv a
muscle analogous to the cremastcr. To guard against sufto-
cation of the young a peculiar modification of tlie laryngeal
apimratus is provi(led,by which the air-passage is completely
seiianited from the fauces, and the injected milk passes in a
divided stream on either side of the larynx to the a'so-
phagus. After having assumed the characters of apjiroxi-
mate maturity, it leaves the teat and the pouch itself, but
for some time after resorts to the latter in case of danger, to
be conveyed by the mother.
Although the marsupials are now confined to Australasia
and South AnuM'iea (exclusive of a few stragglers beyond
those borders), they formerly inhalnted every part of the
globe paUeontologically known, and remains of representa-
tives of the class reciivered from the Trias have been re-
ferred to this order. By some authorities it is believed that
these forms belong to distinct orders of mammals of primi-
tive structure, ami that marsupials did not make their a[)-
pearance until the early Eocene. In the Eocene they are
developed in several types, both in North America and in
Europe, and among these were representatives of genera
closely related to the opossums of the present age. Although
none of the marsupials of the present epoch can vie with the
largest placental mammals, in former times and as recently,
perhaps, as the advent of man, species of gigantic size ex-
ist e<l. the Diprotodontlds of Australasia having been nearly
as large as our rhinoceroses. Revised by F. A. Lucas.
Mar'supHps [from Lat. marsu'pium, pouch, bag], or
Tor'toise Encrinite: a genus of the Crinoidea peculiar
to the Cretaceous rocks, remarkable for having no stem or
attachment; its iiclvis thus resembles a jilated pouch sur-
rounded by a circle of firearms.
Mar'sns, Domitii's: a Roman poet, contemporary with
Horace, although not mentioned by him. He composed a
collection of epigrams under the title I'icula, an epic Ama-
207iis,ii treatise on wit (/>e tirbanilate) ijuoted liy tjulntilian,
and nine books of FabeUir (anecdotes) in verse. Oidy frag-
ments are extant. See Baehrcns's Frag. I'oet. Jioin., jip.
346-348 (Leipzig, 1886). M. W.
Mar'syas (In (ir. Mapaias): in Greek mythology, (1) origi-
nally a I'hryglan god. who gave his nauu' to the river
Marsyas at Cehena'. but after the myth-makers associated
him with Atheiu' and Apollo he was degra<led to the rank
of a Satyr or Sllenus. Athene had invented the flute, but
threw it away and cursed it when she saw how distorted her
features became by playing it. Marsyas found the discarded
flute, and became so skillful in playing it that he challenged
Apollo, who played the lyre, to a tnnsical contest, with the
Muses for judges. The decision was in favor of Marsyas,
liut Apollo by adding song to tin- melody of the lyre nmin-
tained that he liad won, and bound Marsyas to a tree, flayed
him alive, and hung up his skin in the cavern at Cehenie
from which the Marsyas river flows. The myth was utilized
by both painters (Zenxis, etc.) and sculptors (Myron, etc.).
An excellent copy of the Marsyas that belonged to the
group of .Mhene and Marsyas by iMyron Is preserved in the
Laterau Museum in Uome. II represenis .Marsyas in the
act of finding the flute. In Florence there are several
statues of Marsyas suspended from a tree and about to be
flayed. All are copies from a I'ergamenc group to which
the barbarian whetting his knife (an original statue also In
Florence) belongs. As he whets his knife the barbarian
looks up grindy at the sns])endeil Marsyas. For a iletailed
discussloti, see any history of (ireek art and the articles
Mnrxijnx and Myron in Baumeister's Denkmdler; also
llirschfeld, Athene und Marsyas (Berlin, 1872), and Mich-
MARTKIi
MAKTIAL LAW
577
aclis, Apolline e JIarsia (Udmc, 1858). (2) A river that
•wells out in two impetuous streams frinii beiieatli a precipi-
tous cliff in Celienie (Dineir) in I'lirysia. It n"t i'-'* name
from the fact that the ski:i of Marsyas was Imii;; up in the
cavern from which the river issues. There is a tliM-ussioii
a.s to the identification ot the sources of the .Marsvas and
the Mieander. See Ilirschfeld, /Vier Kelainni-Apaineia
Kibolos (Berlin, 1M7.')); Hogarth, yoles upon a Visit to C'el-
(rnm-Apamea (in The Journal of J/fllentc aSVh(/iV«, 1888, p.
343 ff.); Hariisay, y/i«/ori>(i/ (leographi/ of Asia Minor (\jon-
don, 181)0, p. 403); Weber. Dinuir Crlhien-Apninee-Cibotos
(Besan<;on. 1802). (3) Two historians of .Macedonia, both of
whom wrote on the history of .Macedonia: (it) .Marsyas of
Pella wiks a school-fellow of Ale.\an<ler the Great, a stc[j-
brothcr of Antifjonus, and a general of Demetrius Polior-
cetcs: (4) Marsyas of Philippi. See Hitschl, De Marsyis
rerum scriplorious, in his Opuseula (i., pp. 449-470).
J. U. S. Stekrett.
Mnrf p1. Charles : See CnARi.E.s Martel.
.Murlcllo Tower: a kind of tower which derives its pe-
culiar name either (1) from the name of the Corsican engi-
neer who is said to have first designed them ; or (2) from Ital.
tnartello, a hammer used to strike a bell, because they were
use<l as watch-towers un<l were provided with alarm-bells;
or (3) ill corrupted form from Mortella (Corsica), from the
vigorous defense of one of those towers in 1794. A martello
tower is round, is about 30 feet high, and hius walls 3 or 6 feet
thick. The cellar and lower floor contain ammunition and
supplies, the second and thinl living-r<>oii.s and armory for
the garrison, and the vaulted roof is provided with a parapet
and mounts one or more guns. The entrance is on the second
floor by a ladder or drawbridge. A number of these have
been built at different dates along the coiust-s of Italy, Sar-
dinia, and Corsica, and during the French wars along the
coasts of Kngland, principally in Kent and Sussex. Similar
towers of larger size were built by the .\iistrians along the
Danube after the Napoleonic wars. At Lintz an intrenched
camp was constructed with thirtv-two connected towers,
al)out 30 feet high and 80 feet in liiameler, each mounting
ten siege-guns. The Austrians callcil fort ilicat ions of this
type Maximilian towers. In the U. S. Tower Duprc, Louisi-
ana, anil the tower on Tybee island, Ga., belong to this gen-
eral class. James Mercur.
Marten [earlier marlent, from O. Fr. tnartre, probably of
Teuton, origin; cf. Germ. marrfer : O. Eiig. mear}>, though the
Late Lat. marles has been by many regarded as the source] :
the common name of several carnivorous fur-bearing ani-
mals of the family Mnstelidw. In Xorth ,\incrica is found
the Hudson's Hay sjible or pine marten (Mustela americana),
which iiroduces a very valuable fur, inferior in value to that
of the Russian sable only. The latter animal (M. zibeUina)
is caught In .Siberia. The pine marten of Europe (.V. marles)
and the st(me marten or comraon Kuropean marten (M.
foina) produce great quantities of cheap and useful fur.
The FisiiER ((/. V.) belongs also to this genus. Martens are
lithe, active creatures, with long bodies and very short legs;
the claws are long and sharp, the tail bushy. Their move-
ments are graceful, and they are expert in' climbing trees.
The marsupial analogue of the martens is the spotted mar-
ten, or long-tailed dasyure, a small but fierce carnivorous
roammal of Australia, Dasyurus fiverrinns or macrurtix.
It has a chestnut-colored fur spotted with white, and is 18
inches long. e.\clusivc of the tail. It inhabits marshy
places, and is nocturnal in its habits, sleeping during the
day in a hollow tree. Kevi.sed by F. A. Litas.
Mar'tpnsen. Hans Lassex. D. D.: theologian; b. at Flens-
liorg, Denmark, .\ug. 19, 18aS ; studied theology at the Uni-
versity of Copenhagen. In 18:i2 he visited Berlin, Vienna,
.Munich, and Paris; and in 18;i8 was ap|Kiinted professor at
the university, first in philosophy, afterward in theology.
His first book, Meisler Eckart, which appeared in 1840, is an
essay on the mysticisra of the Middle -Ages, and made a
great sensation. lK)th in Denmark and (iermany, on account
of the wonderful intuition and singular eloipicnce with
which the old mysticism was interpreted and represented.
In imi followed "OM/Zine nf a System of Elliirs, and in 1H49
Christian Dogmatics (Eng. trans. Edinburgh, 1806), which
found many admirers in Denmark, tiermany. Swetlen, Hol-
land, and Scotland. As a disi-iplc of Hegel, Martcnscn hen-
undertakes to reconcile faith and reason, revelation and
s*;icnce, but, deeply impregnated by the Christian ideas as
he is. he defines this process, with res|>cct to the IJil)le, as
"a reckoning of an account whose balance has been struck
263
elsewhere; if we bring out another figure, we have reckonc-d
wrong." The problem is solved, as far as it is solved, with
great acuteness and ingenuity. In 1H4.'> he was ai>|Kiinted
iireachcr to the court, and in IR.M Bishop of S-eland, the
highest dignity of the Danish Church. As such he t<«.k a
Very active part in the religious movements going on in the
Danish community, and by the re|)ose of his cliaracter, the
su[ieriority of his iiilelligence, and his svnipathy with all
that is genuine he exercist-il a great and lieneticial' influence.
He published s<'veral collections of sermons, and in 1872 a
System of Christian Etitics, second part, treating of the
State (1878 ; Eng. trans., 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1873-«3). Ger-
man translations have apiH'are<i of Jacob Hohme, Theoso-
phische Studien (Ix-ip/.ig, 1882) ; Aug meinem I^ben (2 vols.,
Karlsruhe, 1883-W4) ; an<l his Brieftcechsel with Dorner
(Berlin, 1888). D. in Co[)enhageii, Feb. 4. 1884.
Revised Ity C. K. Adams.
Martha's Vineyard : the principal island of Dukes co.,
Mas.s., in the Atlantic. It is 19 miles long, averages .5 miles
in breadth, is rallier level, and in part has a very [produc-
tive soil. It contains the towns of Edgarlown, Chilmark,
Tisbury, Gay Head, and C.ittage City. The latter is a noted
camp-meeting ground and watering-place on the northeast
shore of the island.
Martia'Iis. Marcis Valerrs: jKxt ; b. at Bilbilis. in
Spain, .Mar. 1, about 40 a. u. ; went iliiring the reign of Xero
(in 64) to Rome, where he resided for thirty-four years, and
achieved a great literary fame. He returned in 98'to his na-
tive city, where he seems to have died a few years afterward,
not later than 104. Of his works, fifteen books, containing
alwiit 1,500 small poems, epigrammata, are still extant, all
distinguished by cutting wit, an elegant and |H>inted form,
a high degree of felicity of expression, and very interesting
for the m^iral slu<ly of 'the time to which they Udong, but
sometimes revealing an offensive sensuality anil a talent for
flattery of a very doubtful character. There is a goo<l edi-
tion of his works by Schneidewin (2 vols., Grimnia. 1842),
and one with excellent notes and indices by L. Friedliinder
(2 vols., Leipzig, 188C), a complete translation into French
by E. T. Simon (1819). into (ierman by A. Berg (Stuttgart,
1864), and numerous translations of single parts in English.
Revised by JI. Warres.
Martial Law \martial is from 1.^1. martia lis. |>ertain-
ing to Mars, pertaining to war, deriv. of Mars. Mar lis. the
god of war] : the law which is administered by the military
powerover a district or countrv in which the civil authoritr
nas been sui>erscded by, or made subordinate to, the military
for the pur]>ose of siiUluing invasion or insurrection by o|>-
posing forces, or of restoring to pow^er the civil courts in
case of their inability to secure the administration of justice.
It differs widely from " militarv law" and "military gov-
ernment," with each of which it is often confoundeil. Mili-
tary law i-^ a department of the municipal law prescribing
the code of rules for the regulation of the army and navy
alone, either in war or in jHjace ; and in the I'. S. it is en-
acted by Congress in the same manner and with the same
force and effect lus any other legislation, and civilians are
expressly exempt from its operation. Military goirrnment
is the government which tiie commander of an invading
army exercises for the time being over a conc|uered country.
Martial law can exist only in time of war or when the civil
authorities are renderisl iwwerless to enforce the laws of the
land by the presence of hostile or rebellions forco.«, and It
applies to civilians as well ils to the military, ami. unlike
military government, is established only ovi>r iliosc districts
or territories which arc friendly in fact or in c<>ntem|dation
of law.
The right to establish martial law is one of the sovereign
powers es.sential to the existence of everv government, the
exercise of which, however, can be justified only by para-
mount nece-ssity, what constitutes such ne<-essity varying
with the circumstances of the case. Restrictions and niles
as to what may l>e lawfully <lone bv the authoritii-s adinini.t-
tering niartiai law may In- pn'.s<'r!l>cil by the statutes of a
State, as in manv Euro|>ean countries in pn'viding for the
"state of siege''; or it may be left to lie'detcrmine<l. as in
Great Britain and in the L'. S., by the question whether the
acts of the officials wer»> such as were lu-cessjirv, or reason-
ably suppos<'d to Ih> necessarr, to accomplish Ilie object for
which martial law was established, or whether their au-
thority has t»'en abus<-d. At the lime of the actual exercise
of this species of militury rule the commander is under no
present limitation or restraint other than his own will or
578
MAKTIN
JIAUTIN I.
discretion and his sense of ultimate responsibility to the
civil aiitliorilies. wliiili for the lime are either entirely sup-
planted by martial law or are in subjeetion lo it.
The ollicials in the exercise of their powers may. if neces-
sary, resort to the destruction of property or the taking of
life to any e.\tent and in any manner that may be reciuired
for the purpose of the war or of suppressing: the rebellion or
insurrection and restorinff the civil authorities to power;
but they are not justified in resortinjj to means which under
the circumstances are cruel or unusual, or which under the
circumstances there was no reasonable {;round for lielieviuK
to be necessary or justified. For any violation of these re-
straints the otlicials are responsible, civilly and criminally,
before the civil courts on their restoration to power : but in
determining the reasonableness of an act due allowance is
properly nuide for the lack of time for consideration, the
necessity for immediate action, and other peculiar circum-
stances in which the commander is placed.
In Great Hritain martial law may be declared either by
the crown or by the Parliament ; inthe U. .S. on the part of
the Federal Government the power is vested in the Presi-
dent, and (according to some authorities) also in Congress ;
on the part of the State governments in the Legislature, and
in the Governor. The President may declare and enforce
martial law in a .State either independently of, or even in
opposition to, the State authorities ; or he may do so at the
re(|Ui'St of the State authorities made under the clause of
the Constitution (Art. IV.. Sec. 4) which provides that "the
United States shall guarantee to every .State in this Union
a republican form of government, and shall protect each
of them against invasion, and, on application of the Legis-
lature or of the executive (when the Ijegislaturc can not be
convened), against domestic violence.'' This power of the
Federal authorities to aid in suppressing local U[)risings has
become of great importance in (|uelling lawlessness and de-
struction of life and property in lalior riots in (he States
where the State authorities were unable to put down the in-
surrection.
No definite rule capable of exact application can be laid
down by which to determine whether or not it is necessary
to establish martial law, but what shall constitute such ne-
cessity will vary with the circumstances. In the celebrated
case of Milligan, growing out of the civil war, the Su]>reme
Court ileuicd the lawfulness of martial law within the U. S.
except in districts actually occupied by the opposing foi'ces,
w^hich are the very theater of hostilities, and in which the
civil courts are for the time being completely displaced.
This was an obiter dictum, however, given in the ojiinion of
a divideil court (five to four), and the subsequent "recon-
struction acts," with the decisions upholding thcin, have
been by eminent authorities considered to be inconsistent
with them ; ami by some authorities it is maintained that
martial law may be declared in a place where there is no
actual overthrowing of the civil authorities, but where in-
vasion is threatened, or where the purposes of the war ren-
der the existence of the martial law a necessity. In Great
Britain Lord Chief Justice Cockburn also, in 1867, declared
in an opinion that the crown has no authority to enforce
martial law in any pari of the lirilish realm where the laws
of England prevail; but he admitted that Parliament, by
virtue of its unlimited power, might call it 'into operation.
The general principles governing the existence and exercise
of martial law in Great Britain and the U. S. are in effect
the same, and the dilferences which exist are too technical
for discussion here, and <lo not alfecl the application of the
preceding general statement of the law. For a fullcT treat-
ment of the suliject, consult Finlason's Treatise on Martial
Law in Time of Hetjellion (London), and the sanu> aulhorV
Review of the Authorities as to the Repression of Riot or
Rebellion: ^lr\ihi'n'it Ilixtori/ of the Criminal Law of Emj-
lanil (London) : Dicey's Laio of the Constitntion (London) ;
Birlihimer's Milituri/ frorernment and Martial Law; Hares's
American ( 'onutitii'tional Law; and Pomeroy's Constitu-
tional Law of the United Stales. F. Sturges Allen.
Martin (Fr. martinet) : a name given to several birds of
the swallow family (//irundinidw). The purple m.artin of
the U.S. {I'rogne suhis),siicii\UH\ from the lustrous purplish-
blue color of the male, is the largest of the N<irth American
swallows. It often inhabits boxes put up lu'ar houses, and
is a popular favorite, l)eing reganied as a bird of good omen.
It ranges from the frontier of Patagonia to within the Are-
tic circle, but its numbers are in certain years and certain
localities subject to sudden diminutions which have never
The European house-martin (Cltelidon
urbica).
been .satisfactorily accounted for. The house-martin of
Kurope (Chelidon urbica) freijUently attaches its nest to tlie
walls of hou.ses even
in towns. The nests
are extrenudy vari-
able in shape and
size, no two being
exactly alike in liolh
respects. Generally
the form is cu[)-
shaped, with the
rim closely jiressed
against the wall,
and having a small
semicircular aper-
ture cut out of the
edge in onler to per-
mit the ingress and
egress of the birds.
Soinet lines. how-
ever, t he nest is sup-
ported on a kin<l of
solid pedestal, com-
posed of mud, and
often containing
nearly as much ma-
terial as would have
made an ordinary
nest. The saiui-
martin (Cotile ripa-
ria) of Eurojie and
North America is
smaller, of a dull
color, and builds its
nest at the end of a long horizontal gallery, which it bores
in some natural or artificial escarpment. Although its snudl
beak and slender claws would seem at first sight to be utter-
ly inadequate for the performance of miner's work, the sand-
martin is as good a tunnel-driver as the mole or the rat, and
can dig a burrow of considerable length (from 2 to 8 feet),
and in soil which is by no means easy to excavate. The
sand-martin hatches several broods during the year and is
very gregarious, sometimes making its burrows so near to-
gether as to honeycomb the bank in which they are situated.
Revised by F. A. Lucas.
Martin, Saint : Bishop of Tours and patron saint of
France ; b. in lilG at Sabaria, in Pannonia. the ])rescnt Stein
in Lower Hungary, of pagan parents, his father being a
military tribune; visited tlie pagan school of Pavia, early
.showed an incliiuition to a monastic life, but was compelled
by his father to enter the army in his sixteenth year, an
im])crial edict having ordered the enrolbnent of the sons of
veterans, ami he served under Constantine and Julian the
A])ostate. Having left the army at the age of twenty, he
became a disciple of Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers; returned
to Pannonia; converted his mother to Christianity, but suf-
fered much from the persecutions of the Arian party, which
finally expelled him from the country. Once more he went
to Gaul ; was made Bishop of Tours in 371, and founded the
monastery of Marmontiers, where he died al)out 400 (perhaps
Nov. 11, 397). His life has been described by a contempo-
rary of his, Sulpicius Sevenis. adorned with numy mirac-les
and wonderful stories; and by the Kciman Calholic Church
he was made a saint, and his festival ap]iointed on his death-
day, which was considered his heavenly birthday, Nov. 11.
In Scotland this day nuirks the winter term (Martinmas),
and was formerly celebrated with feasting and drinking.
The French expressions, martiner, faire le St. Martin, alid
mat de St. Martin, show that the sanu? custom has existed
in France. It arose from an old story, that at a great festi-
val the Emperor Maximinus ()ITer<'d the drinking-cup first
to the bishop, in order that he might receive it from his
hand. The treatise J'rofe.isio Fidei de Sancta Trinitate,
ascribed to Martin, is geiu>rally considered spurious. See
his Life by F. Chamard (Paris, 1873), and by J. G. Cazcnove
(London, 1883). Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Martin I. : pope and saint; b. in Todi.in Umbria; elected
Bishop of Rome July 5, (i4i), succeeding Theodore I.; called
the first Lateran Council, which met on Oct. 5, 64!), and
which aflirmed the doctrine of two wills and operations in
Christ. The I'jnperor t'onstans II. was a violent upholder
of the doctrines condemned by the council ; consequently ho
hod the pope brought as a prisoner to Constantinople, 654,
I
MARTIN
579
on the trumpcd-iip flmrne of trcasonaldodcsijjnsaciiinst the
ciiiperor. lli,' was cniiOly Ireattd, baiiishi'il to Chrrst)n, a
town in the C'riim-a, ami tlierc dii'd S«pl. 10, 855. — Maktin
II. (or .Marinis I.), b. at Moiitfliuscone liecatni- iiopo in
8H2, ami d. I'Vli. 14, 8K4.— .Maktin III. (or Makinis II.) sue-
fci'dfd Stcphi-M VI II. in !M".', d. '.MO: a man of k-arnintj and
nolilucharai'ler. — .MAinr.v IV. i.Siinoit dt la Jirir), b. in Tou-
raine of very humble pari'ntaKe; became a FruneiMan at
Toiu's; was patroni/,4(l by St. Louis; bucame a cardinal in
1202; was lonK papal legate at I'aris; became pope in 1281.
The .Sicilian Vespers soon followed (128'J), and lie e.\cominu-
nieated the enemies of the French, thereby greatly weaken-
ing his own cause in Italy. U. in Peru;;ia, Mar. 28, 1285. —
Martis V. {Olho Colonnii), b. of noble stock in Rome i:JO;i;
became auditor of the rota l:l!t4; cardinal-ileacon 1405: was
chosen pope liy the Council of Constance 1417; fulminated a
bull against the Hussites 1418; and soon i>rovcd himself one
of the ablest and boldest of the popes. Ilis policy overcame
the reform movements bejiun at the Council of Florence,
lie healed the divisions of the Church, restored the dimin-
ished splendors of Rome, pacificated Kuropc, and advanced
the cause of learning:. In carrvintt out Iho orders at Con-
stance he called a council at ('avia 142:i, transferred it to
Siena, but dissolved it the next year. I), in Rome, Feb. 20,
14^11. Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Martin, Ai-orsT, M.D. : gyna-colofjist ; b. at Jena, Ger-
many, July 14, 1847; was a special stuilent of his father, E. A.
Martin, graduating M. I), at the University of Berlin in 1870;
has been assistant in the Berlin gyna>colouical clinic, and
docent at the university since 1872. He has published valu-
able reports of his operative cases. Among his works are
Leitfaaen der operativen Oeburtuhiilfe (Berlin, 1877); I'a-
thiiloqie und Therapie der frauenkranklieiten (Vienna and
Leipzig, 1885). S. T. A.
Martin. Box Loris TTexri: historian; b. at St.-Quentin,
France, Feb. 20, 1810; began his literary career by writing
historical novels and dranuis, but turned soon to a more
serious and thoroughgoing treatment of history. Of his
Histoire de France there are three different editions : one
in 15 vols. (l8:}3-36); one in 10 vols. (1837-54), parts of
which, such as vols. x. and xi., narrating the religious ware,
and vols, xiv.-xvi., describing the age of Louis XIV., made
a great sensation and were crowned by the Academy; and
one in 10 vols. (185.5-00), emlxxlying the latest researches in
Celtic antiquilies, media-val society, etc. The most promi-
nent of his other writings are l)e la France, de mn Oenie et
de. sea Dextineea (1847), which gives the ideal view on which
his narrative of the history t)f France is based; L'l'nile
Ilalienne (1865), La Hngaie d'Eiirope (186(5), etc. He be-
came a senator in 1876, and member of the academy in 1878.
1). I lee. 14, 188;?.
Martin. Kihard Arnold, M.D.: gynjocologist and obstet-
rician ; b. at Heidelberg, Germany, Apr. 22, 18fl9; studied
law from 1820-28 at the L'niversities of Jena and Gutlingen,
and then took up medical studies, graduating M. D. at Giit-
tingen in 1833; stuilied in Prague, Vienna, Berlin, ICngland,
and France ; settled in Jena in 1K!5 ; in 18;t7 was appointed
F.xtraordinary Professor of ( )bstet rics, in 1838 was ap|M)inted
director of ide Iving-in asylum, an<l in 18-50 Professor of
Obstetrics in the University of Ji'ua. He here in 184:) estalv
lishcd the lirst gynaecological clinic in (iermany. In 18.58
ho went to the Lniversity of Berlin. Ilis work and leach-
ing exercised great influence in creating a scienii lie basis
for gyn.Tcology and obstetrics. He was the author of many
monographs and works, some of which are Zur (h/ni'iknlngie
(Jena, 1848); Lehrhiieh der (1'hirl.thulfe fur ilehamnien
(Krlangen, 1854). He was coeditor of the ./(•nrtiVAM .lunn-
len fiir I'/ii/.ttologie und Medirin 1840-51, and of the /iril-
schrifl fur (ieburlKhulfe und Frauenkraukheilfn 1875. I).
Dim-. .5, 1875. S. T. Armstroxo.
Martin. IIkxrv Atstin, M. D. : "inrgeon ; h. in London,
KiiLtlaiid, in 1824; graduated M.I), at IlarvanI Medical
School in 1845; practiced in Boston; in 1862 pa.ssod the ex-
aminations for a commission as .staff surgeon in the l'. S.
volunteers, ami was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-
colonel and medical director; during his army service he
performed many notable operations. At the close of the
war he resigne<l his commission ami returned home to prac-
tice. In 1870 he introiluceil the Bi-augency animal vaii'ine
virus into the U. S. In 1877 he brought before the profes-
sion the various uses for the rubber bandage, and in 1878
his operation of fraoheotoray without tubes. I>. Dw. 7. 18S4.
S. T. Armstroxo.
Martin, IIoMRR Dodoe: landsca|ie-painter ; b. in Albanr,
N. v., Oct. 28, 18;50. He received no art instruction except
a few weeks' study with William Hart in New York, and
began exhibiting pictures at the National Academy alxait
1857. He became an Acadeinician in 1875, and wait electol
a member of the S<x'iety of American ArtLsls in 1877. Hi.'j
pictures are noted for quiet but effective color sehemes and
simple treatment. Sand linni-a on Lake Ontario (1878);
Adirondarks, which was exliibiteil at the Centennial Kxhi-
bition at Philadelphia in 1876, and belongs to the Century
Club. New York ; Uiijh Tide at Villtrvitle and Liahthoute
at Ilunfleur, also the property of the Century Club, are
some of his bcst-kaowu works. ' D. Vvh. 12, 1807.
William A. Cornx.
Martin. Jonx: painter: b. at Haydnn Bridge, near Hex-
ham, Northumberland, July 10, 1780. He was made appren-
tice to a painter on jiorcelain ; went to Ixmdon ami married
very young, supporting himself by ilecorative iiainting while
he went on with his studies. In 1812 he exhibited several
pictures at the Royal Academy, and was a constant exhil»-
itor from that time at b<ith the Aciulemv and the British
Institution. In 1810 was shown \m Juiiliua Commanding
the Sun to Slayid Still, and in this were visible many of the
peculiarities of his art. A city with gigantic edifices in long
perspective crowns a rmky hill to the right; on the left tho
plain stretches away to distant heights, on which arc other
large buildings; armies fill the plain and jKiur down from
the city. The effect aimed at is the gigantic and over-
whelming. Behliazzar'g Feast, exhibited in 1821, carried
still further the effect of architecture of colossal size and in
long perspective. His painting for thirty years followed in
these lines of composition, and his fame is that of an artist
who, notacolorist and not a master of figure-il rawing, nor very
strong in chiaroscuro, nor in any of the qualities which make
up the great artist, had a singular gift at producing grandi-
ose effects. Such art as this is of course perilously near
the ridiculous, but Martin generally knew how to avoid that
result, lie was greatly admired during his life, received
several prizes at the British Institution, und a special medal
from the French Government. Large mezzotint engravings
exist of some of his works, and it is thought that some of
these are by him.self. I), at Douglas. Isle of Man. Feb. 17,
1854. At the South Kensington .Museum are A Mountain
Landscape and several water-colors. In the Manchester Gal-
lery is 7Vi« Destruction of Uerculaneum. An eilition of Mil-
ton's Paradise Lost, illustrated with mezzotinl.s, which have
much of Martin's peculiar power, was issued in 18-.J6. and an-
other with larger plates in 1827; later and inferior editions
are numerous. Kussell Stiruis.
Martin. Loi-is Aim£: author; b. at Lyons, France, in
1781: (1. in Paris, June 22. 1847. He was memlM>r of the
Chamber of Deputies in 181.5. then professor at the Ktxilo
polytechnicpie till 1831. and after thai keeper of the libranr
of St. Genevieve. He wrote commentaries on Ilacinc anil
>IoIiere. a \'ie de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, und a book
on the Kducatton des meres de famille. A. O. C.
Martin. Robkrt Moxtoomkrv: b. in Kngland about 1803;
author of a series of valuable geographical and statistical
works— T'/ic Colonies of the British Empire (18:{4-;t8|; The
British Colonial Lihrari/ (18;!0-;}7); The llixlori/. Antimii-
ties. Topoiiraphy, and Statistics of Faxlern India (18.S8);
Ireland before and after the I'nion (1843); China, liilitical.
Commercial, and Social (X^l); The Hudson's Bay Terri-
tories (IH4><) : The Indian Empire (\Ki»-(il) ; and I'rogresa
and Present State of British India (1862). He also cdito«l
The Colonial Magazine fur some years. siip<-rintendiHl the
issue of The Illuslrattd Alias anil Mmlrrn Ilislnry of the
World, and arrangeil for publication the papers of the Uuko
of Wellington. D. in 1868.
Martin. Sir Tiikodork. LL. D. : author; b. in Edinburgh,
Scotland, in 1816; setlleij in Ijoiuhm as a solicitor in 1846;
in 1851 married a laily who wils prominent as an actress
(see Faccit. Hei.ex): wrote verw-s for the magiuifics over
the signature of lion Gaultier: publishe<l The Book of Bal-
lads in conjunction with Prof. Aytniin ; lr.iiislatii>ns nf the-
Poems and Ballads of (loethe (18.581; ,,f s<-venil Danish
dramas by II. llartz and Oohlens»-hliiger (I"*"'! ".: . f the
(hies of Ihirace (I86O1. and of his whole wi.rV ' 'he
/Wm* «/('f7/H//M/i( I. 8<ll); of Dante's IV/d .\ ; of
Goolhe's Faust (18fl;i, 18.8(5); Heine's ISx-mx and Uallad»
(1878); and Schiller's Song of the /?»•// (1880) ; an<l |>rinl«l
for private cin-ulation tninslations of various miwvllanemis
poems by Oix-thc ami I'hiand. He also wmle a biography
580
MARTIN
MARTINKZ CAMPOS
?
of Prof. W. E. Aytoun (1868); The Life of the Prince Con-
sort (5 vols., 1874-80) from niatorials furnisheii by Queen
Victoria ; ami Lives of the Princess Alice (1883) and of IjorU
Ijyndliurst (1885). In 1880 he was clectoil rector of the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews. Revised by II. A. Bkers.
Martin, Wii-i-ias Ai-exasder P.^rsoxs, I). I)., LL. D. :
missionary and educator; b. at Livonia. Ind., Apr. 10. 1827;
graduated at the Indiana State University at lihioniinfjton
18-16, and the Presbyterian Theolojjical Seminary of New
Albany, Ind. (now McCormick, Chicafjo). 1849; was acting
Professor of the Classics in Anderson Collegiate Institute
1849-50; missionary under the Presbyterian board at Ning-
)o, China, 1850-60 : founder of the Presbyterian mission at
'eking in 1863, and was in charge till 1868; he was then
appointed Professor of International Law in the Tung wen
College of Peking, of which he has been president since 1869.
In 1885 he was elected first president of the (_)riental .Society
of Peking; he is a member of the European Institute of In-
ternational Law, and of other similar societies. In 1880-81
he was sent l)y China to Eurojie and the U. S. to report on
methods of education ; and in 1885 he was made mandarin
of the third rank. Dr. Martin has published, in English,
The Chineae : their Education, Philosophy, and Letters
(New York, 1881), and articles in reviews and periodicals;
in French he has published papers in the Transactions of
various learned societies of Europe; in Chinese he has pub-
lished £'i'tV/e»fe.s of Christianiti/ (ISoo; reprinted in many
editions, both in China and Ln .Japan); The Three Principles
(1856) ; Religious Alteyories (1857) ; translations for the Chi-
nese Government of de Martin's Guide Diplomatique (1874);
of treatises on International Laic, Wheaton's (1863-64),
Woolsey's (1875), and Bluntschli's (1879); compilation of
text-books on Physics (1868), and on Mathematical Physics
(1885; both revised and reprinted for the emperor, 1889) ;
and a number of widely circulated tracts. C. K. HovT.
Martina Franca, ma'ar-tecna'ii-fraan'kaa: town; in the
province of Lecce, Southern Italy; about 17 miles N. of
Taranto (see map of Italy, ref. 7-11). This beautiful little
city is built on a hill near the sources of the Tara. The
churches and other buildings, private and public, are hand-
-soine; the ducal palace is one of the most magnificent in
the south of Italy. Martina Franca was the feudal possession
of the Caraccioli, and is not a very old town. Pop. about
18,100.
Martin de Moussy, ma"iir'taiVdf-moo'see', Jean Antoi.ne
Victor : physician and traveler; b. at Moussy-le-Vieux, June
26, 1810. He studied medicine in Paris, served as army
health commissioner, and in 1841 went to South America,
establishing himself in 1842 at Montevideo, Uruguay. Dur-
ing the war known as the nine years' siege (1843-52) he was
inedical director of the French and German legions raised
in the city. He established at his own expense a meteoro-
logical observatory. From 1855 to 1859 he traveled exten-
sively in Argentina and Paraguay, visiting the frontiers of
Bolivia and Chili. The results of "his explorations were pub-
lished in Paris as Description gengraphique et statist iqite de
la Confederation Argentine (3 vols, and atlas, 1860-64) : this
is a work of great value. Martin de Jloussy wrote various
minor works and pai)ers on the Platine region, and was a
contributor to encyclopiedic works. I), at I5ourg-la-Reine,
near Paris, Mar. 26, 1869. Herbert II. Smith.
Mar'tincau, Harriet: author; sister of Rev. James :\Iar-
t ineau ; b. at Norwich, England, June 12, 1802, was descended
from a family of Huguenot exiles; was educated under the
auspices of her uncle, a distinguished surgeon ; entered upon
literary life in 1823, and nublished a very great number of
works, incliKling many tales, of which those illustrating the
rinciplcs of political economy, the o])eralion of the i)oor
aws, and kimlred subjects are' especiallv noteworthv. She
removed to London in 1H32, but subsequently lived at Tyne-
moulh and Ambleside; visited the U. S. in 'lH34, and trav-
eled in Palestine and the East in 1846. Among her im-
portant works are Society in America (1837); A Retrospect
of Western Travel (1838) : Eastern Life, Past and Present
(1848); British India (1851); a condensed translation of
Comte's Positive Philosophy (ISH'S); History of Enqland
during the Thirty Years' Peace (1849-.50); The Factory
Controversy (1H55); and liiographical Sketches (IS09). A
Unitarian Christian in early life, she gradually assumed in
her writings more radical religious opinions. She was a
frequent contrilmtor to newspapers and reviews. D. at
Arablesido, Kngland, June 27, 1876.
Revised bv II. A. Beers.
fa
Martinran. James. D. I).. LL. D. : theologian ; b. at Nor-
wich, England, Apr. 21, 1805, of Huguenot extraction. His
father was a manufacturer of bombazines, in humble cir-
cumstances. Dr. Marlineau studied in the Unitarian College
at York ; was minister of swieties first in Dublin, and after-
ward in Liverpool in Hope chapel. While in Liverpool in
1839 he took part, in connection with J. II. Thoin and Henry
Giles, in a controversy with thirteen clergymen of the Church
of England on (juestions of Christian theologv. Marti-
ncau's themes were — The Bible. The Deity of bhrisi. Vi-
carious Redemption, The Christian View of Moral Evil, and
Christianity without Priest and without Ritual. All the
lectures were nublished. The Rationale of Religious In-
quiry and Endeavors after the Christian Life, two volumes
of remarkable sermons, appeared in 1843-47; a volume of
Jliscellanies. edited by T. Starr King, was printed in Boston
in 1852; in 1858, another volume, entitleil Studies of Chris-
tianity, was collected by \V. R. Alger, and ])ublished by the
American Unitarian Association; two volumes ot Essays,
Theological and Philosophical, were issuetl by W. V. Spencer
in Boston, 1866 and 1868. comj'rising significant papers from
various English periodicals. The Westminster, Prospective,
and National reviews contained his most elaborate essays.
In 1853 Dr. Martineau was called to the chair of Moral and
Metaphysical Philosojihy in Manchester New College, Lon-
don, whiMier he went to live, and in 1858 assumed joint
pastorship with J. J. Tayler of the Unitarian chapel in Little
Portland Street, of which, on the death of Mr. Tayler, he
became sole incumbent. He has been distinguished as the
defender of spiritual faith against the different schools of
atheism, materialism, and skejilicism. taking sharp issue with
the negative tendencies of science and philosophy, not in
the interest of any dogma, creed, or Church, but in the in-
terest of the moral and spiritual nature of man. (.See his A'e-
ligion and Jlodem Materialism, New York, 1874.) Thackeray
called him the greatest theologian in England. Ill-health
compelled Dr. Martineau to desist from preaching. The
Boston magazine Old and New (1874) contained able articles
in criticism from his pen. He is the author of Types of
Ethical Theory (1886); ^4 Study of Religion : its Sources
and Contents (1888); and IVie Seat of Authority in Religion
(1890). His Essays, Reviews, and Addresses were published
in four volumes in 1890-91. His Study of Spinoza is an
extremely unsympathetic study of that great philosopher.
His critical conclusions, which are extremely radical, have
done much to qualify the admiration which his philosophical
conclusions have excited in conservative minds. Since the
death of Cardinal Newman Dr. Marlineau has been the
most conspicuous figure in English theological and religious
thought. Revised by J. \V. Chadwick.
Martinez: town; capital of Contra Costa cc, Cal. (for
location of county, see map of California, ref. 7-C) ; on Car-
quinez Strait, which accommodates the largest seagoing ves-
sels, and on the S. Pac. Co.'s Railway: 35 miles N. E. of
San Francisco. It is in a rich grain, nut, and fruit region,
has a delightful and uniform climate, and contains 5
churches, graded public school, and 2 weekly newsiiapers.
There are coal, cojipcr. and quicksilver mines in the vicinity,
and 12 miles distant is Mt. Diablo, 3.986 feet high, whose
summit commands an unobstructed view of an area of about
40,000 sq. miles. Poii. (1880) not in census : (1890) 1,600.
Editor oe " Contra Costa Gazette."
Martinez, ma"!ir-tee'nf7th, ToMAS: statesman; b. at Leon,
Nicaragua, about 1812. He was engaged in trade and min-
ing ami took no active ])art in public affairs until 1854,
when he became a colonel in the conservative forces. As
general he fought successfully against Walker 1856-57, and
on June 24, 1867, he and Jerez were appointed temporary
dictators. War having been declared on Costa Rica, Jlar-
tinez was about marching against that country when he was
almost unanimously chosen president, assuming ollice Nov.
15, 1857. Peace was (juickly established, and his adminis-
tration was the most prosperous that the country had
known. In Seiit., 1862, war broke out with Honduras and
Salvador, but ended in a victory gained by Martinez Apr.
29. 18t)3. Jlartiiicz was re-elected for four years Mar. 1,
1863. and he declined a third term in 1867. D. at ]\Ianagua,
Mar. 12. 1873. Herbert 11. Smith.
Martinez t'anipos, -kaanr[K"s, Arsenio : soldier and poli-
tician ; b. at Segovia, Spain, Dec. 14. 1831 ; fought under
O'Donnell in Africa and under Prim in Mexico; served
against the revolutionists in Cuba 1869-72; and soon after
his return was made mariscal de campo and caiitain-geiieral
MARTIXKZ UK IRA I, A
MAKTll'S
581
of Valencia; for his services afjuiiist Uu; Carlists lie was
Iiromoted to lieutciiaiit-fjeneral. Tiiv iirotiunciainienlu made
by him and (icii. Jovellar paveil tlic way to tlie accessii>M of
Alfonso XU., and tlie final downfall iif the Carlists was
mainly due to his victory at I'eiia de l'lala(lK7«). From 187G
to 1878 he was captain-fe'eneral of Culia. and dnrinj; this pe-
riod he extinguished the rebellion in that island, more by
conciliation tinin by arms. From Mar. to Dec, 18.S'J, he
was Minister of War. Un Feb. 8, 1881, he combined with
SaH:iL-ita to form a new ministry, taking the presidentship of
Ihi' council anil the portfolio of war; and he retained the
latter pcisilion in the cabinet of .Ian. i), 188;i, finally resii,'n-
in^r. -'an- 1^. •^*'-' : 'ook command uf the army of tlie north,
and coininaniled the army sent a^'ainsl the Uiffs in 1)S'J4,
when that tribe attacked .Mehlla. In ISilo l,,. was appcinted
captain-Kcneral of Cuba. IIkkiiekt 11. Smith.
.Martinez dc Irala, Dominoo: .Sec Ikal.a.
.HartiMCZ dc la Kusa, maar-tee ndth-du-lmi-ro'saii, Fran-
cisco: statesman and writer; b. at tiranada, Spain, Mar.
10, 1789; d. in .Madrid, Feb. 7, 1862. A brilliant youth, he
became Professor of Philosophy at (Jninada in 1808: but
the war of independence against the French excited his en-
thusiiusm, and ho joined eagerly in the clforts to riil S|)ain
of its invailcrs. He was ilepuly from Granada in IHKi, and
the Cortes employed hirn for a time as an agent in London.
There, hearing of the heroic defense of Saragos.sa, he wrote
his epic Zaragoza. In Kngland, however, ho became a be-
liever in constitutionalism, and accordingly, after the re-
turn of Ferdinand VII., he was arrested, imprisoned, and
then sent to the penal settlement Gomcra, on the coast of
Africa. Here he wrote his tragedy Moroyma. After the
uprising in 18'JO ho was recalled to S|)ain, and was for a
time .Minister of Foreiicn .MTairs. t>n the sidtvorsion of the
constitution through French intervention in 1821! he was
obliged to go into exile, living for a number of years in
Italy and Paris. In 1833, however, he returned,' and in
18;i4 he again became Minister of Foreign Affairs as lomlor
of the moderate party. From this time on he was recog-
nized as the chief ronresontativo of constitutionalism in
Spanish politics. Under Kspartero ho was ambassador to
trance, and in 18.58 he was the leader of the ministry, be-
coming president of the senate in 18G0. During all'thcso
vears he had lieen writing much, always largely under the
intluencc of French models. Among' his literary works
may be mentioned his tragedy L'dipo; his comedies El Es-
puilol en Venecia and La hija en cana y la madre en la
mdxcara ; his romance Doila Imbel de Suits (3 vols., 18;37-
40) ; hisdidactic poem El arte poelica, elegant, but learnedly
dull ; his Jlrrnan Perez de Piilyar (1834) ; and his E.ipirit'u
del Siglo (10 vols., 1835-.")1), a history of the French Revo-
lution, but really only a reworking of Thiers's Ilistoire de
la Hevolntion frmtfuise. His lyric poems were collected
in -Madrid (18;i3; 2(1 cil. 1847). His Obras complelas ap-
peared in 5 viils. (Madrid, 183.5; again Paris, 1844—46). Ilis
Obras dramdliciis were published in 3 vols. (JIadrid, 1801
and again in 1884). .Sec L. tiodard, Martinez de la liosa,
act iriirn'.i, eir. (Paris. 1862). A. R. Marsh.
.Mart Inez de Kozas, -da-riithaas, Juan: Chilian patriot;
b. at .\Kudciza (now in Argentina), 1759. He grmluated at
the University of Coidoba, taught in Chili, held various nlTi-
cial positions there, and finally was made intendaiit of Con-
cepcion. During his long residence in that city he a<'<juire<l
almost unbounded influence in the south of Ciiili, which at
that time hail little sympathy with the north ; by dissemi-
nating republican ideas he prepared the way for the revolu-
tion. Ill 1808 Rozas was appointed secretary of the captain-
general, Carra.sco, a weak man who at first was miuh umler
the influence of his subordinate. Rozas used this power to
eire<'l reforms, but eventually Carrasi'o quarreled with him
and he was dismissed. On the breaking out of the revolution
l{ozius became a member of the first popular junta (.Sept. 18,
1810), and eventually acquired complete contrnl over it.
.\iiioiig his important acts was the sending of a force to aid
the patriots of IJiienos .Ayre;;. Carrera, who wius jealous of
l{<jziLs, intrigued against him, and when the first congress
met, July 4, 1811, a new junta was chosen. Rozas retired
to the south, and his differences with Carn-ra for some time
threatened a civil v,ht; oveiilually Carreni gained entire
luscendencv, and in 1812 Roza-s was banished to .Mendoza.
He died there Mar. 3, 1813. Hkrhkrt H. Smith.
Martiiiiiflio, niiiiir-tee-ncek'(eorniption of Mndinina. the
Carili name) : an island of the I^viser Antilles. West Indies,
belonging to France ; lying between the two British islands
of Dominica and St. Lucia, 23 miles S. of the former and
20 miles N. of the latter. Area, 381 s<(. miles. It is of very
irregular outline, the greatest diameter being from N. W. to
S. L. ; S. of the middle it is marly cut in two by the op|io-
sitc bays of Fort de France and f'raiK/ois. The surface is
mountainous, the highl■^t peak being the Morne I'elee. near
the norilicrn eiul (4,430 feet); it is a volcano, but seldom
active; the liust eruption occurred in 1851. Other |>eak« are
evidently ancient volcanoes to wtiich the island owes its
origin. The climate is generally healthful, though warm on
the coa-st (mean temperature about 77'5' F.). bellow fever
is now rarely epidemic. Hurricanes are occasionally de-
structive during the months from June to Octol>er ; in tlio
great one of Dell. 10, 1780, 0.000 i>ers<jns perished. Most of
the interior is still covercil with forest and uninhabited ;
notwithstanding this the island is one of the most thickly
populated regions in the world, averaging 464 .souls to the
square mile. The cultivation of sugar-cane and the manu-
facture of sugar and rum are at present almost the only
industries; coffee-planting, formerly prominent, has been
almost abandoned, and cacao-planting has only recenllv
been taken up. Mu<h of the sugar is [ircpareil in central
usines, to which the jilanters sell tlieir pro<luct.s. There are
over 6,000 peasant firoprietors. The exports, mainly of
sugar and rum, average ab<iut 20,000,(XX) francs annually.
Martinique is a colony of France, has a governor and a coun-
cil elected by limited suffrage, and sends a senator and two
deputies to the French parliaineiil. Capital, Fort de France
(formerly Fort Royal). The largest town is .St.-Pierre, near
the north end of the west coast (23.7.55 inhabitants). The
island was one of the strongholds of the Carib Indian.s. It
was settled by the French under d'Ksnambuc, who founded
St.-Pierre 1633 ; it became a crown colony 1675, and the
Caribs were soon exterminated or exi)orted. Sugar cultiva-
tion was intriKluccd by Dutch colonists, who had been driven
out 'of Brazil, about 16.55. It was held by the British 1794-
1802. Slavery was finally abolished in 1848. but many of
the slaves ha'd been frccil before. Pop. (1890) 177,000, of
whom a large nroportioii (jirobably at lea.st 80 per cent.) are
Negroes or colored. Of late vears coolie (Asiatic) laborers
have been introduced. Sec l)aney, llintoire de la Mar-
tinique (6 vols., 1846) ; Roy, Etude siir la colonie de la Mar-
tinii/ue (1881) ; Anniiaire de la Martinique (annual, oflicial);
Ober, Camps in the Varibbees (1886). Herukrt H. Smith.
Martiiisbiir^: town; capital of Berkeley co., W. Va.
(for location of county, see map of West Virginia, ref. 5-M) ;
on the Bait, and O. and the Cumberland Val. railways:
80 miles W. of Wiishingtoii. It has 12 churches, 6 public
schools, U. S. tiovernment building (cost :fl(X),000), gas and
electric lights, electric street-railway, 3 national banks with
combined capital of $275,000, and a daily and 5 weekly
newspapers. The manufacturing eslablisfinieiits include
railway repair-shops, distilleries, lime and phosphate works,
woolen and hosiery mills, |>laning-niills, bicycle-factory, etc
The vicinity priMluces much wheal, corn, and gniss. " Pop.
(1880) 6,33.5'; (1890) 7,226. KuiToa ok " I.nuei"K.niik.vt."
iMnrtin's Ferry : city (laid out in 179.5) ; Belmont co., O.
(for liK'ation of county, see map of t)liio. ref. 5-1): on the
Ohio river, and the Cleve., Lorain and Wheel., the Penn.,
the Wheel, and Lake Krie, and the Wheel., Bridge and
Term, railways; opinisite Wheeling. W. Va. It contains 9
churches, a i)ar<Hliial and 3 public schools, an incor[Kiralcd
bank with capital of if2.5.0tXI, a private bank, aiul daily,
weekly, and monthly perimlicals. Nearly f. 5,000.000 are in-
vested in its manufactories, the prmlucts of which include
sheet and bar iron, steel, pig metal, nails, glass, engines,
ketrs, barrels, Imixos. stoves, and many kinds of heavy cast-
iiis;s. Pop. (18!S0) 3,819; (1890) 6,250; (1893) est inialed,
8,IKI0. Editor or " Times."
MartlnsTille : city; capital of Morgan co.. Ind. (for lo-
cation of county, .see map of Indiana, ref. 7-D) ; on the
White river, antf the Cleve., ("in., Chi. and St. L. and the
Penn. niilways; 29 miles .S. W. of Indianapolis. It is in an
agricultund region, and has numerous artesian mineral
wells that have become noted for their curative proiHTties
in cases of rheumatism and kidney troubles. There are 5
sanitariums. 5 churches, 2 public s<-hools, a daily and 3
wcH'kly newspapers, a national Imnk with a capital of f70,-
000, and manufactories of foundry pnnliicls, machinery,
lumber, flour, and buckets. Pop. (18«l| 1.943 ; (1800) 2,680;
(1893) estimate<l, ;t.200. Kiiitor of " Rki-ortkb."
Mnrtlus. Cahi. Frikdrich PniLiiT. von : naturalist; b. at
Erlaiigeii, Itavaria, Apr. 17, 1794. He graduated in medi-
5S2
iMAUTIUS VELLOW
MARVKLL
cine at the university of his native city, and studied
botany at Munii-h. fn 1817. when the Austrian Arch-
ducliess Leopolilina went to Brazil to become the wife ot
the crown prince, a number of Austrian and Havarian
naturalists were added to licr suite. .Murtius and Spix bcinj;
chosen for Havana. They remained until the end of IH'JO,
and during this period traveled throuj;h tlie interior from
Rio de Janeiro to I'arii. and asceiuled the Amazon. Their
narrative was publisheil as Reise in Brasilien (3 vols. 4to
and atlas, 18'23-;{1), the greater part written by Martins,
Spix having died in 1826. Their extensive collections were
described in various large worlis with the collaboration of
Agassi/., I'erty. Andreas, Wagner, an<l others, tlie iilants by
JIartius in Xmn (rettera et tipecie.i Plantarum Jirasilien-
»ium (3 vols., 182;}-30), and Icunes iielec/(f Plantarum Cryp-
toganiicarum Brasilue (1826-31). All these works were
printed at the expense of the Bavarian Government, and
were richly illustrated. Martins was knighted on his re-
turn from Brazil, was made Professor of Botany at the
Munich University in 1826, and conservator of the botan-
ical gardens in 18;J2. His greatest work, the XiUurai Jh's-
tory of I'alm.i (Uisturia Aaluru/is Piilmarum) was [lub-
lished from 1823 to 18,50 in three niagniticent volumes, witli
245 plates ; 583 species are described. He plainied ami
edited the first volumes of the great Flora BiasiUensis,
begun in 1840, and wrote several of the monographs. His
BettrSge zur Ethnngraphie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas,
zumal Braniliens (2 vols., 1867) was the greatest contrilju-
tion ever made to the ethnography of Brazil. His miiuu'
publications are very numerous, embracing no less than 100
titles. In 1854, the Government having decided to erect an
exposition building in the botanical garden, Martins resigned
his positions after unavailing remonstrances. He died at
Munich, Dee. 13, 1868. See Meissner, Denkschrift auf (\irl
Friedr. Phil, von Martins (Munich, 1869): Charles Kau,
Memoir of C. F. P. von Marlins (Washington, 1.S71). •
Herbert H. Smith.
Martins Yellow: See Naphthalene Colors.
Mar'tos : town ; in the province of Jaen. Spain ; 16 miles
W. S. W. of the town of .laen (see map of Spain, ref. 18-E).
It is celebrated for its cold mineral springs, which are nuich
used for batliing, and much resorted to in cases of cutaneous
diseases. The streets of Martosare crooked, steep, and nar-
row, and its public buildings are commonplace. The sur-
rounding districts produce an excellent oil, the principal
article of commerce of tlie town. Pop. about 14.700.
Martyn, Hknrv, B. D. : missionary; b. at Truro, Corn-
wall, England, Feb. 18, 1781 ; graduated as senior wrangler
at Cambridge in 1801 ; became a fellow of his college, St,
John's, 1802 ; was ordained deacon of the Anglican Church
1803; priest in 1805, and went to Bengal 1806 as a mission-
ary; subsequently was stationed at Dinapore and Cawnpore
(1809) ; set out to return to England on account of his
broken health in 1811, but remaineil more than a year in
Persia, laboring for his faith. D. at Tokat. Asia Minor, Oct.
16, 1812, among strangers. A monument to his memory
waserected therein 1856. Martyn translated the New Tes-
tament and Book of Common Prayer into Hindustani, the
New Testament and Psalms into Persian, and the New Tes-
tiiment into Arabic, lie was author of Controversial Tracts
(Cambridge, 1824); Sermons (London, 1822); Journals and
Letters (1837, 2 vols.) ; Five Sermons (1862). See Memoir
by Kcv. John Sargent (1819), often reprinted, and Life by
George .Smith (1892).
Martyr [O. Eng., from Lat. mar'tyr-= Gr. i^dprvp, /idprvs,
martyr, liter., witness] : one who dies for his belief. In our
New Testament the (ireek word is generally rendere<i by its
English translation, witness, " martyr " occurring but in three
places — Acts xxii. 20; Kev. ii. 13; xvii. 6. The number of
martyrs during the first three centuries hiis been variously
estimated. 11. Dodwell (the elder), in his Dissertat tones Cy-
prinnico', declares it to have been inconsiilcrable ; and this
opinion is shared by (iililmn (Decline and Fall, ch. xvi.). who
cites Origen as his authority. Monkish enthusiasts, on the
other hand, exaggerated both the strength of the "noble
armv of martyrs " and the sulTerings of those who composed
it. The truth lies between these extremes. If these martyrs
died unljaptized their death was reganled as a nobler bap-
tism, atul they were believed to enter paradise at oneo (Matt.
T. 10, 12 ; X. 3!i). Each anniversary of a nuirtyr's death, called
natales, or nntalitia (birthdays), because on it he was born
to eternal life, was eommeinorated at his grave, and by de-
grees it became usual to build over such honored tombs
churches called marlyrii, or mrinon<r, each named after
the .saint buried beneath it. There his festival was kept
yearly, his "acts" were read, prayers were olTered. the
Eucharist was celebrated, and agajiie. or love-feasts, were
held. The patiently borne sulleringsof martyrs nuule nuinv
converts. '1 heir blood, truly declared Terlullian, " wasseed ''
— Semen est sanguis I'liristianornm. (.1/jo/.. c. 50.1 Ora-
tions were spoken in their honor, and (uiems were written
to celebrate them. As the days of nuirtyrdom were left
further behind the martyrs received higher honor. Heathen
converts adored them as they ha<l adored the heroes of
paganism. Their renuiins were disinterred and laid under
the altars of churches. Every relic of theirs became a
sacred treasure. Their intercession was deemed all-power-
ful with God. Martyrs formerly unheard of announced
themselves in visions aiul told the place of their graves.
All religions and forms of religion have had their mar-
tyrs. Jews have been scorned, oppressed, and nuirdered for
holding fast to their ancient belief; Mohammedans have
died calmly for their prophet ; Buddhist missionaries have
fallen victims to their zeal ; Konuin Catholics have burned
Protestants, who, when their day of power came, retaliated.
The word martyr is often apj)lied to those who lose life or
wealth in scientific research. It is used to denote innocent
sutTerers from almost any cause, and has also been atlixed to
the mimes of kings who underwent the last penalty for iins-
government. See Kuinart, Arta Martyruin (I'aris, 1682), ami
the great Bollandist Acta Sanctorum ; for Protestant mar-
tyrs, see l''oxv,Book of Martyrs. He vised by S. M. Jackson.
Martyr, Petek: See Anghiera, Pietro Martire, de;
also \ermi(;i,i, Pietro Martire.
Martyrol'ugy [from Lat. martyrolo'gium = Gr. fiaprvpo-
>i.6yioy. liter., register of martyrs; fiaprvs. martyr + \(ytiy,
reckon, count, tell] : a term which, used in a narrow sense,
denotes the list of martyrs who have snilered for the Chris-
tian faith, arranged in chronological order. Usually, however,
it signifies one of the official liturgical books of the Homan
Catholic Church, and as such contains not only the names
of martyrs, but many saints likewise. We know from the
Epistle of the Church of Smyrmi (Ui the death of St. Poly-
carp, the letters of St. Cyiu'ian. the Lilier Ponliticalis, and
other sources, that the early Church ke]it accurate lists of
those who died for Christ, and celebrated yearly feasts in
their honor. During the pei-secntion of Diocletian the Acts
of the Jlartyrs were in great measure destroyed, partly by
the pagans, partly by the acts of the Christians who gave
them up to save the copies of the Scrijitures especially
sought for. In the following period of peace the cnurches
sought to restore their ancient lists, but not always with
success. They de|H'nded on the remnants of their archives,
personal recollections, and local traditions. The decline
of the GriTco-Koinanculture. the invasions of the barbarians,
the absence of a trained critical sense, ma<lethe task a diffi-
cult one, and in the course of time much that was legend-
ary or untrustworthy was accepted as truth. This, how-
ever, is dilTerent from a jiroccss of wholesale fabrication of
acts, etc., of which there is no trace in Church history.
The most reliable accounts of the iire-Coustantinian mar-
tyrdoms are to be found in the small volume of Kuinart
Sicta Sincera Martyrum (Paris. 169t)). Eater nuirtyrdoms
are most easily found in the Acta Sanctorum of the BoUand-
ists. The oldest extant Oriental martyrology is fouiul in
the well-known Nilrian nnuuiseripts ]iublished by Wright
in The Journal of Sacrid Literature (186.5-66). ami belongs
to the year A. I). 412. The oldest Western m;irtyrology is the
so-called Martyrology of St. Jerome, a compilation of the lat-
ter half of the'fifth'century out of the great collection (now
lost) of Eusebiiis, and Homan and African Church calendars.
In its present form, it bears traces of adajitation to the Gal-
lic ecclesiastical life of the .sixth century. In the eighth and
ninth centuries several other martyrologies made their ap-
pearance, ba.sed sub.stantially on the preceding. In 1580
Banuiius revised the Homan nuirtyrology liy order of tireg-
orv Xlll., and enriched it with valuable notes. I'nder Bene-
dict XIV. (1740-58) this edition was reissued with a learned
preface. See ile Siuciit, Jntrortuctio generalis ad hisloriam
ecclesiaslicam critice tractandam (1876). John J. Keane.
Marvcll. Andrew: poet; b. at Wuieslead. Yorkshire,
Engliiiel. .Mar. 2, 1621 ; was educated at Cambridge and on
the Continent ; became the friend ami lussistant of Milton
in the Latin secretaryshi|i. He was for many years nu'mber
for Hull in the House of t'oniinons; was the constant friend
of liberty both under the Commonwealth and after ihc Hcs-
MAUWAR
MAUV
583
toration ; from his prohity wus called the "British Aristi-
dcs"; ivfus«'il to In.' iMcived liy thi' brilies uf Chiirlfs Il.orthe
pcrseciitiDiis of royulists, who frequoiitly tliruulciii'd liis life,
llis (Militiciil siitirt's, ullhouKh often vclieiiuiit and course,
are full of noble and generous tliou^lits, anil iniicli of Ills ven>e
is very sweet and l>eautifiil. Among his best-known |i<ienis
are the Suntj of l/ie KnyliKh Exiles in Beriniidu and the
Jlardlian Ode on Cromwell's Ueltirn from Ireland. I>. in
London, Aiifj- !'■ IS**^- Kevised by H. A. litCKs.
Marwar. or ilodlipiir: a feudatory state f>f Kajputnna,
British Inilia. Il occupies the tjiisin of the river Luni, be-
tween hits. -iA ;j."i and 27' 10 N., ami Ions. 70 H' and 75'
2:) K. Area, ^7.44") s(i. miles. I'op. (IHUl) 2,.W1,727. Capi-
tal, Jodhpur. Nearly all the population is in the S. K. of
the state, through which runs the Uujputanu Kailwav. The
Luni an<l it^ tributaries rise in the Aravalli Mountains, and
are dry in some st'asoiis. To the westward of the Luni the
country is a sandy desert. The rulin;; people are liahtor
Hajputs, the subject classes mostly .Jats. Ainoiif; the latter
are the .Marwari traders, the Jews and Armenians of the
Ka.st. well known through all Hindustan. Nearly all are
Hindus, 10 per cent. .lains, and 4 per cent. Jlohiiinniedaiis.
The chief industry is the rearing of cattle and sheep. The
cattle of Marwar are renowned throughout India, and the
camels of I'ali (in the northern [larl of the slate) are es-
teemed for their agility and endurance. The state pays a
tribute to the British. The reigning dynasty dates from
11U4, the direct line was extinguished in 1843, but a ma-
harajah was selected from a collateral line, that of the
rajahs of Ahmednagur in Uuzcrat. M. W. IIakrinutox.
Marx. K.kRL : founder of mo<lern German socialism ; b.
of .Jewish parents at Treves in the Rhine I'rovince, May 5,
iai8; studied at Honn and Berlin, and became in 1842 edi-
tor of the Hheinische Zeihtnij, a radical journal piililished
in Cologne, which was suppressed in 184;j for its attacks on
the Prussian (iovernment. Having settled in Paris, he con-
tinued his attacks on Prussia in a socialistic sheet called the
Vorirdrts; was expelled from Kraiice in 184.5, and stayed
for a time in Brussels, where he founded a German work-
ingroon's association, a type of the future German democ-
rucy, and issued in connection with his friend Kngels his
famous Manifesto to the laboring cliLsses of all civilized na-
tions, setting forth the creed of the communists. Driven
in turn from Helgiiim, he returned in 184S to Cologne and
there published the Sene Hheinische Zeitung, but his revo-
lutionary zeal brought down upon him the wrath of the
Gover,iinent, and he was obliged to leave Germany. He
withdrew in 18.>0 to London, which thenceforth remained
his headc]uurters. His activity both as a writer and ils an
^ agitator was now almost incessant. In 18o!> appeared his
Xur h'rilik der I'ulitischen Okonomie, containing the prin-
ciples afterward elaborated in his masterpiece Das Knpital
(I8«7: 3d ed. 188:3 and ia8.">). In 18(i4 at a meeting of
workingmen in London he laid the foundation of the Ixtek-
NATioN.vL (7. I'.), which held its first regular congress two
years later and continued under his direction till 1872.
buring the sixties his energies were also devoted to the for-
mation of a democratic partv in Germany in ojiposition to
the followers of LassjiUe, and in 18C9 this object wius at-
tained largely through the efforts of Liebknecht and others
of his disciples, who formed the Social I)emn<'ratic Labor
party. Marx died in London, Mar. II, 18.8;3. His innuencc
on the workingmen of all civilized countries can scarcely
bo estimated. His theories, in spite of the often olisciire
language in which they were expresse<i, constantly apiM-ar
in one form or another in the writings of nuKlern socialists.
The salient features of his sficial philosophy are tlii' theory
of surplus value and the lielief in the inevitable ilownfall
of capitalism, i. e. the possession of the instniments of hilKir
by the capitalist class. He recognizes no other s<iurce of
the different exchange values of commodities than the dif-
ferent amounts of lulmr that enter into their prinluction.
According to his view the gain of the capitalists |)roceeds
from the exploitation of the lal)orers, whose remunera-
tion is limited by the "iron law of wages," while the sur-
plus value which their labor hiLs created gi>es in the form of
profits to their employers. "Capital," he says, " is dead la-
bor, which, vampire-like, becomes animate only by suck-
ing living labor, and the more labor it sucks the more it
lives." He considers that the pres«'nt system of distribu-
tion will inevitably give place to one in which caiillal will
bo held in common for the good of all, and in the mean-
while ho favors agitation as a means of hastening that re-
sult. Sec .Tllger, Der modeme Sorialiirmua (1873); Rae,
Contemporary Socialism (1884); anil l)uw.son, (remtan So-
cialism (ItOiH). The tirst Volume of iJas Kapital, cimlaiu-
ing all the e.ss«-ntial |Kiiiiis of his theory, ha.s U'eii translated
into Knglish (I.Mindoii, 1887). K. M. Colbv.
Mary [from Lat. Maria = Or. Mapla. Mofiiifi, from Heb.
J/irium, liter, rebellion. See Mihiam |, The UlcsM-d Vir-
gin: the mother of Christ. Concerning the birth and pa-
rentage of Mary the Gos[>elstcll us nothing; as to her >hnre
in the Incarnation, they are explicit, dwelling es|iecially
upon the events that immediately preceiled the birth of
Clirist and upon certain circumstances of his childhcxxl.
The years at Nazareth, after the lindiiig of Jesus in the tem-
ple, are summed up in the words, " He was suliject to them,"
I. e. to Mary and Joseph. During the public life of Christ
his mother ap|>ears but rarely. At the foot of the cross
the "beloved ilisciple" takes her unto his own [home], and
again on the ilay of Pente<'ost she is jiresenl in the "upper
chamber." After that the sacred reconl in regard to her is
silent.
It is natural, however, to supi>ose that the first followers
of Christ knew more of Mary than is narrated in the Gos-
pels: and it is therefore ea.sy to understand how trailitions
concerning her originated either from actual information
or from surmises based on her singular prerogatives. To
such sources may be traced the belief that she was the
daughter of Joachim and Anna ; that her early years were
spent in the service of the temple; that after deatli her body
wa.s assumed, together with her soul, into heaven. Kxag-
gerated attempts to siijiplement the (ios|iel account, such as
the I'rotivanqeliiim dacolii Minoris and the Kvanyelium
yatiritatis Maria', were condemned by ecclesiastical author-
ity. And while the teachings of the early Fathers concerning
Mary have weight as showing the traditional belief of the
Church, the numerous legends woven about her in subse-
quent ages are the outcome, not the cause, of the devotion
paid her by Roman Catholics.
Its fundamental reason is the fact that Mary is the mother
of the God-man. Since the Creator lias so exalted her, she
deserves from creatures the highest degree of veneration
that is not divine worship. This veneration is called by
theologians lii/}>erdiilia, to distingui>h it from the dulia or
veneration of the siiints, and from the lalria which can be
offered to tiod alone. Catholics do not worship or adore
Mary, though they honor her in a manner lictitting her
uniipie dignity. Nor can they conceive that the reverence
shown to his mother should be offensive to Christ or detract
from his glory ; also they pray to Mary, not lus though she
were the source of grace, but because tliey believe thai her
firayers in behalf of men will avail more in pro|K)rtion, as
lef merit is greater than that of any other mere creature.
Finally, Mary is proposetl as a modeb for imitation, inasmuch
as she is the ideal of womanhood, in whoso |iorson "woman
rose into a new sphere ami liocame the object of a reveren-
tial homage of which antiipiity had no conception."
That Mary was |pcculiarly venerated by the earliest Chris-
tians is evident from the frescoesand inscriptions of the Ro-
man catacombs. A iHiwerful im|>etus wa-s given to her cult
by the Council of Kphesiis (431). in which Nestorius was
conilemned and the term 9«<»T^itof,God-lK'aring. was formally
applied to Mary. The council had been hcM in a chuivh
dedicated to her, and in the next two centuries churches
were built in her honor in various cities Ixith of the Vlw^t
and of the West. As the Liturgy ilevelo|ied, the festivals of
.Mary iH-canie more numerous, and popular devotion as-
sumed a variety of forms according to the circumstances of
time and place. Christian art drew some of its U-st in-
spirations from the cult of the " .Madonna," and heliied in
turn to strengthen the ilevotion. Mysticism and theological
S|>eculation united to develop the iilcas iiupliid in Mary's
prerogatives, and thus to form a systematic " .Marii'li>gy."
The Church has fostcre«l this outgrowth, and left il tree
scope on the condition that it shouM always lie in harmony
with reveale<l truth and in keeping with .Mary's dignity. It
is hanily ne<-ess«ry to add that expn-ssions of enthusiastic
devotion, in writing or in practice, ar. ■ ' ' ' ■ ' -■ I by
the rigoroii" criteria which an- pro|Hrlv 'u
LlTKRATiRK. — Northcote, Mary 111/' , ;.don,
188.")) : Liell, Darslrllungrn drr nltfrsrlig.itrn Junt/frnu in
dm Kalakomben (Fn-iliiirg, 1887): Li'viiis, The Jilmsed
Virgin in the Fallifm of the First Six Centuries (Umdon,
18!l.'"i); 'Sewman's Derel'opmrHl. J. J. Keaxk.
Mary, Quke.n- or Scots: Sec Mary Stuabt.
5S4
MAUY 1.
MAUVLAND
Mary I.: Queen of England: h. at Oreenwioh Palnee,
Fell, ly, lolG; a iliiughter v( Henry Vlll. by his lirst wife,
Catliariiie of Aragou: educated entirely in Spanijli fashion
Kouian Cjitholie. In 1522 she was betrothed to tlie Kni-
peror Charles V., but after the divorce of Henry \1U. from
Queen Catharine the emperor broke the contract, and other
marriage negotiations with Francis I. and his second son,
the Duke of Orleans, failed. Meanwhile her strong adhesion
to her mother's cause alienated her falher's affection. Later
she came naturally to be considered the head of the Uoinan
Catholic party, which made her suspected in the king's eyes,
and after the" birth of Klizabcth her position became really
perilous. James V. of Scotland asked her in marriage, but
the proposition was refused on account of the consequences
which such a union might have for the children of Anne
Boleyn. She was even compelled to sign articles acknowl-
edging that her mother's marriage was illegal and her own
birth "illegitimate, which involved a renunciation of her
right to the succession. In the hust years of the reign of
Henry VIII. her position became better, however; she lived
on a good footing with Catharine I'arr, and her right to the
succession was restored to her. During the reign of her
half-brother, Edward VI., she lived in retirement and took
no part in politics: the different suitors to her hand were
not accepted. On the death of Edward VI. (.luly 6. 1553),
she succeeded to the throne after a short struggle with the
party supporting the claims of Lady Jane Grey : and a re-
action immediately took place in the government, headed
by Gardiner, who was made lord chancellor Aug. 23, 1553,
and by Bonner. It was not until after her marriage with
Philip II. of Spain, which took place July 25, 1554, that
those persecutions against the Protestants began which have
made her name so odious in the history of England. She
e.xperienced great disappointments in her marriage from the
coldness of her husband and from her childlessness; a mis-
take she made on the occasion of an attack of dropsy even
subjected her to great mortifications. Her character, by na-
ture cheerless,sullen, and singularly mixed, seemed to change
for the worse under these influences, and she yielded willing-
ly to the counsels of Philip and Gardiner. On Nov. 30,
1554, Cardinal Pole declared England and Rome recon-
ciled, and on Feb. 4, 1555, John Rogers was Ijurned at the
stake. Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley shared the same fate,
and were followed by 200 or 300 more, and the ruin of the
country seemed impending, when inthesummer of 1.558 the
queen was attacked by an intermittent fever, of which she
died at St. James's Palace, Nov. 17, 1558. Tennyson calls
her " unhappiest of queens and wives and women."
Mary II.: Queen of Great Britain; b. Apr. 30, 1662;
daughter of James II. by Anne Hyde; was educated in the
Protestant faith, and on Nov. 4. 1677, married her cousin,
the Prince of Orange (King William III.), with whom she
was declared joint sovereign in 1689. She died of smallpox
Dec. 28, 1694. For details of the reign, see William III.
Maryboroiigrli : an important port of Queensland, Aus-
tralia; 144 miles N. of Brisbane, on the Mary river at its
entrance into Ilervey Bay ; lat. 25° 35' S. (see map of Aus-
tralia, ref. 5-J). It is the terminus of the railway to
Gympie, an excellent and large port, the receiving-point for
the agricultural districts of Wide Bay and Burnett, and for
the gold, copper, and coal of the districts of Gympie ami
Derrv. It has several refineries, distilleries, sawmills, and
iron-foundries. Pop. (1891) 8,700. M. W. H.
Maryland : one of the U. S. of North America (South
Atlantic group): the first of the thirteen original States
that ratified the F'ederal Constitution.
Location and Area. — It lies between 37° 53' and 39° 44'
N. lat., and 75" 2' and 79' 33' W. lim. ; is hounded on the N.
by Pennsylvania, on the E. by Delaware and the Atlantic
Ocean, on the .S. and S. W. by Virginia, and on the W. by
West Virginia. Its gross area is 12,210 scj. miles, of which
9,860 are land surface. Chesapeake Bay reaches to within a
few miles of its northern boumlary. dividing the State into
what are known as the Eastern and Western .Shores.
Topography. — The three great topogra[)hical areas into
which the U. S. E. of the Mississippi is diviiled — the Coastal
Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, and the Appalachian Region —
are all represented in Maryland. To tlie Coastal Plain be-
longs that part of the State which lies to the E. of a line
passing through Baltimore and Washington. It includes
the whole Eastern Shore and part of the Western, and
comprises about half tho land area of the State. E. of the
bay this region is very flat, but on the W. it is more rolling.
Tlie Piedmont Plateau lies to the W. of the Coastal Plain,
and extends to the Catoctin Mountains. It contains about
2,500 sq. miles, and is broken into series of undulating
Seal of Maryland.
hills, increasing in height westward. The Appalachian Re-
gion begins at the Catoctin Mountains, and extends to tho
western boundary of the .State, having an area of over 2,000
sq. miles. It may be divided into three districts — the east-
ern (Blue Ridge and great valley), the central (Appalachian
Mountains), and the western (Alleghany Mountains). The.se
mountains all lie in parallel ranges, with deep valleys be-
tween, and the height rises in places to over 3,000 feet.
Maryland has no good harbor on the Atlantic coast, but the
coasi-liiie of Chesapeake Bay is deeply indented with larger
and smaller estuaries and coves, giving a multitude of har-
bors suitable for vessels of light draught, and affording, with
the rivers running into these, unusual facilities for water
transportation. Of the numerous islands in the bay Kent
island is the largest. Along the ocean frontier runs a reef
of sand, inclosing and sheltering .Synepuxent and Chinco-
teague Bays, and giving inland navigation along the coast.
The rivers of Maryland are, on the Western Shore, the Po-
tomac, Patuxent, Patajisco, Gunpowder, and Susquehanna;
and on the Eastern, the Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Choptank,
Nanticoke, Wicomico, and Pocomoke, besides a number of
estuaries bearing the names of rivers. These all empty into
Chesapeake Bay. To the W. of the central watershed the
Monocacy, Antietam, and Youghioghcny flow into the Poto-
mac. The western part of the .State is traversed in a north-
cast and southwest direction liy the Catoctin, Blue Ridge,
Appalachian, and Alleghany Mountains.
Ocolbgij. — Maryland, notwithstanding her small area,
contains a remarkably complete sequence of all the geolog-
ical formations, not merely of the great eras, but of the sub-
ordinate periods. In Western Maryland are found the
Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous series; in the Pied-
mont Plateau, granite, iiiarble. gneiss, basalt, and other
igneous and metamorphosed rocks; and in the Coastal
Plain, the sands, clays, and gravels of more recent epochs.
The mineral producis are too numerous to specify, but of
those possessing industrial value she has iron, copper, an-
timony. lea<l, zinc, gold, and chrome ; coal ; buiUliiig and
decorative stones in great variety : granite, sandstone, mar-
ble, and limestone: brick, potter's, and porcelain clays; sand,
soapstone, and hydraulic cement. The semi-bituminous coal
of the Cumberland basin is noted for its steam-generating
qualities, and is the basis of one of tho most important in-
dustries in the State, the total output in 1892 being 3,063,909
tons. The iron ores are chiefly hematite and magnetite.
Soil and Productions. — In tlie earlier history of the State
tobacco, wheat, and maize were almost the sole crops. Of
late years agricultural c(mditions have been much modified,
ami while these still remain staple producis, they no longer
hold an exclusive position. The emancipati(m of the slaves,
leading to the subdivision of large estates, tho growth of
cities, the extension of steam transportation, and other
causes have made a thorough cultivation of smaller areas
the most profitable kind of farming, and [larticularly fa-
vored the increa.se of market-gardening anil truck-farming,
to which the lighter soils are especially ada|)led. Western
Maryland has line grass and wheal lands, and has developed
an important industry in its extensive peach- orchards
I
I
(
MARYLAND
585
Northern Central Miirylnnd has soils well suited to grass,
wheat, and maize. Dairy-farininf; is an iniporlaiit industry,
and niucli live slock is raised. Southern Murvland has a
soil for the most part too lijjht for t;riu>s and wheat, but
excellent fur early fruits and vefjelahles ; and Ihis industry
is rapidly e.^lendlri;;. Tobacco, thouj^h le.ss cultivated than
formerly, remains a staple crop in this section. The East-
ern Shore has good corn and wheat soils, and others suited
to fruits and vegetables, of which peaches and tomatoes are
the most important.
The following summary from the census reports of 1880
and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations in the State:
FARMS, ETG
1880.
18B0.
PvaM.
Total number of farms
Total acreage of farms
40,517
5,119,8.11
tieS,MH,»41
40.798
4.»2.->llJ0
(175,098,650
•0 7
+ 8 8
•5-8
• Increase. t Decrease.
The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value
of the principal crops in the calendar year 1893 :
Corn
Wheat
Oats
Rye
Buckwheat.
Tobacco
Potatoes
Hay
Totals
ArrMf*.
823.867
497.903
91.458
29.7Sa
7.344
15.233
25.4:21
400,587
1.897,325
YbM.
15.078.32t bush.
6,721.891 ■■
1,938.910 ••
389.4S9 '•
H8.0.'>9 •'
10.343.207 lb.
l,24.'j.l!-,'9 bush.
422,Kil' tons
6,
1^,
,a!u.4ir
,IUK.4H'.
6T8.019
198.639
60.262
786,084
817.028
,025.328
,328.862
On Jan. 1, 1894, the farm animals comprised 136.3.59
horses, valued at $8,011,027: 13.-M3 mules, value |l,208,Ol;3 :
147..Vi6 milch cows, value J;:i.480.0:!!) ; 112.644 oxen and other
cattle, value $3,4.")4,883 ; 145,446 sheep, value $447,843 : and
328,732 swine, value 1:2.335,475 : total value. $18,573,280.
Climate. — The climate is mild, the chief differences being
due to elevation. No part of the Stale is without some
snowfall in the winter. The average temperatures of the
four climatic divisions of the State are :
MEAN TEMPERATURE OP SEASONS.
SEASONS.
EuUni
UiryUsil.
Soulbtrn
MaoUiul.
Nonli«n>
C<i>u>l
Mujiud.
W«Uni
lUryluKL
Spring
51 •7°
74 5
65-8
38 I
545
Klio
755
57 2
36-9
»-s
60 8°
735
54 3
83 1
580
49-40
72 7
Autumn
62'7
Winter
sr7
Year
520
January
Fi'bruary . . ,
March
April
May
June
July
AuKU8t
September.
October
November..
December . .
EMUrn
SMibm
NorlbMS
UujUod.
tUiyUad.
Mujriud.
W8"
35S«
807''
38 1
87-4
83-9
40-5
42 8
882
626
M-4
60-9
62 1
C8'9
635
72 8
741
728
758
777
re7
748
75-7
724
675
686
658
66 5
666
U 2
653
46-5
428
87-8
376
340
Muriui.
30-5°
316
37-2
49'8
«0 7
70 3
73-8
74-2
65-3
61-4
41-2
330
The climate, however, i^ not quite so equable as these fig-
ures indicate. In the winter "cold waves" often .<!cnd the
temperature (in the central and western regions) down to
10°, or even 0 , for a few hours, ami in summer it sometimes
rises to 95' or over in the warmest part of the day. The
monthly means of rainfall arc:
Murkad.
January
February...
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.,
Octolier
November..
December . .
KHUra
SovtlMra
NMbm
c™u.l
Muylud.
MvyUi>d.
Marjrlud.
851
8 20
8-90
8 22
3 51
a 10
406
4 20
4-89
404
411
802
4-29
4 40
406
3 18
870
8 48
4 78
442
4 45
8-78
8 81
898
8 .'»
8-80
4 03
8(M
2 86
S 74
270
411
8 25
267
260
8 18
301
245
S'C2
8-23
4-08
4 58
2-77
8 48
8 46
2 »
2-82
2 85
Diviniong. — For administrative purpo.'ses, Maryland is di-
vided into twenty-three counties, as follows :
COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS. WITH POPULATION.
COUNTIES.
Allegany
Anne Arundel ..
Baltimore city..
Baltimore Co. . .
t'ttlvert
Caroline . .
Carroll
Cecil
t'liarles
DorebeKter
Frederick
(tnrrett
Harford
Howard
Kent
Montgomery
Prince tieorge. .
Oueen Anne
St. Mary
Somerset
Tollmt
Washington . . . .
Wicomico
Worcester
Totals .
•R.r.
Pop.
Pop.
IWO.
luo.
IB
38.012
41.571
8-F
28.526
34.IIU4
2-F
3.32,818
4»4.4:«
I-F
83.336
72.1109
4-F
10.5.38
U.80)
3-«
13.760
13.9(13
I-E
30.'.l»2
32.378
1-U
27 1(18
2.'..W1
4-E
18.MH
15.101
4-F
23.110
24.843
2-D
50.482
4U.5I2
1-A
12.175
14,213
I-F
28.(M2
2K.!i;)3
2-E
Ib.l40
18.289
2-0
17.005
17,471
2-D
24.758
27.185
.3-E
26.451
26,080
2-0
19.2.57
18.401
4-E
16.a^
15,819
5-(i
21.688
24,1.'>5
•VQ
19.005
1»,73«
1-C
88.561
Sfl.TK.'
4-0
18.018
l!l,!l.)l)
5-H
19.539
19,747
984.943
1.042.890
OOUNTT TOWNS.
Cumberland
Aimapolig
Baltimore
TnWKOn
I*r. Fre<l>Tlektown
Demon
Wtiitminster
KIkion
|ji I'ltttii
Camlirtilge
Fr»*<lfrlck
Oakland
Bel Air
Ellicott City
Chestertown
Rockville
Up, Marllx>rougb.
Centrevllle
I,,eonardton-n
Princess Anne
F!a,ston
flogeratown .. .,
Salisburv
Snow Hill
i2,Ta
7,«04
484.480
4S0
P^
841
2,908
1,818
lai
4.l«
8,I«S
l.04«
1,416
1.488
2.681
IMS
48B
1.809
521
865
2,989
10.118
2,906
1,488
• Reference for location of counties, see mop of Maryland.
Principal Ciliex anil Towns, wilh Population for 1890. —
Baltimore. 434,4:5!): Cumberland, 12.729; Hagerstown, 10,-
118: Frederick. 8,193 ; Annapolis, 7,604 ; Cambridge, 4.192 ;
Frostburg, 3,804; Havre dc Grace, 3.244; Easton, 2.9.39;
Salisbury, 2.905; Westminster, 2,903; Chestertown, 2,632;
and Sparrow Point. 2..507.
Population and Pares.— In 1790,319,728: 1880.934,943;
1890. 1,042,390 (natives, 948,0!»4 ; foreign, 94.296; males.
51.5,691; females, .526.699 ; whites. 826.493 ; colored. 21.5.-
657. of whom 189 were Chinese, 7 Jaiiancse, and 44 civilized
Indians).
Fisheries. — One of the most important industries of Mary-
land is the oyster-fishery. The oysters of Chesapeake Bay
arc famed for their size and excellence, and the bwls pro-
ducing them aggregate over 200 sq. miles. During the sea-
son about 7.000 small vessels are employed in "drcilging,"
•' scraping," and " tonging" the oysters from the Ix'ds, the
take being partly sent to the markets for iniinediate con-
sumption, but the greater part being sealed up in air-light
cans for export. The catch of 1891 was about lO.OOO.OOO bush-
els, worth, at the waicr-side, over $5,000.000 ; and 32.000 per-
sons (beside the can-makers) are employed in taking and
packing the oysters. A small fleet of arme<l boats, called
the oyster navy, belonging to the .State, |)olices the beds
to enforce the laws and prevent illegal fishing. The present
management of the beils is wasteful and injuriou.s. The
supply of shad was ranidly falling off until the U. S. F'ish
Commission intrtHlucea a scientific system of artificial prop-
agation in 1880, when the take rose in eight years from
4.0(K),0(X) to 8,000,0(X). The menhaden, though nia us.-d for
food, has a considerable commercial value, yielding in oil
and fertilizing materials a product of over $;i00.(HK) |icr an-
num. The bay mackerel, crabs, wild ducks, and terrapin
yield delicacies to (he market, and give employmeut to a
large number of persons.
t'inanre. — The funded debt of the .State on Nov. 1, 1893,
was $8.684.9M6; sinking funds aggregatwl $6,025,414; leav-
ing net debt $2,659,572. The receipts of the year ending
Sept. 30. 1893. were $3,115,660; expenditures, $2,446.6119;
as,-it'ts, ciush in treasury $.569,051, due from accounting oHi-
ccrs and incorporated institutions $677,117. The ass»'ssed
valuation for 18!)3 was $524,056,241, and the State tax-rate
was $1.77i i>or $1,000.
Bankiny. — On Dec. 19. 1893. there were 81 national bank^
with combineil capital of $19.H;il.!l60. individual de|K>sit5 of
$39,291,320, and surolus and profits of $9.47^620. The
State banks on June 30. lS!i;!, nunilx-red 6. snd hail capital
of $1.12M.450. ifidiviiliial deixisits of $2.(>S<).620. and surplus
and nrolits of $336..526. On the liLst ilale theri> wire 26 sav-
ings-banks, with I4M.S62 de(K>silors. $44.5<i!t.S57 in individ-
ual deposits, and $2.(K>1.806 in surplus and pnifit.s. The
combined institutions showed 113 banks, $.'<5,!M 1.797 in in-
dividual de|K>sits, and $11.87t5.9."i2 in surplus and profits.
Meant of Communiciil ion. — The Baltinioro and Ohio Kail-
road, the first opened in the U. S., extends N. E. to Philadel-
586
iMAKYLAND
phia and New York iiml VV. to Chicntro anil St. Louis, niul Im.s
a braiicli to \Viu5liiiij;toii. Its divisions an-: Main sti'iii ami
braiK-lios, TTCiiiiks: riiihuli-lnliia division. 124 iiiilus; Titls-
l)urij division. 1.'.'44 inilos; '1 rans-Ohio division, 7r>r) inik'S.
The NortliiTM IVntral toniiocts Haltiinore with the j;ioat
Pennsylvania svsteni. It owns 145 miles of railway and lea.-^.'S
227. Tlie Halliniore and Potomac operates !)7 miles, and
the" Philadelphia, Wilmiiifiton and Haltimore has a main
line of !K) miles, anil operates o;t4 in addition. The West-
ern Marvland I'.IO miles main line and llo leased) traverses
the State in a westerly direction, and opens communication
with Sontherji Pennsylvania. The Kultimore and Lehigh
(84 miles) extends to York, Pa. The Eastern Shore is
opened up by a number of local railways connecting with the
piMiinsula stem of the Pennsylvania system. The Chesa-
peake and Ohio Canal extends from Georgetown, D. C. to
Cumberland. Md., and the Chesapeake and Delaware gives
direct water communication with Philadelphia. A great
part of the transportation of the State is effected by lines of
steamers ami sailing vessels running between Baltimore and
the towns and landings on the bay. About twenty, regular
lines of seagoing steamers ply between Baltimore and for-
eign ports, and there are a number of ooa.stwise lines.
(Vii/rc/K-.s-.— The L'. S. census of 18'J0 gives the following
statistics of the principal religious bodies:
DENOMI.N'ATIONS.
Roman Catliulie
Metlltxllst Kpiscopal
Protestant Kpiscopal
LnthtTun, ticncrul Synod
Mfthoilist l'ri>ti'Starit
African MrtlnMlisi Kpiscopal
Ki'f'>rnieii Clmrcli in the IJ. S
JletlJ'jilist Kpisc-'pal Soutli
Pr.'Sl) C'liuivh in tin- U. S. ot A.. .
Baptist < 'lunch South
Baptist. Colored
United Brethren
Oerni. Evanii. Synod of N. A
Lutheran, Synodleal Conference.
Jews, tteforined
Lutlieran. Independent Cong
Brethren, Conservative
Organiu-
18U
925
lliG
ilO
1T4
98
or
142
77
47
3H
57
12
14
9
7
29
Chiirche*
183
919
244
96
173
93
65
141
94
48
94
,53
12
IS
9
7
41
137,429
8-2.()ti9
a;i,938
17,288
13.283
12,3.59
10.741
10,004
10,.598
8.017
7.750
4,7,36
4,405
3,208
2,800
2,535
2,446
Valua of
church
property.
$2,449,440
.3,7Tl,;i7
2,381,400
8I3,0.-)0
054,020
200,370
481,225
301. 990
1,488,124
051,050
1.50.475
113,789
22;).500
12!1,975
223.500
Oli.OOfl
00,200
The large number of Roman Catholics is to a great e.xtcnt
due to the fact that the colony was founded by a Uouian
Catholic, and religious toleration proclaimed at a time when
adherents of that faith were persecuted in Knglaiid. The
Archbishop of Baltimore is the primate of the Church in
the V. S.
Schools. — Francis Nicholson, royal governor of the prov-
ince 10i)4-'J8. was the father of the public-school system of
Maryland. Under his inlliience the Assembly foumled King
William .School at the capital, and provided revenue for its
support. This school afterward became St. John's College,
which still flourishes. Under the present law the public
schools of each county are controlled by local school board.s,
and those of Baltimore by comiiiissioners, one from each
ward. The schools are sujiported by State and local taxa-
tion. In 18!tl there were in the counties 2.ll8!t public
schools, with 12;!,4riG enrolled pupils, and in Baltimore 156
day and 8 night schools, attcndeil by 55,819 [lupils. The
Slate publie-.scliool tax for 18!)2 was 10^ cents, and that of
Baltimore DO cents on the ^100. Of other educational in-
stitutions, the most important arc .Toiixs Hopkins Univfr-
SITY iq. v.), cnilowi'd with aliout lji:i,.500.0nf), opened in 187G;
the University of Maryland {faciillies of medicine and law),
chartered in 1N07; the Pi>al)oily Institute, eiiiloweil by
George Peabody, of Lon<lon, which has a conservatory of
music, a great library, anil art galleries; the Baltimore City
College and Polytechnic Institute (both connected with the
public-school system); St. .John's College, Annapolis, and
the Woman's College of Baltimore. There are also colleges
of medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry, and theological semi-
naries in the city and Stale.
ChariliMe, fieformalory. and Penal Inntilitliona. — The
charitable associations and institutions are numerous, and
minister to every form of iniligence and distress. Of the
hosi)itals, the finest is that endowed by Johns Ilojikins.
The prison system consists of a State peniteiiliary in Haiti-
more, jails in the several counties and in Baltimore, a house
of correction for minor offenses, and six icforinalories for
juvenile delini|uents. Besidc's tl Ilicial supervision of
these institutions, a private organization, the Piisoner.s' Aid
Association, is recognized by law, and has powers of visita-
tion. Its exertions arc directetl to the reformation of pris-
oners, relieving their families, if depeniU-nt, during their in-
carceration, and lindiiigthem employment when di.-charged.
The average population of the three principal ]irisons is:
Penitentiary, t)52 ; city jail, 41*7; house of correction, 275;
the aggregate average of the county jails, 249. The Negro
population, though only a liflh of the whole, furnishes half
the occupants of the prisons.
Political Organization. — The government of the State is
vested in a (jovernor. Legislature, and judiciary. The Gov-
ernor is elected by po])ular vote for four vear,s, and appoints
all Stale, civil, and military officers, with consent of the
Senate. The Ijcgislature consists of a Senate and House of
Delegates. Kach county of the State and each of the three
legislative districts of Baltimore city (which is coextensive
with Baltimore County) elects one Senator for a term of
four years. The delegates are elcctetl by the counties and
city in proportion to population, the lowest representation
being two and the highest six. Kach district of Baltimore
has six. The delegates serve for two years, and the Legisla-
ture meets biennially at Annapolis. By a law dating from
early colonial times, no priest, clergyman, or minister is
eligible to the Legislature. The judiciary consists of a court
of appeals, circuit courts, orphans' courts, Baltimore city
courts, and justices of the peace. All the judges, except
those of the orphans' courts, are elected by popular vote for
a term of lifleeii years. Maryland is divided into six con-
gressional di>lricts,of which two are entirely and two partly
within Baltimore city. The U. S. Senators are chosen by
the Legislature, one being always taken from the Eastern
and one from the Western Shore. In politics the Demo-
cratic party is predominant, having a majority not only in
the Slate at large, but (18!)4) in each congressional district.
Ili.-itor;/.— The foundation of Maryland is primarily due
to George Calvert, first Baron of Baltimore. He had al-
ready settled a coUmy in Kewfoundland, but the rigor of
the "climate and sterility of the soil determined him to
ask of King Charles I. a grant of territory N. of the Po-
tomac, which had been within the jurisdiction of the Vir-
ginia Company before the abrogation of its charter, but no
part of which had been granted to any settlers, Calvert's
request was granted, but l>efiirc his charter had passed the
great seal he ilicil, and it was made out (l():i2) in the name
of his eldest son, Cecilius, who named the luovince Jlary-
laiid in honor of the queen. The privileges conferred by
this charter were unusual. The proprietary was invested
with all royal rights over the soil ami inhabitants, subject
only to the nominal yearly rent of two Indian arrows. He
appointed all ollicers, civil and military, made war and
peace, and writs ran in his nani(\ The colony was governed
i)y its own laws, made by the freemen or their representa-
tives, and coniirmed by the ])roprii'tary, and was entirely
independent of Parliament. The king renounced for him-
self and his successors all rights of taxation. Thus of all
the colonies Maryland was the most independent anil au-
tonomous. As Cecilius Calvert was a Koman Catholic, it
was his intention to make Maryland a refuge for those of
his own creed, Ijut not to fnund a distinctly Catholic colony.
In the next year he sent out his first colonists, consisting of
twenty gentlemen and about 2t)0 workingmen and servants,
in two vessel.s, the Ark and Dove, under the government of
his brother Leonard, assisted by two councilors. In the
instructions for their guidance Cecilius charged them to be
strictly impartial between those of different faiths, and es-
tablished religious tolcraliim as the ))olicy of the colony.
On their arrival on Mar. 25. I(');i4. at an island at the mouth
of the Potomac, the colonists celebrated ilivinc service and
planted a cross. They then bought from the Indians a tract
of land on the Potoinac, and laid out a town which they
called St. Mary's. The missionaries who had accompanied'
them began their labors among the Indians, who were uni-
formly friendly, and readily embraced Chri.-liaiiily, their
chief "asking to be baptized and married acconling to the
Christian rile, and bringing his lillle daughter to be edu-
cated at St. Mary'.s. The enemies of the new colonists
were men of their own race. William Claiborne, a Virgin-
ian, had established (without any grant of land) a trading-
post on Kent island in Chesapeake Bay ; and though Cal-
vert prfilTered friendship, he remained bitterly hostile to the
new colony. A battle was fought on Pocomokc river be-
tween a vessel of Claiborne's and two belonging to Mary-
land, in which blood was shed and Claiborne's shallop sur-
rendered. Claiborne soon after went to England, and the
establishment on the island was taken possession of by his
MAKYLAMJ
MAUY STLAKT
587
priiicipiils, a firm of Ijoiulon moreliants. The rcsiilcnts on
the isliiijil uoknc)wltMii;i(l Miiivliimrs jurisilictioii and re-
ceived tilU-.s to the land thev Were <x'oii|iyinK. The civil
troubles in Knjiiuiid prudueeJ some disturliaiicc in Mary-
land. In 1044 Kiihiinl Inj;le, professing to have letters of
Miar(|UO from the Parliament, seized St. Mary's with an
armed force which plundered the province and kept it in a
state of anarchy for about two years, when it was recov-
ered without bloodshed by Gov. Calvert.
In 1548 the proprietary .sent out a new great seal, con si st-
inj; of an escutcheon with the bearinj^s of the Calvert and
Crossland families, surmounted by a coronet .symbolic of his
palatinate authority, with a farmer ami lishernian as sup-
porters. This device is still the j^reat seal of Maryland; tho
escutcheon is iilaced on the State tla;^. anil the Calvert colors,
golil and lilacK, are the colors of the State.
In l(54".l the Toleration Act, as it was called, was passed,
which formulated in a statute what had lieen the uniform
policy of the province. It forbade the molestation or clis-
countcnancinf; of any believer in Christ on account of his
religion, or in its free exercise. A number of I'uritans. per-
secuted for their faith in Virsinia. in 1643 had asked and
rwciveil an a.sylnm in .Maryland, and had settled about the
site of the present city of .Vnnapolis. where they rapidly in-
creased in numbei-s. These new settlers were strongly in
sympathy with the Parliamentary party in Kngland. Cal-
vert s desire was to keep Maryland from being embroiled in
the troubles of the civil war, but Parliament sent out com-
niissionei-s under whose authority Gov. Stone was de|K)sed,
anil Maryland placed under control of William Fuller, one
of the Puritan immigrants. Tho Toleration Act was at once
res<-inded. Stone attempted to regain his authority by arms,
and in a battle fought at the Severn, in 16.55, was defeated ;
but the Protector, Cromwell, whose decision was invoked, re-
ferred the matter to commissioners, who restored Baltimore
to his authority. Maryland had now no serious trouble un-
til 161)0, when a party headed by one Cooile, an apostate
clergyman, by false reports of an intended ma.ssacre of the
Protestants by the Roman Catholics, succeeded in terrifying
the people to'such an extent that he and a small body of
armed adherents were able to seize the government. This
accomplished, they petitioned King William to take the
government into his own hands, which he did, sending out
a royal governor, though the charier was not abrogated;
and the province remained under royal government until
1718, when it was restored to Charlus Calvert, fifth Lord
Baltimore, a Protestant.
Little of moment wcurred in Maryland until the French
and Indian war of 1754, in which Maryland took an active
part, and her western counties suffered severely. The re-
sistance to the stamp-tax (1765) was very fierce in the prov-
ince, and that to the tea-duty still fiercer. A firm of An-
napolis merchants having ventured to import a quantity of
tea ill 1774, public indignation rose so high that the owner
of tho brig — the Peggy Stewart — to avoid worse conse-
quences, .set fire to his vessel with his own hand, and burned
it with its obnoxious cargo. The province entered with zeal
into the measures of resistance to Kn>;land, and declared its
independence on July 3, 1776, but did not enter the Con-
federation until 17al, though it took an active part in the
Revolution, and its troops did gallant service in both the
northern and southern campaigns. The State government
was inaugurated Mar. 21, 1777, with Thomas Johnson as
first elected (iovernor.
In the war of 1812 Baltimore privateers did so much
damage to British commerce that it was resolved to make
an example of the city, and a formiilable force was sent to
attack it by land and water. The approach to the city was
defended by Fort JlcIIenry at the mouth of the harbor, and
by several hastily constructed batteries and earthworks. The
British lainl forces, under (ren. Koss, diseml)nrkeil at Xorth
Point, at the nioulh of the Patapsco, ami on the march were
met by a force of Baltimoreans. and a skirmish ensued (S>pt.
12, 1814) in which Ross was killed. The fleet iKimbanled
Fort Mcllenry for a day anil night without success, and an
attempt to land troops from boats having been repul.sed
with severe lo.ss, the conibiiie<l attack came to nothing. It
was on the occasion of this bomlMirdmcnt that Francis Scott
Key, a Marvlandi'r delaineil on the British admiral's ship,
composed tlio patriotic s.ing — The Slar-n/Mtiiijlrd lianner.
After the peace tho historv of the State was an unl)roken
recoril of (mu'efiil prosperity until the outbreak of the war
between the States in IHOl, when a Ma.-^sachusotts regiment
on its way to Washington was |K'lteJ with stones by a mob
(Apr. 10), and fired on the people, with loss of life on both
sides. The only considerable battle of that war fought on
Maryland soil was that of Sharpsburg. .Sept. 16 and 17, 1862.
With the restoration of [a-ace the State again entered upon
a career of prosj>erity and sulistaiitial develo|iment.
OOVEKNUBS OK MARYLAND.
Wflliain I'ocB )T«!-85
Williuiii Siimllwuwl ITM f«
John Kuifcr MuHarU 17Wi-9l
(jeortrtr rittltr I7*.M-W
Tliuiiia-H Sim Lee Wi'M
John II. St-me KW 1/7
John Hfiirv irs(7-i«i
, Beiijainin (l|;lc ITW-IWI
' John Fruiiebi Mercer. ... lHOl-08
RolxTt Hiiwle IM».<ia
I RiiU-rt Writrlit IH0tt-O»
I Eauaril IJovd IHOB-II
' Robert ItowiV IHii-12
l*vlD WluiliT Ixia-lS
' C. Kiilk-elv of Ilaiiiptnn... isii-in
Charles (idlilsborough |k]>^I9
Samuel SpriKK |HI9-ai
Samuel Stevtrus, Jr I^tti-as
Josepli Kent I-C-'jl
liiiiiiel Martin I><:!s »
Tliomos Kinif Carroll ls,"j-:i0
Daniel .Martin IKH-fll
(iforitB Howard (acting).. I'^tl-.'ia
(jeorRi- Howard IKtl-B
James Thomas lKi4-:i5
Thomas W. Veaiey IS35-38
Con»(. of /««, Three-ytar Term:
William (iraviwn IKIfMI
Kraneis Thomas IMI-M
Thiima.s fi Pratt IKM-17
Philip K. Thomas IK17-.W
EnmAl I..ewiii Liuwe lhi(>-M
Const, of ISS.l^ Four-year Termt.
Thomas Watkins LIrod . . Wa-i7
Thos. Hollidav Hicks |K.'i7-fiJ
Augustus \V. Bradford... IB0I-«6
Const, of tv;4. Four-year Terms.
Thomas Swann l86S-e9
Const, of JSG7, Four-year Terms.
Oden Bowie IsiiH-Ta
Win. Pinekney White . . . IK7**-75
J. B. Cirooine Mar. 1875-Jan 1K76
John hee farroll lH7t^»)
Wm. T. Hamilton ISNit-M
Robert M. JleLane 1HKI-W5
Henry Llovd li*.'>-*8
Elihu E Jaekson IS«-92
Frank Brown ISSi'-se
Lloyd Lowudea ItJUC-
LORDS I'ROFRIETARV A.NU
Lords I^opnetary.
Ceeilins Calvert, second
L..jrd Baltimore 1038-75
Charles Calvert, third
l^rd Baltimore I0;&-1715
Benedict l^-onard Calvert,
fourth L>>rd Baltimore. . 17I&
Charles Calvert, fifth
I^ird Baltimore 1715-51
Frederick Calvert, sixth
I^ird Baltimore 1751-71
Sir H Harford, last pro-
prietary 1771-76
Governors appointed by the Lords
Ffoprietary.
I^oiiard Calvert ltW3.17
Thomas (ireene liH7-l;i
William Stone 164'J-54
Cominis. uniler Pari l(V>4-.'>s
Josiah Kendall ir>.->S-(il
Philip Calvert liXll-ta
Charles Calvert 1116^-07
Charles, third Lord Bait.. HiC7-7W
Thomas Xotley 107H-KI
Charles, third I^rd Bait.. 16«I-«5
Wni. Joseph, president of
Deputies l(Wr>-fl9
Conven. of Prot. Asso liM9-9tf
Royal Governors.
Sir Lionel Coplev leoa-OT
Sir Edmond Andros llilB-JM
Francis Nicholson lliUI-OU
Nalh. Blu.kistime IC'jy 17i«
Thomas Tench, pres 17a:M>4
John Seymour 171U-09
FMward'Lloyd. pres 1709-14
John Hart 1714-15
Proprietary Governors.
John Hart 17IVS0
( ■hnrles Calvert 17aO-S7
lienediot l,eonardCalvert. 17'.>7-.'U!
Samuel Oijle 17.12-3:!
Charles, fifth Lord Bait. . . 17:«-.'«
Samuel I >irlp 17:«-4S
Thomas BJadeo I74i-I7
Samuel Ople 1747-.V.;
Benjamin Tasker, pres. . . 17.W-,'>;1
Horatio Sliarpe 17.'»-«9
Robert Eden 1769-74
The Revolution.
The Convention and Coun-
cil of Safety 17T4-76
State Government (1777-tSSS),
.^nnuaf Elections.
Thomas Johnson 1777-79
Thomas Sim Lee 1779-84
AvTHORiTiES. — The most accurate and compendious au-
thorilvon Maryland is Mari/lnml : its Heiinurcex. Industries,
and f)istilulio>i.i. edited by menil)ers of Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, and published by the State in 18!i;t.
William Hand Browne.
Mary Stuart; Qtieen of Soots, daughter of James V. bv
Mary of Guise, and great-granddaughter of King Henry Vl(.
of Kiigland through his daughter. >largaret Tudor; b.at Lin-
lithgow, S<-otland, Oec. 8, 1542. Her father died a few days
after her birth, and on Sont. i». 1.54:(. she was crowned (jiieen
of Scotland, the Fjtrl of Arran, and afterward her mother,
conducting the Government. In 1.548 she was afl'ianced to
Francis. Dauphin of France, son of Henry II. and Catharine
de' Medici, and in the same year she was brought t-i Fnini-e
to be educated at the French court. Buchanan and Kon-
sard were among her teachers, and when she grew up she
ailded to a striking and fascinating jiersonal beauty all the
accomplishments and charms which a [K-rfect e»IucBtion can
give. Her marriage with the dauphin wos celebrated .\pr.
24, 15,58. in the Church of Notre Pame. and when Marv I.
of Kngland died in the same year (N'o». 17) she had her
arms quarlere<l with those of Kngland, and thn'ateniNl to
rouse tho Catholics against KlizalH-th's title. (»n July 10,
1,5.511, Ileiirv II. ilied, and wils succ.-cdeil by Francis II.
Marv thus (x-came (^ueon of France, but Francis diol Dec,
5, 1.5'60: she was childless, and haii little jKiwcr at court,
where the infiuence of Catharine de" Meilici was now [>ara-
mount. In the same year her mother died, and she then re-
588
MAKYSVILLE
JIASAMELLO
turned to S<-otlaml, luiuiinj; at Leilli in Aug., 1561. BroiiKlit
up a Konmii Catholic and usi'd to the gay life of the French
court, ^^ho found the dominant Protestant ism and austere
manners of her subjects almost intolerable. It was only
under protest that she was allowed to hear mass in her own
chapel, and she was repeatedly lectured by Knox for her
levity and worlilliness. Xevertheless. the first period of her
reigii was fairly successful. She followed the advice of
James, her half-brother, whom she created Earl of Murray,
and strove to conciliate the Protestants. The latter, how-
ever, were soon estranged by her unfortunate marriage (July
29. 156"i) with her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, a
Catholic, and next to herself in the hereditary line of succes-
sion to the English throne. Murray and his party among
the nobility were opposed to this marriage, aiui revolted : but,
although she succeeiled in suppressing the revolution, she
came to despise her profligate and treacherous hnsband,whose
jealousy and ambition soon showed themselves in an act of
violence. On Mar. !t, l.">()6, he burst with Kuthven, Morton,
and others into her chanilicr. dragged Rizzio, an Italian ad-
venturer who had become her councilor after the breach with
Murray, out into the corridor, and stabbed him. The horror of
this night Mary never forgot or forgave. She detached
Darnley from tlie other conspirators, fled with him to Dun-
bar, became reconciled with Murray, entered into an inti-
mate alliance with the Earl of BotlnvcU, and thus slrenglh-
ened began to persecute the murderers of Rizzio without
mercy. On Feb. i), 1567, the house in which Darnley lay
sick was blown up by gunpowder, and his body was found
at a distance. Bothweirs connection with this murder was
apparent; his trial wius a mere mockery; and when Mary
married him, three months after the death of her husband
(May 15). a general rising took place. In the battle of Car-
berry Hill (.June 15) Bothwell was defeated and fled, and
Mary was confined in Lochleven Castle and com[)elled to
abdicate. She escaped, however, from Lochleven May 2,
1568, and rallied a new force, but was defeated at Langside,
May l:}, and fled to England. Here she was immediately
imprisoned — first at Carlisle, afterward in various other
places, and at last in Fotheringay Castle. After eighteen
years' imprisonment, during which she was the center of
Catholic plots, she was tried on a charge of complicity in
the conspiracy of Antony Babington against the life of
Elizabeth, and on Oct. 25, 1586, a sentence of death was
pronounced against her. On Feb. 1, 1.587, Elizabeth signed
the warrant of execution, and on Feb. 8 Mary (^ueen of
Scots was beheaded, persisting to the last in her innocence
of Babington's plot. She was buried at Peterborough,
whence in 1612 her body was removed to Henry VII.'s chap-
el at Westminster. That her life was not one of un-
mingled innocence and virtue is abundantly evident, but
the exact meiusure of her guilt or the exact degree of her
complicity in the crimes committed for her sake and in her
name has not been made out. And still more obscure and
entangled seem those ideas and passions from which such
guilt sprung. There are two brilliant dramatical delinea-
tions of her character by Schiller and by Bjornstjerne
Bjornson, and among the numerous prose works relating to
her history the most interesting is perhaps Labanoft' de
Rostov's Lettrts, Inslructiuns et Mimoires de JIarie Stuart
(7 vols., 1844). See also Philippson's Histoire du Rtgne de
Marie Stuart (18!)l-!»2); Skelton's Life of Mary Stuart
(1893); and the works of Ilosack, Strickland, Robertson,
Uume, Burton, Laing, Tyller, Froude, etc.
Revised by F. M. Colby.
Mnrysville: city (incorporated in 1851); capital of Yuba
CO.. Cal. (for location of county, see map of California, rcf.
5-C) ; at the junction of the Vnba and Feather rivers, and
on the S. Pac. and the X. Cal. railways ; 52 miles X. of Sac-
ramento. It is in an agricultural and mining region. Con-
tains 6 churches, graded |)uljlic schools, the College of Xotre
Dame (Roman Catholic), high school, a State bank with cap-
ital of $150,000, an incorporated bank with capital of
$2.50,000, a savings-bank with capital of $40,000, and 2
daily and 2 weekly newspapers; ami has flour and woolen
mills, foundry and machine-shop, earriage-factorv, winerv,
and 2 large fruit-canneries. Pop. (IWO) 4,:J21 ; (1H90) 3.9!)1.
Editor of " Appeal."
Marysville : city ; capital of Marshall co., Kan. ^fo^ loca-
tion of county, .see map of Kansas, ref. 4-II); on the Big
Blue river, and the St. Jos. and Orand Is. Railroad; 112
miles W. of St. Joseph. Mo. It contains 8 churches, 4 pub-
lic schools, water-works, electric-light plant, a national bank
with capital of $75,000. a State bank with capital of $75,000,
and 4 weekly news|iHpers. The |ii"incij>al nianufaclurcs are
flour and cigars. Good water-power is obtained from tlio
river by means of a stone dam. Pop. (188U) 1.249; (1890)
1,913; (1895)2,297. EunoH ok "De-Mocrat."
Mnrysville: city; capital of Union co., O. (for location
of county, see inaj) of Ohio, ref. 4-E) ; on Mill creek, and I he
Cleve., Cin., Chi. and St. L. and the Tol. and O. Cent, rail-
ways; 30 miles X. W. of Columbus, the State capital. It is
in an agricultural region, and has 3 State banks with com-
bined capital of .^126.000, a private bank, an Odd Fellows'
library (founde<l in 1877), and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop.
(1880)" 2,061; (1890)2,810.
Maryville: city; capital of X'odaway co.. Mo. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Jlissouri. rtf. l-D); on the Chi.,
Burl, and Quincy and the Oni. and St. L. railways; 45 miles
X. of St. Joseph. It is in a farming and stock-raising re-
gion, and has 3 national banks with combined capital of
$150,000, a private bank, and a daily and 4 weekly news-
papers. Poji. (1880)3,485; (1890)4.037.
Maryville : village; capital of Blount co., Tenn. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Tennessee, ref. 6-1); on the
Knox and Augusta Railroad ; 16 miles S. of Knoxville. It
is in an agricultural region : is the scat of Maryville College
(Presbyterian, opened in 1819). which in 1890 had 14 in-
structors, 284 students, 10,000 volumes in its libraries, and
$10,000 invested in scientific apparatus. $60,000 in grounds
and buildings, and $112,000 in productive funds; and has
manufactories of flour, woolen goods, and sash, doors, and
blinds. Pop. (1880) 1,098; (1890) 1,686.
Marzials, TnEOPHiLE : poet ; b. of French parentage in
Brussels in 18.50. He was educated in Belgium, Switzer-
lan<i. and England, and has been employed in the British
Museum since 1870. His Gallery of I'iijeons and Otiter
Poems (1873) gave him a high jilace among the a-sthetic or
pre-Raphaelite school of poets, who were, in general, follow-
ers of Rossetti. H. A. Beers.
Masaoeio, ma"a-saat cho (true name. Tommaso Guim ; nick-
named Tonimasaccio.llu\king Tom. shortened to Masaecio):
painter: b. in Florence in 1402. At the age of nineteen he
was enrolled in the guild of the apothecaries, but at twenty-
two he was registered in the guild of painters. He is sup-
posed to have worked under Masolino, who encouraged a
frank study of the nude and a direct recognition of nature
in the details of his figures. The greatest work of Masticcio
now renuiining is the decoration in fresco of the Brancacci
chapel in the Carmine at Florence. Its importance in the
history of art may be judged by the fact tliat at one and
the same time Michaclangclo, Raphael, and Leonardo da
Vinci were engaged in studying these frescoes; and they
have .served as models to artists of succeeding generations.
The only other probable work of Masaccio's, and the earliest,
is in a chapel of San Clemente at Rome; it is a series of
frescoes relating to the history of St. Catherine of Alex-
andria. On account of the naturalistic treatment of the
subjects this chapel was attributed to Masolino; indeed, so
littie is known <if the life of these two painters that their
work is frequently confounded. D. in Rome in 1428 or 1429.
W. J. SriLI.MAX.
Mas-fi-fiiera : See Juan Fernandez.
Masal'skii, Konstantin Petrovich: author; b. in laro-
slav, Russia, in the year 1802; stuilied at the University of
St. Petersburg, and was in the Uovernmeiit service until
1842. In 1824 he first began to send short poems to the
newspapers. In 1829 he published a novel in verse, Terpi
Kazai; etv. (Ihwc patience, Cossack, you will be Iletman),
which was a great success. He is chiefly remembered, how-
ever, as a writer of historical novels, among the best known
of which are Tlie Strelisi, T/ie Black Trunk. TIte lieyency
of BIron, Tlie Sieqe of I'ylicli, Tlie Russian Icarun. and
'Tlie First Love of tlie Last of a Race. In 1838 he published
a translation of Von Quixote. An edition of the works he
had then written was brought out in 1843-45 (St. Petersburg,
5 vols.). I), in 1861. A. C. Coolidoe.
Masnnlel'lo [Ital., clipped from full name, Tommaso
.■\Niia.i.o. Cf. Masaccio]: revolutionist; b. at Amalfi. Italy,
in 1623. He was a fisherman of Sorrento, and in 1647 ex-
cited a popular insurreetion in Xaples against the Duke of
Arcos, the Spanish vic-eroy. Some state that the immediale
cause of the tumult was the imposition of a new and op-
pressive tax : others, an attempt to establish the Inquisition
as a means of extirpating the Reformed religion, then in
Masaya
MASKEUONS
589
great favor in this city. It is certain that the previous
forty years of Spanish misrule hail exasperated all classes.
Ma.saniello, stunj; to furv by iniliKiiities ulfered his wife
for alleinptiiig to siiiiijigle a few liaiidfuls of Hour, at the
moment when the aulhurities were lixinf; on the doors of
the duoino the detested in(|uisitorial brief tore it down
amid the applause of the bystanders, and soon after raised
the cry, J/oc/e at mal governo ! In an instant the whole
population, even to the women and children, were in arms;
the Spanish authorities were maltreateil, the soldiers success-
fully resisted, and after great lossof life anion;; the Spaniards
the insurjcents obtained from the terrified viceroy the revo-
cation of the order for the hujuisition. the abolition of many
cruel taxes, and a full pardon for all who had taken [mrl in
the rebellion. Whether Masaniello was really frenzied by
his great success, or whether his enemies were crafty enough
to nnignify his excesses into insane crimes, it is nowditlicult
to say; at any rate, the populace itself rose against him soon
after his triumph, and he was assassinated on July 16. 1G47.
Masaya, maa-siyaa: a city of Nicaragua; 9 miles W. of
Granada ; at the foot of the volcano of Masaya or I'opo-
gatepcc (see map of Central America, ref. 6-11). Pop. about
i4,000, nearlv all of Indian race. The situation is very pic-
turesque, anil the soil of the vicinity, composed of volcanic
ash, is extremely fertile, being especially good for tobacco,
which forms the i>rincipal product. The inhabitants arc
noted for their industry, exporting hammocks, cordage,
straw hats, and other articles of native workmanship. Water
is obtained from a crater lake at some distance from the
town, Kruptions of the volcano occurred in lt)7(*, 1782, and
1857. Masaya was attacked and burned by Walker in Nov.,
1856. " lIf;u"iiEKT II. Smitu.
Masragni. mans-kaan'yi'e, Pietro: composer; b. in Leg-
horn, Italy, in 1863; the son of a basket-maker; studied
music at home, and had composed two cantatas by the time
he was seventeen ; then went to the Conservatory at Jlilan
and studied under Ponchielli, at the expense of Count Flo-
rest«node Landarel. He became leader of a traveling opera
company, and wrote his tirst opera in 18Wi, but it is unpub-
lished, and he declines to allow it to be performed. In May,
1890, his opera Caralleria Rusticana appeared, and at once
became famous. It was composed for a comiictition insti-
tuted by a firm of music publishers. Since then he has
composed Aiiiini Fritz and I Raiitzau. I). K. IIervev.
Masrnlongo. Muskelliinge, or Miiskiniingo [from
Amer.-lndian name]: the largest, finest, and best-flavored
fish of the pike family, Esoxot Lucius mnnkinong!/. c»pet:iii]ly
abundant in t he ."^t. Lawrence basin, but frequently found in
the basin of the Ohio and the upper Mississippi; reaches u
length of 4 to 6 feet and a weight of 60 lb. or more. It is an
extremely bold and vigorous biter, and is caught by the hook
or the net. It is an excellent foml-fish. It is distinguished
from the true ]iikc by the presence of dark spots or the ab-
sence of pale ones, and by the want of scales on the lower
half of the cheek. See Pike. Revised by 1). S. Jordan.
Mascara, mmis-kaa-raa' : town ; in the province of Oran,
Algeria. It occupies the site of an old Koman colony on
the slope of the Atlas Mountains, among fertile and well-
cultivated surroundings. Pop. (1886) lo,45;j.
Mascarene. nnls-ka-reen'. Isles: the collective name com-
prising the islands of Bourbon, Uodrigues, and Mauritius,
.situated in the Indian Ocean. The name is <lerived from
(larcia Mascarenlas, a Portuguese navigator who discovered
theislandsin l.lO.j. Mauritiusand Hod rigues belong to Great
liritain ; Bourbon belongs to France.
Mascart. maaskaar, fxEUTniiRE I-^lik Nicolas: physi-
cist; b. at (^uarouble, France, Feb. 20, 18;!7. Mascart wius
educated at the College of Valenciennes and at the Kcole
Norinalo .Smierieure. lie was assistant, su<'ces,sively at the
lyceums of Lille and Douai and at the Kcole Normale ; was
professor in the lyceums of Met/, and Versailles and in the
College de France. In the last-named institution he suc-
ceeded to the chair of Physics so long tilleil by Hegnault.
Mas<-art has nulilished many important papers, and he is
the author of three great treatises, all of which are uni-
versally accorded a place in the first rank. These are his
Trailed'iUclricile stalique (2 vols.. 1876) ; Lf(iin» mir I'rlec-
trieite el le magiteti-ime (2 vols.. 1882), in collaboration with
Prof. Joubert; and his Traili' d'Oplii/nei'.i vols.), the last vol-
ume of which appeared in 1893. Aside from his collegiate
work. Prof. Mascart has pcrformeil many scientific and
technical labors for the French Governmo'nt. During the
Franco-German war he sujiorintcnded the manufacture of
cartridges and chassepots. Since 1878 he has been the di-
rector of the weather bureau. He look an iniportanl part
in the Paris exhibitions in 1881 and 1889, and was a mem-
ber of the electrical congresses held in Paris in those years,
over the latter of which he presided. He was also present
at the congress held in Chicago in 1893. He is a member
of the French Academy (since 1884), commander of the
Legion of Honor (1889), and is member or correspondent of
many learned societies. E. L. Nichoi.s.
Masroiitah : city ; St. Clair co., III. (for location of coun-
tv, see map of Illinois, ref. 9-1)); on the Louis, and Nash.
Uailroad; 11 miles K. by S. of Belleville, 25 miles E. .S. K.
of .St. Louis. It is in an agricultural region, has valuable
caa\ mines in its vicinitv.and contains steam flour-mills and
two weekly newspapers.' Pop. (1880) 2,5.';8 ; (1890) 2,032.
MilsiTcs. I'ltA.Ncis : See Mazere-s.
.Mnshon'utaiid: a plateau region N. E. of Matabcleland,
.South .\frica, to whose ruler it was subject when it was ac-
quired from him (1890) bv the British South Africa Com-
pany. A pir)neer exiu'dition was sent to take possession of
the land, which was believed to abound in gold reefs. Care-
ful investigation proved that the region was rich in gold
and other valuable minerals; that it;, agricultural resources
were worth developing; and that the undulating plateau is
so high above the sea that white coloni.sts may live there in
comfort. Towns were soon foun<led along the wagon road
built through the country from S. to N. The most impor-
tant settlements are Fort Salisbury, Hartley Hill, Victoria,
I'mtali, and Fort Charter. A telegraph connects the prin-
cipal centers with Cape Town, and a railway is building
(1897) from Beira, on the Indian Ocean, to the northeastern
part of the colony. Expensive machinery is rec^uired for
mining, and no placer-gohi finds have been discovered.
Over 400 miles of gold-bearing formations have been lo-
cated, and the region has been proved to be among the rich-
est of the South African gold-fields. Salisbury, the chief
town, has a bank, churches, hosi)itals, hotels, a newspa(>er,
anil many substaiilial brick structures. Many of the colo-
nists, numbering (1SSI4) about 3.0(10. engage in agriculture.
All the small grains, most vegetables, and cattle-raising
thrive. The native Mashonas, scattered throughout the
country, are greatly depleted in numbers, having long been
the victims of Matabcle raids. The refusal iif the while
colonists to permit the continuance of these raids precipi-
tated a war (1893) in which the Matabeles were defeated,
and their country, also rich in gold, is oi>ening to white set-
tlement. In Mashonaland are found a considerable number
of ancient stone structures and walls, large and solidly
built, whose origin is not yet known. Sec Selous, Traitl
and Adventure in Soutlieasiern Africa; Keltic, The Parti-
tion of Africa ; Grcswell, (ieography of Africa South of the
Zambesi; and Bent, The liuinea Cities of Mashonaland.
C. C. Adams.
Masinis'sa, or Massinissa: King of the Massylians, one
of the most powerful Numidian tribes; b. about 240 B.C.; a
.son of Gala. Hiusilnibal having promised to give him his
daughter Sophonisba in marriage, he attacked the Massa>-
svliaiis, also a powerful Numidian tribe, which in the strug-
gle between Home and Carthage sided with Rome; defeatc<l
their king, Syphax, in 213; crossed over to Spain and
fought with success against Cneius and Pnblius S<-ipio;
but when Ha.sdrubal broke his iiromisc and gave his daugh-
ter to Syphax in order to win liini over from the Romans,
Masinissa attacked Carthage. In the lieginning he was un-
successful, but when (in 204) Scipio landed in Africa, Masi-
nissa entered into a firm alliance with him, routed the Massa>-
sylians, fought with great distinction in the battle of Zama,
and received by the jM>acc of 201 the territories of Syphax.
Sophonisba, who in the course of the war had bei-ome his
prisoner, he now married, but Scipio, fearing her influence
on her husband, demandiMl her as a Roman captive, and
>Iasiniss<i, not venturing to refuse, sent her a cup of poison,
which she ilrank. Steadily exteniling his dominions at the
exi)onse of Carthagi>, he wcasioneil the third Punic war, but
died t)efore its close 14S n. r. Niimidia was then divided
iH'tweon his three s<ins, of whom the youngest, Mastanabal,
was the father of Jugurtha.
Musk: See MasvI'ES.
Maskat: maritime city of Southeastern Arabia. See
MlSiAT.
Maskrg'ons : See Aixion<ji;ias Indians.
590
MASK ELL
MASON
MaskoU, William : theo!o>;ieal writer ; b. at Bath. Knpr-
laixl. ill l!S14; wju< educated at University College. Oxford;
toiik orders in 1837, and wa.* instituted to the rectory of
Carscombe. Dorset, in 18-12. In 1846 he resigned that ]iosi-
tion and in the following vear he wtis appointed cha|ilani to
the Bishop of Exeter ami' instituted to the vicarage of St.
Marv's church. Devon. When the Gorham case, in which
Mr 'Maskell took an active and prominent part, was decided
bv the judicial committee of the privy council, early in ISoli,
he resigned all his preferments and was received into the
Konian Catholic Church, but never took ordei-s therein.
His chief literarv works were The Ancient Liturgy of the
Church of Em/llind (London. 1844; :3d cd. 1882): .1 Ihs-
tory of the Martin Murprelate Controversy (184.J); Jlonu-
vienta Hitiialia Ecc!esi(B Anglicame (184(>-47, i vols. ; 2d
ed. Oxford, 1882); A Dissertation on Holy Baptism (Lon-
don 1848) ; An Inquiry into the Doctrine of tlie Church of
England upon Absolution (1849); Letters on the Position
of the High Church Party in the Church of England (18u0),
etc. After his convei-sion to Romanism he published Odds
anil Ends (1872); A Dissertation on Ancient and Mediwral
Imries (1875) ; and What is the Meaning of the Infallibihty
of the Pope f (1871). D. at Penzance, Apr. 12, 1890.
Mas'kelyiie, Nevil, D. D. : b. in London, England, Oct.
6, 1732; graduated at Cambridge 1754; took orders in the
Church of England ; became a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1758 ; was sent to St. Helena in 1761 to observe the tran-
sit of Venus, and to Barbados in 1762 to experiment with
and report upon Harrison's chronometers; succeeded Na-
thaniel Bliss as astronomer-royal 176.5, which post he re-
tained through life, never absenting himself from the
Greenwich Observatory except once in 1772, when he went
to .Scotland to experiment u[)on the aberrations of the
plumb-line as fixing the mean density of the earth. He
is t lie author of the method of determining longitudes by
lunar distances. He published The British Mariner's
Ouide (1763); the Xaulical Almanac and Astronomical
Ephemeris (46 vols., annual, 1767-1811); Astronomical Ob-
servations made at (ireenwich from 17€5 to ISIO H \o\s.) ;
and several papers in Uie Philosophical Transactions. D.
at Greenwich, Feb. 9, 1811. Revised by S. Newcomb.
MasoHuo da I'aiiicale: See Panicale.
Mason : cjty (settled in 1835, incorporated in 1875) ; capi-
tal of Ingham co., Mich, (for location of county, sec map of
Michigan, ref. 7-.I); on the Mich. Cent. Railroad; 12 miles
S. of Lansing, 25 miles N. of .Jackson. It is in an agri-
cultural and dairy region, and has water-works, electric
lights, 2 State baiiks with combined capital of l{;125,000, 2
weekly newspapers, and considerable mercantile and manu-
facturing interests. Pop. (1880) 1,809; (1890) 1,875; (1894)
1,761. Editor of " Ingham C'ou.nty New^s."
Mason. Charles, F. R. S. : b. in England about 1730 ;
was a-ssistant for several years at Greenwich Observatory to
the celebrated astronomer-royal, Dr. .lames Bradley, and
afterward to his successors, Dr. Nathaniel Bliss and Dr.
Nevil Maskelyne ; and with Mr. .Jeremiah Di.xon was sent
to the Cape of Good Hope to oljservc the transit of Venus
of June 6, 1761, while Dr. Maskelyne proceeded with them
to St. Helena for the same purpose. In 1763 Messrs. Blason
and Dixon were commissioned by the proprietors of Penn-
sylvania and Maryland to survey the boundary-line between
their American possessions ; arrived at Philadeliihia Nov.
1.3. anil were engaged upon this task until Dec. 26. 1767.
(See .Mason ani> Dixon's IjIne.) Messrs. Mason and DixiMi
embarked at New York for Falmouth Sept. 9, 1768. Dixon
died at Durham, England, in 1777. Mason observed the
transit of Venus of .June 3, 1769, at Cavan, Ireland, and pub-
lished his observations in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1770; was employed by the bureau of longitudes to
verify the celebrated Lunar Tables of Tobias .Mayar, in
whicli he made some changes and corrections, and they were
published after his death by Dr. MaskMyne under the title
Mayer's Ijunar Tables, improved by Charles Mason (Lon-
don, 1787). Mason returned to America, but at what date is
unknown, and died at Philadelphia in Feb., 1787. His MS.
journal and field-notes, from which the preceding account
is cliielly drawn, Was found at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1860,
among a pile of waste paper flung into the cellar of the
Government-house, whence it was rescued by a gentleman
of that city. Revised by S. Newcomd.
Mason, Francis, D. D. : b. at York, England, Apr. 2,
1799 ; removed to the U. S. in 1818 ; worked as a shoemaker
in several towns of Massachusetts ; became connected with
the Baptist Church at Canton, Mass., al)out 1825; married
there; studied ancient languages under the guidance of
his minister; entered Newton Theological Seminary in
1827, and was sent in 1830 as a missionary to Burma. He
devoted himself chiefly to the Karens, among which tribe
he had wonderful success, and with the aid of other mission-
aries made many thousands of converts among that wild
but siiniile-hearted tribe. He translated the Bible into two
Karen dialects, as well as numerous other religious books;
educated many native preachers; prepared a work on the
natural productions of Burnm (1852), which contained a
very valuable addition to the then existing scientific data
on ihe subject ; published a grammar, chrcstomathy, and vo-
cabulary of the Pali language; a Life of Ko-Thah-Byu, the
Karen Apostle ; a memoir of his wife, Mrs. Helen M. Mason
(1847); a Memoir of iSan Qiiala, another Karen convert
(1850) ; Burma, its People and ^i'atural Productions (1860),
being a revised editi<in of his earlier work on the same sub-
ject; and an autobiograpliy, 'J'he .Story of a Workingman's
Life, with ISkelches of 'Travel (1870). D. at Rangoon, Bur-
ma, Mar. 3, 1874.
Mason, George: a patriot of the American Revolution;
b. at Doeg's Neck, Stafford (now Fairfax) co., Va., in 1725 ;
settled after his marriage in Truro parish (which includes
Mt. Vernon), built Ciunston Hall on the banks of the Po-
tomac, and became the intimate friend of Washington, his
neighbor and fellow parishioner at Pohick church. Possess-
ing considerable historical knowledge and legal attainments,
as well as liberal sentiments, fine powers of reasoning, and
a sound judgment, IMason was a valuable adviser to the
future leader of the Revolutiim, for wlumi he drafted the
•'non-importation resolutions " which the latter presented
to the Virginia Assembly, and procured their adoption 1769.
One of these resolutions pledged the Virginia planters to
purchase no slaves imported after Nov. 1 of that year. In
support of the political rights of the "Old Dominion." Ma-
son printed a pamphlet entitled Extracts from the Virginia
Charters, with Some Remarks upon them, and at a meeting
of the people of Fairfax, July 18. 1774. he presented a series
of twenty-four resolutions on the questions at issue between
Great Britain and the colonies, which were sanctioned by
the Virginia convention in August, and substantially reaf-
firmed by the Continental Congress in October of the same
year. In 1775 he was a member of the Virginia convention,
declined an election to the Continental Congress, which was
pressed upon him, nominated Francis Liglitfoot Lee in his
place, and reluctantly consented to serve as a member of
the committee of safety. In May, 1776, he drafted the cele-
brated "Declaration of Rights" and the "Plan of Govern-
ment," which were adofited June 12 and 29. In the revision
of the statutes of Virginia his liberal .sentiments were con-
spicuous, and his talents in debate elicileii universal ad-
miration. He was a member of the Continental Congress
1777, and of the convention for framing the Federal Con-
stitution 1787. In tlie latter body Mason took a conspicu-
ous jiart, jiroposing that the election for President should
be direct, and for a single term of seven years, opposing the
postponement of the repeal of the slave-trade, the counting
of slaves as a basis for representation, and the establishment
of a properly basis for suffrage. Despite his efforts, several
features which he considered dangerous were incorporated
in the C^)nstilution, which lie consequently refused to sign ;
and having been elected to the Virginia convention to con-
sider that instrument, he united with Patrick Henry in de-
manding its rejection unless .some twenty amendments
should lie made. Several of these were subsequently adopt-
ed by the States and incorporated into the Constitution.
He w'as chosen one of the first Senators from Virginia, but
declined the post, and spent the remainder (jf his life in re-
tirement, occupied in huiiling, fishing, and congenial stud-
ies. D. at Gunston Hall, Oct. 7, 1792. His statue is one of
the group which surrounds that of Washington in front of
the State Capitol at Richmond. Va. See liis Life, by Kate
Mason Rowland (2 vols.. New York. 1892).
Revised by C. K. Adams.
Mason. Jamks ;\Iihhav: Senator: grandson of George
Mason ; b. at Analosta island, Fairfax co.. Va.. Nov. 3,
1798: graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1818;
studied law at William and JIary College; bi'gan prac-
tice in 1820; was iiromini'iit in the State Legislature; a
member of Congress 1837-39; U. S. .Senator 1846-61, and
was the author of the Fugitive Slave law ; entered in 1881
MASON
591
the Confeilcriite Congress, and was sent with John SlUlell
as a coniMiissioner to EnRland and Kranee; wius taken olT
thn British steamer Trent by Cunt. Wilkes Xov. K, lH(il, and
confined in Fort Warren, near iJoston, Jlass. ; reh>ased on
the demand of the British tiovernment Jan. 2, 1862, and
proceeded on liis mission tp Europe. I), near AU'Xandria,
Va., Apr. 2«, 1S71.
Mason, Capt. Jons: fonnder of the eoloiiy of New
Ilarnpsliire; \i. at Lynn Uegis, Norfolk, Knjrlanil : served
in ItilO in tlie navy ajjainst an insurreelion in the Ilelirides;
went in 1616 a-s governor to Xewfoiinilland. of whieh he
pnhlished a description (Edinburgh, 1620) and a map (Lon-
don. 1626): exploreil in 1617 the New England coa.sts; ob-
taineil in 1622 a grant of a region called Mariana, now the
northeastern part of Miissachusetts ; procured in 1622. with
Sir Kerdinanilo (iorges. a |)atent for the province of Maine;
sent in 162:! a colony to the Piscataqna river. Mason was,
1624-2!t. treasurer and payniiuster of the royal armies in the
Spanish war. In I62'.( lie took a patent for the New Hamp-
shire colony, and with (jorgcs took another patent for ]^a-
conia, a tract inchuling Lake Champlain. Cajit. Mason
held various important positions in Englaml. In W-i~> he
was a judge in Ihimpshire, and was appointed vice-admiral
of New England. 1>. in London in Doc., 16;to, and was
buried in Westminster Abl)cy. Mason's rights in New
Hampshire were sold to (iov. Samuel Allen in 1691. and
proved a fruitful source of litigation to that gentleman and
nis heirs. — John Tut-ro.v Maso.v, one of John Mason's heirs,
in 1746 sold his own rights to a Portsmouth company called
the Masonian proprietors.
Mason. John: soldier; b. in England about 1600; served
in the Netherlands umler Sir Thomas Fairfa-x; was one
of the first settlers of Dorchester. Mass., 1630, and one of
the founders of Windsor, Conn., 1635; was eommi.ssioned
in lttJ7 to command an expedition against the Penuot Ind-
ians, who had massacred several settlers at Welnei-sfield.
and with a party of "JO English, 70 friendly Mohegans under
Uncas, and several hundred Narragansett warriors under
Miantonomoh. he surprised one of the Pe(|uot forts on
Mystic river, between Groton and Stor.inirlon, before day-
break May 26. 1637. and destroyed more than 500 Indians,
cither by the swonl or by the burning of the fort, his own
loss l)eing two killed and twenty wounded. Soon afterward
he killed or captured most of the remaining members of the
tribe in another expedition in Western Connecticut. Mason
was appointed major of the Connecticut forces, retaining
that oltice through life; settled first at Saybrook, and in
1659 at Norwich ; wits for many years a magistrate, and was
deputy-governor 1660-70. At the request of the general
court lie published an account of the Peqiiot war, reprinted
by Increase Mather in his liflation of Trouble by the Ind-
iana (1677). ami bv Prince (Boston. 1736). D. at Norwich
in 1672. See his Ai/c. by George E. Ellis, in Sparks's Am.
liioff., 2d series, vol. iii.
Mason. John Mitchell, D. D. (always called John M.
Mason) : pulpit orator; b. in New York city. Mar. 19. 1770;
graduated atColumbia College 1789; stuiiied theologv under
his father. Kev. John Miuson. D. I)., and later in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh (1791-92). In 1793 he succeeded his
father as pastor of the Cedar .Street Associate lieformcd
church in New York city; in 1805 he established a theo-
logical seminary, which he taught himself; in 1806 he
startecl T/ie Chiinfidn JIiKjazine. lo which he was the chief
contributor; in 1810 he resigned his charge and formed a
new congregation, whose building, in Jliirray Street, was
completed in 1812. In 1811 he became provost (i. c. really
hcail) of Columbia College. In 1816 he bnjke down under
these acituiiiulatcd labors and traveled abroad for a year.
In 1819 he had two paralytic strokes; in 1821 ho resigned
his charge. From 1821-24 he was president of Dickinson
College. Carlisle. Pa. In 1822 he transferred his church re-
lations to the Presbyterian Church. He returned to New
York in 1824. and lingered, a mental wreck, until Dec. 26.
1829. He ranks by common consent among the greatest
pulpit orators of the U. S.. ami his repute is the sjimc in
Great Britain. Two of his discourses. Living Faith and
especially Menxiah'x Tlirone, are considered siifiicient evi-
dence of his pre-eminent ability. Famous also are his ora-
tions ujK)n the deaths of Washington (1800) and of Hamil-
ton (iHOt). Of note are his Leilrrs on Frequent Cammun-
ion (New York, 1798). which had the effect of inducing his
denomination to celebnite the communion oftoner than at
most twice a year as hiui been the practice ; and his I'lea fur
Sacramental Communion on Catholic Principles (1816),
which nia<le a great sensation. His works were collected
and edited by his son. Hev. Ebene/.er Mason (New York,
1832. 4 vols.; 2d and enlarged ed. 1H49): his Life was writ-
ten by his son-in-law, Ucv. Jacob Van Vechten (New York,
1856). Samuel Macal'lly Jackson.
.Mason. Lowell. Mus. Doc: niusieiun ; b. in Medfield,
Mass.. Jan. 8. 1792: liegan his career as instructor and
leader of choirs in Savannah, Ga.. 1812 ; in 1821 published
the Handel and JIai/dn Collection of Church JJuaic; re-
moved to Boston in 1827. and gave hifiiself entirely to the
task of instructing classes in vocal music and encouraging
the public taste for music. To him Massachusetts is in-
debted for the introiluclion of nmsic into the public schools.
His labors soon became arduous and extensive; his zeal was
felt throughout New England ; the Academy of Music was
established in Boston ; by means of classes, schools, lectures,
institutes, text-books, glee-lxjoks, collections for family and
.Sunday use. a practical interest in the subject was awakened
even in the Middle Slates. His own compositions were nu-
merous, and his compilations exceeded in number those of
any other man. Of juvenile collections, glee-books, com-
pilations of church music, there arc more than forty that
liear his name, either alone or in association with George J.
Webb. Besides these there were several small books and
single pieces. In 1837 Mr. .Mason visited Eurojie lo study
on the Continent and in Great Britain the latest methoJs
of musical instruct ion. and whatever he ajiproved he adopted
and used. In 1855 the I'liiversity of New York conferred
on him the degree of doctor of music. D. Aug. 11, 1872.
Mason, Otis' TutTos: nnthro|K)logist ; b. in Eastport,
Me., Apr. 10, 1838. Reared in Virginia, he was educated at
Columbian University. Washington, D. C. and taught in
that institution for a number of years. His whole life has
been devoted to finthropological studies as they are related
lo geography. The first attempt to give public effect to
his studies was the arrangement of the archieological and
ethnological material of the Smithsonian Institution and
the subsequent plan of the ethnological exhibit at the Cen-
tennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876. For many
years he conducted the anthrojiological department of the
American Xaluralitit and of 'I lie Annual liecord of Science
and Inilustri/. Most of his works have been published by
the Smithsonian Institution. Chief among them are The
Annual Summaries of Progress in Anthropology, mono-
graphs on The Antiquities of Guadeloupe. The Antiquities
of Porto Rico, lianketry, Throwing-sticks, The J/upa
Indian Industrie.'i, The Woman's Knife among the Fski-
mo. Woman's Work in Savagery, Cradles of the ^'orth
American Indians, and lectures on the general scope of
anthropology. A 11 of these are chapters in a comprehensive
work on the primitive industries.
Mason. Willia.m : poet: b. at Hull. England, in 1725;
graduated at the University of Cambridge 1745; wrote
.VuscBus (1747). a poem on the death of Po[ie ; became a
fellow of Pembroke College 1747 ; took orders in the Church
of England 1754; became vicar at Ashton. Yorkshire, and
later precentor and canon of York ; wrote Jsis (1748). a
poem directed against Jacobitism in the university ; Elfrida
(17.52) and Caractacus (1759). l)oth dramatic poems, which
were represented with moderate success; and The English
Garden, a poem in four books (1772-82). Mason was a
tasteful musician and painter as well as a poet, but will be
best remembered as the intimate friend, executor, and biog-
rapher of the pm't Gray — Memoirs of Gray (1775). D. at
York, Apr. 7, 1797. His Works appeared in 1811.
Kcvised by II. A. Beers.
Mason. William. Mus. Doc. : pianist and teacher ; b. in
Boston. Mass., Jan. 24. 1829 ; the son of Dr. Lowell Mason ;
when twenty years old went lo Leipzig, and eontinue<l at
Prague and ^Veimar; studied under Moscheles. Moritz
Hauptmann, E. F. Kichter, and (18.53-54) with Liszt. In
1853 he made a concert tour through Eiiro|H' as a pianist ;
in 1854 relurne<l to the U. S. as a professional [lianist. In
185.5, with Theo<lore Thomas. Ge<irge Matzka. Josejih .Moson-
thal, and Carl Bergmann, he established ihe Mason and
Thomas soirees of chamlier music, which were continued
until 1868. His life has been mainly sjn'nl in teaching. He
receive<i his degree from Yale College. His comiKisitions,
over forty in number, are almost entiri>lv for Ine piano.
He has publishinl ,1 Method for the Piano-forte (1867)
and System for lieqinnrrs in the Art of playing upon Ihe
Piano-forte (1871). both in connection with Kli L. Iloadley;
592
MASON AND DIXONS LINE
MASON UY
anil Touch and Technic (1878), in connection with William
S. B. Matthews. D. E. llEKVKv.
Mason and Dixon's Line [imincd from tlie surveyors
who project id it J : I lie line wliiili forms the soutliern bound-
ary of Pemisylvaiiiii, sepiiratiiig it from Uelawure, Mary-
land, and Virginia. From tlie celebrity whicli this term
acquired durnig the anti-slavery agitation as a synonym of
the divisory line between free and slave territory, it lias
been generallv confounded in Kurope (and fre(|iieiit!v in
America) with the parallel of 36" 30', fixed by the "Mis-
souri compromise" of 1820 as the northern limit for the
extension of slavery into the Territories. Aocordiiig to
the original grants from the crown of England to William
Penn and Lord Baltimore, the boundary between their re-
spective colonies was fixed at the 40th parallel of N.lat.
That line being found by subsequent observation to pass N.
of I'liiladelpliia. and to' exclude Pennsylvania from Dela-
ware Hay, negotiations ensued between the projirielors for
the purpose of rectifying the blunder which the royal igno-
rance of geography liad committed, and for the greater part
of a century the matter was unsettled. An agreement was
made between the proprietors (May 10, 1732) for fixing
their boundary ; and as Delaware then belonged by pur-
chase to the heirs of William Penn, it was necessary to be-
gin at its southeast extremity, then fixed at Cape llenlopen.
The boundary between Pennsylvania and Delaware had been
already defined to be the arc of a circle drawn with a radius
of 13 miles from the court-house at New Castle from the
Delaware to the Marvland line. It was now agreed to bi-
sect the line drawn W'. across the peninsula from Cape llen-
lopen to Chesapeake Hay, and from the point of bisection
to project a line nortliward as a tangent to the arc which
formed the northern limit, the same to constitute the western
boundary of Delaware. From this point of tangency com-
mon to the three colonies, 13 miles N. E. of New Castle a
line was to be projected duo N. to a point 15 English
statute miles S. of the southernmost point of the city of
Philadelphia, ami from this point a line was to be drawn
line W. for 5' of longitude as the southern boundary of
Pennsylvania. Commissioners were appointed to run these
lines in 1733, 173!), and 1750, but disagreed, and chancery
suits were the result. Hy decision of Lord Chancellor
llardwick of May 15, 1750, taken as the basis of a final ad-
judication signed .July 4, 1760, commissioners and surveyors
were again appointed, who began operations Nov., 1760, and
spent three years in measuring the base and tangent lines
separating Delaware from Jlarylaud. The proi)rielors then
determined to send out more skilled mathematicians to com-
plete the operations, and selected Messrs. Charles JIason and
Jeremiah Dixon, who verified the work of their jiredocessors,
and ran the western line, fixed at hit. 39° 4;3' 263' N., since
known by their names. They began work in Nov., 1763, and
were stopped by the Indians in the summer of 1767 at a
point 244 miles 'W. of the Delaware, and only 36 miles E. of
the terminus they were seeking. Stones were erected at in-
tervals of a mile, and every fifth stone was engraved on the
opposite sides with the arms of the lords proprietors. The
remaining part of the line was fixed in >fov., 1783, by Col.
Alexander McLean, of Pennsylvania, and Joseph Neviile, of
Virgiina, and was verified and permanently marked in 1784.
Inconsequence of the accidental removal of the stone at the
northeast corner of .Maryland, commissioners were appointed
by the three States in 1849 to revise the former survey, which
was done by Licut.-Col. James I), (iraham, of the U.S. topo-
graphical engineers. The result of his revision was to con-
iirm the work of Mason and Dixon, and Maryland gained
less than 2 acres.
Mason-bee : a name applieil to numerous bees, chiefly of
the genus Osmia, which construct their cells of mud. 'I'liev
put their cells in the hollow stalks of plants, in empty
shells, under Mat stones, inside oak-galls, in chambers which
they construct in rotten wood, etc. Some species form cells
of great beauty and iierfeclion, and line tliem with a kind
of silk. The ceilings of many Egyptian temples are com-
pletely covered with these cell's, masses of which hang down
like stalactites. These bees are also very common in Nort hern
Europe, in the regions of the Hallic, where they often cover the
whole sunny side of the poor man's clay' hut with their
singular constructions. The cells are formed by boring
into the clay wall, but at the orifice of each cell'an outer
tube is constructed, .sometimes 2 or 3 inches in length, of
pellets formed in the excavati<m. The U. S. luus quite a
number of mason-bees.
Mason City: city; capital of Cerro Gordo co., la. (for
location of county, sec map of Iowa, ref. 2-11): on the la.
Cent., the Chi., Mil. and St. P. and the Mason City and Ft.
Dodge railways; 1.50 miles S. of .St. Paul, Minn. It is in an
agricultural and stock-raising region : contains 13 churches,
4 public-school buildings. 3 naticmal banks (combined caiii-
tal $100,000), a Stale bank (cajiital $50,000). and a daily,
monthly, and 4 weekly newspapers : and has limestone quar-
ries, brick and tile works, fiour-mills, machine-shops, and
cold-storage houses. Pop. (1880) 2,510 ; (1890) 4,007 : (1895)
5.637. EuiTOR oi' ■■Ti.mes-Ukkai.d."
Masonry: a fraternal institution, existing in some form
and to some extent in nearly every civilized country. Those
seeking admission into it must be free men, and must be
accepted with substantial unanimity; hence its members
term themselves " Free and accepted Masons"; from this
circmnstance the institution is frequently called " Freema-
sonry."
Origin. — It is of ancient origin, so ancient that the time
and place of its birth are unknown. Its legends say that it
was organized at the building of the temple by Solomon ;
but while in former times Masons accepted this as fact, they
no longer confound its legends with its history. That its
origin is unknown is shown by the fact that almost every
writer has found for it a source different from that found
by any of his fellows : it has been ascribed to the Druids,
to the Knights Templar, and to Pythagoras; and it has
not even escaped the modern fad of attributing almost
everything to the fertile genius and more fertile pen of Sir
Francis Hacon ! With considerable show of argument
some writers trace it to the ancient mysteries (especially
the Eleusinian), others to the Essenes, others to the Roman
colleges, and still others to the Culdees. Within the past
generation supposed traces of Jlasonry have been foimd in
the Holy Ijand, on the Egyptian obelisks, and in the pyra-
mids ; indeed, it has been strenuously claimed in respect to
the latter that the evidence found in their form, nietliod of
construction, and other particulars conclusively shows that
they were built by masons from whom the present society
has descended. Within fifty years a writer has demon-
strated, to his own satisfaction at least, that the present
system of masonry is directly attributable to the German
stonecutters who flourished from as early as 1459 down to
comparatively a modern dale. But when all is said, it still
remains a fact that the evidence in support of these claims
rests wholly upon the discovery of characteristics, emblems,
symbols, forms, ceremonies, and laws common — and in some
cases to a very remarkable degree — to these ancient organi-
zations and to Masonry; but while this evidence establishes
\hc possibility of the truth of the theory which it is adduced
to support, it utterly fails to estalilish the certai)itii of that
theory. Those who would ])ursue the examination of this
matter beyond the limits of an article of this character are
referred to the able and exhaustive discussion of it in The
History of Freemasonry, by Robert Freke Gould.
The theory that Masonry is an outgrowth of mediaeval
operative masonry has much greater supjiort both from in-
ternal and external evidence. The magnificent cathedrals
erected between the early part of the twelfth century and
the close of the fifteenth were, in many if not in all cases,
tlie productions of workmen united in organizations of a
character precisely similar, in most material respects, to the
Jlasonic organizations. The tradition of the society, from
the earliest times, is that origiiuilly it was an ojierative in-
stitution. It is certain that when iiKmasticism died out in
England media'val architecture went with it. When the
building of churches ceased the builders' occiipalion was
gone. There is abundant ground for the tradition that the
originally flourishing brotlierhood of operative masons at
last fell into decay, and for the theory that some of its
members, perceiving that as an operative institution it had
no longer a reason for existence, determined to continue it
as a "speculative" society to promote the practice of the
moral, fraternal, and charitable principles which had char-
acterized the old organization. The present form of organ-
ization was adopted in 1717, from which date the society
has an authentic history; in the earlier times it was scarcely
allowable to commit to'writing anything relating to Mason-
ry, and for that rejuson it has been all the more dillicult to
trace ils history; but in spite of this, manuscript copies of
old riiiinji'S have been discovered, and are exiant, made in
the fouileenth. fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth cen-
turies. .Some of them are not dated, and opinions differ as
MASONUY
593
to the time when they were written, but as one of them is
(luted Hci'. '-i"!. iW-i, il sliiiws the existence of iin orKHiiiza-
tioii at tliat diitu wliicli wus nut a new one. Some of these
are entitled T/ie Cuttntilutiun of Jlamnri/ and some The
Conatitiitiiins of the Frermannns. In 1640 Klias Aslimole wus
maile a Mason, but previously to that dale all the evidence
of its existence in Eusland is found in these old charges
and in the statutes. In Scotland there is record evidence of
its existence as early as 1.5yu, for Kdinburgh I.odjje, No. 1,
has a record continuous, save one break of less than twenty
years, from that year to the present time. The ccmclusion
can not be resisted that at a very early date there existed
orcanizations of an operative character calling themselves
"Masons," or "Freemasons," and the art or '•mystery"
which they i)racticed •' Jlasonry," or '• Freemasonry "; and
it is equally certain that their operative character grailually
changed until it became in their language "specidative " ;
and thus camo into existence the ^lasonic institution of
to-day.
Form of Onvernmenl. — The primary organization is the
lodge, with master, wardens, and other otlicers. Originally
a master called the brethren together at Ids pleasure, anil
the assembly was called a lodge; but it was not till about
1717 that lodges of a permanent character were established.
There is a dispute in relation to the character of the gov-
ernment prtn-iously to that date, but the evidence, tested by
the rules which human experience has established, proves
that before 1717 a grand-master governed the fraternity,
which theoretically met annually in " general assembly " to
•choose a grand-master and make laws for the craft. It is
true that in the decay of Masonry in the years imnie-
<liately preceding 1717 the general assembly was not regu-
larlv held, and .Ma.sonry came near ceasing to exist. But on
St. John the iJaptist's Day in 1717 the brethren, chiefly mem-
bers of four lodges, met in general assembly, chose a grand-
master, and made changes of an exceedingly important
nature in the form of government of the institution. The
character of the lodges was entirely changed ; theretofore they
were merely temporary bodies without fixed membership,
called together at the will of the master, but it was then
cniwted that in the future no lodge could exist without a
charter or warrant from the grand lodge or the grand-ma.s-
ter. The result of this was that lodges became permanent
ixidics with a fixed membership, with regular officers, and a
prescribed place of meeting. In place of the general assem-
bly jjfovision was made for a grand lodge, composed of the
grand otlicers (and later certain past grand olficers) and the
mastci^i and wardens of the particular lodges. The grand
lodge was thus made the supreme legislative, judicial, and
executive authority of the fraternity ; thereafter every lodge
must be cn-ated by. and hold its existence at the pleasure of,
the grand lodge, " for the members of the grand lodge are
truly the representatives of all the fraternity." (Anderson's
Const itut ions, ITM.) Scotland and Ireland adopted the
same system later. Lodges were in existence upon the Con-
tinent, but they established a different system of govern-
ment. In a few jurisdictions this other system is not recog-
nized as Masonic, but it is diflicult to f>erceive how the four
hxlges had the right to prescribe the form of JIasonic gov-
ernment for the whole Ma-sonic world, or why the French
liKlges had not an eipial right to establish a different system,
provided the fundamental i)rinciples and landmarks of Ma-
sonry Were preserved. Several grand lotlges existeil in Eng-
land at different times, but one after anotiier united with the
grand lo<lge formed in 1717, although it was not till 1813
that one of them was merged in it.
The American Uevolution wus the cause of the affirma-
tion for the first time of a principle growing out of the laws
and usages of Masonry. In Knglaml, Scotland, and Iri'land
there then existed in<lependent grand lo<lges for those sev-
eral countries, the peers of each other. Kach of them ha<l
established lodges in the V. S. t)bediencc to the law of
one's country was then, as now, a law of Masonry. It was
generally held in the V. S. that allegiance to the Masonic
authority of another country was, or might be, incompatible
with his duty to the government of his own country. The
American lodges, therefore, took steps to form grand
lodges of their own. This claim was at first resisted, but it
has now become settled .Masonic law that the majority of
the Uxlges in a political division, possessing the rik'lit of
self-government, not less than three in number, have the in-
herent right to form a granil lodge for such political divi-
sion; this doctrine has been applied to the Slates and or-
ganized Territories of the American Union, as well as to the
864
District of Columbia, and the several dependencies of the
British crown. The consequence has been that the appar-
ent intention of those who organized the granil hnlge in
1717, that there should be but one grand lodge for the
whole World, has been overthrown, and more than sixty
grand lodges have been formed in the L'. S., Great Britain,
am) the dependencies of the British crown.
Another law, growing out of the law just mentioned, and
the creation under il of a plurality of grand lodges, has
been as.serled and fimilly acquiesced in by the British and
American grand lodges, viz., that a grand lodge so cre-
ated has at once exclusive an<l supreme iuris<liction overall
lotlges and JIasons in its territory, with concurrent juris-
diction in autonomous territories in which no grand hxlge
cxi.sts. The grand lodges with their lodges and members
of their respective obediences are Ma.Mjiiic nations, between
whom the " necessary laws of tuitions" (that is, the laws
growing out of natural justice) are in us full furce as be-
tween civil nations. In the case of the British grand
lodges there is a slight but necessary quulifioatiim of this
law : each one of them has exclusive jurisdiction in its own
home territory ; but in the dependencies of the crown, in
which no gran<l lodge exists, they have jurisdiction concur-
rent amciig themselves but exclusive as to all others.
The principal officers of a lodge arc elected annually by
the lodge, and the others are elected or appointed by the
master, as the by-laws provide ; they must ije installed be-
fore entering upon their duties, and hold office until their
respective successors are installed. Every lodge has the
riglit to choose a proxy to represent it in the grand lodge
in the absence of the master and wardens.
The principal officers of the grand ItMlge are elected by its
members, and the others appointed by the grand-master.
The same rule us to installation and tenure of office prevails
in the graml lodge as in the lodge.
The British system jirovides for provincial or district
grand lodges toai<l in administering tlie affairs of the craft,
in conseipience of the large number of lodges and the ex-
tent of the territory over which they arc scattered. At
their hea<l is a jiroviiicial or district grand-master appointed
by the grand-master under the authority of the grand lodge;
these oilicers and bodies have the powers and duties specific-
ally detineil in the constitution.
Although the proposition has in recent times been denied
by some, it is generally held that there are powers inherent
in the office of grand-master of which he can not be de-
prived ; among these powers is that of dispensing with some
of the provisions of the law in cases in which adherence to
it would,
the craft.
provision
Id, in his
is judgment, be subversive of the interests of
The forin of government of the institution seems happily
calculated to secure strength, permanency, and prudent ac-
tion. The representatives of the lodges represent the |)opu-
lar branch, wliile the permanent members are the senate of
the order ; the latter presumably, and in most cases actually,
have no persimal ambition to gratify ; they have hail a largo
experience, and have grown wiser thereby; these two ele-
ments, acting together in the same liody, necessarily influ-
ence each other without any of the jealousies invariably
arising between two sets of men acting separately in dif-
ferent bodies, whose action to be effective must be concur-
rent. Again, the permanent members are of the utmost im-
portance when the grand lodge acts in its judicial capacity;
Its decisions are often more far-reaching than its legislation,
while errors in the latter are much more easily corrected
than in the former. It is believed that its form of govern-
ment has contributed largely to its wonderful prosperity
during the last half century.
KiteK. — Thus far this sketch has been confined to what is
usually called the " symbfdic Masonry of the York liite."
But there are other bodies of this rite, and other rites. At
one time there was nn extensive manufacture of so-called
.Masonic degrei's: some of them have survived, and this ac-
count would not he complete without some mention of those
which have been very extensively cultivated.
The lo<lgc has iuris<liction over three degrees, called En-
tered Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and Master Mason; about 1745
another degree began to l)c cultivated called the Royal Arch ;
other degrees were conferred in connection with it; finally,
Thomas .Smith Webb aixl .lohn Ilanmer in the latter part
of the la.st <enlury arranged a system incluiling four degrees,
those of Mark Master, I'asl .Master. .Most Excellent Master,
and lioyal Arch, given in iKxlies calltnl chapters; they are
conferred only on Master Masons iu good standing.
594
MASUNKY
In the earlv part of the nineteenth century three dcprees
(called Kiiyal Slastor, Select Master, uiid Super-Excellent
Master), which had been termed "side dejrrees," were coni-
bined in a system called the Cryptic Kite; they are con-
ferred in bodies called councils ami only upon lioyal Arch
Masons. The systems of frovernmciit of Koyal Arch Mason-
rv and (.'ryptic Masonry are the same as that of symbolic
Masonry, except that ii'i the U. S. there are a general (;rand
chapter and a general pnind council, of which most of the
grand chapters and grand councils are respectively constitu-
ents. The number of Koyal ArchJIasons in the U. S. and
Canada is nearly 150.000, and the number of Koval and Select
Masters between liO.OOO and 40,000.
Menliim should also be made of the order of Knights
Templar, which is usually held to be a part of the American
Masonic system. Candidates mtist profess a belief in the
Christian religion, an important addition to the requisites
for ailmission into symbolic Miusonrj*. The orders are con-
ferred only on I{oyal Arch Masons, in comraanderics which
in this country are subordinate to a grand commandery in
each State anil Territory (except there is only one in Mas-
sachusetts and Khode Island), which in turn is subordinate
to the grand encampment of the U.S., the supreme power
of the order. The latter meets triennially, and its conclaye is
the occasion of the gathering together of a very large pro-
portion of the 50,000 knights enlisted under its banner.
The .\neient and Accepted Scottish Kite is the only other
rite that requires notice. Its scale of degrees, conferred
upon .Master Masons of the York Kite in good standing and
in lodges, councils, chapters, and consistories, numbers
twenty-nine, from the fourth to the thirty-second inclusive.
It has also an ollicial degree — the thirty-third. While the
members of its obedience are less numerous than those of
the York Kile, its cultivation is more widely extended
throughout the world than that of the York Kite. In many
jurisdictions, in which the York Kite does not exist, its
governing body has jurisdiction over the symbolic degrees,
and charters lodges to confer thera. The governing body
is a supreme council of the thirty-third degree, whose mem-
bers have a life tenure; it alone confers the thirty-third de-
gree upon postulants elected by itself, and fills vacancies in
its membership. There may be one supreme council in each
nation, but in the U. S. t%vo — one in the North and one in
the South. There are twenty-three supreme councils in the
world recognized as regular. The Supreme Council of the
Northern Masonic Jurisdiction of the U. tS. has the largest
obedience of the supreme councils of the world ; the mem-
bership of its consistories is (1893) 17,553; of its chapters,
17,759; of its councils, 18,226; and of its lodges, 20,441.
There are organizations claiming to be legitimate bodies
of this rite in the U. S. and other countries which are held
to be clandestine by the other supreme councils in the world ;
they are also under the ban of very many of the grand lodges
of the York Rite.
Principles. — The foremost fundamental principle of
Jlasonry is belief in God, and, as a necessary incident, the
acceptance of a Book of the Law as a revelation of his
will. Attempts have been made to substitute a " creative
principle" for God. the Creator, Kulcr, and Father; but in
the only case in which a governing body adopted the change,
the other Masonic powers formally declared that, by that ac-
tion, it has ceased to be a Maxonic organization, ami for-
bade Masonic correspondence with it, its subordinates, and
the members of its oWlience. " The fundamental principle
of Masonry is the Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood
of man " is another form in which the .same i<lea has been
expressed. To the Christian the Hook of the Law is the
Bible, anil to the Hebrew the Old Testament ; and no lodge can
be lawfully opened unless the Hook, of the Law lies open
upon the altar. Beyond this belief in God anil a Hook of the
Law. no religious test is allowed ; the laws governing JIasons
"oblige them to that religion in which all men agree, leav-
ing their particular opinions to themselves"; but if a .Mason
"rightly umlerslanrls the art, he will never be a stupid
atheist, or irreligious libertine."
All rules of conduct growing out of this fundamental
principle are taught anil enforced by Masonry. It has been
termed "a system of ethics — moral, religious, and philosoph-
ical— which relates to the social, ethical, and intellectual
progress of man." "A Mas<m is obliged by his tenure
to obey the moral law," as tersely slated in the ancient
chargiH, which also declare that brotherly love is "the
foundation and cope-stone, the cement, and glory of this
ancient fraternity." The brethren are charged that " every
human being has a claim upon your kind offices. So that
wo enjoin it upon you to "do good unto all.' while we rec-
ommend it more especially to the ' huuseliuld of the faith-
ful.'" The Ma.son is also taught that his duties to the in-
stitution and the fraternity do not conllict with, but are
subordinate to, his duty to God, his country, his family, his
neighbor, or himself; that the tenets of Masonry are brother-
ly love, relief, and truth; and that its "cardinal virtues"
are temperance, fortitude, prudence, and justice. lie is
charged " to be a good man and true"; "to be a peaceful
citizen, cheerfully to conform to the laws," and "to pay
proper respect to the civil magistrate"; "to work diligently,
live creditably, and act honorably by all men." To sum up,
]\Iasonry takes the law of God as the "rule and guide" of
its works as well as of its faith.
It should be added that Masonry teaches most impressively
the immortality of the soul, and the resurrection to a future
life " in that celestial lodge above where the Supreme Archi-
tect of the Universe presides."
Laws. — The laws of Masonry are largely derived from the
ancient usages of the craft; in its early days nothing was
committed to writing, and naturally every one followed the
practice which he had seen others follow ; as a result, usage
ultimately became law ; but aiurther result followed — that
nothing was law that was not in accordance with ancient
usage, and, as a consequence, that the law was unchange-
alile. It has become a maxim that "no man or body of
men am make innovations in the body of Masonry." These
unchangeable laws arc termed landmarks. While grand
lodges are the supreme governing bodies in their respective
jurisdictions, they are subject to these laws. So absolute
are they that if a governing body attempts to change them,
it merely [luts itself outside of the pale of Masonry. In all
matters not controlled by the landmarks each grand lodge
has full power of legislation. So we have three sources of
Masonic law : (1) The ancient usages of the craft; (2) grand-
lodge legislation; (3) by-laws of lodges. Masonry is so
much a law unto itself that in deciding any question the
first consideration is not " What are the general principles
of civil law applicable f" but " What are the ancient usages
of the craft f There are many Masonic laws which would
be held to be erroneous if tested by general principles of the
civil law; for examjile, ancient usage requires the presence
of the charter in order to open a lodge; on principle the
charter is only evidence of the rightful existence of the lodge,
and whether it be present or not there is no reason why the
lodge may not bo opened, and yet the Masonic law is that it
must be present. In fact, the most frequent errors in the
discussion of Masonic law arise from relying upon the prin-
ciples of the common law and methods under it, instead of
the ancient usages of the fraternity.
Methods of Teaching. — Jlasonry teaches by legends, al-
legories, symbols, forms, and ceremonies. This fact and the
secrecy in its work imlicate an ancient origin of the institu-
tion. Every ceremony, every badge of office, every adorn-
ment of the lodge, every article of Masonic clothing and
furniture — in fact, every thing upon which the eye rests and
every sound which reaches the ear in the working of a lodge
— are intended to teach or impre.>:s upon t he mind of the ini-
tiate a precept or princijilc of Masonry, while to the profane
they are meaningless.
MaMtnic Charity. — While Jlasonry more than any other
institution of human origin teaches the duty of charity in its
largest ami most sacred sense, it differs from other societies
most essentially anent relieving distress and want. It has
no system of "dues and benefits" by which one pays a fixed
amount at regular intervals, and thereby entitles himself to
relief in case of sickness without reference to his pecuniary
condition. Every Mason is bound to relieve the distress of
a worthy brother, his widow, or orphan to the extent of his
ability, and of his ability he is himself the sole judge. It is
true iliat dues are paiif to lodpes to create a charity fund,
primarily to relieve the necessities of the members of the
lodge, and secondarily any Mason in distress; but all claims
foi relief grow out of actual distress and not out of the pay-
ment of dues, and the lodge, as in the case of the individual
Mason, is the sole judge of the amount of relief it is able to
give in a particular case. Nor <ioes Masonic relief give any
ground for a claim to reimbursement. It must be admitted,
however, that there has been a tendency to depart from the
old rule, and to hold that a member of a lo<lge is entitled to
relief fnun his lodge, even to a full support, without refer-
once to the ability of the lodge; and also that a lodge which
relieves a member of another lodge is e.ntitled to reimburse-
I
MASONRY
595
ment; but it is KPncriiUy held that both tliese ohiiras arc at
variance with the hiw of Masonry in relation to charity.
Another evil has grown out of aflordinR relief by lodges ; it
has a tendency, ami has had the result, to weaken the sense
of obligation of individuals to give relief. Nevertheless, the
right of every distressed Mason to ask relief and the duty of
every Mason to grunt relief according to his ability remain
in all their primitive force; and under the landmarks of
Masonry no power can take away this right, or relieve from
this obligation.
StattslicK. — Grand lodges or other governing bodies exist
in almost every civilized country controlled by the Caucasian
race, and there are lodges in almost every part of the habita-
ble globe. In the very large proportion of them no statis-
tics are published, and it is therefore impossible to give an
accurate statement of the number of Masons in the world,
or even of the number of kxiges; an attempt to estimate
them wouhl be merely a guess biLsed uixm no reliable data.
This is true of the whole Masonic world outside of the U. S.
and the Dominion of Canada; in the former there are fifty
gram! lodges, and in the latter seven; the members of their
res[>ectivc olwdiences. according to the latest returns (for
1H'J3), number T13,;j;i;J (in U. S.) and 32,9o9 (in Dominion of
Cuna<la).
This sketch would not bo complete without the statement
that among the peoj)le of color in the U. S. Masonry is
claimed to exist, springing from the same source, profess-
ing the same principles, governed by the same laws, practic-
ing the same rites, and organized in the same manner as the
MiLsonry of the whites; but the latter do not recognize nor
hold Mas<inic coniirtunication with these organizations or
their members, JosiAU 11. Dkummond.
Masonry [from O. Fr. mafonerie, deri v. of mafon (whence
Eng. manon), from Low Ijat. ma'chio, nia«on, of uncertain
origin] : const ructiotis in stone or brick with mortar, classi-
fied into stone masonry, brick masonry, and concrete or
beton. Stone maxonry is divided into cut stone (or ashlar)
masonry and rubble masonry ; and rubble may be coursed
or uneoursrd. while the uncourseil may be squared rubble,
showing oiilv vertical and horizontal joints on the face, or
•rre(/u/ar ruii/e, with the joints running in random direc-
tions aeconling to the shajx-s of the stones. Concrete may
1)0 brick, stone, gravel, or shell concrete, depending on the
material use<l for balla.st. The front of a wall is termed
its face, and the material composing it facing, as distin-
guished from the back and backing, which apply to the rear
or inner surface of the wall. The interior is called the
heart, anil the material hearting or filling. When the face
or back of a wall is not vertical, but inclines toward the
wall from bottom to top, the inclination is called the batter
or bdtir. Thus "a face-batter of 1 in 20 " means that in a
height of 20 feet the face of the wall departs a foot from a
Vertical line. The method of arrangement of the stones or
bricks in order to secure strength and unity of mass is
called the bond. Headers arc those stones or bricks which
show an end upon the face and back of the wall, and there-
fore reach into the wall their entire length and bind it to-
gether transversely. Stretchers are laid to show their long-
est dimensions on the face or back, as the case may be, and
to give longitudinal strength. For walls of stone masonry
not exceeding 3 feet in thickness each hea<ler should extend
through from fiu'e to back, and is termed a through. In
thicker walls the headers should reach back at least 18
inches beyond the contiguous stretcher, and arc termed
binlers. The lower surface of a stone is termed its hirer
bed, the upper surface its upper bed. All the s[>accs between
contiguous atones are also called joints, whether above, be-
low, or at the sides. Ashlar is an external facing of cut
stone laid with close joints in courses, the (|uality of the
face-dressing being such— either axed, tooled, rubbed, or
polished — as will best suit the character of the material and
the design of the work under construction. In rock-faced
ashlar the face of each block is the natural fracture or split
of the stone, left umlressed or only deprived of large pro-
tuberances. The filling and backing behind an ashlar fac-
ing may be rough, irregular rubble, brickwork, or concrete,
preferably the latter in ini>st cases, unless rubble stones are
nieiity and cheap. The ashlar should Ite well bomled to the
hearting, for which purpose one-fifth to one-third of the
entire length of each course should be headers, and these
should not be placetl one above the other in contiguous
course, but so that the heatlers of each course shall rest on
or near the middle of the stretchers of the course below.
Ppfl
In important work, such as sea-walls, for example, the face-
ends of headers for a distance back equal to the breadth of
the stretchers are usually cut dovetail on the sides, the ends
of the stretchers fitting against thein being cut to corre-
sponding angles with the face of the wall, so as to give close
joints. The tails of the headers, in order to secure a good
bond with the hearting, are left with the rough rock-face on
the sides, although the beds, for convenience of laying, are
roughly dressed to general parallelism with each other. The
vertical and horizontal jtjints for a distance back equal to
the breadth of the stretcliers should therefore be formed ac-
curately and full, (Fig. 1 gives a transverse and a horizontal
section of a sea-wall on a con-
Crete foundation, with stone
facing and concrete backing.)
The practice of thinning off
the blocks from a few inches
from the face, .so as to show
close face - work, with little
lal)or of stone cutting, as in
Fig. 2, should be avoided. The
mcthoti of building with head-
ers and stretchers is not fol-
lowed in laying the thin ash-
lar, a kind of veneering, gen-
erally not over 4 inches or 5
inches in thickness, used for
facing the walls of city houses,
in which the only bond-stones
extending through or nearly
through the wall are those
forming the jambs to window
and door openings. The face-
stones, usually rubbed or fine-
ly axed brownstone or sand-
stone or polished marble, are
tied to the brick backing with
hoop-iron clamps, and even
these are sometimes omitted
where t he distance between the
jambs of the openings does not
exceed .'5 or 6 feet. The rise
or height of headers should
not exceed their width as seen on the face of the wall ; that
of stretchers should be somewhat less than their transverse
breadth. Where the batter is great — say, exceeding an an-
gle of 2.5° to 30' with the vertical — the l>ed-
joints should not be carried out horizontally
to the face of the wall, for the reason that
the lower edge of each face-stone would pre-
sent an angle so acute as to be liable to in-
jury from accidents and the effects of
weather. One method of construction rec-
ommended in such cases is to cut the beds
of the stones so that at least 4 inches in
width of the bed-joint shall be normal to
the face of the wall, as shown in Fig. 3.
There are objections to this device unless
the wall is under water, for the joints will
retain water, and will be injured by frost in
cold climates, and from the growth of vegetation during the
summer season in all climates. Moreover, the stone-cutting
is expensive. A better design is to secure the requisite
strength at the angle by allowing the stones to project be-
yond the face of the wall, as in Fig. 4. Indeed, it will gen-
erally be less expensive, and prtnluce stronger work, to lay
up the wall in offsets, as shown by
the dotted lines of Fig. 4. In com-
pressive soils, or where from any
cause it is dilTicult to get a solid
and unyielding foundation, addi-
tional thickness, so as to distribute
Flo. 1.
.,-:.„^
the weight over a larger area, should
bo given to the wall at the l>a.s»' ;
and in onler to lesson the weight
and cost of the superstructure with-
out endangering its stability it may
Ih' built hollow ; a concave batter is
sometimes given to the face. Fig. 5 shows a tninsverso
section, and Fig. 0 a iilan. of a stnicture of this description.
It is a river-wall in .Sheerness, Kngland. iiesigiu>d by licnnie.
Masses of cut stone in [xisitions expose*! to violent pressures
ami shocks, such as st-a-jetties. piers, and lighthous«-». should
have the component parts fastenc<.l together with great
596
MASONRY
strength. Not only should the stones of each course be
dovetailixl and notched or clamped into each other, so that
no single piece can move witliout displacing a large mass,
but each course should be firmly connected witli those above
and below it. To prevent sliding
tirojections may oe left in the
leds of one coui-se to fit into cor-
responding cavities of the con-
tiguous course, or cylindrical
cast-iron dowels, 6 to 8 inches in
diameter, may be placed in a
vertical position between courses,
extending some inches into the
blocks above and below. Heavy
wrought-iron bolts may be inserted vertically through sev-
eral courses to prevent the uplifting of the mass.
Common iincoiirsed rubble, generally styled random rub-
ble, is bnilt with stones of random shapes and sizes as they
'come from the quarry, willi onlv their most salient protu-
berances broken off with the scabbling-hammer. The only
iranlements used in laying are the trowel and plumb-rule,
and no attention is paid to courses. The interstices of
and Chatk dnut&C
■lithLih'e
Plan
Fia. ti.
the larger stones are filled in with those that are smaller
and with spalls, all well bedded in mortar. The face and
back of the wall shoidd be well bonded to the hearting with
headers, and the stones should be selected so as to lit to-
gether as closely as possible, anil thus reduce to a minimum
(he volume of mortar necessary to completely fill all the
voids ; but no two stones should touch each other. For the
angles or corners of a wall of this kind the stones should be
as nearly rectangular as can be found. .Vshlar is frequently
introduced at the angles and around window and dm.r open-
ings to obtain architectural effect, after the manner of the
opus incerlum of the ancients. With stone of a dark color
a fine effect can be produced by pointing the joints with
white mortar (Fig. 7).
Coiirned ruhhh. or xqunred rubble built in courses (Pig. 8),
differs from idnihnii rubble in being built of stones that
Fig. 8.
are, at least ap[)r()xinuitely, rectangular in form, so that
only vertical and horizontal joints are shown upon the face
of the wall, and they vary considerably in thickness. Al-
though the stones are laitl up in what are termed courses,
there is no uniformity in the heights of the several courses,
nor even in the stones of the same course, two or more
small pieces being often employed to obtain a rise equal to
that of a single large one; the height of a course being
equal to that of the highest stone in it. The top of each
cours.> is carefully finished to a plane level surface by filling
in voids and open spaces with rough rubble masonry or
spalls set in mortar or with concrete, so as to get a good
bed for the course which follows, especially for the headers,
which should be set .so as to be in close contact on their beds
throughout their entire length. When the stones run very
generally in rectangular blocks and of good size (contjiining,
'
1 I 1 I 1
rl
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 { 1 1 1 1 !
' 1
1
1 1 1 1 1 ol 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1 U 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 i
' 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
a-»
c-rf
1 1 1!
1 1 1
say, from 3 to G cubic feet), or are brought to that form by
cutting, a good strong bond can be secured by frequent
headers, and it is not desirable to lay them in built courses.
Indeed, the wall will possess greater longitudinal strength
by carefully avoiding contiinious horizontal joints. Such
work is sometimes called rubble masonry with horizontal
aiul vertical joints, or simply squared uncoursed rubble or
M ■ I 1 II II
' 1 1 1 1 II M '
1 1 1 1 1 II
' 1 1 ' 1 1 II II
III 11 II
1 1 II II II
11
1 II II 1
FlQ. 10.
irreyular coursed rubble. It is much >ised, and by most
architects and builders is preferred to coursed rubble, and
MASONKY
MASPKUO
597
by many to ashlar. With dark stone, showinjj a split rock-
fa(te, |)oiiit('(l with wliile mortar, a lirift arcliilciturHl effect
can be produced. Stone having a line cleavu(,'e is well suited
to this kind of work. When rnblde is laid without mortar
it is culled dry rulilile. It is generally " random."
Brick rndsiinrij, when both the brick and inortur arc of
pood fjualily and the work is well dune, is strong and dura-
ble. Various kinds of bond are used, tlio most usual being
Piatt' of S{re{c/ierChurs^
J*/a/t o/'-Ueai/rrorJJont/t/t^
/_
_ 1 11
I 1 11
1 1
II II II
1 1 1 ' 1 ' ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 '
II II II II 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
II II 1 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1
Jacr ofltn//.
Kio. 11.
the English and Flemish. The first (Kiir. fl) consists in
arranging the courses alternately, entinly as headers or
stretchers, the bricks through
the course breaking joints.
In the second (Fig. 10) the
bricks arc laid as headers and
stretchers in each course. The
first gives the strongest bond,
and the .second the best archi-
tectural effect. Hollow brick
walls arc much used, the thick-
ness of the inner shell being
usually 4 inches, or the width
of one brick. It is tied to the
outer wall at frequent inter-
vals with iron damps, or more
generally with bricks laid trans-
versely or diagonally (Kigs. 11
and 12), and bonded into the
masonrv at both ends. Mois-
ture will not condense on the
inner face of such a wall. The
expense of furring out with
wood and lathing is therefore
saved, and the danger from
fire lessened. The mortar for
brickwork should be iiuide with
clean, sharp, and rather fine-
grained sand, or preferably
grains of variable sizes. For
common lime-mortar the pro-
portions will be 1 volume of
lime-paste to from 3 to 4 vol-
umes of sand. Sea-sand, or
sand roumled bv attrition, is
not suitable, and neither sea-
water nor even brackish water
should be used in mixing. (For
the preparation of cement-
mortar, for either stone r)r
brick ina.sonry, see Ckmknt.)
The bricks should bo laid wet,
so that they will not rapiilly
dry the mortar by extracting
the moisture from it. .Ml the
void between the bricks should
be completely filled with mor-
tar, and no more mortar than
will suffice for this purpose
should be useil. The joints,
especially those between the courses, should not exceed a
quarter of an inch in thickness.
Fio. 12.
Concrete (Ijeton) masonry is admirably adapted to many
important purposes. A brief description of the method of
preparing aiicl laying it is given under Concreth. For
foundations in damp and yielding soils and all kinds of sub-
marine constructions ; for iiiiay-walls, jetties, piers ; for foun-
dations, hearting and backing of massive walls generally;
for cisterns, reservoirs, and Unks; for tunnels and a<]ue-
ducts, and for many r)ther purpo.scs, it pos-se-Sises advantages
over either brick or stone miusoiiry. For submarine ma.sonry
concrete possesses the advantage" that it can l>e laid without
exhausting the water (which is an expensive oiMTation under
the most favorable circumstances), and also without the aiil
of a diving-bell or submarine armor. (Jroined and vaulted
arches, and even entire bridges, dwelling-houses, and facto-
ries, in single monolithic nias.ses, with molded ornamenta-
tion of no mean character, have been constructc<l of this
material alone. Hy omitting the coar.se fragments or ballast
a smoother fiiii-ih and a more elaborate ornamentation can
be given to the surface. The material is then usually called
artificial stone, of which an excellent variety may be made
with Portland cement (dry) 1 volume and clean fine sand 21
volumes, mixed with little' water, so as not to be plastic, and
compacted in thin layers by ramming. The form to be
given to the construction is accomplished by a plank mold-
ing. In Kurojie a portion of the Portland cement is usually
replaced by siliceous hydraulic lime, like that of Theil, a
good formula being J volume of dry cement, 1 volume of dry
(slaked) hydraulic lime, and 4 volumes of sand. This mixture
was used in the construction of the aqueduct of the Vanne
for supplying water to the city of Paris. The pipe is Oi
feet in interior diameter, 9 inches thick at top, and 12 inches
at the sides at the water-surface, resting on an arcade, the
whole forming a single monolith. An entire Gothic church,
with its founilatioii, walls, and steeple, was built of this ma-
terial at Vcsinet, near Paris, as well as .several large hou.ses
in that city. It is extensively used in the U. S. A fine
and highly ornamented bridge'in Prospect Park, Hrooklvn.
and the fluted columns and other interior finish of St. Pal-
rick's cathedral in Fifth Avenue, New York, are constructed
of it. The foundation of the Statue of Liberty in New York
harbor to a height of 60 feet above high water is a mono-
lithic ina.ss of concrete, 91 feet square at the base and (55
feet square at the top.
The strength of masonry is always less than that of the
stone or brick of which it is formed, and it is a common
rule that the greatest stress per square inch on the base of
masonry structures should not exceed about \'>0 lb. p<T
square inch. Stones should be laid in the wall in a similar
position to that which they had in the quarry, as it is found
tliat the greatest durability is thus secured. The joints
should be laid .so that the pres.sure is uniformly distributed,
and so that the direction of the pressure is normal to them ;
in arched constructions this rule should be particularly ob-
served. Masonry is measured by the cubic yard, except that
trimmings and ornamental work is usually mea-sured by the
square foot of surface. The cost of nibble masi>nry ranges
from j!2 to if6 per cubic yard, that of ordinary bridge ma-
sonry from if6 to f 12 for second-class and from iJllO to ;J;20
for first -class work, while dimension stone masonry in granite
may often cost :Ji40 to $00. Sec Foindatio.n, Ari iliTEiTlKE,
HrIck, BuiLUiNO-STo.vE, aud Cement; also see .Mahan, C'ifi7
Engineering (1873); Kivingtons' aVo/c« on Building Con-
struction (187.5); Gillmore, Limes, Hydraulic Cements, and
Mortars (1874); same, Beton-Coignrl and other Artificial
Stone (1871); Baker's Masonry Construction (I8!K)).
Keviscd by Mansfield Mebriman.
Masdriill : S<h' MassorSh.
Mas'poro. Gaston: Egyptologist; b. in Paris, France,
June 24, 1H46: wils ediK'ated at the Lyc^ Louis-le-tirand
and the ftcide Normale ; became Profes,sor of Egyptian
Arch.Tolog>- and Philosophy at the College of France in
1874; received the decdralioii of the Ix'gion of Honor .Ian.
15, 1H71) ; founiletl a school of Egyiitian archaxilogy at Cairo
in 1881; was director of the Houlak Mii.seum from 1(*81 to
1886. Among his publications are Essni sur l' Inscription
Dedieatoire du Temple d' Abydos (l^i\): t'ne Enquite Judi-
ciaire d Thebes au Temps de In XX' fti/nastie (1872);
Quelques Xarigntiotis des Egyptiens sur les ( 'otes de t(%
iter Erylhrfe (187!(); I^s Contes I'opulairrs de V Egyptt
ancienne (1881); Lrs Mostnba de FAncirn Empire (1W<2);
Guide du Visiteur au Musee de lioulaq (1884 ; 2d o<l. 1885);
Histoire Ancienne drs I'euples d'Orient (188,'>) ; and L' Archt-
ologie igyplienne (1887). Editor of lierueil de tratxiux
598
MASQUERADE
MASSA
rtlalifi CHa philologie et a I'archMogie (gijptifnnes et as-
syrinmes. f. II. Tihhder.
Masqueradp. mas ke-rful [from Fr. mascarade. Span, ihim-
fani</(i, masiiiiiTailu, frum masfnrn, a mask]: an amusonunt
j;i'nera!lv consisting of a ball, public or private, in which the
participators wear masks for purposes of disguise. An ec-
centric costume was an early feature of the masiiuerade, anil
under the form of a " fancy ball" has nearly superseded it
in tireat Hritain and the I''. S., each guest personating some
mythological or historical character or assuming the costume
of some remote people. The niasi|ueiade proper nourished
in Italy in tlie fifteenth century, and was introduced at the
French court l>y Catharine de' Jledici, and at the F.nglish
in the time of Henry VIII. It doubtless arose from the
'• nuracles and mysteries" wliich were so popular in the
Middle Ages. To the present day a masked ball is in Ro-
man Catholic countries an invariable feature of the carni-
val, and on that occasion processions of maskers often pass
through the streets playing wild pranks.
Mastjnes: histrionic spectacles, Italian in origin, which
were popular in Kurope during tlic fifteenth an<l sixteenth
centuries. " Properly speaking, a masque was lujthing more
or less than a dance with masks, and a dance always re-
mained its central point." (Ward, i., 587.) In Italy, as the
masque was developed (hiring the sixteenth century, it was
either "a kind of ballet-interlude, to relieve the graver at-
tractions of a formal comedy, or assimilated the type of
processional pageantry upon occasions of public rejoicing."
(Symonds, 337.) In 1474 we hear of the form at the cele-
brations in honor of Leonora of Aragon when she passed
through Rome on her way to marry Krcolc d'Este. During
the succeeding century the masque, particularly at Ferrara,
Florence, and Venice, gained rapidly in ingenuity of plan,
expense, and magnificence. Vasari, Palladio, Tintoret, and
Veronese helped to develop it.
We first hear of the masque in England in 1512-13, at
Epiphany. Then Henry VI 1 1, and sunu' of his courtiers were
"disguised after the manner of Italy, called a mask" — the
disguising which Shakspeare represents in act i., sc. 4, of
King Henry VIII. In England the masque was at first
mu<-n simpler than in Italy during the same period, anil
differed in little except the masking from the "disguisings"
that before 1513 had been common at court. Only in a few
instances during the sixteenth century, though the masque
was liked by Henry and Elizabeth, and was sometimes given
even in the reign of Mary, did it at all approach the mag-
nificence of the Italian masques of the same century. A
notable instance was the entertaiununit given to Queen
Elizabeth by Lord Leicester at Kenihvorth in 157.5. (.See
Lanehain's Letter Describing the Pageants at Kenilworth
Castle.) When, however, .James I. came to the throne the
mas(pie developed rapidly, for the form was a great favorite
with him and his family. The courtiers took delight in the
masques because in them they could dance and pose to their
own admiration and that of their friends, and because in
them they could vie with one another in splendid entertain-
ments for .lames that made easy the most fulsome flattery
of him and hi.s. The nuisques became the amateur the-
atricals of the jieriod — -very costly, but very popular. The
interest of the common people in them passed all bounds,
and when a masque was to be given at Whitehall citizens
and their wives fought and intrigued to win entrance to the
hall where the masque wa.s given. (See Robin Goodfellow's
words in Jonson's Love Hestored.) At Christmas and at
Shrovetide the king and the queen, each of them, provided
H masque for the entertainment of the court; nobles gave
them, at weddings, at tills, at their countrv-seats when
visited by royalty; the Inns of Court and the universities
were rivals in flattering the king and tlie queen with splen-
did masques devised in their honor. To meet the demand
mmw of the dramatists turned aside from their regular
dramatic work to write these airy trifles. Foremost among
them stands Men .lonson, followed by Chapman, Fletcher,
IJeauiuont, Middleton, Shirley, Daniel, and others. Inigo
.lones devised the mechanical contrivances for the nuisipu's;
Ferrabosco wrote the music; Thonuis Giles, nuister of the
children of the Cliai)el I{oyal, arranged the dances. The
form always remained elastic. "The degree in which a
nui.s(|ue mixed the elements of dechunation, dialogue, music,
decoration, and scenery was determined by no inner law,
but merely by the circumstances of each particular case.
In its least elaborate form — from a literary point of view —
it nearly approaches the pageant, .so consistently favored by
the citizens of London; where the characters were more
carefully worked out, where sonu>thing like a plot kept the
whole together, and where something like an action was in-
troduced, it trenched to some extent u])on the domain of the
drama." (Ward, i., 5K7.) In Englancl one very marked ad-
dition was made to the masque: in Italy the work of the
poet in a nuisqiu> had been but slight ; in lOngland gemiino
poetry — lyric particularly — became one of the characteristics
of the form. Jonson developed, too, the anti-masque — usu-
ally, though not alwavs, preceding the nuisque proper —
which served as a foil of comedy to the grace and the
splendor of the main masque. In this anti-ma.sque profes-
sional a<'tors and <lancers appeareii ; in tlie nnisque proper,
as a rule, nearly everything was done by the noble amateurs
interested in presenting the masque. Queen Anne, the
Princes Henry and Charles, the Countesses of Arundel and
Bedford, Lady Arabella Stuart, and many others of the
court, acted in these entertainnu'nt.s. They were very ex-
pensive, averaging £1,400 apiece, equivalent, perhaps, to
four times that amount at the present day ; and in special
cases much more was spent — for the Triumph of Peace of
Shirley and Jones, given at Whitehall in U>34 by the Inns of
Court, £"^0,000 were expended. The care ]iut upon the scenic
effects and the mechanical contrivances was very great.
Necessarily, of course, the intense interest for a number of
years of all ranks of the people in these masnues had some
effect on the regular drama of the time. Tne active part
the nobility took in them aided in liringing the drama and
the courtiers into that close connection of the two that marks
the decadence of the Elizabethan drama ; ma.*(iues and
masque-like effects appeared in plays of the time, for in-
stance, in The Tempest, The Maid's Tragedy, and The
Duche.'is of Malfi; and, chief influence of all, the attention
paid to scenic effects must have done much to bring elabo-
rate scenery to the rather barren boards of the regular
theaters.
Charles I. by no means did without masques, but ex-
pended less upon them than did his father. As a whole, too,
in his reign they fell off in literaryvalue, t hough to this period
(1634) belong the Arcades and the Comus of Milton, both of
which show the influence of the masques that preceded them.
Indeed, as Mr. Symonds has said, in Comus a reader sees
" how the scenic elements of the masque, touching the fancy
of a great poet, became converted into flawless poetry be-
neath his hand." With the coming of the Commonwealth
and the cessation of all dramatic performances, the masque
practically disappeared. See, in general, Symonds, The
Predecessors of tthakspere ; Ward, A History of English
Dramatic Literature ; for Jonson"s masques, see Caris-
brooke Library, Masqites and Entertainments of Ben Jon-
sun. George P. Baker.
Mass: See Force and Dynamics.
Mass: in the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharistic obla-
tion. The derivation of the word is disputed. Most probably
it comes from the termination of the service, Ite, missa (=
demissio) est (sc. ecclesia) — Go, you are dismissed — and not
from the Hebrew, nDD. missah, or the Greek ixvniris. The
Ma,ss is ofl'ered in obedience to Christ's command, " Do this
for a commemoration of me." (Sec Transi bstaxtiation.)
It is a sacrifice in which the separate consecration of the
bread and of the wine "shews the death of the Lord" (1
Cor. xi. 26), ami in which his body and blood are received
in communion. These essentials of the Jlass are preceded
and followed by extracts from the Psalms, Epistles, and
Gospels, and by prayers, some of which arc always recited,
while others vary according to the season or according to
the purpose for which the Mass is offered. These, as well
as the ceremonies of the Mass. differ considerably in the
various rites. In the Western Church, the Latin rite pre-
vails; in the Eastern, the Greek, Syriac, Coi)tic, etc., are
still distiiu4. A Tmw Mass is one which is celebrated with-
out chant, incense, or the assistance of deacon and sub-dea-
c<m. With these additions it is called a High Ma.ss. A
Requiem Mass is offered for the deaii, and Pontifical Mass
is celebrated by a bishop. J. J. Keane.
Mas'sa, or Massa di Carrara : town in the province of
Massa. Italy; on the Frigido ; 7ti miles S. E. of Genoa (see
map of Italy, ref. 4-C). The mildness atul sahdirity of the
climate are alnuxst unrivaleil in Italy. The city is a bish-
op's see, and has several educational institutions and a
public library. Tobacco, oil, and paper are manufactured.
The national palace is a noble structure, built by the princes
^ AfASSACHUSETTS 35^
o.
#
c.
MASSACHUSETTS
59»
Seal of M
of the house of Cyljo. Miissa is first incntioncil in the ninth
century. It was for a Ion;; time subject to the rf|iul)lie of
Lucca, but in the liftecntli century tlie Cvbo family Ix-came
its feudal lords, and Alberic 1. built tlie new town and
gave Jlassa a civil and penal code remarkable for that age.
Pop. (1881) 8,iJU8.
Massilc-hilSfltS: one of the U. S. of North America
(North Atlaiilic ^roup) ; the sixth of the original thirteen
States that ratilicd the Federal Constitutiuu ; popularly
known as the Hay .State.
Locatiun and Area. — It lies between the parallels of 41°
14' (south slioiu of Nantucket) and 43 53' N., and between the
meridians of 6!)'
55 and 'A' 30' W.
hm. from Green-
wich ; bounded
on the N. by Ver-
mont and New
llamiishire, on
Die K. by the At-
lantic Ocean, on
the S. by the
Atlantic Ocean,
Rhode Island, and
Connecticut, on
the W. by New
York .State ; great-
■ st length, from
Nausct Beach,
Tape t'od, to the
western line of
Jit. Washington
township, 184
miles; distance from Cape .\nn to the New York State line,
same parallel, 138 miles; greatest breadth from the New
Hampshire line at Salisbury to the southern line of Nan-
tucket. 113J miles; average breadth between Vermont and
New llaiiipshiro on the N. an<l Connecticut and Khoile
Islanil on the S., 4TJ miles. The measurement of its area,
taken from the Hordeii .State map in 1844, is 8.500 sq. miles;
from surveys and maps of II. V. Walling, 8,160 s<|. miles;
from the map of the Coast and Geodetic .Survey, 8.336 sq.
miles: from the topographical survey in 1887, us given in
the report of Henry Gannett of the U. S. Geological Survey
to the commissioners, 8.315 sq. miles. The mean of these
diflerent estimates is 8,327 sq. miles. The area of ocean
water from the low-water line of the coast, as defined by
statute, to the "outer line of the Commonwealth," one ma-
rine league from this low-water shore-line, is 1,941 sq. miles,
making the total area of land and water within the jurisdic-
tion of the Commonwealth, as ba.sed ujion the above e.sti-
malos, 10,268 si|. miles. Its entire coast-line, inchuling the
shores of capes and bays, but excluding minor indentations
and islands, is nearly 300 miles.
Physical Feittnres. — The extreme western part of the
State is crossed bv two mountain chains — the Taconic, or
Taghkanic, and the Hoosac, a continuation of the Green
Mountains of Vermont. These inclose the Housatonic valley,
which at its northern enil is 1,100 feet above the sea, and at
its southern 800 feet. The Taconic range contains the high-
est eminence in the State : Greyloek, or Saddleback, in Adams
township, Herkshire County, 3,.505 feet high, and Mt. Kverett,
or Washington, in the southwestern corner of the siime coun-
ty, 2.t)24 feet high. The Hoosac range has a somewhat regu-
lar elevation of from 1.200 to 1.600 feet, and never exceeds
2,510 feet. A rugged table-land from 1,000 to 1..500 feel high,
and cleft by deep river valleys, extends from the Hoosac
Mountains to the Connecticut river valley. Here is found a
series of distinct trap ridges, the continuation of a range hav-
ing its si>uthern end in West HiK'k, at New Haven, Conn.
This, as it enters .Massachusetts, approaches the Connecticut
in a northeasterly direction until, near the western bank of
the river, u few miles below Northampton, it rises to a height
(Mt. Tom) of 1,200 feet. On the opiM)site side of the river,
in South lladley, it attains (.Alt, Holyoke) a height i>f 1.120
feet; then curving more to the E. it extends for 10 miles.
The valleysof the Connecticut, the Deerfield, and the Housa-
tonic, are noted for their Ivautiful scenery. The surface
between the Connecticut and HIackstone rivers is maiidv a
broken table-land about 1.000 feet high, containing a number
of isolated summits, which belong to the mountain system
of New Hampshire. Wachusett, the most conspicuous, is
2,018 feet high. The State, K. of Worcester County, is un-
dulating or hilly, descending gradually toward the ocean.
The coa.st counties. e.-[>ecially Bristol an<l I'lyiuouth, contain
large tracts of nearly level land, from which rise rounded
hills. The highest point of land near the ocean (620 fiet)
behiiigs to the Blue Hills of Milton. The rocks at Cape Ann
are bold and picturesque. Cape Cod, comprising the county
of Barnstable, largely consists of glacial sands and gravels,
interspersed with numerous [xinds. but contains arable land.
From the line separating the towns of Plymouth and
Bourne it extends east wanl alxiut 35 miles, rarely exeee<ling
7 miles in width, then bends towar<l the N. and flnallv
curves toward the W. The eastern coiust of the State I's
bordered in places by extensive salt marshes, and in the
southeiustern counties there are numerous swa!n|)S. where
cranberry-culture is carried on. Like Cape Cod, the islands
S. of the State are nioderutelv level ami sandy. The prin-
cipal islands are Martha's \ ineyard (about 100 sq. miles)
and the sixteen Elizabeth islands (about 13 S(|. mile.s), con-
stituting the county of Uukes ; Nantucket (ul)Out 17 miles
long) which, with three or four small islands, constitutes
Nantucket County ; Monomoy, off the southea-stern extrem-
ity of Cape Cod, and I'lum island, a sand spit, off the north-
eastern coast of Essex County.
Bai/s, Ihirburs, liicers. and Lakes. — The largest bay is
Mas.sachusetts, which contains Boston Bay, Lynn, Marble-
head, .Salem and (jlouccster harbors ; Cafie t'od, next in
size, contains Duxbury Bay, Plymouth harlxjr, Barnstable
harbor, Wellfleet Hay, and Provincetown harbor, at Prov-
incetown. Third in size is Buzzard's Hay. 30 miles in length
and averaging 8 miles in width. shellere<l from the Atlantic
by the Elizjibcth islandsand containing New Bedford, Fair-
haven, Wareham, and other harlK)rs. Cotuit harbor and
Lewis Bay on the south side of the Cape, and Plea.-^ant Bay
and Nausct harbor on the open Atlantic side, are among
the numerous indentations of the coast-line. Martha's
Vineyard hits the harbors of Vineyard Haven and Edgar-
town ; Nantucket has a deep and nearly landlocked harlior.
North of Boston harbor are Lynn harbor, Nahaiit Hay, .Mar-
bleliead, Salem, Beverly, and Gloucester harbors, Sandy Hay
in Kockport, Anniscpiam harbor on the northern coast of
Ca|)e Ann, and the harbor formed by the mouth of Merrimac
river. The harbor of New Bedfoixl ranks next to that of
Boston in it.s odvantages. The stretch of water lietwccn the
Elizabeth islands and Martha's Vineyard is called Vineyard
Sound, and that between the maitdand and Nantucket, Nan-
tucket Sound. The principal river, the Connecticut, has a
course of more than .50 miles in Massachusetts, cutting
through the range containing Mt. Tom and Mt. Holyoke.
Its witlth varies from 450 to 1,000 feet ; at Montague and
at South lladley it is broken by falls; at .Springfield its
bed is only 40 feet above the (K'ean. Its watersheii in the
State has a lireadth from E. to W. of about 60 miles. Its
chief tributaries from the W. arc the Agawam or Westfield
and the Deerfield rivers. The principal tributaries from
the east are Miller's and Chicopee rivers. The Housatonic
rises in Berkshire County, anti flows through Coiniecticut
into Long Islaml Sound, The northwestern iiart of the State
is drained by the Hoosac, which pas.><-s into New York State
and joins the Hudson. The largest stream E. of the Con-
necticut, the Merrimac. has its sources in New Hampshire,
but for 35 miles it flows through Massachusetts and empties
into the .-Vtlantic at Newburyport. It is navigable for ves-
.sels of 'iW tons as far as Haverhill, 15 miles from its mouth,
ami on its banks are situated Lawrence, Lowell, and other
large manufacturing cities. The Nashua unites with the
Merrimac in New Hampshire, but has its sources in Worces-
ter CO., Mass. The Concord, another tributary, is formed by
the junction of the Sudbury and .Vssjdn't rivers, and joins the
Merrimac at Ijowell. The Charles river, a winding stream
alxjut 75 miles in length, empties into the estuary between
Boston and Cambridge. It is navigable to Walertown, 7
miles from Boston. The Blackstone river. 75 miles in length,
rises in Worcester County, crosses the northeastern corner
of Uliode Islanil, and below Providence ex|iands into an es-
tuary ealle<l Pawtucket or Seekonk river, an extension of
Proviilence Bay. Taunton river rises in Plymouth County
and empties in Mt. Ho[>e Bay at Fall Kiver. It is navigablo
as far as Taunt<in. .Snialler rivers are the Fn'nch. .Mill,
Ware. .Swift, Shawsheen, .Spicket, and Ni'mosket. Nearly
all the streams are utilizeil for mantifactuhng purjHiscs,
liftkn Uuinsigainonil, near Worcester, Watuppa Poml, near
Fall Uiver, and Long, .Assowompsett, and (ir«>at (juittacus
Ponds in Plymouth County arc among the few landlocked
bodies of water of largo size.
600
MASSACIIUSKTTS
Geoloti'l —Most of the geological strata extoii.l iii broad
ban.is acmss the State from N. to S. The rocks arc lari;cly
metamorpliic, both the Archa-ai. iiiul Pahcozuic systems beiiiK
represented. To the former llitihcotk lussigns the fel.l-
suathic aiul calcareous gneiss of the lUK)sac range, small ureas
ofsvenite on either side of the Connecticut valley sandstones.
the "wide stretch of gneissic rocks between the Connecticut
river and Worcester, the mica schists found hi connection
with granite about Amherst and Leverett, the syenite and
Dorphvrv of Eastern M.ussachusctts, and possibly the feld-
Jnathic gneiss and the granite of Plymouth and linsto ( oun-
ties and the gneiss and hornblende schist of Jluldlesex
Count v Syenite covers most of Essex and Norfolk Counties :
Archivan and PaUcozoic granite is found along the coast (on
Cape Ann and at Quiiicv and other places there are extensive
quarries), also in parts of Hampshire and !• ranklin Counties.
Solerites form the llolyoke range. The Paheozoic series \V .
of the Connecticut include Cambrian, Silurian, and even De-
vonian limestones, quartzites, schists, and slates. Olenellus
and Paradoxides. limestones and slates occur in Essex iind
Middlesex Counties: grits and conglomerates, of probable
Carboniferous age. in SutTolk County. A great part of Hnstol
and Plvmouth Counties consists of Carboniferous rocks, but
the anthracite thev contain is of little value. The Connec-
ticut valley basin is composed of Mesozoic sandstones and
shales of great thickness, containing the fossil footprints of
large reptiles, amphibia, and other forms of animal life.
The strata of the west part of Martha's Vineyard are Cre-
taceous and Tertiary, the latter probably of Miocene age.
Cai)c Cod, Nantucket. and the east part of Martha s \ ineyard
superticially are comiwsed of drift material, a confused mass
of bowlders', sand, and gravel. The same materials are found
in the Connecticut, ifousatonic, and other minor valleys;
and the effects of the ice-sheet that at one time covered the
State are everywhere seen. The Elizabeth islands and Nan-
tucket are in part formed of terminal moraines. Bowlders
of large size are numerous on Cape Ann, Cape Cod, and
elsewhere. The famous Plymouth rock is a bowlder which
wa-s transported from the northern part of the State.
The principal mineral resource is granite, in the produc-
tion of which the Slate has ranked first for many years.
Several varieties are found, viz. : Hornblende, in Norfolk
and Essex Counties ; hornblende-biotite. in Essex County ;
epidote, in Norfolk Countv ; biotite in Norfolk, Middlesex,
Bristol, Worcester, and Plymouth Counties ; biotite-niusco-
vitc, in Worcester snd Berkshire Counties; and also bio-
tite-gneiss, in Middlesex, Essex, Worcester, and Hampden
Counties; diabase, in Jliddlesex and Hampden Counties;
and melaphvre, in Suffolk County. In the census year 1890
there were 151 quarries in operation ; the combined produc-
tion was 9,587,01)6 cubic feet ; and the total value was |3,50:i,-
503. Of the production 6.648,70:5 cubic feet were for build-
ing purposes; 1,475,093 cubic feet were for street work;
509,087 cubic feet were for cemetery, monumental, and deo-
orative purposes ; 252,388 cubic feet were for bridge, dam,
and railway work ; and 707,825 cubic feet were for miscel-
laneous purposes. Of sandstone, 21 quarries yielded 1,967,-
179 cubic feet, valued at $649,097 ; and of limestone, 12
quarries yielded a product valued at -tl 19,978. Brick clay
is found in the valleys of all the jirincipal streams; creta-
ceous clay on the islands S. of the coast at Gay Head ; rho-
donite, a' beautiful ornamental stone, said to be as rich as
the Siberian variety, near Cumraington ; and rock kaolin at
Andover. In 1891 the yield of the principal mineral pro-
ductions was in value: Granite, ^2,600,000; .saiulstone,
$400,000 : and limestone, of which llie greater part came
from Berkshire Countv and was burned into lime, $100,000.
Of iron ore, 47,502 long tons of brown hematite were mined.
There are a number of well-known mineral and other
springs, whose waters have a large sale.
Soil and Proditr/ions.—'Sluch of the soil is naturally
sterile. Excepting Cape Cod. where there are long stretches
of sandy, treeless flats, the surface was originally covered
with heavy forests. After the forest growths were removed,
the soil did not yield to the fanner so quickly and freely as
had been anticipated, and the present productiveness is due
to his skill and patience in cultivation in a larger measure
than has been the ca.sc in almost any other agricultural State.
There are founil in the State. 3 species of ^line. 12 of oak. 4
of hickory, 6 of birch, 5 of jioplar, H of willow, 2 of elm, 2
of cedar,"3 of lush, 4 of cherry, 5 of manle, besides several
species of laurel, cornel, viburnum, sumach, elder, and grape ;
the beech, butternut, black walnut, spruce, larch, hornbeam,
tulip-tree, tupelo, buttonwood, mountain ash, sassafras, dog-
wood hoUv, rhododendron, sweet bay or small magnolia,
and many other trees and shrubs. The State board of agri-
culture and the Stale agricultural experiment station at Am-
herst have greatly aided the farmer in making fertile a soil
naturally unpromising.
The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value or
the i>rincipal crops for the calendar year 1893:
CBOFS.
Corn
Oats
Rye
Barley
Buckwheat
Tobacco. . .
Potatoes...
Hay
Totals .
A»««««.
40.460
1.5,880
10,140
1,821
2,473
2,640
29.a49
630.018
732,211
Ykld.
l,8.'>.').4IObush.
641.104 "
i64.ati8 ••
46.071 "
68.008 "
4.356.000 Ih.
3.492.531 bush.
724.555 tons
Valiu.
$840,354
220.124
123.201
41.464
51.006
696.1160
2.6M.S24
12,556,538
$17,188,971
The number and value of farm animals on Jan. 1, 1894,
were estimated as follows: Horses, 65.760, value $4,802,581 ;
milch-cows 178,135, value $5,789,388; oxen and other cat-
tle 86 422 value $2,308,502; sheep, 51,441, value $187,760;
anil swine. 63.895, value $724,622— total head 445,653, toUl
value $13,812,853. . . , v i •
Zouloc/i/.— With the exception of deer, nrotected by law m
Plymouth and Barnstable Counties, and the wild-cat the
large wild animals have become extinct. The existing mam-
mals include the gray an<l the red fox, the mink, land otter,
raccoon, porcupine, muskrat. woodchuck, weasel, grampus,
and porpoise. The authentic species of birds found in the
State number 316. Of these, about 135 breed within the lim-
its of the State and 70 are classed as rare or occasional visitors.
There are over 100 species of marine fishes ; about 20 species
are found in the fresh-water streams and ponds. There are
marked differences between many of the fishes and mollusks
found on the north and south sides of Cape Cod. Among
the rei)liles are 3 species of vcnemous snakes.
Cli7nate.— The climate in general is cool, with prevailing
east and noriheast winds from February to May, and with
west and southwest winds during the summer and fall. A
marked characteristic is its variety. A winter is seldom
pa.ssed without a few days of extreme cold weather, and
short spells of extreme heat are often exi>erienced in sum-
mer The winter .season from December to March is usually
cold and rigorous, the ground being sometimes covered with
snow during most of the entire period. The proportion of
snow and rain in the eastern or eoa.st section is considerably
less than in the interior or western i)art of the State. In
the eastern secticm the spring is in advance of the in-
terior and western paris, generally from a week to a fort-
night and the frosts, except in some particular localities,
are not so eariv or severe. Droughts of longer or shorter
duration are 6ften experienced, but the climate on the
whole is favorable for agriculture. The average annual rain-
fall is about 48 inches. .
The following table shows the average rainfall at Spring-
field, in the Connecticut valley, and at Boston, on the
coast : •
MONTHS.
May
June
July
August
September .
October
B<MtOO,
kv«n4t« for 93 )-•
8 57
3-22
3 59
4-47
800
406
Springfield,
•Tcragv for 46 ytan.
417
380
4'51
4 53
3'49
415
The following table .shows the average temperature of the.
two cities :
MONTHS.
May
June
July
August
Septeinl>er .
October
BoaloD.
SpHoilitlll,
ftTeruK* for 93 ytan.
•nnwa for 9« ytm.
66-2»
B9-2°
65-9''
«8-8*
71 Ko
78 2»
68 5»
70- 6'
62- 1°
62 ■8'
51-6°
W9«
At Amherst, where the meteorological observatory of tho
Mussachusetls Agri.nillural C..llege is located the average
temperature from 1836-63 (twenty-f^ve years) was Decem-
ber, .lanuary, and February, 24-53' F. : June, July, August,
68-26 F.; and from 1862-87 (twenty-five years) December,
January, February, 25-2r P. ; June, July, August, 68-dJ F.
MASSACHUSETTS
601
Diviniunn. — For ajministrative purposes, Massachusetts
is Jiviilfd into foiirlwii couiilies, as follows:
COUNTIES A.VD
COUNTV-TOW.NS, WITH POPULATION, FOtt 1895.
COUNTIES.
•R«f.
Pop. Pbp.
UiO. ISM.
OOtlNTVTOWNS. 1 ^^
Barnstable
Bt-rkKhire
Brit>t4)l
5-K
2-C
5-1
0-J
l-I
2-E
S-D
S-E
2-H
8-K
5-1
4-J
2-1
8-F
29,172
81,108
186,465
4,869
299.995
38.610
1.%^.718
51,859
431,167
3,288
118,960
92.700
481,780
27.6^4
80.2«2
219.019
4,238
330,393
40.145
152.9:«
54.710
499,217
3.016
134.S1II
1U1.4WS
539. run
BarnHtaliie
I'ilt.sli.-lJ.
t Nt-w IVdford, .
'( Tftnnlou
Kil»rurti>wn
\ I^wr»'ncc ...
' Nfwburyport. .
( Salem
Cireeufield
Si)rinKllel<i . . . .
Nnrtliainplon. . .
J t'aniliriclKi-
1 Ix<«ell.
Nuntncket.. ..
Oeilham
I'lynioutli
HoHton. -
\ Kitchburp. . .
'( Worcester
■I.M5
SI), 101
1. !>!•'>
.W.llH
I4,.\52
Franklin
llaniiMl**n
Hampshire
MiUdlescx
Nantucket
Norfolk
:m.<7S
0.229
.'.!,. '.22
18,746
Kl.tUa
tM.;i«7
3.016
7.211
Plyniuuth
SiifTulk
7.BB7
4!K1.!120
Worcester
280,787 1 303, H5
20,409
98.707
2,238.(M3 2 .tao'lHH
* Reference for location of counties, see map of Ma.ssachusetts.
CiliM and Tuims, with Popntalion in IS'.io. — The popula-
tion of the principal cities wius as follows: l{osti>n, 4!10,920;
Worcester, i»8,707 ; Full Kiver. 8U,20;i ; Lowell, 84.:i6T : Cuiii-
briilge, 81,G43 ; Lvnn, Gi,:5.'J4 ; New Beilforil, .j.j.i.ll ; Soiner-
villc, .la.'JOO; Lawrence. .Vi.KU; Sprinplielil, ol,.VJ2; Hol-
voke, 4(J,;i-'-' ; .Salem, :i4,47;! ; lJii>ckton. :{;i,lt)5 ; Chelsea, 31,-
204; Haverhill, yo,2U'J: Maiden. 2!l,70.s: (iloucester. 28.211 ;
Newton, 27..^>'JO: Tuunlon. 27.115 ; Fitelil.uif,', 2(J,40!» : Wal-
tham, 20.870; tjuiney. 20.712; and I'itlslicld, 20,401, all
other cities and towns being under 20,000.
Po;»m;<j/ 1071.— Pop. (1880) 1.783.08.5; (1890) 2,2.38.943, of
whom 1,087,700 were male, l.t.51,234 female, 1..J81.80G native,
657.137 forei{;n. 2.21.').373 white, 2;5,."i70 colored. The colored
comprised the folluwiiiK cleincnts: Of African descent, 22,-
144; Chinese, 984; civilized Indians, 424; .lapanese, 18.
InduMries and liiigineix Intensfs. — The State is exten-
sively devoted to manufacturiiif;. The leading industries are
textiles, boots and shoes, machines and raathincry, metals
and metallic Roods, and paper and paper gotxls. HuUetins
of the eleventh U.S. census (1890) report the following sta-
tistics as to capital invested, persons employed, and output
in the various hranclies of the textile industry : Cotton — per-
sons employed, 7."i..')44 ; capital invested, $128,838,837; value
of output. #100.202,882. Woolen goods (including woolens,
worste<ls, wool hat,s, carpets, felt goods, and hosiery and knit
goods) — persons employed, 43,038; capital invested, |17.">,-
665,037; value of output, #72,681,408. Shoddy— persons
employed, 435; capital invested, $939,0.50; value of output,
$1,170,080. Silks (including trimmings, braids, and other
silk gii(Kls) — p<'rsons employeil. 2.993; capital invested, $3,-
3.53,296; value of output, $5,.557,.569. Dyeing and finishing
textiles — persons employed, 4.270; capital investeil, $11,-
99(3.1.54; value of work done, $«.496,215. Heturns annually
made to the State bureau of statistics of labor indicate cap-
ital invested and annual output in the other leading indus-
tries as follows; Boots and shoes — caj)ital invested. $41,906.-
981 ; annual output. $14-5.151.981. Machines and inac'hinerv
—capital invested. $33,306,848; annual output. $31,101,810.
Metals and metallic gooils— capital invested, $3!I..58(MI82 ;
annual outjuit. $57.800.0.54. Paper and paper goods— <apital
iiive.~te.l. $22,!t31,364 ; annual output, $28.853,.520. The en-
tire capital invested in all industries in the Comtnonwealtli
is esijjnuted at $.568,963,681, and the aggregate output at
|s71.(Kil.l03.
Fisheries. — In the census year 1890 there were 101 vessels
of the U. S. engaged in the pelagic whaling industry, anil of
the total 70. or 6931 per cent., hailed from ports in Mas.sa-
chusetts, which also had 6534 per cent, of the total toniuige.
Of the home ports. Bostrm had 1 ves.sel ; Kilgartown, 3 ; New
Bedford. 57; and Provincetown, 9. These ye.s.sels were
Vttlue<l at $578,800, and carried appitratus valued at $95,376,
and an aggregate crew of 1,909 persons. The pnxluct of
the year's fisheries was: .Sperm oil. 718,06.5 gal., value $454,-
700;' ambergris, 73 lb„ value $23,200; ivory, 1,649 lb., value
$1,424: whalebone, 12.5.931 lb., value $419..520: and whale
oil. 232.238 gal., value $89,643: total value of pr.Klucts,
$988,487. In 1892. of the products of the entire whale-lish-
eries of the U.S., New Bedford had the largest receipts of
sperm oil. In the calendar year 1892 Uiere wore in the State
Shad,
; men-
iped ba.ss, 2,273; scup, 2,423,923; sque-
cKerel, .5,394,3.52 ; Spanish mackerel, 48;
193 inland fisheries, which had the following catch
16.928; alewives, 3,179,92;); s<-a-herring, 17.241.072
ha<len, 120,744; striped ba-ss, 2,273;
teugiie, 70,.345 ; ma<.'li
bluefish, 64,390; taut<.g, 4.5.940; fiounilers and Hatfish,
423,541 ; eels, .38.194 ; and other edible fish, 1,020,997.
Commerce. — Massachu.--et ts luus eleven [torts of entry : Barn-
stable, Boston, Edgarlown, Fall Hiver, Gloucester, .Marble-
heiul, Nantucket, New Bedford, Newburyport, Plymouth,
anil .Salem.
/'(H(i;ire. — On .Ian. 1, 1894, the nominal aggregate debt of
the Commonwealth was $34,811,410. but deducting the met-
ropolitan sewerage loan of $5,000,000, and the armory loan of
$1,080,0(X), both of which are to be paid bv sinking funds
created by S|K'cial taxation in the cities anil towns directly
benefited, together with the Fitchburg Kailroail securities
loan of $5,000,000, which is specially proviiled for, the actual
indebtedness was $23,7:!l,41ti. for l)ie [laymeiit of which the
various sinking funds held $20,121,016, making the actual
net indebtedness $3,009,800. The receipts in 1893 were
$33,188,400 ; expcndil iires, $30,374,333 ; and cash in the treas-
ury Jan. 1, 1894, $9,251.:i80.
In 18.83 the as.sessed valuations were, real $1,226.11137.
personal $505,185,764, total $1,731,297,061 ; in 1893. real
$1,839.()63.813, persoiml $1..5.M.s.e75.2ie, total $3,428,339,029.
Of the 1893 total. $9.56,707,626 were assessed in Boston and
other parts of Suffolk County. The State tax levied in 1893
was $2..5OO.0O0.
Hanking and Insurance. — The national banks on .Ian. 1,
1893, numbered 208. and had a combined capital of $99,265,-
420, surplus and iirofils $41,324,400, and inuividual dejiosits
$183,473,134. The sjivings-banks on Oct. 31. 1893, num-
bered 185, and had 1,214,493 depositors, and $399,995,-569 in
deposits. On the same date there were 23 loan and trust
companies, which had a combined capital of $9,575.0<IO,
surplus and profits $7,200,384, and deposits of $67,808,175
in ttieir general departments and $7,533,292 in their trust
departments.
In 1893 there were 52 mutual fire-insurance companies,
2 mutual marine, and 11 joint-stock, all belonging to the
State; 78 fire-insurance companies of other Stales liiensed
to transjict business in Massachusetts, and 34 foreign flre-
coini)anies; total fire and marine companies, 177.
JJeans of Communication. — The building of railways in
the State was begun in 18;t2. June 30. 1893. there were
2,119'47 miles of main line and branch road. 869-.55 miles of
second, third, and fourth track, and 1,16228 miles of side
track, a total of 4,15130 miles of railway track in the State.
Massachusetts has more miles of railway in proportion to
its area than any other State except New Jersey, and any
country except lielgium. The railways arc owned bv fifty-
one ditTerent cori)orations, but five companies, the iJoston
and Albany, the Boston and Maine, the Htchburg, the New
York and New Kngland. and the New York, New Haven
and Hartford, control and operate, under leiLso or otherwise,
1.982-.54 (all but 13693) of the 2,11947 miles of railway in
the State.
Churches. — The U. S. census of 1890 gave the following
statistics of the princi^ial religious bodies:
DENOMI.NATIO.NS.
Roman CallioUc
Confrre^aiionol
Baptist
MeihoiliBt Episcopal
Unitarian
Protestant Episcopal
Spiritualist
I niversalist
■Presb. in the C S. of America..
Oiruin-
tioei.
Cbarrba
McBbm.
foftr.
SKI
382
614.627 S9.R16.0n3
659
686
101.890 ii.oao.HW)
S18
S6I
59.KI0 6,107.830
8»4
HM
88.477
5.IW.82S
180
224
34.610
5.278.370
loe
180
26.856
4.678.193
61
«8
7.845
209,710
121
194
7.142
S.1 10.193
18
21
3.570
385.500
SchoolK. — The public schools, including all the texl-lKioks
and appliances used in them, are entirely free to all. and
tnlucation is compulsory between the ages of eight and four-
teen. The contri>l of the schools is vested in the local au-
thorities, and the .State gives aid in providing ei|>ert sujier-
vision which extends over most of tne schiwls. There is a
Slate school fund of $3.t)6.5.761.88, half of the income of
which supimrts the normal si'lnmls and other gi-neral edu-
cational work, and the other half isilistribuleil to the towns.
The balance ex|M'nded comes from lival taxation. The .State
boanl of education rciKirted for the s<-hool year 1892-93:
NuinlHT of public day-schools in the State, 7,510; public
evening-schools in 58 cities and towns, 244 ; public high
602
MASSACUUSKTTS
schools, 247: cliiKiron l>otwoen the ayes of five anil fifteen
years in tlie State, 3'.I0,0S'J ; atlemlanee in public ilay-sehools,
all aijes, ;J1»1,745 ; in evenin^-si-hools. 2T,7fM : in liish schools,
2S.."iS-^ ; teachers in public day-schools — men, 989 ; women,
10,244: total, U.i^H: avi'raije monthly wajjes — men teach-
ers, 1140.73; women teachers, $48.13.' The amount raised
by taxation for the payment of teachers' wa^ies, fuel, ami
care of flres and school-rooms, was $6,282,141.20; expended
for new school-liouscs. $l..")r)t).03y.40: total expenditures for
all purposes in the year, $y.6ti3.y07.4i>. The cost of instruc-
tion of each pupil was $24.77. Free normal schools are
maintained by the State in liridsewater, Framingham, Sa-
lem, Westliehi, and Worcester for the training of teachers,
and tliere is a State Normal Art .School in Boston. For in-
dustrial training there are finely appointed schools in Bos-
ton, Cambridger and Hrookline. Ihe Horace Mann School
for the Ueaf in Boston, the Clarke Institution at Xorthami)-
ton for the .same cliuss, the IVrkins Institution and Massa-
chusetts School for the Blind iu .South Boston, and the
Mas.sachusetts School for the Feeble-minded at W'altham,
are noble and widely known institutions. There were also
re]>orted 70 kindergartens and private schools with kinder-
garten departments, with 72 teachers and 998 pupils; 273
other private schools, with 1,069 tcacliers and 15,412 pupils;
103 parocliial scliools. with 838 teachers and 46.159 pupils;
and 18 schools for special classes of children, witli 96 teach-
ers and 1.864 pupils. For secondary instruction there were
68 endowed academies, seminaries, and other institutions.
The universities and colleges of lil)eral arts were Amherst
t'oLLEOE (q. v.), Boston College, Boston University, Harvard
U.NivERsrrv (</. v.), French Protestant College in Spring-
field. TutTS College (q. v.), Williams College (q. v.),
Clark University, and the College of the Holy Cross in
Worcester. The colleges for women comprised Smith Col-
leoe {q. v.), Mt. JIolyoke Semi.nary a.nd College {q. v.),
Welleslev CoLLE(iE ((/. !'.), and Radeliffe College (Society
for the Collegiate Education of Women), Cambridge. Other
notable institutions for female education are Abbott Acade-
my, Andovcr and Bradford Academy, Lassell Seminary in
Aubnrndale. and Wliealon Female Seminary in Norton.
There were 2 schools of science endowed with the national
land grant — the ,Ma.ssachusetts Agricultural College iu Am-
herst, anrl the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
Boston. The principal schools of law, medicine, theology,
pharmacy, veterijiary surgery, dentistry, etc., were depart-
ments of the large colleges and universities.
Public Libraries. — The number of public libraries in 1891
in tlie Stale containing 1.000 volumes and upward was 508.
Tlie aggregate numlier of volumes in these libraries was
4,6.50,(j«8, ami the number of pami)lilets 1,102,401. There
are 3.52 towns and cities in the .State, and 808 of these con-
tain free public libraries — that is, libraries that allow the
■free circulation of books for general reading to the homes
of all the inhabitants, and that are managed as a public
trust. State aid is conditionally granttyl to aid the formation
of libraries in the smaller towns, and over $6,500,000 has
been given or beiiueathed by individual citizens to found or
provide buildings for this class of libraries. There are only
44 towns without such free collections of books. In tliis
statement the collections owned by institutions and associa-
tions like those of Harvard College and the Boston Athe-
iiaMim are not included.
Chnriidble, Uffurmatory, and Penal Instilutionn. — The
principal ones are the State Lunatic Hospitals at Danvers,
Northampton, Weslljorough, Taunton; two at Worcester,
Hospital for Dipsomaniacs and Inebriates, School for the
Feeble-minded at Wallham, State Almshouse in Tewksbury,
State farm in Bridgewater, State Prison in Boston, .Staie
Reformatory in Conconl, Heformatory Prison for Women
in .Sherborn, State Primary ai^d Reform Schools at West-
borough, LaiK'aster, an<l Monson, and the usual county in-
stitutions. There are also large general hospitals in ISoslon
and many other cities, anil special institutions for Ihe care
of deaf-mutes, the blind, children, and other special classes.
Post-offlren and Periodiealn. — On .Ian. 1, 1894, there were
870 post-olTices, of which 167 were presidential (13 fii-st-elass,
47 second-class, 108 third-class) and 703 fourth-class. There
were 5.52 money-order olTices and 29 money-order stations.
Of newspapers and periodicals there were 80 of daily, 2 semi-
weekly,358 weekly,8 bi-weekly, 11 seiiii-monlhly, 171 month-
ly, 4 bi-monthly, and 3()of ipiarlerly publication; total, 664.
lli«l(iry. — The aboriginal inhabitants of .Mitssachusetts at
the time of its i)ermanent settlement by whiles belonged to
the Algonquian stock, and chielly lived K. of the i:onnecti<:ut
river. Tlie claim is made by some writers that Soutlieastcrn
Massachusetts, incliuliiig the Jarge islamis, was discovered
about 1000-03 by Leie Erikso.n (q. r.) and his brother Thor-
wald, of Norwegian descent; that several Norse settlements
were made during a period lasting 300 years, and that one
of these, called Norumbega, was situated on t he Charles river.
There is no evidence to prove that the Caljots landed on the
shores of New Kngland, but Knglaiid laid claim to the ter-
ritory because at the time of .John Cabot's discovery of New-
foundland and the mainland he was iu her service. In
1602 Bartholomew (iosnold, an Englishman, with a small
colony, lauded in or near Salem harbor, subsequently coa.sted
along Cape Cod, as he nameil it, on account of the abundance
of fish caught there, and discovered the Elizabeth islands
and the islantl of No Man's Eand. His party made a settle-
ment on the island of Cuttyhuiik. but soon became disor-
ganized and abandoned it. In 1603 another attempt at a
settlement was made on or near the present site of Kdgar-
lown, Martha's Vineyard, by a colony under JIarlin Prynne ;
this also failed, as did that of George Waymouth in 1605.
The first colony that proved successful was one from Eeyden,
Holland. It wascomposed ofaportioii of a church of English
exiles, originally from Nottinghamshire and adjoining coun-
ties, wlio had separated from the Establishcil Church, and
in 1607-08 had fled to Holland to esca]ie persecution. (See
RoBi.Nso.N. .John.) Hoping to lietter their ci>ndition and to
preserve their identity as Englishmen, they obtained a pat-
ent from the Council for New England, binding themselves,
in return for assistance given, to return a share of their
lirofUs in trade for seven years. The emigrants sailed in
1620 from Delftshaven. Holland, and finally, 101 in number,
from Plymouth, England, in the Mayflower, a vessel of 180
tons. They had intended to settle somewhere .S. of the
mouth of Hudson river, but the ship was driven by storms
out of its cour.se and anchored in Provincetown I!ay, Nov.
11. This was beyond the limits of the territory covered by
their patent, and deeming it prudent to establish some kind
of government before landing, the leaders of the expedition
drew up a constitution or social compact, by the terms of
which the colony was to be ruled, and .soon after John Carver
was chosen Governor for one year. After exploring the
coast they landed at Plymoutli, Dec. 11 o. s. (See Fore-
fathers' Day.) During the winter they endured great pri-
vations, and lost nearly half their number by death. Jlean-
while (1622-23) a rival ccjlony had been planted at Wes,sa-
gussett (now Weymouth) by Thomas \\ eston, a London
merchant, and had failed disastrously, as did another under
Robert Gorges (1623-24). Plymouth colony, having attempt-
ed in vain to obtain a charter, continued to govern itself
with success. In 1624 a board of live assistants was chosen
to aid the Governor, and the governing council was chosen
yearly by all the inhabitants. In 1623 a small company of
fishermen from Dorchester, England, settled on Cape Ann,
but in 1626 abandoned the site, and part of them removed
to Salem. Here they were joined in 1628 by a party of
Puritans under John Endicott, (me of the proprietors of a
land company which had obtained a grant on Jlassacliusetts
Bay. In 1629 a charter was granti'd to the patentees and
their associates in England, establishing a corporation and
making the associates a body |)olitic with jiowerto establish
a subordinate government in tlic new world. 'J'he ollicers
were to consist of a Governor, deputy, and eighteen assist-
ants, to lie annually elected, and the legislative powers were
intrusted to a general asseml)ly of the freemen. In 162!)
another body of settlers arrived, and in the same year it
was dcciiled to transfer the charter and government to Mas-
sachusetts. John Winlhroji was appointed Governor, and
in 1630 arrived with almut 1.000 per.sons. Immigration con-
tinued ; Boston, Dorchester, Lynn, and other towns were
.settled, and the wealth and social standing of the colonists,
a few of whom belonged to the nobility, gave the Bay colony
prominence. These Puritans soon adopted the " congrega-
tional way " of churi'li giivernmeiil as practiced by the Ply-
mouth Pilgrims. In 1651 Congregationalism was eslalilished
by law.
By the terms of the charter the founders of Mas.sachusett8
were permitted to make laws and ordinances " not reiuip-
naiit to the laws of England." and to " repulse and exclude "
all persons whom they should believe to be uiidi'sirablc as
settlers. They |)roceeded to give the charter a liberal con-
struction and to build up a form of governinent patterned
after the .lewisli commonwealth, but, in striving to realize
their dream, often were led to adopt extreme ami sometimes
cruel measures. (See Hutchin.so.n, An.ne; C^iakers, and
MASSACIIL'.SKTTS
603
Williams, Roger.) Nevertheless, many wise and heneliceiit
measures were enforccil, iimtiufHctures and ininiiif; were en-
couraged, and above everything else, learning. Plymouth
colony was more tolerant than Massaehusctts, and few in-
stances of injustice are fmind in its aniuils.
In IftW and 16:J7 trouliles with the I'equot Indians led to
the I'equot war, the principal loss<'< of which, however, fell
upon the Connecticut colony, an otT>hoot from that of Mas-
sachusetts Bay. In 1643 a confederacy was formed, consist-
ing of the colonies of Ma.s.sacliu.selts Bay, I'lyinouth, Con-
necticut, anil New Haven. This confederacy lasted for
twenty vears, and then gave place to a more comprehensive
one. Mas,sacliusetts Bay then included the settlements in
New Hampshire and .Maine. The Ma.ssachusells Bay und
Plymouth colonies had serious dilliculties with the English
Government, especially after the restoration of Charles II.
The king ap|xiinted a commission to investigate and govern
these colonies, but the colonial authorities refused to permit
them to exercise their powers. The strained relations be-
tween Massachusetts and the mother-country were increased
by the declaration of the general court in 1675, that for any
power but itself to impose taxes was an infringement of the
rights of the people as British subjects. The great struggle
with the Indians in 167o and 1676, known as King Philip's
war, checked the prosperity of these colonies for a longtime.
Before this disjislroiis war had ended new troubles with the
king had begun. Prompted by the vindictive spirit of Kd-
mund Randolph, Charles II. had at last decided to annul the
charter of Massachusetts Bay and to bring all the New Eng-
land colonies under the sway of a royal (iovernor. In 1684
the English high court of chancery gave ju<lgment against
Massachusetts, and declared its charier forfeited. .Joseph
Dudley, s<jn of the early emigrant Governor, was appointed
S resident, but under the control of the revengeiul Ran-
olph, and the general court or legislature was abolished.
On the accession of .James II., Dudley wiui superseded by
Sir E<lmund Andros, alrea<ly known to the colonists as an
imperious and tyrannical commissioner. Upon the first re-
port that the Prince of Orange had landed in England, An-
dros and all his coadjutors, including .loseph Dudley, whom
he had made chief justice, were arrested, imprisoned, and
held for trial; and immediately njmn the receipt of the in-
telligence of the priwlaniation of W illiain of Orange in Eng-
land he was pro<laimed in .Massachusetts Bay, and simul-
taneously in the Plymouth Colony. In 16iX) Massachusetts
took part in the intercolonial war between the po.ssessions of
France and England, ami to pav the colonial troops issued
treasury notes for the first time in its history. In 1692, by
a new charter granted by the king, Massachusetts Bay anil
I'lyinouth were consolidated into one government, Massa-
chusetts having at that date a population of about .5.5,000
ami Plyinoiilh a |Kipulalion of 7,000. In 160i the .Salem
witchcraft delusion (Kcurred. There were frequent disturb-
ances with the Imlians for the next twenty-three years, the
French colonists in Camwla prompting the savages to make
raids upon the colony of Massachusetts. From 1722 to 1725
these raids assuineil the larger proportions of a war, ami
were finally ended by the almost complete extermination of
the Indian tribes adjacent. From 1744 to 1748, in the war
between England anil France. Ma-ssachiiselts contributed
largely to the capture of Louisburg in 1745 and to the suc-
cess of the Canailian expeditions. In the second war with
France in the following decaile, the colony again played a
very conspicuous part. Her enterprise ami her independ-
ent spirit excited the jealousy of Oreal Britain, and, as
hatl hi'en done by Charles II. ami .lames II. eighty years be-
fore, occasion was sought to humiliate her. Oppressive
measures of ta.xation were devised and her commerce was
hain|)ered by restrictions. The attempt to enforce the
Stamp Act led to riots in Boston in 176.5 and 1768, and as a
result two regiments of British soldiers were quartered upon
the citizens without their consent. In Mar., 1770, the " Bos-
ton inassjicre" <H-curred, in which thnr citizens were shot
by British sohliers. On Dec. 16. 177:t. iKM'iirred the famous
destruction of the cargo of lea in Boston harbor. The p«rt
of Bostim was closed in ri'taiiaticm in 1774, ami in the same
year Gen. Gage, who had b»'en phwed in coinniaml of the
troops in Boston, post|>oned indefinitely the meeting of the
feneral court. Tlie ri'presenUitives, however, met at Salem,
'he seizure of the ars<'iial at Charlestown by the militia.the
a<ljournment of the .\ss«'inbly to Concord, and its reorgani-
zation there as a provincial congress, were among the many
events which immediately preciiletl the revolution. The first
blood of the Revolutionary war was shed at Lexington and
Concord on Apr. l!l, 1775; the battle f>f Bunker Hill oc-
curred on .luiii' 17 of the same year. Mussaihusetts con-
tributeil 67.'.M)7 troops out of a total population r)f 2;il,779,
and i.'164.0()0 toward the exi)enses of the war, but nianv of
the [leople, especially among the educated class, were loyal-
ists, and emigrated to Nova Scotia and New Brunsw'ick
rather than live under a republic. In 1780 Massachusetts
ado[)ted a State constitution; and it was decided not long
after that, by a clause in the Bill of Rights prefixed to that
conslituticm. slavery in the State was alwlished. An insur-
rection, known as Shays's rebellion, occurred in the western
part of the .State in 1786, arising from the poverty and dis-
tress of the people and the severity of the taxes ; some lives
were lost in its siipjiression. The Constitution of the U. S.
was ratified in .Ian., 1788, by a .State convention, by a vote
of 187 to 168. In the division of parties which occurred at
the lx>giiining of the nineteenth century a large majority of
the citizens of Massiichusetts sided witfi the r'ederal party,
and many of them were opposed to the war with Great Brit-
ain in 1812; neyerthcless, the .State furnished great num-
bers of seamen to the navy during that war, and in 1814
more than 20,000 militia were in service in the State and in
the district of Maine. A numlierof delegates from the .State
appeared at the convention of the New England .States
which met at Hartford. Conn., in 1814, to confer u[H)n their
grievances. (See Habtford Co.wentiox.) In 1815 "dissent-
ers " were relea-scd from [laying taxes for the support of Con-
gregational churches, and in 18;W all religious denomina-
tions were placed on an equal footing. In 1820 the district
of Maine was set off as a separate State. In the same year
a convention met to revise tlie constitution. Another con-
stitutional convention met in 1853. In 1831 the Anti-
Slavery movement received an impetus by the establish-
ment in Boston, by William Lloyd Garrison, of The Libera-
tor^ and by the formation of an Anti-Slavery society. Pr>
litical agitations gave rise in the State to the Liberty party,
which was succeeded by the Free-Soil party, and that by tlie
Republican party. When the civil war broke out the people
of the State supported the Union cause with enthusiasm,
furnishing (1861-65) 15i),165 men for all terms of service, in-
cluding 26,320 who were in the navy, and paying in bounties
(including interest on bounty loans to Dec. 31, 1885), ?26,-
858,123.23. In addition to this sum there was paid in .State
and military aid to Dec. 31, 1885, *18,242,:324.35. In Jan.,
186.5. the war debt of the State exceeded |114,500,000, the
bonds for which were held chiefly by its citizens.
(iOVERXORS OF
0/ Pli/nnmlh Colony, elected.
John Carver 16aO-Sl
William Hrndford Iuai-,33
Edward Wiiislow KVH-M
Tliomas I'ri-Mce 16S4-35
Wllliiim Hrndford 16;»-.%
Edward Wirislow I(W<S-.3T
William Hindfor<l IMT-.-JS
Thomas I'reuee llVtK-;i<J
Willinm Bradford ll«9-»4
h^lward Win.slow ltV44-.15
William Bradford I«4.'>-.'i;
Thomas l'r.Tii-e Iwr-TS
.I.isiah Wiiisl.iw HITS-SI
Thomas Hinckley 108I-8U
Sir Edmund Andrtw, gov.-
Ken 1680-89
Thomas Hinckley ies»-K
Of ^faMachwtet^«. chimen annu-
ulty under First Charter.
John Endienll (actlnei . . . l(Uit)-30
JIalthfW Cradix-k (did not
8<.r\'».'.
John WInl hrop I6.10-.'M
Thomas Dmllify l&H-V)
John llaviH-s Ill1,V.3R
HfMfV Viin.- laili-.IT
J. .hn'Winthmp IO»7-tO
Thoma.s Dudley 1(110-41
Rli'hnr.l n.-llini;ham inil-l'.>
John Winlhrop Hili- tl
John K.ndi.-..ll ltlll-4.'.
Th.ima« l)iiilli.y Iivtv-lij
John Winlhrop 1(I4a--«0
John Endioilt 1649-50
Thomas Imdlry liv>0-.'ii
John Eii.lio.lt IMl-M
Riihard IVIIinKbam HVM w
John Kndii-..it * "'
Richard K'HiuKham
John l>'Vi.rflt
Simon Hrmlsln^l !"■■-• "^i
J..H lln.ll,.y, i>n.» 1«(U-S6
Sir Kdintin'd Andro«, eot.-
Ken KWdJtO
TbuinasDanforthiKctlogl lOtS-g:)
MASSArilUSETTS.
Appointed by the King under the
:ircond Charier.
Sir William Phipps lOTS-M
Wm. Stouehton lading).. lim-9»
Richard Couie. Earl of
Bellomont 1699-1700
Wm. Sloughton (actinjrl.. inW-OI
The Council l7til-<«
Joseph Dudley ....1704- Feb., 1T15
The Council Feb.-Mor., 1715
Joseph Dudley . . Mar. -Nov.. 1715
Wni. Taller la'ctingi 171.VIJ
Samuel .Shuie 171&-:i3
Wm. Dummenactingi... 17iiS-S8
Wm. Burnett Jan. -Sept., I7a)
Wm. Dummer lacting),
Se|il . irj*-June, 1730
Wm. Taller lacliniri,
June-Aug.. 1730
Jono. Belcher Aug., 17«)-«l
William Shirley 1741-49
Spencer Phipsiacting... 1749-SS
William Shirley 17.v»-5«
•Six-ncer l'l>ip« la^'tlng).. . 1756-57
The Council Apr- Aug.. 17^7
Thomas I'ownal 1757 -W
Thomas HutchinNon lact-
ingt June-Aug.. 1760
Sir l->onci8 Bernard. Bnrt. i:60-6»
Thomas Hutchinson <act-
ingi 1709-71
Th as lIutchioMin l,.l-74
Thomas (inee May -Oct , 1774
A rrovincial Congrt.s«.
Oct , 1774-Julv. 1775
The council July, ir75-«
Under the Contlitulion.
■ ■ '• KMMB
.. n»^
.. 1787-Oct., I«8
>aiiiu<-i .X'laiiiH (ActlnfT).
Oct, 1T»-M
Samuel .\dams liW-87
Incrvase Simmer. .1797-June, 17W
MuwaUilliaellngiJunr. 1799-IWO
604
MASS. INSTITUTE UF TECHXOLOGY
MASSASOIT
John A. Andrpw IMl-SS
Al<-xaiider H. Bullock 1S60-69
Willium I'lnHiii ISU'J-Ti
William li. Wofslibiini.
Isra-May, 1874
Thomas Talbot laclliiRI,
May-Dec., 1ST4
William Oaston 18T4-rfi
AlexandiT H. Kice lK?(>-79
Thomas Talbot 18r<J-S0
John V. LonK l«M<i-»B
Benjamin F. Butler IHSO-M
George D. Robinson I(Wl-87
Oliver Ames HWT-OO
John Q. A. Brackett IKSXI-Hl
William E. Kussell 1H91 -94
Frederi.k T. Ureenhalge. 1K!M %
Koger Wolcott l^»^>-
Caleb Strong IfiOO-OT i
Jas Sullivan IHOT-Dec.. imw
Levi Unoolniactingl. Dec, mis-uy ,
Christopher Gore 18i»9-10 >
ElbridKe Gerry 1810-12 I
Caleb Strong 1813-16
John Brooks I81ft-23
Wm. Eustis 183»-Feb., 1825
Uarcus Morton (acting),
Feb.-Julr. 1SS5
Levi Lincoln I8«-*I
John Davis I8:M-Mar., 1835
Samuel T. Armstrong
(acting! Mar. 1SS5-36
Edward Everett 18.-J(M0
Marcus Morton 1810-41
John Davis 1841-43
Mareus Morton 1813-44
George N" Briggs 1844-51
George S Boutwell 1851-53
John H. Clifford 18.M-54
Emory Washburn lKVl-55
Henrv J. Gardner lK^5-58
Nathaniel 1*. Banks 1858-61
Ai'TiioRiTiES. — K. Hitchcock, Report on the Geology,
Mineralogy. Botain/, and Zoology of JIassarhusetts (2 vols.,
Amherst, 1S33). ami Final Report on the Geology of Mas-
sachusetts (i parts, 1841); also his Ichnology of New Eng-
land (Boston, 1858), and Supplement to same (Boston, ISG.'));
Reports printed by order of the Lesrislatiire : Fishes. Reptiles,
and Birds of Ma.isachusetis (Boston, 1839), Herljaceoits
Flowering Plants of Massachiisetls (Cambridge. 1840), /n-
vertebrata of Massachusetts (Cambridge, 1841); Harris, /n-
sects Injurious to Vegetation (Boston, 1841 : enlarged cd.
1852): Emerson, Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts (2 vols.,
Boston. 1875) ; and Allen, A List of the Birds of Massachu-
setts (pamph.. Salem, 1878). Historical Literature : See his-
tories of the State by Gov. Hutchinson (Boston, 1764-67) and
by Barry (Boston, 1855-57); Young, Chronicles of the Pil-
grim Fathers (Boston. 1841) and Chronicles of Massachu-
setts (Boston. 1846); Holland. History of Western Massachu-
setts (^]mngReU\, 1855); I'alfrey. The History of Xeiv Eng-
land (3 vols., Boston, 1858-64) ; Schouler, History of Massor
chitsetts in the Civil War (Boston, 1868-71); Memorial
History of Boston (4 vols., Boston, 1880-«1) ; Goodwin, The
Pilgrim Republic (Boston, 1888); Ellis, The Puritan Age
and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay (Bos-
ton, 1888); Weeilen, Economic and Social History of Xeu'
England, 1620-1789 (2 vols., Boston and New Yoik."l8i)0);
Wright, History of Wages and Prices in Massach usetts 1752-
1SS3 (State bureau statistics of labor, Boston, 1885) ; Reports
of the census of 1885 ; I. Population and Social Statistics ;
11. Manufactures. Fisheries, and Commerce; III. Agricul-
tural Products and Property (Boston, 1887-88). Among
works of a special character, see Dexter, As to Roger 11 ill-
iams and his so-called •' Banishment " (Boston. 1876) ; Hal-
lowell. The Pioneer Quakers (Boston, 1886) and The Quaker
Invasion of Massachusetts (Boston, 1887); Brooks Adams,
Tlie Emancipation of Massachusetts (Boston and New York,
1887) ; C. P. Adams, Three Episodes of Massachusetts His-
tory {^2 vols., Boston, 1892) and Massachusetts, its Historians
and its History (Boston, 1893). William E. Russell.
MasNach usetts Institute of Technology : a technical
school founded at Boston in 1W2 by l'n>f. William Barton
Rogers and others. The original plan included not only the
"school of industrial science," by wliicli the Institute is now
best known, but also a society of arts and a museum of arts.
Thirteen distinct four-year courses are offered, viz. : civil,
mechanical, mining, chemical, electrical, and sanitary en-
gineering, architecture, biology, chemistry, physics, general
studies, geology, and naval architecture. For the comple-
tion of any one of these the degree of B. Sc. is given. A
conspicuous feature is the laboratory instruction of large
classes. The students number about 1,200, and the instruct-
ing staff includes 39 profes.>;ors, 78 instructors anil assistants,
and 27 lecturers. Although the Institute holds jiroperty
valued at $1,760,000. the high cost of its real estate and
equipment make it dependent crhiefly on .students' fe(>.s. The
presidents of the Institute have lieen William B. Rogers.
JAj. D. (1M62-70 and 187S-81),.Iohn 1). Hunkle, LL. D. (1870-
78), and Francis A. Walker, LL. 1)., 18M1-97.
X. W. TvLER, Secretary.
Mnssaere [Fr., deriv. of Gr. /«iirir«iv. to knead] r a mechan-
ical method of medical treatinciil of the body, consisting
chiefly in manipulation administered by the hand of a per-
son trained to do this in a pari icular way. This form of
treatment is sometimes confounded with what is known as
the Swedish movement-cure, which, however, is not the same,
as the latter involves active co-operation on the part of the
patient. The history of massage has been traced through
various stages of development lo very early times. There
can be nodoulit that long ago rude and unsystematic methods
of manipulating the body were practiced. For exam|dc. the
early medical writers of India describe a sort of medical
gymnastics. The Chinese also practiced something of this
sort; and the very word "shampooing" is derived from a
Hindu word,f/idm//n(i, which signifies rubbing or percussing
the body in connection with the use of a hot bath. The
Greeks evidently used something of this kind, for it is not
only described in certain of their medical books, but seems
lo have been a common iiractice among athletes and war-
riors. After the fall of the Roman empire this mode of
treatment seems to have been abandoned until near the end
of the seventeenth century, after which time it was used
more or less imperfectly until it was revived about the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century by Peter Heinrick Ling,
a Swede, and placed on a good medical and .scientific basis,
in connection witli what is now known as the Swedish move-
ment-cure, of which Ling was the originator. It was only
about 1860 that massage, as it is now understood, was fully
developed by Estradere. As now practiced, massage consists
in several different processes. The French call the chief of
these effleurage (.stroking), friction (nilibing), tapotement
(tapping), and petrissage (kneading). These are used by a
trained [lerson, an<i each process is subject to a large vari-
ety of modifications, which, in some institutions, are made
the subject of prolonged study. iMiLssage has been apjilied
to the treatment of a large number of bodily disorders, both
medical and surgical, and the range of its applicability is
from mild hysteria to serious disorders of internal organs
and fractures of the bones. It is used very extensively l)y
medical men who treat nervous diseases especially. and usu-
ally in connection with prolonged bodily rest on the part of
tlie patient, and the administration of simple foixi in large
(piantities. The successful use of massage depends upon
several conditions: One is manual dexterity on the part of
the manipulator; another is the selection of an appropriate
form of massage for any particular disorder; another is the
proper proportion of rest on the part of the patient lo the
passive exercise effected by the manipulator; and. finally,
the combination of judicious psychical and medicinal treat-
ment with massage. JIassage does good by mechanically
pressing out from the tissues material which needs to be re-
moved or to have its natural How accelerated; the first, in
the case of infiammafory effusions; the second, in the case
of imperfect circulation. Besides this, massage acts by pro-
voking muscle-cells, and probably all cells, to greater physio-
logical activity. Persons who administer massage as a call-
ing are (villed masseurs (ma.H'\i\mi.'), masseuses (feminine), or
iiiassagists (irrespective of gender). Interesting details in
regard to the history and practice of massage may be found
in the following works: Josef Schreiber. Praktische Anleit-
nng zur Behandlung durch Massage (Vienna, 1888); M.
Koth. Tlie Prevention and Cure of many Chronic Diseases
bi/ Movements (London. 1851); Einil K\cen, Handbook of
Massage, translated by E. JI. Hartwell (Philadelphia. 1892).
Charles W. Dulles.
Massag'etw [= Lat. = Gr. Vlaaaayfrai. Gf doubtful ety-
mology, thought by some to be the Magog of the Bible]: a
tribe of doubtful origin inhabiting Ihe ste]ipes to Ihe N. of
the .laxarles. According to Ilerudolns.it was wilh them
that Cyrus of Persia went to war, and fell in battle, 529 li. c,
their queen, Tomyris. having refu.sed an offer of marriage
made by Cyrus for the purpose of |)icking a quarrel with
her. According to Ctesias, the war was with another tribe,
and Cyrus died of his wounds after the battle.
Mas'sasoit: the chieftain of the Pokiinoket or Wam-
panoag Indians, found by the colonists of Plymouth, Mass.,
living in their vicinity in 1621 as ruler of the tenitory from
Cape Cod to Narragansett Bay. He made a treaty willi the
setllers at Plymouth, Mar. 22, 1621, and maintained friend-
ship with them until his ilealh. His permanent residence
was in the present township of Warren, R. 1.. where he was
frei|uently visited by commissioners from the neighboring
setllemenls. He entertained Roger Williams for .«everal
weeks when banished from Massachusetts. He was sup-
nosed to be eighty years of age when he died in 1661. He
left two sons, Wamsutla and Pometacom, called by the
colonisis .Mexander and Philip. They succeeded him in
the chieftainship, the latter being the celebrated "King
Philip."
MASSf:
MASSON
605
Mussf, man'sil', FfiLix Marfk Victor: opera-composer; b.
nt Ijoririit, KraiKc, Mar. 7, 1H\12: rcc-civeil his iiiiisnal odii-
ctttion at tlio I'uris Cuiisfrvatory, where he touk the Grand
Prix lie Koriic for eoiii|>ositioii in 18-14. His first opera was
Ln Chanteusf Votlff (IS.'iO), ami his last Lu Murt de CIru-
patre, wliieh was performed after his death. Between these
Me wrote numy operas, the best known beinf; Paul et Vir-
ginie (1S76); La Fie CViraAosse (185!)) ; La lifiiie Tujiiize
(18.56); and Lea JN'oces de Jeaunelte (18-")3). He was I'ro-
fessor of ('omposition in the Conservatury from 1800 till
illness eonipelied him to relinquish it in 1870. He sue-
rceded Auber as a member of the Academy of Fine Arts.
and Kelieien Havid as an associate of the Uoval Aiademv
of BelBium. D. .July .J, 1884. D. E. Hkrvev. '
MnHSdia. niaa's(7 naa'. AKnRl5, Duke of Kivoli. Prinee of
Ksslinj;. marshal of France: b. at Nice, May 6, 1758; becan
his career as a cabin-boy and afterward joined an Italian
re(;iment in French pay, but left it in 1789, as his humble
descent prevented him from obtaininsj; a commission. After
the outbreak of the Uevolutioii. howevir.aiid the annexation
of Nice to France in 171l'2, he re-entered the army: brcanie
chief of a battalion Xwa. 1, 17!<:i. ami brif,'adier-(;eneral .\u;;.
22, 17!i:t. His most brilliant exploits were his victory over
the allied Austrian-Russian army at Zurich, Sept. 2o. 17!l!t,
which freed France from invasion; the siege of Genoa in
180<), which he held for three months, though invested by an
Austrian army and blockaded by an English fleet ; and his
valorous defense of the villages of Aspern and Essling dur-
ing the battle (May 21, 1809) which saved the French army
from total destruction. In 1810 he received the highest
command in Spain, and drove Wellington back to the lines
of Torres Vedras, in Portugal, but receiving no re-enfor<-e-
mcnt he was compelled to retreat into Spain, and in the
spring of 1811 he resigned his command on acount of ill-
healtli. In the events with which Napoleon's career closed
he played no conspicuous part. L). Apr. 4, 1817.
Massonet. ma1i'sf-n«', .Ti'les l-biii.i-: FRi5Di':RTr : opera-com-
jioscr : b. at .Montaud, near St.-Ctienne, Fran<e, May 12, 1842;
when nine years of age he entered the Paris Conservatory.
His early life was a struggle with poverty, and he had to
give up his music lessons, but tramped to Lyons, when' u
relative resided, who heanl the boy's story ai\d sent him Imik
to Paris. In 18.59 he took first prize. In 1863 hisciintala
David Rizzio won the Prix de Rome. .Since then he has
been a prolific composer, producing operas, oratorios, canta-
tas, orcnestinl suites, etc. His most famous works are the
oj>eras Don Cexarde Tiazati(\B~'i); Le I/oi de Lahore l,\H'i'!);
Jierodinde (1881) ; and Le (^id (ISS'i); his oratorios or can-
tatas A''T(187."i); J/(fri> Madeleine (1878); Im FiVrj^e ( 1 879) ;
and his orchestral suites Hchies I'ilturesques. D. E. II.
Mas'sey, Gerald: poet; b. at Tring, Herts, England. May
29, 1828, of poor parents ; worked in youth in a silk-mill and
as a straw-braider, aiul re<eived a scanty education ; went
lo London: pul)lished Poema and Chanxons (about 1840);
started in 1849 ami became editor of The Spirit of Free-
dom, and was .secretary of the Christian .Socialists, a co-op-
erative society ; was placed upon the civil list with a pension
in 18(J3. lie has pul)lislied .several volumes of poems and
some prose works, among which are liobert Hums, and other
ii/ri>« (18.59) ; Jlarelock's March, and other /'oenix {\Hl>\);
and A Tale of h'tirniti/, and other Poems (1870); ( oncern-
ing Spiritualism (1872); Mi/ Li/rical Life (1889); is a fre-
((iient conlribulor to periodical literature, a popular lecturer,
and an earnest believer ia Spiritualism.
MaHsirot : Sec Lead.
Ma.s'!iill(>ii : city; Stark co., O. (for location of county,
see map of (Uiio, rcf. li-II): on the Tus<arawas river, the
Ohio Canal, and the Cleve., Lorain and Wheel., the Penn..
and the Wheel, and Lake Erie railways; 6.5 miles S. of
Cleveland. It is in an agricultural, coal-mining, ami sand-
stonc-quarrjing region; has water, sewerage, gas, electric-
light, and electric street-railway plants, three white sand-
stone quarries, gliLs.s-works, stationary-engine works. Hour-
mills, rolling-mill, iron-bridge works, i>a|>er-mill, agricul-
tural-implement works, and machine-snoj)s ; and contains
8 national banks with combined capital of f4.50,(KN), a pri-
vate bank, and 2 dailv and 6 weeklv newspa|HTs. 1 op.
(1880) 0,8;16 ; (1890) 10,(J92. Editor of " Indece.ndent."
Massillon, ma'a.s<"e yon , Jean Baptiste: puliiit orator;
b. at Hycres, Provence, France, ,)uiie 24, 106;!. He studied
under the fathers of the Congregation of the Uratory at
Marseilles, and himself entered the order (1681). He resist-
ed the wish of his superiors that he should give him.scif to
preaching, distrusting his talents in that direction. He
preferred the coreer of a scholar and teacher. Even after
Ills first successes he hesitated, withdrawing for a time to
the Trappisl monastery of Sept-Fonts. He left it to become
director of the Seminary or St.-Magloire in Paris (1699).
His lectures here had such signal success that he had to
recognize his vocation. He preached a series of Lenten ser-
mons at Montpellier in 1698 and in Paris in 1699. The lat-
ter ma<ie such an impression that he was appointed to
preach at court during Advent of that year, and he was
court preacher for Lent in 1701 and again in 1704. He
pronounced funeral orations on Conti (1709), the Dauphin
(1711), and Louis XIV. (1715). In 1718 he preached before
the Dauphin, then preparing for his first communion, the
ten Sermons of his famous Prlit Carfme, formerly counted
the best of his works. In 1717 he was made Bislio[> of Cler-
mont; the rest of his life was spent in the iluties of his
bishopric; its literary fruits were the Discoura synodaux.
His last oration was that on the Duchess of (Jrleans. mother
of the regent (1723). He entered the Academy in 1719. D.
in Clermont, Sept. 18, 1742, Massillon's sermons are dis-
tinguished from those of his great predecessors lx>th bv their
matter and their form. They give le.ss place to dogma,
whence the criticism that they lack religious fervor; but
they are more constantly concerned with morals, and are
more searching an<l accurate in their analvsis of conduct
and motive. In form they are wrought ami polished with
more studied art. His CKuvres rompletes have been pub-
lished bv .los. Massillon (13 vols., Paris, 1745); bv Renouard
(13 vols!, Paris, 1810); by Abbe Guillon (16 vols., Paris,
1828); and bv Abbe E. A. Blampignon (Paris, 186.5-68; 4
vols.. 2d ed. l"886). Cf. Abbe E. A. Blampignon, Massillon
d'apres des documents inedits (Paris, 1879). Many of his
sermons have been translated into English, e. g. the funeral
oration of Louis the Great (London, 1872) and selected ser-
mons (2 vols., 1889-90; with a biographical preface).
A. G. Caxfield.
Mas'singrr, Philip : dramatist; b. at Salisburv, f'ngland,
in 1584; studied at SI. Alban's Hall, Oxford: w'ent in 1606
to London, where it has been supposed that he became a
Roman Catholic. His first play is the Virqin Martyr (1622).
Only eighteen of his works are extant, tlie M.SS. of several
others having been carelessly destroyed. He excelled in the
drawing of tragic character, in the dignity, refinement, and
moral superiority of his sentiments, and in melody of ex-
pression. Among his best works are the Duke of Milan
(1023); Fatal Dowry (1632); A AVic Way to Pay Old
Debts (1633), which still keeps the stage; A City Madam
(16.59); A Very Woman (16.55); and The Picture. D. Sept.
18, 1640. lie was the associate of Fletcher and Decker.
The best editions of his works are those by William Giflord
(London, 1850), and by Hartley Coleridge (London, 1859).
Mass'niann, Hans Ferdinand: philologist: b. in Berlin,
Germany, Aug. 15, 1797; studied theology at Jena and Ber-
lin ; became greatly interested in the athletic movement
started by Jahn, taught athletics (Tumen) in various institu-
tions, and finally studied German philology in Berlin.
While profes.sor at Munich and subsequently in Berlin, his
attention was devoted to pedagogical reforms as well as to
German jihilology. In the latter field he became known
chiefly as the editor of old German texts and manuscripts,
as, c. g., I'ltilas (1857); Die Kleineren SprachdenktnUler
nam S-12 Jahrhttndert (1839); Denkmaler deutscher Syrache
und Litl. a\is Ilandschriften des S-JO Jahrh. (>lunieh,
1828) ; Deutsche (iedichte des /-' Jahrh. (1837), etc. Though
a great enthusiast his philological work is lacking in accu-
racy and critical acumen. D. Aug. 3, 1874. Jllu'sGoebel.
Masson, David: author; b. in Abenleon, Scotland, in
1823. He was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen,
and at the University of Edinburgh. At twenty-one he
went to London and liecame u contrilnitor to the reviews
and magazines. In 18,52 he was chosen Profesisor of English
in University College, I^ondon, a position which he resigned
in 1865 to accept the cliair of Rhetoric and English Litera-
ture in the University of Edinburgh. In 1859 he became
eiWlor ot Macmillan's' Magazine; and since 1879 has lieen
editor of the Registry of the Privy Council of Scotland.
His great work is hisexhaustive Life of John Milton (6vols.,
1858-79). Among his other publications are Kssays. Uio-
graphical and Critical (18.56); Urtlish .Xovetista (18.59);
Drummond of J/aiclhornden (1873); iVordtifortk, Shelley,
606
MASSOX
MA STAB A
Keats, etc. (1874V, The Three Devils (1874): Chatterfon
(18741 : aud au elaborate edition of Milton (3 vols., 1874).
*• '■ H. A. Beeks.
Masson, Louis FRAsgois Roderick: statesman: b. at
Terrebonne, Province of Qnebec, Canada, Xov. 7, 18;33; wiis
educated at the Jesnit College, Georgetown, Md., and College
of St. Hyacinlhe, Province of Quebec; and wiis admitted to
the bar in IMS*. He sat for Terrebonne in the Dominion Par-
liament 1867-*i2; was Minister of Militia and Defense 1878-
80; President of the Council 1880; lieutenant-governor
Province of Quebec 1884-87 : and was appointed to the Senate
in 18U0. He has been mayor of Terrebonne : was promoted
lieutenant-colonel of militia 1807; and created a commander
of the papal order of Gregory the Great 1888; is author of
Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie dti Kord-Ouest (2 vols.,
Quebec, 181)0). XtiL Macdoxald.
Massd'rall. Masorali, or Massoretli [from Mod. Heb.
mdsorah, tradition] : the technical name given to a collec-
tion of grammatico-critical notes on the Hebrew text of
the Old Testament, with the object of determining its divi-
sions, grammaticiil forms, letters, vowel-marks, and accents.
Tradition curries t!ie origin of the Maaorah back to the
times of K/.ra and the Soferim. The use of the Bible, espe-
cially of the Pentateuch, in the synagogue service, tended to
draw the attention of teachers to its wording ; and K. Aki-
ba's method (which prevailed) of attaching importance to
every single word and letter of Scripture enhanced the care
with which the text was treated. It was necessary also to
teach the text in tlie schools, and for this purpose divi-
sions were made into paragraphs, sentences, and clauses.
Two names, Nakkai and Hamnuna, are mentioned who
went as far as to count the number of verses contained in
the twenty-four books of tlie Bible. This was about the
time of the persecutions of Hadrian. Later Masorites -went
further, counted the number of verses in each book, the
number of times certain forms occurred, and determined
the way in which words were to be pronounced which, for
one reason or another, were not to be read in the synagogue
as written. A late Talmudical treatise, Massecheth Soferim,
busies itself partly with these matters. It was tlie Maso-
rites who invented" the signs for the vowels, the older Hebrew
having been written only with consonants. In this they
probably followed the example of the early Syrian gramma-
rians. Tlieir first attempts commenced early in the seventh
century, and only undertook to distinguish words which were
spelled with similar consonants. The whole system was de-
veloped, however, before the split with the Karaites in the
ninth century. Its origin is probably to be found in Baby-
lon, where a certain Pinchas is mentioned (eighth century)
as being foremost in these studies. At the end of the century,
Asher founded the school in Tiberias. There arc two dif-
ferent systems of vocalization — the Tiberian, the one ordi-
narily found in our Hebrew texts, and the so-called Baby-
lonian or Superlinear, which can be seen in the celebrated
St. Petersburg Codex of the Prophets ("J17 A. v.) and in M.SS.
coming from Southern Arabia. The Masorites also in-
vented a most elaborate system of interpunctuation, which
served the double purpose of marking the connection
between the dilTerent parts of a sentence as well as the
musical value of each word in the cantilation used in the
synagogue. The Masorali led the way to a grammatical
ti-eatment of the text, and furnished the material. There are
three kinds of Masorah: Masorah pari-a. containing short
glosses which were placed between the columns of the text
of the Bible: Masorah magyia, made up of longer notes
placi'd upon the upper and lower margins. When this did
not siiHice I lie iMasoretic notes were placed at the end of the
different books (MuJtorah finalis). i'lie Independent Maso-
rah contains collected notes on words and passages which
were put together in the form of books. The most impor-
tant of these collections is the Ochlali Weochlah. (Jur pres-
ent Musorelic system goes back almost entirely to Aaron ben
Asher (ninth century), the most prnminent of the Masoretic
scholars. He was the author cif the Di/cdiil;e Ilattiam'tm
(ed. by Biier and Strack, Leipzig, 1879). His opponent,
Moses ben Naflali, does not enjoy the sjime consideration.
A Masorah was also provided for Targum UnUnlos. See
Taruum.
Literature. — Gciger, Judische Zeitschr. (iii., pp. 78-
119) ; Gratz, Monntschrift (1881-82) ; L. Blau. Masurelische
Unlersiichimgeh (Slvassimrg, WJl) ; A. Biichler, Untersiich.
ZHT EntsteliAtng und Entwiclc. der Ilel). Accente (Wien,
1891); L Harris, The Rise and Development of the Mas-
sorah, Jew. Quart. liev. (i., p[). 12^, sq.); W, Bachcr in
Winter and Wiiiische, V^iV JaJ. Lit. (ii.. pp. llil, «j.); A.
Merx, Eine Sludie zur Gesch. der Masora. Verhand. des
Sten Orient. Congresses (Berlin, 1882, p. 188) ; Lagarde,
Mittheilungen (i.. 91): G. D. Ginsburg, The Massorah (3
vols., London, 1880-8.J) ; Konig. Einleilitng in des Alte Tes-
tament (Bonn, 1893, pp. 38, sq.). KicuARU Goitheil.
Massowa : an important port on a little island of the
Red Sea within hailing distance of the African maiidand,
hence its name from the Kthiopic, through the Arabic Med-
saiia = to call : the Saba of Ptnlemy (see map of Africa, ref.
4-G). It was obtained by the Turks in the seventeenth cen-
tury, and Abyssinia's attempts to acquire it as a port always
encied in failure. In 1885 Italy, taking advantage of Kgypi's
dillicuUies with the Mahdisis, and with the connivance of
England, seized Massowa, which is now her chief settlement
and port in her African possession of Eritrea. The climate
is excessively hot and unhealthful, but as the leading gate-
way from the sea to Abyssinia JIassowa is capable of con-
siderable development. Pop. about 12.000. C. C. Auams.
Mast [0. Eng. 7niesl ; cf. Dutch. Germ., Swed., and Dan.
7nast. mast, |ierhaps cognate with Lat. mains, mast, earlier
*!n(idus < Indo.-Europ. mazdos]: a nearly upright spar of
wood, iron, or steel rising upward through the decks of a
vessel for the purpose of affording attachment to the sails
and rigging of a ship. The fir und pine of Puget Sound
and Norway are of great repute as material ft)r musts. Iron
and steel masts are constructed upon several different sys-
tems. In all vessels of any considerable size each mast con-
sists of several parts, of which the lowest is the mast proper,
next the topmast, the topgallant mast, and the roval mast,
and sometimes a sky-scraper, the highest of all. The fore-
most mast of a ship is the foremast : the central one. the
mainmast; the one farthest aft, the niizzenmast; and the
separate parts of each are distinguished as the fore-topmast,
the main-topgallant mast, etc., i)y combining the name of
each mast with the appropriate name of each part of a mast.
Ships, barks, barkentines and some schooners have three
masts. Brigs, brigantines. and schooners ordinarily have
two masts. JIany sloops, smacks, luggers, and other small
craft have but one mast. Large seagoing steamers have
often four, and sometimes five, masts.
Mastaba: the name applied by the Egyptian Arabs to the
tomljsofthe nobles of the fourth, fifth, ancl sixth dynasties,
which are found at Saqqarah, near Memphis. The name is
derived from the ordinary bench found in front of Egyptian
houses. Though presenting the appearance of truncated
pyramids they were different in their origin, being probably
ail outgrowth of the cairns erected to mark the burial-places
of prominent persons. In the earliest specimens, however,
the sides were already formed of sloping masonry walls,
and the tops were paved. Hi latter times their place was
taken by rock-hewn tombs. The largest specimens date
from the fourth dynasty ; the best executed from the fifth ;
those of the sixth show signs of decadence. One hundred
and thirty-three mastabas have been found at Saqqarah;
the largest and best preserved is that of Ti, and is situated
near the "Step Pvramid." They vary in size (170 x 86 feet
to 26x20 feet) aiid height (13 to 30 feet ), are rectangular,
and have their longest direction N. and S. Like all Egyp-
tian tombs, they were intended to insure the preservation of
the mummy, ujion which the hojie of " living again " de-
pended. The ordinary mastaba contained three essential
features: the mummy-chamber and ])it. the serrfnJ (hollow
space, or cellar), and the chamlicrof offering. The first was
subterranean, cut in the rock directly beneath the chamber
of offering, ami was reached by a [lit which was usually
vertical (40 to 80 feet dec|i) located on the longitudinal axis
of the nia-staba a little N. of the center. After the mum-
my had been placed within, the entrance was walled up and
the pit filleil with large stones. The chamber of ottering
was in most cases on the ea,st side near the southeast corner,
and contained a sculptured table of offering. To the mural
decorations, sometimes very beuutiful, we owe much of our
knowledge of the customs of the period. A fine example of
such a chamber is in the Berlin ^luseum. Some of the ex-
pressions used show that the mastaba mav have been con-
structed during the life of the occu|ianf. The serdnb was a
hidden chamber inside the mastal)a in which a statue of the
dead was usually placed, to serve as the home of the Ka
(q. v.). It was freiiueiilly connected with the chamber of
offering by a small piussageway, only a few square inches in
size, by wliich the incense might reach the representative of
MASTACEMIiELIU.K
MASTEU AND SERVANT
607
the dead, the hidden statue, and also ns a means of epress and
entrance for the Ka. A false door, intended for the extlu-
sive use of the departed, is soinetinies found near the north-
east corner, corresponding to the entrance to the ohainlier of
ofTering. Other niaslabas which may date hack to the sixth
dynasty have been found in Xuhia. Ciiarlks U. Gillett.
Mastoceiiibt'ridu! [Mod. Lat., named from Maxtacevi-
beliiK. the typical Rcnus; Gr. niaToi, mouth, javi + iy, in
+ PtKos, darlj : a family of eel-shaped fishes of the order
Opislhomi. The vertebra; are in large number (in Jilii/n-
cnobdella 33 + -10) ; confined to Asia and West Africa, and
best represented in the fresh waters of the East Indies.
Under the name of "eels" they are esteemed by the British
residents of India.
Master [from O. Kr. maidre > Fr. maiire < Lat. ma-
giK ler, ot same root as mag'nufi. great]: a name applied
to various persons in positions of authority, and specilically
used to designate an oflicer of the navy, the chief oflicer of
a merchant vessel, and certain chief ollicers or functionaries
of law courts, and of some other oOicials. Their titles, pow-
ers, and duties arc here noted in brief. For JJaster and
Servant, see that title; for the use of master as a term of
s<'holastic distinction, see Deorees.
In the U. S. and the Hritish navies the term master was
used to designate the navigator or sailing-master. In the
U. S. navy his grade was between that of an ensign an<i that
of a lieutenant, and he ranked with first lieutenant in the
army. The title was changed by act of Congress Mar. 3,
1KH3, to lieutenant (junior grade). In the British navy he
was a line oflicer of the lowest rank, and his title is now
navigating lieutenant, or stafi commander.
Master of a Smip. — This is the technical legal term for
the chief ollicer of a merchant vessel, having supreme com-
mand of the crew and the sole management of the shin, in
common speech called the " captain." This office, with its
peculiar legal functions, is very ancient : it is described in
the Lates of Oleron, and in other maritime codes of the
Middle Ages. The master is appointed by the owners of
the vessel, and as an agent represents both them and the
owners of the cargo. lie is clothed with very great powers
in respect to the ship, the cargo, anil the crew, and when in
foreign countries his authority to act for and to bind his
principals exceeds that of anv other regular commercial
agent, and is almost unbounded, having, in general, author-
ity to do anything that under the circumstances may be or
seem nece.ssary to complete the vovage, or save the property
in his charge from destruction. For a full description of
his t)Owers, duties, and functions, see Shipping, Law of.
Masters at Common Law. — Formerly in Great Britain
these were five miusters or clerks on the plea side of the
court of queen's (or king's) bench, the court of excheciuer,
and the court of common pleas, appointed by statute (7
Wm. IV'. an<i 1 Vict. c. 30), whose duties were to tax costs,
compute damages, attend the judges in court, etc. Under
the judicature acts and subsequent statutes these officers
with the same duties were attached to the branch of the
high court of justice, representing the court to which they
belonged, and they also transact much of the business at
jud-fe's chambers.
Master.s in Chancery. — These were originally appointed
as assistants to the chancellor, who had the power of appoint-
ing them himself from the time of Edwani IV. They were
first called clerks, but afterward received the name master,
in the reign of Edward III., and are a survival of a coimcil
of twelve chief clerks of the time of Hichard II. The chief
of the masters in chancery was called the Miuster of the
KoUs. (S'c below). They were generally required to be
learned both in the civil and the common law. Their prin-
cipal functions, which they still exerci.se where the office is
retained, were the hearing of references of causes, the tak-
ing of affidavits and acknowledgments, the examination of
witnesses in certain cases (e. g. for the perpetuation of tes-
timony), the taking of recognizances, etc. When a suit in-
volved a matter of account, particularly if this were long
and complicated, it became tne usual practice to refer its
settlement to a imisler. The masters also examined upon
reference the propriety of bills in equity, and if re|x>rt was
made that a bill contained scandalous and impertinent mat-
ter, it was struck out. In order to enalde him to perform
his duties he was given certain powers of the court, such as
to compel the attendance of parties and witnesses, etc. The
report of the master in chancery is not final as a determina-
tion of the rights of the parlies until it has been confirmed
by a judicial order, and before this is done the parties are
given an opportunity to make such objections as they may
desire as to his findings, either of law or of fact. In Eng-
land masters in chancery were atmlished by statute (l.*; and
16 Vict., c. «0), ami their duties are now largely performed
by the chief clerks, commissioners to administer oallis, and
taxing-masters (who lax the costs) — offices created by statute.
In the U. .S. there are still masters in chancery so called
in some of the States, and in those States, as Xew York,
where they do not exist as such, the matters which were
formerly referred to them in ecjuily cases, accounts, ques-
tions of fact, etc., are referred to attorneys at law or solici-
tors, who are technically styled referees. In performing
such functions they have much the same powers as were
formerly given to masters in chancery. The form of pro-
cedure varies with the customs and .statutory rules of the
jurisdiction in which he is appointed.
Master ok the Bolls. — This officer was originally the
chief of the masters in chancery (see above), having the keep-
ing of the rolls and grants under the great seal, and the rec-
ords of the court of chancery in England. He subseauently
acquired judicial powers, which were fully established in the
reign of George II. (3 Geo. II., c. 30), and wiis one of the judges
before whom equitable causes could be heard in the first in-
stance ; but an ap|)eal lay from an order or decision by him
to the court of apf)eal in chancery, or to the lord chancellor.
By the .Judicature Act of 1873. s. 31 (previous to which he
alone of all the judges was allowed to sit in the House of
Commons), he was made the second judge of the chancery
division of the high court of justice, and by that of 1875,
s. 4, an ex-officio member of the court of appeal. Under the
act of 188r(J"d. Act., 1881, s. 2) he sits in the court of ap-
peal only, but he still has the keeping of the records.
Masters in Linacv. — In Great Britain these are certain
officers created by statute (16 and 17 Vict., c. 70), to whom
are referred inquiries and matters connected with the per-
sons and estates of lunatics. Their jxiwers correspona in
many respects to those of the commissioners in lunacy in
some of tne U. S., but are more extensive.
Master of the Crown Office. — This officer was the
queen's (or king's) coroner and attorney in the criminal de-
partment of the court of queen's (or king's) bench, who jirose-
cuted at the relation of private informers, and now. with
the same functions, is made by statute one of certain officers
called masters of the Supreme Court.
Master of the Faculties. — A term in Great Britain for
an ecclesiastical officer under the archbishop who grants li-
censes, dispensations, etc.
Master of the Horse. — The name in Great Britain for
an officer of the royal household, subordinate in rank only
to the lord steward and the lord chamberlain.
F. Sturges Allen.
Master and Servant : in law, persons who sustain such
a relation to each other that one has the legal right to <li-
rect and control all acts done on his behalf by the other.
Servant is a word of wide scope and variable signification.
As a generic term it includes every one who performs au-
thorized acts for another. This is the only sense in which
it was used in earlv English law. An apprentice, a bond-
man, a wife, a child, a master of a ship, a bailiff, a factor,
an attorney, an under sheriff — all were servants. Agent, as
the designation of a distinct species of this class, did not
come into use until late in the sixteenth century. At pres-
ent, however, servant is often employed as a specific term.
It frequently occurs in wills in the sense of domestic serv-
ants. In a great variety of statutes its meaning is con-
fined to laborers, or s«T\'ants of an inferior grade. And legal
writers and judges often use it in contradistinction to agent
to designate those who are expected to receive and bound
to obey special directions of their employers, as distin-
guished from the other class, whose chief function is to
institute contract relations U'tween their principals and
tliinl parties, and who are allowed to exercise their discre-
tion and to enjoy a considerable degree of personal inde-
pendence in conducting the business of their princijials.
In this article servant will be used in its generic sonje,
but no reference will be made to particular kinds of serr-
ants, such as agents, apprentices, and slaves, since they are
treateil of separately. Moreover, many of the rules given
under the head of agent are applicable to all servants, and
will not lie re(><-ated here. The present discussion therefore
will be confined to the mutual liabilities of master and serv-
ant, and to their liabilities for wrongs to third persons.
608
MASTER AM) SERVANT
Mutual Liabililies. (a) Breach of ConlracI of Serrice.—
As the foiitraot relation of iimstiT iimi servant is a personal
one, it is terniiimteil by the death of either, or by the con-
tinueil sickness of tlie servant. Siieh terminal ion is not a
breach, however, as it is not attributed to the acts of the
Earties. but to tlie act of God. In ease the servant breaks
is contract the master may recover damages for the brea<h,
and in exceptional circumstances may obtain nn injunction
against him. (Toledo, etc., Jiy. vs. Penn. Co., 54 Federal
Reporter T46. where railway employees were restrained from
eni^iging in a strike which was ordered to enforce a boy-
cott against a connecting line.) When the master breaks
the contract the servant may proceed, in most jurisdictions,
in either of three ways : lie may sue for the unpaid value of
the services he has rendered, treating the contract as re-
scinded by the master's breach. Or he may sue at once
upon the contract for such damages as he can show he will
probably sustain by the master's breach of it. Or he may
wait until the expiration of the term for which the contract
was made, and sue for the actual damages which the breach
has caused him. If he sues for damages, the master may
show in reduction of his claim that he earned wages, or
that he might have earned them by other like employment
in the same locality.
(6) Breach of Duty. — The servant is bound to obey all
reasonable instructions of his master, and to exert himself
faithfully in promoting the master's interests. For a breach
of such iluties, causing harm to the master, the servant is
liable to him in damages. Hence if the master is obliged
to pay third persons for injuries done to them by the serv-
ant without his authority or ratification, the servant is liable
over to him therefor.
On the other hand, the master is bound (1) to use reason-
able care in providing a safe place in which the servant can
work ; (2) to take suitable precautions that all tools and
machinery are free from discoverable defects, and arc kept
in proper repair; (3) to warn the servant of any danger that
is not apparent or that is not fairly incident to the busi-
ness; (4) to make, promulgate, and enforce such rules as
are necessary for the reasonable protection of those engaged
in his business; and (5) to use reasonable care in selecting
and continuing superintendents and fellow servants. For
the breach of any of these duties, causing injury to a serv-
ant, an action in tort will lie to recover the damages sus-
tained. If these duties have been fairly performed, and the
injury results from the negligence of a fellow servant, the
master is not liable.
(c) Fellow Servants. — This exception to the general rule —
that a master is liable for the torts of his servants within
the scope of their authority — is quite modern. It was tirst
announced in England in the case of Priestly vs. Fowler (3
Meeson vs. Welsby, 1, a. d. 1837), and in the U. S. in Murray
vs. South Carolina Bi/. (1 McMullan (S. C.) 385, a. d. 1841).
The courts of Scotland rejected it until the House of Lords
forced its acceptance upon them by the decision in Wilson
vs. Merry (Law Reports, 1 Scotch and Divorce 326, A. D.
1868), and it has no recognition upon the continent of Eu-
rope. In a number of the U. S. it has been greatly modi-
fied by statute. The reason assigned for the exception is
that "a servant, when he engages to serve a master, under-
takes, as between himself ami liis master, to run all the or-
dinary risks of the service, including the risk of negligence
upon the part of a fellow servant, when he is acting in the
discharge of his duty as servant of him, who is the com-
mon ma.ster of both." In applying this doctrine great dilfi-
culty has been experienced in' determining who are fellow
servants and what is a common employment.
In order for two persons to sustain the relation of fellow
servants they must have a common ma-ster. Hence one em-
ployed by an independent contractor on a building is not
the fellow servant of another working by his side on the
same building, but employed directly by the owner. If per-
sons having a common master are engaged in a common
employment they are fellow servants, although they do not
work in company, nor have an opiiortunity to control or in-
fluence each other's conduct, and are engaged in different
departments of duly; for example, the carpenter, the jior-
ter, and the stewardess of a steamship; but their depart-
ments of duty may be so distinct that their employment
can not be considered a common one, although they are en-
gaged in promoting the business interests of the same mas-
ter. Accordingly, it has lieen lielil (hat the captains of two
ships which are owned by the same person, while carrying
on his business, are not necessarily within the fellow serv-
ant exception to the master's liability. The safety of one
captain was not, in the natural and ordinary course of
things, dependent on the care and skill of the other. The
injurv of either by the negligence of the other was not an
ordinary risk of the service. (The Petrel (Rrilish, 1893), I
Reports 651.) Tlieir relations are quite different from
those of engineers or conductors of different trains on the
same railway, where the risk of injury to one is the natu-
ral and necessary consequence of misconduct in the other.
Va7i Avery vs. liailway Co., 35 Federal Reporter 40.
According to the view which prevails in Great Britain and
generallv in the U. S., the relative rank of servants is imma-
terial. "Employees do not cease to be fellow servants be-
cause the master hits given to one the control over another
while engaged in the common service, and he does not be-
come liable for injuries sustained by an inferior servant
through the negligence of his superior: but, as we have
seen, the master owes certain duties to all his servants. If
one of them is injured by reason of the master's failure to
perform any of the five classes of duties mentioned above,
he is liable for the damages resulting therefrom. He can
not escape responsibility by delegating any of them to a
servant. One to whom such a duty has been delegated is
often called a vice-principal, and his negligence in its per-
formance is the master's negligence. It is the nature of
the negligent act, ami not the rank of the actor, that de-
termines the master's liability. (Baltimore, etc.. Bi/, vs.
Bavgh, 149 U. S. 368.) In a number of the U. S. the
courts take a different view, and hold that where one serv-
ant is placed by his employer in a position of subordination
to the orders and control of another, the master is liable for
injuries sustained by the negligence of the superior. Sea
the dissenting opinicm of Justice Field in the last-cited case.
Liabilities to Third J'ersons. — The servant is liable to
third persons for any wrong he does them, although he acts
in obedience to his master's commands. His contract of
service can not be invoked against an injured party as an
authority to commit a tort, and, if he knew the act was
wrongful, he can not obtain any indemnity from his master.
The master is also liable if the servant's tort was com-
mitted "in furtherance of and within the scope of the busi-
ness with which he was trusted." Even if tlie relation of
master and servant did not subsist at the time of the wrong-
ful act the master may make himself liable therefor by rati-
fying it. See Ratification.
This extraordinary liability of the master is thought by
some writers to be the " remnant of the obsolete institu-
tion " of slavery, and to require " men daily to pay large
sums for other people's acts, in which they had no jiart and
for which they are in no sense to blame." (Holmes, The
Common Law, pp. 16, 17, 230.) Undoubtedly the primitive
law of our Germanic ancestors held the master absolutely
liable for the wrongs of his slaves or of his free servants;
but this doctrine sutfered a radical modification during the
early common-law period, so that by the sixteenth century
the established rule seems to have been that the master was
liable only for the servants' torts which he was proved to
have oommaniled or assented to. Ajiparently the rule was
found to relieve the master unduly, and a reaction set in
<luring Lonl Holt's time, which has continued to our day,
resulting in his present .stringent responsibility. (See Be-
sponsibi/ily for 7'ortious Acts, hy Prof. John II. Wigmore, 7
Harvard Liiw Bev., pp. 315, 383, 441.) Probably no better
reason for the existing rule can be given than that offered
by Chief Justice Shaw when he declared it "is obviously
founded on the great principle of social duty that every
man in the management of his own affairs, whether by him-
self or by his agents or servants, shall so conduct them as
not to injure another; and if he does not, and another
thereby sustains damage, he shall answer for it."
Independent Contractor. — This resiionsibility, however,
does not ordinarily extend beyond the acts of servants. If
a person employs another to do work for him in the capacity
of an independent contractor he will not be liable for the
other's torts save in exceptional cases. Nor should he be
liable, for he docs not retain the power of controlling the
work. Whether such ])ower is retained in a given case is
often a dillicult question ; but where it is not retained, where
the one employeil undertakes to proiluce a given result and is
free to use Ids own dis<Tction in the manner of accomplishing
it, he is an independent contractor; the business is his busi-
ness, and a person injured by his conduct of it can not look
beyond him for redress. (Casement vs. Brown, 148 U. S.
615.) If, however, the work to be done by the contractor is
MASTERSINGERS
609
unlawful, such as tearinf; up a street pavement and <ib-
gtructins travel without authority; or, though it lie lawful.
if its perfoniianee necessjiriiy will Lriii^ wrongful eonse-
qucnecs to pass, unless guarded against, the employer is
lK)und to respond for the ooiilraetor's torts precisely us he
is for similar torts by his servants.
Who is the Master f — In some coses this question is a
troublesome one. for the servant doing the harm, although
seleeted and paid by one person, is engaged upon the work
of another. The owner of a crane and employer of the man
in charge of it hired them to anolhcr, who used them in
loading his vessel. By the negligence of the servant injury
was done to a third party, ami the question was who must
respond as master for this servant's wrong. On the one
hand it was argued that he was liable who chose and had
the right to discharge him. On tlie other, it was claimed
that he was the niiuster, who had the right, at the moment, to
control tlie doing of the wrongful ad. The court took the
latter view, and this appears to be the correct one. It fol-
lows that a j>erson may be the servant of one in a particu-
lar matter, though he is at the syime time the general serv-
ant of another. He may have two masters at the same
time, but not as to the same act ; and the test of responsi-
bility for a servant's act is the right to control it. {Dono-
van vs. Laiiig (IWi:)), 1 Queen's Bench 62!) ; Wood vs. Fiber
Co., 154 Mass. 41!).) If a stranger interferes and directs a
servant to do an act which causes injury, he will be liable,
not as a master, but as the procurer and cause of the
wrong.
Scope of Employtifent. — When the servant's wrongful act
is specifically ordered by the master, or is the natural and
probable consefjuence of his orders, he is clearly liable. He
IS also responsible if the act was done in furtherance of
and within the scope of the business intrusted to the serv-
ant, and it will not matter that the employer has forbidden
the particular act, and that it can not benefit him in fact.
Accordingly, an omnibus-owner who had instnieted his
driver not to obstruct other vehicles was held liable for the
damage done to another omnibus by his driver's pulling
across the road in front of it and causing it to upset. If
the master has given to the servant discretion to act in an
emergency, the hitter's decision will bind the former; as
where trainmen eject a passenger without cause. He is also
liable for the willful misconduct of the servant, provided it
is within the scope of his employment, but not for wrong-
ful luls done exclusively for his private ends. It was there-
fore held that a railway compiiny must pay damages to
one who was kicked by a brakeman while attemjiting to
board a car, but not to one who was pursued by a con-
ductor, caught, and carried oil on its train. The dilliculty
in these cases is not in ascertaining the rule of law to be
applied, but in determining, as a matter of fact, whether
the servant's wrongful conduct is a part of his master's
affairs. Although the master is liable to third persons for
his servants' torts within the limits above described, he is
entitloil to reimbursement by the servant for any damages
he is compelleil to pay because of such torts, unless they
were authorizeil or have been ratitied by him.
Statutory Changes. — The common-law rules relating to
master and servant have been modified to some extent by
statute, but no attempt will be made to give the details of
this legislation. One of its objects is to secure to workmen
the payment of the entire amount of wages in money, un-
fettered by any promise, obtained by powerful employers, to
spend any part at any jwirticular shop or in anv j)arti<ular
manner. (Sec the Truck Act, 1 and 2 Win. f \ ., ch. 37.)
Another is to re<luce the hours of lal>or which a master
can re<ii.ire of his servant. Still another object is the modi-
fication or alxilition of the fellow-servant exception to the
master's liabilitv. Sec the Knglish Kmplover's Liability
Act of ISSO, 43' and 44 Vict., c. 42: Georgia' I'otle. gS ~^*^
and ;«);!«; Iowa Kevised C'o.le of 18S0, Jj l;!07; IJiKKle Isl-
and I'liblic Statutes, 1SS2, c. 21)4. «5 15; .Mabania Civil Code
of 1S.S6, Sij 25!»()-!l2: Ma.ss., chap. 270 L. of 1S><7, and chap.
359 L. of 18U3; TexiLs, chap. i)l L. of 1893: Wood's J/oa-
ter and Servant; McKinney on Fellow Servants.
Francis M. Bubdick.
Ma-Stersi nsrors [trans, of Germ, meistersinger] : the poets
and rhymers who, after the decline of the minnesoug in
the thirteenth century, were the chief represi-ntatives of
the fMjetic art in Germany for more than two centuries. Be-
lieving that poetry was an accomplishment that could lie
acquired by precept and diligent practice, they organized
26b
during the fifteenth century into regular guilds or schools,
with statutes resembling those of the contemporary trade-
unions. We may thus distinguish two |ierio<ls in the his-
tory of the niastersong, a perio<l previous to the organiza-
tion into guild.s, and a fieri<«i following this organization.
Concerning the former |>eriod and the origin of the master-
song we are poorly informed. The legend invented by later
raastcrsingers, according to which twelve old masters were
the founders of their art, is without the lea.st historical
foundation. Instruclitm in the technical requirements of
poetry, i. e. in metrics and music, certainly existed in the
times of classical minnesong. It was reserved, however, for
the last representatives of tlie minnesong, who took special
pride in the artificiality of their verse-struct ures. to systemize
this instruction. Many of the last minnesingers were not of
noble birth, and it is highly probable that with the appear-
ance of democracy in the ranks of the [foels the element of
pedantry was ushered in also.
Xumerous signs and facts point to Mentz as the oldest
seat of the mastersong. Here we find at the close of the
thirteenth and at the beginning of the fourteenth centuries
Fraucniob (d. Xov. 29, l:il8), a talented but extremely vain
and artificial poet, who seems to have gathered around him-
self apprentices in the poetic art. Not only may we infer
this from a picture which accompanies his poems in the
famous Heidelberg (former Parisian) manuscript, but also
from the inrtuence which his poetry doubtlessly exerted on
the later inastersingers. The religious and theological con-
tents of most of the mastersongs, their fruitless versified
speculations concerning the Trinity, the Immaculate Concep-
tion, and other problems of media'val scholasticism may
more or less be traced back to Frauenlob's example.
Mastersinger schools similar to that of Mentz were gradu-
ally establishe<i in the cities along the Rhine, like \Vonns,
Strassburg (1493), and Freiburg, where the thrift of com-
merce and the awakening of the spirit of independence
among the citizens had also given rise to the demand for
higher education. All of.these schools seem to have been
highly conservative in spirit, for they did not allow their
members the invention of new metrical measures, but re-
stricted them to the use of the metrical models of the "old
masters." During the fifteenth century a mastersinger, by
name Xestler von .Speier, intnuluced, however, a new
measure (Ton), thereby causing a break with the traditions
of the Mentz school, and the establishing of more schools
in the interior of Germany. Simultaneously with this
event, which meant the development of a greater freedom of
spirit among the niastersingers, a more strict organization
into guilds or associations must have taken place. As the
leader of the younger and more progressive generation of
mastersinjiers, we may consider Hans Folz. a poet from
Worms, lie took the part of Kestler in the latter's conflict
with the Mentz school, ridiculed the conservatism of the old
masters, and founded a new scOiool in Xuremlierg, which s<X)n
developed into the most prominent in Germany. For in this
sch<Mil Hans Sachs, the greatest of all the niastersingers, re-
ceived his earliest instruction in the art of poetry. In him
the mastersong could finally claim a real poet of national
reputation, though we of modern times do not find the true
greatness of Hans Sachs in his mastersongs. With the rise
of humanism in Germany and the subse(|uent development
of new poetical ideas the niastersingers are gradually lost to
sight. Still, their guilds continued to exist in the se<-lusion
of some of the small German cities up to the nineteenth
century, the last of the guilds being formally dissolved by
the twelve ina.sters of I'liii in 18;!U.
In his masterly es.say I'rber drn altdeulschm Meisterge-
sang, Jacob Grimm has demonstrated Ix-vond doubt that
the mastersong, from a metrical point of view, was the con-
tinuation of the minnesong. Concerning the metriial rules
of the later maslersoiig, the customs and regulations which
were observed by the guilds, we are excellently infr>rmed
by the so-called Talnilatiiren as they were publislie<l by
Puschmann, (jriimllirher Berlcht des deulxchen Mristrrgt'
gangs (1573), ami by Wagensi-il. Jiuch von der Meisttrsinger
holdseliger A'unst (l(5!i7). The gi-neral chanuter of the
contents of the niastersong has already lii-eii partly do-
scrilicd. Its theological abstruseiiess and didactic dryness
rep<d a reailer of the present day. In spite of its fossilized
appearance we must iiol forget that in times of general men-
tal decay and [KK'tical decline thes<' guihls preserved at least
the faint memory that |Mielry shoiiM lie an art.
See .lacob Grimm, I'elier drn altd. M'istrrgrsang (1811);
Bartsch, Meisterlieder der Kolmarer Jlandsehri/l (1862);
610
MASTIC
MASTODON
Oo?<icke, Inlrntluclion to Dicliliingen von Hans Sachs (1883) ;
Martin, Die Meiglersilnger von Strnssburff (18!S2); Plate,
Die KiiuitlangdrScke der Jteistersinger. Julius (Joebicl.
Mas'tic [via Fr. from I^at. mas'tiche, mas'tice, from Or.
luurrlxV' niastio, appari'iitly deriv. of /uurTd^dy, fuuraaSat,
c'liewj : a valuable Ki'i'i-resin used as an inirredioiit uf uiauy
varnishes. Hy itself it is transparent, toujrli, brilliant, and
delieatc, and is often employed in (inisliins nni|>s and
paintings. It is obtained from cuts in tlie bark of I'istacia
lenliscus, P. allanlica, etc.. sliruljs of the order Anacardia-
ee(r. It conies from Barbary, the Levant, and especially
from China. It Invs a limited use in medicine and in den-
tistry and in mounting objects for the microscope.
.Hasticntion : the act or process of chewing, as of food.
It is a complex co-ordinated muscular act wliich depends
upon the activity of nerve centers in the brain, whose per-
formances are guided by sensations generated in the sensory
nerves distributed to the membrane lining Hie mouth, to
the teeth, and to the niustdes of the jaws and cheeks. The
food is moved in various directions and mixed with saliva
by means of the tongue chiefly, and is kept between the
teeth by the opposing actions of the tongue on the one side
and the lips and cheeks on the other.
Mastication is accomplished by the teeth of the lower jaw
being brought with a cutting or grinding motion against
those of the upper jaw. The movements of the lower jaw
are of three kinds : vertical, lateral, and fore-and-aft, the
first having for its object the cutting and laceration of the
food, and tlie last two its grinding and comminution ; con-
sequently we find that the types of movement in different
species of animals depend upon the nature of the food upon
which the animal lives. In man mastication is performed
by vertical and lateral movements, for although he possesses
the power of fore-and-aft motions, they are not used in
chewing. The upward movement is effected by the tempo-
ral, masseter and internal pterygoid muscles, aiid the down-
ward movement by the weight of the jaw, which may be re-
enforced by the digastric, mylohyoid, geniohyoid, and cer-
tain other small muscles connected with the hyoid bone,
anil the platysraa. The lateral movements are due to the
alternate contractions of the external pterygoids. In hcibiv-
ora the movements are lateral, having for their purpose
the grinding of the pieces. In carnivora' they are vertical,
accomplishing nothing more than tearing and lacerating.
In rodents they are fore-and-aft, combined with the vertical.
The type of movement in mastication in any animal can be
told with considerable accuracy by the nature of the teeth
— in animals in which the movement is of the vertical char-
acter the teeth are chiefly pointed and wedge-like, as in the
cat, and are especially adapted for cutting and tearing ; in
those in which the lateral type is marked the teeth are
chiefly of the molar variety, having large, irregular surfaces
which render them particularly useful for grinding, as in
the cow ; while in those in which we find both up-and-down
and lateral movements both varieties of teeth are observed.
Kodents and other species exhibit other peculiarities, which
depend upon the natureof the food upon which they subsist.
During mastication the food is mixed with .saliva which
is poured into the mouth as a result of a reflex excitation of
the salivary glands, and is moved to and fro by means of
the intricate movements of the tongue so as to bring the
particles between the teeth. After the jaws have been
brought together the tongue, cheeks, and lips conjointly
collect the mass and again get it in position to be chewed,
and so the operations are repeated until a siiflicient degree
of comminution is accomplished. The tongue then gathers
the mass and molds it in the form of a bolus. The tip of
the tongue is now brought against the roof of the mouth,
and the Indus lying in the hollow of the tongue is gradually
forced back to the pharynx, as more and more of the tongue
is lirought against the n'.of of the mouth until it reaches the
isthmus of the fauces, when various muscles are successively
brought into operation and the bolus is swallowed. As a
rule, but (me side of the mouth is engaged in chewing at any
given time ; after a while the labor is shifted to the other
side, and so on alternately. Most people habitually chow
upon one side more than upon the other.
The ilegree of pressure which is exerted by the lower jaw
is regulated by the sensations imparled by (lie extremely
.sensitive nerves of the teeth and muscles of the lower jaw ;
the degree of comminution of the food is alTorded us by
sensations coming through the .same nerves distributed to
the mucous membrane of the tongue.
While mastication is a voluntary act it is carried on
almost automatically after it is started, the process being
guided by the sensory impulses as above noted.
The object of mastication is to prepare the food for the
actions of the digestive juices. In carnivora miL>itication is
relatively of little value, owing chiefly to the comparatively
small amount of non-digestible matter taken in the food, but
in herbivora and omnivora it is essential that mastication
be carried to a high degree in order that digestion can take
place with proper speed. Food that is not properly chewed
IS far more dirticult of digestion than that which is. The
evil effects of bolting the food are only loo frequently illu.s-
trated in the prevalence of dyspepsia. Graminivorous binls,
which swallow seed, beans, etc., whole, ingest pebbles, small
pieces of glass, etc., with their food, which by the aid of the
powerful muscles of the gizzard gradually grind the food,
and thus mastication is practicallv accomplished in the
stomach. I5i)Waru T. KEicnERT.
Mastiff [M. Eng. mestif= O. Fr. mestif, mongrel, appar-
ently from a deriv. of Lat. mixlus, but cf. also 0. Fr. mas-
tin > Fr. mulin < Lat. *mansueti nns. tamed dog: the word
may have also been influenced by prov. Eng. masty, big,
big dog. connected with mast fruit, food] : a name applietl
to several distinct breeds of large watch-dogs. The old
English and Irish mastiffs (breeds which are unfortunately
now nearly extinct) resemble the bulldog in courage and
strength, but excel him in magnanimity, faithfulness, and
affection for man. The mastiff should have a massive head,
broad forehead, short muzzle, and small pendant ears. The
neck should be muscular, chest full, legs straight. The hair
should be short, the color fawn with black muzzle and ears.
The tendency nowadays .seems to be to breed this dog with
a smaller head and muzzle than formerly. (See Doos.) The
Tibet mastiff, from Central Asia, is one of the largest of
the dog tribe. He is bred both as a sheep dog and as a de-
fender of the house. The so-called Cuban bloodhound is
really a mastiff of Spanish origin, but in ferocity and blood-
thirstiness appears to excel all otlier breeds.
Kevised by F. A. Lucas.
Mas'todon [from Gr. na<rr6s, breast, nipple + iSour, iSiy-
Toj. tooth. Named from the conical projections on its molar
teeth]: name of a genus of Tertiary and Quaternary quad-
rupeds of large size, belonging to the order J'ruhuscidea,auil
closely related to the elephant and the mammoth. They are
distinguished from those animals principally by the more
simple structure of the crowns of the molar or grinding
teeth. These teeth, according to Owen, are seven on each
side, above and below. The first two, at least in the ujiper
jaw, are followed by vertical successors, but the remaining
teeth displace one another from behind forward, usually
not more than two of each series being in use at one time,
or eight in all. The molar teeth have wedge-shaped, trans-
verse ridges, and the summits of the ridges are aivided by
a depression lengthwise with the tooth, and further sub-
divided into smaller cones, more or less resembling the
teats of a cow, whence the name, meaning " nipple-tooth."
The form of these teeth is of peculiar interest, as being in-
termediate between those of ordinary herbivorous animals
and the complex teeth of the elephant. In the common
American species, M. americanus. the posterior molars are
crossed by three to five such ridges, the last molar above
and below being subject to some variation ; but in the
three teeth preceding the last there are three such ridges,
and this form was taken by Dr. Falconer as the type of his
sub-genus Trilopiidon (three-crested). M. tongirostris of
Europe has four such ridges on the corresjionding teeth,
representing his sub-genus Tetralophodun (four-crcstcd).
M. sivaletisis has five ridges, while another group, con-
sidered by that author as intermediate between Elephas
and Mastodon, and named Stegodon, has six or more such
crests. These ridges are built up of dentine or the bonv
substance of the tooth, and covered by a layer of enamel.
The fangs and base of the tooth are further covered by a
coating of cement, which in the typical Mastodon extends
only in a very thin layer over the enamel of the crown,
while in Stegodon it is present in considerable quantity in
the valleys between the crowded ridges. In the eleiihant
the same process has lieen carried still further. The ridges
of dentine coaled with enamel have become numerous, thin,
and proportionally high, and the intervals arc filled with
cement, which also invests the whole crown of the tooth.
As such a tooth becomes worn by use the grinding surface
will present a scries of ridges of enamel crossing the t(M>lh,
MASTODON
MATAMATA
611
(inil uniting with each other in niiirs at the sides of the
tooth, so as to inclose an elongated area of dentine. Each
of tlie.se areas represents a section of a dentinal ridge, wliile
between the areas, and continuous with Ihe extiTior of the
tooth, is a layer of cement. Both the cement and dentine
t)einf; softer than the enamel, will he worn into hollows al-
ternating with ridges of that material.
The coarser teelh of the Maxltntun indicated a coarser
f(Mid than that of the elephant, and the remains of twigs
and hraiiches of trees, especially spruce and hendo<k, found
in the jiosilion of the stomach of some mastodon skeletons,
have given very positive evidence as to the nature of their
fo(Hl. There were no canine teeth, but two of the upper
incisors were developed in tho form of tusks, like those of
the elephant. These were also preceded by a pair of de-
ciduous tusks, and in some species were provided with a
band of enamel upon their surface. Shorter tusks were
also present in the lower jaw of many and perhaps all of the
species. These were early deciduous in the feinales, and
in the males one, usually the right, was freijuently retained.
The skull was massive, but considerably lightened by air-
cavities. The form and position of the nasal opening, as
well a-s the shape of the nasal bones, indicate the presence
of an elongated and llexible proboscis, and the necessity of
such an organ is shown by the shortness of the neck, the
vertebrip of which are much compressed longitudinally and
Skeleton of Aiii*-i
iiiustodoo.
flattened. All the vertebra' are slii>rt. with the neural spines
of the thoracic region elongated. The M. niiiirinimix. the
earliest and best-known species, hits been viry fully de-
scrilied under the name M. qiynntius by Dr. .1. ('. Warren,
the description being mostly drawn from a very perfect
skeleton discovered in a swamp at Xewburg. X. Y. This
skeleton measured 11 feet in height, and 17 feet in length
to the bas«' of the tail. The entire length of the tusk is
10 ft. 11 in., about 2i feet being included in Ihe socket.
The fore fiK)t measures nearly 2 feet across. The bones
were massive conipareil with tliose of Ihe eleiihant. When
alive this animal must have been 12 or 13 feet high, and,
including the tusks, about 25 feet long. Other skeletons
more or less complete have Ix-en discovered in Orange eo.,
N'. Y., in New Jersey, Iniliana, and on the banks of the
Missouri, while isolated liones and teeth have been found
in nearly all parts of the U. ,S. and in Canada. This species
seems to have been confined to the t^ualernnry. At the
same time there were living at least two siiecies in South
America, Ihe .V. andiiim and M. humhnhllii. the former
species extending into the stiulheni parts of North America,
hrom the I'liocene of Nebraska, Dr. Leidy has descritieil
a species, .1/. miriticnt. smaller than M. nmrriranun, and
with a greater number of transverse ridges u|M)n its molars.
M. ohsciinm was lirst describiMl from the I'lioeene of .Mary-
land, and remains of the sjime or a closely allie<l species
have since been foimcl in North Carolina. Georgia, Cali-
fornia, and New Mexico. This spei'ies closely reseml)led Ihe
Jf. aiu/uslitlenn of Kurope. and like that species was pro-
vided with a band of enamel u|>on Ihe tusk. No American
species are known earlier than the I'lioeene. but in Kuroi>e
If. lotigiroKlriK luul M. lapiroideii aro from Ihe Mi<x"ene. and
the explorations of ('apt. Caulley and Dr. Falconer have
made known several species fri'm theSewalik Hills of India,
which are referred to the Miocene. Below that formation
no species have yet been discovered. O. C. Marsh.
Ma.sfi'di. or Al-.Ha»udI. Ali-.Aihi.-Hassa.v : b. at Bag-
dad alxtut Ihe close of the ninth century ; receive<l a brill-
iant educalion anil spent many years in travel. The Mo-
hammeilKn power and the Aral)ic languagi' were then at
their highest develojiment, and .Ma-suili visited and de-
.scribed many regions which no writer of his race and creeil
had seen, including Ihe shores of the Ca.spian, Persia, India
(perhaps even China), Madagascar, Arabia, all the coun-
tries of North Africa, and S|min. His later years were
pass<'d in Palestine, Bassora, .\ntioch, and Dania-scus. and
he died in Kgypt in '.m. His work, embracing Ihe geo-
graphical and historical results of his travels, is the most
celebrated of its kind in the Arabic language, am) alHiunds
in curious information illustruting the manners, morals, and
beliefs of the time. It is styled Meaduwn tif (Julil and
Mines of Gems, and is but an epitome of a larger work, now
lost, called the Ilistory of ihe Times. The Meadows of
(iold has Ijeen frequently printed, and one volume of an
Knglish translation was published by Dr. A. .Sprenger in
1H41 under the title Kl-Masudi's //isloricul Kiiri/rln/xpdia.
(Klur works of Masudi are extant in MS..anrl sev'enil others
have been lost. Revised by J. K. Jkwktt.
Masiilipatani' : maritime city of Kislna district, Mad-
ras, British India; at the mouth of a northern branch of
the Ki>tna delta; 220 miles N. of the city of Mailras; in
lat. IG St N. (see map of S. India, ref. 4-KJ. It is the cen-
ter of a manufacture of textile fabrics, which are, however,
being crowdeil out by Knglish ones. It is also the center of
the Christian missions in the Telugu country. The f>ort is
being gradually silled U|), and is now accessible only for na-
tive ciafl. The city is in marki'il decailence. The French
possessed the city from 1660 to 166!l. and there still remains
a small patch of French territory (22 acres) in the city,
where a market is held, besides two or three small patches
outside. In 1864 a terrible storm passed over the city, caus-
ing enormous destruction and the loss of 30,0(X) Vwes.
Mark W. Marrinotos.
Mat. Man. or .Mail : an Egyptian goddes.s, "daughter of
IJa " llie sun-goil. ■• eye of Ka,' " mistress of heaven, (lueen
of eari h, mistress of the nether world," " queen of g<j<ls and
goddesses." She was sometimes represented as Ihe wife of
TiioTii (q. v.). and wius regarded as the impersonation and
goddess of truth and justice. In this capacity she had the
higher grades of judges as her priests. «nd Ihe chief judges
wore her inuige suspended about their necks as the insignia
of their office. In the judgment scene in Amenti (see
UiTCAL OF THE Dead) she is represented as weighing the
heart of the departed again.st llie symbol of truth. Her
sign was the ostrich feather, which she wore upon her head
when staiuling, and sometimes upon her knees when in a
sitting posture. Charles R. Gli.LFrrr.
Mul. or Mattin;; lO. Eng. mealle, O. II. Germ, malla,
from Lat. ma/ /n, rusn-mat] : a coarse textile fabric made
by weaving giusses, rushes, palm-filwr, bark, and the like,
and used for summer floor-covering, for packing furniture
and other goods, as nnilerial for bags, as covering for liol-
IkhIs and cold-frames in gardens, etc. In rude nations mat-
ting is used instead of sailcloth. ViLsl quantities of " bass
matting," made from the inner bark of Ihe Kuro|H'an linden-
tree (7i7io), are made in Northern Russia. Nearly all kinds
of Russian exports are jiacked in this material, which has
an extensive sale. Chinese or Canton matting is made
from rushes, as are Ihe excellent mats of the Japanese. The
Mauriliusexjiortssupir anil grain packed in mats, which are
maile of the leaves of a tree. The U-auliful India mailing is
woven from a sedge, the I'api/ms jxingnrei. In Portugal and
.Spain Very handsome mats are made from K«parlo grass
and ret>ils. Mats ar<> also made from coir or cix'oanul and
other palm-fibers. These arc used for covering the floors of
puldie halls, and an* very durable. The Japanese make
mats so soft and elastic that they are useil as bedding.
Matabelpx. The: See Kakkkaria.
MatagaPpa: city of Nicaragua; capital of Ihe de|)art-
ment of Nicaragua ; sitnaliHl nearly in the center of the re-
public, on a iilaleau surrounded by mountains, about 'A.liOO
feet alK)ve llie sea (s«'e map of Centnil America, ref. 5-H).
It is in a rich agricultural district, and is gn)wing rapidly.
Pop. alH>ut lO.IKK). The department has an area of T.IOd sq.
miles and a |Hipulalion of -lO.OtH). H. H. S.
Malaniala': the native name, adopted as the common
and specific name of a curious fresh-water turtle (Chelya
matamala) from Northern South America, which has uie
C12
MATAMOROS
MATCHES
carapaoo riiisoil into throe rows of conicnl prominpncps, the
neck broiul lUiil tlattondi.iiml the heail wide and sotlepressed
as to look aii if aclimlly erusheii. Tlie iieok, whkOi ran not
ho withtlrawii beiioath'the shell, bears alonf; its sides little
fleshy projeetioiis or fimbriatioiis. The animal is about 2 to
3 feet long, of a dirty-browu color, and is sluirgish in its
movements. V- A. Lucas.
Matamo'ros (so named in honor of the patriot Mariano
Natanioros : inoorreetly written Matamoras) : town; in the
slate of Tainaulipas, Northern Mexico; on the Hio Grande
del Xortc ; 30 miles above its mouth and opposite Urowns-
villc, Tex. (see map of Mexico, ref. 4-H). It is well built,
and is the center of a rich grazing district. Near it there
are gold mines of some importance. Matamoros, through
its port Bagdad, near the mouth of the river, has had a
considerable commerce, exporting horses, hides, etc., but
this has been much hindered by the shifting bar of the Kio
Grande. In 181I2 it was reported that this bar was imprac-
ticable for vessels drawing 5 feet of water, though ordi-
narily it admits those drawing 10 feet or more. The city
lies in the " free zone " (see Tamauliius), and it is claimed
that there is much contraband trade with Texas. The place
dates from 182:{. It wivs occupied by the U. S. forces under
Gen. Taylor after the battles of I'alo Alto and Kesaca dc la
I'alma, May 18, 1846, and was an important jxiint during
the struggles between the French and the Republicans in
1800. Pop. (188!)) 13.000. Herbert H. Smith.
MnUnioros Iziicar, or simiily Izi'icar : a town of the
state of I'ucbla, Mexico, near tne eastern base of the vol-
cano of Popocatepetl, and !)0 miles S. E, of Mexico city
(see map of Mexico, ref. 7-H). It is in the center of a rich
sugar region, and is connected with I'uebla. and thence
with Vera Cruz and Mexico, by railway. Kich deposits of
iron and lead are reported from tlie vicinity. On Feb.
23-26, 1812, |i!itriot forces in Izv'icar repulsed an attack of
the Spaniards. Pop. about 14,000. H. II. S.
Matamoros, Mariano : Mexican patriot ; b. about 1770.
He was a priest at .lantelolco, near Cuernavaca, and joined
the revolutionary forces of Morelos in Dec, 1811. In the
lieroic defense of Cua\itla (.Jan.-Feb., 1812), he greatly dis-
tinguisheil himself. Sent to the relief of Bravo (Oct., 1813),
he defeated Candano at San Agustin del Palmar (Oct. 14),
this being one of the most signal victories gained by the
patriots. Subseciueiitly he shared in the repulse at Vallado-
lid anil the defeat at Puruaran (.Ian. 5. 1814), whore he was
captured. Jlorclos's olTer of 200 prisoners in exchange for
him was refused, and he was shot at Valladolid Feb. 3,
1814 ; Morelos executed the 200 prisoners in reprisal. Mexi-
can writers, especially Alaman, hold that Matamoros was the
greatest military genius in the patriot forces, and claim that
if his advice had been followed the war would have ended
in the defeat of the Spaniards. Herbert H. Smith.
Matan'zas: a town and port of the northern coast of
Cuba ; on a bay of the same name : 52 miles K of Havana,
with which it is connected by railway (see map of West
Indies, ref. 3-('). It is the second ))ort in Cuba in impor-
tance, and has a large export trade, primripally of sugar and
molasses. The hay, tlmugh partly obstructed by shallows, is a
good aiul safe port ; it is defended by the fort of San Severino.
The city is well built, mainly on heights overlooking the
bay ; it has a lino theater, government palace, an excellent
educational institute called the Enipreza Academy, etc.
Throe miles to the E. is the celebrated cavern of Bellamar,
noted for its stalaclili^s, and said to be 3 miles in depth.
JIatanzas was founded in lOO.j, and was destroyed by lire in
1845. It is the capital of a province of the same name.
Pop. (including the suburbs) .56,379. Herbert H. S.mith.
Matflies [M. Eng. macche, from 0. Fr. me.ielie (> Pr.
wo'r///'. wick) < Lat. /«.'/ Vrt, lamp-nozzh^ ^ (ir. /ii^a. mucus,
nostril, lami)-nozzle] : small .sticks of inllammable material
tippid with a substance yet more inllammalile which can
be ignited by friction.
The lirst matches of which we have any account were thin
siilinlers of Wood about 4 inc^hes long lipped with sulphur.
'1 hose wi'i'c ignited, when live coals or oilier lire were not
available, by means of a tinder-liox ami ils coparliiers Hint
and steel. Fire was first communicated to the tinder by
sparks of burning metal strucrk from the steel by the Hint.
Fire having been communicated, to the tinder, the sulphur
m.itch could then be ignited. This method of obtaining
file was very inconvenient; .sometimes the tinder, owing to
dam]iness, would fail to ignite, or the steel would not re-
spond to the stroke of the flint ; at such times the usual ro-
course was to borrow tire from a neighbor, and in thinly set-
tled regions miles were sometimes traveled for this purpose.
The discovery of phosphorus by Brandt in 1668 was lirst
applied commercially as a means of olilaining lire by (iod-
frey Haukwitz, of London, who in 1680, under the direction
of Robert Boyle, prepared and sold large quantities. It
was used for procuring fire by rubbing small particles be-
tween the folds of brown paper, and a sul]ihur match was
ignited from the resulting llaine ; but as phosphorus was
both costly-and dangerous this invention was not long em-
[)loyed. One of the best of the earlier inventions by which
phosphorus was used for obtaining liie was the " |ihosphorus
ijottle." This was a small bottle in which a piece of phos-
phorus had been stirred with a hot wire, so as to coat the
interior of the bottle with oxide of iihosphorus ; the bottle
was kept tightly corked when not in use, but when a light
was required the cork was withdrawn and a sulphur match
was dipped in and thus ignited. This phosphorus bottle
gave (mice to the so-called " oxymuriate matches," which
were invented in 1805 by Chancel, of Paris. These con-
sisted of splints of wood tipped lirst with sulphur and then
with a mixture of chlorate of potash, gum, and sugar, col-
ored with vermilion. The.se matches, when brought into
contact with asbestos soaked in sulphuric acid contained in
a small vial sold with them, immediately ignited. Such
matches were very inconvenient to use in the dark, and an
apparatus was devised for lighting them which could be put
in action by |iulliug a cord; but this was e.xjiensive, not
portable, and was more curious than useful. In the same
year phosphorus matches were used in Paris, and in 1809
berepas suggested the mixing of the phosphorus with mag-
nesia in order to diminish the danger from such matches.
Derosne is said to have made a friction match tipped with
phosphorus in 1816: but the lirst really practical friction
matt'lies were made in England in 1827 by John Walker, a
chemist of Stockton-on-Tees. 'J'liese were called Congreves
after Sir William Congreve. the inventor of the Congreve
rocket. They consisted of wooilen splints, or strips of card-
board, one end of each being first coated with sulphur, and
tlicn tipped with a mixture of sulphide of antimony, chlorate
of potash, and gum. Each box was retailed at a shilling, and
contained eighty-four matches and a piece of sandpaper, be-
tween the folds of which the match was drawn for ignition.
In 1830 a i\lr. .Jones, of London, patented the matches
called Pronicthoans. These wore made of a small roll of
waxed paper having a niimite glass globule of strong sul-
phuric acid coated with a niixliire of chlorate of potash and
sugar at one end. Ignition was eirocted by breaking the
globule of acid, and its contents, acting upon the mixed
chlorate of potash and sugar, |irodnced lire.
Both the Congreves and Promethcans were endowed with
many objoctioiuible features; the former did not readily
ignite. ori(>n the burning tip separated from the s]ilint. and
the fumes from the burning sulphur and antimony were of-
fensive. The Prometheans w^ere not |)opular on account of
the danger from the acid and the explosive reaction at the
moment of ignition ; moreover, both were too expensive for
extended common use.
These matches were supplemented by the original lucifer
(Lat. lucifeni.s. that which brings light) friction matches.
These were made, for greater safety in transportation and
use, in the form of wooden cards or combs having about a
dozen teeth, each tooth being a match, which was broken
oflf from the others when required for use. These matches
were at first tipped with the same chemical composition as
the Congreves, and were open to many of the same objec-
tions, but it was not long before phosphorus — of which the
cost had been greatly reduced by im]iroved methods of inauu-
facture — was introduced as a component of the tipping com-
position.
Phosphorus friction matches were first manufactured on
a commercial scale by Tresidiel. of Vienna, in 1833, but at
about the same time such matches were also made at Mol-
denhauer, in Darmstadt, and for many years Austria and
Southern Germany were the jirincipal localities of the manu-
facture.
The work-people who prepare and apjily the igniting com-
jiosition are liable to necrosis of the lower jaw, called the
"jaw" or "match" disease, or "the flute." The teeth decay
and fall out. and then the decay extends to the jaw-bime,
causing intense pain, which never ceases until an operation
or death relieves the sulTerer, It is said that cleanliness,
ventilation, and careful attention to the teeth are almost
MATE
MATKIUALISM
G13
infallible preventives of the jaw disease. The discovery of
ttinorphorus or red phusivhiirus, by I'mf. Anton von SehriSl-
tcr, of Vii'nnu, in 1H45, pive great hopes of ininmnity from
the dnn<;<rs ari.-iiif; from the use of eoninion phosphorus, as
the red variety is a perfeetly intiocuoiis subsliiiKe ; but not-
withstamling this faet its u»e has not beeonie general among
manufaolurers of matches. lied phosphorus is used in the
maiiufiiclurc of the well-known "safciv matches" invented
by Lurid-ilriini, of Sweden, in ISSo. "fhesu nuitchcs ignite
only on the prepared surface which accompanies the box;
this surface, and n<it the matches, contains the phosphorus
ri'ipiiriMl for ignition, making them less liable to cau.so acci-
dental fires than the more common kinds.
Wax lapers, or vesta matches, are made by coating cotton
wick with wax, and tipping them with igniting composition
at one end.
Machinery is largely employed in the manufacture of
matches, and the number produced annually is beyond com-
putation ; two European manufacturers are said to make (to-
gether) nearly 4r).(K)<).()(J0.(W0 matches each year, and it has
been roughly eslinuited that there are 200.000.000 matches
consumed daily in (ireat Britain, or about eight per head
of the whole "fiopulation. Applying this estimate to the
U. S., the dailv consumption would be the enormous total
of 52O,OlK).00O.'
Ac<'ording to the census of 1880 there were 37 manufac-
turers of matches in the V. S., having an aggregate capital
of !(2.1U.H.")(|, who disbursed in wages $u3.j,!)li per year,
used :J;i.2!I.S..5(i2 worth of raw materials, and produced goods
valued at |4,6«8,446. W. F. Dlrfee.
Mate, maa td, or Mat£. maa-tii' [Span, yerha, or yerba de
mate; the viale is properly the gourd in which it is pre-
pared]: a name commonly given to the dried leaves and
small shoots of Jlex paragunriensis, otherwise known as
Paraguay tea. The plant is a small tree (10 to 20 feet), which
grows in the highland forests of I'araguay and the neighbor-
ing parts of Brazil (Santa Catharinn, I'arami, and Hiodrande
do.Siili; all modern attempts to cultivate it from the seed
have failed. The Paraguayan mate is that best known in
Europe, but a much greater quantity and better quality is
obtained in Paranii. The product is gathered by special
Workmen who visit the forests, principally in June and July,
that obtained in later months being inferior. The branches
are cut ofT, passed through the flame of a hot fire, and the
twigs stripped from the larger boughs are exposed for a day
to the heat of a slow fire of aromatic wootl ; subsequently
they are fully dried, broken into fragments, and packed in
bundles bound in hides for the market. Often the product
is ailultorated with the leaves of inferior species of ilex, or
even with plants of other orders. Mate is the common and
popular beverage throughout the Platine states of .South
America, and, to a lesser extent, in Southern Brazil. In use
it is placed in a gourd cup : boiling water is added, and the
liquor is sucked through a silver or tin tube having an ex-
panded and perforated end (bombilla). It is customary to
pass the same gourd and bombilla to the different persons in
a company, more water being added as needed. The gourds
are often richly ornamented. The flavor of mate is quite
unlike that of tea, but it is greatly enjoyed by those who have
become accustomed to it. The physiological effects resem-
ble those of coffee. See Couty, Le Mate et lex Conserves de
Viaiide (Kio de Janeiro, 1880). II. H. Smith.
Mntelliinia, mua-t«-waa hia : a city in the northern part of
the state of San Luis I'otosi, Mexico; near the frontier of
Xuevo Leon ; on the .Matehuala Railroad (see map of .Mexico,
ref. 5-G). It contains many silver-reducing establishments,
most of the ore being brought from the C'atorce .Mountains,
though there arc some mines in the immediate vicinitv.
Population about 15,000. II. II. S. '
Miltcjko. maa-lae-ko, Jax Aloysius: historical painter;
b. at I'racow, .Vustrian Poland, July 30, 18;{8; stuilied at
Cracow ,\rt School and at the Vienna and Munich .Acade-
mies : was awariled a first-class medal at the Paris Exposition
of 1SU7 and a medal of honor at the Exposition of luTS; re-
ceived the decoration of the Legion of Honor in 18T0; lie-
camo director of Oacow Art School in 1873. His pictures,
many of large size, depict scenes from the hislorv of Aus-
trian' Poland. I). Nov. 1, 18U3. \V. A. C.
Matrra, mmi-ta ni3i : town; in the province of Potcnza,
Southern Italy; situated in a plain hanked by two deep
valleys and surroundeil by hills (see map of Italy, ref. "-(i).
It contains so«-cral well-built churches and a ri'inarkable
cha[H>l, San Pietro Barisano, consisting of three naves, the
whole excavated in a single huge block of stone. Thi- town
suffered cruelly from wars and earthi|Uakes during the Miii-
dle Ages. The present inhabitants are mostly agriculturists
or shcphenls. Pop. (1881) l.';,700.
Mntprial Cause: in ontology, the first of the four kinds
of causes distinguished by Aristotle and accepted by later
metaphysicians. As defined by him, the material cause of a
thing is the physical basis of its exist<'nee — namely, the
nuitter from which it was formed or developed: c. g. tho
block of marble from which a statue is carved. The material
cause of a thing is thus partly, but not absolutely, identical
with the thing itaeU {dttJs JJiiig an sick). In the in.stance
cited a portion of the material cause, or block of marble,
must be eliminated in order to arrive at the semblance of
the pre-exi.sting type — i. e. the finished statue. Sec Mattkr.
Materialism [from Lat. maleria lis, deriv. of materia,
stuff, nialliT, matter as opposed to spirit. — rjriginally, build-
ing material, limber, for *dmilteria, connected with (Jr.
Stfidv. build : Goth, timrjan}: in general, the dix'trine that
nothing exists but matter with its sensible properties. It is
opposed to idealism, the doctrine that nothing exists but
mind. .Spiritualism, which maintains the existence of mind
or spirit as well as matter may be dualistic or moni-stic, in
which latter case it becomes some form of idealism.
Ifislori/. — (ireek materialism led the way. The Greek
philosophers, Leuci]ipus, I )einocritus, and Ei)icunis, speculat-
ing upiin the origin of the universe, posited an infinite num-
ber of atoms or refined particles of matter combiningand re-
combining in mathematical proportions throughout space
and time, until, after endless trials, all existing things have
been produced. In these systems not only were solid objects,
plants, and animals, regarded as mere ma.sses of compounded
atoms, but also the souls of men, which were supijoscd to
consist of ethereal and luminous particles ditTuseu like air
or light through the body, and dis|ierseil with it at ilealh;
and even the go<ls themselves were fancied as atomic beings
or dream-like images in human form, dwelling in the inter-
spaces between the worlds in happy indifference to the course
of nature and the affairs of mortals. Hoinan materialism
followed as little more than a reproduction of the Greek,
and had its chief representative in Lucretius, who expounded
the doctrines of Epicurus in a majestic philosophical poem.
On the yaliire of Things. Traces of Epicureanism are also
to be found in the writings of Horace, Vergil, and other
men of letters, but it diil not maintain at Koine the high
ethical character which it had claimed among the Greeks,
having been so bitterly assailed by the Stoic philosophers
that the very name has since remained a synonym for sensu-
ous pleasure.
Italian materialism rose with the classical revival as a
compromise between the dogmas of the Chiin-h and the
speculations of the Alexandrian school of Aristotle. The
leailer of the movement, Pomjxinalius, until silenced by a
decree of the Latcran Council, held the mortality of the soul,
the necessity of the will, and the embodiment of (iod in
nature, and subscijucntly the systems of Democritus and
Epicurus were partially revived by Telesius, Campanella,
and Magnenus, and at length fully sanctioneil by Peter (ia-s-
sendi, a Fremli ecclesiastic, whose learned defense of Epi-
cureanism as consistent with Christianity has caused him to
be styled the father of modern materialism.
English materialism at the siime time was o|iening new
paths with greater boldness anil freedom. Thomas Ilobbcs,
in his work Leviathan, described the soul as a cornoreal
substance receiving ideas as material images, the stat<r as an
incarnation of absolute power, and God himself as but a
name for the incomprehensible omnipotence of nature. In
Hartley and Priestley the matorialistic hypothesis bcpin to
receive the support from physiology which is in current dis-
cussion its main sujiport.
French materialism grew out of the previous systems
through the modifiiation of the philosophy of Ixx-ke worketl
out bv (iiLssendi. The Abbe Conilillac, a <lis<iple of the lat-
ter, illustraleil the process of transformiiu: sensations into
ideas bv an imaginary human being iiicascil in marble and
alloweii to acquire successively the different sensi's and com-
bine their impressions by acts of allenlion. memory, and
judgment. It wouKl seem to have In-en but a step further
for \j\ Mettrie, in his treatises On Man a Machine and Man
a Plant, to roluce the mind to a [KTishable niiH'hanism or
organism. .\nd at length the Baron il'llollmch, in his Syn-
tem of Xature. bniught materialism to an ethical as well as
theoretical climax, by not only denying the existence of
C14
MATERIALISM
MATERIA MEDICA
miiul. frt'i'tloin, ami imiiiorlnlity. iitul iiiaintnininff the ctor-
nilv of inaltor, llie imli'stnu'tihility of force, tlie iiniiiuta-
l)il[ty of plivsical law, Imt by assailiiif; virtue, relifjioii, and
God as su|>frstitioiis fid ions, lii (lerniaiiy the newest phase
of materialistic thought — the physiolofrical — reached full
statement l>y Hilchner, Feuerliach, and others; and by those
advix-ates of evolution, such as llaeckel, who find in it su])-
port for a positivistic or aj;nostic philosophy.
(". \V. Shields. Revised by J. Makk IJaldwix.
Conlemporanj Formx of Male rial ixm. — The modern doc-
trines of materialism ditfer {;reatly from the older Greek
and continental views, in being a new statement of the l>hy-
siolofiicttl doctrine licfjun by Hartley. Materialism has
tended from the crude postulate of bulk matter as a meta-
physical principle to a form of psycholojj;ical doctrine which
aiiiis, by analyzing the mental functions into simple sensa-
tional elements, at showing their final dependence upon
changes in the brain. The successive positions wliich mod-
ern materialism has taken show progress both in exactness
of staieujent and adequacy of analysis. The problem which
it now claims to answer is this: (iiven organized matter
with the laws of conservation and uniformity, how may we
account for thought t Thought, mind, is a function of
nervous action.
Sch iff'g Experiments. — Much has been made of the experi-
ments of Schiff, whereby he has shown that mental opera-
tions are accompanied by a discharge of heat. (Arcliii'es
de Physioloyie, 1870, p. 451.) Luys says {Brain and its
Funellons, pp. 78-79): "These experiments show us, on the
one hand, that sustained intellectual work is accompanied
by a loss of phosphorized sul)Stance on the part of the cellu-
lar cell in vibration ; that it uses it up like an ignited pile
which is burning away its own essential constituents; and
that, on the other hand, all moral emotion perceived through
the sensations becomes at the same time the occasion of a
local development of heat." 'i'his may be jierfectly true
and yet valueless for the deliate. Every one admits that
there is a loss of phosi)horized substance during thought ;
but this phosphorus is found passing off in the ordinary
channels of the body (Hyasson and Beaunis), and this latter
fact is used by Luys to prove the passage of thought l>uck
into a material form, lie says: " It (thought) uses it (phos-
nhorus) u[) " ; but phosphorus is also found passing from the
oody in the form of sulphates and phosphates and in in-
crea-sed (luantities after periods of wakefulness and thought
(Hammond), therefore (p. 70) these " serve as a chemical
measure of the intensity of cerebral work done in a given
time."
(»n either the materialistic or the spiritualistic hypothesis
equally, a development of heat is [)ossible during the play of
intellectual processes. If mind and brain are distinct, and
brain a necessary organ of mind, heat maybe the equivalent
in whole or in part of cerebral activity. In short, the evo-
lution of heat means only that molecular change is going on
in the brain. That there is no break in the continuity of
brain proces.ses is also strongly urged by Tyndall and Du-
bois Rcymond.and stated by Fiske in these words, i.e. "The
dynamic circuit is absolutely comiilete without taking psy-
chical manifestations into account at all. No conceivable
advance in physical science can get us outside of this closed
circuit, and into this (drcuit psychical phenonu'na do not
enter." (Voimiic Philosop/i)/, vol. ii., p. 443.) If this be
true, it is asked, how can tlie mind have any efficacy in di-
recting or controlling the body t
Older View of " JUerilal /Predion." — The common answer
to this claim of the materialist is this: While the mind can
not change the energies of the brain in (Quantity by adding
to or subtracting from them, yet it can direct these energies
in one channel in preference to another, just as an electri-
cian directs his current on one wire or another without al-
tering its strength. This answer is not adequate since it
involves just as truly an exhibition of physical force to re-
move an obstruction or direct a current as to generate one.
The modern imiterialist. wlin is also usually a physiologist,
claims tlial the <lecision of the mind U> direct the energies
of the brain one way or the other is itself due to still earlier
conditions of the brain. The mental determination is saiil
to be due to an earlier iihysical change instead of the later
physical change bein^ iiu(^ to the mental determination.
Late I'/iysiulnf/ical V'ieirs. — This last position is stated
strongly by the French physiologist Marique, who atteini)ts
with othi^rs to show (Kerlierchvs EjrpirimentaUs, Brussels,
1885) that the brain is entirely a redex organ ; that the
higher cerebral centers are in dynamic connection with one
another, and that voluntary action and tliought differ from
reflex action and .sensation only in their greater complexity
and liability to delay. Maudsley works this view out, in its
implications for psychology, in great detail. (I'hysiulugy of
Mind.) This general position is now .so well proved, as far
as the brain processes themselves are concerned, that ideal-
ists no longer dispute it. The defense of Spiritualism against
n)aterialism is accordingly thrown further back, and the
question a.sked : Granted uniformity of brain processes, are
consciousness in general and the higher processes of thought
by this sutliciently accounted for ?
Late Idealistic Views. — The answer takes currently two
forms in opposition to nniterialism : Some held that the
higher mental processes — thought, ethical emotion, volition,
et<'. — are not correlated to brain jirocesses at all, i. e. go on
without involving any brain action. This is held with rea-
son to be directly disproved by cases of mental disease in
which the lo.ss of these higher mental functions is directly
cavised by lesions in the brain. The other answer to the ma-
terialists' claim at this point contends that consciousness
with all that it is capable of doing is itself a fact no matter
how the l)rain may work under it. and since all knowledge
of science and everything else is dependent upon the use of
the processes of consciousness, the problem as to which is
the ultimate form of activity, mental or cerebral, must be
<lecided on broader grounds than those purely psychological.
The question at issue then becomes this : Granted a conscious
process of thought and a brain process going on together,
each for itself, how can we best explain man's personality
as a whole comprising both these factors?
'I'hus thrown into metaphysics the materialist finds him-
self at the mercy of the idealist. (See Mktaimivsics.) The
solutions, however, now most generally considered adequate,
of the problem of mind and body and their relation fall
under some form of monism, i. e. which holds that these
two seemingly opposed things must after all be forms or
manifestations of a deeper-lying First Cause or Ground which
is one, and which in its nature must itself afford an adeqiiate
explanation of "' man with all his mind." Tlje two out-
standing facts that seem to give adecjuate s\ipport to the
view that this first principle of all things is miml are tliese :
First, the nature of thinking as a reflective act involving a
subject who sets himself over against his thoughts — what is
usually called the fact of self-consciousness — and, second,
the fact that all our knowledges get judged by us in a way
which we call ethical, as worth more or less, sonu> than
others, and that we can not help judging those knowledges
which involve self-consciousness and ideal things as worth
more than the mechanical facts of objective science.
Materialism of I^ife. — As a metaphysical doctrine materi-
alism has accordingly been practically abandoned in con-
temporary philosophy. It is now active as a theory only in
psychology. In practice, however, what is called " material-
ism of life" was never more aggressively ri'al. It is in fact
rather to the absence of philosophy or of clear thinking and
the dfsertion of high ideals of thought and conduct that
this phrase has so common and so pertinent application in
modern commercial, literary, and social life. \\ hen a man
is filled up with material things, low aims, physical comforts,
and indulgences, and "finds his meat and drink" in realis- »
tic situations, he is .starving his thinking nature and blot- I
ting out his ideals. Better a man should think, even though ■
he think wrong, than that materialism in this sense should
paralyze his abilities and his endeavor. For references, see
Metaphysics. The best single history and criticism is
\jB.r\ge, Jiistorij of Materialism. J. Mark Baldwin.
Materials, Slrcnglh of: See Strength of Materials.
Matc'ria Med'ica [Mod. Ijat.; I^at. mate'ria. matter,
subject-matter + nii-'dicn, fern, of niv'dirus, medical, of medi-
cine] : a phrase useti to designate the substances used in the
practice of medicine; but as the art of the i]hysician em-
braces the scientific use of articles in common vogue, as food
and drink, and of moral and hygienic influences, fully as
much as of drugs, it is plain that the term vialeria medica
can not be used to designate a definite group <if substances,
but is simply a convenient phrase by which lo refer to the
wcap<ms of the physician in general. So far lus <lrugs are
concerned, they are derived principally from miinTal and
vegetable sources, though some few are of animal origin.
They are commonly classified according to their effects on |
the aiiinud system in health or disease; but inasmuch as i
the majority produce' an ettect more or less complex, as
the.se combinations of ellects are almost endless, and as even
MATHKMATILAL MACHINES
MATHEWS
615
with the same dnis the elTwt varies with varyins; circuin-
staiiei'S of tlosc ur !>tute of tlii' putieiit, it follows that an ac-
euratu division of inedieines into groups on the ba>is of
their efTects (Jii the living organism is impossible. Such
terms as irritants, anodyne, astringent, etc., must be taken
as delining a kind of effect, not as designating a distinct
gri}!!]) of iiiidicines. The meaning of these various terms
and tin: uses of each drug will be found descrilied under the
inilividiial lu'a<lings. Edwaku C'uktis.
Mutheinaticul .Muchinrs: See Calculati.no-macmine.
.Mathematics | fiom Lai. mulliema'tica = Gr. ^ ^flTj/uaTiid)
fsc. T«'x>T). ml), fcMi., ami t4 lioSrifumKa, neut. plur. of ijmBt)-
tMTM6t. pertaining to sc-imce or Icui iilng. esprclally to mat lie-
mali's, deriv. (jf im9r)im. learning, deriv. uf jiaBt'iv, learn] : the
science which reasons about the R'lations of magnitudes and
numbers, considereil simply as quantities lulmitting of in-
crease, decrease, ami comparison. It is divided into three
great branches, arithmetic, algebra or analysis, and geome-
try; but in the extensicm given to the suljject in modern
times, these three branches merge into each other so gradu-
ally that no exact line can be drawn. Arithmetic is the
branch which is concerned with the properties and relations
of numbers, especially whole numbers; but when the.se re-
lations are reasoned about, it is necessary to use algebraic
symbols to express numbers, and thus the notation of alge-
bra comes in. Algcl>ra, or analysis, in itself reasons about
quantity in general, expressed bv means of symbols, without
any relation to the particular liind of quantity. The dis-
tinction between algebra and analysis is not sharply drawn,
at least in the English language. In French the term alge-
bra is generally restricted to the study of quantities sup-
[Kjsed to be unchanged in value, while analysis comprises
the study of ipiantities considered in the act of constantly
varying, and therefore having no delinite value. In the
English language we commonly apply the term "calculus"
to this subject. In modern mathematics algebra and geom-
etry run together, becau.se geometrical conceptions are found
to be necessary in the development of algebra, while the
theorems of the most advanced geometry can be expressed
only in algebraic language. Thus arise extensive mathe-
matieal inquiries, in which the language and conceptions
of the two are combined. S. Xewiomb.
Mutlier. Cotton, I). L)., F. K. .S. : clergyman an<l author;
son of Increase .Mather and grainlscm of liev. John Cotton ;
b. in Hoston, Mass., Feb. VI, IGOiJ ; was trained by Ezckiel
Cheever, and graduated at Harvard College in 1678; became
a teacher, and in KW.^ wius ordained his father's colleai;ue
over the North church, lioston, having by |)ersistent eltort
overcome an impediment in his speech ; labored with great
;!eal (us a pjistor, endeavoring also to establish the ascendency
of the churches and ministry in civil affairs. He was con-
spicuously connected with the witchcraft proceedings in
Massachusetts. He was author of Mrmornhle Frovitlences re-
lating to W'itchrriifl (lti.sy); WimJers of the Invisible World
(16!t:t); Esxinis to Do (food (1710; Clasgow, \KiS); Mag-
nolia Chrigti Americana (London, 1702; Hartford, Conn.,
1M20; Boston, 1855), a very (piaint and curious book, full
of learning, piety, and prejudice ; and other works, large and
small, numbering U83, not reckoning his IlluMrations of
the Sacred Scripliirex and other unpublished writings. lie
was made I). I), in 1710 by the University of Gla-sgow, and
F. H. S. in 1717. Mather, whatever were his faults, was a
man of great excellence of character. He labored zealous-
ly for the benefit of the poor, for mariners, slave.s. crimi-
nals, and Imlians. ojiposed intemjierance, and aided in in-
troducing inoculation for snmllj>ox. His credulity was
parllv the fault of his age. I>. in Boston, Feb. i:i. 1728.
His Life was written by Samuel Mather, his son (1720). by
\V. B. O. I'ealiodv in Sparks's Ameriran Binqrnphti, also
by li. W.'ndell (1882), and by A. I'. Marvin (1S.S!)); also .see
\V. I'. I'onle in The Xorth American lierieir. Apr.. 18ti!».
Kevised by (i. 1*. Fisher.
.Mather, IscBKASK, P. D. : b. at Dorchester, Mass., .June
21, lti;i!t; sixth son of Ucv. Kichard Mather (l.we-ieeil) ;
graduated at Ilarvanl Ift-jfi, ami at Trinity College, Dublin,
1658; preached in England and .\merica ; was ordained
over the North <'hnrch. Boston, in 10(i4 : was presiilent of
Ilarvanl College lt»C>-1701 ; received ( l(i!t2) the first doctor-
ate in divinity conferred in English-speaking .\merica ; was
a leailer in opposing the abrogation l)y Charles II. of the
Massachusetts charter; was in England during the Revolu-
tion of 1(188, and pnx'ured in England iI0!(2) a new charter
for Massavhiiseltj, under which he was given the power of
naming the governor, lieutenant-governor, and council ; op-
posed the severe punishment of witches: was the author of
ninety-two publications, large and small, of which one of
the most nr>teworthy is An Esuuy for the Uecordtng of II-
lustriou* I^ovidencen (1(584; republished London. lK'>(i).
He was a preacher for sixty-six years, sixty-two of which
were s|)ent in Boston. For many years he exerted a com-
manding iidluence in civil and ecelesiuslical affairs, l). in
Boston, Aug. 2:i, \7i.i. . Kevised by (i. I*. Fisher.
Matlu^r, William Williams, LL. D. : geologist ; b. at
Brooklyn, Conn.. .May 24, 1804; graduated at West I'oint
1828: Assistant Professor of Chemistry there 182y-;i5 ; first
lieutenant in U. S. army 18:{4-yG ; Professor of Chemistry,
University of Lousiana, 1830 ; engaged in the New York
geological' survey 183(5— 14 ; Oliio Slate geologist 18;i7-40;
Slate geologist of Kentucky 1838-;5y ; Professor of Natural
.Science in the University of Ohio 1843-45; its vice-j>resi-
dent and acting president 1847-50; editor of Wtntem Agri-
culturist 1851-52 ; author of Oeologij of the First Geological
District (Xatural History of Nete York, 184;i) ; and of other
geological reports and scientific papers. D. at Columbus,
O., Feb. 27, 185U.
Muthrson, Gkorge, D. D., F. R. S. E. : a minister of the
Church of Scotland and author; b. in Gla.sgow, Mar. 27,
1842 ; lost his sight before entering the University of Edin-
burgh, but graduated with a remarkable record, having re-
peatedly taken the highest jirizes in both academic and
theological subjects ; was assistant to Dr. Macduff in Sandv-
ford church, (ilasgow, 1867-08; minister at Innellan 1868-
86; and since 1886 has been minister of St. Bernard's, Edin-
burgh. He was on the staff of Tlte Expositor 1879-81,
from which he was removed for holding the "larger hope."
Besides contributing to the leading pericxlicals, he has pub-
lished Aids to the Study of German Theology (Edinburgh,
1874) ; Growth of the Spirit of Christianity (2 vols., F^din-
burgli, 1877) : Originality of the Character of Christ (in
Contemporary lieview, 1878 ; reprinted .separately in the
U. S.) ; Natural Elements in Revealed Religion (Baird lec-
tures 1881; Edinburgh, 1882); My Aspirations (London,
188:5; translated into German, 18i)2); Moments on the
Mount (Lonilon, 1884) ; Religious Bearings of the Doctrine
of Evolution ( Transactions of the Pan-Presbyterian Council,
1884); hvinn O Love that will not let tne go ! (Church of
Scotland" Ilvmnal. No. 176, 1885); Can the Old Faith Live
with the y'ew y (1885); Evolution and Revelation (Edin-
burgh and London, 1886) ; The I'salmist and the Scientist
(Edinburgh and London, 1887); Uoice* o///ie 6/)i'rr< (Lon-
don. 1887); Sacred Songs (Edinburgh and Ix)ndon, 1889) ;
Landmarks of New Testament Morality (1889) ; Spiritual
Development of St. Paul (Eilinliurgh and London. 1890) ;
and I'he Distinctive Messages of the Old Religions (1893).
C. K. UoVT.
Malh'ew, Theobald, known as Father Mathew: temper-
ance reformer ; b. at Tlioniastown, Tipiierary Co., Ireland,
Oct. 10, 1790; studied for a time at Maynooth College;
joined the Capuchins, in Dublin, and was ordained a Roman
Catholic priest in 1814. He was distinguished for his la-
borious charities and his heroism at Cork, especially in the
cholera outbreak of 1833. In 1838 he organizetl the first total
abstinence society in Cork. He afterward traveled over all
parts of (ireat Britain ami Irelaml. and induced hundreds
of thou.sands to sign the temperance oledge. The expenses
of this tour involved him in heavy liabilities, and on one oc-
casion led to his impri.sonment for debt ; from this emt>ar-
ra.ssment he was only partially relieved by a pension of i'30O
from the t^ueen in 1847. The duties on Irish spirits fell from
i'l,4:54.573 in 18:59 to £8.52.418 in 1844. and crime as strik-
ingly diminished. He was named by the clergy of the dit>-
cese for the vacant bishopric of Cork, but the [H>pe would
not ralifv the choice (1847). He laUired 1849-51 in the
U. S., and met with remarkalile success. D. at (Juecnstown,
Dec. 8, 18.56. S-e his Life bv .1. F. Maguire (I/ondon, 1863 ;
2d ed. London and New York, 1864).
Revised by S. M. Jacksox.
Mathpws. Charles: actor; K in London.. lune 28, 1776;
after a lirief apprenticeship to his father, a l>ooks<'ller, went
on the stage as an amateur, and then (1794) as comedian ot
the regular eom|)jiiiv at the Theater Royal. Dublin; made
his first appearaiii'e in London in is<i:! iis. tubal in The Jew;
in 1818 introdui'e<i his At Home, ami on his return from a
successful trip to the U. S. ap[>eare<l in his specialty, a Trip
to America, which was well receivwl. D. at Plymouth, June
28, 1835. See the Memoirs by his wife (4 vols!. 1838-39).
616
MATHEWS
MATTE A WAX
Mathews, Charles J., son of Charles : actor ; b. in Liver-
[Kiol, Kiiirland, Dec. 26. 1803 ; tliough intended for an archi-
tect, he adopted the stajre as a profession, achievini; remark-
able success on his lirst appearance in public in 7Vi<- JIiiiicli-
backeJ Lover ; in 1S5.S niarrieil Madame Vestris, at the time
lessee of the Olympic theater; they visited the U. S., and on
their return to Knjrland managed the Covent Garden and
Lyceum thcatei-s, but not successfully. His wife dying; in
1857, Mathews au'ain visited the V. S. in 18.58 and married
Mrs. Davenport, better known as Lizzie Weston ; in 18G0 in-
troiiuccd a similar entertainment to his father's ^-1/ Jlaiiie, in
which Ills wife assisted ; in 1803 made a successful profes-
sional trip to Paris, and in 18t)!)-TJ visited the C S. and
Australia, returning to England in 1873. D. in Manchester.
Englanci. .lunc 24, 1878. See his Life, edited by Charles
Dickens (2 vols., 187!)). Revised by B. B. Vallextink.
Mathews. William Smith Babcock. Mus. Doe.: musician
and musical critic ; b. at Louihm, N. II., May 8. 18;J7 ; was
educated in New Hampshire Conference Seminary, Boston,
and under private teachers;, has been an organist, teacher,
and writer in Chicago since 1867; was editor of The Munir-
at Independenl i,\8tJ'J-7\); was musical critic and editorial
writer on the staff of The Chicago Herald (1880-83), and
on that of The Daily News (1883-90) ; has been a publisher
of music since 1891 ; is a-ssociate editor of Tlie Etude ; and
is the author of nuinerous musical text-books. C. H. T.
Mathi'as, Thomas .Tames : autlior ; b. in England about
1754 ; graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1774 ; wrote
a volume of /^u/uc Orfes "(1781). imitated from the Norse;
an Essay on the Evidence relating to the Poems attributed
to Thomas Jiowley (1783), sustaining the authenticity of the
Chatterton poems; and a poem. The Pursuits of Literature
(4 parts. 1794-97). issued in sumptuous style, with copious
notes, chiefly ilevoted to a savage criticism of the literary
favorites of the time. Mathias was for many years previous
to 1818 treasurer of the household to Queen Charlotte. He
published in 1805 an edition of Tiraboschi's History of
Italian Literature (4 vols.), and in 1814 an edition of Gray's
works. His last years were passed at Naples, where he died
in 1835. Mathias was proficient in the Italian language, in
which he wrote several works. Revised by H. A. Beers.
Mathien, inaati-o', Asselme : modern Provencal poet ; b.
at Chateauneut-du-Pape in 1829. He was one of the seven
founders of the Society of Felibrige, and an intimate friend
of Mistral. He has "published verses and articles in the
Aiole and other organs of the new Provencal school; has
translated into Proveni;al poems of Horace and Catullus;
and has published a collection of original poems in the same
dialect, of a rare poetical sentiment — La Farandoulo,poesie
proven^ale avec traduction fran^aise et avant-propos de F.
Mistral (2d cd. Avignon, 1868). A. R. Marsh.
Mathura : sacred city of India. See Mattra.
Mali, maa'tt^. Tomaso, Commendatore ; civil engineer;
b. at Leghorn, 18"25 ; studied in Florence and afterward in
France under Poirel. He constructed the harbors of Leg-
horn. Civita Vecehia, Naples, Brindisi. and Venice. At the
last-mentioned place, by using the large lagoon as a tidal
basin, he has made a direct entrance 25 feet deep in place of
a crooked channel of 10 or 12 feet. He has also constructed
lighthouse works on all parts of the Italian coast. He is
the inspector of the Government corps of civil engineers, and
has published many books on the construction of harbors
and on modern lighthouse works ; is senior member of the
council of public works. W. R. Hlitton.
Matilda : Countess of Tuscany ; b. in 1046 ; a daughter
of Count Uimiface of Tuscany and Beatrice of Lorraine ;
inherited very extensive possessions in Northern and Cen-
tral Italy, incluiling Tuscany, parts of Lombardy, Ferrara,
Modena, Reggio, JIantua, and other dependencies, and
played a most jn'ominent part in papal history. The tradi-
tional policy of the family was firm adherence to the empire,
but it was entirely reversed by Count Boniface on account
of the treacherous manner in which he Wiis treated by
Henry IH. ; and during the pontificates of Nicholas II.,
Alexander II., Gregory VII., Victor III., Urban II., and
Paschalis II., Countess "Matilda was the principal support of
the papacv. Especially intimate were her relations with
Gregory Vll., and Canossa, where the famous penance of
Henry IV. took place, was a fief of hers. She was twice
married — first to (iodfrey of Lorraine, then to Guelph of
Bavaria — but her marriages ccmnled for little in her life;
and after her death, which occurred in 1115, she bequeathed
her enormous wealth to the papal see. It formed part of
the so-called patrimonium Petri, and, though the will was
hotly c(mtested by the emperor, the pope succeeded in re-
taining the larger portion of the property. See her Life,
by Luigi Torti (1859), and Amedee Reiiee, La Urande Ita-
I'ienne (1859).
Matile. ma^iiteel'. George Auguste : jurist; b. at La
Chaux-de-Fonds. canton of Neuchatel, Switzerlaml, May
30, 1807 ; was cilueated in the colleges of Ncuchiitel and
IJernc ; studied law in Berlin. Heidelberg, and Paris, and
was admitted to the bar in Neuchitel in 1830. He served
several terms in the legislature of his canton, and was ap-
pointed Professor of La\v at the University of Neuchatel in
1838. and one of the judges of the Supreme Court; emigrated „
in 1849 to the U. S. ; was naturalized as a citizen in 1856,
an<i was appointed Professor of History at Princeton, N. J.,
in the same year, and Professor of French Literature at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1858. From 1863 he held
various positions in the State Department in Washington.
The principal of his works are Points de Coutume (1838) ;
Autorite du Droit romain de la Coutume de Bourgogne el de
la Caroline dans la Principaute de Neuchiilel {\S'iH); Mu-
see hislorii^ue de Neuchatel (3 vols., 1841-59); Monuments
de Vllistoire de Neuchatel (2 vols, fol., 1844-48) ; Histoire
de la Seigneurie de Valangin (18.52); Political Economy
(transliilcd from List), etc. D. in Washington, Feb. 6, 1881.
Mat'ins [from Lat. matuti'nns, of the morning, deriv. of
Matu'ta, goddess of morning; cf. mane, in the morning,
early] ; specifically, the early morning service of the Ro-
man" Catholic Church, as distinguished from vespers or even-
song.
Matsuinaye, matitsmi'. or Fiikiiyania. fo'o-kob-yaa'niaa:
a town in t he extreme southwest C(M-ner of the island of Yezo,
Northern Jajian (see map of Japan, ref. 3-D). Until 1868
Jlatsunniye was the center of Jajianese civilization and
trade in Yezo, but the departure of its lords and the growth
of Hakodate have reduced it to a decayed condition. Its
harbor never afforded advantages as a port, being a mere
open roiulstead, and its situation is isolated. The castle,
situated on an eminence commanding the town, is now de-
voted to the purposes of an elementary school, and its
grounds form a small public garden. The last struggles of
the adherents of the Tokugawa party in 1868 were inade
in and around Matsumave, and the town suffered consider-
ably. Pop. 12,000. ' J. M. Dixo.N.
Matsys), Qiintvn : See Messis.
Matta. niaa'tali, Guillermo: politician and poet; b. at
Copiapo. Chili, in 1829. In 18.59 as one of the leaders of the
radicals, he was banished, returning in 1861 ; he was elected
deputy 1870 and 1873 ; was intendente of Atacama 1875 to
1881. an<i subsequently held various diplonuitic positions.
His first literary atten"ipts, short stories, published in 1853,
were severely criticised for their freedom of style, but his
verses are widely known and very popular. They are mainly
in the lyric style. An edition of liis poems, in two volumes,
was |)ublished at Leipzig about 1880. H. H. S.
Matfaponies: See Algo.nquian Indians.
Mattap'ony lUver: a stream in Virginia, which unites
with the Paiminkey to form the York river. It is itself
formed fnun the un'icui of four streams — the Mat, the Ta, the
Po, and the Ny rivers,
Mattawa, milt-a-waa', or Mattawaii : a town of Nipis-
sing CO., Ontario; on the left baidv of the Ottawa river, at
the junction of the JIattawa ; on the Camulian Pacific
Railway; 198 miles W. N. W. of the city of Ottawa. It is
the fitting-out place for the large lumber interests in the
vicinity, and has a considerable trade. It is a favorite start-
ing-phice for lovers of fishing. Pop. 1,200. M. W. H.
Mattawa River: a tributary of the Ottawa river; rising
near l.ake Nipissing. in Trout Lake, it passes through a
series of picturest|ue small lakes and rapids, all of them, with
theirtril>ntaries. well stocked with fish. After a course east-
ward of 50 miles tlirough Nipissing County, it falls into the
Ottawa river at .Mattawa town. Before the construction of
the Canadian Pacifii^ Railway the stream was of capital im-
portance as a favorable (^utlet to the Great Lakes of the pro-
ductions of the upper t)ttaw«. JI. W. II.
Matteawan: village; Dutchess co., N. Y. (for location of
county, see map of New York. ref. 6-.I); on the Fishkill
creek," and the Newburg, I)utches.s. and Conn. Railroad ; IJ
miles from Fishkill Landing-on-thc-Hudson. It has abun-
MATTKK
MATTHEW
617
dant water-powpr, ami cinitaiTis inunufaotorips of felt goods,
lawn-mowci-s, woiKl-workiiif; iiiacliiiiiTy, hats, tiles, ami ollit-r
articles, tlio Howlaml C'ireiiiatitif; liil)rary (foundeil in 1K72)
omlaiiiiiig over (i,()(KJ vnluiiies, a daily paper.a iiatioiml bank
with eapilal of :j! 100.01)0. and a savint^s-baiik wit li deposits
of over $100,000. I'op. (18S0) 4,41 1 ; (IS'M) 4,a7«.
Matter [M. Eii^. maiere, from (>. Kr. matitre < I,at. »irt-
te'riii, stiili, mailer, orif;iiially Imildiiij; material, limber,
for *ilmii/fria. ooniiected with Gr. SffjLfin. build]: a term
wideli lui-s two main .sigiiilieatioiis, whieli have ehanired
gradually with theehaiiges in philosophieal Ihiiikiuf;. They
may be called the idealistic and the materialistic, the former
dating from I'armenides, and receiving its full expression in
I'lato anil Aristotle ; the latter from Thales and the alomials
Ijeticippus and Democritus. Ill the forjner signilication
mailer is little more than a logical postulate; in the latter,
it is an abslraction of the imaginalioii. In I'armenides it is
simply not-being (>»)) iv) as o|)p<)sed to being, ami is the
ground of the phenomenal, illusory multiplicity of the world.
This is virtually the view of Plato, who, however, is coin-
(x^llcd to attribute to matter something more than a mere
negative existence. With him it is the correlate of iilea.- (See
I'lato, Parmeniiles, Philebus, Tiiiia'us; Sielwck, Plains Le/ire
ron der Jfalerie, in L'niersiu-h iingen znr Ph ilom/thie der Urie-
chen.) According to Aristotle, 8\7| is one of the four cutIcu
or grounds of existence, the correlate of form, the ground
of change. I)eing pure potentiality, ullerly devoid of deter-
mination, and therefore, as such, unknowable. (See Kokm.)
Aristotle sees process where Plato sees but multiplicity.
When united with form, mailer ^ivos oiWai, or substantial
things, which owe to it their imperfection. The Aristotelian
d<x;lrine was adopted by the Stoics, and the Platonic by the
Ncoplatonists. 1 nnlus held that matter wjis neither good
nor bad. but constituted thegroiind of necessity. The Fathers
of the Church, mingling philosophic speculation wilh dog-
matism, were divided on the questiim of the eternity of mat-
ter, as well as of the mode of its production. The same is
true of the Arabic philosophers, who baseil their doctrines
mainly upon Aristotle. Bishop Uerkeley denied thecxistence
of matter altogether, as diil Lol/.e in our own day. The
materialistic view of matter wius held in a rude form by the
Ionian philosophers, whose whole efforts apparently were a
search for a single material principle to explain the world.
The alomic theory was apparently first propounded by Leu-
cipr]us or Democritus of Abdera, and hius been held by the
majority of matiTrialists ever since. According to it. matter
consists, in the last analysis, of an indeiinitc number of in-
divisible particles. Some naturalists, such as Democritus,
imagined that these differed in form, position, and aggrega-
tion; wliich differences constituted the differences of mate-
rial objects. Lucretius was the great atomist among the
Itomans. In mmlern times an atomic doctrine has been
maintained by Diderot, Kant, Ilerbart, and by all or nearly
all the natural scientists of the present day. (See Atom and
Aloi,F,(.fi.E.) By most of them matter is no longer looked
U|)on as dead or separable from force, but as endowed with
all the |>otenciesof which existing things are the realizations.
Whichever theory we adopt, matter remains an abstraction,
the correlate of force, without which it would be unthink-
able. C'f. Suarez, De Corporum Salurn Traclatua (Bologna,
1877); Ballmker, Daa Problem tier Malerie in der griech-
ischen Philosophie; UvUnviiX, Nalurphi'lnsnphie im Geiate
des hi. Thomoji ron Aiinino; Vesch, Jnflilulionen Pliiloxo-
pfiicr Xatiiraliii Secundum Principia S, I'homir Aquinatis;
Kamiere, Z/'.4rf')r(/ de lit Pliilosop/iie de Sainl-Thomax el de
la Science Moderne au Siijel de la Composiliim den I'orps;
Stallo, The Concrpis ana Theories of Modern Physics;
Lange, (leschichle des Malerialismua; Feclincr, I'eber die
phi/sikalisrhe iind philosiiphische Alomlehre ; Ilartmann,
Pliiloso/ihie des L'nieirusslrn, ^ c. cuft. v.; Bllchner, Force
and Mailer; and various articles in TTie Popular Scirnce
Monthly and Philosophie Posilivisle. TiioMAS Davidson.
Matter, maater. .Iacqi'es: theologian and historian: h.
at All-lvkenilorf. .\lsace, of German parents. May 31, 17Stl :
studii'd at Sirassburg, Gi'lttingen, and Paris; became in 1!<19
I'rofessor of History at Stnvssliiirg, in ls:tO insriector-geiieral
of the University of Paris, in 184.5 of the public libraries of
Franco; retired to Strassburg in 1H40 to l)ecoino professor
in the Protestant theological seminary. D. there June 23,
18(i4. His De rinltuenre des Mtrurs stir les Lois, el des
Lois stir /m .l/ii-i/r.t (IS;)^). was crowned by the Academy.
The most prominent of his numerous other writings arc
L'llisloire de I'ecole d' Alexandrie (Paris, WM ; Sd ed. 3 vols.,
1840); Tlisloire Crili'/ue du (htostieisme (1828; 2<1 cd. 3
Vols., 1843— J4); I/i-iloire I'nii-erselle de I'Eulise Chrelienne
(182!)-:J2): Schellinr/. on la Philosophie de la Malure (1842;
2d ed. 184.')): De V f:i„l Moral, Polili<fue,el Lilleraire de
V Allemngne Vi vols., 1k47): Sainl-Marlin (IHIi'i); Emmanuel
de Stredenliorg {\XV>,i); and ]-e myslicisme en prance aux
lempsde Fenrlon (Paris, lb04), a work of both historical and
theological interest. Kevised by S. M. Jackson.
Matlerliorn, Mount : See Cebvi.v, Mo.vt.
Miltteiic'ci. maa-toochee. Carlo: b. at Forii, Italv, Juno
21, 1«11; graduated at the University of Bologna in 1828,
and began his scientilic experiments at Forli, l)ul soon after
went to Paris to prosecute tliem. After t he publication of his
articles upon electricity and upon torpedoes in 1840 he was
appointcu, on the recoinmemlation of de la Kive ami of Hum-
boldt, to the chair of Physics in the University of Pisa. In
1848 he was sent by the Tuscan (iovernnieiit as civil com-
missioner into Lombardy with the Tuscan troops, and later
on a diplomatic mission to the Diet of Frankfort. After the
political events of 184!) he resumed his profesMjrship at Pisa,
and in 1859 the Tuscan Government gave him a mission to
the court of Berlin, afterward to the Government of Turin
before the annexation of Tuscany to Piedmont. After this
annexation he took an active part in the moderate consti-
tutional politics of Italy. In lh62 he became for a short
time Minister of Public Instruction for the kingdom of
Ital.v. On the transfer of the capital to Florence he was
made director of the Museo di F isica Fiorentina, and de-
voted himself almost exclusively to the prosperity of that
institution. D. at Ijeghorn, June 2.5, 1868. Among his
very numerous scientific publications the following arc best
known : Cenni sail' Influenza dell' Elellricila nella For-
mazione delle Principali Meleore .^tc^u^e (Bologna, 1827);
Suir Influenza del Calore snl Magnetismo (Forli, 1831);
,S'«//e Correnli elellro-Magnetiche di Faraday (Forli, 1833);
Sur I'Eleclricile animale (Florence, 18;j4); Discorso sul
Melodo liazionale Scientifico (Forli, 18;jo) ; Essai sur les
Phenomenes Eleclriques des Animaux (Paris, 1870); Le-
zioni di Fisica (Pisa, 1852); Cours d'Eleclro-Physiologie
(Paris, 1856). Revised by E. L. XicuoLS.
Matthew, miith'yoo, Saixt: one of the twelve apostlcsand
the author of the first Gospel. I. Character. — Among the
twelve apostles there was only one whose previous occupation
hiul made him familiar with the use of the pen : and this one,
St. Matthew, seems also to have been the first among them
to prepare an evangelical record. We know very little of
his character and life. His apostolical calling is narrated
in Matt. ix. 9; Mark ii. 14; Luke v. 27. He was sitting at
the receipt of customs on the border of the sea, near Caper-
naum, filling the office of a publican. These officers were
generally abhorred by the Jews, being considered as rene-
gades because they served the pagan lords of the country.
Jesus passing by, followed by a great multituile. noticed
him. and discovered at first glance that there was in him a
future apostle and ])reacher of the new faith. The pub-
lican, who perhaps previously heui received salutary impres-
sicms from the teachings of Jesus, obeyed without hesitation
the call of the Lord, and in onler to celebrate the career
which opened Iwfore him, he invited his former colleagues
to a feast in his house together with Jesus and his disciples,
desirous that they too should partake in some manner in
the grace which had been conferred on him. It was his
first missiimary act. Mark ami Luke call this publican
I.ievi ; and it is probable that this was the original name of
tho afK)stle, and that Jesus, as he had given to Simon the
surname of Peter on their very first meeting (John i. 43),
gave to Levi the surname of .Matthew — that is, "a gift from
God" — in order to designate the striking manner in which
Goii had given him this disciple in the very moment when
their eyes first met. The only .surprising circumstance ac-
cording to this explanatlim is that Mark and Luke do not
indicate the identity of Matthew with this publican Ia'vI
in their lists of the twelve aimstles (Mark iii. 18; Luke vi.
15; Acts i. 13). Thus, from tho second century, ami up to
our days, some have l«oen of the opinion that there were two
different publicans whose callings oocurrp<l in a similar
manner; but this is not pmbalde; the story of the calling
of Levi and .Matthew is so similar that it is difficult to con-
sider it as the nx'ord of two diffen>nt facts. There is •
more natural solution. From a roganl to the «|ioslle. tra-
ilition woulil not like to attach to his name tho humiliating
title of publican: and this s«'ems to t>e the simple rca.son
why it is omitted in the lists of the Gospels of Luko and
618
J[ ATT HEW
F-'
Mark, wliirh were |ircpnriHl from the general tradition,
while Malthew himself when he narrated the fact hail no
fear of reealline the memory of his former profession;
hence these words in the first'Gospel : "Matthew the pub-
lican "(Matt. X. 3). The father of Matthew is oalleil Al-
)ha>us, but must not be confounded with Aliiha'us called
.'lopas, who was the brother of Joseph and the uncle of
Jesus. Matthew remained, no doubt, in Jerusidem, together
witli the twelve, as long a.s the preaching of the apostles in
this citv continued — that is, nearly up to the year (50. When
Paul went to Jerusalem for the bust lime, in 59, he seems to
have found none of the anostles there (Acts xxi.). Clement
of Alexandria tells us of JIatthew that he ate no meat, but
only vegetables and fish. The historian Ilegesippus, in the
seci'ind centurv. attributes a similar ascetic practice to
James, the brother of the Lord, the first chief of the eon-
fregation of Jerusalem and a contemporary Of the apostles,
t is also known that the Es.senes, a Jewish sect which as-
pired to a imrticular sanctity, confined themselves to the
same diet. In this privation the aim was merely a more
complete consecration of the body to the service of God,
and not the attainnu>nt of any legal merit; the law never
gave any such precept. The Jewish (_'hristians of Home,
mentioned in Hom. xiv., ought also to be remembered here.
By this austere discipline," Matthew no doubt desired to
recommend his ministration to the Jews ami procure access
among them for the gospel. Various later traditions, origi-
nating between the fourth and sixth centuries, tell us that
Matthew went to Ethiopia, or Macedonia, or I'arthia, or
Arabia, or India ; we are even told by some that he suffered
martyrdom in Arabia or Persia; but so late and discord-
ant traditions have little value.
11. The Gospel. — All tlie Fathers agree that the apostle
Matthew wrote a Gospel, but in the Hebrew language, and
not in the Greek, in which is written the book contained in
the canon under the name of Matthew. Papias, at the be-
ginning of the second century, says: "Matthew composed
the speeches (the teachings of Jesus) in the Hebrew language
(Aramaean), and each oiu> translated them (into (xreek) as
well as he could." Tliese last words signify, probably,
that each preacher translated orally from Mattnew into
Greek while teaching in t he church. Eusel)ius tells, further-
more, that Panta'nus, the founder of the catechetical school
of Alexandria, when in the second century he went to India
to preach Christianity, found the (jospel of Matthew in
Hebrew among some Christians to whom it had been
brought by the apostle Bartholomew, the first missionary
to that country. All the other Fathers have the same tra-
ditions concerning the original language of the first Gospel.
Nevertheless, our Greek Matthew does not make the im-
pression of being a translation, at least not in the narrative
parts. The language is vigorous, fresh, pure, like tliat of
an original writing. Thence it has been inferred, in ac-
cordance with the literal sense of the expressions of Papias,
that the Gospel mentioned by him contained only the
speeches of Jesus, and not a complete history of his minis-
tration, and that the narrative iiart was added later as a
historical framework, in which the primitive work of Mat-
thew was inserted, translated into Greek. Two circum-
stances confirm this inference: First, in the record of the
first Gospel five principal groups of speeches of Jesus can
be distinguished — namely, chs. v.-vii. ; x. ; xiii. : xviii. ;
xxiv.-xxv. ; all of which are connected with the narrative
by very similar formulas, and which miglit very well have
originally formed a separate work having for its subject the
teachings of Jesus. .Secondly, in these great speeches in
our Matthew the Old Testament is mo.st freijuently quoted
ac<'ording to the translation of the Septuagint, while in
the narratives it is mo.st frequently quoted from the He-
brew text — a circumstance which seems to indicate a differ-
ent origin. Accordingly, we must suppose that Matthew
composed an Arain.Tan work which comprised only the
teachings of the Saviour, arranged according to some lead-
ing principles. Thus (1) the jiislice of the kingdom of
heaven, which division apjiears in our first Gospel as the
sermon on the mount (v.-vii.); (2) the aposlolate, which sec-
ond division is found in our first (Jospel in c. x. ; (li) the pic-
ture of the kinyiloin of heaven, the grand collection of para-
bles in 0. xiii., which depicts the foundation of the kingdom
(the sower), its anomalous development (the tares), its |Mi\ver,
both externally and internally (the mustard-seed and the
leaven), its worth both to him who finds it witlioul seeking
and to him who seeks (the hidden treasure and the pc^arl),
and. its terms (the net); (4) tlie discipline of the Church,
which division is contained in ch. xviii. 1-20 of our first
Gospel ; and, lastly, (.5) the conmimmatiou of the present era,
or the judgment of Israel, the Church, an<l all tlie nations,
which ilivisiim (xxiv.-xxv.) formed the imposing conclusion
of the work of Matthew, corresiionding with the opening, the
sermon on the mount. Christ thus appeared as the divine
legislator (chs. v.-vii.), king (ch. xiii.), iiiiii Judge (chs. xxiv.-
xxv.). This original work by Matttiew, in Arannvan, prob-
ably was the foundation of that Gospel of the J/eorews
which was adopted by the Jewish Christian communities
of the first centuries. This Gospel needed a complement,
and this need was sujiplied, no doubt, by the narrative part
of our first (jreek (ios]iel, translated into Aram.Tan, and
adorned with many legendary additions borrowed from an
already falsified tradition. It also suffered mutilation in
order to conform to the peculiar ideas of the different Jew-
ish Christian sects. As for the narrative frame of the first
Gospel, it was possibly composed by one of the companions of
St. Matthew, who had partaken of his evangelical labors and
written down the apostolical tradition, such as it had become
fixed at Jerusalem and in Palestine. In the arrangement
of the historical matter the same method of systemati<'al
grouping maybe observed here as in the composition of the
speeches : chs. viii. and ix., following after the sermon on the
mount, give a collection of acts of power; chs. xi. and xii.,
following after the apostolical in.struction, give a collection
of words of wisdom ; chs. xiv.-xvii.. following after the col-
lection of parables, contain a record of variotis excursio7is
which preceded the teaching of the discipline (ch. xviii.)
and the departure from Galilee (ch. xix.). Two small de-
tails show that Matthew had taken part in this labor, di-
rectly or indirectly: (1) the surname of "publican" added
to his name, as we have seen, in the list of the twelve apos-
tles in the first (iospel (x. ;i) ; (2) the fact that in this same
list, in the fourth couple of apostles — which couple in all
the lists comprises ^Slatthew and Thomas — the name of
Thomas is placed before that of Matthew, while in the other
lists Matthew is placed before his colleague. It is evident
that he could not change the jilace of the couple to ^vhich he
belonged, but he could change the place of his name in this
couple; and this he did. Kusebius says, referring to his
predecessors, that "Matthew, after preaching to the Jews,
and about to depart in order to preach to other nations,
composed in the language of the Fathers (in Hebrew) the
Gospel he had preached, in order to fill the void which his
absence would leave among his audience." This date is
in accordance with the preceding, relating to the language
in which Matthew wrote ; and it accounts for the absence
in this Gospel of all explanations of Hebrew customs, such
as we find in Mark and Luke, writing for pagan readers.
The time of the composition is indicated by Iren.fus : " Mat-
thew piililished among the Hebrews and in their native
tongue his evangelical record at the time when Peter and
Paul preached at Home and founded the Church there."
Some have taken umbrage at this tradition, because neither
Peter nor Paul founded the Church of Rome, which follows
clearly from the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of
St. Paul, but they have forgotten that in the eiioch in which
Irenanis wrote (ihe last third of the second century) the
apostolical limes appeared in a general way as the epoch of
the foundation of Ihe Church. The work of Matthew bears,
so to speak, its date marked on its face. This Gospel is a
divine act, an ofiicial proclamation issued by the gO|yern-
ment of God. It is God himself who summons his people
by a solemn ultimatum to recognize Jesus as Messiah, and
threatens them with destruction if they will not obey. This
is the reason why the Gospel opens with the genealogy of
Jesus, and why he is called " clirist, the son of David, the
son of Abraham" (i. 1). the Messiah who shall raise the
"throne of David, his father," and redeem the promise of
the salvation of the world attached to the po.sterity of Abra-
ham. This is furthermore the rea.son why the whole Gos-
pel is a demonstration of the Messianic dignity of Jesus;
why the five traits of the history of his infancy, recorded
in the first two chapters, are accompanied each by a proph-
ecy; why his residence in Galilee at the beginning of his
ministration is justified (iv. 14-10) by a prophecy of Isaiah ;
why the collection of the acts of power (viii.-ix.) is grouped
around a prophecy by Isaiah, (luoted viii. 17, which serves
as text ; why the collection of tlie words of wisdom (xi. and
xii.) center in a prophecy by Isaiah, quoted xii. 17. Jlore-
over, there is scarcely one trait in the liLstory of the Passion
which is not accompanied by a iirophecy, because this igno-
minious death was the great offense for the Jewish feeling
MATTHEW OF PARIS
MATTHIAS
619
(1 Cor. i. 23), ami thp last words, "Go ye, tlicrpfore, and
teach all nations, Imptizinfr tlioni," etc., -^ive the profjramine
of the whole work of the Messiah. IJv such a hook Uod
said to his peo|il«', " The forty years of repentance which
were accorded to tliee (.Mult. .\xiv. 34) will so<in expire ; ac-
knowledfje Jesus as thv Messiah or thou shalt perish.'
This situation is indeed in harmony with the date indicated
by Ircnjpus — namely, aliout 04, or five to six vears before
the destruction of Jerusalem. There is esiMjcially one pas-
sage which determines exactly the |)eriod of the composi-
tion. It is the parenthetical clause xxiv. 15, by which the
author interrupts, in the same manner iis Murk, the sjR'ech
of Jesus on the destruction of Jerusalem, and invites the
Church to take notice of the signal of flight which Jesus
gave in advance. Such a fiola bene shows evidently that
the sign has not yet been realized, but is imminent. The
sign was the invasion of Juda'a by the Roman armies, which
took place about 06, and the time of the composition is con-
sequently about 04 or 6.5. Thus we arrive at nearly the
same time of comp(*iition for all the three earlier tiospds
composed as they were in different countries and for differ-
ent nations (Romans, Greeks, Hebrews); and this chrono-
logical result coincides with the fact, evident to our eyes,
that none of the three evangelists has employed the writ-
ings of any of the others in the composition of his work.
This reciprocal independence, which seems to us to have
beon demonstrated by a minute exegesi.s, would have been
impassible if one of the three ha<l written a long time before
the others: the last writer mu.st necessarily have known the
writings of the others. Moreover, the date indicated cor-
responds very well to the situation of the Church at this
epoch. Was it not the time in which those who had wit-
nessed the a|ipearances of the Saviour began to die outf
Hence resulted in the feeling of the Church a void and
uneasiness, which demanded a ri<-h compensiition ; and this
was given to the Churcii in the different countries in which
it existed by the publication of the first three Gospels. A
fragment of an anticpie work, found in the eighteenth cen-
tury by Muratori in the librarv of Milan, speaks thus of the
four Gospels : " Although the beginning of each of our Gos-
pels differs teach choosing its own point of departure), this
IS nevertheless of no importance to the faith of the be-
lievers, since all things are represented by them all in tlie
»n me ruling spirit " (uno ac prineipali spiritit). Thus the
relation between the four Gospels was understood in the
second century, while modern criticism has attempted to
place these works in oppositiijn to each other, anil to dis-
cover among their authors motives of mutual rivalry and
hostility unworthy of the characters of such men and of the
sanctity of such an object, but this false criticism will break
down before the indestructible feeling of the moral purity
of these books. The Church feels that in calling these au-
thors the lioly erangelints s\\o has not followed an illusion.
That spirit of holiness which is her own life-blood recog-
nizes itself in the spirit which, one and the same, pervades
all the four books. The picture of the divine work, its his-
tory proper, was written by Luke; the simple, apostolical
memoirs, with all their dramatic freshncs-s, were given by
Mark ; the official and theocratic proclamation of Jesus as
King Messiah, was issued by Matthew ; and to John we owe
the revelation of Jesus as the Son of God, as the everlasting
Word. Matthew forms evidentlv the transition from the
Old to the New Testament. His' Gospel is the Old Testa-
ment reflected in the Xew. Hence it wtis always placed at
the head of the evangelical collection and of the wiiole Xew
Testament. It is the Genesis of the Xew Testament. On
the other hand, the Gospel of Matthew corn'sixinds to the
bonk of Revelation. As the former reproduces uiiiler the
form of history in the Xew Testament that part of the Ohl
which is already accomplished, the latter repri>duces under
the form of prophecy at the end of the Xew restament that
whole part of the Old which is not yet realized. The Reve-
lation says, "All is accomplished." Thus in the divine
word the Ijcginning, middle, and end correspond with each
other in a marvelous manner. .See Hiulk anil Gospki,.
FrKDKRH' (ioOBT.
Matthen' of Paris: historian : b. in England about 1200;
entereil in I'JIT the convent of St. Albans; wrote a contin-
uation of the Flares llislorinrum of Rogi'r of Wendover,
comprising the periixl from Vi'Xi to Vi'ii^, the whole work,
known as the Ilislnria Major, having fi>rmerly U-en incor-
rectly ascrilted to him ; and su|>erintendetl the pre|>aration
of an abridgment of that work, which under the same title
of Flares ITislorinrum was ascribed to a supposed author,
Matthew of Westminster, who prolmbly never cxisteil. The
difficult questions of authorship and authenticity were
solved by Sir Frederick .Miuiden. who |iublislied in IhOO the
original manuscript of the abridgmetit, partly in the hand-
writing of Matthew of I'aris. The larger work has Ix-en
translated by Rev. J. A. Gilc^s (5 vols., lK4U-.'>4), the smaller
bv C. D. Vonge in Bohn's Antii|uarian Library (2 vols., IS.W).
Nothing is known of the personal history of Matthew of
Paris beyond a few unimportant refercnceji to his own writ-
ings, except the fact that he was sent to Xorway in 124S by
Pope Innocent IV. as visitor of the Benedict ine' order. His
stay there was brief. D. at St. Albans soon after May, 125y.
Mattliews. Hexrv, LL. B.. Q. C, M. P. : politician ; b. in
1826 in Ceylon, where his father, Hon. Henry Matthews,
was a judge ; was educated in I'aris and London; obtained
the universitv law scholarship at the University of London ;
a<lmitted at Lincoln's Inn at eighteen ; wa.s called to the Ijar
in 1850 : was examiner in common law to the council of
legal education 1872-76 ; has been engaged in many notable
lawsuits, including the Tichborne case; entered Parliament
in 1868 ; aud was Home .Secretary in Lord Salisbury's second
ministry 1886-93.
Matthews, James Bran'der: author ; b. in New Orleans,
La., Feb. 21, 18.52. He graduated at Columbia College and
took up his residence in Xew York city, devoting himself
mainly to dramatic literature, fiction, and literary criticism.
In 1892 he was appointed lecturer on Literature at Columbia
College. Among his plays are Margery's Lovers, a comedy
(1884), and This Picture and Thai, a comedy (1887). His
other publications include The Theaters of Paris (1880);
French Dramatists of the \ineleenlh Century (1881); .4
Secret of the Sea. and Other Stories {\S»e); Pen and Ink
(188.S) ; A Family Tree, and Other Stories (1889) ; an edition
of Sheridan's Comedies (1885); Americatiisms and liriti-
cisms (1892); In the Vestibule Limited (1892); and The
Story of a Story (1893). H. A. Beers.
Matthews, Stanley, LL. D. : jurist; b. July 21, 1824. in
Cincinnati, 0.; graduated from Kenyon College 1840; studied
law, and, removing to Maury co., Tenn., was admitted to the
bar and began the practice of his profession. He then niar-
rie<l, and shortly after returned to Cincinnati. From 1846-
49 he assisted in the editorial management of The Cincinnati
Herald, an anti-slavery journal. In 1851 he was elected
judge of the court of common pleas for Hamilton County,
and in 1855 to the State Senate. In 1858 he was appointed
C S. district attorney for the southern district of Ohio. At
the outbreak of the civil war he was commissioned lieutenant-
colonel of the Twenty-third Regiment Ohio Volunteers; in
Oct., 1861, was commissioned colonel of the Fifty-seventh
Regiment, and in that capacity commanded a briga<le in
the Army of the Cumberland; in 1863 resigned his commis-
sion to enter upon the duties of judge of the inferior court
of Cincinnati. In 1877 he took part as counsi-l before the
electoral commission, opened the argument in Itehalf of
the Republican electors m the Florida case, and made the
principal argument in the Oregon case; was sotm after
elected to the I'. S. Senate, and in 18S1 was ap|>oinled asso-
ciate judge of the Supreme Court of the U. S. D. at Wash-
ington, D. C, Mar. 22, 1889,
Matthews, WAsnixoTox, LL. D. : ethnologist ; b. in Ire-
land. July 17. 1S4:J: was taken by his father to the V. S. ;
graduated M. I), at the University of Iowa 1864; entered
the army immediately as acting a.ssistant surge<m ; served
in the Indian wars in Dakota and Montana until 1868: also
became an officer and rose to the rank of major; servwl in
the regular armv, largely in the Dakotas, Xew Mexico, and
the States and Territories of the Pacific slojic. From his
earliest childhr>o<l his life has been mainly pas.sod in contact
with Indian tril)es which retained their original customs
and beliefs. Among his publications are (Jrammar and
Dictionary of the Language of the Ilidalsa; Ethnography
and Philology of the I/idatsa Indians; The Gentile Organ-
ization of the Xafajo IiulianJ<: The Cnllin Ciillrction of
Indian Paintings; Consumption ■ Indians; The
Inca Hone and Kindred Fnrmn 7 the Ancient
Arizonians; Apparatus for Tracn.y ■ :, ,.. y-'i<i/ Projections
of the Skull.
Matthias, ma-thias. Saint: the twelfth apostle, in plai-e
of Judas Is<>arii>t ; chos»>n during the ten ilay> iM-lweeii As-
cension ami Pentecost. Of the 120 dis»-iples in Jerusalem,
apiutrently only two (Uarsabas and Matthias) could be found
620
MATTHIAS
MALCIi CllL'NK
who hiui K'en companions of Christ during the whole
course of his ministry; und of these two the hitter was
chosen somehow by lul. In spite of specious arfruinents
against it. the validity of this election can be sustained.
Tlie New Testament nuikes no further mention of .Matthias,
and ancient traditions clasli. See the Acta Sanctorum,
Feb. -J 4.
Mnttllias: the assumed name of Kobert MATTnEws, a
religious impostor ; b. in Washinjjton eo., N. Y., about 1790 ;
resided in Allmny when, excited bv the preacliin;; of the
celel)rated revivalists Kev. Charles d. Finney and Hev. Ed-
ward N. Kirk (about 18;W), he determined to become a re-
ligions leader. lie began by ardent advocacy of temperance,
and having had some success in street-preaching, claimed
to have received a revelation, and luidertook to convert tlie
city of Albany. His violence defeated itself, while his ab-
surd pretensions were promptly refuted. Enraged at the
failure of his projects, he prophesied the destruction of Al-
bany, and proceeded secretly to New York, where he suc-
ceeded in imposing upon .several respectable families, and
in creating a sensiition. Having been accused of poisoning
one of his wealthy di.sciples, he was tried and acquitted, but,
having then lost all inlluence, quietly disappeared, and died
some years later in Arkansas. See Matthias and his Impos-
tures.'by William L. Stone (New York, 1835).
3Iatthlas: German emperor from 1613 to 1619; b. Feb.
24, 15.")7 ; a son of .Ma.ximilian II., and educated in tiermany.
In 1577 he repaired secretly to the Netherlands, and made
an attempt at managing affairs there, but failed, and with-
drew in 1580. On June 14, 1013, he succeeded his brother,
Rudolph II., as Kmperor of Germany, but his reign was very
unsuccessful. The differences between the I^rotestant
Union, formed in 1608, and the Catholic League, formed in
160!), grew now into open controversies. The emperor first
tried to put himself at the head of the Catholic League, but,
failing in this, he undertook to suppress both associations
by an imperial decree, to which, however, neither of them
paid any attention. In 1617 the bigoted Archduke Fenii-
nand was appointed King of Bohemia, and on May 2;i, 1618,
the Protestant iiilialiitants of Prague took arms and bmke
out in open rebellion. Thus began the Thirty Years' war.
Hardly a year after (Mar. 20, 1619) the emperor died, and
was succeeded by Ferdinand.
Matthias I., Corviuiis: Sec Corvixus (Matthias)!.
Jlatto (irosso, maa tw-gro so (literally, thick copse): a
western state of Brazil; the largest of the republic except
Amazonas, but the most thinly settled of all: bounded N.
by Amazonjis and Para, E. by Goyaz, Sao Paulo and Parana,
S. Iiy Paraguay, and \V. by Bolivia. Estimated area, 5:i2.400
sq. miles. .All the eastern and northern part is compreheiuled
in the Brazilian plateau, having an average elevation of about
2,500 feet; it is much cut up by deep and wide river valley.s,
and the escarpments thus formed are frequently represented
as mountains on maps. The immense depression of the Par-
aguay occupies the southwestern portion : it is perfectly flat,
and is subject to periodical imindations. The plateau is near-
ly everywhere cut down abruptly, and even precipitously,
to this depression, the edges forming the so-called serra.s of
Silo Jeronymo, of Piquiry, etc. The depression of the Ma-
deira (Guapore branch), almost confluent with that of the
Paraguay, fringes the western boundary, and the table-land
is cut down to it in a similar manner (Serra dos Pareeis).
Bordering the western side of the Paraguay, on the f nmtiers
of Bolivia, there are several isolated groups of high and
rugged hills (.Serra dos Dourados, etc.). The numerous
stri'ams of the plateau drain northward to the great Ama-
zonian branches, eastward to the Araguaya, southeastward
to the Parana, and southwestward to the Paraguay. The
Paraguay and several of its numerous affluents are navi-
gable nearly to their sources. The other large rivei-s are
much obstructed by rapids ; they include the Tapajos and
its branch the Permifinga or Sao Manuel, and the Xingij,
flowing to the Amazon ; the Kio das Mortes, a branch of
the ,\raguaya; and the rivers Verde, Iviidieima, etc., atllu-
ents of tlie upper Parana. The clinuite of Matto Grosso is
generally hot in the river depressions, temperate and de-
lightful on the plateau ; from June to .September there are
occasional cold spells, caused by south winds, apparently
the same a.s the " pamperos " of the Itio de la Plata ; during
these the temperature .sometimes sinks to freezing. The
rainy season begins in .September, is well marked from De-
cember to April, and ends in May; the remaining months
arc dry. The soil of the open plateau is generally sandy
and unfit for cultivaticm, but it affords excellent pasturage
in the rainy months. The forest laiuls ami river vallevsaro
very fertile. The gold and diamond washings of Matto
tiro.sso were formerly anicmgthe richest in the world; they
are now nearly al>andoned, but are far from being exhausted.
Many small Indian tribes occupy the wilder portions, but
large areas are completely deserted. The civilized popula-
tion does not exceed 60,000, of which one-third is gathered
in the capital, Cuyaba. Corumba, on the Paraguay, is the
port of entry, and Villa Maria, Matto Grosso, Miranda, and
biamaiitina arc small towns. Hides and small (juantitie.s
of gold and drugs are almost the only exports ; agricultural
products are insullicient for the local demand. The upper
Paraguay was early visited by Spaniards. I'ntil the open-
ing of the Paraguay to steam navigation (1859). the only
means of communicating with the coast was by a long over-
land journey or by the rivers in canoes which were dragged
around the rapids. The Paraguayans occupied part of the
province 1865-08. See Fonseca. \'iagem au Redor do Bra-
zil (1880) : Caslelnau, Expedition dans les parties centrales
de I'Amerique da Slid (1850-51); Piinenla Bueno, .1 Pro-
vincia de Matto Orosso (1880) ; the works of von den
Steincn. Herhert H. Smith.
MattooM : city; Coles eo.. 111. (for location of county, see
nuip of Illinois, ref. 7-F) : on the III. Cent., the Cleve., Cin.,
Chi. and St. L., and the Peoria, Dec. and Evans, railways;
56 miles W. of Terre Haute, Ind., 172 miles S. by \V, of
Chicago. It is in a corn and broom-corn growing region ;
is an important shipping-point ; and has a high school, 2
national banks with cond)incd capital of $110,000, a State
bank with capital of f?.50.000. and a daily and 5 weekly news-
papers. Pop. (1880) 5.7;i7 : (1890) 0,833.
Mattra, Mathiira. or Miittru: a town in the North-
western Provinces. British India, on the Jumna; is a very
ancient and celebrated city, mentioned by Ptolemy as the
" Modouraof the goils," a railway station, and ca|)i!al of a
district of the same name (see map of North India, ref.
6-E), As the birthplace of Krishna it is venerated l)y the
Brahraans, and visited by a great number of pilgrims. The
shores of the river are provided with gorgeous flights of
steps, and the city ctmtains an immense tem])le, which once
possessed idols of gold and silver, with eyes of diamonds.
These were carried away by foreign conquerors. Sacred ajies
and swarms of holy parrots and peacocks are kept here.
Pop. (1891) 60,020. Revised by .M. W. Harrington.
Matiiriii. mali-too-reen' : a town in the northeastern part
of the state of Bermudez, Venezuela ; on the open plains
bordering the Guarapiche river, 22 miles above the port of
Cafio Colorado (see map of South America, ref. l-D). It is
the commercial center of the region on the .southern slope of
the Cuniana Mountains and of the jilain bonlering the Ori-
noco delta, and has a large trade, especially in cattle and
hides. Its ]iort on the Orinoco is San Rafael at the head
of the delta. Maturin was formerly the capital of a prov-
ince or state of the same name, now merged into Bermudez.
Population (1889, with the district) 14,473. II. II. S.
Mal'urin. Charles Robert: novelist; b. in Dublin, Ire-
land, in 1782; educated at Trinity College; took orders in
the Church of England, and became curate of St. Peter's,
I)ul)lin. Pecuniary losses induced him to write several nov-
els of an extravagant character, which had little success —
The Fatal Revenfie (1807); The ^Vild Irish Hou (1808);
The Milesian Chief (m-i): Women (1818); Melnoth (18'20);
and llie Alhigenses (1824) — but his tragedy of Bertram,
represented by Edmund Kean at Drury Lane theater,
brought him ,£!,000 and a considerable reputation as a poet,
wliich was scarcely justified l\v his later jiroductions: Manuel
(1817) and Fred'olpho (1817). He was an eloquent pidpit
orator and a bold o[iponent of Roman Catholicism. D. in
Dublin, Oct. 30, 1824. Revised by 11. A. Bicers.
Maul)pilge. mo bii^h' : town ; department of N'ord, France;
on the Sambre, which here becomes navigal)le ; al)ont 10
miles N. of Avesnes (see map of France, ref. 2-(i). It is forti-
fied, and has iron-foundries and manufactures of firearins,
iron and steel goods, saltpeter, oil, and sugar, and an active
trade in coal, slate, and marble. It originated from a great
double numiuslcry for monks and nuns fouiuled in the sev-
enth century by St. Aldegonile, and was incorporated with
France bv the peace of Nimeguen. Its fortifications were
planned by Vauban. Pop. (1886) 4,187.
Maiich Chunk, mawk'chtink' : borough; capital of Car-
bon CO., Pa. (for location of county, see map of Pennsylva-
MAUDSLEY
•MAUKICE
021
niti, ref. 4-1) : nn the Lcliish river, tho Lphipfh Canal, and
Itii' l^cliiffh Val. imd llif Cent, of X. .!. niilwjivs ; 4(J miles
\V. by N. or Kasloii. Ki inilcs N. W. of I'liiladi'lphia. It is
the inost important ani liracite coal-lraile center in the U. S. ;
lies lietwcen the .Mahoning and .Sharp Mountains, utwl is
almost entirely surrounded by mountains ami \i\jiU hills.
The mines on .Sharp Mountain are amouf; the oldest uml
most productive in the Slate. Formerly mal was conveyed
from the top of the mountain to the chutes in the borough
by means of the switcldiack railway, on which the cars
de.sccniled by fjravily. The cars were hauled back lirst by
mule-power, and afterward by cables operated by stationary
engines at the dilTerenl inclines. Subseiiuenlly a tunnel at
Nesciuehonin;? took the place of this method of trunsoorta-
tion. and the old {iravity road is now used exclusively for
Iilen-sure excursions. The panorama from Mt. I'isfjah, the
iif;hest point of Sharp Mountain, and the scenery Ihrounh
which the cars iles<'end with ;;reat velocity, adil much to the
rouuintic interest which characterizesthe trip. The borough
consists of a single street ; contains foundries, machine-shops,
and tlour-mills; and has 2 libraries (Uimniick .Memorial and
I'ublic, both ojiened in 1884) with over 12.(H)(I vohiincs, ;{
national banks with combined capital of $(iOO,000, and a
daily and i weekly newspapers. Hoth the borough and Glen
Onoko, near bv, arc visited bv many thousands of people
eac-h .summer. 'Pop. (INSO) y.7,V2 ; (18!)0) 4.101.
Maiiilsloy. IIknrv. M. 1)., LL. D., P. U.C. P. : alienist ; li. at
Giggleswick, Yorkshire, England, Feb. 5, 18:3.5; studied at
the University of London, where he graduated in medicine
in 18.57; was physician to the Manchester lunatic asylum
18511-62; settled in London as a consulting physician upon
lunacy 18(52 ; published The Phyniology and Palholmjij of
the itind (1867): wa,s made fellow of the Koyal College of
Physicians 186!l; appointed (iulstonian lecturertothat body
: published his c
Mind 1870 ; and wrote a treatise on Responsihilily in Men-
in 1870: published
course of Leclurex on liody and
tal Disease (1874) for the International Scientific Series.
He was Professor of Medical .lurisprudence in University
College 186!t-7!(,and editorof The Journal of Mental Science
186:1-78. lie received LL. D.. Kdiiiburgii University, in
18H4. Published liody and Will (1883); Natural Causes
and Supernatural Seentings (1886).
Kevised by S. T. Armstrong.
Maui: See Hawaii Nei.
.Vuiile, mow Id: a river of Chili, rising in the Andes,
flowing westward and entering the Pacific in lat. 35° 18 S. ;
length about 140 miles, navigable for about 50 miles. Tho
Maule formed the southern limit of the Inca con(|uests, and
during the colonial period it separated Spanish Chili from
the territory of the Araucanian Indians, which contained
only a few Spanish forts. Tlie Maule gives its name to a
pmvince on the southern side, having an area of 2,9:!0 s(j.
miles and a jMipulation (185)1) of 127,650. Capital, Consti-
tucion. II. H. .S.MITI1.
Maillmaiii', or M6iilniein ; city of Tonasserim, Burma;
at the mouth of the Salwen, in the Bay of Bengal, in lat.
16' 30' X. It is a flourishing place, important for its ex-
[lorts of teak. Ivory, grain, wax, and gum are also ex|X)rted,
and silks ami cottons, wine and beer, tobacco, arms, and
sugar are imported. Pop. (18U1) 57,!I20.
Muiimco, niaw'me'i' : village ; Lucas co., O. (for location of
county, see map of CHiio, ref. 1-E); on the Mauinee river,
the W'abash Canal, and the Wabash and the Toledo, St. L.
and Kan. City railways; 8 miles .S. of Toleilo, the county-
seat. It is in an agricultural region, and has Hour-mills,
agricultural-implement factories, a private bank, and a
weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,780; (1890) 1,04.5.
Maiiliipe Kiver : a river formed by the union of St. Mary's
and St. .loseph's rivers at Ki>rl Wayne. Ind. Its mouth is
at Toledo. (). It is navigable 8 miles to South Toledo, and
in high water to Defiance. .50 niile.s.
Mnilliil IiOO, maa i>o-naa loaa [from native name. Great
Mountain] : the largest active volcano in the worhl, situated
nearly in the center of the island of Hawaii. Its snow-
crowned dome rises 1;{.6(X) feet above the level of the sea.
It contains several craters, both on its summit ami on the
sides. The groupof craters on the sunnnil form an immense
abyss a mile and a hall in diameter, and l.(K)0 feet deep.
Nc) other volcano eipuds this in the volume of lava dis-
ehargeil in the princiiml eruptions. The lava AimmI of 18.5.5,
wliich reached the outskirts of Ililo, covered 200 .<<]. miles
with an average depth of 100 feet, and its volume would
nearly have built Vesuvius. In 1858 the lava stream flowed
to the si>a and half filled the Bay of Kiholo. Another great
eruption (18.80) threatened the ilestructioii of llilo, and the
volcuno was very active in 1888 and 18U2. When quiescent
.Mauna Loa is a favorite resort for tourists. The eruption
of 1880-81 poured forth for nine months a river of lava which
ran 50 miles, varying from a few hundred yards to 3 miles
in width. C. C. Auams.
Maundy (mawn'di) Tliiirsiliiy [M. Eng. maundf, com-
mand, from 0. Fr. mande <_ Lat. manda turn, command,
whence Kng. mandate; so called from the " new command-
ment" of John xiii. .5, :i4] :,the same lus the Holy Thnrstlay
in Passion week. On this day, in Koman Catholic countries,
the feet of pilgrims are washed in the church, while the
Mandatum noruin is sung, and doles are given to the poor.
Maupassant, m»pa5i'.saaiV, IIknri Kv.si Albert Guv, dc:
novelist; b. at Miromesnil, .Seine-Inferieure, France, Aug.
5, 1850. .Vfter an indiflerent education he went to Paris, and
was employed as clerk in the Xavy Department. Attracted
to letters, he enjoyed the counsel of his uncle Flaulwrt, who
washisma,ster in the art of writing. This art he practicecland
cultivated long before publishing. His first work, a volume
of verse, Deit \'ers, dates from 18H0. His great j^ower in the
short story in prose was revealed by Jioule-de-Suif {\iif!0),
which showed also the influence of Zola. His reputation was
made ver\- rapidly, and he put forth volumes in quick suc-
cession till 18il2. when mental disease showed itself. Hebe-
came an inmate of a private asylum and died July 6. 1893.
Among his more than twenty volumes are the collections of
short stories. La Maison 7tr//ier (1881) ; Lex Saeurs HondoH
(1884); Conte.1 du jour et de la vuit (1885); La J/orIa
(1887): J/on/-(/rio? (1887); La Petite /i'oy»e (1888) ; La
Main 6'n«<;/ie (1889) ; L' Inutile Beaute (1890): the novels
Pierre et Jean (1888); Fort comme la mart (1889); Notre
fa'Hr(1890); descriptionsof travel.4M .S'o/fi7(1884); SurFeau
(1888): La vie errante (1890). His pictures are mainly of
the human animal of robust appetite and rudimentary in-
telligciKc and conscience, oliserveil with much penetration,
and set forth with great objectivity in a clear, firm, and di-
rect style. A. G. Ca.nfield.
Mauropas, niSrpaa', Jean Fiifin^.Rir Pn^i.YPEAi-x, Count
de: statesman; b. at Versailles, July 9. 1701; iidierited in
his fourteenth year an oflice as Minister of State, including
the departments of the royal household, of the city of Paris,
and of the marine. This oflice had belonged to his family
since 1610, and when he was twenty-four years old he took
charge of it himself. In 1749 he was banished from the court
on account of a sarcastic epigram on Madame de Pompa-
dour. I)ut on the accession of Louis XVI. he returned as
Prime .Alinister and held the ]iosition till his death, Nov. 21,
1781. His knowledge was superficial, his character frivo-
lous, his ailministration a hotbed for all kinds of abuses. He
rendered some service to the French marine, but his two
most famous measures were the convocation of the parlia-
ments anil the alliance with the North .\merican colonies in
the Uevolutionary war, both of which had a decisive influ-
ence in bringing about the French Revolution. .\ work in
four volumes, imrjiorting to be the ntemoirs of Maurepas,
was published by liis secretary 1790-92.
Manrcr, mowrer, (iEOKH Ltnwui, von: jurist and slates-
man; b. at Krpolsheim, in Khenish Bavaria, Nov. 2, 1790;
studied at Heidelberg; was apiHiintcd Profes.sor of Juris-
prudence at Munich in 1826 ; became a member of the
Greek regency 18;J2-:i4; was for a short time Bavarian Min-
ister of P'oreign Afl'airs. and Minister of Justice in 1847,
anil died at Munich. May 9. 18r2. His (ieschichte des Alt-
germanischen tlerichtsrerfahrens (1824) was crowned by the
Academy of Munich. Besides a numlK-r of valuable works
on jurisprudence and the history of legislation and goveni-
ment in (iermany, he wrote in 18:16 Das (iriechisrhe Vnlk
ivr und nach dem Frriheitsknmiife (3 vols.) — His s<m, Kos-
BAD Mai-rer (b. in 182:t at Frankenthal in the Palatinate),
.studied at Munich. Uinzig, and Berlin, and was apixunted
Profes.sor i>f Jurisprudence at Munich in 1847. He has
made comprehensive studies of Icelandic language, litera-
ture, and history, and written several works on this sulnect,
such as hie Enlstehung des Jsliindischen Staats uml aei-
ner Verfassumi (1852); Uullthuriiuuiga (18.58): Islilndisrhe
Yolkssagen (18«0|, etc. Ucvise<i by W. B.Shaw.
Maurice, mo rees'. Count of Nassau. Prince of Orange:
stadtholiler; b. Nov. 14, 1567. at Dillenburg. in Nassau, a
son of William the Silent, of Orange; studied at Ix-yden,
()-2-2
MAl'IUCE
MAURITIUS
and was nnK-laimed sladlhuMir of Ilolland, Zealand, and
Utri'clit sliiirllv aflor tlio assiissiiiation o( his fntliiTin 15N4,
and a|>lKpiiil('d coiniiian<ler-iii-cluef \>\ all the |iroviiH-o,s after
the nxall of Leiei'.<tcr hy yueen KlizalH^th in 158T. His
military career was very tirilhaiit. lie tmik IJrcda in l.VJO,
Zutphen. Deventer, and Nytnwegen in 15111, Gcertruiden-
berg in 15i»;j. (ironiniien in 15y4. In 15!>7 he defeate<l the
Spaniards at Turnhont in Brabant, and in 1000 at Nieuw-
port, near Cistend, in the hitter battle deslroyinj; ail chance
of es^'ajK" for his army, if defeated, by dismissing the ships.
From ambitious desijins he opposed the armistice of twelve
Tears which Itarneveldt succeeded in concluding with Spain
in 1(K)U, anil by which the United Provinces were acknowl-
eilged as an indei>endent ri'pnblic. He aspired to sover-
eignty, and in the hot controversy between the Arminians
and the (iomarists favored the latter as a means of over-
coming the resistance of Uarneveldt and the republican
party. His success was but temf>orary. Harneveldt was exe-
cuted in 1611), but the popularity of Maurice was lost, and
it was hardly regained by some new e.Kiiloits in the renewed
war with Spain in 162'2. I), at The Hague, Apr. 23, 1625.
Next to Alexander Karnese, he was generally considered the
greatest general of his age, and numbers of young men of
royal or noble birth who wished to learn the art of war
gathered in his camp. See Motlev, History of the United
Netherlands (1860-67) and Life 'and Death of John of
Barneveld (1874); also tirorn van Prinstercr, Maurice el
Barneveldt (Utrecht, 1875). Kevised by F. M. Colby.
Maurice : Duke of Saxonv, of the Albcrtinc line ; b. Mar.
21, 1521, at Freiberg, a son of Henry the Pious; joined the
Protestant Church in Mi'A'i; married in 1541 a daughter of
the Landgrave Philip of Ilessc, and succeeded his father on
the ducal throne in the same year. His relations with the
Emperor Charles V. were most amicable at this time. lie
fought in his army against the Turks and against the French,
and although he was an ardent Protestant, and his fatlier-
in-law was at the head of the Smalcald League, he ranged
himself with the enemies of his religion, invaded the terri-
tories of his cousin, the Elector John Frederick, and finally
helped the emperor to defeat the latter in the battle of
Milnlbcrg Apr. 24, 1546. As a reward Maurice received
from the emperor the electorate and all of John Frederick's
possessions. As soon, however, as JIauriee had realized his
aim, the goml relations with the emperor ceased, chiefly on
account of the latter's alleged breach of faith in seizing and
holding prisoner Philip of Hesse, to whom Maurice had
pledged his libertv. Charles refused, moreover, to listen to
the entreaties of Maurice on behalf of the imprisoned elector.
Magdeburg was still under arms, and the work of reducing
it was intrusted to .Maurice, who now saw his chance of
avenging his wrongs and righting him.self with his former
Protestant friends. Uathering a large force for the osten-
sible purpose of besieging the city, he made a secret alli-
ance with Henry II. of France in 1551. and in the follow-
ing spring marched on Innsbruck, where the emperor lay
ill of the gout. By a hasty (light the emperor saved him-
self from being captured by -Maurice, but by the Peace of
Passau, 1.5.52. he was compelled to consent to all his de-
mands, the first of which was religious lil)erty for the Prot-
estants. Next year, on July !), 1553, JIaurice was mor-
tally wounded in the buttle of .Sievershausen against the
JIargrave of Brandenburg, and died two days afterward.
He was succeeded by his brother. His daughter Anne was
married to William the Silent. Revised by F. JI. Colby.
Maurice, Frkdkrick Dknison: clergyman and author; b.
in .Vormanslon, SulTolk, England, Aug. 2!), 1805 ; educated
at Camliridge; took a degree in law, but because he was a
Noncimfonnist was oliliged to forego honors and degrees in
other scliiKils. He early took an interest in swial, political,
ecclesiiLstical, ami scientific questions that agitated thought-
ful men in England, writing fervently in The Athenipiim and
other |>eriodiials. In 1h:(1 he joined the Established Church,
having convinced hiins<lf that it was the best ground for an
Englishman to stand and work on, although holding the
Church res|M)nsible, through its shortcomings, not only for
the degrmlation of the working-classes, but also for the' dis-
sent that should have found room for expression within the
Esljililishment. Hv his work. The Kingdom of Christ (1838),
his Lectures on Eiucation l is;j!l), his Thoiu/hls on Conscien-
tious Subscription, and lleasons for nut Joining a Party in
the Church (1841), he laid the foundation of the Broad
Church, as it was called, a new party name which he re-
gretted, as pointing to another division in the Cliwrch.
Maurice was a preacher from the time of his ordination
in 1831. His first curacy wils at Bubbenhall. a small village
in Warwickshire, near Leaniinglon ; from 18.36-46 he was
chaplain at (iuy's Hospital. Lomlon ; from 1846-5!) he was
chaplain at Lincoln's Inn; and from 1860-69 addressed in-
tellectual audiences in St. Peter's chapel, l)e Vere Street
In 1866 he became Knightbridge Professor of Casuistry,
Moral Theology, and Moral Philosophy at Camliridge. f).
in London, Aiir. 1, 18?2. Maurice was of fertile mind and
fluent, abounding utterance. His writings, mostly publica-
tions in book-form of his copious lectures on nearly all
questions of Church history, social and political ethics, prac-
tical and speculative theology, and philosophy Ijear the
stamp of an earnest intellect, a sweet and consecrated spirit,
a profoundly humane heart. His Warburtonian lectures on
The Epistle to the Hebrews (1846). his Boyle lectures on The
Jieligions of the ^'orld (1847), the lectures on The lieliijion
of Uepublican Rome (1855). The Patriarchs and Lawqirers
of the Old Testament (18.55), 7'he Ten Commandment's, The
Cospel of the Kingdom of Heaven (1864), The Gospel of the
M'ord, the Epist'les of 'St. John (1857), The Apocalypse, a
Vision (1861), The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testa-
ment (1853), History of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy
(1850-57), the lectures on Tlie Ecclesiastical Histori/ of the
First Two Centuries (1854), on The Unity of the i\fi(» Tes-
tament (1854), on The U'oni '•Eternal'' (1853), on The
Lord's Prayer (1848) and Tlie Hook of Common Prayer
(1849), on The Claims of the Bible ami of Science (1863),
The Dialogues on Family Worship (1862), illustrate the
variety and the vitality of his labors. His last works were
on Conscience (1868) and Social Morality (1869). Death
surprised him in the fullness of his powers, while he was
preparing lectures on The Eth ical Systemsof Plato and Aris-
totle. In 1854 he became principal of the London Work-
ingmen's College, having as counselors and coadjutors men
like Thomas llughes. Ji)hn Ruskin, Lawrence, Rossetti,
Cave Thomas, and others eminent in science, history, lit-
erature, and art. His influence was exerted in favor of
a relaxation of the laws respecting Sunday, of healthful
Sunday recreations for the working people, the opening on
Sunday of the Crystal Palace ; his labors meanwhile being
directed to the spiritual culture of the people. His Life, in
two vols., edited by his son. Frederick Jlaurice. appeared in
1884, and a bibliography of his writings by G. J. tiray, 1885.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Maiiric'ius, Flavius Tiberius : Emperor of Constanti-
nople from 582 to 602 ; b. at Arabissus in Caijpadocia about
539, a descendant of a noble Roman family. Ilis high char-
acter and eminent services in the wars against Persia caused
the Emperor Tiberius II. on his dealh-bed to appoint him his
successor. Though ho was crowned amid universal rejoicing,
his popularity soon waned. Constant and sometimes unsuc-
cessful wars with the Avars and Persians, together with muti-
nies and conspiracies, filled his reign. Mauricius possessed
every virtue save firmness. His gentleness provoked con-
tempt; at last, a general named Phocas excited a simulta-
neous revolt in the army and capital, and seized the crown.
Mauricius, unable to resist, fled with his family to Chalce-
don. There he was discovered five days afterward and be-
headed on the seashore by the tyrant's order, together with
his five grown-up sons, llis widow and their three daugh-
ters were likewise beheaded some time later. Mauricius
wrote a work on military affairs, published at Upsala in 1664
by John Schcffer. E. A. Gkosve.nor.
Mauritn'nin: the ancient name of Northwestern .\frica,
corresponding to the present Morocco and part of Algeria,
and inhabited by the JIauri (Moors). After conquering it,
the Romans founded many colonics here. In 4"29 A. D. it
was overrun by the Vandals, but it was reconquered by
Belisarius, and' remained with Italy till the end of the
seventh century, when it was taken by the .\rabs.
Mauri'Iia [.Mod. Lat.. named in honor of Prince Maurice
of Nassau]: an interesting genus of American fan-leaved
palm-trees, usually very tall and beautiful. Palm wine,
edible fruits, and useful timber and leaves are produced by
-V. rinifera am\ Jluejruosa.
Mnurl'tiiis (formerly Ile-de- France): one of the Masea-
rene isli's; in the Indian Ocean; ,5,50 miles E. of Mada-
gascar, ill lat. 20 32' S. and Ion. 57 40 E., and belonging
to Great Britain. Area. 705 sq. miles. Pop. (18!»()) 377,-
986. It is of volcanic origin, surrnundid with coral reefs,
and covered with mountains, not very high — the Montague
de la UiviOrc Nuirc (the highest in the island) reaches 2,707
MAURY
MALTHNER
623
feet, and Peter Bottc 2.674 feet — but with the most ex-
traordinary outlines. The valleys contain a very rich soil,
and the climate is singularly fine, the heat seldom exceed-
ing 90'. The island is subject to visitation by the typhoons
of the Indian Ocean, which have several times been very
destructive; on .\pr. 20, 1892. a typh<H)n destroyed a third
of St, Louis, killing 1.200 persons. The island was cliscov-
ered in l.WT by the Portuguese, and colonized in 1598 by
the Dutch, who soon left it. In 1712 it was culunizcd a
second tinie by the F'rench. who kept it till 1810. when it
was taken by tlie British. As a British possession it has be-
come very flourishing; the value of its exports in 1891
amounted to 2;i,7U.'i,2;i8 rupees, or about |8,00(),000. Sugar
is the principal produce, cultivated by coolies who have
been brought from India for this purpose. Coffee and rice
are extensively cultivated. The soil is of great fertility.
The forests which once covered the island have mostly dis-
appeared. It has two railways from Port Louis, with a
total length of 92 miles. The colony of JIauritius includes
also the islands of Kodrigues, the Seychelles, Ainirantes.
Chagos. and Oil groups, and other smaller islands. Total
area, 881 sq. miles, with a population of 397,6:{7. The capi-
tal is St. Louis, on Mauritius ; pop. (1801) 62,04(5. The pop-
ulation of the colony is over two-thirds Hindu.
Revised by M. W. Harrisotox.
Maury, mow-ree'. Jcan Maria: poet; b. in Jlalaga,
Spain, in 1772 : d. in Paris, Oct. 2, 184.5. Educated in
France and England, he traveled in Italy, and then re-
turned to Spain to take part in the troublous aflfairs of the
period of the French occupation. Having espoused the
side of .Joseph Bonaparte, and served as deputy in the
Cortes of Bayonne, he was obliged to spend his last years
in exile in Paris. He published an epic in twelve cantos.
La agresiim bn'Idnica (Madrid, 1806; reprinted in vol.
xxix. of Kivadeneyra's liihlioteca de Auture/i Espailolex),
an anthology of .Spanish poetry with French translations
and comments ; L'E-tpagne poetique (2 vols., Paris. 1826-27) ;
the romantic and chivalric poem Esvero y Almetlora (Paris,
1840); and various fugitive poems and philological essays.
All these were collected and ])ublislie(l in the year of his
death, under the title Poesias casUllanas (3 vols., Valencia,
1845). See also vol. Ixvii. of Kivadeneyra's Bibliuteca, etc.
A. R. Marsh.
Maii'ry, Matthew Foxtaink, LL. I).: hydrographer; b.
in Spottsylvania co.. Va., Jan. 14, 1806; spent his childhood
in Tennessee ; entered the U. S. navy as midshipman Feb.
1, 1825, serving on board the Brandywine during its voyage
to France to convey La Fayette thither, and afterward on
the Pacific coast in the same vessel ; made a voyage around
the world in the Vincenncs, during which he began his
Treatise on Navigation (18;i5), which has since been a text-
book in the U. S. navy and a popular manual for the mer-
chant marine. He became lieutenant June 10. 18156. and
was appointed astronomer to the Wilkes exploring expedi-
tion in the same year, but resigned before sailing. In 18;i9
Lieut. Maury met with an accident which resulted in lame-
ness and a consequent permanent disability for active naval
service. While confined from this cause he wrote, under
the pseudonym Jlnrry Bluff, in 7V(« Southern Literary
Messenger, a series of articles entitled Scraps from the
Lucky Bag, chiefly devoted to the exposure of abuses in
the navy. He had previously begjin an accumulation of
hydrographical observations, and on being appointed keejicr
of charts and instruments at Washington was enabled to
enlarge the scope of his researches. In 1844 this bureau
was united with the National Observatory, of which ^laury
was made superintendent. In that year he communicateil
to the National Institute a paper upon the Gulf Stream and
other oceanic currents, in connection with great-circle sail-
ing, which was printed in The Southern Literary Messenger
under the title A Scheme for Rebuilding Southern Com-
merce. The results of these researches were also embodied
in The Wiiul and Current Charts and S<iiling Directions
issued by the observatory. At his suggestion the V. S. (Jov-
eminent took the initiative in convoking a general nuiritime
conference, which met at Brussels in Aug., 18.53, the chief
object of which was the adopticm of a common method of
hydrographical observation and registry, which was effected
by the adoption of a model for a log-biiok previously (184S)
prepared by him. In 1855 .Maury's great work. The Phijs-
tcal Geography of the Sea, was issued, and at once place<l liis
name at the head of the great scientific department of which
it treats. In 1855 he was made a commander, but resigned
in 1861 to enter the Confederate service, in which he ob-
tained the rank of commodore ; spent a year or two in Eu-
rope during the war, at the close of which he took service
under the Archduke Maximilian in Mexico as commissioner
of emigration. This position proving ephemeral, he again
went to Europe, where he resided until 1868, in Russia and
in England, engaged in the preparation of a series of text-
books. In 1868 he accepted the professorship of physics in
the Virghiia .Military Institute, declined in 1871 the presi-
dency of the University of Alabama, and died at Lexington,
Va., Feb. 1, 1873. See Mrs. Fontain Maury Corbiu, Life of
Matthew Fontaine Maury (London, 1888).
Revised by M. W. Harrington.
Manser (inn : See Mac.azine Gr.vs.
.Maiisolo'uni [=Lat. = Gr. imvaaiKtiov, liter., tomb of
Mausolus, deriv. of VlaiauKos, MausolusJ : the tomb of Mauso-
lus. Satrap and King of (aria; erected at Halicama-ssus by
Artemisia, his widow, in 353 B. c. It is often referred to
by ancient writers as one of the Seven Wonders of the world,
and it surpassed all other structures of the kind so much by
its magnificence that the name of mausoleum came to be the
generic term for a costly tomb. The architects were Satyrus
and Pythius; the artists who executed the sculptures of the
four sides were Scopas, Bryaxis, Tiraotheus, and Lcochares.
The sculptures are discussed in every liistory of Greek art.
Pliny gives a minute description of it. It remained standing
and in good condition until the twelfth century, but gradu-
ally it fell into decay. One part of it seems to have been
destroyed by an earthquake; when in 1402 the Knights of
Rhodes tooli possession of Halicarnassus, and built a castle
there, thev gathered their materials from the mausoleum, and
continued to use it as a quarry until 1522, when most of the
sculptures were converted into lime; finally, the Turks di.s-
turbed the building so completely that even the site of it was
forgotten. In 1857, however, the excavations of Newton,
undertaken under the auspices of the British Government,
brought to light the site and fundamental outlines of the
building, and so many fragments were found that it seems
possible to make a complete ideal reconstruction of the whole
structure. The sculptures, including the .statue of Mauso-
lus. unearthed by Newton, are now on exhibition in the Brit-
ish Museum.
Literature. — Newton, liistory of the Discoveries at Hali-
carnassus, Vnidus, and Branch idee (London, 1862-63), and
his Travels and Discoveries; Ross. KleinaMen und Deutsch-
land (Halle, 1850); Bulletin de Correspondance JJellenique,
xiv., pp. 9-118; Philologische Wochenschrift (1890). p. 1126.
Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Maiiso'lus (in Gr. Mouo-eoAos) : son of Hecatomnus, Per-
sian .Satrap of Caria. all of whose five children (three sons
an<l two daughters) ruled independently over Caria. Mau-
solus married his own sister. Artemisia, and succeeded his
father as Satrap of Caria, which he ruled for twenty-four
years. At that time the capital of Caria was Mylasa, from
which point Mausolus extended his power over Lycia, sev-
eral of the Grecian islands, and toward the N. His
wealth, gained by shrewd polities and violence, was said to
equal that of Creesus of old. He removed the seat of gov-
ernment to Halicarnassus. which he beautified and greatly
enlarged by colonizing it with the people of six neighboring
cities. He threw off the Persian yoke, supported the oli-
garchy in Rhodes, and induced Rhodes, Chios, etc., to revolt
from Athens. He was a patron of literature, art, and sci-
ence ; Eudoxus came to tne court of Mausolus, and upon
the latter's death, Artemisia offered a prize for the best
panegyric of him. Theodeetes. Nauerates, IsiK'ratcs, and
Theopompus competed for the prize, which was awarded to
Theopoinpus. Theodeetes wrote a tragedy entitled Mauso-
lus in his honor, the first historical tragedy ever written.
Mausolus was succeeded by his wife, Artemisia, who ruled
over Caria from 353-351 b. c. See Mausoleum.
J. R. S. Sterbett.
Mansion : city; capital of Juneau co.. Wis. (for location of
county, see man of \\ is<'onsin. ref. 6-I>): on the Lemonwcir
river, and the C'hi., Mil. anil .St. P. Railway ; 124 miles W. of
.Milwaukee. It has abundant water-power, several flour and
grist mills, foundry and machine-shops, sawmills, barrel and
carriage factories, and three weekly newspapers. Pop. (18,80)
1,013 :' (1890) 1,343 ; (1895) 1,547. ' Editor ok " Star."
Maiithnpr. mowtner, Ludwio, M. I>. : ophthalmologist;
b. at Prague, Bohemia, .\pr. 13. 1840; graduated M. D.,
University of Vienna, in 1861; was docent for diseases of
024
MAUTIINER
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
the eye 18<l4-6!t; was Professor of OphllialnioloKy at the
l'iii%'iTsily vif liiiisl)riu-k from 1S6!»-T7; in 1IS77 accopteil
the same iOiair in Vienna, lie has hoen an anient stuilcnt
in his special (ield. Anions; his works are Lrhrbiich der
(/, ' ■ (Vienna, INtlH); YurhKiinyrn ulier die op-
r 3 Auyeii (Vienna, ISV2): Die Lehie vum
t, .., -,,. S. T. AllMSTKUXU.
MlUlthlli'r, lifDWIG WlLlIELM HiTTKK VOX MaITHSTKIX,
M. 1). : i>;e.liatrist : b. at Kaab. Anstria, Oet. 14. IHltti : slnil-
ie<l in Vienna, srailnatiii"; M. 1). in ISJl : entered the niedi-
cal corps of the .Austrian army as Oherfeldarzt, ami was
promoted /{eyimeii/sarzt for his services in a cholera and
typhus epidemic in the military hospital; in 18H7 settled
iii Vienna, devotin;; himself to diseases of children, and,
with the assi>tance of the empress, founded the St. Anne
Hospital. In ls44 he openeil the lirst clinic for children's
iliseases. In 1S50 he was made Professor of Pa'diatrics at
the university. In 1849 he was elevated to the nobility.
llis best-known works are Die A'ninkheilen des Oehirns
und Kuckenmarks bei Kindern (N'ienna, 1844); Kinder-
DiStetik (Vienna, ISoJ). D. Apr. 8, 1858.
S. T. ARMSTKO.Nli.
Maiivalsps Ti'rres. niii vaztar': See Bad-lands.
Muvors : See Maks.
Mavrocnrdn'tos. .Alexander : soldierand statesman; the
noblest anil the most prominent lijiure of the lireek revolu-
tion, "the \Vashin;.'ton of mmlern tireece"; b. in Constan-
tinople. Feb. 11. 1791. He received n careful education; in
1817, as secretary of liis uncle, John Caradja, hospodar of
Wallaohia, he went to Bucharest. There he learned diplo-
macv. A natural linguist, he early mastered Greek, Turk-
ish, I'ersian. French, and Italian, and later acquired Kng-
lish and lierman. Ardently patriotic, he declined the flat-
tering oilers matle him by Alexander I. of Russia, and de-
voted himself to Greece in the revolution just beginning
against the Ottoman Government. He expended his entire
fortune in eipiipping a vessel and arming volunteers. Ap-
pointed president of the executive council, he signed the
proclamation of Greek independence and drew up the pro-
visional Greek constitution. Factional dissensions were
paralyzing the efforts of the Greeks, and he resigned his
olli<e, hoping that thus he might contribute to harmony.
Loril Byron realized his worth and offered the Greeks
i'4.(KlO sterling toward the expenses of the war if they
would place him again at the head of affairs. As a soldier
Mavrocordatos rendered distinguished service in several
battles, and at the defense of Missolcmghi, Navarino, and
Sphacteria. After the imh'pendence of Greece was ac-
knowledgeil. he was head of the ministries of 183:', 1841,
1844, and 18.54, and in the intervals filled various positions
as ambassador, lie was active in promoting popular edu-
cation. He belonged to the British in distinction from the
Russian party. I). Aug. 18, 1865. E. A. Gkosvenor.
Manre, .loiix : mineralogist ; b. in Derbyshire, Kngland, in
1764. In 1804 he went to the Kio de la Plata ; was impris-
oned at Montevideo as a British spy, and after his release
was attached to Whitelock's staff in the campaign against
Buenos Ayres. From 1807 to 18U he traveled in Brazil,
where he wius given the privilege — at that time rare — of vis-
iting the gold ancl diamond mines, llis Trtnelx in the In-
lertor of lirmit, etc. (1812), hail a wide circulation, and has
been several times rcprinleil. He also published The Min-
eraluyijof DerbtjHhire (1802) ; Diamonds and I'recious Slones
(1813), etc. In his later years he was a noted practical min-
eralogist in London, where he died Oct. 26, 1829. II. 11. S.
Max. (!aiiriki. : historii'al, genre, and portrait painter; b.
at Prague. Bohemia, Aug. 25, 1840. He stu<lied at the
Prague and Vierimi .Acadiiuiis and with Piloty in Munich;
became professor in the .Alunich .Aca<lemy in 1883. and has
received various medals at German exhibitions. His ('lirist
lleulinn a Child (1884) is in the National Gallerv. Berlin,
and The Lout Token (1874) is in the Wolfe collection,
Metropolitan Museum, New York. Studio in .Munich.
W. A. C.
.Maxon'tiiis. Marci-s Ai'rei.iis A'ai.kriis: Roman em-
peror (3(16-312); son of Maximianus, son-in-law of Galerius,
and l)rolhi'r-in-law of ("onslanline. On the division of the
empire in 305 he received nothing, but was made emperor
by an insurrection at Rome the following year. Of the
rival emper<irs, he put Severus to ileath, defeated Alexander
in Africa, and Imnisheil his father .Maximianus. Soon, how-
ever, he declared war against Conslantine, alleging as his
rca-son that Constanline had caused the death of Maximia-
nus. Defeated at the battle of .Saxa Rubra, he endeavored
to reach Rome, but was drowned in the Tiber at the .Milvian
bridge, Oct. 27, 312. E. A. Gkosve.nor.
Maxfleld. Thomas: preacher; b. in Englaiul about 1720;
was one ol Wesley's converts at Bristol, and subsei|uently
was appointed " to |)ray and expound the Scriptures, but not
to preach." at the Foundry church. London, during Wesley's
absence. In contravention to his instructions he soon began
to preach with great fervency and success, anil Wesley, after
hearing oiu! of hiis sermons, gave him permission to preach.
He thus became the lirst .Methodist itinerant lay-preacher.
Later he was ordained liy the Bishop of Londonuerry, at-
tended the first Jlelhodist conference at the Foundry June
25, 1744, and the third conference at Bristol 1746: suffered
imprisonment and pei'secution ; became separated from
Wesley about 1704, in conseipience of a doctrinal schism,
and in company with Bell set up a congregation with 170
inendiers. who seceded from the Foundry church. He
preached for twenty years longer, and was visited and com-
forted by Wesley many years later when sinking under
paralysis. D. at London in 1785. Revised by A. Osborn.
MaxMniii and Miii'iina [Lat., ncut. plurs. of mn'ximus,
greatest, supirl. of mii;/ nii.-<, great, and tni nimus, least,
snuillest. superl. oi /uir'rii.i. small]: a function of a single
variable is at a iniixiinum state when it is greater than the
states that imnicdialely precede and follow it; it is at a
niinimiini state when it is less than the states that im-
mediately precede and follow it. The terms greater and
less are to be understood in their algebraic sense; that is,
greater means nearer to + cc , and less means nearer to — « .
It may be shown that every function of one variable may be
represented by the ordinate of some curve of which the inde-
pendent variable is the corresponding abscissa; this curve is
called the curve of tlie rmiction. It may also be sliown that
the value of the first dilVerential coefficient of the function
for any value of the variable is etjual to the tangent of the
angle which a tangent line to the curve of the function, at
the corresponding point, makes with the axis of abscissas.
The tangent of this angle is called the alopeoi the curve.
Let a<]>r be the curve of any function, referred to the axes
OX and () )', and suppose the ordiiiatc Bb to be grcatcrthan
Aa and Cc, AB and BV each
being eiiual to dx ; also sup-
pose that the ordinate (Jq is less
than I'p and Br, PQ and QR
being equal to d.r; then is Bb
a maximum and (^k| a mini-
mum, the former cori'es|>nnding
to the abscissa OB and the lat-
ter to the abscissa Ul^. An ex-
amination of the figure shows
that a tangent to the curve at a slopes uiiward, and that a
tangent at c slopes downward ; in the former case the first
differential coefficient is + just before reaching a maxi-
mum ordinate, and — just after passing it ; that is, it changes
sign from + to — in jiassing over a maximum. In like man-
ner the first ililTeiviilial coenicieiit changes from — to -f in
passing over a mininium ordinate. In the case represented
in the ligure the differential coetficient corresponding both
to a maxinuim and to a minimum is equal to 0. From what
precedes we have the following rule for finding all the maxi-
mum and minimum slates of any funclioii of one variable:
Rule. Find I he lirsl differential coefficient of the function,
place it equal to 0, and solve the resulting equal ions with
respect to the independent varialile. The values thus found
will embrace all thai correspond either to maximum or niin-
iiiiuni values of the function, and they may embrace other
values. Then test each value by forming the second deriva-
tive of the function, and subslituting in it the values of x,
which reduce the first derivalive to zero. If the result is
positive, the function is a ynininium for this special value of
x; if negalive, a maximum. If zero, we must proceed as
follows: ,Sul)stitute each root in the successive ilifferential
coefficients of the fuiution unlil one is found thai does not
reduce to 0; if this is of an even order and net/atire, the
root corresponds to a maximum, but if it is of an even order
and pngilive, the root corresjionds to a minimum. In all
other cases the root corresponds to neither a maximum nor
a minimum. Thus in the first example above given the
second differential coefficient is + 2. which is posilivc for all
values of x ; hence j- =: U eonesponds lo a minimum.
lievised by S. NewcoMB.
MAX I MIAN II.
MAXIMILIAN
625
Maxiniian II. : Soc Galerius.
Maxiiiiia'iiiiH: a Latin poet from Etruria of the sixth
century, by v. Iiom six love elegies, fniituiiiinK in all 080
lines, lire extant. AltlimiKli niarkeil by oecaMDnal coarse-
ncs.<, the latif;iia!,'e anil meter is fur tlie period exie|iticinally
gooii, ami the authnr slinws ae(|uuinlanee with earlier ele>;iae
and lyric poets and with Vergil. The best edition is by M.
Petsc'iienig (ISerlin, IMitO). See also articles by Robinson
Ellis On the Eli-gita of MaximianuK in The American Jour-
nal of I'liiloUxjij. vol. v., 1-15 and \A')-\*i.i. M. Wakhe.v.
MaxiiniriiUi I.: Emperor of Germany; b. at Xenstadt,
near Viiiiiia. .Mar. 2"2, 115!); sueeeeded his father, Frederick
IIL, as Emperor of Germany in 14!>;}. Many of the most
prominent events of his history are more or less intimately
connected with his marriages and those of his children.
After the death of Charles the Bold in 1477, he married the
letter's daughter and sole heiress, .Mary, thus securing Hur-
gundy for his house. Mary died in 1482, and in 14!(:! .Maxi-
milian married Hianca Sforxa, a daughter of Galeazzo JIaria,
Duke of Milan, who had been niurdi're<i in 1470. This mar-
riage involved him in wars with Venice, Milan, the pope,
Naples, France, and Spain. His participation, however, in
the League of Cambray and in tlie Holy League, and his
many Italian campaigns, were not of much consequence;
nor was he successful in his attempt to hohl Switzerland
within the empire. He always lacked money and could
form only a small and inelfective army. He was, however,
most successful in aggrandizing the house of Austria.
The marriage of his son Philip with the Infanta Joanna
in 1400 united Spain to the pos.sessions of the house of
Hapsburg. and he laid the, foundation for the annexation
of Hungary to the Austrian crown by marrying his grand-
children into the royal family of that country. He died at
Wels, Upper Austria. Jan. 12, 1519. His government of
Germany showeil his desire to escape from the anarchv and
confusion that had marked the government of his predeces-
sors. In his first diet, 14!)5, a periietual national peace was
decreed, putting an end to the iirivalc war within the em-
pire. In the same year he established the imperial cham-
ber (/ffic/i.sAnnjmerviTicA/). an<i in 15U1 the imperial Aulic
council, insuring a higher degree of public security through-
out the realm. See Ulniann, Kaiser Maximilian I. (1884);
Kirchleehner. Maximilian I. ah Jdger (1887); and Adier,
Die Organisation der Zentralcerwaltung unter Kaiser Maxi-
milian I. (1880). F. M. Colby.
Maximilian II.: Emperor of Germany; b. in Vienna,
Aug. I, 1527; succeeded his father, Ferdinand I., as emperor
in 1564. Although he hail spent .several years at the court
of Madrid, he wa.s favorable to the Reformation, and it was
even hoped that he might join the Protestant Church. This,
however, he did not do. but he .showed himself very tolerant.
Protestants were appointed to government offices in Austria,
and the evangelical theologian, Chvtneus. from Rostock,
was called to V'ienna to arrange the I'rotestant service. Gn
the other hand, he allowed the Jesuits free scope for their
activitv. and thev gained great influence even in his own
family! I). Oct. 12. 1570.
Maximilian. Fkrdi.sani) Maximilian Joseph: Archduke
of .Austria, and during three years Emperor of .Mexico; b.
in Vii-nna. July 0, 1n;!2. He was the second son of the -Vrch-
duke Franz Karl, and brother of Franz Josef who became
Bmix-ror of Austria in 1848; was carefully educated ; entered
the navy in 1840. and in 1854 became rear-admiral and com-
mander-in-chief. In 18.56 he visited Napoleon III. in Paris,
and the iiitiinacy then formed led to the most important re-
sults. In 1857 he married Marie Charlotte .\melie, daughter
of King Leopold 1. of Hclgiuin, and for the next two years
was Viceroy of Loinbanlv and Venice, where he gained great
and deserved honor for his enlightened measures. After a
visit to Madeira and Brazil he took up his residence at the
palace of Miramar, near Trieste. His great popularity led
to intrigues for placing him on the Austrian throne by rev-
olutionary means, but these came to nothing. Late in
1861 aeombined French, .Spanish, and British force invaded
Mexico, ostensilily to secure the rights ot foreign creditors
of that country; but it is now known that Napoleon III.
contemplated from the first the establishment of a Mexican
empire under French protection, and it is probable that the
Archduke .Maximilian was even then cognizant of the scheme.
and had secretly agreed to accept the Mexican throne under
certain conditions. Great Britain and Spain, .so far as
known, gave no countenance to the olot. and their forces
were soon wit hdrawii from Mexico. '1 he French, at first re-
266
pulsed from Puebla (May 5. 1862). eventually took that place
anil Mexico (May-.Iune. 186:J). and establisheil a provisional
government. President Juarez was driven into the northern
states. Disgusted by the endless civil wars and despairing
of a stable government of their own, a large and influential
portion of the people looked to the restoration of an em-
pire under the rule of a foreigner as the only way out of
their diflicultics. In July, 186:i, an assembly of notables
offered the imperial crown to .Maximilian, who after some
hesitation accepted it A(>r. 10. 1804. .Maximilian was obliged
by his new position to abdicate his rights of succession to
the .Austrian throne. He was given a.ssuranee from France
of aid to estaljlisli his empire on a solid basis, and this was
Vjacked by a loan for immediate needs. Austrian and Belgian
legions were formed ; and after receiving the pope's blessing
he and his wife set out for Mexico, landing at Vera Cruz
May 28, 1864. Thev were welcomed at Cordoija, <Jrizabft,
Puebla. and especially at Mexico with great afiparent en-
thusiasm. In Apr.. 1865. a provisional constitution was
granted, and to insure succession to the throne (Maximilian
and Carlota being childless) they adopted the infant grand-
son of the ex-Emperor Iturbide. The very independence
shown by Maximilian tended to alienate political support.
While his friends were falling away from him, his open ene-
mies, who still held out in the north under Juarez, were
gathering force, and they were su[iported by guerrilla bands
in almost every state. Juarez having been driven over the
frontier, Maximilian issued a decree (Oct. 2, 1805), in which
he declared that no further legal pretense existed for re-
sistance to the empire, and insurgents would henceforth be
treated as bandits and executed. This decree was no more
severe than various others which appeared during the civil
wars in Mexico; but, coming from a foreigner, it raised a
storm of indignation, the more so as advantage was taken of
it soon after to execute some republican prisoners of rank.
The evident favor which the emperor showed to French offi-
cers also excited much criticism ; an instance occurred at the
marriage of Marshal Bazaine to a Mexican lady, when he was
presented with government property to the value of ^100,000.
The U. S., while professing and maintaining neutrality be-
tween the Mexican factions, steadily refused to recognize the
empire so long as it was supported by F'lance; moreover, it
could not prevent the sympathy and financial su|)i)ort given
by its people to the republicans. As soon as the close of the
civil war left it free to act, the Washington Government in-
timated through its minister at Paris that the presence of
French troops in Mexico was distasteful; this %vas empha-
sized by a significant ma.ssing of U. S. forces in Texas (July-
Aug.. 1865). After a number of diplomatic notes had been
exchanged, .Secretary Seward insisted (Feb. 12, 1866) that
the French forces should be withdrawn, and to this Napoleon
III. finally acceded, though in doing so he directly violated
his agreement with Maximilian. In Mar., 1867, the last
French troops left Vera Cruz. Long before this the repub-
licans had been regaining ground in the north, and the im-
perial government, without any real support, was placed in
great straits by its ruinous financial measures. Maximilian,
plainly seeing that his throne could not stand alone, was on
the point of resigning, a step which Bazaine himself had
advised before he left ; but the representations of the church-
men and politicians and an exaggerated sense of honor in-
duced him to remain. In Feb.. 1807, he took personal com-
mand of the army at Querctaro. Miramon, Marnuez, Mejia,
and .Arellano being his principal lieutenants. The city was
speedily invested by a republican army under Escobedo, and
after a long siege and several bloody assaults it fell, partly
through the treachery of an imperialist officer. Jlaximilian,
scornfully refusing opportunities for escape, surrendered
Mav 15. He was tried by a court martial and condemned
to death with his principal officers; all efforts to obtain a
reprieve or pardon were refused on the ground that he
had forfeited indulgence by his severe decree against the
Juarists; and he was shot at Qiieretaro, with his generals
Miramon and Mejia, June 19.1867. He met his fate with
his usual chivalric courage. The ex-emperor's remains were
surrendered to his family in the following year, and were
buried with impressive ceremonies in the cathedral at Vi-
enna. Jan. 18, 1868.— His wife, Charlotte Marie Amelie
(called Carlota by the Mexicans), w.is born at Brussels, June
7, 1840, and niarri'eil July 27. 1857. In Mexico she was noted
for her support of charitable measures, as well as for her
winning manners; she strongly oii|Hiseil sanguinary meas-
ures. In .luly. 1806. she went to France in the vain hope of
inducing Na]>oleon III. to continue his support of Maximil-
C2G
MAXIM IX IS
MAY
ian. The French ctii|ior<ir rcfciveil her coldly, refused, al-
most with insult, to fulfill his |iled!;es, and finally dismissed
her, it is saiil, by iiskiuf; what route she preferred to take
out of Kranoe. Variola then went to Rome to seek the in-
tervention of the jiope. but received no eneouragement, ami
her disappointment and foreboilinjfs brouijht on an attack
of brain fever which left her ho|H.'lessly insane. .She was
not informed of her husband's death. 'Taken to Miraniar
and thence to Hrussels. she has been kept in strict seclu-
sion. S<'e Bancroft, Jlislory uf the Pacific Slates : Mexico
(vol. vi.. 1888) ; Keratrv, Kaiser .}faximili(in's Eriiebnng iind
Fall (186.S) : Salm-Salin. Mi/ Diary in Mexico (18G8) : Hall,
Life of Maximilian I. (1808) ; Arangoiz, Alaman. aiul other
Mexican historians. 11. U. t^MITU.
Ma\iiui'iiii8. Caius Jilius Veris: Roman emperor
from i;jj to a;J8: b. in the latter part of the second century,
of barbarian parentage; attracted the attention of .Sefitimius
Severus by his strength ami gigantic stature; was allowed
to enlist iii the cavalry, and was promoted by Oiracalla ; en-
joyed the confiilence of .Alexander Severus, who intrusted
liira with the organization of a corps of soldiers destined for
an invasion of Germany, and was proclaimed emperor by
this army on the assassination of Severus. His canipaigns
against the Germans were successful, but his suspicion, ra-
pacitv, and cruelty knew no bounds. An insurrection in
Africa and the svn'ipatliv it found in Italy threw him into a
fit of frenzy. He hastened across the Julian Alps, but w'as
stopped at'Anuileia, and while besieging this city was killed
by nis own soldiers and his head sent to Rome.
Maxims. Logul : brief and epigrammatic expressions of
general principles, either of justice, expediency, or policy,
winch, in their applii'ation by tlic courts to the innumerable
varieties of facts and circumstances brought before them in
judicial controversies, have furnislied special rules for the
decision of such disputes. These statements fulfill the same
oflice for courts and lawyers which the ordinary popular
proverbs have subserved for the community at large. It is
impossible in most cases to trace them to their immediate
authors. A considerable number came to us from the writ-
ings of Roman juri.sts; others were struck out and put into
a permanent sh.ipe by the genius of some old English judge,
and since they were either thus taken directly from the re-
positories of the Roman law. or else were invented during
that ancient period of English history in which the Latin
was the common tongue of all learned men. and especially
of courts and judicial proceedings, they are all expressed in
that language. They arc verv numerous, there being in all
about IJ.OiM), many of which. )iowcver. are now of no impi>r-
tance. The range of particular subjects over which they ex-
tend is also very wide, reaching from the principles funda-
mental to the science of government on the one hand, to
those relating to the practical details and affairs of every-
day life and the common rights and duties of pei-son,
property, and contract, on the other. See Broom's Legal
Maxims and Noy's Maxims.
lie vised by P. Sturges Allen.
Maxiiniim .Alloys: .See Bronze (Bronze-brass alloys).
Maxwell. .Iamks Clerk, LL. I)., F. R. S. : physicist ; b. at
E<linbnr>,'h, S(;otland, .lune lU, 18;il ; educated at the Acade-
my and I'niversity of Edinburgh; graduated at Cambridge
lf<54; Professor of Natural Philosophy in -Marischal College.
Aberdeen, 1836-60, and at King's College, London, 1860-65,
and became in 1871 Professor of Experimental Physics at
Cambriilge. U. Nov. ."5. 187!t. His writings on physics are
of a verv high order, and include an Kssay on the Stabilily
of the Motion of Saturn's /{int/s (18.5!)), Theory of Ileal
(1871), ami a Treatise on Eleclricily and Magnetism \'i vols.,
187H). The hust is the crowning work of his life, and is re-
parde<l as a classic on the subject of which it treats. By
introducing the conireption of a strain of a medium he con-
structed a theory of electricity in which the mysterious and
unmeaning" action at a distance " has no place. He also de-
voted attention to the perception of color, and was the first
to make color-sensation the sulijecl of measurement. He
made many investigations on the kinetic theory of gases; he
discovere<l that viscous Muids, while yielding to stress, pos-
sess doulile refraction, and he published a great number of
papers cm other subjects. He took a prominent part in
the construction of the British -Vssociation unit of electrical
ri'sistance, ami in the writing of its reports on the subject.
It may \m- said that the hi^jh position accoriled to the study
of physics at Camliridge is almost entirely due to his im-
pulse.' His Scientific Papers were edited by W. D. Nivon
(8 vols., Cambridge. 1890), and his Life has been written by
L. Campbell and \V. Garnett (1882). '
Revised by R. A. Roberts.
Miixwcll, Marv Elizabeth (Jiraildon): novelist, whose
psi'udonym is M. E. liraddon ; b. in London in 18;{7. She
IS the author of several plays and about sixty novels, some
of which have passed thnaigh many editions, and is the
editor of Tlie Mixlletoe hough, a Christmas annual. She
was married in 1874 to John .Maxwell, a London publisher
(d. .Mar. ;iO, 1811.5). Among the most popular of her novels
are Ladi/ Aiidlii/'s S«'cre/(1862): Aurora Floi/d (mv.i): The
Loveh of Ardeii (W;\)\ Ishmael (liSSA); and t)ne Life. One
Lore (18110). H. A. Beers.
Maxwell. William Hamilton: author: b. at Newry,
Ireland, in 17;»4; graduated with honors at Trinity College,
Dublin: studied theology; took orders in the Church of
England, and in 1820 was presented with the prebend and
reclorv of Ballagh in Connaught. As there was not a sin-
gle Protestant iii the parish, tlie rector enjoyed abundant
leisure, which he devoted to field-sports and to literature,
lie wrote many successful sketches of country life and ad-
venture, and was the chief originator of the school of mili-
tary novels. Among his numerous works were Stories of
Waterloo (182!l); Stories of the Peninsular War (18;!7);
Victories of the British Army (183'J) : Rambling lierullec-
lions of a Soldier of Fortune (1842); The Fortunes of Hec-
tor O'llaltoran (1844); and History of the Rebellion »» Ire-
land in 179S (IWiJ). Maxwell was a frequent contributor
to Bentley's Miscellany tind to The Dublin University Maga-
zine. I). Dec. 21), 18.^0. See biographical sketch prefixed
to Rambling Recollections.
Maxwell. Sir William Stikling, Bart., LL. T). : b. at
Keniiuire, near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1818; was known by
the name of Stirling until 1866, when by the death of Sir
John Maxwell, his maternal uncle, he succeeded to a baro-
netcy, and assumed the name of Maxwell. He graduated
at Cambridge (183!)). and devoted several years of residence
and research in Spain and France to the history, literature,
and art of Spain at the close of the media>val period. He
was the author of the valuable works. Annals of the Artists
of Spain (3 vols., 1848), Cloister Life of Charles V. (1852),
and Velasiiuez and his Worlds (1835); was elected to Par-
liament lor Perthshire 1852. and represented that borough
most of the time for more than twenty years; was rector of
the University of St. Andrews 1863, of' that of PMinburgh
1872, and elected chancellor of that of Glasgow Apr. 28,
187.5. D. in Venice, Jan. 15, 1878.
May [from Lat. Maius (sc. men'sis, month), liter., month
of J/rt('(/ (=(ir. MoTo), daughter of Atlas, and mother of
Mercury by Jupiter] : the fifth month of the year in the
Gregorian calendar, consisting of lliirty-one days, was by
the ancient Saxons called threo-meolee. three-milk month,
because in this season cows were milked three times a day.
During the Middle Ages the inonlh of Jlay was generally
ushered in by some popular merriment, but it is not clear
whether this custom, which was found among all European
nations, had any connection with the Roman festival of
Floralia, beginning Apr. 28 and continuing for several
days, or whether it sprang up spontaneously from joyous
feelings on the arrival or approach of spring. In England
the going out a-Maying was a very common custom in for-
mer days; Chaucer and Slmkspeare mention it; Henry
VIII. and Queen Catharine of Aragon followed it. On May
1, before sunrise, all the young folks repaired to the groves
to gather flowers and branches with young foliage. With
these the doors and windows of the houses and the Maypole
of the village were adorned, ami I he day was spent in danc-
ing around the pole. To preside at the festival a queen of
May. the most beautiful girl of the village, was chosen in
England ; in Germany, a count of May, the wittiest and
handsomest youth ; and the life at court and in the castle
was imitated in the village streets by the peasants, jirobably
not altogether without satire. Willi the Puritans the Maypoles
and all the merriment connected with them ilisappearcd in
England. In Germany and Scandinavia the custom is
dying out, (hough in Hcnmark the pea-sanls still turn out
on May 1 early in the morning to see "the sun dance," and
in .Stockholm great popular rejoicings take place in Djur-
gArden. In the Highlands of Scotland the day was for-
merly celebrated as liel-Uin day; a fire was made, and cer-
tain ceremonies were performed which were supposed to
have hail a reference to the worship of Baal, who was re-
garded as a personification of the sun. In Vienna the cm-
MAY
MAYAS
627
poror. the empress, ami the court drive lliroujrii the Prater,
and tlie whole city turns out to look at the spectacle.
May. KowARU IIarkIoO.v: figure and portrait painter; b.
in Kngland in \X2'.i ; was taken l>y his parents to the U. S.
in 18;54, and became a pupil of Daniel Huntington in New
York; entered the studio of Couture in I'aris in IK.jl, and
resided thereafter in Europe, chiefly in Paris, where he was
a regular contributor to the annual salons, and received
several medals. The Dying Brigand is in the Philadelphia
Academy of Fine Arts, and portraits of Count Gaspurin and
LaboulaVe are in the Union Club, Xew York city. I), in
Paris, May 17, 1»87. William A. T'ofkix.
May. John Wilder: lawyer; b. in .\ttloboro, Mass., Jan.
lit, iniu ; was educated at Pliillips Academy, Andover, Mass.,
and at the University of Vermont, from which university
he grailuated in 1846; studied law, and practiced in Ro.x-
bury and Boston most of the remainder of his life; was
district attorney of the County of Suffolk (including the
city of Boston) for si.\ years, and subsequently chief justice
of the municioal court' of the city of Boston, which latter
position he held at his death in Boston, Jan. 11, 18S3. He
edited Angell on Limitations, Greenleaf on Eridence, and
aiephen's Digest of Evidence, and was the author of The
Law of Crimes (Boston, 18«1) and The Law of Insurance
as Applied to Fire, Life, Accident, Guarantee, and other
yon-maritime Riska (Boston, 1873; 3d ed. 1891).
F. Stl-rges Alle.v.
Mar, Samuel, A. M. : reformer; a cousin of Rev. Samuel
Joseph -May; b. in Boston, Mass., Apr. 11, 1810; graduated
at Harvard in 1829; was pastor of a Unitarian church at
Leicester, Mass., 1834—46; was general agent and corre-
sponiling secretary of the Mas.sachusetts Anti-Slavery So-
ciety 1847-61, and for a part of this time held the same
ollices in the American Anti-Slavery Society; was secretary
and agent of the committee which raised a national testi-
monial of $30,000 for William Lloyd Garrison; was a mem-
ber of the Slate Legislature in 1875. After the termina-
tion of his ministry he made Leicester his home. Mr. May
contributed for many years to The Liberator and Anti-Slav-
ery Standard. He published The Fugitive Slave Law
and its Victims, and in the Memoir of James Freeman
Clarke an elaborate chapter on his anti-slavery work.
May, Samtel Joseph: reformer: b. in Boston, Mass.,
Sept. 12, 1797; graduated at Harvard College in the ehuss
of 1817; studied forthe ministry; was ordained in Chauncy
Place church. Boston, Mar. 14, 1822 ; was settled immedi-
ately at Brooklyn, Conn. ; was installed pastor of a church
at South Scituate Oct. 26, 1836 ; in 1842 acccpteil the charge
of the State Normal School at Lexington : in 1845 removed
to Syracuse, X. Y., to become pa.stor of the Unitarian Society
there, and remained till his death July 1, 1H7I. His health
became so feeble that in the autumn of 1867 he resigned his
ministry, but became a missionary throughout Central New
York for the American Unitarian Association. Mr. May
was one of the first and one of the most uncompromising
advocates of the abolition of slavery, an ardent and enlight-
ened philanthropist. As a writer he is chiefly known by a
series of papers recording his liecollections of the Anti-
Slavery Conflict. A memoir of Mr. May, prepared by T. J.
Mumford, was published in Boston in 1873.
May, Thomas : historian and poet ; b. at Mayflcld, Sussex,
Englaml, in 1.VJ4 ; was educated at Sidney-Sussex College,
Cambridge, and graduated 1612; began the study of law at
(tray's Inu, London, but was never admitted to the bar; in-
herited a considerable estate on the death of his father. Sir
Thomas May (1616), when he began to figure at court and
in literary circles as a wit and a brilliant genius; became a
favorite of Charles L ; published poeticiu translations of
Vergil's Oenrgics (1622) and Lucan's Pharsalia (16271, to
which he added a Continuation (1630), also in verse, bring-
ing the history down to the death of Caesar, and afterward
translated this continuation into Latin hexameters, pub-
lished under the title Supplementum Lucani Libri ] IIL
(Leyden, 1640; frequently reprinted). During his period of
favor at court he produced five dramas, ami by reipiest of
Charles I. wrote the historical p<X'ms, The lieign of King
Henry IL (16:53) and 7'he Victorious lieign of King Kd-
vard III. (1635). For some unknown reason. May aban-
doned the royal cause at the outbreak of the great rebellion,
offered his services to the " Long Parliament," and obtained
thp double oflice of secretarv and historiographer. In the
latter capacity he published ^he History of the Parliament
of England which began Nov. 3, IO4O ; with a Short and
S'ecfssary View of some I^ecedent Years ; published by
authority (1647), which concludes with the battle of New-
bury ill 1643: in a Latin translation May brought down the
narrative to the death of Charles I., and afterward wrote
an English epitome with the title A Brevian/ of the His-
tory of tilt; Parliament of England (1650). May was also
the author of several |)olitical tract.s, translated by rei|uest
of Charles I. the poetical portions of John Barclay's fa-
mous allegorical romance, the Argenia (1628), and left in
MS.S. a tragedy entitled Julius Ciesar. D. in London, Nov.
13. 1650. Revised by H. A. Beers.
May, Sir Thomas Ekskixe. Baron Farnborough ; jurist
and historian; li. in England in 1815; wjis educated at Bed-
ford School; entered the civil service of the crow^n in 1831
as assistant librarian of the House of Commons; was calleil
to the bar at the Midille Temple 1838 ; published A Treatise
on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and i'sage of Parties-
menl (1844), which wjis adopted as a parliamentary text-
book, and as such translated into German aud Hungarian ;
reduced to writing for the first time in 18.54 the Rules, Or-
ders, and Forms of Proceeding of the House of Commons,
adopted and printed by command of the House ; wrote other
tracts on legal and parliamentary subjects; contributed
biographies and articles on political economy to The Penny
Cyclopiedia, and published a Constitutional History of
England since the Accession of George IIL (3 vols., 1861-
63; 3d ed., revised, 1871), reprinted in the U. S. and trans-
lated into French and German. He continued more than
forty yeai-s in the service of the House of Commons in dif-
ferent capacities ; was knighted 1866; became clerk of the
House 1871 ; retired from office in 1886, and soon after was
raised to the peerage as Baron Farnborough. His last work
was Democracy in Europe : a History (2 vols., 1877). .D.
May 18, 1886.
Mayii: a Sanskrit term employed in different senses in
the Puranic mythology, in the Buddhistic legends, in the
Vedanta philosophy, and in some of the modern sectarian
theologies of India. Originally it was the name of a god-
dess, the wife of Brahma, who, through her, created the uni-
verse; hence when the universe came to be regarded as un-
real, its creation was necessarily the work of illusion, which
being personified in the goddess, her name became in lato
Sanskrit a synonym for " illusion," and it has preserveil
nearly the same mythical sense in the modern theologies.
Gautama the Buddha \ifas the son of JIaya, wife of the
Prince of the .Sakyas. See Bcdduism and Gautama.
Maya^iicz, maa-yaa'goo-ath : a town and port of call of
the Spanish island of Puerto Rico, West Indies; on a bay
of the west coast ; 70 miles W. S. \V. of San Juan (see map
of West Indies, ref. 6-J). The harbor is large and shallow,
steamers anchoring a mile from the shore. The principal
exports are coffee and oranges. Pop. 12,000. II. U. S.
Maynpan : See Central American- Axtiquitie.s.
May-apple: the common name of a perennial herb, in-
digenous to the U. S. (the Podophyllum peltatum), once re-
ferred to the Ranuncxtlacece, or thought to lie the type of a
separate natural order, now recognized as belonging to the
BerberidacecF. It has also received the name of mandrake,
but improperly. From a perennial creeping rhizome a slen-
der stem about a foot high rises, which forks near the top
into two petioles, each surmounted by a large peltate leaf.
At the crotch of the division appears a solitary white flower.
The fruit of the may-apple is yellowish and fleshy, and
about the size of a pigeon's egg. It is somewhat acid and
mawkish in flavor, but may be eaten freelv. The dried rhi-
zome constitutes the tirug podophyllum. Its virtues depend
on a duplex resin improperly called podophyllin, which is
obtained in the form of a light brownish-yellow powder.
This resin is a rough and harsh drastic purgative, which
seems, like calomel, to include the upper part of the small
intestine in its action, and thus to bring away a good deal
of bile in the dejections. Hence it has been called "vegeta-
ble mercury." In overdose, like all the drastic cathartics, it
may cause si-rioiis irritation, and even inflammation of the
intestinal canal, with severe purging, nausea, and vomiting.
Resin of podophyllum is used in small dose in many diges-
tive derangements with constipation and clay-<'olorcu stools,
and in full dose as an active purge. In the latter case some
anotlyne extract is commonly combined with it to correct
the griping. Reviseil by H. A. Hare.
Mayas: Sec Inoia>'s of Ce.ntral America.
628
MAY-Ul'G
Majr-bii^: Soe C'ockchafkr.
May. Ciipo: Sfc C'afk May.
Majcnfc: See Mentz.
Mayi'iiiiP, mien : department of Franco, in llie basin of
tlie Loiri.-, along: the Mayenne. Area, l.lf'JO sq. miles. Tlie
erounil is a plain, swelling lowani the S. E. into a ranf»o of
low liill.s. The soil is fertile, produeinj; prain, flax, hemp,
ami apples, ami yieUlinj: coal, iron, marble, ami slate. Of I he
entire area, two-thirils are aral)le ami one-t went ielli iswooileil.
Atrriciiltiire is in a very tlourishin;; condition. Linens and
cider an> the princi|>al' nmnufaclures. Pop. (18U1) 332,387.
Capital, Laval.
MajVr, Alkrku Marshall: physiiist ; b. at Haltimore,
Mil., Nov. 13, ISiti; was educated at St. Jlary's (.'ollesc,
Baltimore; devoted his attention to the physical siiences. in
which department he became professor in the I'niversity of
Marvlamf 18o(>-.5f<. in Westminster t'ollep>. Mo.. IS.j!l-til, in
Pennsylvania College, Gettysburj;, 18G5-07, in Lehigh Uni-
versity. Pa., 18(57-70, and in the Stevens Institute of Tech-
nolofiy, Iloboken. X. .1., since 1871. He spent a year (1863-
64) in scientific stuilies at the I'niversity of Paris. At Lehigh
I'niversity he superintended the erection of an observatory,
friiiii which he ma<le a scries of observations of Jupiter: was
at the head of the expeilition which observed the total eclipse
of the sun at Burlington, la., Aug. 7, 186!), securing forty-
one ix-rfccl photographs; began at Ilot)oken an important
series of researches in acoustics, which led to several impor-
tant discoveries; was in 1873 one of tlie editoi-s of 7'/ie .Imer-
i><i;i ■luurnal of Science and Arts. He has published nu-
merous scientific papers, containing his original researches
in all departments of physics. He is the author of several
iHMik.s, including Sport with Oun and Mod in American
Woods and Waters (New York, 1883).
Mayor, Hraxtz: author; b. in Baltimore, Md., Sept. 27,
ISOU. Ho studied at St. Mary's College; traveled in the
East, and on his return entered the law department of the
University of Maryland. In 182!) ho was admitted to the
bar. Subser|ucnlly he was editor of 7'/ie Baltimore Ameri-
can, and in 1841-42 secretary of the U. S. legation in Mexico,
traveling extensively in that country. During the civil war
he was a strong Unionist, and was commissioned colonel in
the Kederal army. He published Mexico as it M'as and Is
(1844); History of the War between Mexico and the United
Slates (1848); Mexico, Aztec, Spanish, and Republican (2
Vols., XKtW: his ln'.st work); Captain Canot, a, novel (1854),
etc. I), in Baltimore, Feb. 23, 1870. H. H. S.mith.
Mayer, mi>r..IoiiANx Friedrich : theologian; b. at Leip-
zig, Dec. C. 16.j0; studied theology in his native town and
at Strassburg; was appointed superintendent at Leisnig in
167:$, aiirl at (irimma in 167!t. and became in 1084 fourth
Profes.sor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg. lie
was a man of great mental vigor and i)ossessed of a power-
ful eloipience; his lectures attracted large audiences, but
his ambition and greed and certain scandalous disturbances
in his domestic life made it difUcult for him to remain in
Willenberg, and in 1686 he accepted a position as preacher
at .St. Jacob's chnrch in Hamburg, lie had received his
first religious inspiration from Sponer, but even while in
Wittenberg a certain coolness arose l)etween them, and when
Mayer went to Hamburg and found his three colleagues in
the ministry, Ilorbius, Winkler, and Hinckelmann, all more
or Icjot influenced by the pietism of Spener, he at once as-
sumed a (Kilcmical altitude against this religious movement,
and became in a short lime famous, or rather notorious, on
account of his polemics. By his singularly impressive elo-
?|Ucnco he rous<il the mob of Hamburg to such a pilch of
nnaticism against everything which looked like t>ietisin or
SpeniTism that Horbins (led for his life and his house was
razf^l to the ground, the senate being unable to defencl either
his life or his prcipcrly; Hie emperor himself had to inter-
fere. In lOHM, whih' still pastor in Hamburg, he Wiis ap-
pointed honorary Professor of Theology at Kiel, and dis-
charge<l the diilira of both positions, though the distance be-
tween the two places wtnre he had to preach and to lecture
could not l»e traversed in one dav. In 1701 Charles XII.
appointed him first Profi-sor of Tluolugy at the University
of (irc'ifswald, ami superinlcmlenl-geiwral of Pomcraiiia and
Itugen ; and in this position he illi'd at Stettin, Mav 31), 171;2.
His works, numbering in all 378, have no theological worth,
but give an interesting picture of the circumstances and
charactODi of the age in which \w lived.
Uevised by S. M. Jackso.v.
MAV-FLV
Majer, JoHANN Tobias: one of the most celebrated as-
tronomers of the eighteenth century ; b. Feb. 17, 1723, at
Marbach, Wilrlemberg; was principally self-educated ; at
twentv-two published a treatise on lurves for the construc-
tion o'f pro! dems in geometrv ; in 1731 was appointed pro-
fesscir in the university and director of the observatory at
Gotlingen, where, <lurii'ig the Seven Years' war, the l-'reneh
troops made the basement of his ob.si-rving-tower a powder-
magazine. Every evening Mayer passed through this maga-
zine with a lantern. At the other extremity of the town
the Saxons had established a similar magazine in a similar
tower, and one evening this blew up with a frightful explo-
sion, in which seventy persons perished. Mayer continued,
nevertheless, his observations, disregarding the danger so
startlingly illustrated; and it wjis under circumstances so
unfavorable that he prosecuted the work of preparing )iis
catalogue of zodiacal stars which has been of such value to
modern astronomy. He published also tables of the sun
and of the moon in 17")."), which were sent to London in com-
petition for the |>rize oiTeied by the British Parliament for
a satisfactory mcth<i(l of finding the longitude at sea. They
were tested by Bradley, astronomer-royal, and pronounced
worthy of the' attention of the admiralty; but it was only
after his death, in 1762 (Feb. 20), that ilie merited recom-
pense was awarded: the sum of £3,000 sterling was paid to
his widow. Revised by S. Xewcomb.
Mayer, Julius Robert: physicist, originator of the doc-
trine of the conservation of energy; b. at Heilbronn, Wilr-
temberg, Nov. 2.5, 1814; studied medicine in Tubingen,
Munich, and Paris; practiced medicine and surgery in Heil-
bronn ; sailed in 1840. on a Dutch freighting-vessel, to Java, "
and remained in Batavia through the summer. There he
turned his attention to the study of the laws of heat, and
through this to a consideration of the nature and relations
of all the physical forces. His first publication on the sub-
ject, which appeared in Liebig's vl)i«((/fH der Cliemie und
Pliarmacie, under the title Bemerkungen fiber die Kriifte
der unbelebten Natur. contained the announcement of what
is now known as the doctrine of energy. (See Energy.) In
the close of this paper the writer presented a determination
of the mechanical equivalent of heat, derived from observa-
tion of the elevation of temperature in air coiniiressed by
a descending column of mercury. The value thus ol)tained
involves as a factor the specific heat of air, a constant which
was not then accurately known. By substituting for this
constant the specific heat as established by the later in-
vestigations of Regnault, Jlayer's result is found to accord
very nearly with lluit obtaiiie<i in the long-continued re-
searches of Joule, conducted independently and in part sim-
ultaneously, but published later. Mayer's priority in the
statement of the i>rinciple of the conservation of energy is
universally acknowledged. Concerning his rank among the
investigators to whom the doctrine owes its early develop-
ment there has been much discussion. Current opinion of
the present day would not class him with Ilelmholtz, Joule,
and Clausius as to clearness of view, accuracy, or complete-
ness of treatment. His second publication, which was more
extended than the first, appeared in 184.'), and embraced a
bold extension of the principles of his theory to the phenom-
ena of organic nature. It was published under the title Die
on/anische Bewegmig in ihrem Zusammenhuntje mit dem
Sioffwechsel. His Celestial Dynamics (Btitruge zur Dyna-
mik de.s Himmels) made its appearance in 1848, and in IS-ll
he published a somewhat extended memoir eirtilled Bemer-
kungen iiber dasmechanische Aequivahnt der Worme. Three
of lln'Se memoirs of Mayer, the first, third, and fourth above
mentioned, have been pulilished in English by Prof. (Jrove
as an apjiendix to his work on the i'ornlalion of Forces.
In 1H67 Mayer's collected works were published at Stuttgart
under the title Die Mechanik der Wtirme. D. Mar. 20, 1878.
Revised by E. L. NicuoLS.
Mayflcld: city; capital of Graves co., Kv. (for location
of county, see map of Kentucky, ref. 5-C); on ^layfield cri-ek,
and the Newport N. and Miss. Val. Bailroad; 21) miles S. of
Paducah. It is in a tobacco-growing ami agricultural region;
sells annually an average of 10.000.000 lb. of tobacco grown
in the county; and has 2 flour-mills, woolen-mill, several
tobacco-houses, lobacco-stemmery, creamery, lire-ilay works,
ice-factorv, spoke-factorv, water-works, electric lights, and 3
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,83!); (18!)0) 2.iH)!); (1894)
estimated, 4,000. Editor ok " iMirror."
May-lly : the common name of several species of Kpheme-
ridie. (See Eimiemera and Ento.molouy.) The entire period
MAYllKM
MAYO
629
of the preparatory stages the May-fly passes in the water,
during which time the larviP and puna' make tlicMnselves
little hurrows in the sides of the pond or stream in which
they live. The emerging of these insects from the water
seems always to take place in the evening, and they generally
make their appearance in countless swarms for two or three
evenings. Hy the ne.xt morning most of these insects are
found lying dead in heaps upon the shore.
Maj'luMii [ultimately the same as maim, from O. Fr. mS-
haigner : Itul. magagnare, probably of Teutonic origin, pos-
sibly *man hauijan, maim ; cf. Germ, hammel, hdmmling,
Kng. fiamhle] : at common law was "a hurt of any part of a
man's body whereby he was rendered less able, in fighting,
either to defend himself or to annoy his adversary." Hence
striking out a man's eye or front tool h was mayhem; but
cutting off his ear or nose was not. The early common law
dealt with it as a felony, and subjected the felon to the loss
of the like part of his own body. 'I'his practice of retaliation
gave way to punishment by tine and nnprisonment, e.xcept
in cases of mayhem by castration ; and the offense remained
a misdemeanor, until a number of statutes extending from 5
Hen. lV.,c. 5, to 24 and '25 Vict.,c. lOO.changed it to a felony.
By the last-named act every unlawful, malicious, and inten-
tional wounding, disfigurement, or grievous bodily harm
inflicted upon another is a felony, and renders the c'riminal
liable to the same punishment as an attempt to murder. In
the U. S. the common-law nuiyhem, unless committed by
castration, has been treated generally as a misdemeanor.
(Commonwealth vs. Neu-ell, 7 Mass. 24.5.) The term has been
extended by statute, however, to include nearly every form
of bodily harm ; and in some of the States the offense is de-
clared to be a felony. Bishop's 3'eu' Criminal Law, vol. ii.,
ch. xxxi. ■ Francis M. Bukdick.
Miiy'hew. Experie.voe: missionary; son of John, and
great-grandson of Gov. Thoniius Mayhew ; l)orn in Martha's
Vineyard, Jan. 27, 1673: succeeded his ancestors in the pas-
toral charge over the Indians in .Mar., 1694, and was employed
by the Society for Propagating the Gospel to translate 'the
Psalms and the Gospel of John into the Indian language,
whicli he had learned in childhood. He published in 1727
Indian Concerts, being the lives of thirty Indian preachers
and ci''hty other converts, and a volume entitled Grace De-
fended (1744). D. Nov. 29, 1758.— His son, Zacuariah, was
missionary at Martha's Vineyard from 1767 to his death
Mar. 6, 1806.
Mayhew, IIexrv : humorist ; b. in London. England. Xov.
2'y, \^Vi ; W!is educated at Westminster .School ; made a voy-
age in his boyhood to Calcutta, and served an apprentice-
ship to his father, a solicitor. He began a literary career by
bringing out at the Queen's theater, in conjunction with
Gilbert a Beckett, the farce of The Wandering Jlinstrel:
founded a comic paper, Figaro in London; was one of the
promoters of Punch (1841), and for some years its chief ed-
itor, and in association with his brothers lloraceand Augus-
tus wrote numerous pojjular humorous novels, fairy-tales,
and farces. His chief achievement, however, was in making
known the everyday life of the lower classes of the British
melronolis in London Labor and the London Poor (XHol ;
new ed. 1868), originally contributed to The Morning Chron i-
cle. He wrote largely for magazines, was author of The
Mormons (lSr)-2). and of several juvenile books. D. July 25,
1887. — His brother Horace, b. in London in 1816, was for
some years on the staff of Punch ; published several humor-
ous works in his own name: d. in London, Apr. 30, 1872. —
Three other brothers. Thomas (b. in 1810). Edward (b. in
181;!), and AroisTis (1826-75), aided Henry and Horace in
some of their literary undertakings. Thomas was a pioneer
in the publication of penny grammars, dictionaries, etc., as
part of a Penny National Library ; he was also editor of
The Poor Man's Guardian, and was a conspicuous advocate
of reform measures; Edward was theatrical manager and
writer of farces in youth, and has published standard works
on horses ami dogs, especially on their diseases; while Au-
gustus published several successful romances.
Kevised by H. A. Beers.
Mayhew, Thomas : colonizer and preacher ; b. in England,
Jlar., 1.5!)2; was a merchant at Southampton; emigrated
to New England in 16:il ; resided several vears at Water-
town ; obtained in 1641 from the agent of'l.ord Stirling a
grant of a c<insiderable portion of the island of Martha's
Vineyard, w-ith the title of governor; began the colonization
in 1642, aiding his son Thomas in converting the Indians,
and proving himself so true a friend that through his influ-
ence they not only abstained from joining in Philip's war,
but nrotcfted the white settlers against the savages. Gov!
Mayhew founded Edgartown in 1647. preached in his old
age to the Indians, as well as to the English, in place of his
deceiused son and grandson, and died in Mar., 1682. From
him W!is ilescended a remarkable line of mis.sionaric!S to the
Indians of Martha's Vineyard.
May Laws, The : See Falk Laws, The.
Maynaril. Georoe Willoughby: figure and portrait
painter; b. in Washington, I). C, Mar. .5. 184:3; studie.l at
the Koyal Academy, Antwerp; painted and studied in Paris
and other places in Europe 180U-74; was elected a National
Academician in 1885, a member of the Society of American
Artists in 1880, and of the American Water-color Society;
was awarded the Temple gold medal at the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts in 1884. He has executed important
decorative compositions for various buildings in the U. S.
Studio in New York. William A. Cokfi.v.
May iiard, I Iorace, LL. D. : statesman ; b. at Westborough,
Mass., Aug. ;iO, 1814; graduated in 18:!8 at Amherst Col-
lege; was tutor and afterward mathematical profc.ss<jr in
East Tennessee University ; was admitted to the bar in 1844,
and became a successful lawyer ; represented Tennessee in
Congress 1857-6.3 ; suffered ni'iich from loss of property and
exile during the war of 1861-65, having immeiliately on the
outbreak of the war declared his loyalty to the U. S. Gov-
ernment; was in Congress again 1866-75, representing the
Knoxville (second) district until 1873, when he was chosen
representative at large. In 1862 his alma mater gave him
the degree of LL. D. In 1875 he was sent as minister to
Constantinople, and in 1880 became L'. S. Postmaster-Gen-
eral. I), at Knoxville, Tenn., .May 3, 1882.
Maynard. I-saac Hortq.n : judge of New York court of
appeals; b. in Bovina, N. V., Apr. 9, 1838: graduated at
Amherst in 1862; was a member of the New York Asscm-
l)ly 1876-77; county judge and surrogate, Delaware County.
1878-84; was defeated for Secretary of State 1883; was
deputy attorney-general. State of New York. Jan. 1, 1884, to
June I, 1885; second comptroller of the U. S. Treasury
June 1. 1885, to Apr. 1, 1887; assistant Secretary of the
Treasury Apr. 1, 1887, to ,\pr. 1, 1889; commissioner to re-
vise the general laws of the State of New Y'ork Mav, 1889,
to Feb. 1. 1892 : deputy attorney-general. New York,"Jan. 1,
1890, to Feb. 1, 1892; was appointed associate judge, court
of appeals of New Y'ork, Feb. 1, 1892. D. June V^. I.x96.
Maynard. Sir John: constitutional lawyer; b. at Tavis-
tock, England, in 1602; was educated at 'Oxford: studied
lawjit the Middle Temple; was elected to Parliament in
1625; called to the bar 1626; was distinguished in the Long
Parliament as one of the prosecutors of Strafford and Laud,
and afterward as an opponent of the encroachments of the
army and of the assumption of supreme power by Cromwell,
for which conduct he was twice sent to the Tow'er; became
sergeant-at-law 1654; sergeant to the Commonwealth 1658;
made king's sergeant and knighted 1660, refusing to accept
a judgeship ; took an active part in the "Convention Parlia-
ment " (1689) in obtaining the formal acceptance of the res-
ignation of James II., and in the same year was made first
commissioner of the great seal. When "waiting upcm Will-
iam III., that prince, struck \yith his great age (eighty-seven
years), observed that he must have outlived all the lawyers
of his time, upon which Maynard replied that " he had like
to have outlived the law itself if his highness had not come
over." Sergeant Maynard was a firm friend of liberty and of
Presbyterianism, and is rankeil by Sir James Mackintosh
with Lord Somers as one of the greatest constitutional \a\v-
yers of England. Some of his Reports were printed, as well
as a number of speeches and political tracts. D. at Gun-
nersbury, Oct. 9, 1690.
Maynodth: village; in the county of Kildare, Ireland
(see map of Ireland, rcf. 9-1) ; has a celebrated Uoman Catho-
lic college or ecclesiastical semiimry, with about SOOstmlents
destined to become priests in Ireland. It was founded in
1795. Several attempts were made to repeal the act of en-
dowment, though it was the only slate endowment for re-
ligious purposes which the Koman Catholic population ever
receivetl in Ireland: and in 1869 such an act was carried
into effect, the institution receiving instead a capital sum
fourteen times the amount of the annual endowment. There
is a population, including the college, of about 1,200.
May'o: a maritime county, in Connaught, Ireland: com-
prising an areu of 2,131 sq. miles, and bounded N. and W.
630
MAYO
MA Z AKIN
by tlie Atlttiilif. It consists of a large ami fertile plain in-
closcJ by two ranges of mountains, whose liii;liest i)eaks,
Muilri'a ami Xeiiliin. reach 2.6SO feet. As the cliimite is
moist ami windy, the soil is belter ailapteil for iiasiunii,'e
than for liUai,'i";' manv cattle ami sheep of a jrooil breed are
reared. Next to aj.'rieiiltiire lishing is the chief brunch of
industry. Kxcellent marble is quarried. Pop. (18ill) 21'J,-
0;54. Ciiief towns, t'a-stlebar, Hallina. Ballinrobe, BellmuUet,
Claremorris, Swineford, and Westport.
Mayo, .V.MORY DwiiiUT, .\. M.: educator; b. in Warwick,
Franklin co., .Mass., Jan. HI, 1823; was educated at Deer-
field Acailcmy and .\mherst College ; studied for the minis-
try with Kev. llosea Uallou, president of Tufts Collefie
(Univers)»list): from lH4(J-54 was iiastor of the Independent
Christian Sin-ietv in Gloucester, .Mass.; from Oct., 18.54, to
Jan., Ifl.Vi, preached in Cleveland, 0. ; from Jan.. 1836, to
Jan., I8(i:i, was minister to the Division Street church at
Albany, -N. V. ; from Jan., 1863, till July, 1873, was settled in
Cincinnati, O., at the (.'liurch of the Redeemer (Unitarian) ;
from Nov., 1873, to 18711, was nastor of the Church of tlie
Unity in Sprinu'tield, .Ma,s.-i. Mr. Mayo has always been en-
gaged in pulilic-.scliool work; was an active member of the
boards of education at Cincinnati and at Springfield, and
has written many tracts and addresses on that and related
subjects. For several years he has been Professor of Ecclesi-
astical Polity in Meailville Theological School, where ho an-
nually delivers a course of lectures. Since 1880 he has been
engaged in furthering education in the Southern States.
iiis published volumes are Tlie Balance; Memoirs of Mrs.
S. C. E. Mayo, his wife, who was also an authoress; Graces
and I'owers of the Christian Life; Symbols of the Cap-
itol, a volume of discourses on the elements of Christian
civilization ; Industrial Education in the South, and
Southern \\'omen in the Recent Educational Movement
(the two latter appearing as circulars of the V. S. 15ure;ui
of Kducation); besides many pamphlets cm educational
topics. Mr. Mayo received the degree of A. JI. from Am-
herst College.
Mayo, Frank: actor; b. in Boston, Mass., Apr. 19. 1839;
was educated at the public schools, lie went to California
in 18.54, and made his first appearance in 1856 at the Ameri-
can theater, San Franci.s<'0, then under the management of
J^aura Keene : played through the mining-towns in the
companies of Edwin Hoolh. Julia Deane llayne, James An-
derson, the English tragedian, and the Chapman family.
In San Francisco he made a hit as Nana Sahib in Bouei-
cault's drama of Jessie lirown, and became from 1863 to
186), the recognize<l leading actor on the Pacitie coast. On
Aug. 38, 186.5, he appeared at the Boston theater, Boston,
playing Badger in The Streets of New York with great
success, Hamlet, Uicliard the Third, lago, Othello, Jack
Cade, d'Artagnan, and Don Ca'sar de Bazan. lie became a
star in 1867, and produced Darij Crocketl at Rochester, N. Y.,
Sept. 34, 1872. 11 is name thus became identified w'ith the
typical American backwoodsman, and he played the part
almost exclusively until June, 1884. With John G. Wilson
he wrote Xordrck, and played the title role himself. I).
Jun» 8. 18!)6. B. B. Valle.ntixe.
Mayo. Richard Southwell Bourke, Karl of : statesman ;
b. in Dublin, Ireland, Feb. 8, 1833; was the eldest son of the
fifth earl, and was known during his father's life by the
courtesy title of Lord Naa,s. He was educated at Trinity
College, Dulilin ; published a narrative of travels in Russia
under the title .S7. l'eler.tburfi and Moscow (1845) ; was
elected member of Parliament for the county of Kildare
1847, and for Coleraino 1852 ; was Chief Secretary for Ireland
in Earl Derby's three administrations (1853, i858-59, and
1866-68). and was a member of the cabinet during the third
period: succeeded to the earldom Aug. 12, 1867; was ap-
poinlecl Vici'roy of India in 1808; arrived at Calcutta Jan.,
186U, and became noted for executive ability and the reform
of al)use.s. While on a tour of inspection he was stabbed by a
Mohammediin (Wulialiee) convict in the penal settlement of
Fort Blair. Andaman islainls, ami killed instantly, Feb. 8,
1873. A Life was written by Sir \V. \V. Hunter (1875).
Mayo. William Starim-ck, M. D. : novelist; b. atOgdens-
hiirg, N. Y., Ai.r. 2<». 1812; grailualed in medi.'ine at the
New York Collesie of Physicians and Surgeon 1833; prac-
ticed his profession for several velars; visited Spain for his
health; passerl over to Mor<H-co with the design of pene-
trating ;nlo the interior of Africa, but found his project
impracticable. .Several years after his return to tlic I . .S.
Dr. .Mayo published Kal'ootah, or Journeyings to the Djebel
Kiimri (1849). a novel in which he utilized his knowledge of
Northern .Vfrica ; The Berber, or the Mountaineer of the
.4 //(!«( 1850); liomance-dust from thellistoric /Y((wr(1851);
and Sever Again (1873), a romance. D. Nov. 22, 1895.
Mayor. Jons Evton Bickerstetii : classical scholar; b.
at Baddagamme. Ceylon. Jan. 25. 1825 ; e<lucaled at .Shrews-
bury School and St. John's College. Cambridge, of which
he became a fellow 1849; assistant master at >lailborough
College 1849-53; college lecturer 1853; took orders in tno
Church of England 1855: was librarian of the University of
Cambridge 18(>;{-67 ; and became Professor of Latin there in
1872. Prof. Mayor has published a famous edition of Juve-
nal's Satires in two volumes; Cicero's Second l'hili//ptc
(1861); Homer's f>(/,i/.-!.s>-.v, books ix.-xii. (1872) ; Quintilian,
book X.. unfinished (1872); and luimerous Early English his-
torical, biograiihical, and anticiuarian works, and text-books
of Latin grammar. He was one of the editors of The Jour-
nal of Classiral and Sacred Philolor/i/. oi The Journal of
I'liitiilotjy, and until 1894 of The Classical lieview.
Revised by A. Gudemas.
Mnyo-Sinith. Rkiimo.nu: See Smith, Ki('U.mqnd Mayo.
Mayow, John, M. D., LL. D. : physician and chemist ; b.
in Cornwall, England, in 1645; was educated at Wadham
and All Souls Colleges, Oxford ; took degrees in botli law
and medicine: became a distinguished i)hysician at Bath;
wrote several learned medical works, published together in
his Opera Omnia Medica Pltysica (Leydcn, 1681). and pro-
pounded in his chapter on chemical allinities doctrines so
far in advance of the science of that day that Dr. Beddow
republished a great part in 1790 under "the title Chemical
E.rperimenis and Opinions extracted from a Work pub-
lished in the Last Century. It was claimed that the chief
discoveries of Priestley and Scheele were known to Mayow
a century earlier. I), in London, Sept., 1679.
Maypu : Sec Maipo.
Maysville : city (incorporated in 1833); capital of Mason
CO., Ky. (for location of county, see maj) of Kentucky, ref.
3-1); on the Ohio river, and the dies, and O. ami the Ky.
Cent, railways: 79 miles N. E. of Lexington. It is in an
agricultural region, and has important manufactures, in-
cluding cotton goods, tobacco, cigars, plows, furnilure,
foundry and machine-shop products, flour, and lumber.
There are water-works, fuel and ilhiminating-gas plants,
electric lights, electric street-railway, acailemy, seminary,
high school, 2 national banks with combined capital of
$410,000. 2 State banks with cajiital of $135,000, and 2
daily and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 5,3'20 ; (1890)
5,358 ; (1893) local census, 7,400. Editor of " Bulletin."
Mazampt' : town; department of Tarn, France; on the
Ariu-tte; 43 miles K. S. K. of Toulouse ; has extensive wool-
siiinning factories and manufactures of cloth (see map of
France, ref. 8-F). At the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury Jlazamet was only an insignificant village, but the in-
troduction of the manufacture of a peculiar kind of woolen
fabric brought immediate and great prosperity to the place.
Pop. in 1891, 10,.588.
3I:izaiul(<rair : province of Persia ; liounded N. by the
Caspian Sea. W. by Ghilan, and S. by Irak-Ajami, from
which it is sc|)arated by the Elbruz Jlouiilains, ami E. by
Astrabad. The ground is low along the sliore of the sea,
but farther inland it rises, covered with s|mrs of the El-
bruz. The soil is fertile ; rice, cotton, mulberry-trees,
sugar-cane, and fine fruits are grown. The climate is cooler
and more cqiialile than that of the rest of Persia. Firdausi
called I\Iazandenin the "land of roses," and Shall Alibas the
(ireat often resided here. The province abounds in iron
ores, and in mineral pitch in every state of transition from
pure pelruleum to the lincst naplillia. 'I'he numerous rivers
which flow from the Elbruz Jlountains to the Caspian Sea
are well stocked with trout, mullet, carp, and sturgeon,
supplying large quantities of caviare to the Russian mar-
ket. The domestic animals are noted for their small size,
and include among the most important the black, humped
cattle similar to tli<' Indian vjiriclv. also horses, sheep, and
goats. Area estimated at 10.(100 so. miles ; pop. at 300,000.
Capital. Sari. Barfarosh. Amol, Asliraf. and Earah-alu'id are
also important towns. Revised by M. W. IIarrinuton.
Maznrin. mimza"ii'riliV, Jules (Ital. Giri.io jMazarini);
cardinal and P'reiich slatesman; b. at Piscina, in the
Aliruzzi, July 14. 1602 : was the eldest son (.f the intcndant
of the houseliold of Pliili[) Colonnar. Young .Mazarin was
MAZARIN
MAZEPPA
631
educated in the schools of the Jesuits at Rome, but refused
to enter their order; stuilicil law at Alcalii and Salamanca,
where he led a very piy life; enteie<l llie iiiililary service
of the ])Ope, and was cniployed in sonic imlilical missions in
which he evinced Rreal liipioniatie skill. He was intro-
duced in 1628 to Kiihelicu, who entertained so high an
opinion of his ahilitirs llmt he had him ap])ointcd vice-
legate of Avignon in 1G:J4, maile a cardinal in Kill, though
ho never cnttrcd major onh-rs. naluralized as a French citi-
zen in lG:ilt. ami appointed his successor as minister. After
the death of Riclielieti (Dec. 4. 1042) Mazarin governed
France for eighteen years with absolute power, though not
without some violent interruptions. He was as crafty a dip-
lomat as Richelieu, but he wa.s far inferi(U' to him as an
admiinstrator. and having no other ideas than those inher-
ited from Rii-liclieu. and no other aims than those dictated
by his own vanity and raimcity, his subtlest intrigui's some-
times turned out gross blunders. It has been well said
however, that " he was not like Ri(^helieu, a Frenchman,
but a citizen of the world, and always paid most attention
to foreign affairs; in his letters all that could teach a dip-
lomatist is to be found, broad general views of policy,
minute details carefully elaborated, keen insight into men's
characters, cunning directions when to dissimulate or to be
fratik." The aversion of Anne of Austria — who, after the
death of Louis XIII., May 14, lG4:j. became regent during
the minority of her son. Louis Xl\'. — he conquered by his
bland manners and elegant flattery ; she became his firm
friend, and the contemporary gossip was that they were
secretly married. For this no serious proof has been of-
fered, though the queen regent was devoted to him, and the
minor orders he had accepted were no ecclesiastical obsta-
cle; but the rich dotations he made in order to gain the
good-will of the princes, the prodigality of the court, and
his own lack of thorough capacity as a fimincier exhausted
the treasury. The Parliament of Paris refused to register
the new tax-edicts. He answered by throwing its presi<lent
and several of its members into prison. The next day (Aug.
27, 1648) Paris rose in rebellion, and the wars of the Fkoxde
(q. V.) began. A peculiar feature of this whole movement
were the so-called Jlazarinades — pamphlets, about 4,000 in
number, published against the cardinal, and speaking in a
very unrestrained manner of his life at Alcalii. his relation
to Dame Anne, his foreign birth, his rapacity, and his
nieces. He was intensely hated, and the Imtred was not
tempered with awe. Twice between 1651 and 16.53 he had
to resign his olVice and retire from the court — the first
time to Briihl, near Cologne, the second time to Sedan,
where Turenne and his army were. He was arraigned as a
traitor and enemy of France ; his property was confiscated ;
his library, furniture, and statues were sold, but after
the end of the wars of the Fronde and the flight of the
Prince of Condi' to Spain, JlaZarin re-entered Paris (Feb.
3, 1653) in triumph, and was received not only by the
king and the court, but even by the people, with great
ovations. The subsequent years of his government were
more quiet. He could now prosecute the war against
Spain, begun in 1635, with undisturbed vigor, and bv
the Peace of Westphalia (Oct. 24, 1648) and of the Pyre'-
nces (Nov. T. 165!l) he succeeded in curbing both branches
of the house of Hapsburg, and procured for France the
foremost place in the political system of Europe. Another
idea of Richelieu's, the establishment of the absolute au-
thority of the crown in France, he carried out with consid-
erable success, but the interior administration, the finances,
commerce, industry, agriculture, etc., were in confusion and
decadence when he died at Vincennes, Mar. 9. 1661. He
left an enormous fortune, 200,000.000 livres, which he pre-
sented to the king a few days before his death, probably
because he considered this manoeuver the oidy means of
securing it fur his family; the king returned it gracious-
ly, and his nieces inherited it. Mazarin contributed very
much to the triumph of the royal authority in France, and
to the overthrow of the last vestiges of the old feudal i)Owers
and privileges. The memoirs of his rival, de Retz, have
contributed to make his character darker than it really was,
but the publication of his correspondence throws a new and
favorable light upon his public life. Several volumes of
these letters have already appeared, under the direction of
Cherucl. During his life he was a friend of the arts and
of men of letters ; his will nnide ample provision for learned
men and the advancement of the sciences, while he left to the
College Mazarin his large and costly lilirary. His was not a
talent of the first order, but he rendered great services to
France, among them being the treaties of Westphalia and
the Pyrenees, the securing of Alsace for France, and the pre-
ponderance a.ssurcd to the latter over Spain by his diplo-
matic skill. .See Cheruel, Jh'nloire de la France pendant la
minoriti de Luuis XI V. (4 vols., Paris, 1879-W). and His-
toire de France souk le minixtere de Cardinal Mazarin (3
vols., 1881-82) : Cousin. Jeunesse de Mazarin (1865) ; Renee,
Les Nieces de Mazarin (1856). Revised by J. J. Keaxe.
Mazar-i-Sherif (i. e. tomi) of the sherif): city of Cen-
tral Asia ; capital of Afghan Turkestan ; 20 miles E. of
Balkh and 200 ndles X. X. E. of Cabul, 1,200 feet above sea-
level (see map of Asia, ref. 5-1)); population, according to
Grodebek, 25,000, consisting of Uzbegs and Afghans. The
city contains the mausoleum of the prophet AH and is a
sacred place, attracting thousands of pilgrims from Tur-
kestan, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan. The city has risen
in importance since 1856, when the Afghan Government
established the important fortress of Takhtipul, 3 miles
to the W. This fortress contains a cannon-foundry and a
factory of arms, and is the permanent residence' of an
Afghan governor and the occitsumal residence of the amir.
The country around Mazar is well cultivated. In the moun-
tains, 20 miles S., are some natural waters celebrated for
their curative properties. See Grodekop, From Herat to
Samarkand (trans, by Charles Marvin. 1885).
MaKK W. nARRISGTON.
Mazarredo y Salazar, tnaa-zaa-ra'do-ee-saa-hia-thaar',
Josfi Maria : naval ollicer and statesman ; b. at Bilbao,
Spain, in 1744; entered the navy 1760; participated in the
campaign against Algiers 1775 ; was instrumental in saving
the remnant of the army from destruction; negotiated
peace with the regency ; was appointed major-general of
naval forces; took part in the naval operations against the
British 1780-83; was made lieutenant-general 1789; ap-
pointed commander-in-chief of the Spanish navy, which he
reorganized, 1793 ; defended Cadiz against the British
July, 1797 ; was ambassador to Paris 1799, and again 1804 ;
was a partisan of Joseph Bonaparte, by whom he was made
coimcilor of state and Minister of Marine, and held the
offices until his death at Madrid in 1812. He was consid-
ered one of the most scientific seamen whom Spain has pro-
duced: published Rudimenios de Tactica Xaval (1785), and
built the naval observatory at Cadiz.
Mazatlan' ; a city and port of the state of Sinaloa, Mex-
ico ; on a small peninsula opposite the Bay of Olas Altas,
which forms its harbor, aiul near the entrance to the Gulf
of Califorina ; lat. 23° 10' 37" N.. Ion. 106" 24' 35' W. (see
map of Mexico, ref. .5-D). The surrounding scenery is very
beautiful, but the climate is hot, and the town is poorly sup-
plied with water. The bay is deep and of easy access, but
is open to south and southwest winds, during which it is
unsafe ; the inner harbor does not admit deep-draught ves-
sels. The exports consist mainly of silver ores, fruits, cab-
inet and dye woods, drugs, orchilia, and pearls. Poj). (1889)
about 16,000. Herbert H. Smith.
Mazdak : a Persian religious enthusiast and founder of
a sect ; b. at Persepolis about A. D. 470 ; became mobed or
chief priest at Xisliapur, and on the occasion of a jiesti-
lence and famine in 500 presented himself to King kobad
as a prophet sent for the regeneration of mankind. His
system was based upon the dualism of Manes, and his prac-
tical teaching was a form of communism. He succeeded in
converting the king, and his i)rojects became law, causing
great commotions. Under Khosru Xushirvan. Mazdak was
put to death at Xahrvan between 530 and 540, with thou-
sands of his followers, but his ideas took deep root after the
rise of Islam in the following century.
Maz('i)'|)a. Jon.N : hetman of Cossacks : b. about 1645 ; de-
scended from a noble family in Podolia ; was educated as a
page at the court of John Casimir of Poland. Surprised in
an adventure with a Polish lady, her husband stripped him
naked, bound him stretched along the back of his half-wild
horse, and put the frightened animal to tliglit. It carried
its owner to his own estate, but Mazeppa fled for shame
into the Ukraine, and joined the Cossacks. He .soon made
himself very popular among them, and U'came secretary to
their hetman, Sanivilowich, whom he overthrew in 1689,
becoming hetman himself. In this position he soon gained
the confidence of Peter the Great, w-lio made him Prince of
the Ukraine. After the Peace of Altranstadt (Sept. 24,
1706) he oiK-ned negotiations with Charles .\II. for the pur-
pose of throwing off the Russian authority. Peter the
632
MAZfiUKS
Great was informed of tliis troachcry, but did not believe
it; he sent tlio informers to Mn/.eppa, and Mnzcppa had
them put to death. Tlie czar afterward obtained induliit-
able proofs, anil Mazeppa was eoini«-lled to join Charles
Xll. ofK'nly. He ttwk part in the battle of Pultowa, June
2:. ITO'.t, anil fled to Bender, where he died 1710.
Mazi^ri'S, mua-zilr. more eorrcotly Masftres, Francis,
M. .\. : mathematician: b. in London, Deo. 15. 1731, of a
French family who settled in Kn^'land on the Kevocation of
the Kdict of Xantes; was educated at Kingston and at Cam-
bridge, where he was made H. A. 1752 and M. A. 1755 ; pub-
lishe<i A DUserlnliun on the yegative Signs in Algebra
(1758). denying the propriety of such expressions as nega-
tive roots,' etc. ; was called to the bar, and appointed at-
torney-general of (Quebec ; returning to England, was made
cursitor baron of the exchequer Aug., 1773, also agent to
the Protestant settlers of Quebec. He urged the adoption
of conciliatory measures toward the disaffected colonies in
North Atncrica, and his deep interest in the laboring classes
resulted in the publication of his Principles of the Doctrine
of Life Annuities (1783). Besides many mathematical
works,' he edited or wrote An Arcoiint of the Proceedings of
the British and otiier Protestant Inhabitants of Quebec
(1775): Tlie Canadian Freeholder (3 vols., 1779): Inquiry
into the Extent and Power of Juries (1792); Essays on Va-
rious Subjects, chiefly Historical and Political (1809); The
Curse of Popery' and Popish Pains (1807) : and Select
Tracts relating to the Cii-il Wars in England (2 vols., 1815).
D. at Kcigatc, Slay 19, 1824.
Maziiranir, maa-^hoor-aan'yich, Ivan: poet ; b. at Xovi,
Croat ill. a province of Hungary, Aug. 11, 1813; was edu-
eate<l at Kiuine and Sombotel; was a zealous supporter of
the "Illyrian" movement which, under the leadership of
Ludevil'tiaj, sought to unite the Serbians and Croatians,
who are, in fact, one people whom religion and alphabet
have divided. His first poems appeared in the Danica. In
1836 he returned home, studied, and afterward practiced
law at Zagreb (Agrain). When, in 1841, Gundulic's great
epic Osman (originally written in 1627) was to be repub-
lished, Ma/.uranic supplied the two missing "songs" (xiv.
and XV.) which made him famous. His greatest work is the
epic Smrt Sinail-age Cengica (The Death of Smail-aga
Ccngic), first published in the almanac Iskra (1846) and re-
peatedly re-edited (1853-57, etc.), since translated into Bo-
neinian', Polish, Russian, Slovenic, and German. These
poems make him the greatest among Croatian poets. In
politics he was a moderate nationalist, issuing in 1848 a re-
markable brochure Ilrvali Magyarom (The Croat's Answer
to the Magyars). In 1850 he became procurator-general ; in
1861 first chancellor of Croatia and Slavonia; was recalled
by Belcredi's cabinet in 1865, but in 1873 received the high-
est office, being appointed ban (baan, governor), and held the
position until 1880. J. J. Kral.
M«ziir'ka[PoIish,namedfromtheEastJ/'a^wrs, the inhab-
itants of Mazovia, southern portion of East Prussia] : a dance
in J or } time, havinga (jeculiarand pleasant rhythm. From
four to eight couples join in the mazurka, which is lively
and sometimes ratlier grotesque. It was originally a Polish
dance, but was by the music of Chopiu spread over the
whole of Europe.
Mazzara del Vallo, mna-zaa'raa-del-vaa'lo : town in
the province of Trapani, Sicily; 32 miles by rail S. of
Trupani (see map of Italy, ref. 9-D). It is a walled town,
lying on the seashore, with a good harbor overlooked by a
castle, but the roadstead is unsafe. The streets are narrow
and crooked, and there is but a single square — that on
which stands the cathedral. The first landing of the Arabs
on (he islaml was made here in 827. About 600 vessels of
different sizes enter this port annually. Pop. (1881) 13,074.
Mazzi'ni, malit-see m^', Gii-SErPE: patriot; son of a phy-
sician ; l>. at liciioa, Italy, .lune 2M. 1808. His first niiister,
Giuseppi' Pulroni, a coh)nel of artillery and a cousin of his
mother, had the insight to divine the future greatness of his
pupil, who alreaily gave proof of unusual abilities. The
Pieilmontesc revolution of 1821, and the sight of his ban-
ished fellow citizens embarking from Genoa for the land
of exile, made the deepest impression upon Mazzini, then
a boy of sixteen; and from that time he devoted himself
wholly u> the liberation of his country. He studied at the
university, became acquainted with the brothers Ruflini,
and coiitliled to them his bold designs. Giovanni Iluf-
fini — aft4.-rward distinguished in England as a romance-
MAZZINI
writer, and the author of Doctor Antonio and of lienoni —
describes the young conspirator, Mazzini, in his Memorit
d'un Cospiratore under the name of Fanlasio, representing
him as something very like a utopist. Mazzini began to bo
known lus an author at an early age. His first essay, which
treated of Dante's love of country, was written in 1826, but
did not appear till .some years afierward in a Genoese jour-
nal entitled Jl Si'balpiuo.' Jlazzini felt that in order to have
a free country it W)is necessary first to liberate the literature
from classic and academic shackles, and make it a political
instrument. He began his politico-literary conflicts in the
journal L'Jndicatorc lienofese, where appeared his articles
upon Manzoni, Bolta, (juerrazzi, Monti, and Schlegel in the
year 1828. Mazzini at an early age took part with the Car-
bonarists. and in consequence he was arrested in Genoa in
1830, and imprisoned at Savona. While there he became
convinceil that Carbonarism was no longer suited to the
times, and he conceived whih' in jjrison the idea of Young
Italy, an organization which had for its objects the unity,
independence, and liberty of Italy — objects which ho thought
could be realized only by the Italian people themselves with-
out the aid of the foreigner. The means to secure these
ends were declared to be education and insurrection. Ac-
quitted by the tribunal, but forced to choose between exile
and police surveillance, he retired to Marseilles, where he
began to organize his society and circulated manifestoes and a
newspaper in its interest. Condemned to the gallows by
Charles Albert, he nevertheless contriveil to remain at Mar-
seilles, and united with Garibaldi in planning the insurrec-
tion of Genoa. When this plot failed Mazzini withdrew to
Switzerland, and there formed a conspiracy to invade Savoy ;
this was the unfortunate expedition of 1834, in which the
conspirators dispersed on the first conflict with the troops,
and Mazzini fainted away at the first fire. After this fail-
ure he returned to Switzerland where he cimtiuued his
machinations, and founded the journal La Jeune Suisse;
but the hostility of foreign governments caused the Swiss
authorities to proceed against the revolutionists, and in Jan.
1837, Mazzini withdrew to London. From London, which
then became his headquarters, he instigated various attempts
at revolution in Italy — attempts that cost the lives of many
noble victims, among ol hers, of the brothers Bandiera in 1844,
but wlii<'li wore not without fruit for the future. It was at this
time that the British post-ollice incurred serious blame by
opening Mazzini's letters. The moderate Guelpli school
turned to its own advantage the agitation created in Italy
by Mazzini and his followers, and thus it may be said that
the Italian revolutionary movements of 1848 were in great
part tlie work of this active conspirator. In the spring of
1848 Mazzini established and edited in Milan L' Italia del
Papnln. in which he manifested a strong opposition to King
Charles Albeit and the moderate monarchical parly. The
Grand Duke of Tuscany having been expelled, and JIazzini
chosen member of the new provisional government, he hoped
to secure the proclamation of a republic. Not succeeding in
this, he withdrew to Rome, where the repiil)lic was |iro-
claimed, and he himself became the first of the triumvirs.
After the fall of Rome he first tdok refuge in Switzerland,
then once more returned to London, wlieie he entered into
close relations with Kossuth and Ledru-Rollin, for it was a
part of his programme to encourage revolutionary move-
ments everywhere. Young Europe, Young Switzerland, and
other radical organizatiims, framed on the model of Young
Italy, already bore witness to his influence in several ICuro-
pean states. lie incited the Italians to fresh insurrectionary
movemeiUs. whicli proved disastrous and fruitless — that of
Mantua in 1852, that of .Alilan in 1853, and that of Genoa in
1857. In the events which occurred in Italy in 18.59 and
1860 JIazzini took no active part, though he assured the
Sardinian moiuirchy of republican support in attaining
Italian unity and indepen<iciice. When it seemed to him
that the Italian monarchy had failed to satisfy the recpiire-
ments of the people he renewed his conspiracies with a
purely republican aim. In this last period of his revolu-
tionary labors his desire to separate republicanism from
.socialism and atheism is most noteworthy. He was neither
Catholic nor Christian, but he had taken for the motto of
his banner "God and the Peojile!" and in the last year-s of
his life he strugglc<l energetically against everything which
implied the negation of a God. For this reason lufore his
death liecmphaticallvcondeinned the Commune of Parisand
the objects and thc'acis of the liitirnatioiials. With the
same zeal Mazzini opposed the ultra doctrincsof the iiontifi-
cal syllabus. Some of the last months of his life Mazzmi
MAZZONI
MEADE
633
passed at Lugano, being alrciuly sprioiisly ill, and finally, in
search of a milder cliinule, lie went to I'isii. In IbliO a gen-
eral amnesty removed the sentence of death that had been
passed against him ; but in 1870 he was arrested for conspiring
with Oaribahli, and imprisoned at (iaeta for two nionllis. D.al
Pisa on Mar. 10, 187^. Mazzini often wrote in ICnglish and in
French, and his works in liolli these, as well as in his native
language, are remarkable for ability, for pwrily and vigor of
style. aii(l for an elevation of sentiment which, in spite of
great political indiscrel ions, distinguished him through life.
The most complete e<lition of his works is Scrilli editi e
inedilidi Giuseppe Mazzini, begun by himself and continued
by Satti (18 vols., 1801-91). A partial collection of his writ-
ings, including autobiographical papers, has ai)peared under
the title of Life and W'rilinys of Joseph Mazzini {I8!)l).
Ilis two principal works, Tltoiuihlson Dunorracij in Europe
and On the Duties of Man. nru in ■J<iseph Mazzini, iinunixiir
(1875). l''or an siecount of his polil ical career, see Thayer, 'The
Dawn of Italian Independence (WJ'A).
Revised by F. M. Colbv.
Mazzo'ni. firino: noet and scholar; b.at Florence, June
12, 18.")!l. lie studieil first at Florence, then at Leghorn
under the poet tiiuseppe C'hiarini, whose daughter he afler-
wanl niarrieil ; and finally at ISologna, under Carilucci. In
1881 he began his career as teacher of Italian literature in
various secondary schools. In 1887, after a short period as
private .secretary to the Minister of I'ulilic Instruction, he
was givrn a pla<e as I'rofessor of Italian Literature in the
University of I'adua. As a poet he has been largely domi-
nated by the inllucnce of Carducci ; but he is a scholar, and
his acquaintance with foreign literatures, notably Knglish,
has had a favorable effect upon his work. We have from
him: Kpigrammi di Meleaqro da Cadora (1880); In Bi-
blioteca (1882); Esperimenti melrici (1882); Poesie (1883);
iV'uore Poesie (1886) ; Easse(/ne lettertirie (1887) ; Fra libri e
carle (1887); L'n rilralto 'di Oesii (1887). Besides these
works, Maz/.oni has edited several works of Italian authors.
Cesarotti, Tasso, Monticchiello, Kucellai, etc. He has also
contributed much to the Suova Antulogia and other re-
views. A. K. Marsh.
Mazzoni, fiuino, called // Jfodenino: sculptor; b. at
Modeua, Italy, about the middle of the fifteenth century.
His work is interesting in comparison with that of Luca
della Hobbia and his successors, being all, so far as known,
in enameled anil colored tcrra-cotta, of extraordinary real-
ism ami generally of life size. In the Cluircli of San Gio-
vanid Decollato at Jlodena is a surprising and impressive
froup of the dead body of Christ mourned by the di-sciples.
n the crypt of the cathedral is a nativity, with four life-
sized figures besides the child. Works of his exist at Ferrara
and Naples, and others are ascribed to him; but his work
and life have not been adequately studied. D. at Modena
in 1518. KfssELL Sturois.
Mazziio'li, or Mnzziioln, Francksco, known as Tl I'armi-
ginnu a\u\ 11 Parntii/iiiiiino: painter; b. in I'arma, Italy, in
1503; he studied painting with his uncles, and at the age
of fourteen painted a remarkable picture, having as its sul)-
jcct the baptism of Christ, and afterward liecame a pu|>il
of Correggio. Five years later Pope Clement VII. was so
much impressed with his talents that he commissioned him
to paint the Sala dei I'ontilici, which (iiovanni da I'lline
had begun, lie also [lainted a C'irciimcisitm of C/irist for
the Pope. In 1527. after the sacking of Hnme, Mazzuoli
worked at Uologna in St. Petrouio; he painleil some of his
best porlrailsaud .Madonmi pictures here. bVsides producing
many wood-engravings and ilesigns for goldsmiths, lie then
returned to Parma to paint the archway of the choir of the
Madonna della Steccata. After returning to his earlier style,
and executing many fine works, he gave up painting for al-
chemy in order to enrich himself. This soon led him into
dillicullies, and being condemned to prison as an alchemist
and on other charges, he lleil to Casalmaggiore, where he
fainted a Madonna for St. Stephen's and a Uoman Luerelia.
lis nninia for alchemy again took possession of him. and,
after ilissipating his fortune, he died of melancholia at the
age of thirty-seven. Some attribute the discovery of en-
graving by aiiua-forlis to Parndgianino, because he was
the first Italian artist who etched his own subjects by this
method. The Germans, however, claim that DUrer was the
inventor. W. .1. Stillmax.
Moad [M. Eng. mede < O. Eng. meodo : O. II. Germ.
melu > ,Moil. Germ, meth < Teuton, medu : Lith. midus :
Welsh medd : Gr. iiiBv, wine : Sanskr. mddku, lioneyj : an
alcoholic drink made by fermenting a mixture of honey and
water or the washings of honeycotnb. It is sometimes' flav-
ored with aromatic substances. It is the same as liydromel
and melheglin. It was a favorite drink among the Norse
peoples of antiquity, and was known in ancient Greece and
koine. It is very intoxicating. According to Urande, it
contains but 7-32 percent, of alcohol, but the percentage is
of course variable.
Moad, Larkin Goldsmith: sculptor; b. at Chesterfield,
\. II., .Ian. 3, 1N35; removed in childhood with his parents
to Biattleboro, Vt., where he was educated, and first made
known his artistic genius by modeling in snow a colo.ssal
figure of an anirel. He became a pupil of Henry Kirko
Brown in Brooklyn, N. Y., for three years, after w'lrtch lie
produced in marble his Recording Angel (1855); executed
the colossal statue of Vermont, now placed over the dome of
the Slate-house at Montpelier (1857), and a statue of Ethan
Allen (1801). which stands in the portico of the same build-
ing. In 1802 he went to Florence, whence he returned to
the U. .S. some years later, bringing a model for a monument
to Linc<jlii, which was ordered for his tomb at Springfield,
111., and unveiled there Oct. 15, 1874. He has since executed
several imjiortant works.
Mead, Kichard, JI. D.. F. U.S. : physician; b. at Step-
ney, London, Aug. 11. 1673 ; was educated under Gra-vius at
Utrecht; studied medicine at Leyden and Padua; settled
at .Stepney 16'.)0 ; became physician to St. Tlmmas's Hospital
1703 ; anatomical lecturer at Surgeon's Hall 1711 ; attended
Queen Anne in her last illness; removed to Lomlon 1714;
was ailmitteii fellow of the College of Physicians 1716; was
consulted by the Government in 171!) as to the means of pre-
venting the spread of the plague to England; wrote a trea-
tise on the subject which ran through seven editions in that
year, and was charged in 1721 with conducting experiments
as to the effects of inoculation upon criminals condemned
to death, which resulted so favorably that the Princcs-ses
Amelia and Caroline were soon afterward inoculated. In
1727 Dr. Mead liecame physieian-in-ordinary to George II.
The extraordinary ic[iutation which Dr. Mead enjoyed for
half a century as the highest English medical authority
dateil from his work, A Mechanical Account of Poisons
(1703), and was strengthened by his intimacy with Boer-
haave. Several of his medical works were written in elegant
Latin; of these the best known was Medicina Sacra (1749),
on the principal diseases mentioned in the Bible, notable for
taking the position (then a novel one) that the demoniacal
possessions of the Gosjiels are to be considered cases of lun-
acy and epilepsy. D. in London, Feb. 10. 1754. His Medi-
cal M'orks. which had appeared in Latin. French, and Italian,
were published in English in 1702. See Maty, Authentic
Memoir of the Life of Jiicliard Mead (London, 1755).
Meade. Georoe Gordo.v: officer and scientist; b. Dec.
31. 1815, in Cadiz. Spain, his father being at the time U.S.
navy-agent at that port. After receiving a careful education
heenteredthe U. S. Military Academy at West Point in 1831,
where he graduated .lune 30. 1835, and was appointed in
the army a brevet second lieutenant I'f artillery, receiving
his full rank the same year. Kemaining in the army little
more than a year, during which time he was engaged in
Florida against the hostile Seminoles, he resigned Oct.,
1836. and entered upon the profession of civil engineer,
which he followed for aljout six years, being employed by
the (iovernmcnt to assist in an elaborate survey of the
mouths of the Mississippi river, making some original ex-
periments which led to important improvements of that river.
He was next engaged in the survey of the boundary-line
of Texas, and subsequently in the survey of the northeast
boundary-line between the U. S. and Great Britain, where
we find him in 1842. in which year he was reappointed in
the army a second lieutenant of topographical engineers,
and retained for some time upon the same duty; then in
river and harbor imiirovements. In the Jlexican war he
served with distinctii'ii on the staffs of Gen. Taylor and of
Gen. Scott in the battles of Palo Alto. Hesaea ile la Palina.
and Monterey, winning the brevet of first lieutenant for
the latter battle. In 1851 he was promoteil to be fii-st lieu-
tenant in his corps, captain in 18.56, an<i major in 1862.
After the close of the Jlexiean war he was engaged in light-
house construction, and during the four years preceding the
civil war had charge of the geodetic survey of the Great
Lakes, in which he addeil largely to his scientific and en-
gineering reputation. In .\ug., 1861, he was appointed a
brigadier-general of volunteers, and placed in command of
C34
MEADK
MEADVILLE
the spcoiul brispiilp of tlio Pcniisylvaiiia Rosorvo Corps, wliicli
c»n!>tilutoil a ilivisiim in the Annv of tlio I'otoiniu-. with
whiih Hriiiv ho rciiiaiiiril [■roinliu'iilly iilenlil'iiMl until the
elos»' of the war. In the A irs;inia IVninsular lanipai;;!! of
18(53 he look an active part in the bullies of Meehaiiii.-ville.
Gaines's Mill, anil Cilemlale. being severely wonnileil in the
latter. Kelurniii^ to the lielil as soon as his wounil would
iierinit, he was assi,i;neil to the ioninian<l of a division.
ami ilisliiijjuished hinisj'lf in the battles of South Mountain
and Antietani, being placed in ooiuniand of the First
Corps when (ien. Hooker was wounded at the last-named
battle, where he was later himself slightly wounded. For
these services he was promoted to be nuijor-general i>f vol-
unteers in Nov.. 1802. I'pon the recovery of (ien. Hooker
he returned to the comniand of his division, and in Dec,
1S62, at Fredericksburg, he led the attack which broke
through the riglit of Leo's line and penetrated far to the
n>ar, but being at length outnumbered, was driven back
with heavy loss. In the latter part of this month he was
promoted to the command of the Fifth Corps, and at Chan-
cellorsville (May. 1803) his sagacious advice so impressed
(ien. llookerlhat upon requeetiiig to be relieved, two months
later, he designatoil Gen. Meade as his successor, and on
June '.28, 18tj;J, he was appointed by President Lincoln to
eonunand in iliief the Army of the I'oloniac, then scattered
and moving hastily through Pennsylvania to the great bat-
tle-fiold of Gettysburg, at which lie comnuindcd, and on
July 1. 2, and 3 won a victory with whose glory and decisive
results his name will forever bo identified. From that time
he commanded the Army of the Potomac until the close of
the war. For his skill and valor at Gettysburg he received
the thanks of Congress, and was promoted in the regular
army to the rank of l)rigadier-general. The operations of
the army during the winter of 18(J;5-(54 were unimportant,
and before the return of the season for active operations
Gen. Grant had been placed in command of all the armies
with the rank of lieutenant-general, and had taken up his
headipiarters with the Army of the Potomac. During the
extraordinary campaign which opened in Jlay, 18()1, with
the battle of the Wilderness, and terminated with the sur-
render of the army of Northern Virginia, Meade's ability as
a commander was conspicuous; and his services were rec-
ognized by his iiromotion to the rank of major-general in
the regular army in Aug.. 18(54. After the close of hostili-
ties Moa<le was (July 1, 1865) assigned to the command of
the military division of the Atlantic, with his headciuartcrs
at Philadelphia; this i)ost he held, with one short period of
detached service in Givrgia, till his death, which occurred
in Philadelphia, Nov. 6, 1872. A colos.sal equestrian statue
of him was unveiled in Fairmount Park, Oct. 18, 1887.
Meade, William, D. D. : bishop ; b. in Frederick (now
Clarke) co., Va., Nov. II. 1789; graduated at the College of
New .lersey 18<)8. lie wasjirepareil for the ministry under
the direction of the Rev. W alter Addison, of Maryland, and
by Uishop Madison he was ordained in the Protestant Epis-
copal Church in 181 1 ; for many years he preached gratui-
tously near his homo, besides contributing freely to cduca-
tiomil and missionary work. His first charge was Christ
church, Alexandria. He became in 1829 assistant bishop
and in 1841 Hishop of Virginia ; was a recognized Low
Church leader ; opposed earnestly the secession of the State
from the Federal Union in ISlii, but when the separation
was practically effected imrticipated in the organization of
the Church in the Confederate Slates, and was the pri'siding
Hi^liop of the Southern Church ; was author of valuable (le-
votional works, and of Old Churches, Ministers, unit Fami-
lies in Viryinin (2 vols., 185(5). He contributed very much
to revive the Episcopal Church in Virginia, and in lH2;j
was largely inslnimontul in founding the Protestant Epis-
copal Theological .Seminary of Virginia. D. Mar. 14. 18(52.
Revised by \V. S. pKitltv.
.Meade River: a river tpf Alaska, flowing northward into
the .\rclie llci-an, S. W. of Point Harrow; discovered by
Lieut. Ray in 18h;1. It passes through a country rich in
lakes, lagiKms, marshes, and streams, covered in summer
with abundant vegctalion, but almost completely destitute
of tr<;*;s. M. VV. H.
Meadow [( ). Eng. mivd, plur. miidwe : O. Fries, mith :
<•. Low (iorm. nidlha; akin to Germ, vinlle, at different
ablaut grade, and conneeled with I,at, HirVirc, mow] : the
geniTal name for any trait of grass land in which the natu-
ral herbage is permanent and frei|Uenlly made into hay,
but more especially applied to the low grounds on the bunlis
of rivers, which are kept moist by their situation and occa-
sionally flooded bv (he rise of the waleis. Li the low, wet
meadows the lieriiage is coarser and loss nutritious than in
those which lie higher and which are never, or, only for
short intervals, flooded. For this rea>on upland meadows
are very valuable wherever there is a denumd for good hay,
lint as they are not recruited by annual flooding, some pains
must be taken to keep up their natural fertility. The best
means of preventing them from degenerating is. of course,
a frequent application of rich animal and vegetable manure,
spread over the surface either early in spring or immediately
after mowing, when showers are abundant and able to wash
the nutriment down to the roots of the grass. Artificial
manures, iiarticularly those rich in phosphates and nitrogen,
may also be used, and have the advantage of introducing no
weed seeds. Whether the hay is taken off by mowing or by
the grazing of cattle, the effect is nearly the same with re-
spect to the formation of a closer sward ; but it is a mistake
to suppose that pasturing can replace manuring. The urine
of cattle greatly promotes luxuriant vegetation in rainy
weather, but in hot and dry weather it does more harm
than good. The dung when ilr(ip])ed on the gra.ss is of
little value comjiared with what it would be if mixed with
straw, earth, or peat, or diffused through water in a tank.
If a natural meadow deterioi-ates and the grass becomes
mixed with rank weeds and mosses, the shortest method of
restoring it, and in most cases also the best, is to ])low it up
clean, and manure it during a course of tillage, without
taking very exiiaustive crops from it, and then to lay it
down again in a clean and enriched state by sowing the
best sorts of grass-seed. Another remedy is to harrow the
surface thoroughly in early spring and sow liberally a mix-
ture of grass-seeds, with a dressing of 100 lb. per acre
of nitrate of soda and 300 lb. of bone-meal. Where the
sward is thin it is prudent to mow before the seeds of the
grasses are formed, contrary to a common notion that in a
thin meadow the seed should be allowed to shed, in order to
increase the number of plants. Such an increase should be
effected by sowing .seeds produced on other ground, as the
ripening of the seed tends to exhaust the soil.
Revised by H. H. Wing.
MeadoH-lark : a bird of the oriole family (,fclerid<r),
having u handsonudy variegated |ilunuige of pale brown,
streaked with dark brown and blackish. The under parts
are bright yellow, and there is a black crescent on the
breast which is inerely indicated in the young. The bird
is not even a near relative of the lark, but possibly was
called lark on account of its song, while meadow indicates
its favorite haunts. The eastern meadow-lark (.'Slumella
magna) is common in the Eastern L^. S. West of the Missis-
sippi it is replaced by a paler race (S. inaffna neglecta). while
a ilarkei-colored variety (S. m. mexicana) occurs in South-
ern Texas and Northern Mexico. F. A. Lucas.
Meadnw-inouse : See Arvicola.
Meadow-saffnm : the common name of a small peren-
nial bulbous herb (.Calchicum aiihuiinale) of the natural
order MclanthadU'. growing wild in uioist soil in England
and Middle and Southern Europe. The mode of growth is
lieculiar. From the corui of one year there sprouts a new
one. from which, late in the summer, a stem grows, bearing
for thai season only flowers. These are from two to six in
ninnber, and are of a lilac or light-purple color. The fol-
lowing spring the young plant matures, bearing leaves and
fruit, and t he old corni slirivels. The leaves are large, broad,
and lanceolate ; the fruit is a three-celled capsule, containing
small lirown seeds about the size of black niustard-.seeds.
The conn and .seeds are used in incdiciue. Their virtues
depend upon a crystallizable principle called cnhhirine.
EuWAUn CUKTIS.
MeadvUle: city (founded in 1788); capital of Crawford
CO., I'a. (for location, sec map of Pennsylvania, ref. 2-.\): on
the Venango river, and the Pitts.. Sinn, and Lake E. and
the N. v.. Pa. and O. railways; 126 miles N. of Pittsburg.
It is in an agriiullural region; contains 15 churches, high
school, 2 graded si-hools, 2 conservatories of music, mercan-
tile college, 6 libraries (.Mlegheny College. Allegheny. Liter-
ary Society, Philo-Fraidilin Literary Society. High School,
Theological School, and Library, .Art, and Historical Asso-
ciation, wilh over 45.01)0 volumes in all), and 10 hotels ; and
has a mitioiial bank wilh capital of !? 100.01)0. 2 private banks,
ami 2 daily, (! weekly, 2 monthly, and 2 other periodicals.
The city is the seat of Allkuhk.nv Collkoe (</. i'., Meth-
odist Episcopal, opened 1815) and of a Cnilurian Thcolog-
MEAFOKD
MEASLES
635
ical School (opcneJ 1840). The iiiilustrics include the manu-
facluro of enjiini'S and boilers, nil-well siipplifs, wood man-
tels, leather belt inir. sash, doors, and blinds, and dislillerv
and brcwerv |iro(ln<ts. I'op. (IKSO) «,«UU ; (IS'JO) U,.WO ;
(1893) estimated with suVjurbs, 1;.',0<M).
Editor op " TKiiu'NK-UEPUnLicAN."
Meaford : a port on Xultawasasja Bay, the soulliern end
of tieorfjiun Hay, Lake Huron, (irey co., Ontario; the tor-
minus of a branch of the Grand Trunk Hallway (see map of
Ontario, ref, JJ-C). It is a poud purl, accessible for vessels
drawing; 12 feet, and has saw and grist mills anil an iron-
foun.lry. Pop. 2,000. M. W. H.
Meagher, Thomas Francis: revolutionist and soldier; b.
at VVaterford, Ireland. Aug. '.i, 1823; studied at the Jesuit
college of Clongowcs Wood, Kiklare, and at .Stoiiyhurst Col-
lege, England ; lieeanie a favorite orator with the Young Ire-
land party of 1816-48: wa.s sentenced to death for sedition;
but the sentence was commuted to transportation for life;
escaped from Tasmania in 1852 and went to New York ;
lectured with success in various parts of the U. S. ; was ad-
mitted to the bar, and wrote for the press ; became editor of
The Irish yews in 18.i6 : became in 1801 a captain and then
major of the Sixty-ninth New York Volunteers: raised a
brigade of Irish volunteers in 1802 : commanded this brigade
as brigadier-general 1802-63; left the brigade after the bat-
tle of Chancellorsville; was assigned in 1804 to the com-
mand of the district of Etowa; resigned May 1.1, 1805. In
1865 he became secretary of Montana ; was drowned by fall-
ing from a steamer into the Missouri river at Fort Henton,
Mont., July 1, 1807. Kevised by James Merclr.
Meal : See Fi,0fR.
Mcal-wonii : Sec Tenebrio.
Mean [M. Eng. meue, from f). Fr. meiien > Fr. mnyen
< Lat. media iiHS. median, in the mi<ldle, deriv. of meditts,
middle, mid; cf. Gr. iiiaaos: Eng. mid\: a term express-
ing a quantity lying between two other (piantities, and con-
nected with them by some mathematical law. There are
several kinds of mean values, the principal ones being the
arithmetical mean, the geometrical mean, and the harmonic
mean.
(1) The arithmetical mean of two quantities is one-half
their sum; the arithmetical mean of several quantities is
equal to their sum divided by their number ; it is the same
as their average. Thus we say that the mean temperature
of a day is equal to the sum of the temperatures at every
hour (or minute) of the day, divided by the number of
hours (or minutes) in the day ; and the mean temperature
of a year is equal to the sum of the mean temperatures of
every day in the year, divided by the number of days in the
year.
A mean by tceights is, in the simplest case, an arithmeti-
cal mean of quantities which are not all unequal. If Wi of
the quanlitics are each equal to a,, m-, of them to a^, j/ij
of them to Oj, etc., then the arithmetical mean of the whole
of them is
miOi -f m,a, + m, a, + etc.
m 1 + jn, + m) + etc.
This is called a " mean by weights " of the quantities a,. n„
a>, etc., the coellicient m,, OTj, m>, etc., being called weights.
The term is extended to the case when these coetlicients are
not whole numbers.
(2) The geometrical mean of two quantities is the square
root of their product : if several (pniiililies form a geomet-
rical progression, the first and last are called extremes, and
all the others are said to be geometri<'al means between them.
The ratio of the progression is equal to the »ith root of the
quotient of the last term by the tirst, n + I being the num-
ber of terms. Thus any ordinate of a circle is equal to the
geometrical mean of the corresponding segments of the di-
ameter.
(3) The harmonic mean of two quantities is the recipro-
cal of the arithmetical mean of the reciprocals of the two
quantities. Thus the harmonic mean of 6 ami 12 is
1 -i- i(ii + iSfX or S. The harmonic mean of two (pianlitii's
is a third proportional to their arithmetical and geomet-
rical means ; that is,
c + b . ,— .. ,— 2,ih
^- • V"A • • V«ft • „ :;rb-
(4) The arithmetien-geometrie mean is a mean of two
quantities formed by taking their arithmetical and geometri-
cal means, then the arithmetical and geometric means of
these means, and so on. The two sets of means will approach
the same limit, which limit is the arithmetico-geumetric
mean. '
The method of geometrical means is used in solving manv
practical problems. Thus to find the rale per cent, at which
a sum of money will douljle in a given number of years, we
regard the amounts at the ends of the successive years as
terms of a geometrical progression, and then find the value
of the corresponding ratio : this ratio (which is the annual
amount per cent.), diminished by 1, is the re(|uired rale.
Let it be required to find the rate per cent, at which a given
sum of money will double in 10 years : here there are U geo-
metrical means to be inserted bel^veen 1 and 2, and by the
rule we find the ratio equal to 'V^, or to 1'0T17 : hence the
re(|uired rale is '0717. Kevised by .S. Xewcomb.
Meares, Jonx: navigator; b. in England about 1756;
entered the navy in 1771 ; served against the French in the
West Indies; became captain in the merchant service after
the Peace of 1783; went to India; formed at Calcutta the
Northwest America Company for opening trade with Rus-
sian America; sailed from Calcutta in the Nootka, a ves-
sel of 200 tons. Mar. 12. 1786, with which he exphircd a
portion of the coasts of the present Territory of Alaska; re-
turned to the coast of China via the Sandwich islands;
later he reconnoitered the neighboring coasts, of which he
took possession for the crown of England. In 1789 he sent
two more vessels to join the Nootka, all of which were
seized by Spanish vessels on the ground that the coast and
adjacent waters belonged to Spain. Thereupon Meares
went to England to appeal to the House of Commons. A
fleet known as "the Spanish armament of 1790" was
equi|iped to bring Spain to terms, but before it sailed the
Spanish Government acceded to the demands of Great
Britain. He published Voyages made in the Years 17SS-S9
from China to the J^'orthwest Coast of America and China
(2 vols., London, 1790). ('apt. Meares s discoveries form the
chief basis upon which the British title to Oregon and Brit-
ish Columbia was based. He was made a commander in
1795. D. in London in 1809.
Mearns, Tlie : See Klncardineshire.
Measles [cf. Dutch mazelen and Germ, masem, me^es,
liter., spots ; cf. Eng. mazer, drinking-bowl, orig. spot or
excrescence on a maple-tree] : an acute, exceedingly con-
tagious eruptive disesuse of frecjucnt occurrence. It is most
commonly seen in the young, less frequently in the adult, and
uncommon during the first half year of life. Most people
are affected but once ; cases, however, of second, third, and
even fourth attacks are not very rare. It is due to a spe-
cific poison, as yet not i.solated, which exists in the exhala-
tions and secretions of the body, usually infecting by en-
trance of the active principle through Ihe mucous mem-
brane of the respiratory tract. The contagion is most
effective about the time when the eruption is first seen, but
it remains active until the skin has been restored by peeling
(desquamation) and successive development to its normal
state. The eruption consists of small, elevated, raspberry-
like red spots, gradually merging into one another in places,
and forming discolorations the size of a pea to that of a
dime, separated from one another by normal skin. It ap-
pears from a few to thirteen days after the contagion has
occurred, during which period of incubation a number of
premonitory symptoms usually develop to a greater or less
degree, such as a loose or barking cough, congested inflamed
eyes, nasal catarrh, headache, fever, etc. The eruption then
appears, first on the temples, forehead, and cheeks, pro-
gresses downward for a day or two, and slowly disapiiears
in about four ilays. The skin then peels off in exceedmgly
small scales (not in flakes as in scarlet fever), and returns to
a normal condition after a week. Durin"; this period the
cough will decrease in severity, the disc'liarge from nose
and bronchial tulies lessens, and the fever subsides. The
large majority of cases run this mihi regular course with a
very small mortality. There are cases and epidemics, how-
ever, in which great dangers in consequence of complica-
tions arise. The most frequent danger lies in an accom-
panying inflammation of the bronchial tubes and lungs,
which may prove fatal in a short time or result in a chronic
inflanimation, iierliaps consumption. Besides these, in-
flannnalions of the throat, ear (not as frequent as in scar-
latimi), eyes, kidneys, etc., may remain l>ehind. As these
affections are of a serious nature, every case, no matter how
mild, should be under the guidance of a physician. The
usual treatment of mild cases consists of rest in bed in a
636
MEASUUE
MEASURING-MACHINES
wcll-ventiltttcd cool room, Jiirkoiied sompwhat on account
of the inlUiiied eves, a|>|>ro|iriate diet, and wKiling bever-
ages. Where the cough is obstinate a niiUl ex|)ectorant is
iudioatwi ; a cliild two yeai-s of age may take twenty-five
drops of paregoric or a' grain of Dover's powder at bed-
time. Any eomplieations necessitate skillful medical aid.
When convalescence is complete a warm bath should be given
ami the clothing changed ; then the n)oni can lie funiigaleil
and thoroughly airi'd. In some cases there is a dillicully in
regard to distinguishing measles from scarlet fever, especial-
ly when the former is also complicated with s*>re throat of
a simple or diphtheritic character. The ushering-in symp-
toms belonging to the respiratory organs and eyes, as de-
scribed above, arc characteristic of measles, while scarlet
fever symptoms are seen principally in the mouth, throat,
and digestive apparatus. See KiLTii Diseases.
A. Jacobi and F. E. Sosdern.
Measure, or Bar [measure is via 0. Fr. mesure, from
Lat. mensu ra, a measuring, measure ; deriv. of meliri,
merisus. to measure]: one of the small regular portions into
which written or printed music is divided by bar-strokes.
These measures mark and regulate the accent and rhythm
of the notes included in them. In every regularly con-
structed melody the ear observes a certain rhythmical order,
under which the melody seems to form itself into clauses,
phrases, sections, or perimls. In the performance of each
of these portions there will also be noticed a constant series
of pulsations or accents recurring at equal distances or
lapses of time. These smaller divisions, marked out and
defined by the periodical strokes of the accent, are the
" measures ' or bars of modern music ; and the first note of
each such measure always bears the principal accent. A
faulty form of expression consists in the mistise of the word
time when only measure is meant. Thus we hear of "com-
mon lime," three-quarter lime (j), sixth-eighth time" (8), etc.
These terms are scientific misnomers. The time of a mu-
sical piece is its relative rate of speed, an idea entirely sepa-
rate from that of measure. The latter governs the accents
and rhythms from bar to bar, reproducing such accents
with continuous regularity quite irrespective of how fast
or slow the composition may be performed. The proper
expression, then, is common or J measure, f measure, etc.
In other languages richer than the English in musical tech-
nology we find this criticism sustained by their usage.
Dudley Ultk.
Measure nrDanincres: See Damages, Measure of.
Measures: See Wkiuhts and Measures.
Measuring-Miachincs: machines for measuring and
comparing units of length, usually called comparators.
When a given length is defined by the perpendicular dis-
tance between the parallel faces of the two cmls of a bar of
metal, this distance is determined by end-measure compari-
son. When the unit is defined by the perjiendicular dis-
tance between the initial and the terminal line traced upon
the surface of the bar, the distance is determined by line-
measure comparisons. The length of a bar of metal varies
with its temperature; and for this reason it becomes a mat-
ter of the utmost importance to determine the temperature
with exactness.
Two methods of determining the temperature of the bars
compared are employed, viz. : by measuring the tempera-
ture of a liquid in which the bars are immersed, and from
the readings of thermometers placed upon the graduated
surface of the metal, or, when feasible, inserted in holes
imide longitudinally in the bars. By the first method, the
bars arc sjiid to be compared under "liquid contact, and by
the second method, uiidtr air contact. Kach method has its
ailvantages and its disadvantages. W'hen water is employed,
the iinmcrsed bars of metal qui<'kly take the temperature of
the liquid, but the evaporation from its surface alwavs pre-
vents the leinpcrature of the liquid from rising to that of
the surrimndinp air, the cooling effect varying with the
temperature. At HO F. this iliffcrencc in temperature
amounts to nearly 'i\ On the other hand, in air-contact
comparisons, which are for the most pun a necessity in
practical work, the reading of the thermometer is depend-
ent upon the action of several controlling forces which are
not easily separated.
Fig. 1 gives a view of the instrument u-sed at the Inter-
national liureau of Weights and .Measures at Hreteuil, near
Paris, for comparing standards of nearly the .same length.
The bars to be compared are placed side by side in the water-
carriage, by which they arc brought in succession under the
two microscopes, which are placed at a distance apart nearly
equal to the length of the standards compared.
When, in addition to the comparison of the total lengths
of two standards, it is required to determine the errors of
subdivision into aliquot parts, a good comparator must, in
its construction, fulfill two conditions, viz. : (1) the car-
riage to which the microscopes are attached must move in
the same horizontal plane from end to end, and (2) it must
move in a straight line in that plane.
In Fig. 2 the end view of a comparator which fulfills
these conditions is shown at (4). The microscope-carriage
Fio. 2.— lOO-iiu-li c«miparator.
(12) moves upon the surfaces of flat ways, and is kept in
contact with the face of the vertical wall (4) by means of
spring-plugs idaced in the left side of the base, which,
pressing against the opposite vertical wall, keep the car-
riage in contact with the vertical face of the right wall.
This face is made a plane surface in construction.
Two methods of comparison may be employed in a com-
parator of 'his form. viz. : (a) the two-microscope method
and (6) the stop method. In the first method the micro-
scopes (9) and (11) arc placed at a distaiico apart nearly
equal to the distances to be compared. 'I'he bars to be
compared are placed upon a universal adjustment carriage
(not shown in this view), which rests upon the plate shown
at (10). By means of these ailjuslments the bars can be
brought into position successively under the two microscopes,
without contact with the hands of the observer. By the
slop method the stop-plate marked (.">) anil a corresponding
plate placed between (T) and (13) are placed at a distance
apart nearly equal to the distance to be compared. The
microscope-carriage is brought into cimtact with each stop
in succession, and the leaiiings of the micrometer of the
microscope (II) are taken for coincidence with the <lefining
lines upon the bar. This operation di'fines the relation of
the disluncc between the lines to llie ilistance between the
MEASl'KIXG-MACniNES
MEAT
037
stops. A similar operation being performed upon another
standard, each distance is tlius compared with tlie constant
distance between the stops.
The comparison of the subdivisions of a graduated scale
may be made either by means of two microscopes, both
Fig. 3.— Ciroular measuring-machine.
placed upon the carriage (12) at the required distance apart,
or by means of the slops. The latter method allows com-
parisons to be made between the most minute subdivisions,
while in the former the smallest subdivisions of the same
scalt'tlmt can be directly compared are about 2 inches long.
In end-measure comparisons the bars to be compared are
placed upon the adjustable supports (7) and (8). Contact is
made between the plugs with conical ends with the parallel
face-plates (i;j) and (1.5). The operation of comparison is as
follows : Plate (9) is firmly clamped to the bed-iilate of the
comparator and (13) is brought into contact witn (15). Co-
inciuence is then made with the initial line of the bar (6) by
means of (11). The microscope-carriage is then moved back
to allow the insertion of the bar numbered (7) and (8). Con-
tact of the end of the bar with (15) having been made, the
carriage is then moved forward and contact is maile between
(7) and (13), when the micrometer is read for coincidence
with the terminal line of the bar. It is evident that the
micros<-ope-carriage has moved from the position of contact
between (13) and (11), a distance equal to that between the
two faces of the end-measure bar.
In the circular measuring-machine shown in Fig. 3. only
comparisons of the subdivisions of the circle into aliquot
parts are required. Either the stop method or the two-
microscope method may be employed. The graduated disk
(7) revolves with a cylindrical shaft, to which it is attached,
an<l which is accurately fitted to a bearing attached to the
bed-plate (1). Four magnets (5) are attached to a deep
ring, which is attached to the bearing within which the
revolving shaft moves, and which has a movement in revo-
I
Flo. 4. — Etements of interferential comparator.
lution concentric with the motion of (7). The plates to
which these magnets are attached move between guides,
and contact with the under face of (7) is made by balancing
weights. The electric current clamps the grailuated disk (7)
to the circular frame and the projecting arm (4). The disk
is then moved forward a distance determined by the position
of two stops, one numbered (10) and the other like it to the
left of (4), but not shown in the figure. Breaking the circuit
of the current, the magnet arm is moved backward into
contact with the first stop without moving the disk (7).
Microscopes (8) and i'J) can be .set at any distance apart
required to obtain an aliquot subdivision of the entire cir-
cle, and by the revolution of the disk (7) comparison of the
lengths of the successive subdivisions can be made.
The Interferential Method. — By this method a given
length is determined by counting the corresponding num-
lx!r of wave-lengths in a ray of monochromatic light of
known refrangibility. The device by which interferences
of light are formed is called a refractometer. The instru-
ment with which such measurements are made has been
called by Prof. Michelson, who devised this method of ob-
servation, an interferential comparator.
The form of the interferential comparator shown in Figs. 4
anil 5 is the invention of Prof. Morley. His method pro-
poses the determination in a vacuum of the absolute coelTi-
cient of c.\iian.>iion of metals between the limits of the freez-
ing and the boiling points. The elements of the iuter-
firential comparator are shown in Fig. 4. Mirrors having
plane and parallel silvered surfaces are attached to the ends
of the bars shown in the figure. (6) is a mirror so silvered
that one-half of an incident ray of monochromatic light is
transmitted, and the other half is reflected. (7) is a plate
of unsilvered glass, by means of which rays reflected from
(5) and (8) pass through glass of the same thickness.
Fio. 5.— Interferential comparator.
A ray of monochromatic light enters (6). One-half is
transmitted through (6) to (5) and is reflected back to (6).
The utilized half of this reflected ray is again reflected from
(6) to the eye of an observer. In the same manner, the re-
flected half of the incident ray is reflecte<l from (8), and
transmitted through (6), reaching the eye of the observer in
front of (G). Since two rays which suffer internal and ex-
ternal reflection differ by half of a wave-length, the light of
the ray is extinguished by interference.
The bars to be compared are mounted as shown in Fig. 5.
Plate (14) is moved by a weight, which keeps it in contact
with a wedge-shaped cross-plate actuated by a precision-
screw. By means of interference phenomena, (.5) and (8),
and then (4) and !•), can be made equidistant from (G). The
motion of the bar numbered (8) and (9) in passing from the
first to the second position can be measured by counting
interference bands during the motion. A microscope and
graduated scale are shown at (10), with which distances
corresponding to an observed number of wave-lengths are
measured. Wiluam X. Kouers.
Meat, or Flesh : in the main, the muscular tissue of ani-
mals, though this is always accompanied by blood-vessels,
nerves, sinews, and fat. The constituents of meat are iu
general: (l)water; (2) albuu\en and albuminoids; (3) nitrog-
enous substances, not albuminoids, so-called extractive
matter; (4) nitrogen-free compounds, mostly Carbohy-
drates ((/. I'.) ; (5) inorganic salts. Meat free from fat con-
tains on the average about 75 per cent, of water. The albu-
men and albuminoids constitute alwut 20 per cent, of meat.
Among these substances are albuminoids soluble in water,
myosin, collagen, etc. The nitrogeui>us extractive matter
includes creatin, hypoxanthin, xanthin. and carnine. The
substances included under the head of nitrogen-free com-
pounds are certain carbohydrates, as glycogen and iiio-
site, and. further, sarcolactic acid, glycerinphosphoric acid.
When meat is treated with cold water, the inorganic salts,
the creatine and similar substances, together with the nitro-
gen-free compounds, pass into s<ilution. Smie of the albu-
minoids are also dissolved. If the meal is boiled with
water some of the albuminoids are coagulate<l, and not so
C3S
Mi: ATI I
MECIIAXICAI. CALCULATION
much of the inpat passes into solution as when tin- tcinpera-
ture is kept down. Lielufiffave niiioh attention to the study
of foo«ls, endeavoring; to determine which of the constitu-
ents of various kinds of foo<l are of special value for nutri-
tion. After an elal)orate study of the changes effected in
meat hy treatment with water, he conceived the idea that
the nulrilious constituents of meat mijrht l)e exlracteil in
countries when' meat is cheap and this exiract'transporteil
to other countries where meat is dear. His principal oljject
appears to have been to place within reach of the poor in-
habitants of Europe some of the valuable material goinj; to
waste in other parts of the world. See Extract ok JIeat
ami Food. Iua Remskn.
Mcaill : county of Ireland ; in the province of Leinster;
bordering on the Irish Sea. Area, 906 sq. miles. It forms
the eastern jwrtion of the great limestone plain which occu-
pies the whole cent nil part of Ireland. The ground is level
or gently undulating; the soil consists of a rich loam and
is very fertile. The occupations are almost e.\clusively ag-
ricultural, chiefly grazing and dairy-farming. Of the total
area about 92 per cent. (.")82.708 acres) are arable land. The
coast is about 10 miles long, low, ami shelving, but has no
important harbor. The beautiful river Boyne divides the
county into two nearly equal parts. Pop. in 1891, 76,987.
The Irish language is still spoken to a large extent in the
county. Principal town. Trim.
Meaux, mo: town; in the department of Seine-et-Marne,
Franee; on the Marne; 2S miles X. E. of Paris (see map of
France, ref. 3-F). It is the see of a bishop, and has a fine
cathedral with a monument of Bossuet, who was bishop
here.- It has large manufactures of cottons, calicoes, sail-
cloth, vinegar, and saltpeter, anil numerous flour-mills on
the Marne from wliieh great quantities of flour are sent to
Paris. Pop. (1891) 12,704.
Mecca (probably the anc. Makaraba of Ptolemy ; possi-
blv the Mt.tha of Gen. x. 30): chief city in the vilayet of
Iledjaz, Arabia; in lat. 21° 30 N. and Ion. 40° 8' E. ; 48
miles E. of Jeddah. its port on the Hed Sea (see map of Per-
sia and Arabia, ref. 7-C). It is situated in a narrow and
barren valley inclosed by naked hills. Though it has neither
trees, squares, public buildings, nor paved streets, and is
dusty and muddy by turns, Mecca is handsomer and better
built than most Eastern cit ies. As birt hplace of Mohammed
it is the most celebrated citv of Islam. It also contains the
Kaaba (a. v.), around whicli has been built the immense
mosque El Ilaram, begun by the Calipli Omar (C34-644),
added to by various caliphs, sherifs, and sultans, so that
now the original form is lost in an agglomeration of build-
ings. EI Ilaram has 7 minarets, more than any other
mosque in the world, and 19 gates. According toBurck-
hardt it surrounds an oblong sciuare 2.50 paces long and 200
broad, none of the sides of which are straight. The roof is
sustained by 5.54 pillars. Inside the mosque is the well
Zemzem. (Jver 200,000 pilgrims visit Mecca every year.
The city has no manufactures or trade properly speafeing,
the main support of the inhabitants being derived from let-
ting rooms to the pilgrims and supplying their necessities.
Pop._80,000, with loilging-room for three times that tiumber.
In 1.517 .Mecca and .Medina iiassud under the control of the
Ottoman sultans, part of whose title has since been Servant
of the two Holy Cities. In 1803 .Mecca was pillaged by the
Wahabees, a fanatical sect of Mussulman reformers,' and
was held by them till their expulsion in 1818 by Mcliemet
Ali. Sec Burton's Pilqrimaye to El Medinah and Meccah ;
Dcs Verger's Arabie; Nawab Sikander's Pilgrimage to Mec-
ca, translated from the Urdu ; and especially Burckhardfs
Travels in Arabia; also see IIadj and Meiiesiet Ali Pasha.
E. A. Grosve.nok.
Mecca Balsam, called also Balm of (iilcad: the resin-
ous exudalioii from a small evergreen shrub, known to bot-
anists as Jiahnmodendron giltadense, that grows on the
banks of the Ued Sea. In the liast it is much employed in
medicine and perfumery, but the inferiority and simrious
character of the material sent under its name into Weslcrn
commerce have led to the almost entire abandonment of its
use. I. i{.
Mechanical Cnlciilatinn : the employment of mechan-
ical (levices for assisting arithmetical computations. The
nraolice dates from very early limes, as is shown, in fact,
by the etymology (hat, chIc'uIii.% a pebble), which indi-
cates that the earliest "calculations" of a rude people were
effected by means of an actual counting of grains or bits
of stone, each representing a unit of the staple of traffic.
They would not be employed, however, until the number of
the 'fingers on the two hands, which forms the basis of tho
decimal notation, was exceeded. The second step in the
development of arithmetic must have been to make a single
pebble or grain represent a group of 5 or 10 iinit.s. The
third step would be reached at a much later period by mak-
ing a pebble or grain (of larger size or different color) re]i-
resent 100, when a problem of addition involvinjj many
thousands of units could be mechanically performed by the
aid of a small number of pebbles of three different kinds,
the operation of "carrying ten " being mechanically repre-
sented by the substitution of a unit of the larger denomina-
tion for 10 of the smaller. This was the principle from
which originated the abacus. It is thus seen that mechan-
ical methods of computation preceded the perfection of
mental arithmetic and the use of writing for the same pur-
pose. Plato invented a sliding sguare to solve the problem
of two mean proportionals, and Mcomedes in the first cen-
tury B.C. deviseu a conchoid curve for the solution of the
same problem, as well as for trisecting an angle. The
Greeks and Romans employed the abacus for their ordinary
jiroblems of arithmetic, and the same or similar instruments
continued in common use in Southern Europe till the end
of the fifteenth century, and in England still later, until
they were superseded by written arithmetic. (See Abacus.)
Gunter's scale and Napier's bones, invented in the seven-
teenth century, were extremely ingenious contrivances, but
of little practical use from the limited nature of their oper-
ation. Blaise Pascal, constructed in 1G42, at the age of
nineteen, a machine for performing the routine operations
of arithmetic. It consisted of a group of wheels and cylin-
ders. On the convex surfaces oi' the latter were inscribed
the numbers with which the operations were to be per-
formed, consisting of the ten figures of the decimal sys-
tem, and the numbers adapted for the addition and sub-
traction of livres, sous, deniers. These cylinders were con-
nected by wheels in such manner that a single revolution of
one wheel produced, according to the character of the de-
sired operation, ten, twelve, or twenty revolutions of the other
wheels. The first cylinder was turned by hand, and the
others were moved in conformity to the desired arithmetical
rule. In 1673 Leibnitz described a machine for a similar
purpose, said to have been superior to Pascal's in i)ractical
operation, but too complicated an<i expensive to be brought
into use. In 1822 Charles Babbage read two paper? be-
fore the Royal Astronomical Society descriptive of a ma-
chine he had invented for solving mathematical problems of
some complexity, and at the same time printing its own re-
sults by means of types. This would evidently have been
of incalculable service in the tedious toil of computing as-
tronomical tables, and the society therefore memorialized
the Government for pecuniary aiil in constructing a ma-
chine. The subject was referred to the Royal Societv, and
a committee, of which Ilerschel, Davy, Young, and NVollas-
ton were members, reported in favor of the invention. The
Government thereupon made a liberal grant, but the plan
of the machine was extremely complicated, and was more
than once modified, so that artisans had to be specially edu-
cated to undei-stand it. Large sums were advanced from
from time to time for many years, but the machine was
never completed, and in 1843. after twenty years' labor and
a fruitless expenditure of i'l 7,000, the Government refused
to countenance any further outlay, and the uiifinislicd "dif-
ference engine," as it was called, was placed in the museum
of King's College, London. Had the plan of the inventor
been successfully carried out, this machine would perform
all the operations of simple arithmetic on any numbci-s
whatever; combine quantities algebraically or aritlinictic-
ally in an unlimited variety of relations: use algebraic signs
according to their proper laws, and develop I he consequences
of those laws; arbitrarily subslitule any formula for any
other; effect processes of differentiation and integration on
functions in which the operations take |ilace by successive
steps; execute the operations of the combinatory analysis,
and coint>ule the numbers of Bernouilli. The cardinal prin-
ciple of Babbage 's machine is the fact that if we begin with
a table of logarithms or sines, then make a second talile con-
sisting of the differences between the successive nuiidiers of
the first, then a third from tlu' differences of the seeoniJ,etc.,
we ultimately reach a tal)le in which all the lunnbers are tho
same. Heversing the process, and the first number of each
table being given, the first table could bo recovered by a se-
ries of additions starting from the table of eipial numbers.
MKCIIANICAL ENGIXEER
SIECIIANICAL POWKUS
639
Moroovor, tlie machine stamps each figure as fast as onlcii-
luted upon a stereotypeil phito, so that no errors of the press
eoulil be made in the publication of tables thus calculated.
A machine for elTccting the same object upon a different
Iirinciple was begun by two Swedish brothers, (ieorge and
Cdward Scheutz, in r8:i4. ami successfully completed in
1H5:}. It was exhibited in liOiidon in 18r)4, and in Paris in
185"!. and was purchased by the Dudley Observatory at A Iban y
in 1856. It calculates to fifteen pia<'cs of decimals, impress-
ing upon lead the result to eight places, at the rate of Iwen-
ty-flve figures per minute. Uy taking out certain wheels
and putting in others it will calculate and record in pounds,
shillings, and pence; in degrees, minutes, and seconds: in
tons, humlreihvcights, and pounds, and in many other modes
of notation. Some of the results obtained by the use of
jiabbage's inacliine were used by him as illustrations in his
JVtn//» Bridge.water Treatise (London, 1838).
Revised by S. Newcomb.
Mechanical Eng'inoer: See E.ngiseeeisq.
Mechanical Powers: certain elementary forms of me<-h-
anism in which the simplest possible material connection
between two points or surfaces is such that the action of
a force applied at one point in a given direction is caused
to overcome a resistance at another noiiit in any required
direction. In its general acceptation tne term " mechanical
power" implies also the condition that an ''advantage" is
gained by the use of one of these elementary machines; or,
jn other words, that a small force acting through a given
space may be made to overc()me a greater force acting as a
resistance through a less space. When increase of motion
is the princijial object, a force acting through a given space
may overcome a less resistance acting through a greater
space. Where a simple transfer of the direction or point of
application of a force takes place, without any possible
"advantage" in either of these respects, the material con-
nection between the points of application of the power and
resistance does not necessarily involve the employment of
one of the elementary machines or mechanical powers.
In discussing the motions which arc transmitted by means
of elementary machines it is unnecessary to take into ac-
count the nature of the forces which act upon them. These
may be any of the ordinary forms in which force exhibits
or is employed by men and animals, such as gravity, inertia,
friction, etc. ; one general principle being sufficient for all —
viz., that in any elementary machine the product of the
force or effort into the distance passed over by its point of
application must be ecpial to the product of the resistance
multiplied by the distance passed over by its point of
application. If the force or effort be a liquid pressure act-
ing on a surface, the resistance being a corresponding liquid
pressure acting on a different surface, then the volumes
through which the two surfaces move under the influences
of the action and reaction must be equal. This latter enu-
meration of the general principle is applicable especially to
hydrostatic machines.
Under these general definitions and conditions all the
elementary machines which are met with in mechanical
constructions, or which are employed by man and animals
in locomotion, may be arranged under four heads, each de-
pending, for the calculation of the work performed by the
moving force and the resistance, upon certain elementary
theorems of mechanics. The classifications are the lever;
the inclined plane ; \.\\c jointed links (called also the funic-
ular machine, and also the "toggle-joint"): and the hydro-
static press. \\\ machines of artificial construction and all
movements of animals in locomotion depend on the ac-
tion of these simple machines or mechanical powers, either
in their elementary forms or in various combinations.
The lever is based on the theorem of moments of forces,
and involves a rotation of a material, rigid bar or form
about a point called the fulcrum. The moment of a force
is the product of the force measured in units of force
(jK)unds), multiplied by the perpendicular distance from its
line of action to the center of rotation, the fulcrum. What-
ever be the directions of the effort or i>ower, anil the resist-
ance, applied to two points of a lever, the products obtained
by multiplying each by the perpendicular distance from its
line of action to the fulcrum must be equal. The pressure
upon the point of rotation in the fulcrum acts as a third
force, which at anv instant maintains the other two in cqui-
librio. To find this pressure in any given direction, it is
only necessary to find the components of the other two
forces, which act in directions parallel to the given direc-
tion, and the equilibrium is established by the general theo-
rem of parallel forces — viz., the resultant of two parallel
forces is always equal to their sum if they act in the
same direction, anil to theirdifferencc if they tict in contrary
directions. This resultant in the case of the lever is the
pressure upon the fulcrum, acting in the direction of the
greater for<-e if the parallel components of the forces act in
opposite directions, and in the common direction of the
forces if they act in the same direction. All problems of
levers, whether they Vje straight or bent, and whether the
forces applied to them are parallel or oblique, may be solved
by the application of the preceding rules.
The wheel-and-axle and the movable pulley are elemen-
tary machines, depending for their action on the principle
of the /((rr, although sometimes classed a.s separate mechan-
ical powers. The fixed jiulley merely changes the direction
and point of application of the force applied to the cord
passing over it, but no other advantage results from it. In the
case of the movable pulley the fulcrum is movable, and acts
as an instantaneous axis, the resistance acting between the
power and the fulcrum.
The inclined plane and the jointed linls depend for their
action on the theorem of the parallelogram of forces. Rep-
resenting the relations between the height, length, and base
of an inclined plane by the altitude, hypothemise, and base
of a right-angled triangle, the relation between the forces
which cause a sliding of a body on an inclined plane is as
follows: If the effort or power be applied parallel to the
length of the plane, and the resistance parallel to the height,
the effort will be to the resistance as the height of the plane
to the length. When a man mils a barrel up an inclined
plane into his wagon, he obtains not only the advantage of
the inclined plane, but also the advantage of rolling over
sliding friction. The total useful work performed, leaving
friction out of consideration, is the work of elevating the
weight of the barrel from the ground to the wagon ; and
this total work can in no way be avoided. It is, however,
accomplished by a small muscular effort exerted through a
greater space than the height of the wagon, the diminution
of the effort necessary depending on the length of the plane.
The wedge is an example of an inclined jjlane. When a
pressure is exerted against the end of a wedge to force it
forward, the resistance against the face of the wedge will be
to the pressure applied to the end as the distance through
which the wedge moves is to the distance, perpendicular to
the face, through which the material yields to the action.
The screw is an inclined i>lane in the form of a helix
wound around a cylinder, and its action is determined by
the same laws.
The jointed links, in which the relation between the power
and resistance is found by the application of the parallelo-
gram of forces, is not so often found in artificial construc-
tions as some of the other elementary machines, but it
possesses especial interest in being found applied in the
mechanism of all walking or leaping animals. A few arti-
ficial constructions, among which may be named Hicks's
[iress. are based (m this mechanical power, the elements of
which are two rigid bars or links jointed together, the effort
being applied at the joint in such a manner as to enlarge the
angle between the bars. If one bar rest against an immov-
able point of resistance, and the other be guided in a given
direction, when the two bars approach a straight line the
action of the force at the joint is to overcome a much greater
resistance at the end of the guided bar. A succession of
jointed links, as in the hinder legs of leaping animals, not
only multiplies motion, but enables the animal to exert the
grejitest effort in the direction of the terminal motion.
The hydrostatic press is an elementary machine which de-
pends for its action on the principle of distribution of pres-
sures through the medium of a liquid. If a closed vessel
filled with a liquid be tapped at any point, and a small
piston be inserted in such a manner that an external pres-
sure may be applied to the piston, no liquid being allowed
to escape — when such a pressure is applied, every i>art of
the internal surface of the vessel, equal in area to the piston,
will feel the additional pressure inilependentlv of all the
other parts. If one end of the vessel be closeil by a tight
piston movable outward, the total additional pressure upon
the surface of this larger piston will be eiiuivalent to the
sum of all the additional pressrres upon its jiarts, each of
these small parts lieing equal to the area of the smaller
piston. The force reipiired to resist the total additional
pressure on the large piston will then be as many times
greater than the force applied to the small piston as the
640
MECHANICS
MECIIAN'US, ANIMAL
giirfaoe of the larger is greater than the surface of the
smaller piston. If motion take place, the extent of motion
of the two pistons must follow the inverse of this rule.
The distance passed over by the two pistons will be in-
versely proportional to their areas. See Hyobostatic
Press'.
t>niinarv machines, whether they be prime movers— \. e.
wliotlier they receive directly and utilize the action of mus-
cular force, the force of gravity acting through falling water,
the wind, or the moving force of heat — or whetlier they be
secondary machines driven by prime movers, are elementary
machines, or combinations of the elementary machines which
have been named. They consist generally of a framework
for sustaining and supiwfting the moving pieces, and certain
connections between the moving pieces by which motion is
communicated from one moving piece to another, or from
the driving point to the working point. The principles ac-
cording to which such motions are communicated are based
on the laws of motion (see Motion), and have been fully de-
veloiied for all ordinary machines in modern works on
the principles of mechanism. Prof. Hobert Willis. M. i\..
V. K. S.. of the University of Cambridge, is entitled to
the credit of liaving been the first to develop this interest-
ing and useful branch of practical mechanics into a special
science.
.Merhanlcs [Gr. /ijjxoviiofs. mechanical, pertaining to ma-
chines or contrivances, deriv. of ixrixairli, device, contrivance,
machine] : a term originally employed to designate the
principles of action of machines; the science which treats
of the nature of forces and their action on bodies, commonly
called the science of mechayiics. having derived its origin
principally from practical operations rather than from theo-
retical abstractions. The proficiency of the ancients in prac-
tical mechanics is sulTiciently evinced by the descriptions of
machines which have been preserved in their writings. In
the construction of temples, pyramids, bridges, aqueducts,
and other great works, the elementary machines must have
performed an important part ; indeed, some ideas of mod-
ern physics seem to have entered into the conceptions of
the old Greek philosophers, such as that of the elements
or atoms, the ether, and the idea that all things arc in in-
cessant motion. Archimedes (287-213 B. c.) may even be
said to have laid tlie foundation of theoretical mechanics in
his investigations in regard to the lover, centers of gravity,
etc. The theory of Aristotle, that a body contains in itself
the principles of rest and motion, uninfluenced by external
causes, continued, however, to be received until the time of
(ialileo (1.564-1642). Galileo disputed the ideas of Aristotle,
and by experiments on falling bodies showed the existence
of a force independent of the falling body which produced
a velocity of motion dependent on the time of descent,
and not on the mii-ss of the body. After this the science
made slow but gradual progress, and was extended in its
signification beyond the principles of mere mechanical con-
trivances to embrace the laws of force and motion as exhib-
ited in universal phenomena. With this signification the
science became enlarged and subdivided, writers on mechan-
ics dividing the subject into two parts — statics, embracing
the principles or theorems which apply to bodies at rest
under the action of natural forces ; and dynamics, embrac-
ing the principles of action of bodies in a state of motion.
The latter includes kinematics, which treats of the geomet-
rical theory of motion, without any reference to applied
forces. (See MoTiox.) There are also further subdivisions
of the subject according to the nature of the body acted
upon. See IIvurostatics, IIydral'ucs, Pneumatics, and
TllKRMOI)VNA.Mlrs.
A brief summary of the laws and principles of the science
of dynamics under this broad acceptation has been given
under Dynamics (q. v.), and it only remains to follow a little
further the enunc lations of these general principles, and to
give a brief history of their discovery or <levelopincnt.
iJenedetti (1.5;i()-!J0) was the first to discover the true raiise
of acceleration in falling bixlics in jiropcrly considering the
principle of inertia, it having been previously supposed that
every movement was due to an independent and additional
exercise of force.
Of the principles which form the fonmlation of the science
of mechanics onlynamics — viz., the principle of inertia, the
equality of action and reaction, the ni>n-de|)endence of the
effect of a force on the previous motion acquired by a boily,
and the independence of the effects of forces which act si-
multaneously upon the same body — the first was recognized
bv Descartes (1.596-1650), who, observing the acceleration of
b<)dies moving in straight lines, called the force of continu-
ance the indwelling force of the matter, a properly called by
Newton (1642-1726) inertness, while the resistance to change
due to the body alone he called inirtiii.
According to Lagrange, Guido Ubaldi (1.54.5-1607) was the
first to make an exposition of the principle of virtual veloci-
ties. Tlie virtual velocity of a ponit due to a force is the
motion of the point in a right line to a position infinitely
near, projectea upon the line of the force ; and the virtual
moment is the product obtained by multiplying the virtual
velocity by the intensity of the force. This principle has
been useful in investigating the analytical conditions of
cciuilibrium of a system of forces.
Galileo announced the principle that two forces are in
equilibrium if their moments are equal and op[ioscd, the
moments being pro[iortioiial to the products of the forces
by their virtual velocities. The conception of the parallelo-
gram of forces is due to Galileo, and its subseouent applica-
tions to motions and velocities to Descartes, Wallis, Rober-
val, and others.
A theorem which hits been most useful in analytical in-
vestigations, called the Theorem of d'Alembert, is found in
most text-books. The principle is that at every instant the
entire amount of force applied to a body is absolutely
equivalent to the sum total of the effects produced.
The property called inertness — viz.. that if there be no con-
tinuous action of forces upon a mass or material point.it
either remains at rest or moves unil'ornily in a straight lino
— was announced by Descartes, lluyghens, and Newton,
The following are general theorems relating to any system
whatever :
1. The center of gravity of any system acted upon by ex-
terior force moves in the same path as if the whole mass of
the system Were concentrated at that point, and as though
the exterior forces were transported parallel to themselves
to that point. This theorem shows that the motion of a
material system may be traced by referring it to the motion
of its center of gravity regarded as a material point. As a
familiar application of this general theorem, suppose a shell
to be fired from a cannon. Its path will at first be approxi-
mately a parabola. If it explodes in its course, the resist-
ance of the air being left out of consideration, the paths of
the separate pieces will diverge, but the path of the common
center of gravity of all the pieces will remain unaltered.
The explosion of the powder, being only an exertion of in-
ternal forces, can not alter this path ; it is only when one of
the pieces strikes an obstacle that the path of the center
of gravity of the whole is changed, a new external force be-
ing thus introduced. Applied to the planetary system, this
theorem shows that if the influence of the fixed stars be dis-
regarded, the center of gravity of the system must be either
at rest or moving in some path due to forces external to the
system.
2. The theorem of moments of momentum may be enun-
ciated as follows: "The increase in the sum of the moments
of momentum of a system in reference to any axis during a
given time is equal to the sum of the numients of all the
im|mlses of the exterior forces with reference to the same
axis in the same time."
The principle of the indestructibility of force or the con-
servation of energy is of recent development, although dis-
cussions of the subject may be found in the works of the
older writers. Some modern authorities give Newton the
credit of anticipating the more recent discoverers. The in-
vestigations of Carnot. Clapeyron, Mayer, Colding, Joule,
Clausius. llelmholtz, Kankiiie, and Thompson have served
to definitely establish the principle. See Energy and I-'okce.
The more recent establishment of the principle that the
laws of dynamics embracing motion and force iiold true as
well for the minute invisible motions of the particles of
bodies as for the great masses of the solar system has had a
most important effect on the development of the physical
sciences. The energy of a body is no longer confined to
its sensible movements as a whole, but embraces the liv-
ing force due to inolcculur motions which give rise to the
l)henoinena of heat; and the sciences of heat, electricity,
magnetism, chemistry, and even astronomy, have derived
new interest and experienced a great expansion from a
knowledge of the above principle.
Revised by R. A. Kouerts.
Merlinnirs, Animal: that branch of mechanics which
treats of the muscular force of unimuls as exerted in loco-
MKCIlANK'SIiL'HC
MECK[iKNlJUKG DEC'LAUATION
641
motion. Tlio iiuisciilar force is utilizcil llii()ii},'li cither one
of the elcineritiiry iiiuchiiius or iiu'chaiiicai |M>w('rs (see Me-
CUASICAL I'owEKs), Or Uiroiigh a sim|ilu cMmiliiiiutiim of two
or more of them. Tlie employment of tliese elementary
machines su|iposes a resistance or point of support whicli hy
its reaction enal)les the macliine to act. In wallving or leap-
ing on tlie ground the "joinleii links" or " knee-joint " is
the simple machine employed when the body is raised from
the ground, and the lever when a limb only is raised or
moved, the earth furnishing thi' resistance in the first case,
and the body in I hi' secoiul. The greatest etl'ort of an ani-
mal is reipiired in leaping or in hauling a load. The appli-
cation of the principle of the lever involves the consequence
that the bones of the limbs iti these efforts sustain great
cross-strains, which from their structure they are not calcu-
lated to l)ear. The bones of the hind leg of the horse, for in-
stance, are arranged as in the engraving, and whether in
leaping or in hauling a load (in- rather pushing a load, be-
cause the priiu-ipal effort is a pushing operation, the load
being attached to the shoulder), the action of I lie muscles of
the hinder jiarts is to straighten out the liidis which form the
hind legs. The ground gives a point of support, but not a
fulcrum in the sense of the lever ; and instead of the great-
est effort being a cross-breaking effort, it is transmitted
through the axes of the bones, in which direction, as short
columns, they are capable of withstanding great pressure.
When the limbs are raised from the grouiiil the boily acts as
the point of resistance, ami the bones
act generally as levers; Init when the
grounil forms the jjoint of resistance,
the principle of the lever does not fur-
nish the means of calculating the effort
necessary to elevate the weight of the
body. The jointed construction shown
in the sketch corresponds to the device
known as "lazy tongs" in mechanics,
and acts in the same manner, except that
nniscular force is applied at each joint.
When this system of jointed links is ex-
tended to nearly a straight line, a very
slight muscular effort at each joint trans-
mits a powerfid force through the axis
of the extended system in the direction
of motion. Swimming aninuds usually
make use of the "inclined plane," com-
bined with the lever or the jointed links,
although some animals, like the cuttle-
fish, make use of an ajiparatus which in-
volves the principle of the hydrostatic
press: a quantity of water being drawn
into the body by a large opening, and
then ejected by a smaller opening with n greater velocity.
The operation of flying is nearly identical, on mechanical
principles, with that of swimming, the only differences being
those which arise from the lesser density of the medium in
which the motion takes place. In many motions of animals
the inertia of the body or of parts of the body acts as an in-
stantaneous resistance by which the motion is accomplished.
The kinematics of animal movements, or the mere motions
of the bodies and extremities of animals, have lieen made the
subject of extende<l experiments, and have been fully treated
by various authors. (See Gaits.) The dynamics of animal
movements, or the laws of the forces exerted, have received
less attention. The latter .study is the more important, as
the structure of nearly all animals is ba.sed, to some extent,
on their mode of progression, and the conditions under
which they are obliged to move from place to place, or the
mode in which they procure food, defend themselves, or es-
cape from their enemies.
The general law that in animal locomotion the same ele-
mentarv machines are employed, and the same mechanical
principles applied, as ill artificial constructions made by
man, furnishes the basis of the study of animal movements.
Revised by K. A. Roderts.
Mcphiinicihiirg : borough (incorporated in 1S2G); Cum-
berland CO., Pa. (for location of county, see map of Penn-
sylvania, ref. O-F) ; on the Cumberland Val. Uailroad ; 8
miles W. of Ilarrisburg. It is in an agricultural and mining
region; has a variety of manufactories; and contains the
Irving Female College (liiithcran, chartered in 1850). gradjd
schools, library, 2 national banks with combined capital of
fl.')0,00t), and a monthlv and 4 weekly newspapers. Pop.
(1880)3,018; (ISIIO) ;!,G!li.
267
Mccliaiiirsvillc; a village of Virginia, about "miles N. E.
of l;jchmi>nd, Hhi<di gives its name to a battle fought near
by between the Confederate and Federal forces June 26,
ls()2, also known as the battle of Heaver Dam Creek (seo
map of \irginia, ref. (i-ll). On the authority of Gen. Long-
street, .Swinton places the loss of the Confederates between
3,000 and 4,000. The Federal loss was less than 400. See
Gaini;s's Mii.i.. Battle of.
Mcohanlcville ; village; Saratoga co., X. Y. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of New York, ref. 4-J); on the Hud-
son river, the Champlain Canal, and the Del. and Hudson and
the Fitchburg railways; 18 miles S. of Saratoga, 20 miles
X. of Albauv. It has good water-power, manufactories of
linen thri'ail and of other articles, a national bank with
capital of ij;.J0,OO0, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880)
1,2G.>; (I8!»0)2,G7U.
Met'liitar: See Mekhitar.
MpcIiUm. mek'lin (Germ. Jfcclirin, Tr. Maluies): city of
lielgiuin ; in the province of Antwerii, on the Dyle ; 14
miles S. S. K. of the city of Antwerp (see map of Holland
and Hclgium. ref. i)-K). It is the see of the archbishop-
primate of lielgiuin, and has an ecclesiastical seminary and
several other educational institutions. Its cathedral is a
magnificent edifice erected in the twelfth century, and
adorned with paintings by Rubens and Van Dyke. Mechlin
has manufactures of linen, woolens, needles, lace, and beer.
In the fourteenth century it was one of the manufacturing
centers of Europe. Pop. (1891) 51,558.
Met'lioiK'iin : Sec ^Miciioacan.
Mocklenhnrg Declaration of Independence: a series
of resolutions published in T/te Hfgi.ster at Raleigh, N. C,
Apr. 30, 1810. ]iurportiiig to have been adopted by the citi-
zens of .Mecklenburg in that State on Way 20, n75. The
res(jlutions contained several phrases almost or quite iden-
tical with ]iortions of the famous Declaration of July 4,
177G. Before the publication of 1819 the general public
had never heard of the Jlecklenburg resolutions, but now
they were widely copied throughout the country, and every-
body began to ask questions. Was it possible that such
a series of resolutions had actually been passed thirteen
months before the Declaration of July 4. 1770, and that the
fact had been concealed from the ]iatriotsof the Revolution I
John Adams, who first learned of the resolutions in 1819,
declared in a letter to Jefferson that if he had known of
them in 1776 he would have made the halls of Congress ring
with them, and that they would have been published in
every Whig newspaper in the colonies; and Jefferson in
reply expressed his sur[>rise that Adams should not have
seen at a glance that the jniblication was fraudulent. From
that day to this thc^ question as to whether the resolutions
were actually passed by the citizens of Mecklenburg has
been in dispute. In 1831 a committee of the Legislature
was instructed to investigate all the questions involved, and
the results of these investigations convinced a large major-
ity of the people of the State that the claim was established.
In accordance with that popular belief. May 20 was made a
State holiday in North Carolina. On the other hand, sev-
eral historical scholars have investigated the subject with
care, and have arrived at an opposite conclusion. President
J. C. Welling, of the Columbian I'nivei-sity of Washington,
looked into the evidence with clmracteri.-tic thoroughness,
and published the results of his researches in The JS'orlh
American Bevieiv in 1874. The conclusion which he reached
was that no such resolutions were passed in 177.5. A similar
conclusion was reached by an independent study of the most
comprehensive nature carried on by Lyman'C. Draper, long
the secretary of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin.
The results of his study have never been published, but they
are embodied in a MS. of 474 pp. This monograph, with the
accompanying documents mostly in MS., constitutes twelve
folio volumes. It is the object <if this article to set forth as
judicially as possible the cviilence for and against the genu-
ineness (if the resolutions. The resolutions arc as follows :
" Jiesohvd, 1. Thai whoever directly or indirectly abetted,
or in any way, form, or manner, countenanced the unchar-
tered anil dangerous invasion of our rights, as claimed by
Great Rritaiii, is an enemy to this country — to America —
and to the inherent and inalienal)le rights of man.
" Resolved, 2. That we, the citizens of .Mecklenburg Coun-
ty, do hereby dissolve the political bands which have con-
nected us to the mother-country, and hereby absolve our-
selves from all allegiance to the' Urilisb crown, and abjure
64::
MECKLEXBL'KU DECLARATIOX
MEDAL
all i>oliti<>iil t'oiinei-tion, eoiilriiot, or assooiatioa with that
natiuii, wlu> hiivi" wniitoiily tramplvil on our ri(;lits ami lib-
erlii-s, ami iiihuiuanly sht<l the bloud ol Amorican patriots
at Lexin^jlou.
" /iesvltvil, 'i. That wc do lifrobv deolarc ourselves a free
anil iniicpcnJont people ; are, auil of rijcht ouu'lit to be, a
sovereign and seif-governiiigr association, under the control
of no power other than that of our Ciod and the general
government of the Conjrress ; to the nniintenance of which
inde|)ondence we solemnly pledsic to each other our mutual
co-operation, our lives, our fortunes, ami our most sacred
honor.
" Henolved, 4. That as we acknowledge the existence and
control of no law or legal ollicer. civil or uiilitarv, within this
couiitv, we do hereby ordain and adopt as a rule of life, all,
each, and every of our former laws; wherein, nevertheless,
the crown of ti reat Britain ciui never be considered as hold-
ing rights, privileges, immunities, or authority therein.
•• NesolfeJ, 5. That it is also further decreed that all,
each, and every military officer in this county is hereby re-
tained in his former command and authority, he actingcon-
formably to these regulations. .\n<l that every member
present of this delegation shall henceforth be a civil officer
— viz., a justice of the peace in the character of a ' committee-
man,' to issue process, hear and determine all matters of
controversy, according to said adopted laws, and to preserve
peace and union and harmony in said county ; and to use
cvcrv exertion to spread the love of country and fire of
freedom throughout America until a more general organ-
ized government be established in this province.
"Ahraham Alkxa.nder, Chairman.
John McKxrrT Alexa.nder, Secri-lary."
Accompanying the publication of these resolutions in 1819
was a certificate, of which the following is a copy:
"The foregoing is a true copy of the naiiei's cm the above
subject left in my hands by John McKnitt Alexander,
deceased. I find it mentioned on file that the original book
was burned April Isl, llSOO: that a copy of the proceed-
ings was sent to Hugh Williamson, in New York, then writ-
ing a historv of North Carolina, and that a copy was sent
to General \V. R. Davie. J. McK.nitt."
The signer of this certificate, J. McKnitt, is conceded to
have been Joseph McKnitt .Alexander, the son of John Mc-
Knitt .Mexander referred to in the certificate. The Alexan-
der family was very numerous in North Carolina, and it is
known that J. -McKnitt had acquired the habit of omitting
his surname. Thus it appears that forty-four years after it
f purported to have been adopted this interesting series of reso-
utions first appeared in print, vouched for by a son of one of
the secretaries of the meeting. On the apjiearance of the
resolutions in 1819 they were at once ret)ublished in all parts
of the country. The challenge of Jeflferson made it neces-
sary that proofs of their authenticity should be forthcom-
ing, or that the claim in their behalf should be aliandoiied.
The result of efforts extending over seventy years has been
ihe collection of evidence sufficient to convince any unpreju-
diced mind of the following points — (1) that a meeting of
citizens took jilace in Mecklenburg County ; (2) that a series
of resolutions wils [lassed ; and (3) that a special mes.senger,
Capt. Jack, wius sent with the resolutions to Congress; but
none of this eviilence estal)lishes the identity of tlie resolu-
tions in fpicstion. For several years it seems not to have Ijeen
doubted that the testimony of the witnesses applied to the
Declaration embodied in the five resolutions quoted, but on
Dec. IS, 181)8, I'cter Force, the antiquary, announced the dis-
covery of another set of resolutions, indorsed as adopted by
the people of .Mecklenburg County, not on May 20, but on
May 31, 1775. Thc.>*e ri>solutions,"twenty in in'imber, con-
tained no declaration of independence, but, after reciting in
the prcamlile that the Itritish Parliament had declared the
American colonie.s in actual rel)ellion, made such provisions
for the government of the colony as seemed necessary in
view of the suspension of the regular authority. Among
the many consiilerations which bear out the theory that this
scries of resolutions, and n^t the so-called Declar'alion, was
what the witnesses really had in mind, may be mentioned
the following: (1) The di'fTerence in date (May 20-31) is the
exact difference l)etween old style ami new style, and both
calendars were then in use in many localities. (2) The reso-
lutiims published on the 31st contalniMl no reference to a pre-
vious Declaration of Inilepemlence; but, on the other hand,
no other reason is given for the action taken at the meeting
than the fact that Parliament had declared the colonies in
rebellion. (3) The testimony of witnesses with regard to the
Declaration applies far more pertinently to the twenty reso-
lutions. (4) Contemporary evuience establishes the fact that
these resolutions, and not those containing the Declaration,
were taken to Congress by Capt. Jack. (5) The tweiitv reso-
lutions were immediately published both in the Nortli and
ill the South, while the Declaration, though of a more im-
jiortant and startling nature, did not appear till after the
lapse of forty-four years. (15) The subsequent conduct of
the men mentioned as prominent in passing the earlier reso-
lutions was grossly inconsistent with such action, since they
took the oath of loyalty to the king, and in the Provincial
Congress expressly disclaimed the intention of shaking off
connection with the parent state. (7) It was disi<ivered in
1853 that the five resolutions containing the Declaration
had been reproduced from memory five months after the
burning of the records in 1800, nor is there anything to
prove that J. McKnitt Alexander had ever refreshed his
memory by consulting the original documents during the
twenty-five years that had elai)sed since their jiassage.
These facts represent but a small iiorlion of the evidence
against the genuineness of the alleged Declaration, and the
conclusion is inevitable that, unless some new evidence of
overwhelming importance is discovered, the opinion of im-
partial investigators must be adverse to the authenticity of
that document. For a more complete discussion of the mat-
ter, see the following authorities: In addition to 'J'/ie Xurth
American Jievieu; vol. cxviii., pp. 25t)-293, and Magazine
of American Ilistonj. vol. xxi.. pji. 31-43 ami 221-233. the
subject is very fully |iresentcd in the following works : Froth-
ingliam's Hise of tin- licpiiilic, p. 422 : Kandall's Life of Jef-
ferson,m.,\>.r>~(i\ Wheeler's A'o;7/i rrtTO/i';m,ii.,255; Hawks,
Swain, and (iraham. Jievolutionary History of North Caro-
lina, pp. 47-98. The mo.st exhaustive treatment of the sub-
ject is to be found in Draper's Mecklenbunj Declaration :
its Origin. Ili.itory, and Actors, with a liitiliography of its
Literature and L'.rplanatury Documents; JISS., 3 vols, folio,
Wisconsin Historical Society (_'ollections (187G) : of vol. iii.,
pj). 328-474 are devoted to a critical examination of Ihe liter-
ature of the subject. The Jtlustrative Documents, |irinted
and in .AIS., lonstitute nine vohuncs. C. K. Auams.
Mccklenbiirg-SchMiTiii, nick len-boorrh- shed- reen' :
grand duchy of Northern (icrmany ; bounded N. by the Bal-
tic, and E., S., and W. by Prussia. Area, 5,135 sq. miles.
Pop. (1890) 578,342, chiefly of Slavonian origin, of which
they still retain marks in their features. The ground is low
and level, dotted with small lakes, and covereii with forests.
Along the shore of the Baltic the soil is siin<ly or marshy,
but farther inland it is fertile and well suited to agriculture
and pasturage. The principal crops are rye, wheat, barley,
oats, potatoes, and hay. Cattle ami horses are reared, anil,
e-specially the latter, ai'e much valued. Capital, Schwcrin.
Mecklenburg-Strt'litz, -stra lits: grand duchy of North-
ern Germany, consisting of two separate parts — Stargard,
between Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Pomerania, and Katze-
burg, between Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Lauenburg. The
total area is 1,131 sq. miles. Pop. (I89U) 97,978. Capital,
Ncu-Strelitz.
Mccoptera : See Entomology.
Modal [from Fr. mfdaille : Ital. medaglie<\\x\f;. Lnt.
*metat lea, dcriv. of )hp/((/ /ion, metal. See Ml';TALi.L'R(ivJ :
in the usual sense, a fiat metal disk, stamped on each side
with one or more inscriptions, and often a figure or group,
the whole in low-relief like that of a coin. Although such
medals are coinage, in the sense of being struck in the coin-
ing-press, they are distinguished from coins in not being
intended for use as money. A medal is struck in commem-
oration of a victory, as has long been a custom among the
nations of Europe; or in honor of a great soldier, as in the
case of the gold medal voted by Congress tt) Gen. tirant ; or
in recognition of any important event, as a treaty of peace,
Ihe disa|)pearancc of a pestilence, the visit of a foreign
potentate, the completion of a ]niblic building; or even the
appearance of a brilliant comet, or a misfortune such as the
great fire of iiondon in 1066. In the Paris mint {la Monnaie
or Vlli'ilel des Monnaies, on the Quai Conti) a very large
collection may be seen of the nuMlals struck in that institu-
tion, as well as others. There are about 600 of the single
reign of Louis XIV., and nearly a-s many were devoted to
the trium|)hs of Napoleon 1. during the brief period of his
power, 1796 to 1815. The size of such medals rarely exceeds
3 inches in diameter; one of about 4^ inches, struck at the
Paris mint in 1842, is often cited as the largest piece of
coinage existing. This Paris mint is the center of artistic
HrEDALLION
MEDI^
643
work in tlio-si liking and medal-coining. Many artists are
kept busy there, and orders are sent thither from all parts
of the world. The term medal is used also for the grea', cast
medallions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (see Me-
dallion), also for any ancient or unfamiliar coin, especially
if large and striking in design, ami also to many small tokens
of success or favor, prizes at an exhibition, school rewards,
etc., even when not ornamented in relief, or even when not
of metal. Kussell Sturois.
Medallion: originally a large medal; hence, ami very
commonly, a Hat, circular work of art of any sort, even if
several feet in diameter and carved in marble; and, thirdly,
any piece of ornament consisting of an independent design
isolated by its own frame, within the bounds of a larger
composition (see below). In the first sense the term is ap-
plied to unusually large coins, even to some silver coins of
the Greek cities, and especially to the remarkable bronze
pieces of the Roman emperors, those without the .S. C. (for
Senatus Coiisiilliim), and thus shown to be not a part of the
regular bronze coinage. (Sec Numismatics.) In the second
sense the bas-reliefs in (jueslion nuiy be considered as imita-
tions of medals, as if medals had been copied larger for
general popular inspection. Thus the arch of Constantine,
at Rome, is decciratcd with ten bas-reliefs within circular
molded frames about 8 feet in diameter; eight of these,
which are generally thought to have been taken from an
arch of Trajan no longer existing, represent scenes of the
imperial life and ceremonial, very much lus the same scenes
would be represented on a coined meiial of unusual finish
and elaboration, except that they are in higher relief. At
the time of the Renaissance a similar decoration was used
in building; thus in the courtyard of the Palazzo Riccardi
at Florence, in a band over the arches of the ground floor,
are eight disks sculptured by Donatello, alternating with
others inclosing armorial shiehls; but in the third sense a
medallion may be of any shape, square or oblong, or even
irregular. Thus, on a Sevres vase, a painting with figures
and an plaborale landscape background will often be in-
closed within a frame of the general shape of a trai)ezoid.
the rest of the vase being decorated with simple gilding and
scroll-work ; but this painting is spoken of as a medallion,
eras being in a medallion. In carpets which are woven in
one piece and rugs, table-cloths, etc., there is very often a
central pattern, between which and the border there is left a
space somewhat less richly ornamented : this central division
is spoken of as the medallion, and a carpet of this kind is
often called a medallion carpet. Russell Sturgis.
Mede'a [=Lat. = Gr. VHtSaaj: in Greek mythology, the
beautiful daughter of ^aHcs, King of Colchis, and Hecate,
the sister of Circe. Both mother ind aunt educated her in
sorcery, in which she attaine<l great proficiency, but being
kindly disposed, she used her knowledge to bring to naught
the plans of her teachers, and exerted herself especially to
prevent the sacrifice of foreigners. ..-Eetes, being fearful
that she might dethrone him, imprisoned her. but thanks to
her mao;ic powers, she easily escaped, and fled to the temple
of the bun, on neutral ground. At this juncture .Jason and
the Argonauts came to Colchis in search of the (ioLUEN
Fleece (o. v.) Medea fell in love with .Tason {g. i:), aiul made
it possible for him to get and carry off the Golden Fleece.
At the close of her career in Corinth she fled to Athens,
where she married the aged king ^Egeus, and bore to him a
son, Mcdus, according to one myth. When Theseus had
come to A'.hens from Tra-zen, she plotted his death, but
was finally forced to flee from Athens. She returned to
Colchis, found her father deposed by his brother Perses, and
restored him to the throne. Her "son Medus became the
eponymous hero of the Medes. According to another myth
she fled from Athens to Pha'nicia, married the king, and
begat Medus by him. She at la-^t became immortal, and
like Helen, married .Vchilles in Elysium. Her story is vari-
ously told, and ha.s furnished much material for the artist
and the tragedian. See the tragedy of Euripides, entitled
Mfdta. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Medellin, ma-dal-yeen' : capital of the department of
Anti()(|uia, Colombia, and. with the exception of Uogntii.the
largest and most important city of the republic, h is in a
beautiful valley (incorrectly called the " Cafion "), watered
by a small river which flows to the Cauca ; 147 miles N. W.
of Bogota, and 4,852 feet above the sea (see map of South
America, ref. 2-B). It is well built, with wide and straight
street-s, and has a delightful climate and an abundant water-
supply. The inhabitants are noted for their intelligence
and progressive spirit, and the city is an educational center,
containing a university, a school of arts and technology,
library, museum, theological seminary, several charitable
institutions, a park, etc.; it is the episcopal city of a large
diocese, and has a mint and other tiovernment in.stitutions.
Many of the wealthier re^idents are engaged in mining en-
terprises, this being the metropolis of the Antioquia gold
belt ; a large proportion of the metal is exported to Eng-
land. Medellin wjis founded in 1674, but during the colo-
nial period wius an unimportant village. Since 1825 it has
grown steadily, supplanting the older town of Antioquia.
Pop. (including the suburb of Buenos Ayres) about 30,000.
H. H. Smith.
M(\dford ; city (founded in 16.30. incorporated as a city
in 1892); Middlesex co.. Ma.ss. (for location of county, see
map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-H) ; on the Mystic river, and
the Boston and Maine Railroad ; 5 miles N. by W. of Boston.
It is the seat of Tufts College (Universalist, chartered in
1852), and contains a house erected in 1634, which still re-
tains its original walls and shape. The city is noted for its
manufactures of rum, crackers, and felt boots, and has a
public library, print and dye works, pressed and face brick-
works, brass-foundrv, carriage-factories, and paper-mills.
Pop., township (1880) 7,573; (1890) 11,079; (1895) 14,474.
Editor of " Merclrv."
Mcdford : city ; capital of Taylor co.. Wis. (for location
of county, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 4-C) ; on Black river,
and Wis. Cent. Railroad: 07 miles X. W. of .Stevens Point,
in an agricultural and lumbering region, and hjis two weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) .504; (1890) \,VM: (isi).j) 1,518.
Med'hurst, Walter Hexrt: missionary and linguist; b.
in London, England, in 1796; went to the East in 1816 as a
missionary; resided at Batavia (Java) eight years (1822-30),
laboring also in Borneo; settled at Canton, China, about
1830, and at Shanghai in 1843 ; spent six years in the interior
of China; died in London, .Jan. 24, 1857. He acquired a
remarkable knowledge of the Chinese, .Japanese, and Java-
nese languages, translated the Bible into Chinese, edited the
r7i(He.-!e i?ejDo«i7or!/j(20 vols.. Canton, 1838-51); puolished a
Chinese and Enylish Dictionary (2 vols., Batavia, 1842-43),
and many other linguistic works ; wrote a.n Account of the
Malayan Archipelago; a valuable work on China, its State
and Prospects, with especial reference to the Diffusion of the
Oospel (1838), followed by A Glance at the Interior of Ch ina
(1850) ; and translated the Chinese classic called Shu-King
(1848), besides numerous minor works fi-om the Chinese and
other Oriental languages.
Me'dia (in Gr. MrjSlo): a territory of Asia; bordering N.
on the Caspian Sea, and bounded on the other sides by
Parthia and llyrcania, Assyria and Armenia, and Persia
and Susiana, corresponded nearly to the present Persian
provinces Irak- Adjem,Azerbaidjan,Ghilan, and Mazandaran.
The Medes were closely allied to the Persians in language
and religion, and they distinguished themselves by their
horsemanship and their skill with the bow. The original
inhabitants of Media were called Aryans, though the name
Madai is given them even in Gen. x. 2. They came first
into notice when attacked by the Assyrians about 830 B.C.
The great monarchy established by them dates from 6.50 n. c,
with Ecbatana for its capital. In 625 B.C. their king, Cyax-
ares, in league with Kaltopolassar of Babylon, took Nineveh
and overthrew the Assyrian empire. The revolt of the Per-
sians under Cyrus brought the Median kingdom to an end,
558 B. c. The Medes, who originally were a warlike race,
are later spoken of as a very effeminate people. The country
produced abundance of fruit and horses. The grapes of
Ecbatana (Hamadan) are celebrated to this day. The in-
habitants of Media were worshipers of the sun, and their
priests were called Magi. Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Media: borough; capital of Delaware co.. Pa. (for loca-
tion of countv. see map of Pennsvlvania, ref. 6-J) ; on the
Phila.. Wil. and Bait. Railroad ; 5 miles N. of Chester, 13
miles W. of Philadelphia. It is in an agricultural region ;
contains the Delaware County In.stitute of Science and an
academy, each with a library of over 3.1K)0 volunus; and
has 2 national banks with combined capital of f200,(WO, 3
weekly newspapers, and, in its vicinity, the State Training-
school for Feeble-minded Children. Pop. (1880) 1,919;
(1890) 2,736. Editoii of '• American."
Mediae, or Medials : in phonetics, the voiced non-a-«pi-
rated explosives g, d, b, which arc distinguished from tne
tenues k, t,p on the one hand, and the a-tpirattn k^, t^,j^.
C44
MEDICAL ELECTRICITY
J*, (f , ft"" oil the other. The term is merely a tniiislation of
the U reck /i^ffo, interiiipiiiate. which the early Cireek tiraiii-
mariuiis aiiplied to the {.'roup because they refrardcil the
souiuis as iiiteriueiliate between the tenues {i^iXi) and the
agpiriitir (8<Ki«'a) ; il< in Dionysios Thrax (Tec/ine. p. 031 b)
"they have lioen named /utra Ix-eause they are more shagfrv
than the Imre sounds and barer than the sliairiry sounds
(5ti rvy M^*' ^t\a>y iffri SaffvTfpa, Tuy ii Safffuy f^iKSrfpa).
The terms iaaia ami tfiixi were oritrinally chosen as involv-
inp the conlnist. hairy, shaggy versus bald, bare. .See Pao-
5ETICS and Lasgiaoe. Be.nj. Ide Wheeler.
Medical Electricity : the use of electricity as a thera-
peutic nu'aiis in the treatment of disease. In the year 1804,
and further back, the static form, obtained from the large
glass friction apparatus, was used somewhat empirically,
the spark Uing thrown fR>Mi the brass balls of the machine.
Later inveslit;ations have shown what real value this pow-
erful agent luis in many forms of nervous disease, notably
in paralysis and neuralgia. Duchesne, of Boulogne, was
among tiie first to treat patients with the localized induced
current, and Kemak in Germany employed the galvanic
current with equally successful results. Three forms of
electricity are employed, viz., the induced or faradic cur-
rent, the galvanic current, and the static current. The two
first are examples of dynamical electricity, and the other of
frictional electricity. ' Galvanic electricity, or galvanism,
and induced electricity, or faradism, as it has been called
out of compliment to its discoverer, Faraday, are the two
moiles generally made use of, while frictional electricity
is randy resorted to. Electro-magnetism, a species of in-
duced current produce<l by the rotary apparatus, has been
the favorite form of treatment among quacks and emi)irics.
Faradism is furnished by an instrument containing a coil
of wire surrounded by another, the inner one. containing in
its center a bundle of wires or a rod of soft iron. Through
the inner coil a galvanic current is passed and an induced
current thereby generated in the outer. The former is
known as the direct or primary current, the latter as the
induced or secondanj. At the end ofe the wires in every
instrument is a small hammer of soft iron fastened to a
spring, and a pole containing a platinum-pointed screw is
placed at a short distance from it, opposite the end of the
Dundlc of wires. This hammer breaks the current in the
coil of wire, and rapidly vibrates, producing shocks. The
galvanic current used in medicine is obtained from a series
of cells sullicient in number to give a current of tension.
Tension is the resistance offered to the passage of a current.
One cell supplies a current, the poles of other cells being
altematelv joined, and there are finally but two terminal
poles. We find that as the current from the original cell
pa.s.scs through the cells which follow, its tension or power
IS increased, and the effect is api)rociable to a greater or
less degree in jiroportion to the number of cells included in
the circuit. Quantity is another attribute of the galvanic
current, but is not as a rule desired in medical electricity.
A current of quantity is furnished by a large surface of
metal in the battery-cell, while tension is the product of a
number of small metal plates.
The best gali'anic cell for medical purposes is the Bun-
sen, which lias been luiopted by Stolircr, of Dresden, and
the (jrenel, a modification of the latter, is that most com-
monly used. The Siemens Hud Halskc cell is now employed
to a great extent. It consists of an outer cell of glass \vith
elements of zinc and copper, a diaphragm of porous earth-
enware, and a diaphragm of papier-mache between the solu-
tioii.s. The static current may be furnished by the Iloltz
electric machine, which is undoubtedly the best. The
Kuhnikorll coil has been useil, one wire oiily being brought
in contact with the patient, (he air forming the other'con-
ductor. A spark haying all the peculiarities of the ordi-
nary friction spark will be produced.
lAir the application of electricity to the bmly we make use
of various appliances called electrodes. These are cither
siKinge-^'overed or present a polished metallic surface to the
akin. Somi' have sjionges of dillerent sizes for the face or
smaller parts of the liody, iinil large ones for the trunk and
limbs. The points of buchi.sne consist of two cones of
metal altiu'heil to handles. The sensation upon the skin is
like that associated with the enlranceof many small needles.
The electric brush is often used lo restom diminished cu-
taneous sensibility. It consists of a number of fine wires
bound together in a handle. This electrode, a.s well as the
other metalli(^ ones, arc used upon the dry skin. Various
double electrodes and electrodes for special parts, such as
the eye. uterus, and bladder, are employed in dilfeient cases.
Rational electro-therapeutics should be based u|>on elec-
tro-physiology. Remak, Dubois-Keymond, Ziemssen, Oni-
inus and I^e (iros, Brenner, Beiiediki, and Erb stand in the
front rank as authorities. Morgan gave to the world a
work of very great value which remains as a monument to
his greatness.
Certain facts have been evolved from the labors of the
workers in this field. We have been taught that a motor
nerve, when stimulated by an electric current, is followed
by a contraction of the muscles it supplies. The theory of
electrotonus is based upon the following facts: If a portion
of a motor nerve is included between the poles of a galvanic
battery it is said to be polarized and in a state of "electro-
tonus.'' At the positive pole the irritability of the nerve is
diminished, while at the negative it is excited and more
susceptible to stimulation. The condition at the positive
pole is called aneleclrotonous. and that at the negative cate-
lectrotonous. The positive pole is known as the anode, the
negative the cathode, and these give the names to the states
described. A nerve is said to be tetanized when the muscle
supplied is thrown into a state of permanent tetanic con-
traction by a rapidly intermilting current. The |iassage of
a number of these shocks for some time will diminish the
irritability of the nerve to such an extent that finally there
will be no further response. This is a valuable fact to con-
sider in connection with electro-therapeutics. An ascend-
ing current, i. e. a current running toward the spinal cord
or brain, causes a greater irritability in a nerve than a de-
scending one. The stimulus is fell at the negative pole
when tlie current commences, and when it is broken it is
felt at the positive pole. Greater sensation is felt at the
negative pole, and with very weak currents no sensation
may be felt except at the negative electrode when the cur-
rent is started or opened. With stronger currents sensation
may be felt at discontinuing the current and at both poles.
With very strong currents sensation is diffuse, not limited
to the region to which the electrode is apjilied.
The action of the faradic current upon the surface of the
body is probably the same as that of a galvanic, except that
it is a momentary shock instead of a constant current. It
does not aifeet the deeper muscles nor nerves as much as
the skin. When an electrode is applied to the moistened
skin it is followed by prickling sensations, attended by red-
ness and tingling. The faculty of perceiving sensation by
the cutaneous nerves and muscles has been callecl the electro-
muscular sensibility. The sensation produced bv the gal-
vanic current is one of warmth, like that which always fol-
lows the application of local stimulants, such as liniments or
a mustard plaster. When the faradic current is applied to
the skin previously dried, or when the electrodes are lightly
brought in contact with it. there is appreciable pain pro-
duced. Cutaneous sensibility is more exaggerated by rapid-
ly succeeding shocks from a faradic instrument than by slow
ones. The galvanic current produces deeper impressions
than the faradic. It likewise produces electrolytic changes
which do not follow the use of the faradic. The effects of
the galvanic current upon various parts of the body may be
brietiy enumerated as follows : The application of the elec-
trodes of a battery of moderate strength to any jiart of the
head or face will be attended liy the occurrence of lliushes of
light appreciated by the individual, a metallic taste, giddi-
ness, dizziness, and a peculiar sensation at the root of the
nose. The possibility of the passage of a galvanic current
through the bones of the craniilm has been doubted by
Cyon and other writers, though other physiologists, Ziems-
sen and Erb among them, agree as to its feasibility. The
pas.sage of such a galvanic current, according to certain
neuro-therapeutists. is followed by beneficial results in many
diseases of the brain, but there is at the present day no
proof of this at all.
Electricity for the Purpose of Diagnosis. — By it we may
detect local tcndernes.s, exalted sensibility, or their opposite
conditions, anaesthesia an<l paralysis. We may sometimes
ascertain whether there is disease of the nerve-centers, the
brain, or spinal cord — -whether a paralysis is of recent date
or long slan<liiig. We may settle the (piestion of doubtful
death; we may also delect malingering. There are several
important physiological fa<ts to be taken into consideration
— the function of muscles or nerves, their loss of contraction
and senation, or the reverse ; and as various nervous dis-
eases are as.socialed with these conditions, we are enabled
by electricity to determine the extent of such changes. A
MEDICAL J^JRISPRUDENCE
MEDICINE
645
reference to a few morbid conditions will make these facts
more clear. The existence of some recent disease of the
brain will be characterized by increased muscular contrac-
tility oftenlimis when there is paralysis of the muscles.
Certain local paralyses, or central diseases attended with
atrophy of the muscles or disease of some i)art of the nerve
destroying its conductivity, are associated with loss of re-
action.
(Jalvanism and faradism are used for the relief of pain
and spii-sm and to procure sleep, for the improvement of the
nutritive processes, to restore lost muscular power, for stimu-
lation of secretion, to inlhicnce circulation by means of the
vaso-motor system, to produce absorption of lluids, morbid
tissues, and deposits, and in the form of the galvuno-cautery
for surgery. liolh forms of current an^ used in the treat-
ment of paralysis, the g.ilvanic perhaps being the most im-
portant for paralysis from central diseases. One of the most
decided and unipiestionable uses of electricity is in cases of
hemlache and sleeplessness of brain-fag. The gentle appli-
cation of galvanic currents in these cases or of the faradic
currents sometimes acts marvelously. There are many cases
of paralysis in which faradic currents will produce no mus-
cular contraction, while the galvanic current will be followed
by vigorous coiilractions of the muscles. In cases of this
kind treatment is liegun with the galvanic current, and
afterward the fara<lic is used. It should always be the rule
to use that (nirrent which produces the maximum of mus-
cular contraction with the mininnim of pain. In cases of
spinal or brain disease, such as apoplexy, it is injmlicious to
use any electrical treatment for the muscles in the early
stages, because there is active irritation at the seat of lesion.
The forms of paralysis from all causes, whether they be
from pressure, from injury, or from rheumatism, may be
treateu successfully. Paralyses of special parts are treated
by ditferently shaped instruments. There are electrodes for
applying it to the vocal cords, to the muscles of the orbit,
to the ear, to the stomach, larynx, bladder, etc.
Galvanism a.sserts itself most favorably in neuralgia of all
kinds. It is indicated particularly in sciatica, tic douloureux,
spinal irritation, and a niMul)erof other conditions attended
by pain. Forms of hvsteria are particularly under the con-
trol of galvanism. \Vriters' cramp and chorea are bene-
fited to some degree by both currents. Little can be said of
the value of electricity in the treatment of skin diseases.
Electricity has produced very few authenticated cures, and
those reported are undoubtedly due for the most part to
other remedies (or galvanism oidy so far as it proved of use
as a general tonic) and disappearance of the causes. Klec-
tricity has been used by .Simpson, Thomas, Dubois, Murray,
and Allen in obstetrics for the production of uterine con-
tractions. A most important use of electricity is its ai)pli-
cation for the production of absorption of morbid products
in different parts of the boily.
When the two poles of a galvanic battery are connected
with needles, and these needh'S thrust into the tissues of the
body, a process goes on which has been called elecfroli/xi.f.
At the negative pole bubbles of hydrogen gjus are disengaged,
which separate mechanically the surrounding tissues and
break them down, so that the disintegrate<l particles may
betaken up in the circulation. At tho posilive, oxygen is
disengaged, which forms an acid with certain elements of
the tissue, and the albumen is coagulated, forming a clot if
this happens in a cavity filled with blood. With this mode
of treatment the physician is enabled to disperse certain
tumors of small size. The same treatment Inis been used in
the removal of small hairs from the lips of women.
A platinum wire placed between the polos of a powerful
battery possessing tlic renuirement of suflicient electromo-
tive force will become in a very few minutes white hot.
Such wires properly ailjusted in handles mav lie used in
place of the Knife or cVraAVi/r in many surgical operations,
especially in deoii cavity operations, where the use of the
knil'e is impossible. The galvanic cautery is unatteiuled by
pain or ha'morrhage. lis cuts are covere<l by perfect cica-
trices, anil it is very valuable in certain uterine operations.
Care must be exercised by all persons who use electricity to
avoid applying strong currents to the head. It is unadvis-
ablc to use it for over ten or fifteen minutes at a time, and
then very carefully. Revised by William rKi-i-LK.
Medical .Tiirispniilpnce : See Jurisprudence, Medical.
.Mediciil Schools: See Schools.
Medici, hki dee-chee : a famous Florentine family who
in the fourteenth century became prominent in public af-
fairs, and later attained the S(jvercigii power. They ao-
quired great wealth as merchants, and spent it in a man-
ner that won them popularity. Cosmo ue" Meuici, " I'aler
Patria-," b. i;i8i), was the son of Giovanni, yonfaluniere, and
by his liberality, urbanity, and prudence won great influ-
ence with the people, but avoided the appearance of power,
being content with the substance. He adorned Florence
with splendid public buildings, patronized art, and died
Aug. 1, 1-J61.' — 11 is grandson, Lork.vzo the Maunikicent, b.
Jan. 1, 1448, was the splendid patron of Greek 1,'arning
and of all the liberal arts, being himself no mean poet. lie
brought Florence to a great pitch of opulence and [Kjwer,
and, notwithstanding the hostility of Pope Sixtus IV., exer-
cised a great iiilhuncc throughout Italy. D. Apr. 8, 14!I2.
— llis s in. Pope Leo X., did much to advance the fortunes
of his family. (.See Leo X.)— Cosimo, b. June 11, l.ll!*, the
first Grand Duke of Florence, was a successor of Alessandro
(1510-37), the subverter of Florentine liberty. Cosimo was
declared grand duke by Pius V. 1.569, and died Apr. 21,
1574. The grand ducal line of the Medici family ended
in 174.3 with Jean Gaston de' Medici (1G71-1737), but the
princely line of Ottajano, the ducal house of Sarto, etc.,
nave perpetuated the name till our times. The popes Leo
X. and .\I. and Clement V'll., (Queens Catharine and Marie
lie .Medicis of France, some eminent cardinals and Dukes of
Urbino, were also of this family. See Catharine de' Mh-
URi and Marie uk Medicis,
Medicine [from Lat. medici'na (sc. org, art), the art of a
physician, or of healing, deriv. of me'dicim, medical, a phy-
sician, deriv. of mede'ri, heal] : the art and science of cur-
ing disease. Its origin is obscure, but dates back to the
early existence of the human race, coincident with the lia-
bility to injuries, sickness, and processes of decay. Medi-
cine in its primitive state comprised a recognition of the
relative virtues of different articles of food, an empirical
use of medicinal herbs and roots, and superstitious rites.
For ages it was merely traditional usage in families or com-
munities. Hence it was practiced, as it is to-day in barbar-
ous tribus, liy the local chiefs. Superstition as<-ribeil dis-
ease to evil spirits or to the disple.isure of divinities, and
reverenced the gifted physicians as superhuman. Temples
were erected to their worship, who.se priests were guided in
their treatment by invocation of the oracle. The profes-
sion thus became a sacerdotal order, within which acquired
knowledge of medicine was preserved and secretly trans-
mitted. The Chinese have practiced and written of medi-
cine from the remotest ages, but without intelligence or
method, being possessed only of a vast colleelion of extrava-
gant empiric formulas. The Hindu practice has always been
simple, restricted to a knowdcdge of dietetics, hygiene, and
mild antiphlogistic measures. The methodical study of
me<licine began in the fabulous age of Egypt. At first the
method iiursued was to expose the sick by the wayside, that
passers-by who had suffered fi\>in similar maladies might
reeogni/.e them and declare the means of cure, llenxlotus
tells us that the Babylonians, Chahheans, and other nations
had no physicians, but followed this custom. Afterward,
in I'^gvpt, the sick were required, upon recovery, to go lo
the tcinple and record on tablets their .symptoms and rem-
edies. The temples of Canopus and Vulcan were Iho re-
positories, and a skilled priesthood arose which framed a
code controlling imblic hygiene, individual regimen, and
the treatment of disease. Thus far back in a period of
mythology Egypt possessed a store of medical knowledge,
had able surgeons, many devoted to the study and pursuit
of a single specialtv, sis lithotomy, and remedies bearing
the name of Isis and Osiris came down through subseiiucnt
Grecian. Roman, and early Christian centuries. The rejiorls
concerning the practice of medicine in (ircece in early times
are legendary. ^Esculapius, instructed in the healing art
by Chiron the Centaur, became .so skilled that he incurred
the disph'asure of Pluto, and was stricken by a thunderl>olt
from Jove. He became the god of medicine, temples were
erected bearing his name, and the ofliciating priestlii>od
were designated the .\sclepiada\ The sons of ..Ivsculapius,
Machaon, and Podalirius, accompanied the Greeks in th*
Trojan war, and their skill was immortalized in the songs
of Homer. Hygieia, the goddess of hi'alth, ami Henulet,
reputed to cure epilepsy — the "sacred disea.-;e " or "disease
of Hercules" — were also worshipeil. The practice of the
Asclcpiada- was simple. Temples were liKated in salubrious
places, anil their interiors were purilied by burning fragrant
incense and secret remedie.s. Thither the sick were brought
64G
MEDU'INK
MKDILL
for treatment. Uccourse was had to baths, gymnastics,
mineral and thermal springs, ami the use of unctions.
Remedies were privoTJIiod by the oracle and skill of the
priesthood. Votive tablets inseribed with records of the
disease and cure were de|K)sited within or placed upon the
colunms and gates. Pythagoras and the sect which took
his name supplanted the Asclepiadie. They promulgated
the knowledge which had before been kept a secret, and
sought the philosophy of disesise, but <'onhned their treat-
ment to dietetics and hygiene. The Pythagoreans declined
alx)ut 500 B. c. Hippocrates was born in the year 4()0 «. c,
and is known as the " father of pliysic." lie was descended
remotely from the Asclepiada> through a long line of phy-
sicians. He developed a system of theories on disease and
medicine which has given to his school and period of prac-
tice the title "dogmatic." He ac(iuired anatomy by dissec-
tion of animals, and was skilled in surgery. His study of
symptoms and diseases was careful and accurate : he recog-
nized stages and crises in disciuses : he relied upon the power
of nature, which he termed "first of pliysicians " ; stimu-
lating when nature failed, moderating when her forces were
excited. His remedies were mainly vegetable and dietetic.
His works were numerous, chief of' which are The Prognos-
licji, Aphorifinis, On Epidemics, liegimen in Acute Disease.
With the founding of the Alexandrian I.ibrary (320 li. c.)
the Alexandrian school began. .Most celebrated were Kras-
Lstratus and Herophilus. The latter was an anatomist,
studied the nerves, the brain, and to this day his name is
retained connected with its circulation, the conlluence of
venous sinuses being termed the " torcular Herophili." Two
Alexandrian schools of medicine nourished successively —
the " Empirical " of Pliilcnus and Serapion. who renounced
" dogmatism " and relied only on experience, and the
"Methodists," whose influence extended over (ireecc,
thence to Rome, and lasted for at least two Christian cen-
turies. Methodism iusserted that the body was permeated
in health by atoms which entered from without and moved
freely in every part and direction of the organism. Dis-
turbances of this perfect relation by constriction or relax-
ation were states of disease, and all medication was therefore
l)y astringents or relaxants.
Medicine was introduced into Rome from Greece 200
B. c. Asclepiades, who practiced in Rome 100 n. c, was a
Methodist. Chief among Roman physicians was ('elsus,
" the Cicero of medicine,'' great as a surgeon and scrholar,
whose work, De Medicinn, in eight books, is a record of
medical knowledge down to his time. Claudius (Jalcn,
known as Galen, by his teachings ami writings so influenced
medicine that he wils esteemed infallible authority for fully
twelve centuries. He was born at Pergamos a. d. KiO, but
lived and practiced in Rome. He is reputed to have writ-
ten 200 distinct treati.ses upon every subject then known in
medicine. He was educated at Alexandria, and his kiu>wl-
edgo of anatomy was matured by dissection of aninuils. He
was a " Humoralist," regarding disease as due to putridity
of the "four humors" — blood, phlegm, bile, and black bile.
The Methodists, on the other liancf, found di.sease oidy in
the tissues, ami were known ils "Solidists." As long as
medicine was swayed by theories, the conflict of llunioral-
ism and Solidism was constantly revived. Chief among
Galen's works are treatises On the Use of the DiffereM Parts
of the liodij. On Temperaments, On the Seat of Disenite,
Methods of Cure. During the Dark Ages medicine declined
in Euro|)e, but was preservcil and advanced by the Arabian
school, which domimited from the ninth to the end of the
fourteenth century. Symptoms were studied, new diseases
descrilxid, daleii's works were translated and commentated,
rendering famous the names of Rhazes, Aviceniui, Albnca-
sis, Avenzoar, Avcrroil.s, etc., and drawing the students of
the whole Continent to the renowiuMl Sjianish schools of
Cordova, Seville, Toledo, and .Saragossa. Renouard, in his
History of Mfdirine, .styles the subseipient jieriod, from the
close of the fourteenth century to the present, the " age of
renovation." Medicine, thus far an art Ijased upon experi-
enc<^ and biased by erroneous theories, now began to ad-
vance by successive discoveries in aiuitomy, physiology, atid
pathology to the standard of a science. Printing insured
the dissemination of inuIi progressive step. The Italian
schools succeeded the .\rabian. .Mondino, of Hologna, dis-
socteil before the class in V.W'i, and wrote imperfictly on
anatomy. To Anrlreus V'esalius, professor al Padua, who
published his great work in 1.511!, anatomy owes its origin
and permanent iinnelus. Vesalius was followe<l by Eusta-
chius, Eallopius, Sylvius, Pacchioni.and others whose names
now exist in anatomical nomenclature. In a. d. 1622 Aselli
of Milan <lescribed the lacteals; in Ui2S Harvey announced
the circulation of the blood: in 1(501 Malpighi of Hologna
detected the movements of the red blood-globules; in 1690
Leeuwcnhoek of Delft demonstrateil the capillaries. The
researches of Vieusscns, Hallcr, Meckel, and Scari)a, the
separation of the cerebro-spinal and ganglionic nervous
systems by Bichat, the treatise of Scuac (in 1749) on the ac-
tion and diseases of the heart, of Avenbruggcr (in 1761) on
percussion of the chest, the great work on pathology by
Morgiigni in 1762, the recognition of nerve origins, of the
ganglia, and different faculties in the Ijrain by Willis and
others, the writings of Sydenham and lluxham, the dis-
covery of vaccination by .lenner in 17i)6, are a few of the
very I'nany scientific truths which warrant us in speaking of
medicine as a science. The status of medicine was again
elevated. The barber-surgeons of Paris were abolished by
law in 1743, in London in 1745. Clinical teaching was in-
augurated at Padua in 175H. Schools of medicine were es-
tablished both in Europe and in America. During the
nineteenth century this devotion to the development of
technical and scientific investigation, rather than to specu-
lation, as the true basis of the treatment of disease, has
steadily increased, and warrants the belief that we are
erecting a system of .scientific medicine. This has also been
designated an age of " rational empiricism '' in medicine,
since skill in treatment is largely cumulative from past ex-
perience, yet rendered intelligible and certain by a clear
discernnuMit of the laws of life, of the functional activities
which constitute health, ami of their perversion in disease.
Histology, physiology, microscopy, micro-chemistry, path-
ology, |iliysiological nu'dicinc, pharmacy, and thcraj)eutics
are fields of incessant work and progress. The physical ev
ploration of the chest, the study of Bright's disease, the
discovery of aiucsthcsia, the recognition of the dependence
of many if not most diseases — malignant pustule, erysipe-
las, tuberculosis, tetanus, and many others — on the presence
of micro-organisms, the improved ti'eatment of wounds by
aseptic and antiseptic methods, the elaboration of the spe-
cialties, are some of the many results. Correct and intelli-
gent diagnosis, study of morbid anatomy and etiology, and
an accurate knowledge of the physiological effects of reme-
dies, are sought as tTic only substantial basis for the treat-
ment of disease, while its prophylaxis by the use of preven-
tive inoculations is a brilliant aiiticijiation which may pos-
sibly be realized in the future.
Among the' best medical dictionaries available to the
English-reading student mav be mentioned those of Dun-
glison (21st ed. Phihidclpiiia, 1S93); Duane (Philadelphia,
18!I3); Gould (Philadcliiliia, 1S!I4): and the more elaborate
works of Billings (2 vols.. Philadelphia, 1890): Foster (4
vols.. New York, 1893) : and the lexicon rt^v (18!t4) in course
of publication by the New Sydenham Soc'Wy of London.
Revised by >Iou.n' Ashhurst, Jr.
Mcdicinp. Forensic: See Jurisprudknce, Medical.
Medicine Hat: a growing town of Assiniboia, Canada ;
on the CaiiHdiau Pacific: Railway. GOO miles W. of Winni-
peg, on l)otlom-lands of the South Saskatchewan river (see
map of Canada, ref. 9-F). It formerly had the name of
Leopold. The origin of the present name is not known.
In the vitunilv are lignite beds and the petroleum district
ofGah. Pop- 1.000. M. W. H.
Medicine Lodge: city; capital of Barber co.. Kan. (for
local ion of couulv, see map of Kansas, rcf. 8-E) ; on the
Atch., Top. and S. Fc Railroad ; 91 miles W. of Winfield.
It is in an agricultural and stock-raising region, and has
two weekly newspapei-s. Pop. (1880) 373 ; (1890) 1,095.
Modick, Purple : Sec Lucerne.
Medill', .losEPH : journalist; b. in New Brunswick, Cana-
da, Apr. 6, 1823; removed in childhood to Massillon, O. ;
studieil law; founded in 1849 a Free-soil paper at Coshoc-
ton; eslalilished at Cleveland in 18.")2 a Whig jiaper. The
Porcit City, which in the following year was merged in
The Leader; was in 1854 one of the organizers of tlie Re-
publican party in Ohio; went to Chicago soon after, and
with two partners bought in May, lH.")."i, The Trilmne, a
paper with which he hius since been identified. He was in
1870 a nuMiiber of the Illinois conslilutional convention,
and was the author of the iniuority npi'csi'ulation clause;
was appointed in 1871 a member of the V . .S. civil service
comuiission, and elected mayor of Chicago. He sixuit a year
in Europe (1873-74), and on his return purchased a con-
MEDINA
MEDLEY
647
trolling interest in The Tribune, of which he became editor-
in-chief.
Medi'lia (Aral). Modinct-el-Nulii, City of the Prophet):
132 miles X. V.. of .lenib or Yaml)u, its port (see map of Per-
sia and Arabia, ref. 6-1)). It is a hanclsoinc, well-built
town, situated at the edge of the great Arabian desert on
the ea-st side of I lie mountain range which runs N. and
S., parallel to the Red Sea. It is i)rotected by a stone wall
over 40 feet higli with :50 towere and 3 gates, one of which,
the Kgyplian Gate (Balvel-Misri). is exceedingly beautiful.
Its importance is derived from the fact that Mohammed is
buried here. His tomb, close outside the great nios(iue El
Ilaram. is visited annually by over 60,000 pilgrims, though
the visit is considered not incumbent, but only meritorious.
Near by are the tombs of his daughter Fatima and of the
Caliphs A boubekr and Omar. The mosque — according to
Burckhardt. 16.5 jiaces long and 130 wide, its dome upheld
by 400 columns, lighted by 300 lamps which liurn night and
day — was burneil in l.jOS an<l rebuilt in l.>14 by Kaid Bey,
Sultan of Egyiit. Mussulmans do not agree as to whether
Mecca or Medina has the greater sanctity. Medina has
ninety-two names, all referring to the holy character of
Mohammed. The inhabitants are intelligent and sedate,
and not so military in their bearing as those of Mecca. Pop.
80,000. See Hf..iika and Mohammkd ; also Burton's Pilgrim-
age to El MtJiiKih and Meccah (3 vols., 18.56) ; and espe-
cially Burckliardt"s Travds in Arabia (1829).
E. A. Grosve.nor.
Medina: village (located in 1805, incorporated in 1832);
Orleans co., N. Y. (for location of county, see map of New
York, ref. 4-D) ; on Oak Orchard creek, the Erie Canal, and
the N. Y. Cent, and Hud. Kiv. Railroad ; midway between
Buffalo and Rochester. It is an important agricultural and
orcharding center; contains 6 quarries, which show rare
fossil formations, of the celebraleil Medina sandstone, 7
churches, an academy with library founded in tH.^iO, several
flour-mills. 5 iron-fuuiulries, and furniture and jiajier-pail
factories; derives good water-power from the creek: and
has a State bank with capital of $.50,000, a national bank,
and a monthlv and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,632 ;
(1890) 4,492; \W9T) estimated with suburbs, .5,600.
Editor of " Recoru."
Medina: village (settled in 1818); capital of Medina eo.,
O. (for location of count v, see map of Ohio, ref. 2-G) ; on
the Cleve.. Lorain and \Vheel. and the Pitt.s., Akron and
West, railways ; 28 miles S. \V. of Cleveland. It has sev-
eral flour, saw, and planing mills, foundry and bending
works, hollow-ware factory, and a large manufactory of bee
supplies, and contains a national bank with capital of $75,-
000, a State bank with capital of |2.5,000, and a semi-
monthly and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,484 :
(1890) 2.073.
Editor ok " Medina County Gazette and News."
Medina, Josfi Maria: politician; b. in Honduras about
1815. He was acting president of Honduras after the death
of Guardiola, Mar., 1862, and again in June, 1863. Sup-
ported by the influence of the Guatemalan conservatives, he
was elected president of Honduras Feb. 15. 1864. and re-
elected 1866 and 1870. Until 1871 he maintained i>eace,
but the country was brought to bankruptcy by wild finan-
ciering, and probably peculation in connection with the
scheme for building an interoceanie railway. There was a
war with SaIva<ior. Feb.-May. 1871 ; in 1872 Honduras, Sal-
vador, and Guatemala made war on Honduras ; Medina was
defeated, and in August was deposed and imprisoned by his
own troops. Released after some time he revolted against
Leiva in Dee., 1875, but was ilefeated in Feb., 1876 ; at the
end of 1877 he was arrested for another attempt at revolt,
condemned to death by a court martial, and shot at Santa
Rosa, Feb. 8, 1S7S. Herbert H. S.mith.
Medi'na-Sido'nia : town ; in the [irovince of Cadiz,
Spain ; 25 miles S. S. E. of Cadiz (see map of Spain, ref.
2o-D). It was built by the Moors, is situated on a steep
eminence surrounded by walls, contains a fine Gothic cathe-
dral and the ruins of a nnignificent castle, and has an im-
posing appearance; it is, however, a gloomy and compara-
tively an insignificant town. Pop. (1887) 11.705.
Medinet Habu : a Christian village at West Thebes in
Upper Egypt, dating from the fifth century, which gave its
name to a mass of ruins representing tv,o temples. The
larger one dates from the twentieth <lynasty, and was in-
tended as a memnonium of Ramses III., being devoted to the
preservation of his memory and renown. Its mural deco-
rations are of great ethnological value on account of the care
taken to reproduce the racial characteristics of the peoples
against whom Ramses III. waged war. Other inscriptions
are important to the liistory of the times. The smaller
temple dated originally from the eighteenth dynasty, but it
was extended by the Ptolemies and even by the Roman em-
perors, especially Antoninus. Charles R. Gili.ett.
Medint;, Oscar: novelist, who.se pseudonym is Oregor
Samaniir; b. at Konigsberg, Prussia. Apr. 11, 1829; studied
law at KonigslKTg, Heidelberg, and Berlin; l>ccaine an ad-
vocate and afterward held office in the Prussian administra-
tion, but in 1859 entered the public service of Hanover, in
which he rose to the position of councilor of state, and was
intrusted with several confidential missions by the king. In
1870 he gave his support to the Prussian Government, and
after residing in .Switzerland and Stuttgart s(!ttled in Berlin,
where he applied himself to the work of writing novels based
on his own experiences. Of these works mav be mentioned
i'm Zepter und Kronen (1872-76); Die Uomerfahrt der
Epigonen (1873); Hohen und Tiefen (1879-80); a cycle of
romances relating to RiLssian history (1881-83); and Die Saxo-
borussen (1885). Besides these, he has published Jlemoiren
zur Zeitgexchichte (1881-84) and a short biography of the
Emperor William I. under the title ot 80 Jahre in'Glaube,
Kampf und Sieg (1886). F. M. Colby.
Mediterranean, The [from Lat. mediterra'neus, mid-
land, inland ; me'dius, mill + terra, land] : the large sea
bounded by the continents of Europe. Asia, and Africa,
2,200 miles long, 700 miles broad to the E. of .Sicily, and cov-
ering an area of 977,000 sq. miles, excluding 40,000 miles of
island surface. It has a very irregular shape, forming many
gulfs, as those of Lyons, Genoa. Taranto. Lej)ahto, Koron,
Kolokythia. and Salonica on the shores of Europe ; on the
shores of Asia, Adramyti. Smyrna, Adalia. and IsKandcrun ;
on the .shores of Africa. Sidra and Cabes ; and bearing differ-
ent names in the different localities — as, for instance, the
Tuscan, Ionian, Adriatic, and ^Egean seas. It is in general
a deep sea, the average being 4,393 feet. The greatest depths
are W. of Sardinia (12,238 feet), between Crete and Egypt
(10,974 feet), and between Sicily, Greece, and Barca (13,018
feet at lat. 35° 5 X. and Ion. 18' 8' E.). It is nearly cut in
two by a shallow region between Sicily and Tunis. It com-
municates E. with the Black Sea through the Strait of Con-
stantinople, and W. with the Atlantic through the Strait of
Gibraltar. A strong current sets into the Mediterranean in
the middle of the Strait of Gibraltar on the surface, but
below and at the sides the current is outward. The Dar-
danelles current is always toward the Mediterranean. It
also receives the waters of several large rivers, the Ebro,
Rhone, Po, and Nile. A much greater evaporation takes
place in the Mediterranean than in the Atlantic or in the
Black Sea, owing to the hot winds which blow over it from
Northern Africa, while the Pyrenees and the Alps jirevent
the cold winds from Northern Europe from reaching it. The
temperature and saltiness of the waters of this sea vary
much more in different j)arts than is the case with the open
ocean. There is very little tide, owing to the narrowness of
the strait which connects it with the ocean. The prevail-
ing winds are in spring .S. E. and S. W.. and duriii" the
rest of the year N. E. and N. W. ; they often rise suddenly
and blow with great violence. See The Mediterranean
(1854), by Rear-Admiral William Henry Smyth.
Revised by >l. W. Harrington.
Medlar [M. Eng. medler, from 0. Fr. mesler, medlar-
tree, deriv. of mesle, menple, medlar < Lat. megpitum = Gr.
li((rwt\oy, medlar] : popular name of the fruit of the medlar-
tree of Asia and Euroi)e {Mespilun germanica), belonging to
the order liosacete. Tliis is a small, sometimes thorny shrub
or small tree, which is often cultivated. There are many
varieties. The fruit is allowed to decay partially by the
process called Melting, when its harshness disjippears and
it becomes edible. '1 he .Japan medlar is usually known by
the Chinese name of Loi^iat (q. v.).
Revised by L. H. Bailey.
Medley, Joiix. D. D. : bishop; b. in England in 1804;
was educated at Wadham College, Oxford, and graduated in
1826 with honors ; was several years vicar of St. Thomas's,
Exeter, prebendary of the cathedral, and in 1845 was conse-
crated first Anglican bishop of the see of Fredericton, com-
prehending the province of New Brunswick, Canaila. Here
Bishop Medley built a cathedral of great archite<-tural beauty
at his own cost, where the services of the cathedrals of the
C4S
MKDOC
MKDl'M-A SPINALIS
mothorlaiiil wore maintaiiinl. Aflor the resignation of Dr.
OxcnUen, Bishup of Montreal ami metropolilan, Hisliop .AIoJ-
Icv was iliostMi to bo molropolilaii. ami lielil tlio piiinaoy of
the Canadian Clinrrh unlil his iK-atli in If^H','. His /y/7V, by
("anon \V. (). Kotehiini. D. U., of St. Andrews. Now Bruns-
wick, was published in IWtS. Revised by \V. S. I'ekrv.
Medoc. nia'doc' : tlic name of a district of France stretch-
in" alonsr the tiironde, fiiun Andics to Losparrc. It is about
40rniilos long ami from 5 to 13 miles broad. It is wholly
covered with vineyards, which produce the most famous
kinds of Bordeaux wine.
Modons. Sir William : soldier; b. in England, Dec. 31,
\~i><: entered the army in 1756: served with distinction in
Oermanv 17C0; went to North America in Sept., 1775, with
the Kiftv-fifth Ke^iment ; afterward conunanded the First
Brigade' of Grenadiers, distinguishing himself on several
occasions: was wounded at Brandy wine and at the capture
of St, Lucia 17t<0; was made colonel of the Eighty-ninth
Regiment, and sent as major-general to India 1781 ; was
governor of Madras 1790-92; led the right wing of Corn-
wallis's army at the siege of Soringapatam 1792. where he
displayed great courage and ability: became lieutenant-
general Oct., 1793 : was governor of the Isle of Wight for
some vears. and commander-in-chief in Ireland 1801-03. D.
at Bath. Nov. 14, 1813.
.Hedrn'no, Fr.\xoisco, de: lyric poet. Almost nothing is
known of his life. Ho was a native of Seville, and flourished
in the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth
century. Aspirations of which we are ignorant carne<i him
to Rome for a time; and when he had been unsuccessful
ho returned to his native land to die, in what year is un-
known. His works were published at Palermo in 1617 as a
kind of appendix to the imitation of Ovid's De liemedio
Amorin by the Sevillian Pedro Vencgas de Saavedra. Of
all the Spanish imitators of Horace, Medrano is probably
the best. His taste is excellent, his style is free from the
gongorisms of his time, and the quasi-philosophical Ilora-
tian manner is admirably suited to his own character. The
best edition of his poems is in vol. xxxii. of Kivadeneyra's
Bitliutecn de Aulures Espailoles (Madrid, 1872).
A. R. Marsh.
Medulla Oblongata: See Brain.
Mi'dul'la Spiiial'is [Lat.. spinal marrow]: that part of
the central nervous system which is inclosed in the spinal
canal, extending from just below the foramen magnum, at
the liase of the skull, to a point usually opposite tlic upper
part of the first and second lumbar vertebra". It is a cylin-
drical, slightly flatteneil, cord-like mass of nervous matter.
continuous at its upper end with the medulla oblongata, and
terminating below in a conical extremity, its entire length
being about 18 inches. In this course it gives off thirty-one
pairs of spinal nerves, by
means of which it is placed in
communication with the whole
of the body below the head.
^^^^ /'"'V^V ''''"' spinal cord is inclosed by
^^^ \ Dnrr I ^%^\ throo mcuibranes which lie
LJUnter 1 within the bony canal of the
jti \ spine — the dura mater, the
j^^^^ ^k,,^ arac/inoirf, and the /)m ?Ha/er.
^\yr\ T'^^^*\. The structure and general ar-
I ^v- >. raiigcmcnt of these membranes
do not essentially differ from
those of the same envelopes
around the brain, one or two
peculiarities, however, being
fa^Kj^^BY Worth noting. The dura ma-
fl^B^^^^\ tor has a firm attachment to
Nj^^^P^H^Hk, the bone at its upper end. at
'g P^^P^^WK ~ the edge of the foramen mag-
^ V,^P^ W^m' num of the .skull. From the
pia mater covering the siiles
of the spinal cord spring nu-
merous little processes having
the shape of tlie teeth of a saw
whose sharp pr>ints are at-
tached t<p the inner surface of
the dura mater: these fibrous
procesMS con.stitule the liga-
vtenlum denlatum, and mate-
rially aiil in maintaining the
proper position of the cord within its shealh. Between the
dura and the arachnoid only a little lubricating fluid is pres-
ent, while under and within the meshes of the arachnoid, as
elsewhere within the brain, lies the cerebrospinal Jiuid in
considerable though changing quantity.
The spinal cord itself, like the other nervous centers, con-
sists of certain elomenlary tissues ; these arc a supporting
basis-substance, the neuroglia, the connective tissue derived
from the pia mater, the nerve-cells, the nerve-fibers, ami the
blood-vessels. The special grouping of these elements gives
form and character to different parts of the s|iinal cord. In
general terms, it may be .said that the spinal cord is made
up in its central parts of gray ntatler — i. c. groui>s of gang-
lion-cells of different sizes, with nerve-fibers, blood-vessels,
and delicate basis-substance; and in its outer peripheral
parts of white mailer — i. e. more or less coarse basis-sub-
stance, supporting inedullated nerve-fibers and containing
blood-vessels. On viewing a spinal cord whose membranes
have been stri])ped off the following external appearances
are presented: The cyliiulrical outline of the organ is made
irregular by two swellings occupying those portions of the
cord surrounded by the middle cervical and the lowest dor-
sal verlebnc — the so-called cervical and lumbar enlarge-
ments. Along the entire length of the front surface of the
cord runs a line or dee]) mark, which after the removal of
the pia mater is seen to be a real fissure or crack which pene-
trates quite deeply, and separates the organ into two equal
halves. This, the anterior median fisifure. is filled by the
pia mater, containing the anterior spinal artery and its
branches. On either side of the anterior median fissure very
numerous delicate bundles of nerves arise from the spinal
cord ; these are the anterior roots of the spinal nerves. The
median line on the posterior surface is not by any means so
distinct behind as in front, and it is impossible to demon-
strate a dorsal fissure without lacerating the tissue; the
separation between the halves of the spinal cord posteriorly
is a closely incorporated extension of the pia mater, and is
eaUcd the posterior median septum. On either side of this
are arranged the posterior roots of the spinal nerves, in the
same manner as the anterior. The anterior and the posterior
roots — physiologically distinct — pierce the dura mater, con-
join and mingle, and escape from side openings between the
vertebijc as the spinal nerves. .Tusl before joining the an-
terior root the pos-
terior exhibits a 5;
swelling — the gan- g
glion of the poste- -2-
rior root. At the ^
upper part of the §
spinal canal the spi- -g
nal nerves issue ;S
from the spine at a i.
point corresponding •? ^
to the level of their •§ _)-
origin in the cortl. >^
but in the lower re-
gions the nerves de-
scend for some dis-
tance before reach-
ing their canals of
exit. Transverse
sections of the cord
(see Fig. 2) show-
that the white sub- Fio. 8.
stance covers in the
gray matter everywhere, except at a very narrow point be-
hind where the gray matter reaches the pia mater. This
piercing of the white sulislance by the gray enables us to di-
vide the white substance into two uneqmil masses on each side
— the smaller situated behind between the point of gray mat-
ter and the posterior mediiin septum, constituting the poste-
rior column, and the larger part, filling up the space in front
of the point of gray iiiatler and extending to the bottom of
the anterior fissure, the anttro-taleral column. The gray
matter is irregularly developed in the cord and forms a figure
like a rough letter H, whose forward arms are club-shaped.
The tips of the lateral parts of the H constitute the honisot
the gray matter, and tiie connecting bridge the (/roy com-
missure. The anterior horns are larger, nKU-e rounded than
the posterior, and differ in structure. In them, particularly
in the cervical and lumliar enlargements of the cord, are the
largest gaiiglinn-cclls known; these " multipolar" elements
present a multitude of delicate branching processes of two
Kinds — the richly brancheil /);-o^)/)/rtxmir jirocesses and the
delicate siraighter axiK-cylinder process. The former ramify
within the gray matter, breaking up into extensions of in-
Postcrlor
Median Se/Uum
Posterior
J'issure
MEDULLA SPINALIS
649
creasinp delicacy, the latter is continuous with a nerve-fiber,
the axis-cylinder of which it becomes. The niajuritv of the
anterior root-nerves are connected with the nerve-cells of the
anterior horns, allhouf^h some fibers included within these
bundles arc connected with more remotely situated elements
of the cord. In the cervicul and himbur parts of the cord
the ganglion-cells are especially numerous, beinj; arranged
within the anterior horns as outer, middli:. and inner groups.
In the cervical and upper dorsal region additional aggrega-
tions of smaller ganglion-cells exist in the inner side of the
gray matter, nearly on a level with the commissure; these
constitute the column of Clarke. The posterior horns possess
relatively very few ganglion-cells, those which exist being
oval and provided with few processes. The posterior nerve-
roots do not, as far as we know, directly communicate with
these ganglion-cells ; the rootlets enter the white matter a
little to the inner siilc of the point of the posterior horn,
and send fibers in several directions — into the posterior horn,
upward and downward in the posterior column. The cen-
tral parts of the spinal cord consist of an anterior commis-
sure, Iving at the bottom of the fissure, and composed largely
of medulhiteil nerve-fibers. Just back of this band of white
matter lies the grai/ commissure, the center of which is oc-
cupied by a round or oval hole — the central canal of the
spinal cord — lined by columnar epithelial cells, or filled up
by their debrin. This canal extends from the lowest end of
the cord to the fourth ventricle in the medulla olilongata.and
is the remains of the primary neural canal of early fictal life.
Physiology. — During t he first twenty-five years of the nine-
teenth century the spinal cord was looked upon as a bundle
of nerves extending from the bniin to the external parts,
the brain sending nervous force through tlie passive cord to
Flo. .3.— Transverse section of spinal cord from the cervical repion :
A and P. anterior and post*Ti<ir liorns of j^ray matter, surrouiuied
by It, I and u, the anterior, lateral, and posterior columns of wtiite
niatter ; a/, anterior median Hssiire : p/. posterior median sep-
tnm ; ar and pr. anteritir and posterior roots of spinal nerves ;
ac, anterior or white commisstire : jic, posterior or gray commis-
sure ; cc. central canal : .•*?/, specialized neuroglia, constituting
8ul>stantia gelatinosa of posterior horn.
the muscles. Later researches made it evident that the cord
Eossesses independent energy which inchnles all the attri-
utes of a high nervous center, even, accorditig to some, a
degree of volition and consciousness. While many points
concerning the anatomy and the physiology of the spinal
cord must be regarded' as far from ilefiniiely determined,
the complex nature of the functions of the cord must be
recognizeii when we appreciate its multiple role as a con-
ducting organ for sensory impressions and motor excitations,
as a source of nervous force, an<l, in a degree, as a co-ordi-
nating organ. Sensory impression.i received from the pe-
riphery o( the body reach the cord by the pos/erior roots
(wliich are purely sensory), and are then conducted, directly
,or indirectly, upward to the perceptive centers in the brain.
If we imagine the path as one continuous nerve-fiber, we
should say that it extends from the right forefinger to the
right posterior column of the cord, ascends on that side to
the medulla oblongata (some fibers of the sensory path prob-
ably having crossed in the cord to the posterior column of
the opposite side), fiom which, after a complex and by no
Fig, 4.— Multipolar nerve-cell from anterior horn of pray matter of
spinal cord : n. the broken axis-cylinder process wliich becomes
continuous with a nerve-fiber : the reinainiiig processes belong
to the richly branching protoplasmic group.
means fully known course, the impressions cross the parts of
the left brain which perceive and appreciate sensations.
Motor excitations or impulses pursue quite a different course,
in an inverse direction. A motor impulse destined to move
the right forefinger starts from the left side of the brain,
descends through the left half of the basal parts of the en-
ceplialon. until it reaches the lower edge of the medulla
oblongata near its junction with the spinal cord, where it
suddenly passes across the median line into the right half of
the spinal cord, descends in the right half of that organ,
i,ssues out of the right anterior horn, from which come the
nerves of the arm. and follows these nerves to cause contrac-
tion of the muscles which move the right forefinger. In
general the motor paths or nerves decussate within a definite
limited area, the so-called decti.ssation of the pyramids of
the medulla oblongata. The motion referred to in the above
illustration is a voluntary motion — one starting from the
supreme cerebral ganglia — but the spinal cord furnishes in-
voluntary movements of great variety and force originating
within itself ; it is caiisec|uently a source of power, a center
for refiex motions. Simple and convincing proof of this
as.sertion is had by watching the movements of a frog whose
head has been cut olT. The legs of the animal separately
move when the creature is touched, and complex movements
of jumping, removing irritations by means of two legs, are
done just as well as when the animal was perfect. These
movements all occur after some irritation of a sensory nerve,
never spontaneously; they are consequently called reflex
movements. A reflex movement may be defined as the re-
sult of a direct transformation (by ganglion-cells) of a sen-
sorv impression into motor impulse; in this sense refiex
actions occur in every nervous center, great or small. ICx-
amples of reflex spinal actions in health are found in the in-
voluntary movements produced by tickling, burning, etc. In
disea.sed conditions certain convulsions are reflex spinal
movements, and in some cases of palsy of the legs most ex-
tensive and violent movements are commonly observed in
the affected limbs. The spinal cord may also be spoken of
as a co-ordin,ating center for certain coarse movcmeiit.s. By
co-ordinating center is meant a mass of gray matter whose
ganglion-cells act in such a way, harmoniously and simul-
taneously, as to produce an exact movement. The perform-
ance of an exact movement, as walking, must be learned by
repeated trials, but when the ganglion-cells have acquired
the haljit of acting together (education), they so act without
the watchful and directing influence of volition; e. s. ve
start walking by a volitional impulse, but continue walking
by spinal action, quite inattentive to what our legs are do-
ing. Thus it is with very nianv complex movements of daily
life. The spinal cord probably pos,sesses a capacity to re-
ceive ami retain impressions which reach it by sensory nerves.
650
MEDUM
MEGABYZOS
This property of the ganglion-oells of the spinal cord, as well
as of the gan"«li"n-cells of other centers, hiis been ternietl re-
tentivity, or it iniiv W spoken of (as liy a few authors) as tlie
memory of the spinal cord. In proi>f of this maybe ad-
duced the jierfonnance of various acts without volitioinil in-
terference and outside of consciousness— the execution of
complicated movements by ilecapitated cold-blooded ani-
mals, anil the well-known possibility of educating the spinal
cord.' Impressions are stored up and kept ready for use in
the gray matter of the spinal cord as well as in that of the
In conclusion, one word may be added about centers for
certain actions in the spinal cord. Some gan(;lion-cells are
ground, and exert an inllucnce over particular nerves des-
tined for the control of special organs; thus nerve-fibers
supplying tlic blood-vessels of the face and eyeball are con-
nected with the upper cervical region of the soinal cord.
Movements of the parts within the pelvis (bladder, uterus,
etc.) are under the control of a part of the lumbar spi-
nal cord and parts just above it ; these are respectively the
cilio-spinal and the genito-urinary centers. The spinal
cord furthermore exerts an inllucnce upon the organs con-
tained in the chest and abdomen, and also, probably, upon
the nutrition of tissues in general.
Revised by G. A. Piersol.
Mediim (in Egyptian Metun) : a locality in Lower Egypt ;
about 30 miles S.'of Memphis; noted a.s containing some of
the most ancient monuments of the country. The pyramid
of Medum, called the " false pyramid" by the natives, was
never completed. It rises in three parts. It is conjectured
that it belonged to Snofru of the fourth dynasty. Just to
the N. are several mastabas ornamented in archaic style,
which iK'longed to relatives of that Pharaoh. From one of
these mastabas came the sitting statues of Kahotep and
Ncfert. rightly adjudged to be among the finest efforts of
Egyptian sculpture. This region and the neighboring
Favuin have been explored by Flinders Petrie, who devoted
several volumes to the results of his researches. See his
Medum, JIawara, Kahun, lUahun (Lomion, 1890-92).
Charles R. Gillett.
Medusic [Mod. Lat., named from Jlediim, one of the
Gorgons = Gr. Mt'Souo-o. So called from the resemblance of
its tentacles to Medusa's snaky locks]: a terra given to the
free-swimming C'a'lenterates, commonly called jellyfish.
These all have a disk-like or umbrella-shaped body, tlie pro-
boscis, at the end of which is tlie mouth, corresponding to
the handle, while the ra<liating divisions of the digestive
cavity correspond to the ribs which support the cloth. The
common name jellyfish is most apt, so far as the jelly is
concerned, for these forms arc scarcely more solid than the
water in which they float. They swim by means of contrac-
tions of the umbrella, and they kill their prey by means of
the many poisonous cells (nettle-cells) which cover certain
portions of the body. Around the margin of the umbrella
occur sense organs (eyes and ears), while below these depends
a fringe of tentacles like the fringe on a parasol. Two great
groups of medusa? are recognized, which, though so similar
in external appearance, are widely different in structure.
In the one belonging to the Hydrozoa ((/. r.) the digestive
layer of the body (entoilerm) extends clear to the mouth.
Most of the medusie of this group are the sexual stages of
the Ilydroids, the asexual stage of which is firmly fixed to
some submarine support. To this group belong the only
fresh-water medu-iic known. Some have been recorded from
the Central African lakes, while one suddenly appeared in
the Victorin ri-gin tanks in the Kew Gardens in London.
The.sc forms may be recognized at once l>y tlie fact that the
aperture of the umlirella is partially closed by a circular
membrane (see the figures in IIvdroida), whence the name
Craspedolc mcdusjc r>ften applied to them. In the other
group (AiTaspedia) this membrane is lacking, and there is
a throat lined by the outer bodv layer, leading from the
mouth to the <ligestivc cavity. For an account of the al-
ternation of generations, ilie reader is referred to Acai^kimi.*.
.See also IIvdrozoa and ScvpnozoA. The literature of the
mcilusa' is large. We may mention A. Agitssiz. Cn/nlor/iic
of AcalephH of Xorlli America (IHO.l); \,, .\gassiz, Cuiilri-
biilioiiK lu Natural IfiHtor;/ of lite. Uniled Slaleit (18,57-62);
Ilaeckel, Si/Mlem iler Alaliixen (1879-SI); and papiTs by
Hrooks, Kewkcs, Macready, etc. .1. .S. KiMisi.r.v.
Meek. Ai.exandkr Beaitoiit: jurist and journalist; b.
at Columbia. .S. ('., .luly 17, 18I-I; graduati'd in 18:i;l at Iho
University of Alabama; was admitted to the bar in 183,5,
and became editor of a Democratic newspaper ; served three
months in 1830 in the Seminole war, aiui on his return be-
came attorney-general of Alabama; edited The Southron
1839; was (18J2-44) judge of the court of Tuscaloosa County ;
law-clerk to the solicitor of the U. S. Treasury 1845; U. S.
district -attorney for Southern .\labama 184()-.50; a journal-
ist of Mobile 1848-53 ; went in 18.53 to the Legislature, where
he originated the free-school system of .Mabauja; became
in 1854 judge of the city court of Mobile; was Speaker of
the llouse of Alabama 1859; was a fine chess-player, and
author of a legal digest (1 vol., 1842); The lied jCngle (New
York, 1855); Songs and Poems of the South (1857); Ro-
mantic Passages in Southwestern History (1857); and an
unpublished History of Alabama. 1). at Columbus, Miss.,
Nov. 30, 1865.
Meek, Fielding Bradford, M. X. A. S. : paheontologist
and geologist; b. at Madison, la., Dec. 10, 1817; became at
an early age interested in the study of the Silurian fossils,
which are very abundant there ; at majority, engaged in com-
mercial pursuits, continuing, however, his scientific studies.
In 1848 and 1849 he was employed as an a.ssistant in the
U. S. geological survey of the upiier Mississippi country,
under 1). 1). Owen. From about 1852-58 he worked as an
assistant of Prof. Hall at Albany on the paUcontology of
New York, ami meanwhile spent two summers in connection
with the State geological survey of Jlissouri. In 1853, as-
sisted by Dr. F. V. Hayilen, he made a valuable collection
of vertebrate and other fossils from the JJauraises Terres
or Bad-lands of Dakota for Prof. Hall. In 1858 he took up
his residence in Washington, D. C., and devoted most of the
time while living there to investigating and reporting on
organic remains brought in by Government exploring expe-
ditions. The results of his labors were largely published
jointly with others; his minor papers on pahcontology and
geology were various Reports and Transactions; the most
imiiortant was A liejmrt on the Invertebrate Cretiireous and
Tertiary Fossils of the Upper Missouri Country (Washing-
ton. 1876, liv., 629 pp., 45 pi.). D. Dec. 28, 1876, at the
Smithsonian Institution.
Meerschaum, nicer shawm [=Gerni., liter., sea-foam;
meer, sea + schaum. foam. Perhaps a corruption of Tar-
taric name, 7nyrse7t} : a compact mineral with a smooth sur-
face; soft when first dug out of the earth, but hai'ileniiig to
2'0 and 2'5. In composition it approaches silica. GU'9 per
cent. ; magnesia, 26'1 per cent. ; water, 12 per cent. It is
obtained from localities in Turkey, Asia Minor, Morocco,
etc.. where it is used as a substitute for fuller's earth ; its
principal use, however, is as a material for tlie bowls of to-
bacco-pi])cs.
Meernt. or Mirat : one of the seven great divisions or
provinces of the Northwest Provinces, British India: lying
between hits. 27" 38' and SO' 57' N., and meridians 77° T
and 78' 42 E. It comprises the six districts of Dehra-Dun,
.Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Jleerut, liuhuulsliahr, and Ali-
garh. Area, 11.319 scj. miles. Pop. (ISllll 5.:!24.910. The
i)rovincc extends in a narrow strip from the lower Ilima-
lavas over the marshy /cro! at their lia,-:e into the rfonfr or
alluvial plain between the Ganges and .lumna. Except the
terai and some small .saline deserts adjacent, and the im-
mediate banks of the Ganges, the country is fertile and well-
watered either naturally or by irrigation. It exjiorts large
quantities of wlieat, barley, millet, rice, cotton, and cane-
sugar. It is traversed by the railway from the Pnnjaub to
Allahabad. The district of Meerut is in the center of the
province about the city of Meerut. Area, 2,379 sij. miles.
Pop. 1,350,000. It is the most populous, fertile, and pros-
perous of the districts of the province. ' M. W. 11.
Mcenit : city of the Northwest Provinces of British Ind-
ia, and capital of the district and division of the same
name; 38 miles N. E. of Delhi, near the right bank of the
Kali-Nadi. an allliient of the Ganges, and a station on the
railway connecting Delhi and Lahore (see map of N. India,
ref. 5-E). It is an ancient city and numerous ruins show
its former splemlor. At the time of its submi-'^sion to the
British in 1803 it was in decadence, but its selection as a
militarv center caused its revival. It has little commerce
cxeepi 111.' In<id trade. Pop. (1891) 119,390. M. W. H.
Mcg«by'zos(iii Hr.MtydffvCos): (I)(Uie of the conspirators
who slew the false Smerdis; (2) a grandson of the former,
S(m of Zfipyrus. and one of the generals of .Xerxes, whose #
daughter .\mytis he had married. He was afterward com-
maniler in Syria and Egypt, where he was victorious over
MEGACLES
MEGARA
651
tho Athenians ami E(;y|'lians. On a hunt he gained the ill-
will of Artaxerxcs, and, though his life was spared, ho was
banished I" C'retc, whenoe he returned after five years, and
was forgiven. I), at Susa in extreme old age. .1. K. S. S.
Meg'acles(in (ir. MfyoxA^j): a name that recurs freriuently
in the illustrious family of the Alcma'onidie at Athens — (1)
The first l)earer of tlie name was the son of Alema-on and
Arohon of .\thens, in 612 B. <". (2) Megiurles, the grandson
of (1) and a .son-in-law of f'listhenes, tyrant of Megara, took
part as a conservative in the partisan politics at the time of
Solon; hut in 'M) li. i'., when I'isistratus liecanie tyrant, he
and the entire family of the Alcmjeonida' were forced into
exile; later on they returned and twice forced I'isistratus
into exile, hut when I'isistratus had cstaWished him.self
flrmlv in the tyranny Megaides again went into exile. Qi) A
Ifrandson of (2|, maternal grandfather of Alcil>iades; was a
victor in tlie I'ythian games, and twice ostracized. (4) An-
other grandson of (2), and uncle of Pericles on his mother's
side. J. 11. S. Sterrett.
Megalicll'thys [Mod. Lat. ; Or. ^f'^oj (stem ^(^oAo-), great
+ lx8vs, tir^U]: the generic name of extinct rhomljogaiioid
fishes whose hones are found in Kuropcan Carhoiiiferous
strata. They were covered with huge bony plates, and their
powerful jaws armed with immense teeth. These fishes seem
to have possessed a crocodilian character, and are now rep-
resented by the much smaller garfishes of the U. S.
Meg'alo-Cns'tro: See I'a.vdia.
Mcgalon'yx [.Mod. Lat.; Gr. /afVas (stem ^{70X0-) + in(,
claw]: the generic name of extinct (Quaternary mamniaU
from North and South .\inerica, allied to thesloth.s. The
type, MeyitUmtjx, was first discovered in the caves of Virginia,
and named by President .Jefferson in allusion to its large
claws, the length of the terminal phalanx or bony support
of the median claw being 7 inches, or more than one-third
the length of the humerus of the same animal. Its remains
have also been found at Bigbone Lick in Kentucky, and
other localities. The typical species has received the name
Megnlonyx jeffersuni. Many other species of the genus
occur in South An)erica. principally in the southern part.
Megrnloj('oIis[ = (ir. Vlf-fa\6Tro\is. lifer., (treat City: ^e'yos.
>tf70Ajj. great -I- ir((A.is. lilv | : city of (ireece ; on both sides. if
the river llelisson. an allluent of the Alpheus. It was
founded by Kpaminondas in ;i7() H. c.. immediately after the
battle of Leuctra, for the purpose of gathering the .\rcadi:in
communities, hitherto independent of each other, into a
compact state, thereby forming a l)ulwark against Sparta.
The city was laid out on a grand plan, being .50 stadia in cir-
cumference, with about 70,000 inhaliitants, but it never ac-
quired any considerable importance. It contained the great-
est theater in (ireece, of which remains are extant. Meg-
alopolis was excavated by the British School at Athens in
1890-91. See (Jardner, Loring, and others, Ej'curufioiin at
Megalopolin (London, 1892); see also .lounuil of Hellenic
Studies (1892-93, pp. 319-387 and 3.56-3.58); MiUheilungen,
Athenische Abtlietlung (1893, pp. 215-219).
Revised by J. K. S. Sterrett.
Mcg'alops [Mod. Lat., deriv. of Gr. luyixri. great -I- ixf/.
eve]: a name given to the bust larval stage of crabs, in allu-
sion to the relatively large size of the eyes.
Megalosan'rus [Mod. Lat.; (ir. /ieyas (stem /utyoAo-) -I-
<reu>pos. lizard]: a large carnivorous reptile from the (itolile
ami Wealden of England, belonging to the order DinoKdii-
ria, and exemplifying the carnivorous type of that order, as
Iguanodiin does the lierbivorous. ■MegdloKaHrusbucklandi,
the best-known species, was perhaps 30 feet in length, and
attained a weight of 2 or 3 tons. The teeth are large,
curved, poinleil, and compressed; the crown is covered with
smooth enamel, which rises along the margin of the tooth
into a treni'hant .serrated edge. They arc directed back-
ward ami set in sockets. The cervical vertebra' are little
known, but appeared to indicate an upward curve in the
neck, as in some mamnuds and birils. The dorsal vertebra'
have the anterior face somewhat convex, the posterior con-
cave. The bodies of the vertebra' are smooth and hour-
glass-shaped, and the neural spines elongated. Both faces
of the lumbar vertebra' are concave. The sacrals are five in
number, and the camlals estimated at bet ween thirty and
forty. The humerus is hollow, but beyond that bone the
structure of the fore lind)s is unknown. They were, how-
ever, small in comparison with the himl limbs. In the pel-
vis the ilium was a broad, strong, arched plate, wide in
front The lower margin projects in thick, strong proc-
esses, which receive the pubic and ischial bones. The
ischium was slender and directed backward. The pubis
projected downward and forward. The femur was more
curved than in JgiKtnoilun. It appears hollow like that of
a binl. There were three well-developed toes on the hind
foot, and the claws were strong and pointed. The.«e ani-
mals lived upon the land, an<l probably moved mainly by
means of their hind limb.s. Reuiainsof Megalosannis have
liecn found in tlw strata of the Mesozoic or Reptilian age in
Kngland, from tin' Lias to the Wealden: also in the Kim-
meridge clay at Ilonlicur in Normandy, and iji Oolite at
Besan(;on, l''rance. O. C. Marsb.
iMegaiit ic : a lake of Compton co., Quebec, near t he bound-
ary of Maine. It discharges through the Chaudiere river
into the St. Lawrence. It is 15 miles long by 2 or 3 broad,
and is in pictures(|ue surroundings. It is very full of fish.
The surrounding country is being rapidly colonized. Lake
Megantic town, at the N. of the lake, is a station on the Can-
adian Pacific Railway. 175 miles E. of Montreal. M. W. II.
Megapodes : See MEiiAi'owu.f:.
Me^ap(>(l'i(la> [Mod. Lat.. named from Megapo'dius, the
typical genus; (ir. /ut-yaj, irriat + iroi/s. iroS(<j, foot] : scientific
name of a faudly of gallinaceous birds whose representa-
tives are chiefiy Australian, and there are commonly known
as brush turkeys and mound-birds; they are nearly related
to the curassows (C'racid(F) of .South America, and the two
form the group Ferisleropodes of Huxley. The different
types of the group vary much in external appearance, some
Nest nf ni.-t:apo.iius.
(Mcgnpwliiiii) reminding one of a rail or a tailless hen, while
others (Talhgnllun.viv.) rather resemble a turkey; the head
and neck are sometimes (in ilegapodinw) thickly feathered,
and sometimes (in Tallegallin(P) sparsely feathered or almost
naked; the bill is more or less like that of the common cock;
the gape not deep ; the nostrils are subcentral or somewhat
anterior; the tarsi unarmed; the hind toe on a level with
the fore ones; the tail is very variable in its development.
The different forms differ considerably in habit.s, but are all
terrestrial birds: the Tal.legallin<r live in small flocks; the
Mei/apodiiuF generally in pairs, 'nejlegapodiuip are unique
among birds in their nesting arrangements; they do not sit
ui>on their eggs, but deposit them in mounds forined by
themselves, and composed of sand, leaves, etc. ; and in these
a suflicient degree of heat is generated to hatch the eggs.
The mounds arc out of all proportion to the size of the birds,
and sometimes measure from 30 to .50 feet in diameter and
14 feel in height. The young are prrrroces in the fullest
sense of the term, for they can run and fly as S(X)n as hatched.
See BRrsii-TiRKEV. Revised by F. A. Licas.
Meg'ara (in Gr. t4 M4yapa): city of ancient Greece, and
the capital of Megaris, a territory bounded bv Attica, Bcvo-
tia, I'orinlhia, the Saronic anrl the I'orinthian Gulfs. As
earlv as the seventh and eighth centuries B. c. it was a pros-
perous and even wealthy city. It formed many colonies, of
which Chah-edon and Bvzantium were the most remarkable.
It entered into rivalrv with .\thens, but had to yield in the
contest, and became subject to that city. By its attempts
to free itself from the Athenian supremacy it became one
652
MEGASTHEXA
JifinUL
of the causes o( the Pcloponnesian war, during: which it
suffered severely, and sustained losses from which it never
recovered. Theognis the poet and Euclid were citizens of
Wesara. Kcvised by J. K. S. Sterrett.
Mesas'tlu'iiii [Mod. Lat. : Gr. /ityas, great + ffffeVor.
strength]: a name given by Prof. Dana to the group of
generally large mammals constituting the orders Primates
(exclusive of man), Fene, L'ngulata, Celacea, etc. The term
in question alludes to the supposed superior life-force and
specialization (so far as ways and means, mental as well as
phvsical, are concerned) exhibited by them. The group is
exactly equivalent as to its contents with the sub-cla.<s Gu-
rencepkala of Owen, and, with the addition of man, to the
super-order Educabilia. Tueodore Gill.
Megas'thenes (Gr. Vleyaahivrii) : a Greek statesman and
author in the service of Seleucus Nicator, one of the gener-
als of Alexander the Great, who became monarch of Syria,
Persia, and Hactria. He was sent as ambassador about B. c.
302 to the court of Sandracottos (Chandra-gupta), King of
the Prasii, at Palibolhra (Pataliputra) on the Ganges, sup-
posed to be the modern Patna. He resided at this great
capital many years, and wrote a work ("li-SiKa, in four books)
upon the history and geography of India, which was the
foundation of nearly all that sub.sequcnt writers have com-
municated upon ancient India. The work of Megasthenes
is lost, but an abstract of the work is given by Diodorus (ii.,
35-42), and copious extracts, given by Strabo and other
geographers, show him to have been an acute observer,
though like most of the writers of his time he was fond of
the fabulous, and of showing the relation of Greek and
Indian myths. So he makes the Hrahinans toll of the wan-
derings of Dionysos, whom they claimed as the civilizer of
India. These fragments were edited by E. A. Schwanbeck,
Megnxthenis Indira (Honn, 1846). See also JliiUer. Frag-
menla llisloricorum Grtecorum (Paris, 1868-74). ii., 397-439.
Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Mesrnthe'rium [Mod. Lat.: Gr. ^€705. great + enp(ov,-wi\A
animal]: generic name of certain (Quaternary mammals.
The genus Megatherium may be considered as ty|iical of
the extinct family of Edentates, Megatheriidm. Their re-
mains are more abundant in South than in North America,
and indicate a former much greater dLVelopmcnt of the or-
Megatherium.
der of Edentates than now prevails. The tibia and fibula
are co-ossified. The vertebra; of the tail are very large and
powerful, and that organ, with the hind legs, seems to have
formed a sujipcjrt for the heavy body, while the huge fore
legs were employed in breaking the 'branches from trees or
tearing them down for food. There are four toes in front,
two behind. The teeth, five above and four below on each
side, resemble those of the sloths. They grew from persist-
ent j)ulps, and are deeply implanted in the jaw; they have
a grinding surface of triangular ridges, and were fitted for
miLsticating coarse vegetable food. The lower jaw is pro-
longed, and grooved in the svmphvsial region, and prob-
ably supported a powerfid, muscular tongue'. Megatlierium
ciivieri, from South America, exceeded the rhinoceros in
size, its skeleton measuring 18 feet in length. The femur
is three tiines as thick as that of the elephant. M. mira-
bile is a North American species, and its remains occur in
Georgia and South Carolina. 0. C. Marsh.
Mcgerle, Ulricii : See Auraiiam-a-Santta-Clara.
Mpglina: a river and estuary of Eastern India, into which
flow the combined waters of t he eastern branch of the Ganges
and the Uratunaputra, forming the eastern branch of the
(jangetic delta. The body of water is very great, but navi-
gation is diflicult because of constant changes in bars and
I8land.s. The mowlli of the Mcghna is said to be advancing
to sea (4 miles in twenty-three years) and to the westward.
The regular rise of the tide forms a wave 10 to 18 feet high,
which rushes with great speed up the river and is much
dreaded by boatmen. An occasional storm wave, due to
cyclones, sweeps up the river. The last great wave of this
sort was in 1876. when whole islands and the sea-face of the
mainland were submerged, causing death directly to about
19 per cent, of the po[iulatioii of Noakhali district and the
islands Sandwip and Hatia, and indirectly to about as many
more by the cholera and other diseases resulling from it.
Mark AV. Harrington.
Megrim : See Migraine.
Melicnu't .\li Pasha : first Viceroy of Egypt : b. at Ka-
vala. European Turkey, in 1769 ; the youngest of the sixteen
children of Ibrahim Agha. an Albanian officer in the Otto-
man service. He headed the contingent sent from Kavala
to assist in expelling the French from Egypt, and having
survived the land-battle of Aboukir (1799) he was appointed
binbastii (colonel). Speedily obtaining ascendency over the
other Albanians in the army, he, during the next six yeai-s,
pursued a course of almost unparalleled cunning and duplic-
ity, opportunely betraying or deceiving friend or foe, invaria-
bly reaping advantage ironi every dissension or intrigue,
adroitly inani|)ulating every foreign and domestic interest and
faction, until in a revolt of the Albanians he was proclaimed,
ostensibly against his will. Viceroy of Egypt. In this office
he was confirmed by the sultan (July 9, 1805). During the
next forty years his personal history and that of Egypt are
identical. The Mamelukes were the scourge of Egypt, and
it was impossible to crush them by war. He solemnly of-
fered them his friendship, gathered their chiefs in his pal-
ace for a great festival of reconciliation, and then had more
than 1,000 of his guests massacred in a narrow pass on their
departure. Similar measures through the land annihilated
the Mameluke power. He then organized an army after the
European system, crushed the Wahabees, who had seized
Mecca, and sent their chief, Abd-Allali-Ebn-Sououd, a pris-
oner to Constantinople (1818). Ordered by the sultan to
assist in putting down the Greek revolution, he was able
(1824) to sciul, under his son Ibrahim Pasha, a fleet of 167
vessels, carrying 17.000 men, against the Peloponnesus,
which was subdued, but the fleet was destroyed at Navarino
(1827). He confiscated private property, gained vast reve-
nues from traffic in slaves, and became practically proprietor
of Egypt, which he sought to develop to the utmost, that he
might be able to maintain a powerful army and become in-
dc[)endont. He laid out roads, cultivated cotton, indigo,
and sugar, established some schools, and sought the friend-
ship of the foreign residents. A quarrel with Abdallah
Pasha of Acre furnished a pretext for the invasion of Syria,
against which he sent his son Ibrahim Pasha {q. v.) with
24,000 men. Sultan Mahmoud, who at first had sanctioned
the expedition, was soon terrified at the rapid progress of
the Egyptians and ordered them to withdraw. Mehemet
AH, refusing and demanding investiture as governor of the
joint Syrian pashalics, was declared an outlaw. Ottoman
armies .sent to enforce the sultan's will were defeated at
lloms, Beilan, and Konieh. (ireat liritain and France,
fearing the intervention of Russia, persuaded the sultan to
yield. M'ehemet Ali agreed to evacuate Asia Minor after
appointment as governor of Syria (1833). During six years
the lOuropean powers intrigued at both Constantinople and
Cairn, France being favoralile to Mehemet Ali and the rest
of Europe against him. Troubles arose anew (1839), and
the Ottoman armv was destroyed at Nezib. Austria, Great
Britain, Prussia, flussia, and the sultan signed a treaty and
ordered the viceroy to evacuate Arabia and Syria within
ten days. The four powers agreed to enforce this order,
but, encouraged by France, Mehemet Ali refused to submit.
Speedily deserted by F'rance, he, after a dcs|)crate struggle,
was com|iellcd by Admiral Napier to aceeiit conditions
which left him nothing save the viceroyalty. That was de-
clared heredilary in his family. The remainder of his life
was uneventful. Falling into dotage, he died in Cairo,
Aug. 2, 1849, and was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Pasha.
Utterly unscrui)ulous, madly ambitious, with a v^?neering of
European (avilization, he is best described by Laniartine as
"an adventurer of genius." E. A. Grosvenor.
MC'lliil. m« ill', f/riENNE Henri: composer; b. June 22,
1763, at Givct, in the department of the Ardennes, France,
in humble circumstances; went in 1779 to Paris with an
introduction to (iluck, whose favor he gained, and under
whom he studieil; Miadr a successful (/(,'i«< as a ciunposer
MKI
MEIN'EKE
653
in 1791 by liis opera Euphrogine and Conrndin; achieved
a most brilliant success by his coiiipcisition of Chenier's song.
Chant du Depart ; becaiiie professor at the Conservatory ;
wrote forty-two i)[)eriis. L). in Paris, Oct. IH, 1817. Ifis
most remarkable composition, besides the abovc-menlioneU
sonff, is his opera of Jiisi-pU (1807). The overture to the
opera La Cliaxne du Jtitiie Ili-nri, also cliaracteristic, is
often perfornieJ. See the Biutjniphy by Pougiii (1889).
MeK, miit'e, Lkv (or May, IjVOKK) Ai.eksandkovich : poet;
b. in .AIoscow, Russia, l''eb. Vi, 1823, the son of an ollicial <if
(Jerman origin. lie wius for a number of years in llie service
of thetiovernment at .St. Petersljurj;. While still ascliooll)oy
he begun to make creilitable verses, and to tlie enJ of his
life continueil a most prolific writer. Besides translations,
many of tliem rcnuirkal)le, from eight foreign languages,
and a modern rendering of The Tale of the Troopoflgor, he
was the author of three historical dramas, Tsnrkata Nevesta
(The Bride of the Tsar. 1849), Sen-ilia (1854), and Pn/co-
vitlanka (The Woman of Pskov, 1860), as well as of many
shorter poems, some on biblical or classical subjects, others
expressing with ^reat skill and fidelity the life and char-
acter of the Russian people. 1). in St. Petersburg, May 10,
1862. Mei' was never a particular favorite of the public.
lie lacked in<iividuality; also, partly owing to poverty, he
wrote too much and too hiustily. See his complete works (3
vols., St. Petersburg, 186;i-G.5).' A. C. Coolidge.
Mpignan. munyaaiV, Glillaume Ren£: theologian ; b. at
Dcna/.c. in the deiiartment of JIayennc, France, Apr. 11,
1817; was educated for the Church; was ordained a priest
in 1840; held various minor charges, and was in 1862 ajj-
pointed Professor of Biblical Theology at the Sorbonne; in
1863 vicar-general of the diocese of Paris; and in 1864
Bishop of Chalons ; in 1S82 was transferred to Arras; in 1884
promoted to the archbishopric of Tours. He published Li:s
Propheties messianiques (18.j8; 2d ed. 1878): M. lienan re-
fute par les Itatiunnlixten Allemaiids (1863); Les Evangiles
et la critique an XIX' siecte {I8<ii: 2d ed. 1871); La crise
Protestante en Aiu/leterre et en France (1864); Le monde
et I'homme vrimilif selun la liible (1869); Inxlructions et
conseils ajJresxees aux families chretiennes (187.5); Leon
XI IL pacificateur (1886) ; iio/omon, son regne, ses ecrit.i
(1890); Le Christ et I'Ancien Testament; Les Prophetes
d' Israel: Quatre siecles de lutte centre I'idolatrie (1892);
besides a great number of minor essays. D. at Tours. France,
Jan. 20, 1896. Revised by S. Jl. Jackso.v.
Meigs, Charles Delucena, M. D. : obstetrician ; b. at
St. George's, Bermuda, Feb. 19, 1792; received medical
degree from the University of Penn.sylvania 1817; settled
in Philadelphia in 1817; made specialties of obstetrical
f)ractice and the diseases of women and children, in which
le acquired a high reputation ; was a professor in Jefferson
Medical College 1841-61. lie wrote several professional
works, amonK which are Midivifery (1838) ; Lectures on the
Female (1847); Obstetrics, a standard work (1849); CVu'W-
bed Petvrs (1854); he raatle valuable translations from
French medical literature. He was the author of a Memoir
of .Samuel (teiirgr Morion. M. I). (1854). 1). in Delaware
CO., Pa., June 22, 1869. Revised by S. T. Armstrong.
Mciffs, James .\itken, M. D. : clinician and physiologist ;
b. in Philadelphia. July 31, 1829; graduated at Jefferson
Medical College 1851 ; became in 18.56 librarian of the
Philadelphia Academy of Natural .Sciences; Professor of
the Institutes of Medicine in Pennsylvania Jledical College
18.59-61 ; was Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
Jefferson Medical College 1H68. He was the author of works
chiefly on craniology and ethnology. I), in Philadelphia,
Nov. i), 1879. Revised by S. T. Armstro.no.
Meigs, MosTooMERT Ci'NxixoiiAM : officer and scient-
ist; b. at Augusta. Richmond co., (la.. May 3, 1816; was
educated at the Cniversily of Pennsvlvania and U. S. Mili-
tary Academy; graduated from the hitter July 1, 1836; was
appointed second lieutenant of artillery, which commission
he rclin(|uished in 1837 for the purpose of bein^ transferred
to the corps of engineers as brevet second lieutenant from
date of graduation; became lii-st lieutenant of engineers
18;!8, captain 18.53. From 18:J6 to 1841 he was mainly en-
gaged in the construction of Fort Oeluware, of the Dela-
ware breakwater, and in the improvement of the Delaware
Bay and river; in charge of the construction of Fort Wayne,
Mich., and Forts Porter and Niagara, N. Y.. 1841—19; of
Fort Mi>ntgomcry, N. Y., 18,50-.52. From Nov., 18.52, to
1860 ho was engaged u|>on his great work of supplying the
national capital with water from the Potomac river ; the
Washington ai|ueduct, by which the cities of Washington
and Georgetown are now suiiplied, was designed and con-
structed under his [lersonal direction, during which time he
conducted the construction of the Capitol extension and its
iron dome, as well as of the post-office extension. In Nov.,
1860, he Wiis sent to Florida to put Forts Jefferson and Tay-
lor in a condition to resist attack; returning to Washing-
ton, he was by reipu'st relieved from other duties, Apr.,
1861, and appointed chief engineer of the exfiedition for the
relief of Fort Pickens; was ai)i>ointe<l colonel of the Elev-
enth Infantry May 14, 1861, ana the next day quartermaster-
general U. S. army, with the rank of brigadier-general,
and as such directed the e(|ui|)ment and supply of vast
armies <lnring the civil war, making frequent inspections of
the operations of the quartermaster's department in the
various armies in the field, l>eing at Chattanooga through-
out its investment, and engaged in the battle of Nov. 2;{-25,
1863; during Gen. Grant's operations in the Wilderness,
May, 1864, wjis in charge of the base of supplies at Fred-
ericksburg and Belle Plain; ami during the appearance of
the Confederate forces under Breckenridge and Early in
front of Washington commanded a division composed of
employees of the War Department. He was breveted
major-general July 5, 1864. In Jan., 1865, he directed, at
Savannah, Ga., the supply and refitting of Gen. Sherman's
army, just arrived from Atlanta, and in March, at Gohls-
boro, N. C, directed the opening of communications for the
supply of that army on its arrival there and at Raleigh.
Visited Europe 1867-68, after which he inspected the opera-
tions of his department in Texius, California. Dakota, Wy-
oming, and Arizona; also the North Pacific Railway route to
the Red River of the North. In 1875 he was sent to Europe
particularly to inspect the organization of the staff depart-
ments (especiallv the quartermaster's) of European armies.
Retired Feb. 6, 1882. D. in Washington, D. C, Jan. 2, 1892.
Meigs, Return Jonathan, Jr. ; soldier and Senator; b.
at Middletown, Conn., Nov., 1765; graduated at Vale in
1785 ; went to Marietta, O., with his father, Col. R. J. Meigs,
in 1788; became a lawyer there, and was much engaged in
border warfare ; was made chief justice of the Ohio Supreme
Court 1803-04 ; brevet colonel U. S. army, serving in Louisi-
ana 1804-06; a judge in Louisiana 1805-06; L.S. district
judge in Jlichigan 1807-08; U. S. Senator from Ohio 1808-
10; Governor of Ohio 1810-14: U.S. Postmaster-General
1814-23. His governorship was remarkable for the active
support which tie and his State afforded the U. S. Govern-
ment during the war of 1812-15. D. at Marietta, O., Mar.
29, 1824. — His nephew, bearing the same name, became a dis-
tinguished lawyer of Tennessee, and published a volume of
Law lieports (1839), and in connection with William F.
Cooper prepared the Code of Tennessee (1858).
Meikong: a river of Indo-China. See Mekon'q.
Meiiiam : a river of Siam. See Menam.
Meiiieke. ml ne-ke, AuorsT : classical scholar; b. in
Soest, in Westphalia, Germany, Dec. 8, 1790; received his
early education at the famous gymnasium of S<'hulpforta ;
studied under G. Hermann at Leipzig from 1810 to \S\'i,
when he was appointed Professor of Greek and Roman
Literature at the gymnasium at Jenkan ; thereafter director
of the gymna-sium in Dantzie ; and from 1826-57 director
of the Joachimsthaler Gymniusium in Berlin. D. Dee. 12,
1870. Meineke's astounding philological activity was almost
exclusively devote<l to text critical editions of Greek authors,
his work in the departments of Greek comedy and Alexan-
drian literature being particularly valuable. Among his
many writings are Fragmenta Comicorum Grcrcorum (5
vols., 1839-57), the first volume containing the first com-
plete and scientific survey of our knowledge concerning the
development of Greek comedy, aixi the lives and works of
its representatives; Aristophanes (2 vols.. 1860) ; Athena-us
(3 vols., 185!)); Atialerta Alexandrina (1843). a collection of
learned monographs on the jTOets Euphorion,Rhianos, Alex-
ander .-Elolus, Parthenins, and others; Theocritus, Uion
and Moschus (18.56): Callimachus's Hi/mns aui\ Epigrams
(1861); the lexicon of Stephauus lii/za'utius (vol. i. 1849, the
.second never appeared): Strabo (3 vols., 1853); Slobaeus
(6 vols., 18.55-6;!); the histories of Johannes Kinnamas and
Xicephorus On/ennios for the Bonn Corpus scriptonim fly-
zantinorum; Ilorace (1834), in which edition the so-called
four-line strophe law, discovend independently by him and
Liu-hmann. is consistentlv applied. See F. Ranke, .-1. Mei-
neke, ein Lebensbild (Leipzig, 1871). Alfreo Gidejian.
654
MEISSEN
MEK.ONG
Mpissen. mi s*ii : town of Suxoiiy : on the Elt>o : 14 miles
bv rail N. W. of Dresden (see iimp'of Oeriiian Km^ire, ref.
4^G). It has a lieaiitiful tiothic cathedral. St. Afra s Seliool
(founJeil iu laW). eeli-brated iimmifactures of ponelaiii. in
which the so-calleil " I)ri's<ien china" is maile (an iniliistry
begun in ITIO); aU> iiiamifactures of iron, machinery, jute,
ana cipirs. Pop. tl^'JO) 17,875.
Meissen, Hkinrich, von (,Fiauenlob): poet; b. probably
at .Miis-kMi about l-'oO. He wtis a traveling niinnesinscr,
whom we meet at the courts and castles of many contem-
porary princes ami nobles. Towanl the end of his life he
seems to have settled at Mentz. where he died Nov. 21),
1318. He was called Frauenlob because he extols in his
poems the name Frau in opiwsition to the name Weib, which
was usetl bv other noets. He also wrote a long hvmn in
praise of the Holv Virgiti, introducing in this and other
poems the clement of scholastic learning. The fact that in
this stvle of [wetrv he was imitated by the later master-
singers' is proof for the supposition that to Frauenlob we
must trace the beginnings of the mastersong. (See Master-
sixiiKRS.) Frauenlob was a poet of great technical talent,
but an extremely vain man, whose conceit is not warranted
by the meager contents of his poetry. Juuis Gokdkl.
Melssner. mis nc r, Alkrku : poet ; b. at Teplitz, Bo-
hemia, Oct. 15, 1822; studied medicine at the University of
Prague, and published his first volume of poems in 1845.
Fearing tiiat the |)ublication of Ziitka. an epic poem which
he was then writing, would be prohibiteil in Austria, he
went to Leipzig in 1846. Here he finished .^ii(A-«, which
met with great success, but on account of its revolutionary
spirit was not allowed to be sold in .\ustria. In order to
escape extradition and punishment he went to Paris, where
he became intimately acquainted with Heine. In 1848 he
returned to Austria, where, on account of the revolutionary
events of that year, a more liberal spirit had been inaugu-
rated, and he was allowed to go free. During the remainiler
of his life he lived mostly in Prague and in Bregenz, at Lake
Constance. Though Melssner wrote several dramas and a
number of noveb which rank above the average, he is greatest
as a lyric poet. Like Anastivsius (iriin and other Austrian
poets of that time, Meissner finds the principal source of
his poetical inspiration in the ardent longing for spiritual
and political freedom from the fetters of media'val feudalism
and hierarchical despotism. Besides, we find in his poetry
an clement of melancholy, suggesting a decided influence of
Lenau. The last years of Meissner"s life were greatly em-
bittered by the consequences of a most unfortunate literary
partnership into which he had entered with a man named
llederich. Being ashamed to acknowledge this partnership
publicly, he was forced not only to publish novels by Hedericli
under his own name, but also to meet, under the threat of
exposure, the exorbitant pecuniary demands of this man.
Nearly driven to madness, Meissner attempted suicide, and
finally died, utterly broken down, at Bregenz, May 29, 1885.
Julius Goebel.
Melssonier, mdso'ni-ii', Jean Louis Ernest: genre and
military painter: b. in Lyons, France, Feb. 21, 1815; pupil
for a short time of Leon Cogniet, but obtained his art edu-
cation in the main by the study of the old masters, esi)e-
cially those of the Dutch school. The first picture he ex-
hibited was The Visitors, in 1834. He received a third-
cla.ss medal at the .Salon of 1840. second-class in 1841, and
first-class in 1843 and in 1848. Iteccived in 1846 the decora-
tion of the Legion of Honor, and was ma<le a gruml ofTicer
in 1878; at the I'aris Expositions of 185.5, 1867, and 1878
he was awanhd medals of honor; was elected in 1861 a
member of the Institute. He was a member of all the prin-
cipal art aca<lemies of Europe, and received various honors
and orders at international exhibitions and from tlie sover-
eigns of different countries. D. in Paris, Jan. 31, 1891. His
works arc remarkiible for their wonderful truth and cxact-
ne.<s in detail, while they are painted with breadth and com-
pleteness of general elTect. A number of his works deserve
the name of masteriiicces. His pictures have been sold for
enormous prices, and most of them are in private collections
in Europe and the U. S. Xitpoteim Jll. at Solferino (1864)
is in the LuxcmlKiurg Gallery, Paris; La Rixe (1855) in
Buckingham Palace, London ; Friedluiid — 1SU7 (painted in
1876) in the .Metropolitan Museum, New York.
William A. Coffin.
McisterlianH. mis Ur-hans, Konrad, Pli. D. : classical
wliolar; I), at Andelfingen, canton of Zurich, .Switzerland,
Nov. 21, 1858 ; studied in Zurich and Paris ; professor in the
cantonal school at Solothurn, .Switzerland ; author of Oram-
matik tier altisehen Iiischriflen (1885; 2d ed. 1888); Aelteste
Oeschichle des Kuntuns Hoivl/iurn ii's zum Jahre 087 (1890).
MeisttTsinger: See Ma-steksisoers.
.Mcistersong: See Mastersinoers.
Mojiii, m<i-hee'aa, TomXs: soldier; b. in Guanajuato,
Mexico, about 1812. He was of pure Indian blood, and un-
educated: rose from the raidis; fought against Taylor in
the war with the V . S. 1846-47 ; subsequently supported the
conservative or church parly, and was conspicuous on its
side in the civil wars 1857-61. In 1862 he joined the French
and subsequently was one of the most tni.sted generals of
Maximilian, to whom he W!»s much attached. He was cap-
tured at the fall of yuerctaro, and executed there with Maxi-
milian. June 19, 1867. Herbert H. Smitu.
Mejsnar, mils naar, Hvnek Jaroslav: classical scholar;
b. at Jilemnice, ncar.licin, Bohemia. 1837; was professor at
the gymniusium of Tabor ; is professor at the academic gym-
nasium of Prague. He is best known as translator of
Homer's Odyssey (1873-76); Iliad (1878-81); and Hymns,
Epigrams, and Batracliomyomachia (1881). He also trans-
lated N. Nekrasov's and K. F. livlejev's poems, Krvlov's
fables, and trilogy Orcstcia (1883), etc. J. J.' K.
Mek'hitar, or Met'liitar: the founder of a congregation
of Armenian monks, called after him Mekhilarists ; b. at Se-
baste in Lesser Armenia. Feb. 7, 1076. His true name was Ma-
luik, but on entering a monastery in the vicinity of liis native
city iji 1690 he received the name of Mekhitar, " comforter."
He distinguished himself both for religious zeal and talent
for learning, and in 1 701 founded in Constantinople a con-
gregation with the purpose of uniting the Armenian and
Koman Catholic Churches. Compelled to leave Constanti-
nople on account of the persecutions of the Armenian patri-
arch, he moved in 1703 to Modon, in the Morea. where, under
the authority of the Venetians, who at that time held the
country, he founded a monastery. Expelled from this place,
too, bv the war between Turkey and Venice, he repaired with
his followers to the latter city, ami having received the island
of San Lazzaro, he built a new monastery here (1717). D. in
the monastery Apr. 27. 1749. In their original aim of unit-
ing the Armenian and Roman Catholic Churches, the Mek-
hilarists have not been very successful. They have branches
in Italy, Germany, and Turkey, but United Armenians are
scarcely found in Armenia proper. (See Armenian Church.)
As a link of intercommunication, however, between their na-
tive country and European civilization they have develo[>ed a
great and beneficial activity. Through them Arnu'iiia. its
language, literature, and history have become known to Eu-
rope, and many of the best products of European learning
and genius have become accessible to Armenians through
their translations. See V. Langlois, Notice sur le convent
armenien de Vile Saint-Lazare de Vettise, el sur la congri-
gation mekhitariste (Venice, 1863).
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Mek'inez: town of Morocco; in lat. 33° 58' N. and Ion.
5 35' W. (.see map of .Vfrica, ref. 1-B). It is situated on a
fertile plain covered with olive-groves. It is fortified, neatly
built, and contains a magnificent palace built of marble anS
surrounded by beautiful gardens. The sultan resides there
during the summer. A considerable trade and manufact-
ures of leather and earthenware are carried on. Many
of its inhabitants are connected witli the court of the sul-
tan. The town was formerly called Tiikarat. Pop. csti-
Tuated at 80,000.
Meklong': river and town of 'Western Siam, Indo-China.
The river rises in the mountains between Tenasserim and
Siam, is 2.50 miles long, is navigable for the lower 30 miles
from Pra-Pri, is connected by a canal with the Menam near
its mouth, and empties into the northwest angle of the Gulf
of Siam. The town of Meklong. an important port, is on the
river, 5 miles above its mouth. Pop. 10,000, mostly Chinese
merchants and Siamese truck-growers and fishermen. Be-
low the town is a strong fort. M. W. H.
Mekong', MeikoMg, or Cambodia : a river of Southeast-
ern Asia, the greatest in Indu-China. Its upper course is
not known with certainty, but it is tielieved to rise in Cen-
tral Tibet, about lat. 34 N., Ion. 94 W., but a few miles
E. of the sourc(! of the Vang-tse-Kiang, traversing Eastern
Kham (of Tibet) and Western Szcchuan and Vunnan (of
China), and entering Indo-Chiiia at the northwest angle of
Toncpiin, in about Ion. 100' E. From here it goes .S. until it
passes lat. 22°, from which point its course is fully identified.
MKKltAX
.MKLAN'CUTIIOX
655
It pusses first S. to lut. 20°, then K. through Luanp Prabang
to about loll. lO'-l' E., then again S. to about lal. 18 N.,
thence K. again to Ion. 104 K., thence, by a generally south-
erly course, to its mouth in the China Sea. Its greatest tribu-
tary is the Senioun from Siam, in about lat. 15 N. IJelow
Khong, about lat. 14 N., begins a series of rapiils and cata-
racts which make continuous navigation between the lower
and upper river impossible. Helow the cataracts of Khong
navigation is possilile without interruption to the moutli.
At aljoiil 11 ;il) X. lat. the river receives the discharge of
Tonle-Sap, or (ireiit Lake, lying 70 miles N. W. This lake
is about 100 miles Imig, 20 miles in greatest breadth, and
lies on the boundary between .Siam and French Cambodia.
At the junction of the .Mekong and alUuent of Great Lake
is the important city of I'nom-l'enh, ami it is iiuiucdiately
below this city that the delta of the Mekong begins. The
river then passes by many branches for IHO miles through
the marshes of Cochin China, and empties into the ocean
through four great months and innumerable smaller ones.
As thus described, the Mekong has a course of over 2,000
miles, about that of the .\mur, lloangho, or Volga. Its
basin includes about :i.')0,000 sq. miles, wliich is small for its
length. The stream is called bv dillerent names in different
parts of its course. It is the kiamdo-Chu of the Tibetans,
the Lan-tsan-Kiang and Ija-Kiio of the Chinese, the Mekwan-
tnit of the Burman Laos, the Kien-loiig of the Siamese Laos,
the Mekong or Xamkong in Siam, and the Cambodia or
Sangson in Cambodia. Its probable source is at an eleva-
tion of 15,000 or 20,000 feet, and its current above lat. 18'
N. is generally rapid and turbulent. Below Khong the fall
is so slight that the tides are felt as high up as Pnom-Penh,
and sometimes to the extremity of the Great Lake and the
foot of the cataracts of Khong. See Uesgodin"s J/i'.s.sioh.s du
Thibet (l8Ti) ; Garnier, Voyayt d'eiploration en Indo-Chine
(1873). Mark W. IlAaiuxoTox.
Mekrnn'.or Makraii'(anc. Oedrosia) : geographical name
of Persian origin for the coast regions of Southwestern Balu-
chistan and Southeastern Persia. It is an arid and desolate
region, traversed by chains of bare, rocky, or sandy hills run-
ning parallel to the coast, without permanent rivers. The
climate is hot, and severe fevers are common. It is very
sparsely inhabited, and is about equally divided between
Baluchistan and Persia. It is inhabited by many mutually
independent and jealous tribes. 51. W. H.
Me'la, PoMi'ONiL's: geographer; b. atTingentcra in Spain ;
flourished in the first half of the first century of our era.
lie was the first Latin writer who composed a formal treatise
on geography. His work, De Chorof/raphia Libri III., is
still extant, though the text has snil'ered much. The first
edition was published at Milan (1471); the best editions are
those by Tzschucke (Leipzig, 1807), by Parthey (Berlin, 1867),
and C. Frick (Leipzig. 1880). There' is an Finglish transla-
tion by Arthur Oolding (London, 1585).
Revised by M. Warren.
Melainet. David: corapo.scr; b. in Prussia in 1861; was
celebrated while a boy for his fine soprano voice, and made
a concert tour when twelve years old. He studied in Berlin
under Kullak, Tiersch, and Becker, and became a singer and
chorus-conductor, lie removed to New York in 1S88. ami
became director of the (iennaiiia .Miinnerchor. In 18S9 he
succeeded Fritz Fincke in Baltimore. In 1802 he won, with
his (.'ulumbus. the prize which had been ofTered for the l)est
cantata for the German Columbian celebration in Xew York.
I). K. IIkiukv.
Melam'pus (in Gr. MtAd^irouj) : son of Amythaon and Ido-
Dieiie, and brother of Bias {q. v.). In front 'of his house in
the country stood an oak-tree in which a snake had built its
nest. Servants killed the mother-snake, whose body Melaiii-
pus reverently burneil. The young .snakes ho reareil as pets.
In return therefor, as Melampus slept, the young snakes
licked out and purified his ears, so that upon awaking he
found that he understood the language of the birds, who
thereafter instructed him in the prophetic art. After an in-
terview with A|)ollo in the valley of the Ali>lieus, he became
the most distinguished of soothsayers. See Bias, Pero,
Phvlacus, ami Ii'iiklus. J. It. S. Sterrktt.
Melanrholia: a form of emotional insanity. See Ixsan-
iTv ami lionnixQ Insa.mty.
Mplanrli'tliuii (sometimes Mplnntlion), Philip: reformer
and Iheologiiin ; b. in Bretten, now in the grand duchy of
Baden, Feb. 10, 1407. His father, George .Sehwarzerd (lit-
erally " Black earth," of which Jlelanchthon is simply the
Greek translation), was a skillful and eminent manufacturer
of military arms, who by his traile had attained h compe-
tency, and by his private virtues ami decided religious char-
acter was widely known. His mother, Barbara Reuter, was
the daughter of the burgomaster of the village. His grand-
mother was the sister of the renowned humanist John
Keuchlin. From his earliest childhood he enjoyed rare ad-
vantages for instruction — first, under the supervision of his
grandfather, and afterward of Beuchlin, who, in recognition
of his attainments, translated his German name into Greek.
Knteringthe L'niversity of Heidelberg in his thirteenth year,
he resided with one of the professors, and was known famil-
iarly among his fellow students as " the Grecian." Notwith-
standing the distraction of private teaching, he took the
degree of bachelor of arts when only a few months over
fourteen. During this period he wrote his Greek grammar,
published several years later. His ambition received a
check the following year, when, notwithstanding his ac-
knowledged attainments in scholastic philosophy, he was
refuseil the degree of master of arts solely because of his
extreme youth. This, with the insalubrity of the climate,
from which he was suffering, determined his transfer in 1512
to Tubingen, where, after pursuing a wide range of studies —
including Greek and Latin literature, philosophy, history,
jurisprudence, medicine, and theology — he received his mas-
ter's degree in 1514. and immediately began to lecture on the
classics. In 1516 he published an edition of Terence, and
for some years was a corrector of the press for publications
of Keuchlin and others. In 1518 he declined calls to both
Leipzig and Ingolstadt, and accepted a call, given on Heuch-
lin's recommendation, to Wittenberg. Ills youthful appear-
ance caused much disaiipointment, until he delivered his
inaugural address On Mailers to be Corrected in the Studies
of Youth, which completely won the hearts of his hearers,
especially Luther. In his enthusiasm, Luther wrote: "I de-
sire no other teacher of Greek so long as he lives." His lec-
ture-room was continually crowded with eager students, the
number frequently rising as high as 2,000. He enkindled
much interest among the theologians in the study of (ireck.
His association with Luther led liini constantly more deeply
into the study of theology. In 151!) he accompanied Luther
to the Leipzig Disputation, and, although only a spectator,
became involved in a controversy with Dr. John Eck, when
is letter to (iM'olampadius, reporting the discussion, was
published. During the same year he received the degree of
H. I). He was gradually led to the work of a theological pro-
fessor by his lectures on the Xew Testament writings. With
great modesty he always protested that his sphere was that
of the philologist and expounder of the classics rather than
that of the theologian; but the demandsof students, as well as
of Luther, determined that he should especially devote him-
self to theology. His lectures on the Epistle to the Romans
were |iublished, without his knowledge, by Luther in 1522;
but before they were published his prolegomena to the same
lectures, as delivered to his students, had led to the publica-
tion of a small volume that proved to be the foundation of
Protestant dogmatical theology. Recognizing the frequent
recurrence of many of the same terms in the Epistle, he had
prepared definitions of a number of them. Their publica-
tion by his pupils, in an imperfect form and without his
knowledge and consent, demanded that an authorized edi-
tion should be prepared. This resulted in the Loci Com-
munes rerum theolmjicarum of 1521. In them may be seen
Melanchthon's great skill in presenting in the clearest and
most accurate form the material derived from Luther. The
latter declared that the book had more solid d<K?tiinc in it
than could be found in any work since the days of the apos-
tles, and that it was worthy of canonical authority. Me-
lanchthon saw more than sixty editions issued from the
press. He subjected it to two radical revisions. The former
was in 1535 and the latter in 1.543, the most noticeable varia-
tion being in the change concerning the freedom of the will,
since he passed from the most absolute determinism in the
edition of 1521 (tnllit Hague ott>i>em liherlalem voluntatis
nostra' divina pradrnlinatio) to the assertion of a synergism
of the human will in conversion, that advanced in decision,
until in 1.54.8 he taught Liberum arbitrium ent in homine
facullris applicandi se ad gratiam. Other changes were
determined either bv his conciliatory attituile toward the
Reformed or his willingness to com|iromise with a mo<iified
form of Roman Catholicism, as proposed in the Interim of
1548. The Loci in their three chief editions (Latin and
German) are published witli full introductions in vol. xxL
of Bretselineidcr and Bindseirs Corpus lieformatorum.
656
MELANCllTUON
MELA NTH US
Besides his activity «is prufessur niiil author. Mclnnchthon
was more proiiiiiient'evt'ii than laithi-r in what may Iw called
ecclesiastical iliploiuaoy. for wliich Luther's anient teinpcra-
mciit and directness unfitted him. His greatest work in this
direction was his composition of the .\iifpiliurg Confession,
upon the basis of material provided l>y him and Luther in
Common, and with Luther's revision anil advice. (See Alos-
Bl-Rii t'oNti^ssio.v.) The Apolo<;y of the Augsburg Confes-
sion and the appendix to the Smalcald Articles are also from
his pen. He [larticipateJ in the Diet of Spires of loi'J and
the Marburg colloquy of the same vcar. Among otlier ec-
clesiastical conferences in which he was nrominent were
those with the repri>sentatives of the Churcli of England at
Witlenberj; in 15:36. and in the sjinie year with Haur and
his assiH'iates. resulting in the Wittenberg Concord, in the
Diet of Ratisbon (Kegensburg) in 1540. and the Keforma-
tion of Cologne in 1543. He was entirely unecjual to the
occasion when, during l^uther's absence at the Wartburg in
1521. religious disturbances arose at Wittenberg. Mclanch-
thon in this sphere showed much vacillation, and was influ-
enced bv current events. This was particularly observable
in his revisions (1.540 and 154',') of the Augsburg Confession.
Alwavs desirous to improve his statements of doctrine, he
seems to have not always discriminated between what he
had written as a private'theologian and what had been pre-
pared for others to sign, and thus to become the confession
of churches. The changes made in the Augsburg Confession,
chietlv to make it more acceptable to the Keformed, led to
the distinction between the Invciriala and Varin/a. and oc-
casioned violent controversies in the Lutheran Church. In
a similar way, after Luther's death in 1546, when Luther-
anism was in extreme peril as the result of the calamities of
the Smalcalil war, he was ready to concede the use of rites
tliat had become distinctive of'Koman Catholicism to secure
the continuance of what he deemed evangelical teaching.
The frequent correspondent and adviser of Cranmer in
his reformation in England, and the occasional correspond-
ent of King Henry VIII. himself, he wjus repeatedly called
to England, but declined. His influence, however, pervades
the Prayer-book, the Articles, and the IlomiUea.
His last years were burdened with domestic afflictions, as
well as by the disturbed condition of the Lutheran Church,
He longed to be delivered from what he called the rabies
tlirnliigorum. He died Apr. 19. 1.560.
While Melanchthon was eminent as a classical scholar
and as a lecturer and writer on philosophy, his chief dis-
tinction must always be as a theologian. This rests not
ujKin anv extensive investigations or attempts to solve diffi-
culties, but almost entirely upon his extraordinary ability
to state any truth presented for consideration in the clearest
and simplest form. As Plitt remarks (Einleitttng in die
Augiistann, i., .5;JT). he was no systematic theologian in
the proper sense of the term ; instead of dealing with diffi-
culties, he always sought to evade them; whatever the sub-
ject he undertook to treat, he presented it with transparent
clearness. This has been stated in the often-quoted sen-
tence, •■ Luther, the miner's son, dug the pure ore of truth
out of the mountain, and Melanchthon, the armorer's son,
forged it into a bright weapon." The misfortune of Jle-
lanchthon often force<l him into positions in which he 'elt
his weakness, an<l which were uncongenial to him. When
there was no creative genius with a more powerful will to
determine his course, as when he was by the side of Luther,
his skill in what waspurelv formal did not protect him from
errors in the material. .Afelanchthon, in turn, exerted much
influence upon Lullier. They supplcmenlcd each other.
"If Luther was able to kindle, to rouse and elevate, and
even ravish the heart, it was through Melanclithon's co-
operation that the effect he produced received its abiding
power, outlasting the change of moo<ls ; and thus what Lu-
ther gave was incorporated with the daily life, with quiet
Christian enlighlcninenf. In .Melanchthon! Luther, the man
of the people, had placed by his siilc the fine architectural
and organizing spirit, who. L'ifleil with a delicate moral tact,
a circumspect and dialecti<- mind, ami a power of unadorned
but transparent and convincing representation, had the skill
to give to the matter, born at first in the heart of Luther,
an objective shape and the stamp of validity. Melanchthon.
in particular, was the medium of extending the Kefonna-
tion to the educated classes, to statesmen and learned men.
■who might easily have failed to recognize in Luther's sturdv
language the matter that was of saving virtue to them."
Dorner's llislonj of I'roleatant Theology, Eng. transl.. i..
116, sc?.
The writings of Melanchthon fill twenty-four folio vol-
umes of the Corpus Uefurmuturum (Halle, 1834-60). The
first nine volumes contain his letlei-s, to which Hindseil
added in 18T!( a volume of letters that were not included.
These volumes are accompanied by the Annales Viltv, a most
minute chronological talde of the chief events of his life.
His biographies begin with that of his most intimate friend,
Camerarius, 1566. Among the more recent are those of
Kothe (1829), Matthes (1841), Ledderhose (1847). E. Schmidt
(1861). In English we have Cox (1835) and Krotel's trans-
lation of Ledderhose (1855). See also Hcrrlinger's Melanck-
thons Tkeologie (Leipzig. 1879); Uartfelder's Philip Me-
lanchthon als Preceptor Germaniie (Berlin. 1889). See also
German Theology. Hi;.nrv E. Jacobs.
Melanps'ia: one of three great ethnographic divisions of
Oceania, being the part occupied by neoples with a black
skin, while the natives of Micronesia ana Polynesia are lighter
in color. The Melanesian archipelagoes are, in order from
the N. \V. to the S. E., Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon
islands, the Santa Cruz islands, the Tncopia group, the New
Hebrides, New Caledonia and the Loyalty islands, the Ches-
terfield islands, and finally the Fiji islands, where the popu-
lation is so mixed with Polynesian that it may be imliller-
ently attributed to Melanesia or Polynesia. The total area
of these islands is 56,300 sq. miles, and the combined popu-
lation 642.300, or about twelve persons to the snuare mile.
The population of New Guinea or Papua is on the wliole nearly
allied to the Melanesians. If this is included the total area
becomes 358,300 sq. miles, and the population 1,150.000.
The Melanesians are closely allied to the Negritos, though •
there are great dilTercnces in language. They diller physic-
ally from the Polynesians, though there are striking resem-
blances in custon'is and languages. Probably considerable
intermixture has taken place with the latter. The Melan-
esians are ugly, especially the women, but muscular, and
good workmen. They have some simian characters fairly
well pronounced; woolly but not crinkled hair; hairy
bodies ; narrow shoulders, and slender arms and legs, but
large hands and feet ; color a deep brown. They are less
thievish than the Polynesians, and more energetic, though
inferior in the making of weapons and canoes and in the art
of navigation. Sec Coddrington. The Jlelanesian Languages
(1885) and The Melanesians : iSluilies in their Anthropology
and Folklore (1891). Makk W. IIarrinuto.n.
Molani'idic [Mod. Lat., named from Melania. the typi-
cal genus, from Gr. /ucAas. fieKavos, black]: a family of
fresh-water gasteropod molluscs in which the usually long
or conical shell is covered with a thick, dark-colored epider-
mis. The foot is large, the nroboscis short and stout, and
the eyes near the base of the tentacles. The species are
very numerous, csi)ecially in Southern Asia and in the Mis-
sissippi valley. Almost nothing is known of the structure
or development of the various forms. J. S. K.
Molanip'pns (in Gr. McAomnros) : son of Astacus of
Thebes, who. when the Seven Heroes were attacking Thebes,
was stationed l)y Eteoclcs opposite to Tydeus, whom he
wounded mortally. Later in the fight Amphiaraus killed
and behead' cl Jli'lanippus. Amphiaraus blamed Tydeus
mostly for the war. upon which he had entered against his
will, because he foreknew its issue. He therefore bethought
him of a terrible vengeance. Being a seer, he knew that
Athene was hastening from Olympus in order to cure Tydeus
and make him immortal. In order to prevent this Amphi-
araus gave the head of Melanippus to Tydeus. who still liad
strength enough to sjilit open tlic skull and drink the brains,
a deed which caused Athene to shrink back in horror. Am-
phiaraus was avenged, and Tydeus died.
J. R. S. Stehrett.
Mcrrfnisin [from Gr. /iif\os. -oyot, black] : a term used to
denote the assunqition of an abnormally dark or even black
phase of color among animals; the opjiosile of albinism. It
appears to be of such fie(|ueiit occurrence in some animals,
c. g. the rough-legged buzzard (Archihuteo sancti joannis)
and black variety of the pray s<]\iirrv\ {Sciuruscarol'inensis),
as to almost amount to l)iriiRoMArisM (q. v.), while in others
it is i[ifrequent. F. A. L.
Mclanito: See (iARNET.
.ticlan'thiis (in Gr. M(\ai/dos) : son of Andropompus and
King "l Messeriia. He was driven out of Jlesscnia bv the
lleraclida', and took refuge in.Vltica. .Xiintlius. the King
of liuMitia, wjis pressing the cowardly Tlivmo'tus, the Inst
King of Athens of the race of Theseus, and challenged him
MELBOUKXE
MELEAGRIDlDJi
657
to a duel for the possession of the town of CKnoB on the
Hifotian frontier. Thymtetiis refused to fiftlit, l)ut Melan-
thus took Ills |)laoe. und by the help of Dionysus killed Xan-
thus. Melanthus/beeunie the Kin;; of Athens, and the
father of the good King Codrus. Iti honor of the victory
over Xaiithus a sanctuary was erected to Dionysus Mela-
niegis, and the festival of the Apaturia was estal)lishe(l in
honor of Zeus Apaturios. J. K. S. Stekrett.
Mel'boiinie : the cajiital of the colony of Victoria, Aus-
tralia ; on the Ynrra-\ arra river, !) miles above its mouth
in the basin of I'ort I'hilip; in lat. 37^ 50' S. and Ion. 144'
57' E, It was founded in 1837, In 1847 it hud U).'.!')') in-
habitants, and became the see of a bishop. In 1H.51 it had
20,400 inhabitants, and became the capital of the newly
formed colony of Victoria. It had in 1S!I1 401,378 inhabit-
ants, nearly half of the population of the entire colony. This
marvelous growth is mostly due to the iliscovery in 18.")1 of
the gold-fields at Mt. -Mexander and Hallarat, from (JO to 70
miles from Melbourne, Dec. 31, 18!lo, its populatioti, in-
cluding sulturbs, was 4.")2.258. In 185^ the shipping amounted
to 1.6.")7 vessels, of 408,000 tons burden. In the same year
the value of imports rose from £l.().')G.O0O to £4.044.(M)0,'and
in 1«.')3 to £14,000,000, In ISlll 2,034 vessels, of 2,->2-',s().-)
tons burden, entered, and 1,088, of 2,13'.l,333 tons, cleared.
In I he .same year the total value of imports amoinited to i'16.-
!t4!»,3!»3, and' that of exports to i;i4,or)8,0.j8. The situation
of .Melbourne is very fine. Although the Yarra-Varra does
not admit large sea-going vessels on account of the bar at
its mouth, railways have been constructed between Mel-
bourne and Fort I'hilip. which is on a beautiful inlet of the
Indian Ocean, safe and deep. The streets are all jiaved
and provided with gas, electricity, and water. It is dis-
tinguished for its university, mint, museum, observatory,
public librarv, hospital, and public gardens, and is an Epis-
copal see. ■ 31, W. H.
Melbourne. William Lamb, Viscount : statesman; b. at
Melliourne House, Derbyshire, England, Mar. 1."), 1779; was
educated at Eton and Cambridge : studied politics and
jurisprudence at Glasgow ; was called to the bar at Lin-
coln's Inn Nov. 23, 1804; entered Parliament and married
Lady Caroline Ponsonby 1805. He attached himself to the
Whig party, and continued a moderate op|)osition to the
administrations of Perceval and Lord Liverpool ; became
Chief .Secretary for Ireland on the accession of the Canning
ministry Apr.,'l827; succeeded to the title on the death of
his father July 22, 1828; was a distinguished advocate of
Catholic emancipation and of parliamentary reform ; became
Secretary of Slate for the Home Department in Earl Grev's
cabinet Nov., 1830, and on the retirement of the latter
July 9, 1834, succeeded him as First Lord of the Treiusury and
Premier ; was dismissed in November of that year, but re-
covered his place in Apr., 1835, through the support of the
House of Commons, and retained his position until -Aug, 30,
1841. He was therefore the responsible head of the British
(iovernraent at the accession of yueen Victoria and during
the first four years of her reign, and contributed much to
the education of his young sovereign in her roval duties. D.
at Melbourne House, Derbyshire, Xov. 24, 1848. — His wife,
Caroline Po.Nsoxnv, known in literature as Lady Caroli.ve
Lamb (she died before he succeeded to the title).'a daughter
ol the Earl of Bessborough, b. Nov. 13, 1785, acquired great
celebrity through her romantic attachment to Lord Byron,
and her subseijuent bitter quarrel with him. She wrote
three novels— f;/c;irtriw( (1816); Ornliam Hamilton (1820);
and Ada litis (1«3). D. in London, Jan. 25, 1828. See
Torrens. .l/(-moi>.s (1878) ; The (ireville Memoirs (1875-85);
and Justui McCarthy, Uistory of Our Own Times (1878-80).
Mel'chites (royalLsts, Gr. KfKx'rns. from Scmit. mehk;
king): (1) a name applied to the orthodox Christians of
Kgyjit to distinguish them from the Jacot)ites(monophysites).
The term was first employed in the fourth century, but es-
pecially after the Council of Chalcedon (451 A.' D.). as a
term of reiiroach, because of the charge that the decrees of
the council were received simply because of the royal edict
of the Emperor Marcian. Under the Mohammedan caliphs
the term was taken to imply allegiance to the Eastern em-
perors, and still later to indicate tireek or foreign sym-
pathies. In both ca.ses it was an occasion for oppression to
the orthodox, who were few in numbers. (2) An Eastern,
Arabic-speaking branch of the Roman Church, worshi(>
ing according to the rites and ceremonies of the Eastern
or (ireek Church, but aeknowleilging the supremacy of
the Uornan see. The sect is found principally at Aleppo
268
and Damascus, its patriarch residing at the latter place. It
is supposed to have originated fr<mi the labors of Jesuit
missionaries in the seventeenth century. It was found that
the people were unwilling to abandon the customs of the
Greelc Church, and these they were allowed to retain in
eonsiileration of their acknowledgment of the authority of
the Roman pontill and acceptance of Roman doctrine.
The laitv partake of the sacrament in both kinds, using un-
leavened bread, and are allowed free use of the Scriptures ;
deacons and priests are allowed to marry before ordination,
but bishops must be celibate. Their number has been esti-
mated at between 30,0(X) and 40,0(J0. C. R. GiLLETT.
Melchizedek, mel-kiz'e-dek, or Melchiscdec [=Lat. =
Gr. M«Ax'<'<5«'<. f''"'» Heb. Slalki-tstdkek ; liter., king of
righteousness] : King of Salem and priest of the most high
God; who met Abraham on his return from the rescue of
Lot and slaughter of Chedorlaomer, brought forth bread and
wine, and offered a banquet to Abraham and the King of
Sodom in the valley of Shaveh, called "the king's dale,"' in
the neighborhood of Jerusalem, after which he blessed
Abraham, and received from him tithes of the spoil. (Gen.
xiv. 18-20.) Being of unknown origin and end he tvpifled
Christ (Ps. ex. 4 ; Heb. vi. 20, vii. 1-21). Jewish traditions,
recorded in the Targums as well as in many cabbalistic and
rabbinical writings, identified him with the' patriarch Shem,
who, aceonling to the current biblical chronologv, was still
living at that period. This was the prevalent Jewish opin-
ion in the time of Jerome, was adopted by Luther and >Ie-
lanchthon, and by Selden and Lightfoo't among English
writers. A sect of Christian heretics, called Melchizedek-
ians, regarded him as an incarnation of the "great power of
God," superior even to Christ. Others regarded him as an
angel, as the Holy Ghost, or as the son ofGod, with which
conception harmonized a Jewish belief that he was the Mes-
siah. Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Mele'a^er (in Gr. MtXea>poj) : in Greek mvthologv, a son
of CEneus, King of Caledon, in ^TCtolia, and Altha>a,'daugh-
ter of Thestius, husband of Cleopatra, daughter of Idas
(q. V.) ; a powerful hunter who was distinguished for his
skill with tlie spear. He it was who killed the boar which
Artemis had sent to ravage the fields of Caledon because
lEneus had neglected to offer up to her a sacrifice. (See
Calvdoxian Hu.nt, The). When Jleleager was seven days
old the Fates announced to his mother that the child would
live as long as the stick of wood then burning in the fire
was unconsumed. Altha'a snatched the brand from the fire
and preserved it carefully in a chest, but when Meleager
had slain the brothers of Altha'a (see Atalaxta) she burned
the stick and Meleager expired at once. Thereupon Alth^a
and Cleopatra hanged themselves, and the sisters of Melea-
ger wept so for his death that Artemis took pity on them
and changed them into guinea-fowls (^tXeirypfStj).' Ancient
artists were fond of depicting Meleager and the Caledonian
boar-hunt. A number of statues have come down to us.
Chief among them arc tho.se in the Berlin and Vatican
Museums. See Baumeister, Denkmdler, under Meleagros for
a discussion of Meleager in art. J. R. .S. Sterrett.
Meloiiger (in Gr. Mf\(07pos) : poet; was a native of Ga-
dara, in Palestine, and lluurished under the last Seleucus,
who died in 94 B. c. His first essay was in the line of cyn-
ical philosophy, for he was a disciple of his famous towns-
man, Mexippi's (q. I'.), and his satirical dialogues were much
read and sedulously imitated; but lie is chiefly known as a
writer of love epigrams and as the compiler of a collection
of short poems called the Garland (iTftpayos). made up from
the works of some forty poets and arranged aljihabeticaUy
aceonling to the initial letter of each i)iece. Of this gar-
land we have only stray flowers, together with the delight-
ful introductory verses in which Meleager characterizes the
different poets who were laid under contribution. His own
poems, .some 130 in number, are among the most attractive
m the parterre of the Greek Anthology, except that a large
proportion of them require a certain Greek elasticity of
moral sense. Thev have been edited separatelv bv -Manso
(1786), by A. C. Me'ineke (1789), and Graefe (1811) : 'and .Me-
leager's merits as a ()()et have been eloquently brought out
by J. A. Symonds. Studies of tlie Greek Port's, c. xxii. See
also Walter lleadlam. Fifty I'uems of Meleager, u-ith a
Translation (1890), and Susemihl, Geschichte der alexan-
driniscliin /.i7(>ra/i/r, vol. i., p. 46. B. L. Gildersleeve.
Mcleiigrid'idw |Mod. Lat., named from Mflea'gris.Xhe
typical genus, from Lat. nif/eri </ri'.s = (ir. luXtayplt. a kind
of guinea-fowl] : a family of gallinaceous birds containing
658
MELKGXAXO
MELICERTES
the turkeys. Tliey luive n cljnractcristic form in the large
ujiraistnl IxkIv. long neck, ami stuall head; llie head and
neek are destitute of feathers, hut have scattered •' hairs,"
and are inure or less oarunculatcd ; an extensible lleshy
process is also developed from the forehead; the bill is
moderate; the nasal fossje are bare; the tarsi armed witli
spurs in the male; the himl toe elevated; the tail (about as
Ions as the wing) is truncate, and has more than twelve
feathers. The breast-bone has a long, narrow keel (the
" lophosteon") exteiuling far backward, while from near the
front on each side, and separated by a very deep notch from
the sides of the anterior portion, a wing-liko process (the
"metosteon") both diverges and extends far backward, but
is split into two parts, the external and internal xiphioid
processes: the pelvis is peculiar in the extension of the post-
aeetabular area (or that behind the insertion of the legs),
which is greater than the anterior. The family is at pres-
ent limited to two sj^eies — (1) the common turkey, Melea-
oris gallnparo. and (2) the rare and beautiful turkey. J/e-
leagris oetUata. of Honduras. The common turkey sliows
four local races or sub-species — .)/. (/tillo/iavo, of the North-
ern r. S. ; M. </allopiiro oseeiilii. of ,Southern Florida ; M. ff.
mexicnna.ot tlic Mexican uplands: and Jl.g. ellidlli.o'l the
Mexican lowlands and Southern Texa.s. The common do-
mesticated liird is a deseetul«nt of the .Mexican form and
not of the common wild one of the L'. S., which has even
been considered a distinct species. In former geological
epochs other species existed williiu the limits of the present
U'. S., the reuuiins of two species (Mdedi/riii itlliin. or super-
bus, and M.celfr) having been found in the Post-pliocene of
New .lei-sev, and of another (M. antiquus) in the Miocene
beds of Colorado. Revised by F. A. Lucas.
.Melegnnno, md-len-yaa'no : town ; in the province of
Milan, Northern Italy; on the railway between Milan and
Piacenza (see map of Italy, ref. 3-t'). This little town is
well built, having the aspect of a small city, and its trade
in the produce of the neighborhood is very active. Its
media'val history is interesting, and in modern times it has
been the theater of two important battles — one in which
Francis I. defeated the .Swiss mercenaries of the Duke of
Milan in 1515, the other the victory of the French and Ital-
ian allies over the Austrians on June 8, 1859. Pop. 5,438.
Mel^ndez Valdez. ina-len deth-vaal-deth', .Ivan : poet ;
b. at the village of Uiliera del Fresno, near Badajoz, Spain,
Mar. 11, 1754. .Vftcr studying the humanities and philoso-
phy at Madrid ancl Segovia, he went in 1772 to .Salamanca
to prepare himself for the law. Ilere he made the acquain-
tance of the [loct Cadahalso, who saw the poetic possibilities
in the ballads which the youth had been writing in imitation
of Gerardo Lobo. Under the influence of his new friend
the voting poet attempted to enlarge the range of his verse.
In tlie meantime specimens of his work had come into t he
hands of .lovellanos, then living in Seville, and a friendly
correspondence ensued between the two men. In 17S0 he
won his first public success with an eclogue, Batilo, on
the charms of a country life, written for the Spanish
Aeailemy's third prize-competition in poetry held by that
institution. The delightful freshness of tliis (•' It simlt
all of wild thyme" — ol'ia lodo d tomilla — said one of the
judges) made it far superior to the artificial eclogue of his
chief rival, Vriarle. In 1781 he went to ^Madrid and was
received with great kindness by .lovellanos and his frien<ls.
Invited to write a poem for a brilliant function of the
Academy of Fine Arts, he made a great success with his o(le
A lux Arte.s. In the same year he returned to Salamanca as
Professor of the Humanities. Tliis was the happiest and
most productive period of his life. In 1784 he gained the
prize offered by the city of Madrid for a comedy on the oc-
casion of the celeliratio'n of the birth of twin heirs to the
throne. The piece offered by him. Las bodas de Camacho
el rico, founded on an episode in Don Quixote (part i;., chap.
XX.), is modeled upon the juustoral dramas of Tasso (Awinta)
and Guarini (// I'ltslor Fidn). When put on the stage it was
not a success. In 17H5 the author won great a|)plause by a
lirst coUeclion of his poems. Soon after this liegaii ihe
troubled period of his life. He was tempted to lake public
ofllce, secure as he supposed in the influence of his friends
Jovellanos and the Prince of Peace. In 178!) he became
judge in one of the courts of .Saragossa ; in 17i)l he was
given a [ilace in the chancery of Valladolid ; in 1707 he be-
came./(.sen/ of the <onrt of alcaldes de C'asa y Corte in Mad-
rid. In 17!(7 also he published a new and much enlarged
edition of his poems. The next year his friends in power
fell and he with them. After several years of partial disfavor
he unwisely attached himself to the new French rulers of
Spain, thus bringing upon himself the hatred of his coun-
trymen. In Oviedo on one occasion he wils seized by a mob
and barely saved from being shot. After the withdrawal of
the French he hope<l to retrieve himself, but fortune was
against him, and in 1811 he fled to Southern France. Ilere
he passed the rest of his life, an unhappy exile, whose only
solace was the correction of his poems for a definitive edi-
tion. He did not even have the pleasure of seeing this
printed, as he died at Montpellier, France, May 24, 1817,
some three veare before its appearance. Other editions are
Paris (1832), Barcelona (1838), and in Hivadeneyra's liihli-
oteca de Autiires Fspdilnles. vol. Ixiii. (.Mailrid, 1871). t^uin-
tana's Life of Melemlez Valdez is printed in vol. xix. of the
same Jiihliolera (Madrid, 1807). Melendez Valdez is one of
the most important figures in Spanish letters of Ihe eigh-
teenth century. A true poet, he surpassed almost all his
contemporaries in intellectual culture, as well as in the in-
stinctive perception of what constitutes poetic harmony and
pro|)ortion. A. R. Maksu.
Meletius ; Bishop of Lycopolis, a see which then stood
second to that of Alexandria; originator of the .Melelian
schism of Alexandria, which was occasioned by his audacious
assumption of episcopal functions in the see of Alexandria
during the ali.sence of its bishop. He was condemned by the
Council of Xica'a, 325. He does not seem to have been
heretical, but his followers, who were the beneficiaries of his
arbitrary acts, became Arians.
Meletius: Bishop of Antioch: originatorof Ihe Jleletian
schism, which lasted from 361 to 381, when he died. Al-
though personally orthodox, he had received ordination
from .'\rian bishops, and was therefore unacceptable to the
Catholic party in Antioch.
Mel'll : town ; in the province of Potenza, Southern
Italy; lying in a most fertile region, about 28 miles from
Ihe town of Potenza (see map of Italy, ref. 7-G). The com-
merce and industry of this place are considerable. Jlelfi was
a large town in 304 A. u., and its medi.Tval story is one of the
most stormy of these turbulent times. In 1528 the French
general Lautrec do Foix took ^lelfi after an obstinate re-
sistance, and slew 18,000 of its inhabitants. It suffered from
earlh(|uakes in 1456. 1694, and 1851. Pop. about 11,760.
Melgar, mal-gaar, JIariaxo : poet; b. at Arequipa, Peru,
17!n. Disappointment in love gave a melancholy cast to his
mind, and his verses are nearly all of a plaintive I'haracter.
Many of them have been set to music, and they are among
the most popular songs of the S[)anish-.\inerican country
people. Melgar joined Ihe patriots during Pumacagua's re-
bellion, was taken prisoner by the Spaniards at the battle of
Umachiri, and shot at Cuzco, Mar. 10, 1815. H. II. S.
Melgnre.jo, mdl-gali-rii ho, Mariano: soldier and poli-
tician: b. at Cochabamba, Bolivia, in 1818. He rose from
the ranks by skill and reckless daring, but was a hot-hea<led
and unprincipled partisan, and during twenty years was in-
volved in revolutions with almost every Bolivian president.
In Dec, 1864. he succeeded in overthrowing Ihe government
of his brother-in-law, (ien. Acini, and had himself pro-
claimed president, or, practically, dictator. Counter revolu-
tions at once began. In 1865 the insurgents occupied La
Paz, but were beaten, and Melgarejo shot with his own hand
ex-President Belzi'i.his rival (Mar., 186(i). In 18(1.1 lie joined
in tlie alliance against .Spain, and in .\ug.. 1806, signed a
boundary treaty with Chili, which, however, was not ratified
by congress. Conslant revolts ended in a great rebellion of
the Indians against .Melgarejo"s tvranny. He was beaten
in a hot battle in the si reels of Lii Paz '(.Ian. 1.5, 1871), fled
the country, ami was killed at Lima, Peru, by his son-in-law.
Gen. .Sanchez, in a quarrel, Nov. 23, 1872. "H. H. Smith.
Melicer'fcsdn (ir. MeAiK6pT7)s) : .son of Alhamas and Ino,
who Med with him in her arms when she was being llireal-
ened with death by .Mhamas because of her attempt tomur-
der Phrixiis ami Hello, children of Alhamas by Ne|ihele.
Ino leaped from the Sciroiiian rocks into the sea with Jleli-
certos still in her arms. Both mother and son escaped un-
hurt, and were changed into sea diviniliis, who were wor-
shiped especially at Megara.on the Isthmus, and at Corinth.
Ino was worshi]ied as Leucothea, aiul .Melicerles as Pahe-
mon. The Isthmian games, which were helil in honor of
Poseidon, were thought to have been first held on the occa-
sion of llie funeral of Melicerles. Melicerles is the Greek
form of the Phcenician Melkart. .1. H. S. Sterrett.
J
MELIKOFF
MELODY
659
MelikoiT, moro properly Loris-Melikoff. Michael Tari-
ELOvrrcii, CVmiit : soldier and stulesinaii ; b. at Ijori, a town
of Transeaucasia, Jan. 1. Wili, of Ariiiciiiaii deseent ; entered
the army as colonel ; cmnnianded a regiment of light eavalry
in the t'riniean war. and was adjiilant-general to the (irand
Duke Michael, who cornniaiided llie army of t lie (.'aiieasiis,
in 1877. Ardalian was taken in May and Kars in November,
and after the war Loris-Melikotl wa.s made a count. lie still
more disfingnished himself as governor of Astrakhan by his
measures against the [ilague. and as governor of Kharkov by
his measures against the Nihilists. After the crisis of Feb.
17, 1880 (the blowing up of the dining-room in the imiK»rial
palace of St. Petersburg), he was made the chief of an ex-
traordinary commission, with almost unlimited power, and
afterward "M inister of the Interior. D. at Nice, Dec. 24, 1888.
Mcl'ilot [Lat. melilolus, honey lotus, from its sweet smell] :
a name applied to various leguminous herbs of the genus
JleliloluK. M. oflkinatis (common melilot), M. alba (sweet
clover), M. ccenilta, arborea, Jlensaneii-iix. and others are
cultivated in Europe, but not much in the U. S., as forage-
plants. The fiber of some species is useful. These plants
possess the rich odor so familiar in "sweet clover." The
forage is eagerly eaten by cattle, and is of excellent quality,
but IS not very abundant.
Melinite: See Kx plosives (The Picrates).
Meliphilg'idtP [Mod. Lat., liter., those belonging to the
honey-eating family, named from Meli phiign. one of the
genera ; Gr. /ueAi. honey -i- <payuv. eat] : a family of passerine
birds, the " honey-suckers," distinguished by U. K. (tray in
the followingcombination of characters : The form is thrush-
like; the head well-shaped; the bill more or less long,
curved, and usually acute at the tip, which is slightly emar-
ginatcd ; the nostrils placed in a large groove and generally
covered by a membranous scale ; the tongue is extensile, and
furnished at the tip with a pencil of short fibers: the tarsi
rather short and strong ; the toes more or less long, the outer
always united at its base; the tail long and liroad. The
species are iiuite numerous, and almost entirely confined to
Australia and New Zealand, with the outlying islands ; and
of the ornis of the former country especially they form a
characteristic feature. They vary in size from a large
thrush to a small warbler. Gray divides the family into
three sub-families — viz.: Meliplia()in)P. vrith seven genera;
Metithrepliiue, with two genera ; and Mysomelime, with four
genera.
Melito: Bishopof Sardis; flourished in the third quarter
of the second century, and wrote, besides many other works,
an apology for Christianity, of which some fragments are
found in Routh, ReliquicB Sa<rym (vol. i., li;i-153), and
in Otto, Corp. Apol. C'hr. (ix., 375-478). The Apologia
Melitonis. of which a Syriac translation was discovered by
Tattam and printed in Syriac by Cureton. with an English
translation. .S'/)Jr^7c<;l'«»i Syriarum (London, 18")5), is gener-
ally as(-ribed to Melito of Sardis, but on doubtful grounds.
See llarnack, Texte. und Unlfrfiurliungen zur Otsrhiclilf Jer
altchrLitlicher Littera/ur (Leipzig. 1882, vol. i., 240-278;
Eng. trans, of the Apology and fragments in Ante-Nieene
Fathers, vol. viii., 750-702). Kevised by S. M. .Iacksox.
Meli. Patrick Hues, I). D., LL. D. : educator; b. atWal-
thourville, Liberty co., Ga., July 19, 1814. He spent two
years at Amherst College, Mass. ; became a Baptist minister,
and soon after the organization of Mercer Univei'sity by the
Baptist conventiiui of Georgia he became Professor of An-
cient Languages in that institution. In 1857 he was called
to the same chair in the State I'niversity ; subsequently be-
came vice-chancellor; resigned in 1872. but retained a pro-
fessorship. For fifteen years he was president of the Georgia
Baptist convention, and for nine years president of the
Southern Hantist convention. Dr. Meli published several
works \vhich have been highly valued and extensively circu-
lated—one on Baptism, one on Corrective Church IHxcipline,
one on Predestination, an A'x.>f<iy on Calnni.'<m. an Argu-
ment on the Subject of Slavery, a sermon on (i(id'.< I'rovi-
denlial Government, a treatise on Parliamentary Practice,
and Prai/er as Related to Providence. D. at Athens, Ga.,
.Ian 26. 1888.
Mcllarosa: See Ber(!AM0T.
Mellon. Harriet; See St. .\lba.ns, Dlciiess of.
Me'io, or Mello, Fraxcisco Mangel, de: soldier and
writer; b. at Lisbon, Portugal. Nov. 23. 1611 : was educated
by the Jesuits; rose to the rank of colonel in the Sjianish
army (Portugal being then subject to Spain), serving in the
Netherlands and in Catalonia against the rebels who at-
tempted to establish a scimrate kingdom. Of this move-
ment he wrote (in Spanish) a history which has taken rank
as a classic, Ilistoria de los movimientos, separacion y guerra
de ('ataluila en tiempo de Felipe /!' (Lisbon, 1645; pub-
lished under the luime Clemenle Lihertino; ed. by Ferrer, 3
vols., Paris, 1826-32; also in Ilistoriadores de sucesos par-
liculares, Madrid, 1851). He entered the service of Portugal
when it declared its independence; was imprisoned nine
years through the enmity of a i)Owerful nobleman, who
charged him with the murder of Francisco Cardoso, and
spent many years in exile in Brazil. Through the interces-
sion of the French court he was allowed to return to Lis-
bon, where he busied himself with literary work. D. at
Lisbon, (tct. 13, 1665. lie wrote a multitude of works, chiefly
in Portuguese — enough to fill a hundred volumes, it is said
— embracing essays, satires, poems, tragedies, and farces,
few of which have been published, as well as historical
works relating to Portugal and Brazil. His satirical poems.
Las Ires musas de Melodino (Lisbon, 1649), show the influ-
ence of his friend Quevedo. Kevised by A. R. Marsh.
Melodeon : See Reed Ixstrumexts.
Melodra'nm [from Gr. fj.f\os. song 4- SpS^to, drama, liter.,
production, deriv. of ipav. make, produce]; a name first
bestowed upon the opera by Rinuccini, but now more
frequently given to a non-operatic play of a semi-tragic or
serious character, and marked by sensational, effective, or
startling situations, and by exaggerated sentiment.
Melody [from 0. Fr. melodie < Lat. melo dia ■= Gr. fxe-
\ii>Sla. singing, melody, choral song ; /teXos, song, tune 4- vH.
song, words of a song] ; in music, a connected series of
single sounds, so arranged and linked together as to become
capable of expressing some sentiment, and stirring up pleas-
urable, religious, patriotic, warlike, tragic, or other emotions.
It is not every succession of sounds that can properly be
called a " melody," for sounds in any number may be pro-
duced by voice or instrument which are unrelated, devoid of
form, rhythm, accent, and symmetrical arrangement, and are
therefore unmeaning, and incapable of awakening any feel-
ing other than that of weariness. The music of the ancient
Greeks appears to have been of a type not unlike this, how-
ever admired and extolled in its own day, when true melod j-
was unborn, and music and noise were nearly akin. To our
perceptions the music of the ancients seems to have con-
sisted of a mere succession of intervals, selected without taste
and refinement, and laid together without skill, design, or any
trace of elegance and inspiration. The fragments that re-
main to us of such music, while valuable as curiosities and
historical relics, are yet so sterile as to yield no indications
of that connectii>n of thought and richness in ideas which
we look for now in what bears the name of "melody."
In the conception or formation of melody far more is im-
plied than the mere arranging of several sounds or notes in
any haphazard order of succession. Considerations of key
and scale, mode, rhythm, time, accent, cadence, and rules
affecting the progressions of certain intervals, are all to be
taken into account if from any series of notes we would
form a melodious strain, having in itself evidence of mean-
ing and design. To illustrate this, we give in Ex. 1 a short
train of notes, which, taken just as they stand, express little
or nothing:
El. I.
These same unmeaning notes, however, when molded into
form and regularity by the application of rhythm, and by
>arious changes of their time-values, !is at a. b. and c in Ex.
2, are found to assume more or less of a melodious character ;
oeo
MELODY
Under still frtir treatment, as at a. b. anJ <• in Ex. 3. the
tlrvness of tlic orifrinal notes entirely disappears, and the
qualities of a sinijile liut true melody are distinctly ap-
parent :
By dint of art and contrivance the most meager and lim-
ited series of notes mav thus become the origin ami source
of many melodious ideas and progressions, often interesting
and attractive, and suggestive also of still other ideas by
the simple laws of association. In E.x. 4, at a, see a formula
of only five notes, from which the melodies at 4, c, and d
are derived, and into which they may again be readily re-
duced :
•^ Ky - li - e, e - le - i - -
In the derived melodies given in the above examples no
other notes have been used than those found in the rough
formulas from which they spring. It will be observed, also,
that those melodies have' been produced chielly by the addi-
tion of rhythm and of variations of the/imc.fof the oiigiiial
notes; but the field of invention is much enlarged, and the
process of creating new melodies greatly facilitated, first, by
filling up with notes the intervals made by skips in the
original sketch, and nsing such notes as occasion .serves.
.See YaX. 5, where at a the notes thus gained are marked by
black dots, anil .several of the melodious forms obtained are
shown at b, c, d, and e :
Ex. i. a
m^^M
t|'
-€-??.
m^y-
Second, by a judicious iisc of the semitone below any promi-
nent note of the model, in the manner of an accidental leail-
ing-note, as in !•;>:. 0, at n, b, and r.
ICx. 6.
P
II J L.
^
^^P
fnTf ^^^^.j^^^E^p^
Third, by a similar use of the note above, as in Ex. 7, at
6, where the progression maybe compared with the plain
notes at a :
E.T. 7.— o
^^
Fourth, by the use of both the note above and the semi-
tone below, by which means the plain notes at a in the
last example may take such forms as appear at a and b in
Ex.8:
Fifth, by a discriminating use of a lengthened semitonic
appoggiatura where the current of the melody naturally
suggests it. See Ex. 9, where the plain notes at o are cast
into form at b. and enforced by ap|>oggiaturas. At c, the
appoggiaturas are accompanied by suspensions and marks of
emphasis :
^^^
t—^-
1 — r
Sixth, by the use of harmonic intervals in arpeggio form,
either as the prevailing character of the melody, or as a
passing relief to the ordinary motion when it consists of
direct and contiguous intcrvais. It is to l)e observed, how-
ever, that as melodies of this kind consist chiefly of broken
chords, their progressions must be such as are proper to
tho.se chords and in conformity with the rules of musical
harmony. Instances of such melodies are given in Ex. 10,
at a and b:
Ex. 10.— a
g*g^fe^^
The observations thus made on the development of melo-
dv are to be taken, of course, rather as hints than rules.
Jielody is so dependent on the power of imagination and
the existence oi a creative talent as to render it far less
amenable to laws and restrictions than the harmony by
which it is accompanied. Itevised by I)i:ulkv Hick.
MELON
MRI.VIL
661
Melon [via 0. Fr. from Lat. nie lo, mp!o'ni.i, clipped form
of melopepo, melopepo nis = Gr. /iTjAoirfVaic, liter., apple-
melon; fi-riKov, ap|)le + irfitwv. kinil of larj;c melon): a term
applied to the fruits of various plants of the family Cucur-
bitace(r, especially to Cucumia me/o, the true melon or
musknu'lon, and to Citrullus vulgaris, the watermelon.
Mus/cmelons — The muskmelon is probably indifienous to
India and adjacent parts of Asia, and there is some rea-
son to suppose that it was also aboriginal in parts of Africa.
It is now widely distributed, and it has run into numerous
and very diverse forms. In fact, it is one of the most vari-
able of iill plants. The most serviceable classification of the
many forms will be found to be approximately as follows:
l.'Ciieumis melo,viir. agrestis, comprising the supposed
wild forms of Oriental countries.
2. Variety canlaloupensis. the cantalopes, or melons dis-
tinguished {jy hard and more or less scaly, warty, or rough
rind, often deeply furrowed. The name is derived from
Cantaluppi. a former country-seat of the pope, near Rome,
where these melons were early grown from Eastern sources.
The cantalopes are prized in the U. S., particularly in the
Southern States, where the name is sometimes used generic-
ally (but erroneously) for all muskmelons. There are many
cultivated forms.
3. Variety reliculatus, the netted melons, common in the
Northern States, where early melons are essential, and
known, as a class, by a more or less finely netted or rugose,
but not deeply grooved rind.
4. Variety saccharinus. or sugar-melons, comprising a
group of oblong melons represented in the U. S. chiefly by
the pineapple class.
5. Variety inodorus, the scentless or winter melons.
These are very little known in the U. S., although they are
common in parts of Europe. They are hard-skinned green
or yellow melons, which ripen late and keep until midwinter.
Some of them are of good quality.
6. Variety tti'Jruosua. serpent-melon or snake-cucumber.
This is a strange variety in which the fruit is as long as
one's arm and no thicker, with a very small core. It is
grown mostly for curiosity, although it is edible.
7. Variety acidiilus, or cucumber-melons of India, scarce-
ly known in the U. S. The group comprises various sourish
fruits of oblong or cylindrical form, yellow or mottled.
8. Variety dudaim. the curious Dudaim or Queen Anne's
ocket melon, sometimes called vegetable pomegranate,
'he fruits arc the size of a turkey's egg, beautifully mottled
with yellow and brown, and exhaling a powerful and deli-
cious perfume. They are grown for curiosity and for scent-
ing wardrobes, but are not edible. This plant is sometimes
sold bv seedsmen as Cucumis odoralisximus.
9. \ ariety chito, the Chito melon, introduced into the
y. S. under a variety of names, as vegetable orange, vine-
peach, garden-lemon, melon-apple, and the like. The plant
is slender, covering but a small space, and the fruits — the
size of a hen's egg or an orange — are lemon-yellow with a
clear white, sligluly acid cucumber-like flesh. The little
fruits are used for making pickles or conserves.
10. Variety erythrmiis, or red Persian melons, not grown
in the U. S.
The muskmelon is a popular fruit in Xorth America,
where it thrives over a wide territory because of the hot
sunny summers. Varieties are grown in the Cana<lian prov-
inces with entire success. In the year 18S9 there were
eighty-eight varieties of muskmelons on sale by Xorth
American seedsmen. The plant is very impatient of cold,
and also of backward and poorly drained or hard soil. The
seed should be nut in the ground only after the weather is
thoroughly settled. For early crops, especially in the north-
ern parts of the L'. S., the [ilants are often s"tarted in hot-
beds or col<l-frames in pots, boxes, or on inverted sods. The
soil in which the crop is grown should be very rich and
thoroughly tilled. All coarse new manures should be avoid-
ed. The plants are allowed to stand in hills, two to four
together, 5 or 6 feet apart each way. Two to three jmunds
of seed is required for an acre. Some of the leading vari-
eties are Nutmeg, Netted Gem, Osage, Ilackensack, Montreal
Market, Christiana, and various cantalopes. The supposi-
tion that melons and cucumbers will mix when planted to-
gether is err<ineous.
There are various diseases and enemies of the muskmelon.
A downy mildew (Pla.tinopara cubensi.s) attacks the foliage,
and should be treated with Bordeaux mixture. (See Finhi-
ciDE.) The leaf-spot, due to a fuu'jus of the genus Pliyl-
tosticta, which also attacks the shoots, can probably be
^
checked by spraying with the ISordeaux mixture. A bac-
terial trouble, for wliich no remedy is yet known, is serious
in many places. It attacks various parts of plants, but is
usually a kind of damping off of the stems when the plants
are young. Many insects feed upon the melon, although
the plant seems to have no specific enemies. The melon-
worm (PhakMura hyalinilahs) is confined mostly to the
Southern States. The larva, a long green caterpillar, bore.s
through the flesh of the melon. These worms feed upon
the leaves while young, however, and in this stage they can
be killed by Paris green. (See Insecticide.) The striped
beetle (Diabrotica viitata), which feeds upon the young
plant, can usually be repelled by sprinkling lime or plaster
saturated with kerosene oil or turpentine alx)Ut the plant ;
or a mixture of lime and sulphur may answer the purpose.
If these repellents are not successful, Paris green should be
sprayed upon the plant.
In 1890 there were 28,477 acres devoted to muskmelons
in the U. S. upon the large truck-farms. This acreage was
widely distributed, being largest in the Central States E. of
the Mississippi, and in the territory tributary to New York
city and Philadelphia. In the same year, also, 5,149 acres
of muskmelons were grown for seed purposes.
M'ntermelons. — See Watermelon.
The Chinese preserving melon is the Benincasa cerifera,
the hairy and resinous fruit of which is used for making
conserves. L. H. Bailev.
Melozzo da Forli : See ForlI, Melozzo.
Melpom'ene [= Lat. = Gr. MeXiro^en), liter., singer, the
singing one, fem. jires. partic. of ii.(\Tre<r0ai. sing] : one of the
nine Muses^the Muse of Tragedy. .Vs represented by
Greek art she bears a mask, Ileracles's club, or a sword, is
shod with buskins, and wears on her brows a garland of ivy
or vine leaves. Revised by J. R. S. S.
Mel'rose: a village of Roxburghshire, Scotland; 31 miles
S. E. of Edinburgh ; containing the ruins of the celebrated
Melrose Abbey (see map of Scotland, rcf. 12-1). A Colum-
bite monastery of Melrose stood at the place now known as
Old Melrose, about li miles to the E. of the village; but
that building, which was not distinguished by any archi-
tectural magnificence, was destroyed in the ninth century.
The present abbey was founded in 1136 by David I., but de-
stroyed in 1322 by the English under Edward II. It was
rebuilt in 1326 by Robert Bruce and David II., but suffered
severely in 1385 and 1545 by the English, and still more
during the Reformation. While standing in its original
splendor it was the finest structure in Scotland and a re-
markable specimen of Gothic architecture ; now it is only a
ruin, though the church has been fairly well preserved.
Melrose : town ; Middlesex co., Mass. (for location of
county, see man of Massachusetts, ref. 2-H) ; on the Boston
and Jiaine Railroad : 7 miles N. of Boston. It contains 9
churches, public library founded in 1871, electric lights,
public park, 3 public halls. 2 hotels, 2 club-houses, a national
bank with capital of ^100.000, a savings-bank, a monthly
and 2 weekly newspapers, and manufactories of boots and
shoes, sewing-machine needles, furniture, etc. Pop. (1880)
4,500 ; (1890) 8,519 ; (1895) 11,965. Editor of "Journal."
Melfon-Mowbraj', melton-mo bret : a market-town, in
the county of Leicester, England : at the confluence of the
Wrcake and the Eye ; 15 miles N. E. of Leicester (see map
of England, ref. 9-1). It has large breweries and tanneries,
an important cattle-market, and a considerable trade in
Stilton cheese. It is the center of a large and celebrated
hunting district. Pop. (1891) 6,392.
Mol'vil. or Melville, Sir .Tames, of ITallhill : courtier; b.
at Kaith. Fifeshire, Scotland, about 1535 ; went to France in
early youth as page to Mary Stuart, who was betrothed to
the dauphin; was for nine years a gentleman of the house-
hoUl to the Constable Montgomery, and was employed for
three years at the court of the elector palatine ; traveled in
Italy ;" returned to Scotland when his former mistress had
become Queen of Scots, and was appointe<l by her privy
councilor and member of the royal household. He was
closely connected with political affairs for sevond years, but
having opposed the queen's inclination in favor of Bothwell
after the murder of Darnlev, he was obliged to consult his
own safety by withdrawal from court. After the overthrow
of the queen's party Melvil returned to court, enjoyed the
confidence of the four successive regents who governed the
country during the minority of the heir, and when King
James assumed the direction of affairs was apfRiinted a
662
MKLVII.LK
MKMXON
privy councilor. When .Innios succeeded to the throne oi
Kngland, Melvil retirc<l to !iis I'Stiitc at IlHllhill, where he
(lieu Nov. i;i, 1017. llis niinie had been nearly forgotten,
when in UUiO u enUection of inanuseripts left by him wiu.
diseoveriMl in Kdiiibuifth Castle, aiul found to contain
importunt <lat« loneernin^ the reigns of Mary and James.
They were published in ItiW! bv George Scott, under the title
The Memoirs of Sir Jtiinen ilelfil of Iliillliill, contaiiung
uii Impartial .icciiiiiit of the moft Remnrkalile Affairs of
State during the Last Age, not mentioned by Other Ilisto-
riViH«, etc. This edition was incomplete; the first perfect
edition was published in 1H3T-33 by the Hannatrnc Club,
which also printed Melvil's Diary (182!»).
Melyilh': an island of Hritish North .\nierioa; situated
in the Arctic ttceaii between lats. 74 and 77 N., and be-
tween Ions. 103° and 117" W., bounded W. bv Fitzwilliain
and Kellet Straits, S. E. by Melville Sound, and S. W. by
Banks Straits. It was discovered in 1819 by ('apt. Parry,
who wintered here with his crew, and further explored in
1851 by Lieut. McClintock.
Melville. .Vndrkw: clergyman and educator: b. at Bal-
dovy, near Montrose, Scotlaiid. Aug. 1, 1545; was educated
at the University of St. Andrews, which he left in 1564
with the reputation of being " the best philosopher, poet,
and Grecian of any young master in the land " ; studied law
and theology in I'aris and elsewhere on the Continent ; be-
came a teacher at I'oitiers (1566), and afterward (1569-74)
was professor at Geneva, througli the influence of Beza.
Keturning to Scotlaml in 1574 he wjis appointed principal
of the University of Glasgow. In 1580 he was made princi-
pal of St. Mary's College, St. Andrews. In 1582 he preached
the opening sermon before the Presbyterian General Assem-
bly, boldlv attacking the interference of the court with
religious liberty, and headeil a deputation which presented
a remonstrance to King James at Perth. He was modera-
tor of the General Assembly in 1.587, 1589, and 1.594; was
made rector of the university in 1.590; and was recognized
as the most prominent member of the Scottish National
Churcdi. In May, 1606, James being King of England, Mel-
ville was summoned to London with other Presbyterian
divines to confer upon Scottish ecclesiastical matters, and,
having denounced the Archbishop of Canterbury for encour-
aging popery, wjis committed to the Tower 1607, where he
rcmaine<l four years. In 1611 he was released at the request
of the Duke of Bouillon, who appointed him Professor of
Theology at Sedan, where he died in Wi'i. lie published a
number of Latin poetical paraphrases of portions of the
Bible, the best of which, the &mg of Muses, is accounted
an elegant production. His epigrams were very neat, and
sometimes brought him into trouble, especially one written
in ridicule of the chapel services at King James's English
court. See his Life by Dr. Thomas McCrie (Edinburgh.
1819; -U cd. 18-23). ' Revised by W. J. Beecher.
Melville, (Jkoboe Joh.n Wiivte: novelist; b. near St.
Andrews. .Scotland, 1821; entered the army in 1839; be-
came captain in the Coldstream Guards 1846,' and retired in
1849, but served again in the Turkish cavalry during the
Crimean war. He wrote several novels, which became
popular in both (ireat Britain and the U. S. ; among them
are Captain Digby (fraiid (1853); Ilolmby House (1860);
The Oladiatiirs (1863); Sarchedon (1871); and Katerfelto
(1875). He also publisheil a translation of the Odes of "llor-
acB and a volume of Songs and \'erses. I). Dec. 5, 1878.
Kevised by H. A. Beers.
Melville, Georoe Wallace : enginecr-in-chief U. S.
navy; b. i[i New York city, Jan. 10, 1841; was educated in
public schools in New York, N. Y., and at the Brooklyn Poly-
technic Institute; served an apprenticeship in an engineer-
ing eslablishmint in Brooklyn ; entered the U.S. navy July
29, 1861, as third assistant engineer; became chief engineer
in 1881; an<l eiiginecr-in-cliief of the na .y 1887, and was
reappointeil in 1891 for a term of four years. In the latter
position he has contributed largely to' the building up of
the new U.S. navy. The most reinarkable of his designs
as an engineer is that of the trii)le-screw machinery for
two swift crui.sers. He has also developed a plan for in-
creasing the speed of shiiis by lengthening tlie smoke-stacks.
During the civil war he fre(n'ienllv volunteered for desperate
service. In 1879 he joined the ./eaniielte expedition. (.See
De Lo.\(i, Georoe Wasiiinoto.n.) .\fter the Jeaiinette was
crushed in the ice and he had conducted the crew of his own
boat to safety, Melville conducted a search, amid the great-
est hardships, for the crows of other boats. The story of
this experience is told in his book In the Lena Delta (Bos-
ton, 1885). For his heroic conduct in these circumstances
Congress in 1890 passed a special act advancing him one
grade. C. II. Tiilkher.
Melville. Hkrma.n ; novelist ; b. in New York. X. Y.. Aug.
1, 1819; shijiped as a common sailor when eighteen yeai-sold ;
deserted in 1842 from a whaling-ship at the Marquesas is-
lands, remaining four month; a prisoner in Typee (Taipi)
Valley. Nukahcva; cscai)ed, and returned in 1844 to the U. S.
llepiiblished 7'vyjee (1846); Omoo(Wil); J/((rrfMl849); Red-
burn (1849) ; Witite Jacket ( 1850) ; Moby Dirk (1851) ; Pierre
(1852); Israel rotter (1855); Tlir Piazza Tales (Wm); The
Confidence Man (1857) ; Bailie Pieces and Aspects of the
M'o'r, poems (1866) ; Claret, a imem (1876) ; John Marr and
Other Sailors, a story, privately circulated (1888) ; 'IHmo-
leon, poems (1891). He married a daughter of Chief Justice
Shaw of Jlassachusetts in 1847. in 18.50 he removed from
New Y'ork to Pittsfield, Mass. In 1860 he made a voyage
around the world, and on his return held for some time a
post in the New York custom-house. D. in New York, Sept.
28, 1891. Kevised by H. A. Beers.
Memliranoiis Angina : See Diphtheria.
Membrf , ma1in brS , Zenobe, or Zexobius : missionary ; b.
in Flanders in 1645; entered the Franciscan order; went as
a missionary to Canada in 1675 ; accompanied La Salle iiiion
his expedition to the Western rivers 1679 ; remained at Fort
CreveccBur, on Lake Peoria, with Tonty, whom he aided in
effecting a peace between the Iroquois and Illinois Indians;
descended the Mississippi with La Salle i681 ; returned to
France the same year; wrote a narrative of the expedition,
which was published by his cousin, Chretien Le Clercq, in his
work £tabl issement ilf la Foi dans la JVourelle i^arice (1691);
became warden of a convent at Hanaume, France ; returned
to North America; accomp.-mied I^a Salle in his tirial expe-
dition to Texas by sea 1684, and remained in Fort St. Louis
on Matagorda Bay, where, with other colonists, he was mas-
sacred by the Indians in Jan., 1689, Membie's narrative is
based upon the official rejiort of La Salle. It was plagiar-
ized by Hennepin (1697), and by some authorities is ascribed
to La Salle himself. See Parkman, The Discovery of the
Great West (Boston, 1869); Sparks, Life of La Salle (Bos-
ton, 1844).
Memel, miiinel: town of Pru.ssia, founded in 1252; on
the great fresh lagoon called the Kurisches Haff ; 70 miles
N. N. E. of Dantzic (see map of tiennan Empire, ref. 1-K).
It has a large and safe harbor, considerable ship-building,
manufactures of ropes, .sailcloth, and linens, distilleries,
breweries, and iron-foundries, and a very important trade
in corn, hemp, flax, timber, and amber. Pop. (1891) 19.'282.
Memlinc, Joh.n: painter; b. at Damme, near Bruges, in
1450; date and place of death unknown, as also where he
learned his art. He was a soldier for some time, and was
taken into the hospital out of charity, in return fin- which
he left to it his Adoration of the Sheplierd.i. one of his finest
pictures. He lived at Bruges, where lie painted a Virgin
and Child with Saints, a .SV. Christopher carrying the in-
fant Christ across the river, the martyrtlom of a saint, a cru-
cifixion with the Virgin, St. John, and other saints ; also the
Story of St. Ursula. All these works are jiainted in tempera.
W. J. Stillma.n.
Meninoii : a name of several persons, the most remark-
able of whom was the son of Tithonos and Eos, who after
the death of Hector brought the /Ethiopians to the assist-
ance of Priam in the war against Troy. Ills adventures
were the subject of tlic poem by Arktinoscalled Ihe Ailliiopis,
according to which his armor was made by Ile|iliaistos or
Vulcan. Although of dark color, he was distinguished for
his beauty. He killed Antilochos, the son of Nestor, in single
combat, and was himself subseciuently killed by Achilles.
His mother, Eos, had in vain pleaded before Zeus against
Thetis for the life of Mcmnon, her son, and was present with
the daughters of the Sun at the light. Ajax clialleiiged him
to single combat, and, Jlcmnon being wi>unded, Achilles
came and pierced him through the neck. The ancient works
of art, however, represented a monomachia or single combat
between Achilles and Alemnon alone over lliedeail body of
Antilochos. Eos carried in her arms the naked corpse of
her son out of the battle-licld. A flower, the I'apliUigonioS.
was supposed to have sprung from the earth out of his' blood,
llis body, according to some traditions, was burned on a
pyre in the plains of Troy, and the ashes sent to his country
or his sister llemeia, or to the ylOsopos, where a mound was
MEMNONIUM
MEMORY
663
erected for his grave, or else in the Trojan territory. His
companions, the ^Ethiopians, or Negroes, always tlms repre-
sented in aiH-ient art, were ehaDged into birds which eon-
tended at liis pyre and fre(juented his grave. (For a discus-
sion of Meiiinon in art. chiefly vase-paintings, sre liaumeis-
ter. /JciXv/aJ/pr, under -l/fm«o«.) Ottier and later traditions
make Mernnon come to Troy with 20,0(X) -Kthiopians and
Susians and 20 war-chariots, by order of Teutamos, King
of Assyria, and state that the palace or city of Susa was
called Jlemnoncion, because Meninon had built it. The
name of Memnon was connected at the period of the Uoman
empire with that of Amenhetp or Anienopliis III., of the
eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, about B. c. 1400. anil attached
to the norlhernmost of the seated colossal statues still re-
maining on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes, where they
formed part of a dromos or row of statues leading to the
pylon or gate of the .Vraenopheum, or palace of Anieiiophis
III that (piarter. The two .statues still remaining amid
the ruins of eighteen otliers, all made of a breccia sandstone,
bear the name and titles of .Vmenophis III., and the most
northern gave out sounds at sunrise when touched by the
morning beams, supposed to be the salutations of .Memnon
to his motlier, Eos or Aurora. The statue was said to have
iM'en broken in two by Canibyses (n. r. H'i't). and was called
by the Thebans Phamenoph. The upper part appears really
to have been thrown down by an earthquake n. c. 27, and
continued so till a. d. 170, when it was .set up and restored
bv brickwork, but ceased to give out .sounds. In that inter-
val seventy-two inscriptions were cut in (ireek and Latin on
it, recording the visits of Koinan inililary oHicers, pre-
fects, and others, some of which are elated, the earliest one
mentioned being in the eleventh year of Nero (a. u. 04). and
the last, A. i>. 1!)4. These record, sometimes in vers<;,s, the
visit of the writer, and attest that he has heard the voice of
Memnon. The most remarkable visit was that of the Em-
peror Hadrian and his wife Sabina (a. d. 1^0), recorded in
verses by .lulia BalbiUa, a poetess in their suite. There has
been much speculation as to the cause of the harp-like sound
or tone given forth by the statue, which was heard emanat-
ing from the pedestal by several modern travelers in 1S21
and later. It has been attrilmted to the expansion of the
stone by the warmth of the sun, a phenomenon occurring
occasionally in certain mountains, or to the frauds of the
priests. Certain parts of Egyptian Thebes were named
Meninoneia in honor of -Memnon. .Some historical person-
ages of this name are known, as a Rhodian who revolted
against Artaxerxes Ochos and fleil to Philip, King of Mace-
<lon, but subsequently returned to the service of Persia,
where he repulsed the first attempts of the Macedonians to
estal)lish their forces in Asia Minor, anil became under Dari-
us the commander-in-chief of the latter"s forces, and fought
against Alexander the Great the battle of Granicus (b. o.
:W4). His plans of the campaign were unfortunately not
followed, and after an unsuccessful attempt to defend
Ephesus and Ilalicarna.ssus, which he burned. Memnon re-
tired to Mityleue, where- he died B. c. 3;W. There was also
a histurian of this name, who wrote the local history of
Heraclea of Pontus in the beginning of the second century
A. D., and an ^-Ethiopian people between the Nile and Asta-
pus called Memnones. probalily from their supposed resem-
blance to the hero of the Trojan war.
Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Memno'iiiuiil [= Gr. Vlefjiv6i'io>>] : a building at Abydos
(Egypt. Alii-I). located H* miles W. of the Nile in Upper Egypt
(lat. 20° 12 N). This designation, probably derived from
the Egyptian tnetinu, monument, was first applied in the
Alexandrian [leriod. The buihling is described by Strabo
(xxvii., i, 44) as one of great magnificence. It was quite dif-
ferent in purpo.se from the ordinary temple, being a mortu-
ary sanctuary devoted to the memory of the builder and his
ancestors. Its ground-plan resembles the letter L. It was
begun by Sell I. and continued l>y Ramses II., as is shown by
an inscription dating from the hitter's first vear. The most
important information which it has furnished is found in
the "Tablet of Abydos," engraved on one of the walls of
an interior pas,sageway. (For a copy of the original, see
Meyer's Oexchiehle dex alien Aegyptens, i>. 10, plate). This
tablet contains the names of seventy-six Pharaohs arranged
in three rows, the lower of which is devoted to the name of
Seti I., the same being repeated in the form of both i)renoinen
and name nineteen times. This list is more important and
complete than any other which the monuments have [ire-
served (Karnak, sixty-one names ; Saqqarah, forty-two ;
Temple of Ramses, eighteen), though the names actually
given represent onlv a .selection from the whole number.
In the list given by l5udge (The Mummy, p. T! R.) the name
of Seti I. is the 178th in order, while this tablet makes it the
seventy-seventh. An ancient tem|)le is known to have stood
here, which underwent refiairs in the twelfth dynii.sty, but
its remains are indis'tinct. Abydos was one of the oldest
and most sacred places in Egypt, on account of its contain-
ing the reputed burial-place of Osiris. Here it was cus-
tomary for all pious Egyptians to be buried, at least tem-
porarilv, in order to enjoy the benefits conferred by nearness
to Osiris. The practice of setting up commemorative stela',
or small chapels, even when the dead were deposited else-
where, lias made the place a mine of information concerning
Egyptian biography and hi.story. The tablet of Una. an
ollicial of the sixth dynasty, is a specimen of such monu-
ments. It was found in the oldest necropolis (sixth to
eleventh dynasty) just W. of the Memnoniura. The necrop-
olis dating from the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties is lo-
cated to the N., and that employed after the nineteenth
dyna.sty to the S. The pyramid tombs N. and W. of the
temple are of peculiar interest, as showing the actual [lur-
pose of pyramidal structures. Abydos was reputed to have
been a large city at one time, on the basis of the statements
of Strabo, but there is little monumental evidence to sui>-
port him: it was near the seat of the earliest culture, since
This, or Thinis, the birthi)lace of Jlenes the first king, was
only a li'W miles to the N\ Charles R. Gillett.
Memorial Day : See Decoration Day.
Memory [0. Eng. memorie, from 0. Fr. memoire < Lat.
memo na. deriv. of memor. mindful, remembering; cf.
Eng. remember, from Lat. rememora ri. to have brought
back to one's mind] : a psychological subject which early
attracted the attention of the ordinary man and of the pro-
fessed philosopher. It is frec^uently discussed in current
literature and daily conversation, and it has been investi-
gjited with success by modern scientific psychology. The
earlier psychology consisted chiefly of descriptions of mental
phennmeiia, obtained from introspection and oliservation.
Descriptive psychology has been supplemented or developed
in three important directions: (1) by investigation of the
relations of body and mind: (2) by the study of disease;
and (8) by experiment. We may consider memory in these
different aspects.
Descriptions of Memory. — From the Greek philosophy
onward to the handbooks of psychology of the present day,
a prominent place has been given to descripticms of the
phenomena and conditions of memory. Those experiences
are best remembered which are most recent, most interest-
ing, best attended to, and most often repeated. The kind
of memory possessed by an individual clepends largely on
his character, interests, and daily life. We may distinguish
susceptibility, retentiveness, and readiness. The man of the
world may have a good desultory memory, the daily gossip of
sf)ciety and of the newspapers may be readily iiicked up, re-
peated, and forgotten: whereas the student may remember
chiefly those things which fit into his special study, but then
they become a permanent part of his mental life. Many
stories have been collected of extraordinary casual memory
in persons who were not otherwise noteworthy. Thus we are
told of servants, and even imbeciles, who could repeat pages in
a language they did not know, on hearing them read once, or
of a farmer who could remember the state of the weather on
every day for forty-two years. Cases are known of remark-
able memory in great men — Pascal, Euler, Leibnitz, and
many more— and as great men are but few. we must con-
clude that good memory is more likely to be associated with
genius than with mediocrity. Indeed, we may affirm with-
out hesitation that good memory is a condition of successful
accomplishment in any work. It has been noted that in
childhood the memory is quick, but not retentive, whereas
in old age new impressions are remembered with difficulty.
Memory is closely related to other aspects of mental life.
Thus we may say that we "remember" that acetate of lead
is sweet, but we say we "know" that sugar is sweet. So
also imagination, a,s,«ociation of ideas, feeling, and action
are closely connected with memory, and many a-spects of
memory can best be treated in connection with a general
account of mental pheiifimena. See Psychology.
Physiuloyical linsix of Memory. — Plato illustrated mem-
ory bv a piece of wax which takes and preserves impressions,
and this figure has Ix-en gradually developed as an actual fact
of the nervous system. We may not liKe Xo explain states
6C4
MEMORY
of consciousness by tlioir phvsiolof^icnl contlitions, liiit in the
case of nit'fnory no reasonaljlepsyc-hological explanation lias
been proposeil.' To say that all our past experience is stored
awnv in sub-conseiousuess anil that the ideas strive to secure
a place in consciousness would seem to be merely a tigure of
speech. We might nearly as well say that future sensations
are in sub-conseiousness struggling to arrive in distinct con-
sciousness. From the point ot view of scientific psychology
we niav best regard the physical world in the case of our
sensations, and more or less permanent modifications of the
nervous system as the cause of our memories, at least so far
as retention is concerned. The principle of the inertia of
matter is of such universal application that it does not seem
to reipiire an explanation. Bodies remain in their slate of
rest or motion until they are made to change that state by
external forces. If the nervous system be niodilied in a
given way, e. g. by a new series of sounds which in con-
sciousness make a melody, the traces of the niodilicntion will
remain until effaced by new impressions or the metabolism
of the tissues. The inertia of the nervous system thus
seems to account for both retention and etracenient. In-
deed, it even accounts for the dctailsof memory, such as the
more enduring retention of intense, interesting, or often re-
Seated impressions, the better iiu'inoiy for recent events, the
islinction between susceptibility, retcntiveness, and readi-
ness, the variations with age and state of health, etc. Phys-
iological considerations also enable us to understand the
"close relations bel ween memory and habit. When a move-
ment has been often made it follows more readily, and may
even take place without consciousness. The latent modifica-
tions of the nervous system which account for an acquired
reflex movement may be regarded as similar to those which
account for the retention of past experience. The facts
of heredity, however obscure, must also in some way be
due to the persistent modification of organic matter. Fur-
ther, the known anatomical structure of the brain throws
sfime light on the matter. We find there nerve-cells and
nerve-libers, and can picture to ourselves not only the
more or less permanent modification of the parts, but
also the gradual formation and deepening of paths which
may represent association and recollection. It must, how-
ever, be acknowledged that we can only form general and
schematic plans of the modilicalions and processes which
condition retention and recollection. The actual altera-
ti<ms in the nervous system are not known from physio-
logical observation and ex|)eriiiieiit ; we have only hy-
potheses based on our general physical principles and on
psychological observation of the facts of memory, and of
course we do not know why given Jiiodifications of the
nervous system are accompanied by given states of con-
sciousness, nor why organic continuity is accompanied by
self-consciousness and personal identity.
Diseasis of Memory. — The dependence of memory on
physiological conditions is further emphasized by the facts
of pathology. A blow on the head may cause loss of mem-
ory, or a disease in a special part of the brain may cause a
peculiar defect in memory. Pliny mentions the case of a
man who forgot only the names of the letters after receiving
a blow from a stone, and cases of amnesia of various sorts
have attracted much attention. After an accident, the
occurrences immediately preceding, say for an hour or
two, may be entirely blotted from memory, and never re-
covered, or they may gradually return to mind. After
severe illness the entire past lite of the patient may be ef-
faced— he must begin from the beginning and learn to read,
etc. Sometimes, after complete amnesia, the ])ast and its
experiences return almost suddenly to consciousness. The
most curious cases are those of alternating Personality
((j. v.). .\ patient may forget his past life and become en-
tirely dillereiit in interests and character; this may last for
a while — weeks, or even years — and he may then return to
his original personality ai'ul have no memory of the inter-
vening period. The patient may in his ordinary condition
be of good moral character, whereas lie may be wayward or
criminal ni the .secondary condition, or, on the conirary, his
character may be improved in his secondary c<indition.
'I'eniporary lapse of meiiiory occurs normally in sleej) and
is more marked in intoxication, in epileptic seizures, and in
hypnotic trance. The memory may also be excited by dis-
ease, experiences being rehearsed in delirium which could
not be recalled in lieaTth. In the case of Amiasia (q. v.), or
loss of the power of speech, and ayraphia, or loss of the
power of writing, the localization of the brain lesion has
been determined, and the various forms of the disease have
thrown light on the normal processes of speech and mem-
ory. Under this heading may be mentioned an experience
(paramnesia) which is scarcely a disease, as it seems to have
occurred to nearly every one, the feeling that one is now liv-
ing over again a" past experience, usually accompanieil by
an emotion of mystery and weirdness. The plunomenon
is probably sutlicieiitly "explained by some similarity of pres-
ent surroundings to liast experience.
iUpeiiineiits un Memory. — We have seen that a satisfac-
tory psychological exjilanation of memory has not been
found, and that while its physical basis seems to account
for the fact of retention, we are ignorant of the actual
physiological processes concerned. However, exact obser-
vations and measurements of memory have been made whicJi
have enlarged our knowledge of the subject, and this on
the side of psychology, not of physiology. It was known to
Aristotle that when we regard a bright object and turn
away the eyes, an after-image of the object persists. These
after-images have been carefully studied and measured by
many observers, and form a link between sensation and
memory. Somewhat analogous to the after-image is the
fact that a certain small part of immediately past experi-
ence always persists in consciousness. In fact, as Prof.
James has remarked, the "present" of immediate experi-
ence is not a knife-edge, but a saddle-back, which experi-
ments seem to show is in the neigborhood of ten seconds in
width. What has happened during this interval is simul-
taneously in consciousness; thus in reading or conversation
we take in the meaning of a sentence as a whole. We may
nest notice a peculiarly vivid form of memory, the so-called
memory-image. If one has been searching for wild flow-
ers, or working with the microscope, or watching machinery
in motion, one may have very vivid images of the objects,
and these persist for a long time and have many of the
qualities of sensations. Then we have the jiower of calling
up mental images of scenes. The individual dilTerences in
this respect have been studied by Fechner. Galton, and
others with interesting results. Some people can call up a
scene in imagination very vividly with the outlines, colors,
etc., of the original objects, others can do this very imper-
fectly or not at all. With some the train of ideas is habitu-
ally accompanied by visual pictures, w'ith others by sounds,
with others by motor impulses, especially of speech. It
should be noted that memory and imagination contribute a
great deal to all our perceptions; thus in ordinary conversa-
tion what we hear is very largely supplied from our past
experience. In this way illusions may occur — if one expect
to see a ghost in a gravi'yard in the moonlight, one is quite
likely to see a tombstone as a ghost.
Exact measurements have been made of the amount which
can be remembered on one presentation, and of the number
of repetitions required to learn by heart a series of impres-
sions. Thus after a moment's exposure an observer could
recognize and rememlier 6 letters, 4 disconnected words, or
a sentence composed of 7 words. Kbbinghaus found that
he could remember 7 meaningless syllaliles after a single
reading. It required 16 readings to learn 12 syllables, 5-1
readings to learn 16 syllables, etc. There are considerable
individual differences, and such experiments have been
made on school-children with interesting results. Thus it
has been found that there is a gra<iual increase in the " sjian
of memory " with age and growth of intelligence, and the
results can be used lo measure attention and fatigue. Miln-
sterberg has studied the part played by sight and hearing
in memory. A series is best remembered when presented to
two or more senses simultaneously. Thus in learning the
letters a child should see them, and hear them, and name
them, and write them. The rate of forgetting has been
measured in .several ways. Thus a light of a given inten-
sity is shown to an observer and then a second light some-
what brighter or fainter, and what difference there must be
in the lights in order that the observer may perceive the
dilTerence is determined. The interval between the two
lights is then increased, and the greater "error of observa-
tion " measures the amount forgotten in a given time.
.Such experiments weri' first made by Weber, and have
been extemled by Wolfe and others. Anolhcr di-vic'C is to
measure the time required to learn a series of meaningless
syllables. If the same syllables be used in a second experi-
ment, the time is shorter, and the decrease in time may be
used to measure the amount remembered. Thus in a series
of experiments it was found that a saving of .58 per cent,
in the lime was secured after twenty minutes, 44 per cent,
after one hour, 33 per cent, after one day, and 21 per cent.
>I KM I'll IS
mp:mpukemagog, lake
665
after one month. We lluis forpet most rapidly at first :
more is forfjotten in tlic first lioiir than in the folliiwing
luoMth. It is commonly su|i[iosc(l that memory is strength-
ened by practice, tint this is qnestioneil l)y James, who has
made experiments which do not show any improvement in
retentiveness after practice.
Experiments have also been made measnrinf; the time re-
quired for one idea to snggest another atid for an act of
memory. Thus it takes about half a second to name an ob-
ject or a familiar color, whereas words, owing to the habit-
ual association, can be named more (piickly. The time re-
?uired to name wonis in a foreign language measures
amiliarity witli the language. It lakes abnut a third of a
secunil to add two niimliers and about half a second to
multiply tlicMi. Thus also has been measured the time re-
quired to remember in what country a city is situated, who
is the author of a given work, etc. In this way individual
differences may be determined, readiness and retentiveness
compared, methoils of education studied, etc. Ordinary ac-
curacy of observation and recollection has been studied ex-
perimentally. Thus whi-n a class of fifty-six college-students
was asked what was the weather a week ago, sixteen an-
swered clear ; Vi. rain ; 7, snow^ ; i), stormy : 6, cloudy ; ami
6, partly stormy and partly clear. Such experiments, meas-
unng the values of testimony, have important applications
in the courts of justice and in other directions.
BiBLiooRAPiiv. — Accounts of memory will be found in the
standard handbooks of i)sychol<igy, by .lames, Baldwin,
Ladd, and .Sully. An historical sketch by Burnham, with
full references is contained in T/ie American Journal of
Pstjchologi/, vol. ii. .\mong special books on memory, .see
Memori/, liy Kay; Dan (ieddchlnisK, by Fauth ; and Dis-
eases of Memory, by Hibot. Experimental papers are Das
Oeddchlniss by Kbhinghaus, an(l researches by Wolfe, Leh-
mann, Callell. MiiUer and Schumann, Miinsterberg and
others, in Pliilosophinche Stiidien. Zeitschrift fitr P.st/c/tot-
ogie. Mind, and Tlie. Hsi/cholugical Jievieu: See Aphasia,
MxEMO.MCs, and PsvcuoLoov. J. McKeen Cattell.
Memphis [Gr. = Egypt. Men-nefer, pleasant dwelling;
Coptic, Memfe, Menfi; Assyr. Mempi; Heb. Mop/i (Hos. ix.
6), or A^oph (Isa. xix. 13, etc.')] : a city of Egypt ; located near
the apex of the Delta; the capital during the third to the
fifth and the seventh and eighth dynasties. It was reputed
on Greek authority (cf. Herodotus, ii., 99), to have been
founded by Menes, but the Egyptian original {Men-nefer)
does not appear till the sixth dynasty, when it was first ap-
plied to the pyramid of I'epi I. The "cities" of preceding
Pharaohs had been built close to their pyramids an<i were
unnaiueii ; hence the city as a whole had a great north and
south length and an immense area. During the Hyksos
period the city lost its power, but it was revived and ex-
tended after the eighteenth dynasty. It was captured by
the Ethiopian I'ianclii and by the Assyrians. Strabo (xvii!,
i.. 32) describes it as being large and prosperous. The
Arabs deserted it, using it as a qmirry for materials to build
Cairo. Its destruction was not completed, however, till
after the close of the twelflii century. About the middle of
the nineteenth century Dr. Henry Abbott, an army-surgeon
residing in Cairo, explored the site, and formed the valuable
collection of antiiiuities now belonging to the Xew York
Historical Society. Recently excavations liave Vjeen re-
newed with some interesting results. At present the site is
level with the ground and exposed to inundation, against
which a dyke was erected in very ancient times. It is sup-
posed that the intervening change of elevation hius been in-
significant. The center of the ruins is at Mitrahineh (29°
51 X. hit.), whose mounil is supposed to mark the great tem-
ple of I'tah (IlCt-ka-Ptah, House of the image of Ptah, the
"sacred" name of the place). The city was also noted as
the seat of the worship of Apis-Bulls (see SeraI'Is), several of
whose mummies are preserved in New York.
Charles K. Gillett.
Memphis: town : capital of Scotland co., JIo. (for loca-
tion of county, sec map of Missouri, ref. l-II) ; on the Keo-
kuk and West. Railroad ; 4."> miles W. of Keokuk. It is in
an agricultural anil stock-raiising region ; contains 7 church-
es, union school, business college, a natiomil bank with capi-
tal of $.50,000, 2 State banks with combined capital of $7.5,-
000, and 3 wceklv newspapers; and ships large quantities
of livestock. Pop. (18X0) 1,418; (1890) 1.780; (1893) esti-
mated, 2,.500. Editor ok "Scotland County Democrat."
Memphis: city (laid out in 1820. incorporated as a city
in 1831, had its charter repealed and was made a " taxing dis-
at
trict" in 1879, and was reincorporated as a city in 1891);
capital of Shelby co.. Tcnn. (for location, see map of Ten-
nessee, ref. 7-A). It is at the head of navigation for large
vessels on the Mississippi river, and on the Che.s., 0. and
S. W., the 111., Cent., the Kan. City, Ft. S. and M., the Kan.
City, Mem. and B., the Little Kcjck and M., the Loiiisv. and
Nash., the Mem, and Charleston, the St. L., Iron Mt. and S.,
the Tenn. Mid., and the Yazoo and Miss. Valley railways.
It is the principal commercial point on the Mississippi river
between St. Louis and New Orleans, is built on a bluff 80
feet almve low and 40 feet above high water, has a water-
front of about 2 miles, with massive stone-paved wharves,
and is the center of a large trade which is facilitated by its
numerous railways and by regular steamboat connections
with points on the Mississipiii and other regions that nat-
urally seek an outlet in the Gulf of Mexico. Its manufac-
turing interests are large, important, and rapidiv increasing.
The census of 1880 showed 138 manufacturing establish-
ments, with 12,313.97.5 capital and 2.2(i8 persons employed
which paid $84.5,672 for wages, and had products valued al
14,413,422: and that of 1890 showed 302 establishments,
with $7.98.5.888 capital and .5..5G9 persons employed, which
paid $2.S74..526 for wages an<l $6.170.ti70 for materials, and
had products valued at $11,800,45.5. The principal indus-
tries reported in 1890 were the manufacture of oil, cotton-
seed, an<l cake, 8 establishments, $l.r)ll,(i32 capital, and
$1,482,198 value of products; fouiulrv and machine-shop
products, 7 establishments, $1,308,7.50 "capital, and $1,243,-
924 value of products; and lumber and planing-mill prod-
ucts, 10 establishments, $984,778 capital, and $1,402,733
value of products. The city is regularly and attractively
laid out; has been provided with a thorough svstem of
sewerage since the epidemic of yellow fever in 1878 (which
bankrupted the city), and a water-service by the Holly sys-
tem ; has a steel railway-bridge across the Mississijipi river,
the thinl largest cantilever bridge in the world, opened May
12, 1892 ; and contains 4 national banks with combined capi-
tal of $2,2.50,000, 11 State banks with capital of $2,9,5.5,000,
3 other banks with ca[)ital of $720.(100, 7 fire-insurance com-
panies with cajiital of .$7S().00(). and 3 daily. 15 weekly, and
2 monthly periodicals. In 1893 the citv had a net debt of
$3,132,100,3 total assessed valuation of $39,637,950, and a
tax-rate of $17.50 per $1,000. On June 6. 1862, a short en-
gagement took place near Memphis, in which the Confeder-
ate fleet of eight vessels, under Commodore Montgomery, was
defeated by the Union fleet of fourteen vessels, under Com-
modore C. H. Davis, and the city was thenceforth occupied
by Union forces: in Aug., 1864, "Gen. Forrest's Confederate
cavalry entered and took several hundred prisoners. In 1879
the city became unable to meet its financial obligations and
surrendered its charter. The Legislature designated the for-
mer city " the taxing district of Shelby County," and vested
its control in a governing council of three commissioners,
and a board of public works of five members. Under this
council the improved system of sewerage was established, the
debt compromised and funded, and the "district" brought
into a conilition that warranted its change into a municipality
again in 1891. Pop. (1880) 33,593; (1890) 64,495.
Mpinphrcmaffogr, Lake: a beautiful sheet of water, ex-
tending from the village of Magog, .Stanstead Co., yuel)ec,
Canada, to Newport, Orleans co., Vt. ; 35 miles long and
from 2 to 5 miles wide, and discharging its waters into the
Magog river, a tributary of the St. Francis. Magog is con-
nected with Montreal by the Canadian Pacific Railwav,
which reaches Newport via .Mausonvillc, and with Newport,
in summer, by a steamboat line ; Newport is also connected
with Sherbrooke, Quebec, by the Boston and Maine Rail-
road. The lake presents bold and striking scenery, and
has on and near its shore many charming summer resorts.
On its west side are Mt. Orford.over 3,.500 feet above lake-
level, and op])osite Magog; Mt. Elephantis, to the S. W. of
Georgeville, a village of summer residences; and Owl's
Head, near the widening of the lake toward Newport.
Among the places of S|iecial interest on the lake are Knowl-
ton's Landing, on Sargent Bay, near the Bolton mineral
springs: Kitteredge island. Gull Rock, and Black island,
in the broad ba.sin S. of Filch Bay. Mausonville is on the
Missisguoi river, in Brome County. Quebec, inland from the
lake. W. of Owl's Head, and in a dairying and maple-sugar
making region. Marblcton, in Wolfe County, Quel>ec, 25
miles from Sherbrooke, is the Canadian terminus of the
Maine Central Railroad, and has extensive quarries of mar-
ble in its vicinity. Eighteen miles from Sherbrooke is Lake
666
MENA
MENASHA
Ma5:>Awij>pi. extoiidiii^ from North Ilatley S. throufrh Stnn-
stoail (.'ouiity. It is a suiniiier ivsort. ami has excellent lish-
iiig within the shadows of the hills on its west side.
J. M. llAlirKR.
Menu, mil nan, Jian, de: pi>et : b. at Cordova. Spain,
aKmt 1411 ; studied at Salamanca and in Kome. and liecanie
Latin swretary and historiographer to John II., Kinp of
t'aslilc. I). in'Uoli. lie composed many verses in honor of
liis sovereisrn.the allegorical poems Coplan tie Ins iSiele Peca-
tiiLH Morldleg and Lii < 'orunacidn, axM an imitation of the
Diviim CumiiirJIii entitled El Lnberinto (first printed in So-
ville, 14!lti). All these productions were extreniely popular.
and were printed in many editions soon after the introduc-
tion of the press into Spain, hut they are ni> longer esteemed
for [joetic merit. In the literary history of Spain, however.
Juan de Mena is important as one of the first imitators of
Dante and introducers of that Italian influence which was
powerfully felt liy the best Spanish writers down to the sev-
enteenth century! A collected edition of his works, under the
title Vopilaciun tie totlas lax obrtix de. Jutin tie Mena, was
first pnnteii in Seville, in 1528; and often since (e. g. Mad-
rid, 1804. 1H40). Kevised by A. H. Marsh.
Menaljren, m«-naa-brii'aa, Lrioi Fkderioo, Count :
statesman ; b. at Chambery, Sept. 4, 1800. of a I'iedmuntese
family; studied mathematics at Turin ; entered the Sardin-
ian corps of engineers, and was appointed professor in
te<»hnical science at the military academy and at the Uni-
versity of Turin while yet only a lieutenant. In 1848. having
attained the rank of captain, he was employed in a diplo-
matic mission to the Italian duchies which were afterward
annexed. He was electe<l a deputy, and served first in the
tninistry of War, then in the ministry of the Interior. In
the war of 1859 against Austria he was chief of the staff.
After the cession of Savoy and Nice to France the French
Government endeavored to win him, as a native of Savoy, over
to France, but he remained true to Italy, and Victor Em-
manuel created him a senator. As chief ot the engineering
department he fortified Bologna, Piaceiiza. and I'avia; was
made a lieutenant-general in 1800, and led the siege of
Gaeta. In 1861 he became a mendjer of the ministry of Ri-
easoli as Minister of the Marine, in which position he car-
ried through several important reforms and devoted nnicli
interest to the building of the arsenal at Spezzia. In 1866
li<- was Italian plenipotentiary at the conclusion of jieaee
between Austria and Prussia.' In 1867. when the ministry
of Rattazzi resigned, he formed a new caliiiu-t. and touk
charge of the ministry of Foreign Affairs under dillicult re-
lations with France. In the Roman (|uestion he defended
the rights of Italy against France, without suffering any
breach to take [ilace; he spoke for the annexation of Rome,
but he imprisoned Garibaldi for his arbitrary intermed-
dling: thus he threaded his way between the hostile jiarties
with great adroitness and without compromising the dignitv
of the Government. (July a few months after he entered
office as president of the cabinet the imprisonment of Gari-
lialdi brought him a vote of want of confidence in the house.
Ue sent in his resignation immediately, but was induced
by the king to renniin and form a new cabinet. In May.
186!), the financial difficulties made another reorganiza-
tion of the ministry necessary, but even after the acces-
sion of the new ministers Menabrea did not succeed in gain-
ing the confiilence of the house. On the opening of the
session (Nov. ID. 186!t) the Government projiosed Mari for
president, but Lanza was chosen, Menabrea resigned imme-
diately, and Lanza became pre.sident of the cabinet. He
was appointed ambas.'jador at Vienna in 1870. at London
in 1876, and at Paris 1882, where he continueil to represent
his (iovernmeiil till 1802. Menabrea was a mathematician
and physicist. Prominent among his works are KlmleK xur
la aerie de Lugraiitje (Turin, 1841-47) and Lv ueitie ilnlien
dtiiiH la raii,/,(i;/,ie tl' Ancone et de la Banse-ltitlie (Paris,
1806). His administration as president of the cabinet (only
two year>) brought order into the interior, and the relations
of Italy lo foreign cimntries were improved bv his cautious
piiliiy. I), at Chambery, .May 25, 18S)«. F'. M. Colby.
.Monado, m*>-nBa do : town of Celebes, in the Fast Indian
Archipelago; the capital of an important Dutch possession
of the same name, comprising the w hole norlheasterii penin-
sula of that island, ami containing an area of 26.000 so.
miles, and a ponulation of .')4fl,000 (see map of Fast Indies,
ref. 6-II). The high, volcanic surface of the territory is well
adafited to colTee-culture ; rice is also extensively' grown.
The value of exiiorls of the district during one year amount-
ed to 1,250,370 gulden. The town Menado has about 4.000
inhabitants. Kevised by M. \V. IIahri.nuton.
Mi'nai(men'i) Strait : a mirrow channel, i:J miles long and
from 250 yards to 2 miles wide, between the island of Angle-
sea and Carnarvonshire, Wales, crossed by two bridges, the
suspension and the Hritannia bridge. At the entrance of the
channel the tide sometimes rises 30 feet, and ordinarily from
10 to 12 feet. The navigation is dillicult, but, as it saves time,
the route is often chosen by vessels luider 100 tons burden.
Mpiiaiii', or Mrinam': the nrincipal river of Siam, of
which it drains almo.st all of the western half. It rises in
the mountains to the X. and X. W. of the kingdom, and
after a southerly course of about 750 miles falls into the
Gulf of Siam by a single estuary aliout 20 miles S. of liang-
kok. It is a winding stream which in several cases sub-
divides into smaller streams, which reunite lower down. Its
largest affluent is the Menam-Phe, which drains Central
Siam and joins the main stream from the N. F. in the neigh-
borhood of Ayuthia or Krung-Kao. Large ships can come up
the Menam estuary to Bangkok. Small steamers can as-
cend to Ayuthia. about 50 miles farther up. Above this the
river is navigable for small native craft to the rapids near
Raheng. about 250 miles. Mark W. Harrington.
Meiiailiall, mc-naa iiuiii : a city on the island of Bahrein,
in (he Persian (iulf, off the east coast of Ara'ljia (see map
of Persia and Arabia, rcf. 6-(i). It belongs to the British,
and has 8,000 inlialiitants. It is the center of the pearl-fish-
ing industry of the gulf, and in the season is visited by many
strangers. M. W. U.
Menaiider of Athens (Gr. Vievavipos) : one of the great
chiefs of the Xew Attic Comedy ; was born in 342, and was
drowned in 291 B.C. while swimming in the harbor of the
Peincus. He was the son of aristocratic parents, and his uncle
and trainer was Alexis of 'J'iiihii (</. v.). the famous poet of
the Middle Comedy. He was rich, he was handsome, and it
has been said that the only cross in his life was the cross in
his eye. He had a house in town, a villa at the Peir.Tus.and
his sweetheart, Glycera, was the tyi)e of all that is engaging
in womanhood. Tiieo]ihrastusand Fjiicurusgave liim lessons
in philosophy, and so well equipped for work and so hapjiily
cir(Mimslaiice<l in fortune, he made a brilliant begininng in
his art ; but his early victory, gained when he was but twenty-
one, W!us not matched by his sulisei|uent career, and he was
less favored by the ])ublic than were his rivals, especially
Phu.k.mon (q. v.), though this comparative failure may have
saved him from the weaknesses of the spoiled children of
literature; but after hisdeath the drama of Meiuinderdomi-
nated the cultured world, and his verses were cpioted an<l al-
luded to far into the Christian era. Plautusand 'I'erencedrew
on him forsentimeiitsand for plots, and of these Terence em-
ulated his example so closely that he was c'alU'd by Ca'sar"a
half but only half Menander." The ingenuity of his plots,
the delicacy and |ienetration of his wit, the point and co-
gency ot his maxims, the refinement of his language, and
the sweetness of his temper made Jlenander a universal fa-
vorite, and his ideal still influences the comi'dy of situation
and numners. Unfortunately, no ]ilay survives, and we are
left to form our notion of Menander from imitations and
quotations. Of his more than a luiiidred pieces, more than
a thousand fragments have come down to us, not to speak
of the huiulreds of wise saws that have smuggled themselves
in under his name. For the remains of Menander, see the
collections of Meineke and of Kock. B. L. GiLUiiRSLEKVE.
Meiiant, ma'mraiV, Joachim: Assyriologist ; b: at Cher-
bourg, France, Apr. 16, 1820; studied law ; became a magis-
trate of the civil tribunal at Ilavic. and acipiired consider-
able celebrity as one of the earliest French decipherers of
the cuneiform inscriptionsof Assyria. He pulilisheil. among
other works, ZumtiMn: (Caen, 1844) : livcui il tl] Alphabets
des Kcrituren ciineiftirmes (1860); Elements, tl' Epigraphit
asKtjrienne (1860; 2d ed. 1864); InKcripliunit ttssi/riennes
de.s brit/ue.i de lialiyltme (1860) ; Iiinrnptioim de j/ammou-
riibi, rtii de Babi/lone an XVI' siecle avant noire ere (1863);
E.r/)one dest Elementu de la (Irammtiire a.sxi/rienne (ISOS);
Babi/lime el la Clia/tlee (1875); and Jfaniiel de la Itmque
ti.K,si/rienne (1880). He aided Prof, .lules Opiiert in translat-
ing the (Irande Jnncri/ition tie A'li(ir.mbait (18('i5) and Ijen
Fasten de Sari/tin (1863), and has jiublished .several learned
es,says m llie ,)<iurnal of the Freiudi Oriental Society.
iMciia!ilia : city; Winnebago co.. Wis. (for location of
county, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 5-F,) ; on the Fox river
at the outlet of Lake Winnebago, and on the Chi. and
MENASSEII HEX ISRAEL
MENDELSSOIIN-BARXnOLDY
667
N. W., the Chi., Mil. ami .St. P., anil the Wis. Cent, rail-
ways: 18 miles X. i)f Oshkosh. It hji-s a iiiiiiilier of nianu-
/acturies, a national bank with ciipital of $80,000, an incor-
poratpJ hank wilh capilal of iS'iO.OOO. and two weuklv news-
|.a|HTS. Pop. (18M0) :i.l 14 ; (ISOO) 4,.J81 ; (18i).")) «,l.-)4.
Menasseli beii Israel : .Sir Manasskh bkk Israkl.
.HpiH'iils, men shQs' [a Latinized form ot the Chinese name
Mrng-t.li'. Many-Ue. or JluHi/'tne. Mfm;; the philosoplier) :
the most distingiushed of the early Chinese philosophers
after Co.vFurius (y. v.) : b. in the principality of Tsow (adjoin-
ing Loo, the native state of Confucius) about 371 B. c. The
district city of Tsow-hien, in the department of Venchow-
foo and province of Shanttms;, claims the honor of being his
nalive town, and there his lineal representative lives. lie
was in his third year when he lost his father, but his mother
educated him so carefully and conscientiously that she is
noted throughout China as the model mother. Thrice she
changed her abod<' that he might be saveil from thi' evil in-
fluences of unworthy surroundings. Prom his schoolboy
days little is known of him until at the age of forty he
emerged as a teacher of some ni>te, with a large following of
disciples. He aeknowledgeil himself a discipleof Confucius,
and Chinese critics consider it one of his greatest merits
that he revived the influence and authority of that philoso-
pher. He considereil man good by nature, ami his vices
and miseries produced, like the stunted and distorted growth
of a tree, by evil influences. The great problem, then, was
to return to the original goodness, to set one's heart right.
In politics he cousidi'Hid the interests of the people of prime
importance, and empha^^ized the rights of the subject so
strongly in opposition to those of the sovereign that he de-
clared it righteous for a people to kill their ruler when he
injured their welfare. Like Confucius, he traveled through
the petty kingdoms into which China was then divided,
setting forth his views, but met with little success, and the
last fifteen years of his life were spent in retirement among
his disciples. The date of his death is not certainly known,
but it is stated that he wius eighty-four years old when he
died. His sayings are containoil in the last of the Four
Books which form the basis of all Confucian teaching. They
were not admitted into the canon until near the end of the
eleventh century. See Legge's Chinese Classics (vol. ii.,
London and Hongkong, 1861) and Faber's Mind of Mencius,
translated liv Hutchinson (London and Hongkong, 1880).
K. L.
JlendiPaiis : See Mand^axs.
JleiidelC'cf, DiMiTRi IvANOViTCH : chemist: b. at Tobolsk,
in Siberia, in is;i4: studied at the gymnasium there and at
the University of .St. Petersburg, where he became privat
decent in 18.'j6. After spending two years at lleiilelberg,
Germany, he bi^eame Professor of Chemistry at the Techno-
logical Institute of St. Petersburg in 1.86:i, and professor in
the university three years later. He is l)est known for his
contributions to the periodic law (see Cuemistrv). His
Principles of Chemistry (1869) is one of the most suggestive
text-booksof chemistry. In 1882 he was awarded the Davy
medal by the Royal Society of London, and in 188!) the
Faraday medal by the Chemical .Society. I. R.
Mendelssohn, men dels-son, Moses : metaphysician : b. at
Dessau, in the duchy of Anhalt, (lermany, Sept. 6. 1729, of
Jewish parents ; studied almost from infancy with the great-
est energy, but under the hardest circumstances, the Hible,
the Tahnud, Mairaonides, and afterwanl also modern liter-
ature, and l)ecame in 17.50 tutor in a rich .lewish family in
Herlin, and in 17.")4 bookkee|ier in the firm. An accidental
acipuiintance with Lessingsoon grew intoan intimate friend-
ship, and Lcssing is .said to have taken Mendelssohn as a
model for his Xntlinn. He also associated with Xicolai,
Abbt, and other literary persons, and began in 17.>5 to write
for different periiMlieals. In 176:5 his treatise on the Evi-
dence of Meta/ihi/sirs received a prize from the Academy of
Herlin. In 1767 he published his Phdrlon.a dialogue on the
immortality of the soul, which won a European celebrity.
In 1783 appeare<l his Jerusalem ; in 178,5 his Morgensliinden.
which exercised a considerable influence on his coreligion-
ists. D. in Merlin. .Ian. 4, 1786. .\ complete edition of his
works was published by his grandson at Leipzig (1843-4.5).
Mendelssohn possessed the gift of popularizing the philoso-
phv of Leibnitz and Wolf, and of treating, after the model
of ^^nglish writers, religious, moral, lesthelical, and practical
questions in a semi-[ihilosophi<al conimi>n-sense nninner.
He must be considered the greatest of the so-called •' popular
philosophers" of the eighteenth century, and his theories
concerning the beautiful, although based on antiquated psy-
chological conceptions, had some influence on literary pro-
duction, as may be seen, e. g., from his correspondence with
Lessing. Mendelssohn was also one of the first who called
attention to the almost forgotten philosophy of Siiinoza.
See Kayserling, Moses Mendelssohn (1882) ; Ifraitmaier, Ge-
schichle der poetischen Theorie und Kritik (1889).
% Revised by Julius Goebei,.
Mendelssolin-Ilartholdy.-liaar-tfirdee, Felix : composer;
b. at Hamburg, Feb. 5, 180!t. His father, a wealthy Israelite,
was a man of extensive learning and refined taste, and his
mother was equally cultivated, being one of the brightest
women in the ix'st society of Herlin. He very early showeii
great talent for music under the instruction of his mother
and of Madame Higot : became the pupil of the romantic
Berger for the piano, and of the severe Zelter for harmony ;
at eight years of age could read any music at sight, and write
correct harmony. Although he had not the time to practice
a great deal, yet such were the flexibility of his hands and
the quickness of his musical faculty that he played perfectly
the most diflicult music. For his improvement and the en-
tertainment of their guests. Mendelssohn's father hire<l for
the boy a small orchestra, 'which he led with skill and great
zeal at the home musical evenings. Aided by his talented
sister Fanny, he often [iroduced his own eomiiositions before
the large circle of artists and scholars frequenting his home ;
he thus became the musical prodigy and the bright center
of their friendly interest. Up to 1826 his compositions
showed less of the s[)ontancousness of genius than of skill
in scholastic forms, which were the natural expression of a
sensitive and not very self-asserting nature while under the
dominion of the scientific Zelter. In that year, writing his
Midsummer Aii/lit's Dream, he left the cla.ss-room. and
revealed the leailing quality of his originality, the graceful
vivacity of Ids fancy. In 1829 he left Herlin to travel through
Scotland. England, Germany, Italy, and France, In 1833
he was made musical director of the city of Diis.«eldorf.
This office he kept only two years, and then moved to Leip-
zig, where he lived till his death, excejiting during short
periods of time — once to go to Berlin as director of music
to the King of Prussia, and occasionally to visit Engl;ind
and various German cities to conduct performances of his
works. By his strong personal influence, his intelligent di-
rection of the concerts of the Gewandhans. and the e.stab-
lishment of the conservatory, he made Leipzig the leading
city of Germany for ])ure music. In recognition of his serv-
ices the university conferred on him the degree of doctor
of philosophy and of fine arts, and in 18.36 the King of
Saxony made him his honorary kapellmeister. In 1837 he
married Cccile .lean Kenaud. of Frankfort, whose grace, in-
telligence, and devotion were the ha|ipiness of the remaining
ten years of his life. His continuous, laborious activity so
much exhausted his sensitive organization that the death of
his beloved sister Fanny (in 1847) was a blow from which he
could not rally. A few months afterward he died of apo-
plexy (Nov. 4,"l84r).
His nature united strong affections and a keen intellect,
great energy, and mirth that was even frolicsome. One of
his strongi'st traits was his unflagging pursuit of perfec-
tion : in every detail of every work he strove to express his
best thought in the best form. He was too excitable and
exacting to be a perfect conductor for the players given him
in England ami Berlin. In Leipzig, where enthusiasm was
in the cause, his power seems to have been little short of mag-
ical in rousing his men ami leading them to the heights of
his conceptions. As a piani.st he was one of the greatest of
an age that counted such artists as Liszt. Madame .Schumann,
and Chopin. His execution was a rare union of fire, deli-
cacy, and purity. Among his best known works may l)e
mentioned the oratorio Elijah, which is more popular in
England than any other oratorio excepting Handel's J/f.«-
siah : the oratorio St. Paul, in which are hajipily united the
grandeur of the ancient masters and the resources of nioilern
art: the Forty-second Psalm: the J/id-timimrr yighl's
Dream, a composition of extraordinary s])righlliness and
grace, probably the most striking work of its kind in the
world : the concerto for the violin : the first concerto for the
piano: the third symphony (in A minor), and the oyprture
Fingal's Cave. His chamber-music. Son^« without Words
for the piano, and his vocal quartets and songs are among
the purest and most charming contributions to the art. He
.■ieems to have had no dramatic powi'r. or perhaps that side
of his genius was undeveloped, for hisifTorts in opera are few.
668
MEXDEXIIALL
See the Life bv :\Iostlielps (187:^ ; Kiig. trans. 1H8G^ : Hiii-
S4'I Die Faiiiilie 'Meiiilelssvhn (187!t) ; tlio collecl ions of Men-
ilel'ssohns letters (1801 ami IH&i: Kng. trans. 18(52-6:1);
tlioso to the Moschelcs (1888); ami SelecttJ Ullirs of Men-
(/.■/.•!*«/in, cditea by \V. R Alrxaniler (Loiidon, 1894) See
also Grove's Dictionary of Music tiiul Miixicians.
Men'ileiiliall. .Tamks William. I'li. I).. I». 0.. Mi. T>. ; cler-
cvinaii and aiit lior ; b. at (^•enlorvillc. O.. \ov. 8. 1844 ; gradii-
ated at <>liio Wesleyan I'niversity in 18G4. and entereil the
Cinoinnati Methodist Kpiscopal conferenoe ; was president
of Fremont t'ollefriate Instil nte, Sidney, la., 1867-68; was
transferred to North Ohio conference in'l8G!(; was presiding
euier al«ut four vears ; was a member of the (ieneral t'on-
forenee in 1884. 1888, and 18".I2 ; was eU<eteil editor of The
Methoditt lieriew in 1888 anil was re-elected In 18113. His
iirincipiil published works were Echoexfrom Palestine (1883);
Plalo and Paul: or. Philti.io/,lii/ and Cliristianity {\S8I}).
1). in Chicajjo. 111.. .lune 18. 18112.
MeudpnliaU. Thomas Corwin. I'h. D.. LL. D. : physicist ;
b. near llanoverton. O., Oct. 4, 1841 ; was self-educated in
science, having received as a basis only a common-sdiool
education; in \STi was elected Professor of Physics and
Mechanics in the Ohio State L'niversity : in 1878 was called
to the chair of Physics in the Imiierial L'niversity of Japan
at Tokio. Here he established a jihysical laboratory and
founded a meteorologicalol)servatiiry.whicli laterwasmcrged
into the general meteorological system established by the
imperial Government. From measurements of the force of
gravity at sea-level and at the summit of the extinct volcano
Fujisjin. he deduced a value for the mass of the earth
that agrees doselv with that obtained by Haily in Kngland
bv another niethml. He aided in establishing the Seismo-
logical Society of Tokio, and in introducing a system of
popular lectures. In 1881 he returned to the Ohio Slate Uni-
versity; in 1883 organized the Ohio Stale weather service,
which he directed until 1884. In 1884 he became con-
nected with the United Signal Service at Washington, where
heorganized and equipped a physical laboratory in connection
with the ollice of the chief signal officer, carried on system-
atic observations of atmospheric electricity, and established
the systematic gathering of data relating to earthquakes. In
1886 he resigned to become president of the Hose Polytech-
nic Institute at Terre Haute, Iiul. In 1889 he was made
superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic .Survey, but
resigned this post in July, 181)4, to become president of
the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Worcester, Mass. In
1882 he was vice-president of the physical section of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, and
in 1888 was chosen i)resident of the association. He is a
member of the National Academy of .Sciences. In 181)3 he
was one of the two commissioners who represented the U. S.
in the Bering Sea joint commission, and in the same year
was appointed commissioner on the part of the U. S. to make
a joint survey of the boundary between Alaska and British
America; also commissioner to lix in connection with a reji-
resentative of the British Government the boundary between
Canada and the U. S., in the St. Croix river, and Passama-
quodily Bay. He has been chairman of the U. S. board of
feographic names since its organization in 1890. Prof.
_ lendenhall has lectured extensively throughout the U. S.,
has contributed to many .scientific periodicals, and besides
monographs and special reports, has publisiied A Century of
Electricity (Boston, 18«7).
Mcndes (in Kgypt. I)ed, or Pa-n-Ded, House of the ded
symbol): capital of the sixteenili nomos (district) of Lower
Kgypt and royal residence of the twenty-ninth dynasty,
sacred to the ram of Mendes, which was, however, a he-
goat, an incarnation of Osiris. The city name was written
with a hieroglyphic sign (ded) which represented the spine
of Osiris. According to some it was located 11 miles E. of
Man>ilra, but it is more probably to be identified with Tmey
cl-Amdid, a little farther S. C. U. G.
Mendes. Catillk: poet and novelist; b. at Bordeaux,
France, May 33, 1841. He went when quite young to Paris,
and became very active in the; group of young parnaxsiens,
founding the Peviie Pinilnixiate (1849). He issued several
volumes of verse, in which the concern for form is conspicu-
ous :/-'/ii7(«Hf/« (1864); IleKneruH{\xm)\ Conies epiques(Wm);
Odelette querriere (I87I); La I'olere d'un franc-tireiir(\H'!\);
collected in 1878 as Poi'sies. He has also lieen an industrious
writer in prose, imiducing ilranuis, novels, and short stories,
niarkc<l by a search for strange ellects and a prevalent erotic
character. Among his novels and short stories arc Lea
MENDO
Folies amoureuses (1877) ; Mouslres parisiens (1882) ; Jeunea .
Filles (1884) ; Pour lire au bain (1884); Le Pose el le Xoir
(188.')); L' Homme tout nu (188.5); Grande-Mayuet (1888).
Among his dramas are Le Capilaine Fracnsse (\H~'i) \ Les
Mires ennemies(im:i) ; Le I ■hdltment (1887)': Fiamelte (1889).
A. G. Caxfieli).
Mendes Leal da Silva. mcndas-la-a'ardaa-seel vaa, Jos£:
poet and stalesnwin ; b. in hisbcm, Portugal, Oct, 18, 1830;
d. at Cintra, Aug. 14, 1886. He began his literary career by
articles in the JJiario of the chamber of deputies. In 1846
he became secretary to the Duke of Terceira; in 1848 secre-
tary to the conservatory, but lost this place in 18.50. In 1851
he was electeil a deputy, and soon after was for a time Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs. From 1874 to 1883 he was ambas-
sador to France ; from 1883 to 1880 ambassador to Spain.
As a poet he has had great popularity, his poems, Canticos,
being first collected in 1858. His plays have had great suc-
cess on tlie Portuguese stage: Eyas Moniz, A pobre das
ruinas, O tributo das cem donzellas. Os homensde marmore,
Os dous renegados, Pedro, A escala social, etc. Particu-
larly ha[)py are the comedies 0 lio Andre que !e»i do Brazil,
0 ca^ador. c\c. He published also several romances: 0 flor
do mar, O mosqueteiros da Africa, 0 Calabar. His liela-
foes de Portugal com a curia romana (5 vols.) has scientific
value. In 184S he became a member of the Portuguese Acad-
emy. A. K. Maksh.
Men'dez-Pin'to, FernJo, or Fernam : traveler ; b. at
Montcmor-o-Velho, near Coimbra, Portugal, about 1510;
after various adventures in Europe he set out for the East
Indies, and arrived in 1537 at Diu, on the west coast of
India, His adventures lasted numy years, and were nar-
rated by him in a book published after his death, in which
he Slates that he had spent twenty-one years in the East,
had been thirteen times taken prisoner by the enemy,
and seventeen times sold as a slave. His captivities had
carried him from Egypt, Abyssinia, and Arabia through
Persia, India. Burma. Malacca, Siam, Java, the Loochoo
islands, Japan, China, and Tartary. Mendcz-Pinto made
four visits to Japan, one of which was in company with St.
Francis Xavier, through whose influence he entered the
order of Jesuits at Goa, devoting the large fortune he had
acquired to the establishment of a seminary in Japan. Ob-
taining a release from his vows, he returned to Portugal in
1558 with letters of commendation from the viceroy at Goa,
He resided at court several years; died at Alinada, near
Lisbon, July 8, 1583. His book. Peregrinarao de Fernam
Mendcz-Pinto, was first printed in 1014. when it imme-
diately became a favorite, and is now ranked among the
Portuguese classics. It was translated into the principal
languages of Europe.
Mendibiini. men-det-booroo, Manuel, de: general and
historian ; b. at Lima, Peru. 1805. When a young student
he joined the patriots in 1821. was captured' by the Sjian-
iards and kept a prisoner until the end of the war. Subse-
quently he held many civil and military offices; was Min-
ister of War under (Samarra and of Finance under Eche-
niquc ; and in 1851 was sent on a special mission to Europe.
He had collected an immense quantity of material for a his-
tory of Peru, but mo'destly concluded that his abilities were
not equal to the task of writing it. He therefore tlirew the
notes into the form of a biographical dictionary entitled Die-
cionario historico-geogrdfico del Peril. The first ]>art, in
eight volumes, includes the Inca and colonial periods; its
publication was begun in 1874 and concluded after the
author's death. It is by far the best work of its kind that
has ever appeared in South America, and has been heartily
praised by scholars ; it is very full and contains much new
material. The second part, which was to have come down
to the present time, has never been published. Gen. Mendi-
buru died in Lima, Jan. 21, 1885. Hehukut H. Smith.
Men'do, Andres : ecclesiastic and author ; b. at Logroilo,
Spain, in 1608: studied theology in Ihc University of Sala-
manca; entered the order of Jesuits, and successively filled
the positions of preacher to the court, secretary to the In-
quisition, director tif the schools of Oviedo and .Salauuinca,
vice-provincial of Castile, and confes.sor to the Duke of
Assuna, Viceroy of Catalonia. He died in 1685, having
earned a great reputation for learning by his various writ-
ings, of which the principal are Pulhv sacra' cruciaUe Dilu-
cidatio (Jladrid, 1051); De Jure aradeniico (Salamanca,
1055; 3d c<i. Lyons. 1008); De Ordinilius mililaribus Dis-
quisitiones theologico-m urates (Salamanca, 1657) ; several
collections of sermons in Latin and Spanish ; and Utalera
MKNDOCIXO, CAPE
MEXDOZA
669
opinionum benignariim in eontroversiis mnrnUhus (Lyons,
1606). Revised by S. M. Jaiksox.
Mciiilocino, Capo: Sec Cape Mendocino.
Meiitlofiiio Indians: See JJi'lanapax I.ndians.
MiMiduta: city (foundeil in 18.53); La Salle co.. 111. (for
locution of county, see map of lllinoi.s, ref. 3-E) ; on the 111.
Cent, anil the Chi., Burl, and y. railways ; 83 railcs S. W.
of Chicago. It contains 8 clnirches, 3 puhlie schools. Black-
stone lli^h Sclmol. \Vartl>nri; Seminary (Lutheran, opened
1853), public library fnundcd in 1870, 2 iron-founilrics, a
national bank with capital of AlOO.OOO. a private bank, and
4 weekly newspapers. It is in an a;;ricultural n-irion. Pop.
(1880) A,\ii, ; (18'JO) :i,TA~ ; (1S'J3) csliuiatcd, ^..^OO.
Editor ok •■ Bllleti.v."
Mendo'za : a western province of the Argentine Hepub-
lic; Ixjunded X. by .Sun Juan, E. by San l^uis, .S. by the
territories of Panipa and Los Andes, and W. by Chili.
Area, as estimated hy Latzina, 03,843 sq. miles, but careful
surveys would iirobubly reduce this to 5.i.0(X) sq. miles or
less. The main range of the Andes forms the western
boundary, the peak of Aconcagua being at the noi-thwestern
angle ; spurs and lower ranges cover nearly the whole face
of the province, subsiding to hills eastward ; in the north-
western part there are extensive arid plateaus. Earth-
quakes are frequent, but only a few severe ones are recorded.
The climate is .so dry that in most places artificial irrigation
is necessary for successful agriculture; some of the canals
used were constructed by the Guarpe Indians before the
coiuiuest. Several rivers unite, on the eastern boundary, in
the l)esaguaderi>, which, farther .S.. is lost in marshes and
siUt lakes. Wheat, corn, and fruits are grown, the latter
being dried and exported; but of late years vine-growing
and wine-making have almost superseded other industries.
In July, 18'J2, the estimated area in vineyards was 35,000
acres, and about 1.000,000 gal. of wine are exported year-
ly. Cattle are raised, principally for the Chilian markets,
but the herds are liot large as compared with other prov-
inces. Silver and copper are rained on a small scale,
and coal and petroleum are rci)orted. Jlendoza was settled
in 15.5!) bv Spaniards from Chili, who easily conquered the
peaceful (iuarpes. It formed part of the territory of Cuyo,
attached to Chili until 1770. when it was united to the vice-
royalty of La Plata or Buenos Ayres. Pop. (estimated,
1890) 100.000. The country population is mainly a mixed
race, descended from Spaniards and Guarpe Indians.
Herbert II. SMirii.
Mendoza : a city; capital of the province of Mendoza;
situated at the foot of the eastern sub-ranges of the .Vndes;
654 miles from Buenos Ayres, and 2,550 feet al)ove the sea
^ee map of South America, ref. 8-C). It is on the line of
the Trans-.Vndcan Railroad from Buenos Ayres to Valpa-
raiso, and has a large trade, especially with the latter place ;
about one-tenth of the inhabitants are Chilians. Mendoza
was founded in 155!) by Castillo, and was napuni after Gar-
cia de Mendoza, who. at that time was governor of Chili.
In 1810-17 .San Martin massed his army here, previous to
his celebrated march over the Andes into Chili. On Mar.
20, 1861, the city was destroyed by an earthquake ; not even
the streets were traceable after tiie disaster, and only some
trees and an aisle of one of the churches were left standing.
The shock occurred on the morning of Ash Wednesday,
when the churches were filled with worshii>ers; about 13,-
000 people perished, and only 1,000 escaped. The new city
was built a short distance from the ruins. Pop. (18!I2) about
20,000. Herbert II. S.MIT1I.
Mendoza. Andres IIurtado, de : See Hl-rtado de Mex-
DOZA, .\MiKES.
Mendoza, Antonio, de: Spanish administrator; b. about
1485. ile was a son of the second Count of Tcndilla, and
closely related to other distinguished jiersons of the .same
name. Charles V, having resolved to create a viceregal
government for Xew Spain, or Mexico, Mendoza was ap-
pointeil first viceroy in 1.530, but did not rctwli the country
until Oct., 1.53.5. His rule was continued until Xov.. 154!),
and was, on the whole, wi.se and good; explorations were
pushed toward the X. and X. W.. mining-regions were de-
veloped, a mint was e.-tablished, and Guadalajara, Vallado-
lid, anil other towns were founded; the irregular proceed-
ings of former olliieholders wire punished, and a rebellion
was put down. On the other hand, tin- burdens which
already weighed on the Indian population were increa.seil,
and their misery was made greater at this lime by a i>esti-
lencc which swept over the country. Mendoza evaded the
"new laws" which had been promulgated to regulate Indian
labor, and which were fiercely resisted throughout Sfianish
America. Transferred to the viceroyaltv of Peru, he reached
Linui, Sept. 23. 155), and died there July 21, 1552. Dur-
ing his short rule he commenced the Peruvian code of laws,
known as the Lihro de Tasan. Herbert H. Smith.
Mendoza. Antonio Hlrtado. de : .Spanish dramatist and
poet; b. about 1600; d. in 1044. Little is known of his
life. He lived much in .Madrid in the company of the great
poets of his day ; was at one time a royal secretary, and
again a secretary of the Inquisition. We have from him a
number of plays, of which three are particularlv grH>d :
Cada loco cim «<i tenia it el monlailes indiano, Los Em-
peilos de menlir, and E/ martdo haee muj'er y el tralo
muda custumbre. The last was imitated with great success
by the younger Moratin, and seems also to have been under
the eyes of Molicre when he wrote his £cole des femmes.
Mendoza wrote also many ballads and lyrics, and a Vida de
Xuesira Settora. His works were published in 1690 with
the title El Fenix Vastellano, D. Antonio de Jlendoza,
renascido (2d cd. Madrid, 1728). The three comedies men-
tioned above are reprinted in vol. xlv. of Rivadcneyra's
liibliottca de Autores Espailoles. A. R. Marsh.
Mendoza, Dieoo Hi'rtado, de : statesman and writer; b.
in Granada, Spain, in 1.503, of high lineage. Being a younger
son, he was destined for the Ch\irch ; and to this end learned
to speak Arabic in Granada, and then went to Salamanca to
study Greek, Latin, and theology. While still a student
there, as is commonly believed, he wrote his famous romance,
^'ida de Lazarillo de Turmes, sus fortunas y adversidades.
This, the first example of the so-called novelas picarescas,
while pifrporting to give the story of a little rascal, who by
his native talent for lying and swindling rises from success
to success, is in reality a satire ujion those classes in Span-
ish society whose weaknesses made such successes possible.
It seems to have been first published, without the author's
name, in Antwerp in 15.53. Its success was immediate and
edition followed edition, certain passages prohibited by the
Church, however, being cut out of most of the later ones.
It also provoked continuations by greatly inferior writers.
A so-called Segunda Parte de L. de Tonnes, by an unknown
hand, ajjpeared in Antwerp in 1555 ; another Segunda
Parte, by one Juan de Luna, a teacher of Spanish in I'aris,
in 1620. In the same year an imitation by Juan Cortes de
Tolosa appeared, with the title El Lazarillo de Mamanares.
The original was translated into many other languages (into
English by David Rowland, 1586 ; again by James Blakes-
ton, 1670). Mendoza seems soon to have found that his
vocation was not ecclesiastical, for we next find him a sol-
dier in the Spanish armies in Italy. Here liis talents sjieed-
ily brought him to the front, and in 1,5.38 Charles ^. ap-
pointed him ambassador in Venice. Here he nungled much
with the scholars who were busied with the task of editing
the Greek and Roman classics, and giving them to the world
in printed form. He was a friend and patron of the great
priiiters, the Alili (see Manutivs, Aldus) ; and lie had made
for his own library sumptuous copies of the manuscripts
which Cardinal Bessarion had given to the Marcian Li-
brarj'. He thus became thoroughly imbued with the new
humanistic culture of Italy : and after his return to Spain
his great name and influence did much to diffuse this cul-
ture among his countrymen. The emperor, however, re-
quired his services as military governor of Siena, and he
had to leave Venice. Later we find him the imperial repre-
sentative at the Council of Trent (1.542). Then, in 1547, he
was sent to RiHne as plenipotentiary to rebuke and overawe
the pope. So well did he do this that for six years he was
regarded as the heiul of the imperial party in Italy. In
1.5.54, however, a change of |)olicy on tlie part of Charles
made it possible for Mendoza. already weary of his great
responsibility, to return to Spain. The next year Philip
II. came to the throne, and for some reason showed little
liking for him. He had to go into a kind of exile at Gran-
ada, where he amu.sed himself with writing poetry, either in
imitation of the Latin poets or after the traditional popu-
lar manner of his own country. .\nd here, later, he uniler-
took in imitation of .Salliist and Tacitus an account of the
uprising of the Jloors (1508-70), his famous (iuerra de
(iraniida, which, on account of its frankness and impar-
tiality, could not lie printed till long after its author's
death (1st ed., incomplete. 1010; 1st complete edition 1776).
In 1575 he was permitted to return to Madrid, but was
670
MENDOZA
.MKNKNDF.Z V I'KLAYO
seizi'il by a violent illnoss, ami iliod a few days after his ar-
rival, Apr., 1575. HesiJes the works mciilioiicil above, vve
have from him some interesting letters, anil an amusing,
satiric DidUiijo entre Ctironle ;/ el dnima <le I'tdto Luis
Fiiniesio. hijo del Papa I'aulu III. His works will be
fonnil in vols, iii., xxi., xxxii., ami xxxvi. of Hivaileneyra"s
BibliuUca lie Aiilure.i h'spaituleg. See J. I). Kesenmuir, I).
ll.de Meiidota.ein h/hiii. Iliiiiianiat des liMen .lahrlninderts
(Progr. des Wilhelmsgymn., Munich. 188-2 and 1884). Also
K. Staiir, Mendoza'» iMZarillo de Tormes, etc.. in Deutsche
Jahrhitcher fCirPotitik uiid Literalur (Berlin, ]8(i'2).
A. K. Marsh.
.Mendoza. Garcia IUktaix), de: See Hurtado de Mes-
IK>2A, (-lARlIA.
Mendoza. ISioo Lopez, de : See Santillasa, Marquis of.
Mendoza, Pedro, lie : military commander; b. of noble
family, in liaudix, Granada, Spain, about 148T; fought with
distinction in Italv, and is said to have profited greatly
bv the sack of Koine. After the return of Sebastian Cabot
from the Kio de la Plata, Charles V. resolved to promote
the colonization of that region, with the object of open-
ing a new route to Peru. Mendoza offered to undertake
the enterprise at his own ex[)cnse, was named aJelanlado
or governor of the new colony, and sailed from San Lucar
Sept. 1, 1534, with fourteen ships anil 2,650 men. The
squadron touched at Kio de Janeiro, where the vice-admiral,
Osorio, was killed on a vague suspicion of conspiracy. Ar-
rived at the Kio de la Plata, Jlendoza founded tlie first
city of Buenos Ayres (Feb. 2, 1535) at one of the most in-
convenient points on the coast. Xo attempt appears to have
been made to pacify the Querendi Indians of the vicinitv ;
re]XN»led .struggles with them followed, and the Spaniards,
confined to their fort, suffered greatly from hunger. Ayo-
las. sent to explore the Parana, founded on its banks the
fort of Corpus Christi, to which a portion of the Buenos
Ayres garrison was transferred. Disasters continued, and
at length the governor in despair embarked for Spain, at
the end of Apr., 1.537. The ship, scantily provisioned, was
reduced to famine ; Mendoza became a lunatic and died
before reaching Spain. The colony, under Ayolas and
Irala, subsequently prospered. Asuncion was founded in
1537, and soon after Buenos Ayres was abandoned, to be
refounded after many years. Herbert H. .Smith.
Menede'iuus (in (ir Vl(viSntuis): (1) son of Clisthenes of
Eretria in Boeotia. He began life a,s a soldier in Jlegara,
but became interested in philosophy and studied under
Plato and Stilpon. He transplanted the school of philosophy
founded t>y Pha-ilo in Klis to Eretria. Late in life he was
accused of aiming to betray Eretria to Antigonus Gonatas,
and went into exile. He left no writings. (2) A cynic phi-
losopher of Lampsaous. (3) A rhetorician in Athens, 94
B. c. (4) A friend of Julius Ca;sar. (5) A general of Alex-
ander the Great. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Mencla'us (in Gr. KtviKaos): son of Atreus and younger
brother of Agamemnon. .Vfter the murder of Atreus by
Jigislhus, the two brothers went into exile, Mcnelaus going
to the court of Tyndareus, King of Sparta, whose daughter,
Helen, he afterward married. Through her he became
King of Sparta. When Paris had carried Helen off to
Troy, Mcnelaus journeyed thither in order to negotiate for
the return of his wife, but ill vain. Then, according to pre-
nuptial agreement with the many suitors of Helen, he sum-
moned them^to war against Troy, himself being the com-
mander of the Spartan contingent of sixty ships. At Troy,
thank.s to llira and Athene, he became one of the most con-
spicuous figures. In a duel he was victorious over Paris,
who was re.-cued by Aphrodite, but, owing to the treachery
of Pandarus, Menelaus failed to get back Helen and her
treasures. He [jroterted the dead body of Palroclus from
insult, and carried it out of the moil of battle back to the
ships. He wa-s one of those who entered the wooden horse.
Upon his return voyage from Troy along with Helen, storms
and wimls ilmvo a jmrt of his ships to Crete, and five, in-
cluding his own, to Egypt. He wandered abmil the Orient
for eight years; he was everywhere received with kindness,
and finally, in company with Helen, he reached .Sparia on
the day of the burial of <'lyta'iniiestra and yEgislhus by
Orestes. He thereafter lived in peace and comfort. On the
occa.sion of the visit of TehMiiaclius lo Sparta .Menelaus cele-
brated the marriage of his daiiglcler HiTMiione to Neoptole-
mus. the son of Achilles. When on the island of Pharos
ho had forced I'roteus (q. v.) to prophesy lo him ; he was
Informed that in view of the fiK-t that he wius a son-in-law
of Zeus he would not die, but be translated to Elysium.
He was more cruel than Agamemnon, and put Deiphobus,
the son of Priam, to the most cruel tortures. He stood
head and shoulders above Odysseus, spoke little, but always
well and to the point. " J. R. S. Sterrett."
Menendez de Avilfs, Pedro; naval commander; b. in
Aviles, Asturias, Spain, in 1519. He distinguished himself
in privateering enterprises against the Moors and French;
became captain-general in the navy; commanded the fleet
which carried Philip IL to England 1554, the one which
brought him le-cnforcements to Flanders 1557. and that in
which he returned to Spain in 1.559: was twice general of
the West Indian fleet, and acquired great wealth by his
voyages; was imprisoned and fined for alleged irregulari-
ties in 1560, but regained favor, and in 1565 was named
governor of Cuba and Florida, with the agreement that he
should colonize the latter country. His preparations were
hastened by the news that French Protestant colonies had
been established on the Florida coast, and he sailed from
Cadiz, June 29, 156.5, with nineteen vessels and over 1,500
men. The ships were scattered by storms, and only seven
united at Puerto Rico in August. Thence they sailed to
Florida, and, after some preliminary skirmishing with the
French ships, Menendez foundeil St, Augustine (now the
olde.-it city in the l*. S.) Sept. 8, 1.565. Attacks on the post
by French ships failed, and on Sept. 30 tlie Spaniards sur-
prised and captured the French fort on St. John's river,
slaughtering most of the garrison, " not as Frenchmen, but
as heretics." Soon after the French ships met with repeated
disasters, and most of those who had escaped the massacre
at the fort gave themselves up. but they were butchered like
the rest ; in a few months hardly a Frenchman remained in
Florida. The Spaniards established two other forts, but
during the winter they suffered greatly from hunger and
from Indian attacks; about 100 died and 500 deserted and
left the colony. Subsequently large re-enforcements were
received, and the colony prospered. Menendez made several
voyages to Spain to bring over colonists and supplies, and
he was active in the government of Cuba. He also pushed
explorations northward, established a post on Port Royal
Bay. now in South Carolina, visited Chesapeake Bay, and
in 1570 sent a party of missionaries up the Potomac river;
this mis-sion was destroyed by the Indians, and in requital
Menendez ascended the Potomac in 1572, and laid waste
some of the Indian villages. In 1573 he finally returned
to Spain, and was given command of the immense fleet
wliicli Philip was prej^aring against England and the Xeth-
erlands, but died soon after at Santander, Sept. 17, 1574.
His letters from Florida to King Philip are extant, and
have been used by modern authors. .See Barcia, Knsnyo
cronolugico para la hixtoria getierdl de la Florida (1723);
Parkman. Pioneers of France in the Sew ll'nrW (1865) ;
Gaffarel, La Floride Franfaise (187.5) ; Shea in yarralive
atid Critical History of America, vol. ii., p. 260, el seq.
Herbert H. Smith.
Men6ndez y Pelayo, ma-nendath-ee-pa-laa'yo, Mar-
CELixo: poet and scholar; b. in Santander, Spain, in 1857.
His literary career began when he was less than twenty,
with some articles in the Pevisia Europea for 1S76. attack-
ing the philosophical tendencies of (Jermany anil the Span-
iards who inclined to adopt them. Just before publisning-
these he had completed his studies in the University of
Madrid, and a little later he went to Barcelona and to Paris
for a considerable period in order to enlarge his scientific
knowleilge of literature. On his return to Spain he was
appointed Professor of Spanish Literature in the University
of .Madrid, a special license from the Government being re-
quired because of his extreme youth. Soon after (IHSl) he
wius elected a member of the Spanish Academy. .Menendez
y Pelayo is one of the most brilliant and most prolific writ-
ers of modem Spain. Though he has ostensibly allied him-
self with the conservative and extreme Catholic party, he
is essentially a writer of humanistic rather than political or
theological interests. A lover of beauty and of style, he
returns lovingly to the perfection of the poets of the classic-
al world, and prides himself on belonging to a Latin rather
than a Germanic race. The work from his iieii that has
aroused the greatest discussion is perhaps the ///.s/orin de las
heleroduj-os espailole.f (3 vols., 1880-82), in which he defends
the IiKiuisition and ranges himself among the antagonists
of modern liberalism and modern science. This, however,
was an immature work in spite of the remarkable erudition
MKNKITAH
MKNXONITES
671
it displays. He is iiiore tiiily on liis own Kroiinii whoii lie
is Ji'iiliii;; with literary iiial1<'rs. htiiI iiarlicularly the his-
tory of Simnisli literature. Here Ijcloii;; Kuliidiiis decr'ilicn
literariii (1HS4); Cahlerbn y sii ti-atro (*i eil. IHS,")); Ilura-
eio en Knparid (2il eil. 2 vols., IHHo); llislnria tic las ideas
ealelicaK en A'.i/>nila (') vols, in i). lH84-iM); La riencia es-
pailola (lid ed. -i vols., 18WT-8!t). In this eonneetion should
Be inontinned also the Anli>/iii/in de pueta.iliricos caMellanos,
with learned introduetions (18!t(J, seq.: 4 vols, to 18'J3): and
the nioniunental edition of the works of Lope de Vepi,
wliich .Mrneiidez y Pelayo is editing for the Spanish Acad-
emy (1H!((), .s7(/.). Besides these eritioal works he has also
tried his hand with euiisideralile .succe.ss at Jioetry. Though
he hardly passes beyond aeadeniic excellence here, no con-
noisseur can fail to be interested by the precision of his
touch and the harmony and grace of his style. The best of
his verse is to be found in the volume (klas. epislnlan y
Iragedias, with an introduction by .Juan V'alera (1888). De-
serving mention is Iloratius: lidux trudiicidax e imitadas
(1882). A. K. Marsh.
Menoptnh [from Egypt. Mer-n-Ptah. beloved of I'tah ;
the Amenrplithrs of .\fricanus, and the Ameiiiip/iis of .lo-
sephus] : the thirteenth son, coregent, and successor of
Kamses II., and third king of the nini'leenth Egyptian ily-
nasty. The length of his reign is uncertain; monumental
evidence does not extend beyond his eighth year. He left
his name on many usurped monuments, but did little Imild-
ing of consequence. His only war was with the Liljyans,
whom he conquered. Hy many he has been identified with
the Pharaoh of the Exodus in spite of chronological ilitU-
culties, on account of the fact that the earliest remains
found at Pithom, one of the "store-cities" built by the Is-
raelites, belonged to his father Kamses II., who is therefore
identified with the Pharaoh of the Oppression. Curiously
enough his mummy was not with the others found at Uer-
el-lialuiri. See I1i;r-JIok. Charlks R. Gillett.
Meiies [from Egypt. Mena, steadfast]: the first recog-
nized human King of Egypt, being mentioned first in all
the monumental lists of kings. Our information concern-
ing him comes for the most jiart from (ireek sources, as no
contemporary monuments have been preserved. His native
place was This, or Tmsis (</. ;■.), the nu'tropolis of the eighth
noraos (district) of Upper Egypt, and he is said to have
founded Memphis (q. v.). Maiietno says that he waged war
with the Libyans, and that he was finally killed by a liip-
opotainiis. Herodotus (ii., 9!)) says that he founded the
'emple of Ptah at Memphis; Diodorus (i., 94), that he ar-
ranged the worship of the gods; ^Eliaii (Ilinl. Anim., xi.,
10), that he introduced the Apis-cult at Memphis; and .Vn-
ticlides (cf. Pliuy, Ilixf. Sal., vii., .56-57, g§192-l!(:i) that he
invented the alohabet. t'l-om native sources it is known
that ho receive<l divine worship throughout almost all pe-
riods of Egyptian history, and the nomenclature of the
kings as " King of U|)per and Lower Egypt " seems to indi-
cate that his special service was in the unification of the
government of the whole land. Cuarles K. (jillett.
MeiiKS, Kai'IIael: painter; b. at Aussig. Hohemia, in
1728. He formed his style by copying Haphael. His ear-
lier works are in Dresden, but he painted chiefly in Home
and in Spain for t'harles III., who appointed him his court
painter. Although a foreigner he was elected ]iresiilent of
the Academy of St. Luke in Koine. The {■eiling cpf the Sala
dei Papiri in the Vatican is one of his most important
works. He painted in oil, in fresco, and also used pastel
and gouache. D. in Home in 1779. He was cxtrenudy in-
dustrious, aii<l left innumerable works, besides many pub-
lished treatises on art. W. J. Stii.lmas.
.Mf'iig-tse, or .Miliig-tso: .See Mf.nchs.
Monliailen, men-lit; ill II, Moss-lMtnkor. or Bony Fish :
a fish of the herring familv, scientifically known' as /?/•*>-
voortia ti/raiinu.t, extensively caught along the Atlantic
coast of the U, S. It is full of small bones, and is almost
uneatalile in the regular way, but for some years it has
been the subje<>t of an extensive and growing industry.
The fish are put up as sardines, the lioncs beini: soflened by
subjc'ction to steam. They have been long caught for their
oil, which is abundant and is used in leather-dressing, rope-
making, and for adulterating higher-priced oils. The ref-
use, called fish-guano, is a valuable fertilizer. The business
of making this oil and guano is exti'iisivi'ly carried on along
the coasts of New England. Long Island, and New Jersey.
See BuoFisn and Fisheries. Revised by F. A. Lucas.'
&'
T
Meiiingi'tis |.Moil. Lai., deriv. of meninr, from Gr.
^^•"yf. "ienibiaiie| : inflammation of the membranes envel-
oping the brain and spinal cord, termed cerebral, sfiinal,
and cerebro-spinal meningitis, according as the inflamma-
tory process is limited to the region of the cerebrum or
brain, the region of the cord, or involves both. Acute cere-
bral meningitis results from injuries of the head, as frac-
tures and diseases of the cranial bones, inflammation and
suppuration of the middle and internal ear, from excessive
mental labor, from perverted states of the blood, as in acute
rheumatism, and from infectious fevers, such as erysipelas,
pneumonia, and typhoid fever. The tubercular meningitis
of children is the result of infection with the tubercle bacil-
lus and the development of tubercles in the meninges. Spi-
nal meningitis most often follows injury or disea.se of the
vertebra', less fre(|uently is excited by rheumatic, gouty, and
tubercular blood states. It may occur, as among soldiers
in the field, from exposure in sleeping on the ground. Cer-
ebro-spinal meningitis is usually epidemic, and is but one
manifestation of a malignant febrile disease, the cerebro-
spinal or s]>otted fever. In cerebral meningitis tliere are
intense headache, active delirium, contracted pujiil. Hushed
face, a slow pulse, sometimes convulsions, coma, paralysis,
and death, due to exudation of inflammatory products upon
the surface or within the ventricles of the brain. Chronic
meningitis may be the cause of chronic headache, of epi-
lepsy, idiocy, and insanity. In tubercular meningitis of
children delirium may be absent, but the pain in the head
is lancinating and intense, causing the utterance of shrill
cries, constant motion of the head, sleejilessness, and |)ee-
vishncss. There are automatic movements of the extremi-
ties, and convulsions. General emaciation coexists, as this
is a disea.se of delicate and bottle-fed infants or of children
tainted with scrofula or actual tuberculosis elsewhere than
in the brain. In spinal meningitis movement of the body
develops intense jiain over the length of the spine and in
the extremities, and an incurvation or rigid arcliing of the
V)ack. Epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis has. in addition
to meningeal symjitoms, febrile disturliance, great debility,
and sometimes a peculiar purple eruption. Acute menin-
gitis is treated locally by cold applications and counter-
irritants, internally by remedies reducing the action of the
heart. In secondary meningitis we treat the primary dis-
ea.se, the exciting cause. Tubercular meningitis requires
inqirovcd hygiene, diet, tonics, and alteratives. Cerebro-
spinal meningitis recjuires nourishing diet, tonics, and stim-
ulants to resist the degenerated blood state, and opium to
control pain. Revised by William Pei'per.
Mc'nippfe, Satire: See Satire Me.vippee.
Menip'pus: Greek philosopher of the Cynic school: a
native of (iadara in Syria; flonri>hed about 2.50 n. c. His
writings — a satirical medley of prose and verse — are lost,
but his name survives as the model of Varro in his Menip-
pean Satires, and as the forerunner of Lucian, in who.se
works he figures, and the title Sal ire Menipph is borne by
a famous French work of the sixteenth century. H. L. G.
Menis'oiis : a concavo-convex lens. It may be either a
converging lens (thicker at the center) or a diverging lens
(thicker at the eilge). In other words, a meniscus is any
lens the centers of curvature of whose faces are both on the
same side, and whose two radii of curvature differ in length.
.See Lens. E. L. N.
Menkara: See Mvcerinos.
Menno. or Menno Simons: See Anabaptists.
Moiinoiiites: a body of evangelical Christians who, in
relation to the constitution of the Church, to baptism, the
taking of oaths, church discipline, accepting of civil oflices,
and the bearingof arms, are either entirely or almost in har-
mony with Menno Simons, after whom they are named.
They are found in Switzerland, (iermany. France, Russia,
and North America. Originally, the followers of Menno in
Holland were called by that name, but they have departed
so far from his principles and practices that for more than
a century they have preferred to style themselves Doopsge-
zindi'n. or persons who lay emphasis upon baptism. The
Meiinonites arose in Switzerland in 152.5. under the leader-
ship of Conrad Grebcl at Zurich. Possibly the principles and
[iractices of Grebel may have been in some wav connected
with those of sects of the Midille Ages, but Iiitherto no
proof of this has been found. Tlie immediate followers of
Ureln'l were aware of no such connection, but a.sserted that
since the days of the apostles true Christianity had not ex-
072
MEKXOXITES
MENSrUATloN
istctl in the world. In tlio year 1647, more tlinn a centurv
after the ileath of GreU-1, tli'e notion wiu< advanced tlmt the
Waldensians were the spiritual projrenitors of the Meiinon-
iles, but it has mow been surremlered liy the most eonipe-
teut scholarship of the l)oopsgezinden\iu Ilollauil. Adher-
ents of ti rebel shortly appeared in the Netherlands, where
they l>ecanie very numerous. After the catastro|)he at
Mii'nster in Westphalia, Menno Simons became their chief
siKikesuian, and owing to his wisdom, industry, and promi-
nence the entire party adopted his name, lie was not their
founder, however; lie accepted the j)rinciples which the
better portion of the brethren had previously defended, and
a<-quired distinction merely by his ability and activity in
promoting them.
The persecution that befell the Mennnnites in Switzer-
land was more severe, perhaps, than any they were called to
experience elsewhere. It continued through the whole of
the sixteentli century. Toward the middle of the seven-
teenth century it was"again renewed and liisted for a period
of seventy years. Nearly all the churches were destroyed,
and the unhappy Swiss bclievei-s were scattered in many
lands. In 1(>S2. when William Penn made an offer of reli-
gious liberty it was gladly accepted by them. The lirst so-
ciety in North America was organized at Germnntown, Pa.,
in iOSS, and these were followeil by many others from va-
rious portions of Germany. Divisions that originated in
Switzerland about the year 1620 may be observed in Penn-
svlvania and other portions of the I'. S. The foUowei's of
Jacob Amman of the Bernese Alps, who proscribed the use
of buttons on clothing and the trimming of the beard and
the like, were among the first to seek refuge in the U. S.,
and they are still a numerous body.
Mennonites exist at Nancy and Toul, in France, and in
various towns in the Franche-Comte. In 178:5 Mennonites
of the German Baltic jirovinees emigrated in large numbers
to Russia upon the promise of the Government that their
scruples agauist bearing arms should be respected. In 1871
that promise wius revoked and many of them ([uitted Russia
for the L'. S. Some of these are said to practice immersion
in baptism, a practice probably due to their lengthy con-
tact with the Greek Church, which still retains this mode.
Among all other Mennonite sects the usual mode of bap-
tism is said to be by pouring: the candidate kneels down
and the bishop or minister takes water with both hands and
pours it upon his head. This seems to have been the mode
adopted at the outset.
The census of 1890 occasioned much surprise as to the
number of Mennonites in the U. S. Prior to its appearance
almost all authorities reported that there were 200,000 in
America, of whom 175,000 were found in the l^ S. and
25,000 in Canada. The census gives account of only 41.541
all told. It is possible that not more than tlie half of 25,000
could bo counted in Canada. They are divided into twelve
sects, as follows: Regular Mennonites, 17,078: Amish, 10,-
101; Old Amish, 2,0:i8; Apostolic (Amish), 209; Bruedcr-
hoef, a52 ; Reformed. 1,655; General Conference, 5,670;
Church of God in Christ, 471 ; Old Meinionites, 610 ; Bundes
Conference der Brueder-Gemeinde, 1,388 ; Defenseless
(Amish), 856; Meiuionite Brethren in Christ, 1.113.
The history of these people in Holland, as elsewhere, has
been marked bv a variety of sects. The lirst division oc-
curred during the life of Menno, when in 1554 the Water-
landers were ex(!ommunieated. The party that drove them
out were themselves in 1.566 divided into Flemish and the
Frisian Mennonites. There were various other schisms un-
til 1632, when Flemish and Frisians were again united. The
Waterlaiiders were not troubled by divisions of this kind.
They were the first to disclaim the name of Menno. After
the opening of the eighteenth century the di (Terences that
had so long existed between the Flemish Mennonites and
the Waterlandei-s began to fade away, and by the year 1800
all parties were again practically united under the designa-
tion of Doopsgezinden. In the year 1700 there were 160.000
of these people in Holland ; in the vear IHOO Ihev had sunk
to30,0(K); in IHHl there were said to be 47.000. 'They have
been greatly inllui'nced by the ])rogress of modern events.
Having entered the current of modern life they retain but
few of the jwcidiarities that distinguished Menno and the
early A.nabaitists (q. v.). Among thc^se may be mentioned
opposition to infant liaptism; but it is said that the age of
eight years has been fixed as the period of adult baptism.
Most of their young pi.'ople are received into the Church at
that age. Tliey .still decline to make oath in courts of jus-
tice, and likewise nniintain the congregational method of
church government. There are few signs of the former
setiaration from the world. Though the Doopsgezinden con-
stitute only 1 i>er cent, of the |)opulation, they own at least
10 per cent, of the property and contrive to obtain more
than 10 per cent, of the offices. Opposition to the bearing
of arms was surrendered in the wars against Napoleon I.
There has been a marked revival of religious life among
them, as among many other churches of the Continent, since
1817. Most of the tendencies of modern theology are rep-
resented in their fold.
LiTEKATfRE. — Xo Satisfactory liistory of the Mennonites
has yet been produced. The Hifitorin Jfeititonilarum, by
11. Schyn, 1723 and 172'.l. is nothing but an attempt to prove
that the Mennonites were derived from the Waldensians
and not from the Anabaptists. Good materials for a history
were Ijrought together by Bloupet ten (.'ate, Geschiedenis
der DoopKgezindfn (1839-47, 5 parts). A useful work is
Starck, Geschichie der Taufe und Tnufgeninnten (1789);
Jehiing, Ilislorie von den Beqehenheilen tinter den Menno-
niten (1720); S. F. Rues, Narliriclit von den yegenirartigvn
Zuslande der Mennoniten (Mid). The best authority is de
Hoop Schetler's article Mennoniten. in the second edition of
Herzog's lieal-Encydopaedie, vol. ix., pp. 566-577.
William H. Whitsitt.
Mpnomince : city ; capital of ]\Ienominee co., Mich, (for
location of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 3-F) : on Green
Bay, at the mouth of the Jlenominee river, and on the Chi.,
Mil. and St. P. and the Chi. and N. W. railways: 53 miles
N. N. E. of Green Bay. It has numerous saw-mills, and is
an important lumber shipping-point. There are 2 national
banks with combined capital of $200.0(10, and a monthlv
and 4 weeklv newspapers. Pop. (1880) 3,288 ; (1890) 10,630 ;
(1894) 12,532. Editor of ■' Heeald."
Mciionioiii : See ALGOxyriAX Indians.
Menoinonie: city; capital of Dunn co.. Wis. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 4-B); on Red
Cedar river, and the Chi.. Mil. and St. P. and the Chi., St. P.,
Minn, and Omaha railways; 23 miles N. W. of Eau Claire,
GO miles E. of St. Paul, Minn. It contains 7 brick-yards, 3
sawmills, foundry, niachine-shop, sash and carriage facto-
ries, a national bank with capital of $50,000, 2 private banks,
a bi-weekly and 4 weekly newspajiers, and is an inijiortant
shipping-point for lumber. Hour, wheat, brick.s and other
articles. Pop. (1880) 2,589 ; (1890) 5,491 ; (1895) 6,198.
Editor of " Dunn (,'ounty News."
5Ieii'on (in Gr. Vlii/av): (1) a King of Pharsalus, who was
friendly to the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war.
(2) A Thessalian, who was a leader of Greek mercenary
trooris on the expedition of Cyrus against the King of Per-
sia, his brother. After the battle of Cunaxa Tissaphernes
treacherously entrapped the Greek generals, and put them
to death. Mcnon was among those who sullered. though he
had planneil to betray the Greeks. J. R. -S. S.
Mciiopo'llin [Mod. Lat.; Gr. iifvctv, remain + inl/ia. lid,
in reference to the permanent gill dells] : a tailed batrachi-
an peculiar to the fresh waters of North America (Cri/plu-
branchus alli'ghanieitsis), and coniinonly known as mud-
puppy or heliljender. It has a large and flat head ; two
concentric scries of minute teeth in the ujiper jaw, and one
series in the under jaw ; a branchial orifice on each side ;
rudimentary branchia': four limbs, the imterior having four
and the jiostcrior five short |)alniatiMl toes ; and a loose skin
folded on the sides of the body. It attains a length of 18
inches, is dirty yellowish brown with dark mottlings, feeds
chielly on fish, worms, and mollusks. is fierce and voracious,
and erroneously regarded as poisonous. It is common in
the Ohio and tributaries. The species C.fiiscus (llolbrook),
found in Western North Carolina, is brownish white above
and yellowish white below. Revised by F. A. Lucas.
Meiistriialioii : See Catasienia and Uterine Diseases.
.Mensuration |from Lat. metixurn re. measine, deriv. of
meiifiu ni, a measuring, deriv. of nn'ti ri. men .sh><, measure] :
that branch of geometry which tea<'hes how to find, liy cal-
culation, the lengths i>f lines, the areas of surfaces, and the
volumes of solids. As the first of these ca.-ies comes under
the head of Trioono.metrv (</. i:), the word mensuration has
come to be applied to the measuring of areas and volumes
solely. It shows how. by means of certain boundary-lines
or dimensions of the figure, we can obtain the iv(juiivd area
or volume. Thus if we are given the lengths of the sides of
a rectangle expresseiLin terms of a unit of length, an inch
or a foot, etc., t he area is equal to the product of these num-
I
MKNTAI. ASSOCIATIOX
MENZEL
673
i«rs cxpri's-si'il in tf-rins of a s<|uan' incli or smiaro foot, etc.
\;;aiii, the area of a triaiiftlc is iMpial tcj half tlii- proiluct of
iliu tiase into the hc'if;ht. From this we can derive the aref
..f anv |>laue fij;uiv ImiiuiiUmI by li^ht lines, as such a Cj^ure
. nil always be broken up into Irianfjles, the areas of wliieli
an be separately caleulaleil. Anionu' lurveil lines the area
.,f a circle is eijiial to half the raJius nniltiplieil by the
perimeter. Cerliiin machines, called planimeters. have been
invented for iiieiisuriiifr arenas I'n a plane. The liest known
is that of I'lof. Amsler-Latron. It consists of two rods
hinjfcd together. The extremity of one rod is fixed, while
the free extremity of the <ither traces out the boundary of
any curve that is limileil in size only liy the dimensions of
the machine. A giadual('d roller attached to the latter rod
gives, bv the difference of its readinjjs before ami after the
tracing; has been accomplished, a number proportional to
the area that has been gone round. For areas measured on
the sphere, see Sl'HEHE and IjI'SE.
The volume of a reclanfrnlar parallelopiped is e(|ual to
the pr(Mluct of the leiislh. the breadth, and the depth ex-
pressed in terms of the cul>es whose sides are the units of
length: and the volume of a pyramid is equal to one-third
(if the product of its height and the area of its base, from
which we can find the volume of any solid boumled by
planes, as such a figure can be decomposed into pyramids.
Ill general, the determination of the length of curved lines,
the area of plane surfaces bounded by curved lines, of the
area (jf curved surfaces, and of the volume of solids bound-
ed by curved surfaces riMpiires the aid of the integral cal-
culus. For the measurement of lengths and areas ou the
surface of the earth, see Geouesy and Slrvevino.
K. A. UoBEBTS.
Mental Association: See Association- ok Ideas.
Mental I'liilosophy: See PsYcnoLOOY.
.Mental Suggestion: See Hvp.votism.
Mentana, meii-taa n.'ui : a small place with an old ca.stlc,
18 miles to the X. E. of Koine, notc<l on account of the bat-
tle which took place here Nov. '.i. 1H67 (see map of Italy, ref.
<>-!)). The small army of volunteers under (iaribaldi, num-
bering about 3, 5(X) men, after defeating the papal troops at
Monterotondo, was about to attack Koine, when on I let. 28
and 2y the French lleet landed the detachment of Failly at
Civita Vccchia. Garibaldi, who was before the Komaii gate
of St. Jean on Oct. 30. retreated to Monterotondo and Men-
tana, and began to intrench the latter position. On Xov. 2
he pushed one detachment toward Correse and another
toward Tivoli. This latter fflj in with 8.000 papal troojis,
followed by 2.000 French tr(Hips. The volunteers retreated
to Mentana. and here began a fight which lasted four hours,
in which t hey were completely defeated by the papal troops,
aided by the French. On the retreat the volunteers n:ct
with the Italian army, whieh hail entered the Papal States;
they weri! disarmeil, and (iarilialdi himself was taken pris-
oner and carried to the fortress of V'arignano, near Spezzia.
In honor of this victory the pope instituted the Mentana
medal, a silver cross with the inscriptions Fidii cf Virliiti
and Ilinc VictDiin, which was given to all who had jiartici-
pated ill the battle. A monuinent was erected at Jientana
in 1877 in honor of the Garibaldians who fell in the battle.
Men'tehikof, Alexaxder Daniklovitch, Prince: soldier
and statesman ; b. in Moscow, Kussia, Xov. 6. 1672, in humble
. circumstances, and apprenticed to a pie-baker; attracted the
attention of Lefort bv his spirited face ; enlisted- in the regi-
ment of Preobaslien.sT<i ; discovered a conspiracy among the
Strelitzes; distinguished himself at the oapturc of Azov;
accompanied the czar on his journey to Holland and Eng-
land; gained by degrees his confidence: became after tlic
death of I.efort his most intimate friend and advi.ser, and
was made a prince in 1707 and field-marshal in 170!); lie
was a man of superior talent, both as a statesman and as a
military commander. He won the decisive battle of Kalisz
1706, cimtributed nuicli to the victory of Poltava 170!), con-
quered Poiiierania in 1712, took Stettin in*1718. and his in-
fluence was felt in all branches of the civil government of
Ifiissia. Ills rapacity was amazing: and when in 1713 he
abandoned .Stettin to Prussia without the consent of the
czar, he was tried by a court martial; his general conduct
underwent investigation, and he was sentenced to death.
The czar changed this verdict to a heavy tine, and even ap-
I'ointed him governor of .'■^t. Petersburg, but he had lost his
influence. ()nce more, howevi-r, he came into power on the
accession of Catharine I. in 172.'5, and when in 1727 she was
269
succeeded by the young Peter 11.. he obtained absolute con-
tod of the government of Kussia. He was just ab<jul to
marry his daughter to the czar when lie was overtaken by a
conspiriuy headed by the family of Itolgoruki, .Sept.. 17"J7;
his property was confiscated, and he and his family were
banished to Herezov, in .Siberia, where he died Jan. 30, 1730.
— Hisgreat-grand.son. .Vlexa.miek .Skkoeiviti ii .Me.nk iiikok,
naval ollicer, b. in 1787, was aide-de-camp to the Emperor
Alexander in 1813-14, governor of Finland in 1831, Minister
of Marine in 18;J6. and commander-in-chief during the
Crimean war. He lo.sl the Vmttles of Alma and Inkermaii,
but defended SebiLstopol with success for several nionllis.
He retired on account of ill-heallli, and was succeeded by
Gortcliakof. In politics he behmged to the Olil Kussiau
party, and was averse to all reforms. D. May 3, 180il.
Menton : town in the department of Alpes-Maritimcs,
France : beautifully situated on a bay of the Gulf of Genoa,
and celebrated for its equable climate, being surroumled on
the three sides by the Alpes-Maritimes, here between 3,000
and 4,000 feet high (see map of France, ref. 8-.1). .Mthough
it has no regular harbor, it carries on a brisk trade in fruits,
fish, and ] perfumeries. Pop. in 181)1, S.:!l!). Clo-;e by are some
famous bone-caves, 88 feet above the Mediterranean, which
are rich in prehistoric remains.
Mentz (Germ. Mainz, Fr. Jfnt/enre. Cf. anc. name J/o-
guiilift'cum) : city of Germany and an iiiqierial fortress of
the first rank; in the grand duchy of Hesse: on the left
bank of the Khine, nearly oppo.site the influx of the Main
(see map of German Empire, ref. 5-1)). It is surrounded on
all sides by a system of strong fortifications consisting of
fourteen immense bastions and four detached forts, which
command bc'th sides of the Khine. Its streets are generally
crooked and narrow, though since the conflagration in 1857
a large portion of the city has been rebuilt in a thoroughly
modern fashion. It contains many interesting buildings —
among which is the cathedral, a Komanesqiie structure with
many Gothic details, of the fourteenth century — and many
beautiful promenades ar.J public places, such as the Guten-
berg Place, with the magnificent bronze monument, by
Thorwaldsen. of Juhann Gutenberg, who was born and died
here, and whose hou.se is still preserved. Among its manu-
factures, those of carriages, furniture, and musical instru-
ments have great repute, and its trade is very considerable.
Mentz was founded in the second century by the Konians
and destroyed in the fifth by Attila. but was restored by
Charlemagne. Shortly after it became the see of an arch-
bishop, and in course of time the archbishoji became one of
the three ecclesiastical electors of the empire. During the
Thirty Years" war it was taken by the Swedes in 1031, was
again captured bv the Imperialists in 11)35, and by the
French in 1644. Pop. 71,395.
Menu : See Masi'.
Menii'ridsB: See Lyre-bird.
Menzaleh : the name of a shallow, brackish lake in the
northeast of the Egyptian Delta, which covers about 1,000
sq. miles, and abounds in fish. It is bounded on the E. by
a part of the Suez Canal. The region was once fruit fill, and
was intersected by three (the Pelusiac. Tanitic, ami Mendc-
sian) branches of the Xile, and containeil populous cities
like Tanis. Avaris (Pelusiiim), Daphnrc (Tahpanhes), and
Tennis. The obvious sinking of the surface of the ground,
as evidenced by these changes, is intimately connected with
a corresponding rise at the .S. of the isthmus, and this in
turn has an important bearing upon the earlier northern
extent of the Ked Sea and the jirobable place of crossing
by the Israelites under Moses. See MiormL.
Chari.es K. Gillett.
Menzol, mentsel, Adoi.k FRiEnERirii Erdmanx : historical
and genri' painter; b. at Breslaii, Prussia. Dec. 8, 1815; is
self-taught; is best known liy his illustrations, which arc
principally pen-and-ink drawings or lithographs, and are of
great excellence. His works in oil ami in water-color are
n<italile for admirable teehnical qualities. He is a member
of Berlin. Vienna, and Munich .Vcademies; was awarded a
grand gold medal at the Berlin Exposition 18.56; second-
cliuss medal. Paris Exposition. 18(57 ; decoration of the l^cgion
of Honor 1867. Several important works liy him are in the
Xational (iallerv. Berlin. He is almost unknown in the
C.S. ."Studio in Berlin. William A. CoFi-i.\.
.Mrnzel, WoLPtiAXc : author: b. at Waldenburp. Silesia.
June 21, 17!)8; served as a volunteer in the campaign of
1815; studied philosophy and history at Jena and Bonn;
♦574
MEPIlISTOPIIKr,ES
MERCANTir.E LAW
was an onlhusiastio ilisi-ipic of .Tahn, the founder of the
German Turners; lived frum 1820 to WiA as u teacher at
Aan»u, Switzerhuiil, but s.'tlled in 182") at Stultf?art, where
ho lievoted himself exclusivoly to literature, and dieil Apr.
33, 187a. His [)n«luotioiis are very varied, coui|irisiii),' tales
and romances— y^'(/'f.'<lA/ (182!t), IWirriwiHs (18;{()), Furore
(18.")1); historical and mylholojiical works and traveling
sketches, sonielimes consislins of several volumes, of which
Gencliiehte lier Ihutxrhen tllistorv of the (iernians, :i vols.,
18''4-25) was translatctl into Enjrlish by G. Horroeks (Lon-
don. 18.|!t): and. tinally, criticisms in the form of essays in
the Literalurbhilt. which he editetl for many years, and' also
in the form of books, such as Slnrkrerxe (182:5). Die
Deutsche Litenitiir (1828), translated by C. C. Felton in
Kipley's Speeiiiieii.i of Foreign Lileratitre (Boston, 1840).
Menzel was neither a great historian nor a great critic.
While his historical writings retain a certain value as docu-
ments for the development of German natriotism in the
nineteenth centurv, his critical works dealing with German
literature are entirely anti(|Uated. He gained for a while
great notoriety by his attacks on Goethe and by the denun-
ciation of the members of Young Germany, the sale ol whose
writings he caused to be prohibited. The religious an<l pa-
triotic fanaticism of his critical writings prevented Menzel,
however, from gaining permanent influence on German lit-
erature. Revised by JfLifS Goehel.
Mephistoplieles: the name of a personification of the
principle of evil, first occm-ring in the popular books and
puppet-plays of the Middle Ages. Its etymology is uncer-
tain, but most probably it is derived from a Hebrew root
which signifies " one who loves lies."'
Meroadaii'te. Saverio: composer; b. at Altamura, Italy,
ITttT : was eihuated at the musical college of San Sebastio
in Naples; first attracted attention in 1818 by a cantata
performed at Naples; was appointed director of the Italian
opera in Madrid in 1827; chapel-master at the Cathedral of
>ovara in 1833; director of the Conservatory of Naples in
1840; became entirely blind in 1862, and died at Naples,
Dee. 18, 1870. He was a jirolific composer, vivacious and
graceful ; none, however, of his fifty operas is now per-
formed; and very few of his saered compositions are in ex-
istence.
Mercantile (or Commercial) Agrencies: institutions
established for the pur|jose of obtaining information as to
the character, personal responsibility, and financial standing
of individuals, firms, or corporations.
The va-st and rapid increase of population and the ex-
tension of railway, postal, and telegraphic communications
brought new conditions and created the necessity for an or-
ganization to do i)romptlv and systematically for the many
what had formerly been done imperfectly by the individual
merchant or banker receiving or extending credit. Among
the earliest organizations to perform the functions of the
modern mercantile agency were the Scottish trade protec-
tion societies, which began to spring up about the middle of
the eighteenth century. These did not, however, aim to give
the relative financial standing of merchants, but, like the
lii.ACK List (q. v.), supplied such infornuition with regard to
liankruptcies, insolvencies, etc., as was needed for the pro-
tection of th(-ir niemljers. The range of information sup-
plied by tliese and similar organizations in Great Hritain
IBS been greatly extended, and includes statistics taken
from the public records relating to assignments, trust
deeds, bills of sale, judges' orders, protested bills, an<l other
matters of interest to the mercantile community. In addi-
tion to this they have undertaken to collect bills and divi-
dends for niemljers, to investigate measures affecting trade,
and to promote legislation favorable to commercial interests.
These functions, however, are not a.ssumed by mercantile
apcncies, as the term is understood in the U. !>., where the
aim is merely to afford means for ascerlaining the credit of
people engaged in busines.s. The foundation of the system
prevalent in the U. S. was laid in New York in 1840. 'In its
assigned place the agency acts as a clearing-house for infor-
niatiim alfecling mercantile alTairs anil mercantile credit.
The information is obtained from the business community
through the same channels, and following, pratrtically, the
.same system as was pivviuusly and still is employed bv in-
diviilual granters of r^redit, the agency being merely an en-
largement of the individual system, but va.stly slreii'gtliened
by the (!X|)erience of those who devote themselves to the ad-
ininistrutKin of the details. It is essential that I hi' mercan-
tile world should investigate the moral and financial lespon-
hi
sibility of those who assume business relations. Credit does
not establish itself per se ; it is determined by human action
and personal judgment, but it should be decided by those
competent to ascertain and analyze the facts and qualified
to express properly the results of their investigations. The
information obtained by the agency estimates the character
and ability of persons engaged in business, the apparent suc-
cess with which the undertaking is conducted, the cajiital
invested, and such other conditions as may have a direct
bearing or influence on credit. It is not ex parte, for oppor-
tunity is afforded all persons, firms, and corporations to .state
their own financial condition. The methods whiidi a|iply
to the olitaining of information in a single instance are
practically the same in all. while the recordecl information
IS subject to constant revision in a similar way. From the
reports of investigators is deduced what is known and recog-
nized as the '■ commercial rating." The names of the various
merchants, with their business and rating, are issued quar-
terly in l)0ok-forni, and are classified fii-st by States and
provinces, then by cities and towns, all arranged in aljiha-
betical order.
The .service of the agency is principally in the direct in-
terest of itj subscribers, who for a moderate consideration
receive, upon application, the information desired, and also
the use, for a limited time, of the current printed volume
containing the names and ratings of those reported. The
great agencies of the U. S. comprehend in their work the
entire list of names of persons and business organizations
known and recognized in the mercantile community, and to
the accomplishment of this have established their offices in
all commercial centers throughout the country, attaching
to each a certain district — first, for the purjjose of gather-
ing, formulating, and distributing the necessary informa-
tion through their own employees and correspondents, and,
second, to give merchants in each .section of the country
ccpial ojjportunity to obtain the immediate lienefits of the
system. Thus a manufacturer in a small city or town in
the interior has every facility for learning of the standing of
dealers in his particular product in other places as readily as
the merchant or banker of the larger city. The entire .\nier-
ican continent is covered by these investigations, and through
the extension of the .system similar information is supplied
with regard to the financial standing of those engaged in
business in Europe and Australia. C. F. Clark.
Mercantile Law [mercantile is from Lat. mercdri, to
trafiic, trade] : is the body of special rules which govern
merchants as distinguished from persons not engaged in
trade, and mercantile as distinguished from ordinary trans-
actions. Mercantile law constitutes a )>art of the national
or municipal law of each state, and its rules are subject to
change by local legislation ; but historically it is a product
of international usage. Its development has been singular-
ly continuous, and its rules, as recognized and I'lit'orced by
tno nrineipal modern states, are strikingly uniform. Many
of tne rules which govern international trade are regarded
and treated as rules of international law (public or private),
particularly in the case of maritime law.
The Ancient World. — The commercial customs of the
ancient world, as worked out by Egyptians, Pluvnicians,
Greeks, etc., were incorporated by the lioumn pnclors into
their provincial and city edicts, and were reduced to clear
and sini|)lc form by the Homan jurists in their "law of
nui'mns (ju.t (jentiitm. see Roman Law). When the Roman
law reached its highest development, in the .second and third
centuries of the Christian eva.the jus yenliiim and the older
national law of Rome (Jiik cirilr) were fused into a single
system. In this fusion the broailer and more flexible rules
of the JUS gentium substantially replaced the strict and
formal rules of i\\<i jus civile: and the Roman empire
ceased to have or to require a sejiarate body of commeiiial
law because the whole law of property and of contracts had
been commercialized — a fact which explains the dominant
influence exercised by the Roman law in the development
of mercantile law in the Middle Ages.
The Middle Ages. — Commerce, which had sensibly de-
clined in the fourth and fifth centuries, shrank to very nar-
row proportions after the overthrow of the West Ronwiii
emjiire. During the early Middle Ages Ryzantium was its
chief commercial center; the "besant"was the European
standard of exchange; and in the Ryzanline trade between
Europe and the East the rules of the luiman law continued
to be observed. Toward the close of the ninth century some
of the Italian cities began to assume cominercial imiiortance;
MERCANTILE LAW
MERCATOR
675
in the thirtoentli century Itiilian coinage set the standnnl of
value for Kiirope: Venice bccuine tlie chief center of com-
merce wit li the kiL-it.anil the Iraile between theMeiliterranenn
|)(jrtsanil Nnrthirn Kurope washirffely controlleil liy the mer-
chants anil l)Hiikcis of Ijombardy. The mercantile customs
of niedia'val Italy — fcpriruilaled by tlie statutes of the mer-
chant Kuilds and incor|iniatiMl in the statutes of the leading
Italian cities; a(ic|il<d liy other citii'S, not only in Ilaly.but
in Siiain, Portugal, Krance, the Netherlands, Germany, and
England; recognized and sanctioned in many cases by
formal treaties, not only between the Christian .states but
also with Islatn — became the law-merchant (lex mereatoria.
Jus mercitloriim) of the niedia-val world. From this source
IS derived the moilern law uf trade-marks; of partnership,
open and sili'iil, an<l of slock conipanies; of agency (see
Manoatk) ami brokerage; of Iranking, of negotiable' papers
(bills of lailing and bills of exchange), and of bankruptcy;
of shipping (maritime law), and especially of nuirilinie loans
(Imttomry tionds, etc.), and of marine insurance. The insti-
tutions and rules of the law-merchant were drawn, in most
eases, from the Roman law; but some Teutonic princijiles
found their way (at first through the Lombard law, later
through that of Germany and of England) into the general
law of Kuropi-: and the l^oman rules themselves received
important modifieations. The most important and per-
manent changes were due to the fact that Koraan commerce
was carried on by slave labor, while modern commerce oper-
ates with voluntary service and free association. Certain
variations from the Roman law, however, were due to the
fait that medianal trade was conducted on a smaller scale
and in crudiT forms tlian the commerce of imperial Rome,
and in these cases the development of a more extensive com-
merce with more refined machinery has frequently resulted
in a subse(|uent reception of Roman rules.
Two of the oldest statements of the mediaeval law-mer-
chant are (1) the Charte d'OUruun or Jiif/i:me>is d'O/eroii (an
island near La Rochelle), parts of which date back to the
twelfth century, and which was not only rweived as author-
ity in Flanders, Holland, and England, Init was also incor-
porated in the North German Wiitcrn-r/il (known later as
the law of W'isby) ; and the (2) ('o.ituini'^ de la mar, known
later as the Lihro drl Consolat del Mar, a com[iilalion made
at Barcelona, which was extensively circulated throughout
Europe in the fourteenth century (especially in the Italian
version, II Consulalu del Jlare), and enjoyed the highest
credit.
Modern Law. — The development of ocean commerce at
the close of the Middle Ages relegated the Italian cities to a
secondary position, but the law of commerce continued to
develop essentially upon the lines of Mediterranean mercan-
tile usage. The modern states of continental Europe have
continued to treat commercial \a.vi {droit de commerce, Ilan-
del.treclil)as a distinct branch of the law, and they have gen-
erally ado[)ted commercial codes. Such codes usually in-
clude maritime law and the law of negotiable oaiicrs and of
bankruptcy, but in some cases these matters have received
separate regulation. The first mixlern commercial codes
were those of Louis XIV. (Ordonnance de Commerce, 1673:
Ordonnance mtr la Marine, 1681), which served as a basis for
Naitoleon's Code de Commerce (1808). The present French
cotle has served as a model for the commercial codes rif ]M-
gium, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Roumania,
Servia, ami Turki-y, and of many of tlic Central and .South
American republics. Germany, before 1861, had many .sep-
arate commercial codes; these were superseded in that year
by a federal code, which was introduced into Austria also.
The present Russian code is largely based upon older Prus-
sian legislation.
Great liritain and the U. S. — In the Englisli common
law, and in the statutes pius.sed by the British Parliament,
by British colonial legislatures, "and by U. .S. legislatures,
there exist special rules for special forms of mercantile lus-
soeiation (e.g. corporations, stock companies) and for special
mercantile transactions; but neither in the British empire
nor in the U. .S. is there a .separate and distinct body of
commercial law. No such separate law has been developed,
because, as was the case at Rome, the general law has been
grailually commercialized. The recognition of mercantile
custom in English judicial decisions dales back to a very
early period; and the incorporation of the law-merchant
into the English common law, although peculiarly associ-
ated with the names of Lord Chief .lustiee Holt and Lord
Mansrield, has in fact kept pace with the development of
European commerce.
Sources and Literature. — Pardessus, Collection des Lois
maritimes anieririires ait XVIII' iiiecle (Paris. 1828-4.1);
Sir Travers Twi.ss, The Black liixik of the Admiralty (Lon-
don, 1H71-76); Lyon-Caen, Tableau des Loin Commerciales
en V7(/«cMr ({'".ngiish trans. 1st ed. [iondon, 1876; 2d French
ed. Paris, 1^81); Heyd, frencliic/ile de.t J.evanleliandels
(Stuttgart, 1H7!I; French trans, by Uaynaud, Leipzig. 1886);
Lattes, 7/ Dirillo Commerciale (Milan, 1884) ; Goldschmidt,
Vnirersali/exchiclile des JIandehrechts (Stuttgart, 18'J1).
England and U. S. : Levi, International Commercial Later
(2d ed. London, 1863): Slater, Mercantile Law (London,
1884) : J. VV. Smith, Compendium of Mercantile Law(Ameri-
ean eds. New Vork, 1871 ; San Francisco, 1887).
Mu.NROE S.MITH.
Mcreap'tan and Meroiipfans [from Mod. Lat. mercu-
riuK, mercury -l- Lat. cap'tans, pres. partic. of cnpta re. seize,
intens. of ca pere, take] : one of a class of compounds first
made by Zeise in 1833. On account of its power of forming
a well-characterized compound with mercury mercaptan re-
ceived its name. It contains sulphur, carbon, and liydrogen,
and is analogous to ordinary alcohol. If all the oxygen is
removed from the latter and sulphur introduced in place of
it, the product is mercaptan. The formulas of the two sub-
stances show this relation :
Cjn.O. CjII.S.
Alcohol. Mercaptan.
Just as alcohol is a hydrate or a hydroxide, so mercaptan
has a similar structure, being derived from the hydrocarbon
ethane, CjlL, by the substitution of the group .SH for one
atom of hydrogen, as shown by the formulaCjIIsSH. alcohol
being CalUDlI. Mercaptan is made by distilling a mixture
of potassium ethylsulphate and potassium sulphydrate. It is
a volatile liquid of extremely disagreeable odor. It has been
shown that a quantity as small as TFTroJornriT milligramme
of mercaptan can be detected by the olfactory nerves. This
substance is now maiiufaclured on a large scale, as it is re-
quired in the preparation of sulphonal. Ira Remsex.
Meroali, mar-kaa tee, Michele: physician and author;
1). at .San .Miiiiato. in Tuscany, Apr. 8, 1.541, belonging to a
family which through several generations had distinguished
itself by learning and literary accomplishments. He studied
philosophy and medicine at Pisa, and after taking his de-
gree, in l.iGl, ho obtained employment from Pope Pius V.
He founded the museum of natural history in the Vatican
and laid out the botanical garden in Rome. When Cardinal
.\ldobrandini, whom he once accompanied on a mission, as-
cended the papal throne, under the name of Clement VIII.
(1.')!I2), he was made his first physician, but died not long
after, in Rome, June 2.5, 1.5!)3. He wrote Instruzzioni sopra
la Pe/ste, Podagra, e Parali.ii (Rome, 1576); Metallo Tlieca,
a description of the mineralogical department of the mu-
seum (published after his death); an essay on the obelisks
found in Rome, and other works.
Merca'tor, Gerard (real name Kramer): geographer;
b. at Rupelmonde, Flanders, Mar. .5. 1512 ; studied philoso-
phy, mathematics, and the art of engraving at Louvain ;
first attracted attention by two superb globes he made in
1541 for Charles V.; moved in 15.5!) to bnisburg, where he
was appointed cosmographer to the Duke of Cleve ; pub-
lished several valuable geographical works giving maps and
descriptions of the world — Europe. France, (iermany, and
the British isles. D. Dec. 2, 1594. His principal works are
Tabuhv Geographicie ad mentem Ptolemcei liegtitutie (1578)
and Atlas, xire Geographico' Meditationes (1505). By those
works he exercised a decisive influence, and contributed
much to free the student of geography from the yoke which
Ptolemy had laid. upon him. When he became older, he be-
came theological, and wrote Ilarmonia Eiangelistarum ad-
verKus Molinaum, and other works which were put on the
Index Expurgaloriux, though thev are really insignificant.
Revised W M. W. Harrixuton.
Morentor, Marius: an ecclesiastical writer who flour-
ished in the first half of the fifth century, and played a con-
spicuous part in the Pelagian and Nestorian controversies.
Of his personal life very lillle is known. He is mentioned
only by Augustine (Ep. 1!I3; IJuast. ad Dulcil.. 3) and Po-
sidius (Indie. Lehr. August.. 4). and it is doubtful whether he
was a priest, a monk, or a layman. He was l>om in Africa.
In 418, during the pontificate of Zosimus, he lived in Home,
and, having there become aciinainted with the chief repre-
sentatives of Pelagianism. he wrote two books against them,
one immediately after the other. He sent them both to
676
MKRCATOR
51ERCEK.SBL'RG THEOLOGY
Augustine, and rccpivcil praise and encouragement from
him ; but they seem hotli to have been lost, unless the AU-
versux ruwos fiare/icos lie iilentieal with tlie IIi//iiriiien/itoii,
peiiemlly printed anunii? the works of August iiie and gener-
ally ascribed to him. Ten years later on, in 428, he went to
Constantinople — probiiblv on some official mission, perhaps
as the agent of t'llestinel. — and there he spent a large iR>r-
tion of his life lighting the Pelagians. He wrote in Greek a
memoir, Commonitoriiim, which he presented to the Emperor
Theoilosius II., the result of which was the luinishnient from
Constantinople of Julian of Kclanum, (.'elcstius. and other
Pelagian leaders, lie continued, liowevi-r, to write against
them, and in 4:!1 they were formally condemned by the synod
of Kphesus. He translated into Latin as well his own writ-
ings as other documents belonging to the controversy — sev-
eral sermons by Nestorius, his epistle to Cclestine, the .S'^w-
hobim Theodori Jfiijis., Cyril's Apohnjitiriis advers. Orien-
tates and Apulixjeticu.1 culvers. Tlteodurelxin, etc. — and those
translations are of the greatest importance for the true un-
derstanding of the history of the Church during that period.
For a long time, however, they were not known at all. It
seems that they were used in the ninth century during the
controversv between Gottschalck and llincinar, and in the
fseudo-Isidorian fabrications (whence arose the fable of an
sidorus Jlercator). but after that time they were entirely
forgotten or ignored until Ilolstenius, in the sixteenth cen-
tury, again drew attention to them. The best edition of
them is that by Baluze (Paris, 1684), reiirint in Migne, Pat.
Lai. xlviii.
Mercator, Nicholas: mathematician and mechanician;
b. at Cismar, in Holstein, about 1620; studied philosophy
an<l mathematics in Copenhagen and Rostock; visited Eng-
land in 1660, and was made one of the first members of the
Roval Society in London. He afterward settled in France,
ami was ma<le superintendent of the construction of the
fountains of Versailles, but, as he would not embrace Roman
Catholicism, his salary was not paid him. lie died in Paris
in 1687. He published Vosmoyraphia sive descriptio ca'li cl
lerne (Dantzic, 1651) ; Trigonometria ephoricorum logarith-
mica (Dantzie, 1651); Rationes mathemalicie suhducfte. (Co-
penhagen, 1653) ; Hypothesis a.itrimomica (Lomlon, 1664);
Instilutioncs asfroiiomicce (London, 1676) ; besiiles several
essays and memoirs in the Transactions Philosopliiques. He
also published a new edition of Euclid.
Mercator's Projection : that kind of projection used in
making a chart in which meridians are represented by paral-
lel straight lines, and circles of latitude bylines perpendicu-
lar to the meridians. Longitudes are plotted from a scale
of eipial parts, and latitudes from a varying scale so adjusted
that the plot of a ship's course or of a rhumb shall be a
straight line making with the meridians an angle equal to
the course or the angle of the rhumb. The result is that
the scale of the ma|) increases from the equator toward
either pole. The principle on which the projection is made
is as follows : The lengtli of a miimte of longitude in any
latitude is Cfjual to the length of a minute of longitude at
the equator multiplied by the cosine of that latitude. The
length of a minute oi longitude being repre^^enled by a con-
stant distance, the length of a minute of latitude must be
represented by the same distance multiplied by the secant of
the corresponding latitude. A scale constructed according
to this law is called a scale of meridional parts. (See IMe-
Riuio.NAL Parts.) In projecting a chart of this kind, the
earth is supposed to be a perfect sphere, and one minute of
longitude at the eouator, or one geographic mile, is taken as
a unit. The parallels of latitude at the bottom and top, be-
ginning at some meridian, arc divided into equal part.s, each
of which contains some convenient number of minutes ; the
e.xtreme nicridiaiis are divi<i(;d into parts which continually
increase in pa-ssiiig from the equator toward the pole, in ac-
cordance with the law heretofore explained ; these parts are
taken from a table of meridional parts (table iii., IJowditch's
yai'ij/ation), each division corresponding to a convenient
number of minutes, usually the same number that is em-
ployed on the parallel of lotitude ; the corresponding points
are united by straight lines, and the outlines of continents,
islands, oceiins, and the like are then laid down from their
known geographical positions, with sueh other information
us may be useful to the navigator. If any two points on
such a chart are joined by a straight line, and a right angle
formed by drawing a meridian through one extremity, and
a parallel of liilituile through the olhir e.xt remit v, we shall
have the triangle of iMercator's sailing. The side parallel
to a meridian is the augmented latitude, the other side about
the right angle is the longitude, and the angle at the base is
the course. Revised by S. Newco.mb.
Mercod : city : capital of Merced co., Cal. (for location of
county, sec map of California, ref. H-D) ; on the .S. Pac. Rail-
road ; l.')2 miles S. E. of San Francis<'o. It is in an agri-
cultural and fruit-growing region, and has a large fruit-can-
nery, grain wareh<mses, planing-iuill. machine-shops, 2 State
banks with combined capital of ^126,000. and a daily and 3
weekly newspapers. Pop. (18^0) 1.446; (18!»0) 2,009.
Mercedes, m(7r-sii dos : a town of the province of Ruenos
Avres, Argentina; on the Western and Pacific railways ; 61
miles W. of Buenos Ayres (see map of South America, ref.
8-E). It is the center of one of the richest sheep-grazing
regicjns of the republic, and has a large trade in wool, etc. ;
there are several steam-mills, good schools, St. Patrick's
College, etc. The town was originally a military post, estab-
lished in 1779. JIany of the inhabitants are descended from
Irishmen who settled here in 1S22. Po]). (1802) about 12,000.
H. H. S.
Mercer: borough (founded in 1804); capital of Mercer
CO., Pa. (for location of county, see map of Pennsylvunia,
ref. 3-A) ; on the Xeshannock creek, and tlie W. L'. Y. and
Pa. and the Pitts., Shen. and Lake Erie railways; 60 miles
N. by \V. of Pittsburg. It contains 2 public-school build-
ings, 3 national banks with combined capital of $250,000,
and 2 weekly newspapers, and is in an agricultural, mining,
stock-raising, and natural-gas region. Pop. (1880) 2,344;
(18!)0) 2,138. Editor of " Dispatch and Republica.n."
Mercer, Iluon: military officer; b. at Aberdeen, Scot-
land, about 1721 ; was educated at the University of Aber-
deen ; became a physician, and served as assistant surgeon in
the army of Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender,
in 1745. In consequence of the failure of the reliellion he
emigrated to America in 1747. He took part in Braddock's
campaign, and was wounded in the battle of the Mononga-
hela. He received a medal from the corporation of Phila-
delphia for his courage upon this expedition. In 17,58 he
was made lieutenant-colonel; accompanied Gen. Forbes to
Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg), and commanded that post for
some time. He then settled as a physician at Freuericks-
burg, Va. ; was actively engaged in drilling and organizing
the minuteraen of Virginia in 1775 and the militia in 1776;
was appointed colonel of the Third Virginia Regiment Feb.
13, 1776, and at Washington's request was chosen by Con-
gress brigadier-general June 5, 1776. He commanded the at-
tack at Trenton, and advised the night-march upon Prince-
ton, in which he led the advance. He was mortally wounded
Jan. 3, 1777, and died a few days later, Jan. 12.
Mercer, Jessk: b. in Halifax co., N. C, Dec. 16, 1769;
moved to Georgia, and after being ordained to the Baptist
ministry took pastoral charge of a church in Wilkes County
in 1789; was an eloquent ]ireacher, and perhaps did more
to build up his denoniimilion in the Southern States than
any other one man. His collection of hymns, in a volume
entitled Mercer's Cluster, is still in use in Southern Baptist
congregations; wrote Ilislonj of the Oeorqia Baptist Asso-
ciation (1836) and edited for many years The Christian In-
dex of Georgia. He was one of the most prominent and
useful members in the Constitutional Convention of 1708.
Having aequireil a considerable estate, and being without
children, he founded by a liberal donation an institution of
learning which was named Mercer University. This was at
first established at Pennfield, but has since been nu)ved to
JIacon, Ga. D. Sept. 6, 1841. See his Memoir, by C. D.
Mallory. Revised by W. II. WiiiTsrrr.
Mercershiirg Theology: the name given to the move-
ment within tile (iernian Reformed Church of the U. S. be-
cause it originated in the theiiUigii-al seminary of that body
silniiled at Mereersburg. Pa., wliieh grew out of the ideas
and doctrines end)odied in Dr. .Schatf's inaugural address,
lus theological jirofessor there, on the I'riiiii/ilex of Protes-
tantism, which was translated and iiulorsed in an introduc-
tion by the other theological professor. Dr. J. W. Nevin
(1845). Its distinctive points were: 1. The Christo-centric
idea of theology. 2. Tlu> Church, the bndy <if Christ, like the
human body, passes though varicjus stages of ilevelopment,
in each of which it properly discards I'eatures of the previous j^
stage (in this way nicdia-val Romanism was jnslilied. and
likewise its rejection by the RefornuTs). 3. A liturgical
worship was comuuMuled. See Life of John Willianuon
A'eciH, by Theodore Appel (Philadelphia, 1880).
MERCIA
MERCURY
677
Mer'cift: the InrRost ami most powerful of the seven
Saxon kiiigiloins in Knslanil ; oouiiirised the central port of
the country from the Thanirs to Yorkshire. It was an indc-
penileiit slate from oSo to Hi~>, with tlie exception of a short
period when it was sulxiued liy Xorthumliria. In 825 it was
conquererl, and nierKcd into the kiuKdoni of Wcssex.
Morcier. mitr'si-a , IIoxoRiv, LL. 1). : politician; b. atSt.-
Allianase, I'rovince of t^ucbw, Canada. Oct. LO, 1840; was
educated at St. Mary's College, Montreal ; and calleil to the
Kir in InOT. He edited /,<> I'oiirrifr ilr Sl-llyncintlie lH(i2-
fi-1; sat in the Dominion Parliament 187".i-'i'4; was .solicit or-
peneral. Province of (Quebec, 1879; anil on resignation of
the Taillon administration, Jan. 27, 1887, formed an ad-
ministration, in whicli he lielil the otliccs of Premier, presi-
dent of council, commissioner of agriculture, and attorney-
general. From 188:) till 1887 he was tlie head of the LiUMal
partv. In 18!H he became commissioner of agriculture. He
was member for .St.-Ilyacinthe in the Legislative As,scmbly
187il-t»0; and has been member for Bonaventure County in
the Legislative .\s.seml)ly since 18!K). He was appointe<l a
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Gregory the Great (Ro-
man) 1888 and a Count of the Holy Roman Emjiire in 18111 ;
also is an oflicer of the Legion of Honor, commander of the
Order of Leopold, and has received the degree of LL. D.
from St. .lohn's College, New York, Loyola College, Haiti-
more. ^Id.. and Laval University, Quebec. I), in Montreal,
Oct. ••{0, l.S!)4. XeIL JlACrJONALI).
Mercier, Louis Auocste, M. D. : furgeon ; b. at Plessis-
Saint-Jeaii, Yonne, France, Aug. 21, 1811 ; graduated M. D.
at the ficolede Mudecine. Paris, in 1831) ; he devoted himself
to the surgery of the urinary organs. Among his publica-
tions are Itecherckes analiiiitlijueii. palhiihgiqiiex ef t/iera-
pfiilujiieK siir les maladies fJex oryanes urinairex el ginitmix
(Paris, 1841) ; liec/ierclies sur le Iraitement dts maladies des
organes urinaires (Paris, 1836). S. T. A.
Merck, Joiiaxx Heixrich : critic : b. at Darmstadt. Ger-
many, Apr. 11. 1741; studied at Altdorf and Gottingen ;
travcieil extensively, and subsei|nently held several impor-
tant positions in the civil ami military service of his native
counlry. Owing to tlie failure of some of his mercantile
enterprises and to the sudden loss of live of his children he
became despondent, and committed suicide .lune 27, 17i>l.
In 1772 .Merck founded the Frankfurter Gelehrie Aiizeigen,
a critical journal to which young Goethe and Herder con-
triliulcd numerous reviews, and was one of the best coii-
triliulors to VV'leiaTid's JUrkiir and N'ieolai's AUyitmeine
tlriileche liibliutliek'. A man of liighly relined literary taste,
he exerted as a critic great inlluenee hot only upon C'Joethe,
but also upon other contemporary writers and the develop-
ment of German literature in general. See Merck's Aiinye-
wiihlle Srhriflen zxir schonen Lit. und /v'l/nx/, edited by Ad.
Slahr (1840); Briefe an und vi»i J. 11. Merck (1838).
JlLIUS GOEBEL.
Morcnr, James : military olTieer and scientist; b. at To-
waiida. Pa., Nov. 2.'), 1842; graduated at U. S. Military
Academy, and was promoted second lieutenant of Engi-
neers, U.S. .v., June 18. 1860 ; first lieutenant Mar.. 1867, imd
captain I>ec. i), 1875; served as assistant engineer on the
survey of the Northern and Northwestern lakes 18GG-67;
at the Military Academv as acting assistant and Assistant
Professor of Natural am! Experimental Philosophy 1867-72;
with the engiiie<'r battalion as adjutant and coinmaniling
company 1872-76; as assistant engineer to (Jimi. Newton
ill removing tlie obstructions at Hell Gate, and upon other
river and harbor wt^rks 1876-81 ; and charged with various
works of river and harbor iinprovemeiil.s and surveys in the
.*Niuthern Slates and in New York harbor and vicinitv 1K8I-
84; Professor of Civil and Militarv Engineering at West
Point from 1884 till hisilealh.at l-'iirt >b>iiroe, \'a.. .Apr. 21,
181I6. Hi- ivviseil ami enlarged Malian's I'ertnatienl Forlilica-
/iV);i(lNS7), mill isthe author of Klinimls of the Art of War
(I8.H.M), Hiid Military Mines, lilaslinij. and IJemulitions{WJ2).
Mercury: See Hermes.
Mercury [named frmii the god Mercury]: the planet
which travels nearest to tliesun at adistance of nearly four-
tentlis that of the earth. Winn m^ar its gryalest eastern
elongations, which occur at intervals of four uinnilis, it may
be seen in the west half an hour to an hour after sunset.
Telescopic observation of .Meicurvhas revealed verv littleof
interest. Schroter, by careful stuily of the phases, ei'.inluded
that the nlanet rotates on its axis in about 24li. 5in. 30s.,
but very lilllc reliance can be jilaced either on this result
or on the supposed inclination of the axis of Jlercury to
the plain' of its orliit. Still, it is worth mentioning that
in 1801 Harding discovered a streak on the southern hemi-
sphere of .Mercury, the careful observation of which resulted
in his obtaining a rotation-period almost identical with
Schriiter's. The figure of Mercurv shows no s<?nsible com-
pression. If Sehroter's observations can be trusted, one
mountain on Mercury has a height equal to j^-^ of the
planet's ra<lius, or to about 12 miles; but later observers,
using telescopes of the best modern construction, have failed
so completely in recognizing the marks described by Schro-
ter that great doubt necessarily rests on the accuracy of his
conelusicms. Mercury pas,ses between the earth and sun
more than three times in ejich year, and when, during one
of these passages. Mercury is near his nodes he appears to
pass across the face of the sun. Such an occurrence is called
a transit of Mercury, and, though less important than a
transit of Yenus, is yet of interest to astronomers. Transits
of Jlercury occur at intervals of l.^i, 7, 10, ;J, 10, .3, etc., years,
always either in May or November. The following table
shows the transits that will occur during the next half cen-
tury, and the Atlantic times of middle of transit :
1804. Nov. 10 Ih. 36in. p. M.
1'.I07, Nov. 14 7h. 7ni. a. m.
lilH, Nov. 7 7h. om. a. m.
1!I24. Mav 7 8h. 34m. p. M.
l'J27, Nov. 10 45m. a. m.
1940, Nov. 11 6h. 22in. p. m.
Revised by S. Newcomb.
Mercury, or Hydrnr'tryriim [mercury is so named from
the god Mer( LHY [(/■ ''.). perhaps in allusion to the quick-
ness and ea.se with which it flows in any direction ; hy-
drargyrum is Mod. Lat.. from Lat. Iiydrar gyrus = Gr. iSpdp-
yupoj, mercury, riuicksilvcr, liter., water silver; S5<»p. water
+ ipyvpos. silver] : the only simple metal which is liquid at
the ordinary temperatures. It occurs as a native metal,
like gold, silver, copper, etc., and has been known to man-
kind from time immemorial. Its chlorides were also known
of okl — cnrniKire suhlimale and the red oxide to the Arabi-
ans, and calomel to the alchemists. Its sulphide, cinnabar,
has Ijeen used as a pigment from the most ancient times.
Occurrence and Preparation. — Besides the native metal,
it occurs chiefly as cinnabar, its most abumlant ore. The
most famous localities in the C. S. are in California, New
Almaden and New Iilria, named after the two most pro-
ductive European localities. Almaden in .Spain, and Idria in
Carniola. There are, however, numerous other undevel<>f)ed
cinnabar-bearing regions in the Pacific States. Cinnabar
is reduced to metallic mercury either by distilling with
lime to combine with the sulphur, or by simply distilling in
a current of air, which oxiiiizes the sulphur to sulphurous
acid gas, leaving the mercury free. Metallic iron has also
been used to combine with and retain the sulphur. The re-
duced liquid metal is sent into commerce in bottles of
wrought iron closed with screw stoppers, containing about
75 lb. each.
dhemical and Physical Xature. — Pure mercury is al-
most silver-white, of mirror-like luster, which luster it pre-
serves perfectly in air free from sulphur. Like silver, it is
tarni.shed superficially by sulphurous emanations. Dust
also may adhere and tarnish it, but it is readily restored to
perfect brilliancy by straining, or even by pouring through
a glass funnel, to which the dust or tarnish-films will ad-
here. The worst enemies to its purity are other metals, ami
ignorance of this fact often leailstothe ruin or great deteri-
oration in value of large amounts of mercury. No metal
should ever be allowed to touch it except iron or platinum.
The smallest proportion of some common metals, especially
lead. tin. and zinc, and even copper to a less extent, causes
it to tarnish constantly and lose its luster, and injures its
perfect li(|uidily, making it somewhat viscous and adherent
to other boilies, so that it will "drag a tail " behind when
flowing over a surface, reinlering it useless for nearly all its
practical applications without purification by processes
which are none too easy. In such cases, however, if the
amount of base metal is minute, it may be removed l>y
agitating with a ililuled solution of [leadiloride of iron
for Some time. The mercury is thus '• fioured " or finely
divided into globules, extending its surface so greatly that
the base metal is soon converted into chloride and dissolveil
out. t)n washing then repeatedly with clean water, the
globules will usually coales<e again. If some of them refuse
to do so, it is best to add a minute quantity of amalgam of
678
MERCURY
sodium, which causes instnnt coalosccnce of the minutest
globules. Mercury which gets into this state of flue division,
so that it will not" run tosietlier spontaneously, is lost in im-
mense cjuantities in niininj; countries by bein^' washed away
in suspension in water and niiuftleil with sand and " tail-
ings." Mercury when pure has a density of l:!-.')!lt) at 0 C.
(W F.). When it is frozen, which rc'nuires a reduction
of tem[U'ralure to about 3!) V. below zero, accurdiuf: ti)
Ilutchins (= — :H>i4' V.), it forms a tin-like mass, which is
crvstalline, but nevertheless malleable. It boils, when pure,
at 357"2.5 (.". (fiTJ F.), yicldins: a transparent, colorless vapor
6-7 times a.* heavy as air. When exposed to the air at or near
its boilinR-point," it is slowly o.Kidi/.ed to the red oxide,
which, when exposed again to a still higher heat, is decom-
posed into its elements.
Uses of Mfrcuri/.—ThQ most important of these is in the
workingof the ores of (Jolu and Silver (qg. i:). It is also
used in the amalframation of the zincs of voltaic batteries,
in m.iking lookiiifi-glasses, in barometers, thermometers,
steam-gaupes and other pressure-gauges, in dental amalgams
(with copiier). In the laboratory it is a valuable agent in
cudiometrv (for confining gases), in mercurial pumps, and in
other ways. It is used for prejiaring several important me-
dicinal compounils.
Compoiinth of Mrrrnnj. — Several of the amalgams, or
compounds of mercury with other metals, are useful sub-
stances. The dental "amalgam, with copper, has already
been mentioned. That with tin forms the coating on look-
ing-gla-sses. Sodium-amalgam is used in the laboratory for
a multitude of ])urposcs, and in the arts in the amalgama-
tion of the ores of the precious metals, and in the recovery
of mercury which has been employed for this purpose. The
tv7o chlorides of mercury are known commercially as CoR-
KosivK Sublimate and C'alomel (qq. v.). The protoxide or
red oxide of mercury, known as red precipitate in medicine,
is formed botli by heating mercury in the air and by apply-
ing heat to the nitrate. The only other compound of im-
j>ortance is the sulphide, which, when artificially [irepared,
forms the beautiful pigment known as vermilion, and as
found native is the mineral Cixnabar ((/. i'.).
Revised by Ira Remsen.
Medicinal Uses of Mercury vary in accordance with
the dilTerenl physiological effects of different preparations.
These have therefore to be studied seriatim. There is, how-
ever, a general affection of the system called mercurializa-
tion, induced by the steady impregnation of the blood with
the metal, which is essentially the sju'ne whatever be the
preparation of mercury used. This will, then, first be con-
sidered. Physiologically, the symptoms of niercurialization
arc briefly as follows : There are first a metallic taste in the
mouth, a soreness of the gums, with swelling and redness of
the same, and a peculiar fetor in the breath. Xext comes
a tendency to increase of the secretions, especially of the
saliva, to be followed by a general inHamination of the
structures of the mouth, swelling of the salivary glands, ex-
cessive and foul-smelling salivary secretion, and accom-
panying fever. If the poisoning continue, this condition,
known as sjilivation, may lead to most disastrous conse-
quences. Ulcers, gangrene, caries of the teeth, and hjcmor-
rhages may occur in the affected parts ; and now also the
general nutrition of the body will be jjrofoumUy disturbed.
l)iarrhu?a. emaciation, grave impoverishment of the blood,
with alisorplion of newly formed tissues, may result, estab-
lishing a staleof general devitalization, from which the suf-
ferer will ijiit slowly recover. While in this condition the in-
ternal organs are liable to inflame, or, in common jjarlance,
the individual is a|)t to " take cold." If the poisoning has
resulted from breathing mercurial vapors, as in the case of
artlsjins working with mercury, the symploms of the mer-
curial infection are somewhat dilTerenl. .Salivation does
not occur, but the poison attacks the nervous system, pro-
ducing a iieculiar trembling of the limbs, called " mercurial
tremor." This may be so severe a.s to render the sufferer
unable to stand, or even to use the hands for any useful
purpose. Therapeut Ically, the induction of moderate grades
of general niercurialization was formerly one of the com-
monest practices (pf the physician, being .systematically re-
sorted to in almost all inllaiiimations, under the idea that
thereby the inflammatory process could be checked, or at
huust controlled in .severity, and the absorption of its morbid
product.s hastened ; but of late years this practice has been
steadily losing favor, the treatment of inllammatioiis without
mercury apparently giving even bi'tter results than the
mercurial system. \ ery many physicians therefore limit
the medicinal use of general niercurialization to the single
disease syphilis, in which its extraordinary power has been
overwhelmingly demonstrated, but even here the old habit
of continuing the use of the drug uji till the production of
actual salivation has been wholly abandoned, and the de-
velopment of a slight sponginess and tenderness of the
gums is recognized as the utmost physiological limit of
therapeutic niercurialization.
Other special properties and uses of mercurial prepara-
tions are as follow : In general, the soluble or mercuric
compounds are intensely irritant, corrosive, and highly
poisonous to all forms of life, animal and vegetable. When
swallowed in poisonous dose they produce intense gastro-in-
testlnal inflammation, with extremely severe burning pain,
vomiting, iiuiging, cramps, excessive prostration, and
death. If tlie sufferer lives several days, salivation from ab-
sorption of the mercurial may occur. The antidote in mer-
curic poisoning is some form of albumen, as white of egg,
milk, flour and water, but as the insoluble albuminates thus
formed are again redissolved If left In the alimentary canal,
the poison must be got rid of liy emetli'S. The effects on
the system are to be treated on general principles. The
mercuric compounds used internally in medicine are mer-
curic chloride (corrosive sublimate), mercuric iodide (red
iodide), and mercuric cyanide. These are employed in
minute dose, largely diluted, to induce therapeutic niercuri-
alization in sy))hllls. and in weak solution or in ointment
as external applications In many forms of chronic skin dis-
ease, especially where depending on the iiresence of a para-
site. Corrosive sublimale In exceedingly small doses Is also
used internally In certain digestive derangements with di-
arrhtra. In striking contrast with the mercuric arc the
mercurous compounds and prejiarati.ins of the nielal itself.
Those used internally in medicine are mercurous chloride
(calomel), mercurous iodide (green iodide), blue jiill or blue
mass (metallic mercury thoroughly nibbed into a pasty
mass with confection of ro.ses and llquorice-root). and mer-
cury with chalk or "gray powder" (metallic mercury rubbed
into a grayish powiler witli prepared chalk). These jirepa-
ratlons have not the corrosive and poisonous properties
of the higher comjiounds — a fact probalily largely due to
their great insolubility. Given in small repeated dose they
are in some way slowly dissolved in the juices of the ali-
mentary canal, become thus absorbed, and readily induce
general niercurialization. They are accordingly much em-
ployed for this purpose in syphilis. In single large dose
the tendency of the present group Is to a cathartic effect,
strongest in the case of calomel, weakest in mercury with
chalk. When so operating the mercurial is itself discharged
before there is time for Its solution and absorption, and
hence this mercurial purging is unattended by any general
infection with the metal. The stools produced are yellow
and green, apiiarently from the presence of bile — an indica-
tion that the catliartic action extends to the duodenum, and
thus the bile contained in that part of the intestine is dis-
eii'irged /)cr rcr/HW instead of being reabsorbed. Calomel
is much used, either alone or wifh other cathartics, as a
purgative, anil calomel, blue pill, and mercury with chalk
often prove curative in many intestinal derangements, espe-
cially in that condition commonly called " biliousness " ;
but the pliilosoi)hy of their curative action is not fully
maile out. JIany other preparations of mercury are used
for certain special purposes. Mercurial or blue ointment
(metallic mercury rubbed thoroughly with lard and suet)
is much used as a means of producing general niercurializa-
tion in syphilis, a small piece of the ointment being rubbed
into the skin dally. It is also employed for purely local
puri)Oses in many skin diseases, and for the killing of para-
sites. A solution of mercuric oxide In oleic acid forms a
more elegant ]ireparatlon for the same puriioses. Mercur-
ous oxide (black oxide) and mercuric sulphide (cinnabar) are
someliiues used to mercurialize in syphilis by the process of
" fumigation," the comi>ounds being volatllizeil by heat and
allowed to precipitate iii)on the naked skin of the patient ;
calomel is also used for the .same purpose. Jlerciirie oxide
and amnioiiialcd mercury (white precipitate) are used only
externally as gently irritant applications to sluggish sores.
They are generally used made into (jinlineiits. Citrine
ointment containing mercury in the form of nitrate, is used
for the .same [lurposes. An acid solutii>ii of mercuric nitrate
is used as a iiowerfnl caustic. Finally there slmulil be men-
tioned the yellow sulphate, or "turpeth mineral," which is a
prompt ami non-nauseating but hai-sh and uncquiil emetic.
Revised by II. A. Hare.
JMEKEDITII
MERIAN
679
Merodith, Georoe : novelist and poet ; b. in Ilarapshirc,
Englanil, Fib. 13, 1828; was educated in Germany; studied
law, but early devoted himself to literature; has published
novels and stories, iueludin}; The Shaving of Shagpal : an
Arabian Entertainment (lyuo); Farina: a Legend of Co-
logne (ISHl) ; The Ordeal of Richard /'ei'erf/ (1859) ; Evan
jfarrington (18(51); Emilia in Ettgland. now cnWaH Sandra
Belloni (1804); Vitloria (18(;()) ; Hliuda Fleming (18(55);
The Advenlureit of Jfarrg Richmond (1871); Beaiichamp's
Career (IHl't) ; The Egoist (18711); The Tragic Comedians
(1881); A Diana of tlie Crosswags (1885) ; and One of Our
Conquerors (1890); also Poems (1851); Modern Love and
Poems of the English Roadside with Poems and Ballads
(1862); Poems and Lgrics of tlie Jog of Earth (188:5) ; Bal-
lads and Poems of Tragic Life (1887) ; and A Reading of
Earth (1888). He succeeded Lord Tennyson as president of
the British Society or Authors in 1892." See I.e Gallienne,
George Meredith .-'some CImracterislics (witli bibliography,
189Q). Revised by 11. A. Beers.
Merpdith. LorisA TwAMi.KV : author: b. at Uirmintrhum,
Eufiland. .luly 20. 1812; received an artistic education;
published in 18^.5 a volume ol poems, and in 18:!0 'J'he Ro-
mance of Sature. or the Flower Seasons Illustrated, both
illustrated by her own pencil. In 1839 she nuirried her
cousin, Charles Jleredith, and went to Australia. Five
Tears later thev settleii in Tasmania, where Jlr. Meredith
became colonial treasurer. D. Oct. 21, 1895. She published
Kotes and Skelclies of JS'eu' South ^'ales (1844): Mg Hume
in Tasmania (1852); Some of Mg Bush Friends in Tas-
mania (1859): Over the Straits (lUdO): and Loved and Lost,
a volume of verse, illustrated by herself.
Meredith, Owes: See Lytton.
Merea, Francis : author; b. in England about 15(55; was
author of Tamia Pulladis.or Wit's Treasurie (1597); Wit's
Academg : a Treasurie of Goulden Sentences, Similies,and
Examples (1(5154) ; and of a translation of the Sinner's Guide,
by Fray Luis de Granada (1598-1614). The first-named
work was a "comparative discourse of our English poets
with the Greek, Latin, and Italian poets," which became
popular as a schoolbook, and is celebrated as containing the
earliest critical references to Shakspcare. Jlcres died Jan.
29, 1647.
Mergranser [Mod. Lat., from Span, mergdnsar; mergo,
diver (<Lat. mergus, diver) + n/i«ar, -goose < Lat. anser]:
a name given to several birds of the family Anatidce, differ-
ing from the true ducks in having a slender bill, slightly
hooked at the tip. armed with little recurved processes which
serve as teetli. This style of bill has earned for the mer-
gansers the popular name of saw-bill. Another common name
in the L'. S. is sheldrake. The mergansers are ex|)ert divers
and feed on fish. Tlie males are handsome birds with a
striking plumage of black and white. The largest species is
the goosander (Mergus merganser), common to the Old and
New Worlds. The handsomest species is the liooded mer-
ganser (Ao/j/Kxi^s^cKCH^/o/Hs). in which the male has a large,
compressed fan-shaped crest of black feathers, with a tri-
angular white mark on the l\inder portion. Tlie females are
more or less brown in plumage. F. A. Lucas.
Morper [0. Fr. infin. of verb, from Lat. mer'gere, sink,
cause to be swallowed up] : in law, the absorption or e.xtin-
ftuishment of one estate, right, or interest by another of a
ligher grade, when both become vested in the same person
in one and the sjime right. The doctrine finds its principal
application in the law of real estate. Whenever a greater
and a less estate unite in the sjimc person, without any in-
tervening estate, the lesser estate is absorbed l)y, or swallowed
up in, the greater. Thus if a tenant for years or for life
ae(|uiro the reversion in fee simple, the estate for life or years
is merged in the fee and disappears forever. What remains
is only the fee simjile, not at all enlarged or altered in char-
acter, it is true, by the absorption of the particular estate.
(See Landi.ori) and Tknant.) So if the mortgagee of an es-
tate acijuires the ciiuily of redemption, merger will take place
and he will become vested with the entire estate. The same
result will follow if the mortgagor takes an assignment of
the mortgage or becomes otherwise vested with the mort-
gagee's interest. It is a general principle that whenever a
legal and an ei|uitable estate in the same land unite in the
same person, the latter is extinguished. In courts of equity,
however, the doctrine will be ignored whenever a merger
wouUl work injustice or frustrate the lawful intentions of
the parties. lit the several estates by act of the law unite in
the same person, but not in the same right or interest, no
merger will occur. If, therefore, an executor who has a re-
version in his own right acquire a term of years in his capac-
ity as executor, the two estates will not merge.
Instances of the application of the do<'trine of merger
occur also in other branches of the law. Thus if a contract
of specialty, as a bond, be given by a debtor, binding him to
the payment of a debt founded upon simple contract, the
remedy upon the specialty supersedes or extinguishes that
ujion the original agreement, inasmuch as the substituted
obligation is of a higher nature. For a like reason the re-
covery of judgment upon a claim arising out of simple con-
tract extinguishes the original ground of indebtedness, and
the only subsequent remedy available is an action upon the
judgment : but no merger will take place when both securi-
ties are of the same character or degree. Thus one chattel-
mortgage would not extinguish another.
The term " merger" is also employed in the English law
in a somewhat different sense from those which have been
hitherto illustrated. Thus it is there a rule that when a
felony has been committed which entitles the party injured
to bring a civil action for redress, as well as to institute a
criminal |irosecution, the remedy by action is merged in the
remedy by prosecution, or, as it is briefly expressed, the tres-
pass is merged in the felony; but this does not mean that
the civil remedy is extinguished, but only that it is super-
seded or postponed until the criminal jiroceedings are termi-
nated. After the end of the jn-osecution the action is main-
tainable. This rule is established in order that the party in-
jured may be induced to prosecute the public offense, which
he might avoid doing if he were first permitted to recover
satisfaction for his private injury. The fact that private
pel-sons generally act as criminal prosecutors in I'>ngland
makes this rule imijorlant. In the U. S., where the prose-
cution of criminal offenses is generally committed to special
public ollicials. the English rule has been generally abolished.
In criminal law it was formerly held that a merger would
occur where the same act was within the definition both of
a misdemeanor and a felony, or both of a felony and of
treason. In such cases the lower offense was said to merge
in the higher, so that the act could be punished only as a
felony in the one case or as treason in the other. This doc-
trine has, however, been very much restricted in England,
where it originated, and it has at present little or no place
in the V. S., where the distinction between felonies and mis-
demeanors has been generally broken down by statute. On
the general subject, see American and English Encgclopm-
dia of Law, article Merger. George W. Kirchwev.
Mergiii. or Merghi ; the southernmost district of Tenas-
serim, Burma, British India; consisting of a territory
stretching along the coast of the Bay of Bengal from lat. 9'
58 to 13 24 X., and an innumerable multitude of small isl-
ands known as the Mergui Archipelago. The islands are
all high and mostly naked, but rich in edible birds' nests,
tortoise-shell, and pearls. The territory of the mainland
produces Siijian-wood and ivory, and is rich in tin and zinc.
It is occupied by two mountain ranges which run nearly
parallel to each other, and between which the Tenasseriiii
winds its way to the sea. The coast-land between the sea
and the mountains presents in some places fine rice-plains,
but is mostly mangrove swamps. The mountain country
may be described as one continuous forest. Of the total
area of the province, 7.810 s(|. miles, only 73 sq. miles are
under cultivation. Pop. 60.000. The capital is Mergui,
situated on an island in the delta of the Mergui river, in lat.
12' 26 X. It has a good harbor and some trade, but with
the exception of the house of the governor, the hospital, and
the barracks, it contains only miserable houses. Pop. 12,000,
consisting of Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese settlers.
Meriaii, Maria Sidylle: naturalist and artist; b. at
Frankfort, tiermany, Ajir. 2. 1(547. She was the daughter
of a .Swi.vs engraver, and in 1665 married an artist of Xurem-
berg named Graff: but she is universally known as Madame
Merian. She early distinguished herself for her knowledge
of botany and entomology, and especially for her studies of
insect life and drawings illustrating the melamoriihoses of
various species; in this she was a.ssisted by her two daugh-
ters. In company with one of these she visited .Surinam,
1099-1701, bringing back large collections of drawings; the
daughter made a second trip to that country in 1702. In
1705 she iniblished Mttamoinhuses inseclarum Surinavien-
sitim. with numerous large plates of South .\inerican insects
in different stages. This was republished in French after
680
MERIAX
miSrimiSf:
her death, tngedier with a similar work on thp insoets of
Kurope. Mathiiiio Sli'rian's drawinf^.s were, fur tlio time,
remarkalily accunito, aii<l many of her observations, wliieh
hail iH'eu ijuestioni'il. liavc since l)een confirmeil. 1'. at Ani-
stenlani, .Ian. la, 1717. Herbert II. Smith.
Meriitu: the name of a family of artists: (1) MATTii.Er.s
" thceUler," b. at Basel, l.")!!:! ; studied at Zurieli and traveled
in the west of Kiiro]<o: married a ilaughter of Dirk de Hry,
a famous ensraver of Flanders. At about the ajre of thirty
he settled in Frankfort as ensrraver on copper, and afterward
started a publishing-house, which was continueil by his heirs.
Among his works are seventy-eiirht plates of the ceremonial
of Jinptism of Fred'iirlc of W'lirtem/ierff : 400 Eiiihhmdiic
Plates, with llowers anil lamlscapes: liibh Slon'eK.iiM) plates ;
Tlie Dance of Denlli, from paintingsat Basel. His most im-
portant work is the immense series of plates of the cities,
towns, villaires. and castles of Oermany and France, known
with the accompanying text as Zeiller's Tnpoyraphiiv. The
twenty volumes of this work contain hundreds of plates of
great merit, as simple renderings of fact, interesting for
their historical record, and of value as specimens of simple
art. The great Hollar is said to lia\-o workc<I on this series,
and his own large topographical landscapes (see Hollar)
are only the perfecting iif t he style which Jlerian introduced.
D. at S'chwalbach, Ki.'iO. — (3) Matth-EUs " the younger." son
of the above ; b. at Basel, 1C21. He wiis rather a painter than
an engraver, but seems to have aided his father, pnd to have
managed the business after his death. — (3) Caspar or Gas-
par, son of Matthanis the younger. He was an engraver,
and signed some of the large plates of Zeiller's Tiipoyrnpliia'
as above. — (4) Maria .SvniLLE. daughter of JIatthicus the
elder. (See separate article on this artist.) — (5) Ja.v Mat-
Tn.EUS, son of Mattha'us the younger, miniature-painter. — (6)
DoROTUEA Maria Grakf, daughter of Maria Sybille; b.
1678 ; painter of flowers and insects. D. 1741. — (7) Jouaxxa
Maria Helexa, sister of the last; painter of flowers and in-
sects. Russell Stukgis.
Her'ida (anc. Atir/us'fn Eme'rita): town in the province
of Badajoz, Spain ; on the Guadiana ; 36 miles by rail E. of
Badajoz (see map of Spain, ref. 17-C). During the Roman
empire it was the capital of Lusitaiiia and a magnificent
city ; it is still interesting for its remains of that time, among
which arc the superb bridge over the Guadiana, 2..575 feet
long and containing eighty-one arches, and the trium])hal
arch of Trajan in the middle of the city. Of the magnificent
aqueduct from the laguiui of Albuera thirty-seven eiiorinous
piers are still standing, with ten arches iii three tiers built
of brick and granite. Of the circus, measuring 1,356 by 335
feet, eight rows of seats still remain. Pop. 7,390.
Meriila, mii -ree-da'a : a city of Venezuela : capital of the
state of Los Andes ; on an elevated jilain partly surrounded
by peaks of the Sierra \evada ; 310 miles W. S. \V. of Caracas
and 5,300 feet above the sea (see map of South America, ref.
1-C). Two small rivers, one on each side of the city, unite
below to form the Chaina, which flows to Lake Maiacaiiio.
The scenery is extremely grand, varying from the luxuriant
green of the plateau to rugged mountains, some of which
are crowned with snow. The climate, owing to the eleva-
tion, is ti'mperate (mean temperature, 61° F.) but suliject to
frequent and rapid <-hanges. Merida has a lively trade, the
principal exports being coffee, cacao, and sugar. The so-
called University of Merida, founded in 1810, is properly a
theological seminary. The city dates from 1558; it was
partially destroyed by earthiiuakes in 1044, 1812, and
1«!»4._ Since 1778 it has been a bishop's see. Pop. (1801)
10,747. llERBKHT II. S.Mrni.
iMeridu: cnpital of the state of Yucatan, Mexico; on a
plain, 22 miles by railway from its port of Progrcso on the
Gulf of .Mexico (see map of Mexico, ref. 7-K). It was founded
by Francisco de Montejo in 1542, on the site of the AInva
city of Tho; the latter is still thr Maya nami' of the jilnce.
The cathe<lral, several monasteries, now used for secuhir
purposes, and many dwellings ilate from the sixleenlli cen-
tury, and wi're built from material furnished by Muva struc-
tures. The city is laid out with straight and'wide streets,
and has a central scpmro or park. The climate is hot, and
at times unhealthf nl ; yellow fever is ii f reipient visitor. From
an early perirxl Merida has beiMi a noted intellectual center;
at present it has faculties of theology, law, medicine, etc.
forming a university, ami iiuiiierous ot'lier educalioiial insti-
tutions. Its modern commercial activity is largelv due to
the trade in sisal hemp. Pop. (estimalc'il.' Wxi) ."i3,(k)ii.
Herheht II. Smith.
Mprideii : city ; New Haven co., Conn, (for location of
county, see map of Connecticut, ref. 10-G) ; on the N. Y. and
N. E. and the N. V., N. II. and Hart, railways; midway
between Xew Haven aial Hartford. It is noted for its
manufactures, which include silver-plated ware, Britannia
metal goods, hardware, cutlery, steel pens, glassware, cabinet
organs, malleable iron, inm and brass castings, machinery,
etc. The census returns of 1890 showed that 236 manufac-
turing establishments (re))rcscntiiig 52 industries) reported.
These had a combined capiliil of .§13.095,409; employed
7,655 persons; paid !J4, 191, .536 for wages and ^4.8.s:{,757"f(,r
materials; and had products valued at .§11,933.!I92. The
city is the seat of the State Heform .School, and has 3 li-
braries (High .School, State Reform .School, and V. M. C. A.)
with over 12,000 volumes, 3 national banks with combined
capital of 91,400.000, 2 savings-banks, a trust and safe-de-
posit company, and 3 dailv, 2 weekly, and 2 monthly period-
icals. Pop. (1880) 15,540; (1890) 21,652; town, including
city, 25,443; (1893) town, estimated. 29,000.
Editor of "Joi-rxal."
Meridian: city; capital of Lauderdale co.. Miss, (for
location of county, see map of Jlississippi, ref. 7-11); on the
E. Tenn., Va. and Ga., the Mobile and Ohio, and tiie Queen
and Cresc. railways; 85 miles E. of .lackson, 135 miles X.
by W. of Mobile, Ala. It is in an agricultural region, chiefly
producing cotton; contains Meridian Aca<leiiiy (.Methodist
Episcopal), Meridian Normal College, and East Mississij)pi
Female College (Methodist Episcopal South); and has 2
national banks with combined capital of $230,000. a savings-
bank with capital of $50,000, 2 daily, 5 weekly, and 2
monthlv periodicals, and several large factories. Pop. (1880)
4,008; (1890) 10,624.
Meridian Circle : See Transit.
Meridian of a Place [meridian is from Lat. me.ridia'min.
pertaining to noon, deriv. of meri dies, midday, noon]: the
intersection of the earth's surface with a jilane passing
through the ]ilace and the earth's axis. It is a N. and S.
line. If the plane of the meridian of a place is prolonged to
intersect the celestial sphere, the line in which it cuts that
sphere is the celestial, or astronomical, meridian of the
place. The magnetic meridian of a place is the intersection
of the earth's surface with a vertical plane passed through
the axis of a freely suspended magiu'li<- iiecille at the place.
The angle between this meridian and the true meridian is
called the declination or variation of the needle. See
Earth.
Merid'ional Parts: parts of the meridian, as used in
Mercalor's system, extending from the equator, and com-
puted for all latitudes differing by a ndnute up to some
limit, usually 83°. These parts are tabulated, and are used
in this form for projecting charts and for solving problems
in Mercator's sailing. The method of computing a table
of meridional parts is as follows: .Starting from theeipui-
tor and taking a geographical mile as a unit, the length of
the first minute of latitude is the natural secant of 1', the
length of the next minute is the secant of 2', the length of
the next minute is the secant of 3', and so on; hence the
distance from the equator to lat. 2' is e(pial to sec. 1' + sec.
2', the distance from the equator to lat. 3' is equal to sec. 1'
-f sec. 2' + sec. 3 . and so on. The results obtained in this
way arc only approximate, and the process of compulation
is somewhat tedious. Other methoiis of conqiutalion have
been devised that are more accur:ile. and at the same time
of easier aiiplical ion : but the method just given shows more
clearly the nature of the table in (pieslion. The best
method of computing a table of meridional jjarts is from the
formula ,^_ 7915 .70447 log cot i (90°-£),
in which L is any latitude, and M the corresponding me-
ridional part. See Coflin's jXavit/utiun.
Mr'riinf'e. munM-'ma. Prosper : author; b. in Paris, Sept.
28, ISli:!; studied law and was a<lmilli'(l to the bar, \m\ did
not practice; held various )i<isilioiis in the civil service:
succeeded M. \'ilet in IX'M as inspector of thearcha'ological
anil historical monuments of France; entered the Academy
in 1844; was mailc senator in 18.53. Besides a number of
traveling sketches, originally reports to the minister of his
[irofessional researches, such as yoijarie dans le Midi de In
France (1835), Vnijage dans I'Onest de la France (ls:!C).
Voyage en Aiiveri/ne et dans le Lininusin (183S). and Vnij-
age en Curse (1H40), he wrote several valuable arclKcological
and historical works — Monuments J/ist<)ri(jiies {\HV.U. J'cin-
MKRIXO SHEKP
MEKOSTOMATA
G81
tnrex de V f^glise Saint-Savin (1844), ITittoire de. Don
Pedro I., Jioi de C'tiili/le (lH4:i), £pisode de VHistoire de
Jiussie (1W4), JfeliiiK/en J/inlorii/ues el Lilleraires (1855).
JIc made his apiieariirice in litcruliire in 1H25 with Theuire
de Clara (iaztil, whii.li was followed in IWBwith La Guzla,
a collection of lyrical poems. Both were pulilislied simply
as translations, tlie former from the Spani-sli, the latter from
the Illyrian, and for many years the secret remained undis-
covered ; but their inlluence in propa^jating the taste and
the ideas of the romantic school in Prance was neverthe-
less considerable. Afterward followed a series of novels or
small romances, often based on some historical data, and
delineating the character of the nation and the age with won-
derful precision and vividness. Culomba and Ctirmeii (1840)
may be mentioned as his masterpieces in this style. He died
Sept. 23, 1870. After his death a very intimate but some-
what peculiar correspondence with an unknown lady was
fmblisned, under the title Letlres a une Iiiconiiue ; an auto-
liography was also found. .See A. Pilon, Mirimee et ses
amis (18!)4). Hevised by A. G. Ca.vfieu).
Merino Sheep : See Snr.rp.
Meri'ones (in Gr. Mriplomis) : a son of Molus and grand-
son of Deucalion. He went as lieutenant to his undo Ido-
meneus, the commander of the eighty ships that formed the
Cretan contingent in the war against Troy. He was one of
the bravest of the henx-s; he was the possessor of the hel-
met of Amyntor, and excelled especially in archery and
spear-casling. On his return from Troy his ship W!is driven
by storms to Sicily, but in lime readied Crete, where he was
worshiped as a hero. J. R. S. S.
Mer'ionetli : county of North Wales ; bordering on Cardi-
gan Bay. Area, 66!) scj. miles. It is covered with moun-
tains, the highest peak of which, Arran Mowddy, rises 2,!t55
feet. The soil is poor, and suited only for pasturage, but
some lead ami coppiT are found, and consideral)le limestone
and slate. Pop. (18i)l) 49,204. Capital, Uolgclly.
Merivale. Charlf.s. I). D.. D. C. L., LL. D. : historian; b.
in Bloomsbury, London. JIar. 8, 1808 : was educated at
Harrow, llaileyt>ury, and St. John's College. Cambridge,
whore he was a fellow and tutor : graduated in honors 1830,
and was university pn'acher (1839—41), Ilulsean lecturer
(1862), and Boyle 'lecturer (1864-65); rector of Lawford
1848-70 ; chaplain to the Speaker of the Commons 1863-69 :
atul in 1869 became Dean of Ely. He wrote Tlie Fall of
the Roman liepublic (London, 1853): IJistory of the Ro-
mans under the Empire (1850-02, 7 vols. : latest ed. 1890, 8
vols., a standard work) ; Conversion of the Roman Empire
(1864) ; Conversion of the yorthcrn Nations (1865) ; a trans-
lation of tlie llidil in rhymed verse (1809) ; ^1 General Ilis-
torij of Rome (1.S7.")) ; and Lectures on Epochs of Early
Church History (.1879), etc. D. at Ely. Dec. 27, 189;}.
Revised by S. JI. .Jacksox.
Meriviile, Herman. C.B., D.C.L.: statesman and author;
elder brother of Charles Merivale: b. in 1K06: was educated
at Harr<iw and Trinity College, O.xford, and graduated with
high honors in 1827; became a fellow of 15aliol College:
was called to the bar at the Inner Temple 1832: was Pro-
fe.ssor of Political Economy at Oxford 1837^2 : I'ndcr Sec-
retary for the ( olonies 184.8-60 ; was perpetual Cnder Secre-
tary for India : author of Five Lectures on the Principles
of a Legislative Provision for the Poor in Ireland (1838);
Lectures on Colonization and Colorties (London, 1841, 2
vols.), the most elaborate and complete work on the sub-
ject ; Historical Studies (1805) ; Life of Sir Henry Law-
rence (1873). D. in London, Feb. 9, 1874.
Merle : See Blackhird.
Merle d'Aiiliignf': Sec D'Afmoxt.
Merliu : a little hawk of Europe, Falco asaloti. It is
swift and courageous, as well as docile in confinement, and
hence it was once extensively employed for hawking at
small game. It is represented by the pigeon-hawk in llie
U. S. See Falcon.
Merlin, Ambrosii-s: an ancient Welsh prophet and en-
chanter, traditionally stated to haveil lived in the fifth cen-
tury a. u. The legenilary history of Jlerlin is given by
Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia lirittonum, where he
is represented as having s|irung from the intercourse of a
Welsh princess with a ileinon, anil to have been the adviser
of Kings Vortigern, I'terpendrajron, and Arthur. He fig-
ures largely in all the .\rthurian poems from Spenser to
Tennyson. A collection of prophecies a.scribed to him was
printed in French in 1498, another in English in 1.529, and
a third in Latin at Venice in 1554. — Another Mkklix, called
Caledonius, or " the Wild," was said to have lived at Strath-
clyde in Scotland in the sixth century, and his grave is still
shown at Dninimel/ier on the Tweed, where he was killed on
returning from an incursion into Norlhumbria. He seems
to have been a copy of his \S'elsh prototype, and his prophe-
cies are aliyost identical with those of the former. ,\n an-
cient metrical Life of this Merlin, consisting of 1,.5(X) lines,
was published by the Roxburghe Club.
Revised by H. A. Beers.
Mermaid [M. Eng. mermayde : mere < O. Eng. mere,
lake, sea + mai/de > Mod. Eng. maid] : an imaginary ma-
rine being, having the form of a woman to the waist, and
ending in the tail of a fish. Merme.v, the males of this
supposed species, are also dcscrilied. The probability is
that the appearance of the dugong or some other marine
animal in places where it was not well known may liave
given rise to the stories regarding this fabulous being. The
sirens, nereitls. and water-nymphs of poetry are all forms of
the same creature.
Meroban'des, Flavtus : a poet ; flourished in the fifth
century. He was a .Spaniard and a Christian, and from an
inscription of the year 435 (Corpus VI.. 1724) we learn that
he was a distinguished soldier and rhetorician and a privy
councilor of the emperor. Four of his poems, formerly at-
tributed to Claudian, can be found in Jeep's edition of
Claudian, vol. ii., pp. 201-208 (Leipzig, 1879). See also
TeuHel, Romische Lit. Gesch., p. 464. M. W.
Meroi' : the name given by Cambyses to the Ethiopian
city Saba in honor of his sister who died there. It was
situated on the Xile. between the fifth and sixth cataracts,
in Upper Xubia (16° 44' X. lat.). (Cf. Joseplius, Antiq. Jud.,
ii., 10 : .Strabo xvii., i., 5.) After the decay of Xapata (o. !•.)
to the X'., it became the Ethiopian capital, the chief lOaee
of an independent kingdom, in the tenth and ninth cen-
turies B. c. The Greek tradition that Meroi; furnished the
original of Egyptian civilization is wrong, being based,
I)robably. on limited observation and tem])orary relations.
Amenophis I. (Amenhote|)) of the eighteenth dynasty led a
warlike exi)edition into Xubia, and penetrated as far as
Meroi'. The pyramids of the region were of late construc-
tion, dating from 600 to 100 B. c and arc simply formal
imitations of those of Egypt. The name was also ajiplied
to the ancient kingdom of which .Meroe was tlie capital, and
whose kings. "So" and Tirhaka, invaded Egypt. It also
survives as the name of a wretched village on the ancient
site. The Isle of Meroe is the name of a tract in South
Xubia, having an area of 577,480 s(|. miles, between the Xile
and its Iriljutary, the Atbara. See Lepsius. Letters from
Egypt, Eng. trans., p, 150. Charles R. Gillett.
Me'roin : the biblical name (Josh. xi. 5) for Huleh, a lake
in Xoiihcin Palestine: triangular in form, the apex point-
ing S., about 4 miles long, and at its greatest breadth 3i.
The best description of it is in Macgregor's Rob Roy (1806).
Merop'idiP [Mo<l. Lat., named from Jfe'rops. the typical
genus, from Lat. me ro/« = Gr. fitfmfi. bee-eater]: a family
of tjirds, pofiiilaiiy called "bee-eaters.'' (Si>e Bee-eater.)
Thev have the head moderate: the bill longer than the
head, curved, and acutely pointed at the tip; the gape is
not deep : the nostrils are basal, rounded, juid partly hidden
by the short bristles; the tarsi are very short; the toes
long: the tail is long and broa<i. The species comprises
tropical or sub-tropical birds, confined to the Old \\ orld.
Three genera are generally recognized — viz.: Jferops. wiOi
about twenty species ; Melittophayus, with six species, iieciil-
iar to .Vfrica: and Syctiornis. with seven species, in the
Indian mainland and archi[>elago. as well as Africa. They
feed upon insects generally. Revised by F. A. Litas.
Merosfom'ata : the group of Arthropods which includes
the HoKsEsiioK Crabs (g. v.) and their l^ossil allies, the Eu-
rypterida. They derive their name from the fact that the
basal joints of the legs are used as chewing organs. These
forms have the boily divided into an anterior ceplialothorax
and a posterior abdomen. Tlie former bears two pairs of
eyes anil six [lairs of walking legs, some or all of which ler-
iiiinate in [lincers. The abdominal appendages are adapted
for respiration. Formerly classed with the Crustacea, these
forms are now known to be more closely allied to the
scorpions and spiders. For the most r<.'cent discussion of
their nflinities, see Kingsley, Embryology of LimiituK in
Journal of Morphology (I893I. J. S. Kl.NGSLEV.
<5S2
JIEROVIXGIAN
MEKRITT
Meroviii'driaii : tlie first Frankish dynasty in Gaul.
The imiiie is ilirivcJ from Morwif; or Merovii'us, who was
supfKiSfii to liavc foumleil a Fraiikish empire on tlio soil
of Gaul ill the luiihile of the liflh lenlury, which ('i,ovis
(o. r.) or t'hUiiinij; preatly extemled ami perfectly coiisoli-
(latctl. The niost characteristic events in the history of
the Merovinirian dynasty are the perpetual division and
suWivision of the empire in Austrasia and Nenstria; llie
horrible fends oriirinated by the rivalry and hatred of
Brunehild and Freilegonda. and so vividly depicted by Au-
pustin Thierry in hi^ i{e'cil.i Mennnnffitns (ISJU); and the
establishment' of a peculiar office, tliat of major domiig,
which iK'casioned the overthrow of Ihe dyniv^ty. In 752
Pepin the Short, iiiajur (lomux to Childeric 111., confined
the kinfC in a niona-stery and seated himself on the throne
bv the aid of the pope." I'epin was a man of enormous cn-
eigy, of great courage, and with a subtle understanding of
time and circumstances. He felt that the dire emergencies
of the countrv demanded a vigorous ruler, and he under-
stood that in the eyes of the neoide the clergy could legitima-
tize even a revolution, lie conseciuently induced I'ope
/acharias to become a mcnd)er of the consitiracy, and Uoni-
face crowned anil consccrateil him. Thus the C'arlovingian
succeeded the Merovingian dymisty. See Fr.\xks, Tiii:.
Merriuni, Arr.vsTus t'li.vi'JiA.v, Ph.D.: scholar; b. at
Locust (irove, X. Y.. .May :Jl), 15*43 : was educate<l at Colum-
bia College, where he has lilled successively the positions of
tutor of Greek and Latin, Adjunct Professor of Greek, and
Professor of Greek Archaeology and Epigraphy. He was
director of the American School of Classical Studies at
Athens 1887-8«. and during that time the excavations under
liis direction determined the birthplace of Thespis. In 18!i0
he was elected president of the New York Society of the
Archaeological Institute. D. at Athens, Greece, .Ian. 19, IH'Jo.
His principal works are The I'h(cacinns of Homer (1880);
The Greek and Lalin Inxcriplions on Ihe Obelisk Crab in
Central Park (1883); The Sixlh and Heventli Hooks of
Herodotus (188.')) ; Law Code of Oortyna in Crete, Text.
Translation, Comment (1886); report as director of Athens
school (1889). C. H. Tul'RBKH.
Merriam. Clintox Hart, M.I).: naturalist and biolo-
gist: b. in New York city, Dec. .5, 18-i5 ; was educated at
the Shcllield Scientific School of Yale University: was ap-
pointed naturalist of the Hayden survey in 1872. and as-
sistant L'. S. fisli commission in 1875 ; since 1886 has been
chief of the division of ornithology and mammalogy, U. S.
Department of Agriculture. In 1891-92 he was one of the
Bering Sea commissioners. He has dcvoteil himself particu-
larly to the stuily of the gcograjihic distribution of animals
and plants in North America, and is the leading authority
on North American mammals. His work, which has con-
sisted largely in accumulating facts bearing on the subjects
above named, is not to be measured by his published works.
Since 1883 he has described al)Out 125 new species of mam-
mals from North .\merica. His short papers are numerous ;
among the longer are Birdu of Connecticut (1877) ; Jlam"
mats of the Adirondncks (1884) : Jiioloyiral Survey of the
San f ranriuro .Mountain Region and Painted Desert of
Arizona (1890); O'eographic Distribution of Life in yorih
America (1892); &a<i. Results of the DeatJi Valley Expedi-
tion (1893). F. A. Lucas.
MerrMl : city: capita! of Lincoln co., Wis. (for location
of count V. s«'e map of Wisconsin, rcf, 3-1)) ; on both sides
of the W'isconsin river, and on the Chi., Mil. and St. Paul
Itailway ; 20 miles X. of Wausau. It contains a high school,
4 grammar schools, H churches, free jiulilic library with
5,(J0(» volumes, 2 national bunks with combined capital of
$160,000. and 3 weekly and 2 iiumthly periodicals. It is in
an agricultural and hardwood-timber region, and is princi-
pally engaged in lumber-mainifactures, in which 140,000,(KK)
feet were used in 1892. Poi>. (1885) 3,948 ; (1890) 6,809 ;
(1895) State census, X,007.
EntToR OF " Lincoln Cocxty Ahvocate."
Merrill, Georok Pbrkixs, M. S., Ph. 1)., F. G. S, A. :
geologist; b. at Auburn, Me., Jlay 30, 1854; was edu-
cated at the Maine State College ami Wesleyau I'niversity,
Middletown, Conn. ; was assistant in Chemistry in Wesleyan
University 1879-80; became curator of geologv. National
Museum, Washington. !». ('.. in 1880; has been Professor of
Geology and Jlineralogy in the Corcoran Scientific School
of Columbian University, Washington, 1), C, since 189:!.
He is the author of Stonrs for linllding and Decoration
(Xcw York, 1891) ; Handbook and Calal'uyue Collection of
Building and Ornamental Stones in Ihe United States TVa-
lional Jlusuem ; Report of Smilhsoniati Institute (1885-
86); Handbook for the Department of Oeology. United
States National JIuseum ; Report of the Smitltsonian In-
stitute (1890) ; and numerotis scicntiftc papers.
C. H. Tuurher,
Merrill, Ski.aii, P. D., IjL. P. : explorer; b. at Canton
Centre, Conn., May 2. 1837; entered the cla.ss of 18.59 at
Yale College, but did not graduate; received, however, the
honorary degree of M. A. from the .same institution ; preached
in .several places; was chaplain in the civil war (1864-65);
has been specially active in cxploratiims in Palestine, being
archaeologist of the American Palestine Exploration Si>cietv
(1874-77) and U. S. consul in Jerusalem (1884-86. 1890-93),
the results of which he has incorporated in numerous arti-
cles and in several works, including East of the Jordan
(New York, 1881 ; 2d ed. 1883) ; Oalilee in the Time of
Christ {liostan, 1881): Greek Inscriptions Collected in the
Years lS7o-IS77 in the Country East of Ihe Jordan, etc.
(New York, 1885) ; The Site of Calrary (1886).
George P. Fisiier.
Merriinac : town ; Essex co.,Mass. (for location of coun-
ty, see map of Massaehusett.s. rcf. l-l): near the Jlerrimack
river, and on the Boston and Maine Kailroad : 6 miles N. E.
of Haverhill, 46 miles N. by E. of Boston. It is connected
with Amcsbury. Haverhill, and Newburyport by electric rail-
way; has a pulilie library founded in 1876. and a weekly
newspaper; and is principallv engaged in the muniifacture
of carriages and felt boots. Pop. (1880) 2.237; (189(1) 2,633;
(1895) 2,301. Editor of " Buduet."
Merrimack River: a stream of New Hampshire and
Ma.-^sachusetts ; formed liy the union of the Pcmigewasset
and Winnipiscogee at Franklin, N. H. It flows southward
into Massachusetts, where it curves toward the N. E., and
reaches the ocean in lat. 42° 48 27" N.. Ion. 70° 48' 46" W.
On its banks are the thriving cities of Concord. Manchester,
and Na,shua, N. H., and Lowell, liawrence, Haverhill, and
Newburyport, Mass. It is a navigable tidal stream as far as
Haverhill, 15 mile.s. At its mouth there is a shifting bar
which impedes commerce. The river below the dam at Law-
rence has valuable fisheries, but its chief industrial impor-
tance is from the immense water-power it affords,
Merriman, Mansfield: civil engineer; b. in .Southing-
ton, Conn., Mar. 27, 1848; graduated in 1871 at the Shefileld
Scientific School of Yale College, which also conferred upon
him the degree of C. E. in 1872. and of Ph.D. in 1876.
From 1872 to 1875 he was engaged in surveying and en-
gineering work: from 1875 to 1878 he was instructor in the
Sheffield Sc^ientific .School : from 1878 to 1881 Professor of
Civil and Jlechanical Engineering, since 1881 has been
Professor of Civil Engineering in Lehigh University, Penn-
sylvania. During 1880-85 he was acting assistant, U. S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, having charge of triangulation
in Pennsylvania. He is the author of articles in mathemat-
ical and engineering periodicals, and of the following books :
Ciiiitiiiunus Bridgen (1876); Elements of the Sl/ilhod of
Least Squares (1877): 'The Figure of the Earth (1881);
Teji-hnok on Ihe Method of Least Squares (1884); 'The Me-
chanics of Materials (1885); A Text-book on Roofs and
Bridges (1888) ; Treatise on Hydraulics (1889) ; ,4 Text-book
on Retaining Walls and Masonry Dams (1892); and Inlro-
duclion to Geodetic Surveying (1892).
Merritt, Wesley : soldier ; b. in New York city. June 16,
1836: graduated at the U.S. Military Academy, and entered
the army as brevet second lieutenant of dragoons 1860; was
apjtointed captain Second Cavalry 1862. In the early i>art
of the civil war he had much valuable experience on the
slafTof cavalry commanders, and in Apr., 1863, accomi)anied
Stoneman's rind to Kichmond ; was appointed a brigadier-
general of volunteers in June, and breveted major U. S. army
the week following for Gettysburg, where he commanded the
reserve cavalry brigade, as also in 'be subsequent operations
up to Ajir., 1864. In the Richmond cam|iaign of 1864 ho
commanded a divi.sion under Sheridan, participating in all
the battles of that cam|>aign, and was breveted lieuleiiant-
colonel for gallant and meritorious services at Yellow Tav-
ern, and colonel for the same at Ilawes's Shop, Va. In com-
mand of a cavalry division in the Shenandoaii campaign, he
took part in various skirmishes and the battles of Opecpian,
Cedar Creek, Winchester, and Fisher's Hill, where lie won
the brevet of nuijor-gcTieral ; again at Five Forks, Sailor's
Creek, and final surrender was distinguished, and promoted
MERRY
MERYON
683
to be ninjor-fjcnenil from date of Five Forks : and was bre-
veted bri^'idier and iimjor-^jeiieral. U. S. army, Mar., 18Co.
Subseciiieiit to tlie close of I lie war lie served as chief of cav-
alry iu various dc|iartinenls till Feb., 18()6, wlieii he was mus-
tered out of the volunteer service : became lieutenant-colonel
of Ninth Cavalry .July, lH(i(i; colonel of Fifth Cavalry .Inly,
1876; brifiadier-general Apr.. ISST; superintendent of L'.S.
Military Academy at West I'oint .Sept. 1. 1S.S2, to July 1,
1K87; commanded tlie department of the Missouri lyf^T-Dl
and lH!r)-'.J7, the department of Dakota ls!)l-',),'j ; nuijor-
general Aiir. 24, 18'J5 ; in command of the East Apr. 11, 1S97.
Merry, Uohkrt: poet; b. in London in Apr., 175.5; was
educated at Harrow and at Christ's College, Cambridge;
studied law at Lincoln's Inn; bought a commission in the
Guards in 1775, but soon sold it; liveil from 1784 to 1787
at Florence. Italy, where he became a member of the famous
Delia Crusca Ac'adcmy; contriljuted to The Flurfiice Min-
cellany, and returning to Lomlon began to publish plays
and poems under the pseudonym Delia Crusca. Their .style
was imitatcil by many writers, ami tlius gave occasion to
Oifford to satirize the " Delia Cruscan school" in his Ba-
viad. Merry married in 17111 Miss Elizabeth Urunton, an
actress, with whom he went to the U. S. in 1790. lie brought
out in I'hiladelphia a play entitled The Abbey of tit. Augus-
tine (1797). D, in Haltimore, Dec. 14, 1798.
Revised by H. A. Beers.
Merspy : a river of England which rises in the norUi part of
the coun'tv of Dcrliy, (lows in nearly a westerly direction,
expanding at Runcorn into a broad estuary, on the north side
of which is Liverpool; below this it joins the Irish Sea.
This estuary is from 1 to ',i miles broad, and is al)out 16 nules
long; on its Cheshire side is the entrance to the Jlanehester
Ship-canal, and underneath it is a tunnel connecting Liver-
pool an<l Hirkenhead by railway, which has been in opera-
tion since ,Ian. 21), 1SS6. The Mersey, with the estuary, has
an entire length of about 70 miles, and is navigable to its
junction with the Irwell, its principal allluent.
Mersin : chief |iort of Southeastern Asia Minor; in the
vilayet of Adana (m'c map of Turkey, ret. (i-ti). Its road-
stead is e.xposeil and has a shifting bottom. The town is at-
tractive, with widcclean streets ; water at)0iinds,and in the
environs are nunu'rous gavtlens and villa.s. Its exports of
carpets, cotton, wool, sesame, linseed, and castor-beans are
imjiortant. Fop. 8,000. E. A. G,
Mersoii, mar s»n', Luc Olivier ; historical painter : b. in
Paris, May 21, 1846; pupil of I'ils; was awarded the Grand
Prix de Rome in 1869; a first-class medal at the Salon of
1873; first-class at the Paris Exposition of 1SS9: received
the decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1881. His com-
positions are most artistically conceived, and his work pos-
sesses qualities of a high order. St. Isidore (1879) is one of
his finest works, and Repose in Egypt, the Holy Family
resting by night in the de.sert — exhibited at the Salon of
1879 — is owned by S. A. Coalc, St. Louis, Mo. .Studio in
Paris. " William A. Coffin.
Mer'tliyr TytI'vil: parliamentary borough ami market-
town of .Siiulh Wales; on the Ixmlers of the counties of
Urccknock and Glamorgan : on the TatT; 24 miles N. by W.
of CanlilT, its port (see map of England, ref. 11-E). It is
for the most part meanly built, but since 18.")0 it has been
greatly imiiroved. The industries arise entirely from the
collieries and iron-works in the vicinity, as Merthyr is
the center of the Glamorganshire coal-fields. Pop. (1891)
58,080.
Morton. Walter, de : founder of Merton College ; b. at
Jlerton, iu Surrey, England, or at Basingstoke, Hampshire,
earlv in the thirteenth century; was educated at the priory
at Merton ; took holy orders ; obtained several benefices ; was
appointed Lonl Chancellor 12()1 : deprived of hisoOice by the
barons 126:!; reappi>intcd 1272, but resigned in 1274. having
been appointed Bishop of Rochester, lie was reputed a man
of great learning. D. Oct, 27. 1277, and was buried in
Rochester Cathcilral. Chancellor Merton establishe<I at
Basingstoke, where his parents were buried, a hospital for
poor travelers and indigent ministers, and founded Merton
College at Oxford (.Ian. 7. 1264), gave it a further endow-
ment in 1270, and saw it completed in 1274. Its distinilive
feature was that it was a literary, not a sacerdotal, institu-
tion, and that the stu<ients were prohil)ited from taking
vows. It became the archetype upon which most stili.'cqnent
colleges at Oxfrrd were nioiieled, and celebrated its sex-
centenary in 1864.
Mern.or Siiniprii [Sanskr.l; in Hindu mythology, a fabu-
lous mountain which fiprms the central axis of the universe
and round whi<h all planets revolve. It is 84,000 yojanas
(about 1,344,000 miles) high, is wider at top than at bottom,
is the abode of Brahma, and supports the Dkvalokas (y. v.)
and the Brahmalokas. Its eastern side is composed of gold,
its southern side of lapis lazuli, its northern of crystal, and
its western of silver, and each is the abode of one of the four
regents or kings who ward off the assaults of the Asuras or
demons who live beneath the mountain. The Ganges flows
from heaven on its summit, and thence descends in four
streams to the surrounding worlds. Mt. Meru plays an im-
portant part in the Buddhist cosmogony. R. L.
Mer'illa(-'/or/«;n),GEOROios: classical scholar ; b.at Ales-
sandria, near Milan, 1424; was educated by the famous
I'hih'lplio: opened a school in Venice in 1464; was called
back to Milan by Louis Sforza in 14H2, occupying the post
of historiographer of the city. D. Mar., 1494. He was a
man of excessive vanity, and engaged in polemical con-
troversies with his contemporaries, notably Politiano. He
issued the editio prinreps o{ yiarl'ml (H'O); The Comedies
of I'lautus (1472); edited Cicero, de finibus, pro Ligario;
and wrote learned commentaries to Juvenal, Statins, Au-
soniu.s, and others. Alfred Gudemax.
Mcrilla (if(7i J/f r?e), Pai'L : classical scholar ; b. at Dord-
recht, Holland, Aug. 19, 1558; was a member of a very dis-
tinguished family ; after several vears of travel he practiced
law at The Hague. He succeeiled in 15'.»2 to the chair of
History at the University of Leyden, made vacant by Jus-
tus Lipsius, and was appointed librarian in 1598, after the
death of Douza. He retired to Rostock because of ill-health,
but died soon after his arrival July 20. 1607. He was the
first editor of the fragments of Ennius, with valuable notes
(1595); of Eiitropius; author of a IJfe of Erasmus, and of
many geographical works and treatises on Roman antiqui-
ties." Alfred GuDEMAS.
MerT (anc. Margiana) : oasis in the province of Trans-
cas|)ia, Russian Central Asia; situated in lat. 37° 30' X. and
Ion. 62 E. : 250 miles N. of Herat and 360 miles S. of Khiva ;
area, 2,000 sq. miles ; pop. 150.000 to 200.000 ; formed by the
Murghab. and surrounded W., X., and E. by the most arid
parts of the Kara-Kum desert, while to the S. it communi-
cates with the valley of the Herirud of Afghanistan. The
Murghab rises on the northern side of the Parooamisus,
runs parallel to the Tejend, and likewise loses itself in the
Kara-Kum desert, having spent its waters on the forma-
tion of Merv. The inhabitants of this oasis are Turco-
mans of the Tekke tribe. The great fertility of the c«mn-
try made Merv at times a marvel of prosperity, but at
present the Tekkes feel it necessary to add to the produc-
tions of their agriculture and manufactures (arms, silver-
ware, superior carpets, felts, coarse cloths, etc.) by ]>illaging
their neighbors. In ancient times the oasis contained a
wealthy and extensive city, as shown by its ruins. The
present town of Merv has sprung up since the extension of
the Transcaspian railway through the oasis. It is the rail-
way station, and has a population of 3,000.
Revised by M. W. IIarrixgton.
M/'ry. m(( ree', .Ioseph : poet and satirist : b. at Aygualades,
near Marseilles, Jan. 21, 1798 ; was educated at a seminary,
but was expelled on account of his atheistical opinions, and
after a reckless and quarrelsome career, in the course of
which he fought in duels, violated the press law.s, and spent
some time in prison, he went to Paris in 1824 and published
in collaboration with Rarthelemy La Villeliade. a satire on
the Villele ministry, and a number of verses dedicated to
the Bonaparte family. He also worked on the JWh/m/.i, a
satirical journal, and produced a variety of romances,
dramas, and poems, some of which acquired great [Mppu-
larity. D. in Paris, June 17. 18li6. Among his pixaical
works are Melodies poet iques (1853) and Snpoleon en Jtalie
(1859). Of his romances mav be mentioned Hcenes de la
[•If Italienne (18;17); Lex Xuits de Londres (1840); L'n
amour dans /'(/(v/iiV (1841); Jleni (1813); and a collection
of yourelle.i nouvelles (18.53). His dramatic writings in-
clude L'essai du mnringe (1X55); Les deu.r Frontins (1858);
La fiancee aujr millions (1864): and many others, together
with librettos for several operas. F. M. CtiLiiv.
Meryon.ma ri-oiV, Charles: engraver; b. in Paris, France,
Xov. 23. 1821; entered the naval school at Brest, and in
1839 began a naval career of seven years, during which he
rose to the rank of lieutenant. In his voyages in the Medi-
68:1:
JIERZLlAKOV
terranean and the Pacific he had used freelv a natural
power of dniwinR from nature, and from 1S46 to 1»5U he
studied art in a formal way. but L'ave up paititing because
his eye for color was defective. He bej;an to make careful
engriivings of the buildinps of old Paris, selecting those re-
markalile for pictures()ue effect, but not tR-atini; Iheiu in
the swift and suirsiestivc way corunion to etchers : his work
was rather si'vere and exact than free, and it is dillicult to
sav how far he used the burin to help out the effect of his
etchings. His work obtained little recojrnition. and he
could hanllv support life by it. Melancholy and despoml-
ency overcame him ; in 185.^-59 he was confined in the
asylum for the insane at Charenton, near Paris; and in
18if)6 his. mind hail failed .so much that it was necessary
again to confine him. He died at Charenton. Feb. 14, 1H68.
His chief work is contained in a scries of Eaux-Furles
tur Paris, twelve lar-re plates, with a number of smaller
decorative pieces. The best known of these twelve plates
are La Mon/iu; L'AbsiJe de Xotre Dame. Toiirelle de la Hue
de la Tixrr'audi-rie. Besides these he made other etchings
of Paris, some from buildings in Bourges, some after draw-
ings which he had brought home from Greece and from
New Zealand and other i.-ilands of the Pacific, and a very
few to oriler, of which much the most important is a pano-
ramic view of Sun Francisco made from small daguerreo-
tvpos. Russell Stcrgis.
Merzliakov', AlekseI Feiwrovich : noet ; b. in Perm.
Russia, in 1778. In 171*3 he was sent to Moscow, where he
studied at the university at which he afterward taught, in
time becoming full professor of Russian eloquence and
poetrv. His first verses ajipeared in print as early as 17!i4.
and for the rest of his life he continued to contribute to
different papers and reviews. Although in theory he was a
strict adherent of the so-called classic school, the simplicity
and feeling in some of his shorter poems have kept them pop-
idar to the present day. Ue was also the author of religious
odes, many of which posses-^ed merit, as well as of a number
of translations, chiefly from the Ijatin and the Greek, like-
wise from Tasso, Alficri. and other Italian poets. See .his
complete works (2 vols., Moscow, 1867). I). July 36, 1830.
A. C. Coolidoe.
Mesa, La : See La Mesa.
Mescala. or Mezcala, maz-kaa'hui : a river of Mexico ;
rising in the state of Tlaxcala, flowing through Puebla and
Guerrero, and lower down forming the boundary between
Guerrero and Michoacan : its general course is westerly, but
on reaching the Sierra Madre it turns suddenly southward
through that range and reaches the Pacific near Ion. 103"
W. It takes various local names, as Atoync in Puebla, Rio
de las Balsas in Guerrero, and Zacatala near its mouth,
where it is navigable for some distance; the entrance, how-
ever, is obstructed by sandbars, and the little port of Zaca-
tala has no commercial importance. The Mescala has com-
parativelv few^ dangerous rapids, but the current is very
swift and strong ; various plans have been proposeil for its
canalization. At present it is important only for gold
washings along its lower coui'se. and locally for its fisheries.
It gives its name to the small town of Mescala in Guerrero.
HERiiEKT H. Smith.
Mpscalero : See Athapascan Ixdlaxs.
Mescalpa : See Grijalva.
Mi-M-nccph'uloii : .See Bkai.v.
Mes'entery [Gr. /ifVos. mid. middle -i- tvrtpa. intestines,
bowels]: a double fold of the jieritoneum which attaches
the small intestine to the spinal column, but so loosely as to
allow nmeh freedom of motion. The corres|)onding support
of the large intestine is the riiesocolon, with the miKorfdiim.
The mesentery ciiiilains between its folds numerous blood-
vessels, ner\-es, lacteals. and lymphatics, and the ganglia
known as mesenteric glands, which are connected with the
lymphatico-lacleal sy.slem. It is about 4 inches wide, and
extends nearly the whole length of the intestine. See Peri-
TO.NITIS.
Mo'sha : King of Moab in the reigns of Ahah. Ahaziah,
ami .blicinim. tributary to the kiiigilom of Israel, to which
he annuallv paiil "a hunilreil tlio\i>iand lambs (3 Kings iii.
4) and a iiiimlrcd thousand rams with their wool." On
the death of Aliab (i. 1 ; iii. 4) ho revolted, and .Ichoram
made an alliance with .lehoshapliat. King of .linlah, against
him. The two kings overran Moab with the exception of
one strongholil. which .Mesha successfully defended after
offering his first-born son as a burnt-offering to his god
MESOTHORAX
Chemosh (iii. 27). An inscribed tablet of this king, the
MoAlilTK Sto.ve ((/. t'.). which commemorates the deliverance
hinted at in 3 Kings iii. 37, was discovered in 1868 at iJibon.
Mesh'ed, or Mashhad: the capital of the province of
Khorassan, Persia; on an elevated but fertile |ilain in lat.
36 17 X. and Ion. 59' 37' E. (see map of Persia and Ara-
bia, ref. 3-.I). To some extent Meshed derives its impor-
tance from the circumstance that it contains the mausoleum
of Imam Riza, who was the founder of the great Moham-
medan sect of the Shiites. This mausoleum and the mosque
built over it, with its gilded domes and minarets, its doors
of siher, its rails of gtud, and forests of columns of marble
and porphyry, is among the most magnificent bnihlings of
the East, and is annually visited by thousan<ls of pilgrim.s
Besides being a so-called holy city. Meshed is a great trade-
center. Caravans are coming and going every day. carry-
ing loads of costly merchanclise from India, China, Persia,
Arabia, and Europe. In several branches of industry its
own manufactures are celebrated ; its carpets, shawls, light
silks, and sword-blades have a high reputation ; also cer-
tain kinds of earthenware, glass, and porcelain. Pop. esti-
mated at from 50,000 to 80.000.
Revised by M. W. Harrixgton.
Mes'mer. Fraxz, or FRiEDRtrn Axtos : physician ; li. at
Itzmaiig. on the Lake of Constance. May 33. 1733. or. accord-
ing to others, at Meersburg. in Suabia, in 1734. He was edu-
cated at Dillingen and Ingolstadt, studied medicine at
Vienna, took the degree in 1766. and began his famous mag-
netic cures in 1773 ;" went to Paris in 1778 ; made an enor-
mous sensation and a great fortune, but lost his reputation
here by the unfavorable report made on his method by a
roval committee of the greatest French physicians ami
scientists ; practiced for some time in Loiulon. though with
less success ; returned to Germany, and died almost entirely
forgotten at Meersburg, Mar. 5. 181.5. Mesmer gave his
name to the whole class of phenomena now known under
the term Hvp.votism (q. v.). the older term mesmerism liav-
ing covered a great number of theories and supposed facts,
which only the recent scientific work in hvpnotisin has put
in order. Revised by J. Mark Baldwin.
Mesmerism : Sec Uvpsotism.
Mesocarp : See Drupe.
Mesonero Roinaiios. Ramon, de: writer and scholar; b.
in Madrid. Spain. .July 10, 1803 : d. there in Apr., 1882. He
began life by succeeding to his father's business in Madrid,
but his litcrai-y instincts were strong, and he gradually gave
wav to them." In 1831 he made his literary debut with a
Mauiial de Madrid (3d cd. 1844). at once a gui<le to the
to|)ography and monuments of the city, and a collection of
remarkalily skillful pictures of the peculiar life there. This
had appeared under the pseudonym El Cnrioso Parlanle ;
and under the same name he pidjlished his Panorama ma-
Irife7ise (2 vols., 1832-35) ; Escenas matrilenses (4 vols..
18:56-42); Tiyw* .</ cnrde/ercs- (1843-62). In 18;36 he fouiuled,
and for some years conducted, the Semnnario piiilorexco es-
naiiol (8 vols.). In 1843 he published Beciierdos de i-iaje piir
Francia y Belgica. In 1845 he was attached to the Biblio-
teca Xacional in Madrid, and from that time on turned more
and more to scholarly labors. He edited several volumes of
the dramatists for Rivadencyra"s Bihlioleca de An/ores Es-
pailohs. and contributed critical or biographical notices to
several others. In 1861 he published a scholarly history of
earlv Ma<lrid. J?? aiitiguo Madrid. After his death a vol-
ume' of his literary remains ajipearcd. Alyo en prosa y versn
(1S8:!). A collected edition of his works, Obras, was i)rinted
in .Madrid in 1881. A. R. Marsh.
Mesopota'mia [=Lat. = Gr. /xco-oiroro^o (sc. yfi. laml).
the country between the rivers ; litaos. mid. -I- iroro/iuij, river] :
the name generally applied since the third century n. c. to
the tcrritorv inclosed between the Tigris and Euphrates,
and 33 30 and 37° 30' X. lat. It is called by the Arabs el
Jezireh, the Island. The whole region is now part of Asi-
atic Turkey, constituting the vilayet of Mesopotamia. Tlie
northern part is rendered hilly by spurs of the Taurus: all
the rest is a low. level plain, consisting mainly of dry steppes.
The soil is fertile along the rivers where irrigation is em-
iiloyed, but elsewhere affords S'ant pasturage. Kurds in-
liabit the north, but the great majority of the iidiabilanis
are Arab.s. Anciently it was well cidtivatcd and prosper-
ou.s. being traversed by the main commerciid routes uniting
Central and Western Asia. E. A. Guosvenor.
Mesotliorax : See Exto.moloov.
MESOZOA
MESSIAH
CS5
Mesozo'a |.M<"1. Lat., from Gr. /itaoT. middle + (^ov. ani-
inal|: u nuinu iiilrnduLed by van Biiieduii fur <eiMain prob-
leiiiatical animals, fmni the faet thai he re;rar(liMl them as
occupyiii;;; a position iiilermediale lietweeii tlie I'rotozoa. or
single-celled, and the Metazoa, or many-eelled aiumals. The
forms inehuled are almost mieroseopie in size, and are either
thread-like or spindle-shaped. They live as parasites iu
cuttle-fishes, Eohinoderms, and certain worms. The bodies
are remarkable in consistini; of very few cells, and these are
arranged as an outer layer coverin;; a central mass of one
or several inner cells. All orj;ans. except cilia for locomo-
tion, are lacking. They have neither mouth, nervous sys-
tem, nor muscles. The central cells produce the egjrs which
go throuKh ipiite a peculiar history. As to the ]K).sition of
these forms opiidons ditfer, but the weight of the evidence
j;oes to show tliat they must be rei^arded, not as primitively
simple forms, as thought by van Hencden, but as degenerate
worms, corning from that group which naturalists call Pla-
Ihelminthes. Two distinct groujis are recognized, the Or-
thonectida and the Dieyeinida. None has been found in
America. J. S. Ki.NusLiiY.
Mesozo'if Era [mesmoic is from Gr. /ifVos, middle + (uii,
life] : the .second of the three great divisions of geologic
time characterized by known forms of life. It was preceiled
by the PahTOZoic era and followed by the Cenozoic, and has
sometimes been called the era of reptiles. In the chrono-
logic system of most European geologists, it includes the
Triassie, .lunissic, ami t'retaceous periods ; in the system
ailopted by the U. S. (ieological Survey it includes the .Jura-
Trias and Cretaceous periods. See Geolooy and I'ai.eox-
Toi.iMJV. G. K. G.
Mesqiiit-iErrass: a name given in the Western U. S. to
rich pasture-grasses of the genera Buiiteluua. Aiistida, and
some others. They are of great value to stock-raisers, but
are of less value for hay-making.
Mesquit-tree: a small, thorny and gnarled tree of Texas,
New Jlexico, .\rizona, and .Mexico, the I'roxopis Ju/ijlura
of the family Le(iumiiio.i(e. Its hard wood affords good fuel,
and its branches yield abundantly a gum which is a good
substitute for gum arabic. It appears sparingly in com-
merce, and is called mesqiut-gum. The long pods abound
in a thick, sweet, edible pulp. Both bark and wood arc rich
in tannic acid, and are excellent materials for use in taninng
hides. Another mescpiit is the Proxnpia pubescetis (screw
mes()uit) ; its beans are ealiMi by the Indians, and the wood
is of great value on the southwestern desert plains. It is a
shrub or small tree, consi<lerably resembling the above.
Revised by C'UAaLi:s E. Bessey.
Mossalina: See Clai'dius.
Mpssa'na (in Gr. Meaa-i\vr\, now yiexsina) : a city on the
eastern coast of Sicily, near the straits that bear its name.
In 729 B. c. Chalcis in Eubira .sent a colony to the place,
whose old name Zancle or Danele they retained. In 494
B. c. exiles of Mili-tus and Sanios were invited to settle in
Zancle, but by the advice of .\naxilas, tyrant of Rhegium in
Italy (colonized partly by Mes.senians). the newcomers took
possession of the city, which soon thereafter came into the
power of Anaxilas who, being a Messenian, renamed it Mes-
sene (Doric Messana) after his unfortunate mother-country.
It later became Messina (q. v.). J. R. S. Sterkett.
Mpssapiaii Laiigiiaafo : a language which survived in
Calabria, Snuthiasleni Italy. until the first century B. r., and
is known to us through a few inscriptions written in a special
form of the Greek alphabet. It belongs to a group of lan-
guages which in early times oe<'upied the entire southern
and southeiustern part of Italy, and was spoken by a popula-
tion known under the various names Mes-sajiii, lapygii.
I'a-diculi, I'eueetii, Dauni.Sallentini. I5ruttii,ete. The most
probable view concerning the historical connection of this
group associates it with the Illyrian (Albanian) of the oppo-
site shore of the .\driatie. See Th. Mommsen. Unleritnl-
ischeJ>ialfl:le ilX'iO): Ilixtory of Home (vi<\. i.) : \V. Deecke.
Xiir Knlzifffrung drr iiir.ixtipi'.irhi'n Inxrhriflfn (liliein.
JIu.1. vols, xxxvi.. xxsviii., xl.): II. Xissen, Ilalisclie Laniles-
kumle (vol. i., \SS'i). See Italic IjAxufAGEs.
Uexj. Ii)E Wheeler.
Messp'no (in Vtr. Vl«T<rhyri) ■ a city in Messenia founded
by the Tliclians. under the leail of Kpaminondas, in 369 n.c,
at the foot of .Mt. Ithome. after the power of Sparta ha4i
twen finally broken. The new city was peopled by the de-
scendants of those who had emigrated 300 years before, and
the country flourished anew as an independent state until
conquered l)y the Romans in 146 B. c. The ruins of the
walls are universally admired. J. R. .S. S.
Mcsse'nia (in (ir. Metrcnivla) : a state of ancient Greece
embracing the scjuthweslern part of the Peloponnesus;
bounded on the X. by Elis and Arcadia, on the E. by La-
conia, and on the S. and W. by the sea. See JIessexe and
Messexiax Wars. ' J. R. s. S.
Messi'iiiau Wars: wars between Messenia and Sparta.
Firtl ir(//-(froin 74.'i-724 n. c). — Spartan maidens who were
visiting the temple of Artemis on tlie frontier were carried
off by Mes.senian youths, and when Teleclus, King of Sparta,
demanded them back, he was killed. About the same time
the herds of the Messenian I'olychares were driven off and
his s<jn was slain. Then, us the .Spartans refused to deliver
up the flocks, Polyeharcs killed every Spartan he could find.
The war began by the nuissacre of the inhabitants of the
frontier town Amphcia by the Spartans. A pitched battle
was of uncertain issue, though the -Spartans gradually forced
the Messenians to fortify themselves on Mt. It home. The
Delphic oracle promised victory to the Messenians if a virgin
of royal blood should be sacrificed. Aristodeinus slew ids
own daughter, became king, and for a while was victorious
over the Spartans, who by bribery obtained another oracle
favorable to themselves, whereupon Aristodemus killed him-
self upon the grave of his daughter and Ithome fell. Many
of the Messenians escajied to foreign eonntries. but those
who remained were reduced to the condition of serfs and
ground down by taxes. Second War (from 0^5-068 B. c). —
It was caused iirimarily by the hard lot of the Messenian
serfs or Peria'ci. The leader was Aristomenes. a man of
royal bhjod, who from Jit. Eira made repeated invasions
into .Sijartan territory, and distressed the Spartans so much
that tliey applied to Athens for a leader. Tlie Athenians
sent the poet Tyrtanis. whose martial songs revived the
droo]iing courage of the .'spartans. Aided by the treachery
of Aristocrates. King of Arca<iia and ally of the Messenians.
the Spartans won a decided victory (.see Aristo.mexes), and
most of the Messenians emigrateil to Rhegium in Italy, and
afterward possessed themselves of Zancle in Sicily. <Sec Mes-
sana.) Itiird H'nr (from 464-455 B. c). — A terrible earth-
quake in 4G4 B. c. gave the oppressed Messenian serfs a cov-
eted op|iortunity fur insurrection. Once again tlu-y fortified
tlu'Uiselves on jit. Ithome. At the request of Sparta the
Athcidans sent troops under C'imon to aid in imtting down
the insurrection, but after a time the Athenians were rudely
dismisse<l by the Spartans. After a long siege the Messen-
ians were allowed to withdraw on condition of perpetual ex-
Ue. Tlie Athenians located the most of them in Naupactus.
J. R. S. Sterrett.
Messiah [from Ileb. niashi'li. anointed (deriv. of ma-
sJialj, anoint), hence Messiah. Christ, whence Gr. M«r<rtas,
whence Lat. Mi-xnias. Messiah]: the name in the sacred
.Scriptures and in the usage of .lew and Christian ascribed
to that holy Person in whom the hopes of redemption center.
D'Cto in the Old Testament, used as an adjective, is applied
to the high priest (Lev. iv. 3: vi. 22.etc.) as the one anointed
with the holy oil; but as a substantive, to the theocratic
king (1 .Sam. ii. 10; Ps. xviii. 50, etc.). and so by the reflec-
tion of the poets to the patriarchs as the ancestors of the
theocratic king (1 Chron. xvi. 22; Ps. cv. 15); and thus by
eminence to that Person in whom the functions of priest-
hood and royally culminateil (Ps. ii. 2 ; ex. 1. 4 ; Dan. ix. 26).
In the Xew Testament. 6 M(ir<rlas is used in John i. 42; iv.
25, but generally n'tJ'O is rendered by its Greek ecjuivalcnt
Xptirris. whii'h with the article refers to Jesus as the ex-
pected Messiah, but without the article, especially in the
Epistles, became a proper name of Jesus Christ, the histor-
ical .Messiah. In the N'ew Testament it is easy to se]>aratc
the person of Christ from his reiiemptive work and the last
thinsr;; but this can not \io carried out in the Old Testa-
ment, because the person i>f the .Messiah is ever involved in
the future redemption, and the last tilings embrace both
advents. Hence we must treat of tlie Me.s.siah under the
more general head of Megxinnic Pmphcri/. which may be
defined as the prediction of the fulfillment of n-demption
through the Messiah or the divine ideal of redemption pre-
sented in the Old Testament. This ideal or prediction was
gradually unfolded, and is associated with historical epochs
anrl great names in Israel's history. It is fouini not only in
utterances respecting the future, but also in divine words
subsequently revealed in refi'rence to the past, in ideal state-
ments concerning the present, and in institutions.
6S6
JfESSIAH
Primilire Jftssianic Idfas. — (1) Gen. i. 26-30 stntos that
mankind was niailo in tlie divine imase with the destiny of
dominion over nature — the goal of creation was a godlike
race inhabiting and sulHluing the earth. The whole plan of
the world's history, whieh incluiles redemption after sin
enterinl. is hero indieated. Ps. viii. 3-1) repeats this idea.
The fultillnient is realized through Christ, the Son of man,
through whom mankind attains the original end of creation
(Col. lii. 10; Kph. iv. '24; lleb. ii. 5-10). ('.>) Gen. iii. 15, the
Protevangelium, predicts the ultimate victory of the seed of
the woman over the serpent, but not without sulTering. This
victorious seed primarily is the human race, and this prom-
ise is the Maijnn C/iai/a of human history. The seed, how-
ever, culminates in Christ, the representative of the race,
through whom the victory is attained. The serpent and his
seed represent all forces of evil (John viii. 44 ; Kom. xvi. 20 ;
1 Cor. XV. 25 ; Kev. xii. 9 f. : xs. 2 f.). (3) After the Hood,
in the promise and covenant with Noah, lujpe for the future
is assured ((Jen. viii. 21-22 ; ix. 8-11) ; manKind is not again
to lie cut off; the conditions necessary for man's destiny or
redemption are thus guaranteed. (4) In Gen. ix. 25-27 is
set forth the threefold development of the human race, de-
termined by their descent from Xoah's sons. To the de-
scendants of Ham is given servitude; to those of Japheth,
wide dominion ; to those of Shera, the bles.<inff or special
favor of God. This last is unfolded in the choice of Israel
and culminates in Christ. If v. 27 represents God dwelling
in the tents of Shem (so many commentators) then the divine
line of Messianic promise here begins, a line promising the
advent of tiehovah, which is carried forward in the mani-
festations of the Angel of .Jehovah, in .Jehovah's dwelling
above the cherubim, and in the predictions of .lehovuh's com-
ing in judgment and to abide with his people. The fulflllment
is in the incarnation (.lohn i. 14; Eph. ii. 22: Kev. xxi. 3).
(.5) Abraham's blessing (Gen. xii.l-;!; xiii. 14-17; xv. 4-5; xvii.
6--8; xxii. 15-19). renewed to Isaac and .lacob (xxvi.;i-5; xxvii.
27-29; xxviii. 13-15). unfolds the I-'rotevangeliutn. It is a
divine call with the institution of a covenant relation and a
promise which includes a promised seed, a promised land,
and a blessing to all nations. The seed — a generic term
representing the seed of the woman — in its unity is fulfilled
in Christ (Gal. iii. 16), but as a collective, with a multitude
of members, nations, and peoples, like the stars and sand, it
is fulfilled in the children of Abraham by faith (Rom. iv. 6;
Gal. iii. 29). The land was |irimarily Canaan, but ulliiiKilely
it is the spiritual Canaan, the heavenly Jerusalem (lleb. xi.
10, seg. ; Kev. xxi.). The blessing is realized in salvation
through Christ. ((5) The patriarch Jacob on his death-bed
divides the promised land among his sons, singling out
Judah as the one through whom the covenant blessings es-
pecially unfold (Gen. xlix. 8-12). He will be of resistless
might against his enemies, receiving also the homage of his
brethren. The peoples will obey him as ruler, while he
enjoys the luxuries of peace. The fulfillment began in the
Icatlership of Judah in the conquest of the land, and was
continuea in the glorv of the Uavidic dynasty, but is fully
realized only in tlie Lion of Judah (Kev. v. .5), who is the
great conqueror (Eph. iv. 8; Col. ii. 15), to whom all will
render homage (Phil. ii. 10 f.), and who will be enthroned
amid the glories of eternal (leace in heaven (Rev. xxi.-xxii.).
Mes-iianic Prop/iect/ of I lie Mosaic Ai/f. — (1) In Kx. iv. 22
f. Israj'l is placed in the endearing relationship of sonship,
even that of first-born son, to Jehovah. This idea, repeated
in Deut. xxxii. 6-10 and Hos. xi. 1, is unfolded in the i)rom-
ise made to David where his seed is placed in a similar re-
lation (2 Sam. vii. 14; comp. also Ps. ii. 7), and is fulfilled
in Jesus, the well-beloved and onlv begotten Son of God
(JIatt. iii. 17; John iii. 16, f/ «/.), a'nd through him it be-
comes the blessed right of all believers (John i. 12; 1 John
iii. 2). (2) In Kx. xix. 3-6 the foundation of the idea of the
kingdom of Goil is laid, ami the third element of Abraham's
blessing is unfolded. Israel redeemed from Egypt is con-
stituted by a covenant rclaticm a kingdom of priests and a
holy natiim unto Jehovah. Priesthood and rovaltv thus are
given to the nc(jple. The former finds representation ill the
Levitical ami .Vanmic priisthood (Num. xxv. 12, m(/.). Thev
unite in fulfillment in the J'riest-King, the Messiah, anil
through him Ihev become the inheritance of each believer
in theChuivh (1 f'el.ii.O; Rev.i.6; xx. 6). (3) The proph-
ecies of Halaam (Num. xxiii.-xxiv.) picture Israel as a unique
nation dwelling apart, of cDiintless numbers, irresistible in
might, and enjciyiiig rich ami beautiful pussessioiis, with
God fur their King, directly revealing his will among them.
Out of Israel emerges a victorious royal dynasty, indicated
in a star dnd scepter, permanent and enduring, while other
nations crumble and pass away. These jirophecies prefigure
the glory and triumph of the Jlessianic kingdom, and by
implication the sovereignty of the Messiah (Kev. xxii. 16).
(4) In Deut. xviii. 1,5-18 there is the promise of a prophet
like unto Moses, unto whom Jehovah will give his words
and ie(|uire that he be obeyed. According to some, the con-
text demands that prophi-t should be taken as a collective
noun, referring primarily to a line of prophets; others find
reference only to a specific prophet. In either case the idea
here set forth finds full rcalizatiim only in Chri.st, through
whom came "grace anil truth "(John i. 17), and who ful-
filled bdlh the law and the projihels. .saying. '■ But /sav unto
you" (Matt. v. 17, 21, 27. 34, 39), and" the Xew Test'ament
properly finds this prophecy fulfilled in him (Acts iii. 22-26).
(5) 111 addition to tlie.se words asscjciatcd with the patriarchal
and Mosaic periods of history, there are also the sacrificial
institulioiis, which typified a means of reconciliation with
God, and are fulfilled in the priestlv and atoning work of
Christ (1 Cor. v. 7; Eph. ii. 14, 16; lleb. viii.-ix. : 1 Pet. i.
17,f/o/.).
Messianic PiojjJipci/ of the Time of David. — A new era
begins with the organization of the kingdom of David, and
the establishment of the religious and jiolitical center at
Jerusalem. The desire of David to build Jehovah a house is
the occasion of a fundamental ]n-ophecy (2 Sam. vii. 12-16).
The promise to or covenant with David is that his seed shall
be established as a house or dynasty, to whom will be granted,
(1) to build a house for Jehovuli ; (2) to have an everlasting
kingdom ; (3) to be a son to Jehovah, chastised for sill and
yet retained with everlasting mercy. In the first of these is
involved the promise of the dwelling of God in the tents of
Shcni (if we adopt that reading, see above), the Shekinali of
the tabernacle, and the fulfillment is in Solomon's temple
(1 Kings V. 5). in the incariiatitm (hence Christ calls liis
body the temple. John ii. 19-21), and in the abiding presence
of Christ and the Holv Spirit in believers or the Church
(Matt, xxviii. 20; 1 Cor.'iii. 10; 2 Cor. vi. 16: Eph. ii. 20): in
the second is taken up Jacob's prediction concerning Judah
and Kalaam's of the star and scepter, and it forms the basis
of all subsequent expectations concerning the personal Mes-
siah, in whom and in whose kingdom it finds its ultimate
fulfillment; in the third is infolded the sonship of the peo-
ple (see above, Ex. iv. 22, 23), and the fulfillment is that al-
ready mentioned (see above) with llie aditional idea of mercy
and chastisement, relatively realized in God's dealings with
Solomim and subsequent kings, but ultimately in the sulTer-
ing Messiah, through whom mercy was first made sure for-
ever, when he received the chastisement of his Father God
for the i-cdeunition of his race (2 Cor. v. 21 ; Gal. iii. 13 ; 1
Pet. ii. 24). In David's last words (2 .Sun. xxiii. 1-7) is ex-
])ressed the confidence of the full realization of this cove-
nant.
Hased upon this Davidic covenant are certain passages in
the Psalter which express the idea of its fuller realization,
and thus are prophetic of the future. (1) Ps. xviii., de-
scribing the special interposition of God in behalf of David,
and then his exaltation and the subjugation of his ene-
mies, the extension of his rule to distant nations and the
praise of God among them for the wonilers he has wrought,
foreshadows typically a future divine purpose through a
king thai is Christ and a kingdom UMclcr his rule here on
earth (Rom. xv. 9). (2) Ps. ex. cites a divine oracle and
oath. an<l upon these as a basis re[)resents the Messiah go-
ing forth to battle, engaged in the struggle, and triumph-
ant. He is a ]>ricst-king after the order of Melchizedek, the
Lonl of David exalted to a position of peculiar dignity at
Jehovah's right hand, while he subdues all his enemies
under his feet. The priesthood and royalty of the people
here unite and find representation in a single perscm (see
above, Ex. xix. 3-6). The fulfillment is in the prii'stlv and
kingly rule of Christ (Matt. xxii. 41-15; Acts ii. 34-36:"lIeb.
i. 13 ; vii. 17, seq. ; x. 12-13 ; Eph. i. 20 ; 1 Cor. xv. 25 ; Rev.
xix. 11-16). (3) Ps. ii. represents a conspiracy against Je-
hovah and his anointeil. who is established by Jehovah as
King of Zicm and according to divine decree recognized as
his soil, and to whom is promised worldwide doiiiiiiion and
the complete sulijugation of enemies. The fulfillment is in
the triumph of Christ, even through death, over those who
conspired against him (Acts iv. 2.5-28). in his resurrection
(Acts xiii. 33), in his heavenly enthronement (Heb. i. 5), and
in the extension of his kingdom even now being realized.
(4) In Ps. xlv. the king is represented as of divine majesty
and as espousing a royal bride, a daughter of the nations.
MESSIAH
687
This is typically {irophetic of the exaltation ami divine
sonship of ('liii;it (lleb. i. 8-S)), uiiii of his relation to his
Church (Eph. v. 2"); Kev. xix. 7-9). (")) I's. Ixxii. ex-
presses aspirations for the kin;; and their realization in
righteousness. Mercy and peace everywhere prevail; the
kingdom extends over the whole earth; the soil vields its
abundance; and all nations unite in ^''''tsful tributes of
praise and adoration. (6) I's. xvi. unfolds the idea of the
ideal man (see above, Gen. i. 26) as one who, having Jehovah
as his portion, will triumph over death. This is actually
realizeu in Christ's resurrection (Acts ii. 27).
Jfesiiianic Jdea.f of the. Prophets. — After the death of
Solomon, owing to the division of the kingclom and the de-
generacy of the people, the jirophets recognize that the pur-
pose of Israel's choice can not be realizeil without a divine
chastisement or judgment. This appears in various calami-
ties, and especially in present or impending foreign inva-
sion and captivity. After the judgment the redemption of
a chosen remnant is announced, a saved and spiritually
transformed commiinily of reunited Judah anil Kphraim,
gathered to their land, which likewise is transformed, be-
coming most blissful, a paradise, where all dwell in ever-
lasting security, willr .Jehovah in their midst, and where
also (jentiles share in their blessings. Guilt, judgment, and
redemption are the elements of the prophetic messages.
These appear in the blessings and cui'ses of the Pentateuch
(Ex. xxiii. 20-33; Lev. xxvi. ; Deut. xxvii.-xxviii.); and the
Song of Moses (Deut. xxxii.) is a prototype of all prophecy.
The future redemption is accomplished by the advent of
Jehovah, the work of his Spirit and the personal Messiah.
The fulfillment is in the person and work of Christ, and ex-
tends from the first to the second advent. Temporal fea-
tures usually typify spiritual. The captivity typifies the
bondage of the race in sin. The saved community are the
redeemed of the New Testament, and the land is tlie heav-
enly Canaan. The prophets vary in their outward presenta-
tion of Messianic iileas according to their individual char-
acter and historical circumstances. After the exile, while
the notion of a judgment is still prominent, the thought of a
captivity has disappeared. We give the prophets and con-
temporary Messianic Psalms in chronological order (there
is not, howBTer, entire agreement among scholars in refer-
ence to the date and division of some of these).
Pre-exilian Projihftn. — (1) Joel (we follow Briggs, De-
litzsch, and Orelli in placing Joel earlier than Amos; many
modern critics, with much probability, regard his prophecy as
post-exilian). The prophet declares the advent of Jehovah
(n) (ii. 28-32) in the outjiouring of the prophetic spirit, with
wonders in heaven and on earth heralding judgment, and
with deliverance in Jerusalem for all calling upon his name.
(b) The advent in judgment is described (chap, iii.) as an as-
sembly of all nations with confusion of multitudes and
fearful natural phenomena, with the result of Jehovah's
dwelling on Ml. Zion, Jerusalem being inviolable, the land
of marvelous fertility, a fountain coming forth from the
temple; likewise there shall be signal divine forgiveness.
In tlie New Testament fulfillment is claimed for the day of
Pentecost (Acts ii.), and the words and imagery are applied
to the Gospel call and salvation (Rom. x. 12, 13), and to
Christ's second advent (Matt. xxiv. 20). These Xew Testa-
ment applications show clearly that Christ assumed the place
of Jehovah. Seealso Kev. vi. 12 ; xiv. 14 (T. ; xvi. 16; xxii. 1.
(2) Amos (chap, ix.) sees judgment about to befall Israel,
after which a remnant will be sifted out; the ruined house
of David will be restored ; the old or piromised territory will
be reposses.sed ; ami the land will be of wonderful fruitful-
ness, where Israel shall abide forever. Acts xv. 16 sees a
fulfillment in the erection of the kingdom of Christ and the
gathering of the Gentiles.
(3) The iileal of Ilosea is that after severe chastisement
and rejection set forth in the parable of the adulterous wife
an<l her children (i.-iv.), and figured even under death (vi. 1 ;
xiii. 14), the i>eople of God, in great multitudes (i. 10) united
under David, their king (i. 11 ; iv. 5), shall return unto Je-
hovah (iii. -5; v. 1.5-vi. 3; xi. 10 f. ; xiv), becoming his faithful
bride (ii. 16, 1!) f.), and enjoying a land from which the
curses of sin — war, wild beasts, and unfruitfulness — have
been removed (ii. 18, 21-23), "The apostle Paul (Horn. xi.
25 f.) sees a fulfillment in the reception of the Cientiles into
the (^"hurch (comp. also 1 Pet. ii. 10). The bride of Jehovah
reappears in the Church as the bride of Christ (Eph. v. 22,
seq. ; Rev. xxi. 9).
(4) The author of Zech. ix.-xi. (probably a contemporary
of Hosea) represents the Messianic king as meek and lowly,
and yet victorious ; the weapons of war are destroyed and
the king reigns in peace over the earth (ix. 9 f. ; comp.
Matt. xxi. 5). Ephraim and Juilah are restored by Jehovah
in exultation to their own land, where they walk in the
name of the Lord (ix. 9-x. 12). In xi., under the transac-
tions of the shepherd, is symbolized the mutual rejection of
Jehovah and Israel by each other, which tyjiifies the re-
jected Messiah of the 5>ew Testament. Comp. Matt, xxvii. 5.
(5) Isaiah (ii. 1-5 and also Micah iv. 1-7) represents the
temple mount as exalted, and as a source of divine instruc-
tion sought by all nations with the result of universal peace.
In iv. 2 ff. the land becomes wonderfully fruitful ; Jerusalem
is thoroughly cleansed from all iniquity, and is the abiding-
place of Jehovah, who creates a refuge for his people, the
holy remnant, A corner-stone is likewise laid there worthy
of all confidence (xxviii. 16). Zion is the quiet habitation of
Jehovah, the glorious judge, warrior, and king, who is its
protection in the place of streams and navies, against all
nostile powers (xxxiii. 10-24). On the temple and Jehovah
dwelling on Mount Zion, see above, 2 .Sam. vii. 12, seq. On
the corner-stone, comp. Ps. cxviii. 22, and see Matt. xxi. 42 ;
Acts iv. 11 : Rom. X. 11:1 Pet. ii. 6, »yy. Jehovah's dwelling
upon Mt. Zion is based upon the placing of the ark there by
David, which is comineniorated by Ps. xxiv. 7-10, a typical
prophecy, further unfolded by Isaiah. Ps. xlvi. and .xlviii.
belong to the period of Isaiah and express similar thoughts of
the security of Mt. Zion. The Messianic person is distinctly
brought out by Isaiah — (a) vii. 14-16, as a wonderful child,
called Imnmnucl, the bearer of the divine deliverance, but
until his maturity distress will continue in the land. (Comp.
Matt. i. 20-2.").) (b) ix. 1-7. A wonderful light shines on
the northern frontier, which exalts that people as highly as
they had previously been brought into contempt as the first
of the Jews to go into exile; a great deliverance, transcend-
ing that of Gideon in the day of Midian, is wrought, a
child of the house of David is born, named Wonderful
Counselor, Divine Hero, Everlasting Father, Prince of
Peace, who reigns on the throne of David in righteousness
for ever. (Comp. Matt. iv. 1.5-16; xi. 23; Luke x. 15.) (c)
xi. A twig comes forth from the stuinp of Jesse; a shoot
from his roots bears fniit. The sevenfold gift of the Spirit
rests upon him, endowing him to fulfill his work of judging
the poor with spiritual discernment and the wicked with
the word of his mouth, (iirded with righteousness and
faithfulness, he cslablishcs universal peace in the earth, in
which the animal kingdom shares. lie becomes the stand-
ard of the nations; a deliverance like that of Egypt takes
place ; the ransomed as.semble from all lands, marching up
on highways of redemption. Matt. ii. 23 applies the ^SJ of
oiir passage with the corresponding riDV of Jer. xxiii. 5;
xxxiii. 15 ; Zech. iii. 8 ; vi. 12, to the Nazarene, as the one
who grew up in that obscure place to which the line of
David had wandered as a shoot from a neglected stuinp.
(Comp. John. i. 32; xii. 32; Rom. viii. 22; xv. 12; Rev. i.
16.) The nations share in Messianic blessings. Chap, xviii.
7 points to the conversion of Ethiopia; xix. 18-25 repre-
sents Egypt and Assyria as united with Israel as the people
of God, speaking the holy language and serving Jeliovah
with altar and sacrifices: xxiii. 18 predicts the consecration
of the menhandise of Tyre.
(6) Micah, with predictions of divine judgment upon
Israel, announces tne elevation of the teni|ile mount (iv.
1-4; see Isa. ii.), and the restoration of the scattered of
Israel (ii. 12: iv. 6. seq., 10; vii. 12), who will be purified
(V. 10-15) and their sins forgiven (vii. W.setj). and who will
be a blessing and destruction among the nations (iv. 13; v.
7-9). and over whom Jeliovah will reign in Mt. Zion forever
(iv. 7). Mieah presents the Jlessianic king after the man-
ner of Amos, referring to the exaltation of the Davidic dy-
nasty (iv. 8) : after the manner of Ilosea, placing a leader at
the head of the returning peopl? (ii. 13); afterlhe manner of
Isaiah, in the ruler, the great deliverer, in whom the ancient
promises will be fulfilled, coming forth from little Bethle-
hem (v. 2-6. See for fulfiUmont .'Matt. ii. 5. .If?.).
(7) Zcphaniah announces after the judgment the deliver-
ance of a purified remnant in whose midst is Jehovah as a
king rejoicing anil resting in love (iii. 17). This remnant
also will be a name and a praise among all the peonies of
the earth (iii. 19, neq.) and nations from the mo.st distant
parts of the world will woi-ship Jehovah (iii. 9, seq.). With
/ephaniah Iwlong Ps. Ixxvii.. describing the adoption of
the nations into the city of God, and Ps. Ixxx., a prayer for
protection.
688
.MI>S1.\I1
(8) The Messianic prophecies or ideals of Jeremiali nre as
follow-!: (1* f'h. iii. l.f-17, Jehovah the Saviour marries
hisex: , si'leclinjj one from a eity and two from a
trilie. ■ in to /ion. setting over them shepherds
!,'■ .11 luurt. ((.'onip. John XNi. 15-17.) Kaehel,
\ her childrcMi (xxxi. 15. wv.), is eomforted with
ihat they will eonie again out of the land of the
i.Matt. ii. 18).' Jehovah will sow both the house of
1 and the house of Israel in theirown land again (xxxi.
-7. neq. ; eonip. Hos. ii. 'i'-i). They will e<ime together out of,
the land of the north, and inherit the goodly heritage Of the
h.tit of tlie Gentiles (iii. 18: eomp. Hos. i. 11). Jehovah
iimkis with iheni a new covenant (xxxi. Iii. .scf/.). the law
lieing written in the heart, so that all shall know him.
(I'omp. Hos. ii. 18, seij.) New institutions are established
(iii. IT), entire Jerusalem is called the throne of Jehovah in-
stead of the ark, and all nations gsither into it (Kcv. xxi. 2 ;
xxii. 3, se(i.). The whole city and suburbs become holy as
the temple (xxxi. 38—10), even the hill Gareb, the abode
of the lepers, and the valley of Hinnom, the place of
refuse, (i) Tlic sprout of Isa. xi. 1, setj., is taken up and
clothed with new idejis. He is called the righteous branch,
Jelmvah our righteousness (xxiii. 5, seq.), as the bearer of
divine righteousness, and so the Xew Jerusalem bears thesame
name as the divine throne (xxxiii. 16; comp. Isa. vii. and
Kx. xvii. 15). The exodus from Egypt is no more remem-
bered lor the greater exodus from all countries of the dis-
.persion to the land of their inheritance. Jehovah will sure-
ly fulfill his covenant with David and the Levites; the mon-
archy and priesthood will become eternal (xxxiii. 17, seg.).
With Jeremiah belong Ps. Ixxxix. and cxxxii., which set
forth the inviolability of the Davidic covenant.
The Euilian Prophets. — (1) Ezekiel |)resents many of the
same elements iis his forerunners. Jehovah sis a faithful
shepherd will accomplish a restoration (xi. 17; xxxiv.) which
13 likened to a tra.isplanled cedar twig becoming an im-
mense tree (xvii. 23, seg.), to a resurrection of the dead
(xxxvii. 1-14 : see above, llosea); Ephrainiand Judah will be
united (xxxvii. 1.5-22). The people will be purified, receiv-
ing a new and obedient heart (xi. 19; xxxvi. 36-29; comp.
Jer. xxxi. 31, sig.). D.iviil will be their king (xxxiv. 24;
xxxvii. 24). A new covenant of blessings will be made ami
all ills banished from the land (xxxiv. 25-31; xxxvi. 35;
comp. Hos. ii. 18-21, seg.; Isa. xi. (5-9, el al.), and Jehovah
will dwell among his people (xxxvii. 37). The powers of the
world — Gog and Magog — will vainly endeavor to destroy
them (xxxviii.-xxxix. ; comp. Uev. xx. 7-10). There is a pro-
longed description of a new temple, a new arrangement of
worship, the wonderful fertility of the land, and division of
territory among the tribes (xl.-xlvii. : comp. Uev. xxi.-xxii.).
Sodora and Gomorrah will also find a place with the peo-
ple of (icxl (xvi. 53-63).
(2) Isji. x.xi.-xxvii. These chapters present a divine
judgment upon the world and the redemption of God"s peo-
ple, who, restored to Mt. Zion, will unite with all nations in
u feast provided by Jehovah (xxv. 6; xxvii. Vi, seg.). The
nious dead will be raised (xxvi. 19); death and sorrow will
be abolished forever (xxv. 7, seg. ; comp. Kev. xxi. 4 ; 1 Cor.
XV. .54). The feast is the prototype of the Gospel feast of
the New Testament. Isji. xxxiv.-xxxv. belongs also here,
describing the removal of all physical and moral evils at the
advent of Jehovah.
(3) In the Psalter is a group of Psalms (xxii.. xl.,lxix., and
Ixx.), typically prophetic of Christ, descriliing sulfering.
These most probably are baseij uiion the experience of faith-
ful persecuted servants of (iod like Jeremiah, and especiiillv
those of the |ieriud of the exile. The mo.st important of
these is Ps. xxii. The .Messianic features of these P.salms
taken together arc: (a) Cruel reproaches of malicious ene-
mies (Ps. lxi.x. 26; xli. 7-.S; xxii. 7-« ; comp. .Matt, xxvii.
39, »eg.). (b) He is persecuted because of his consecration to
the divine will as the acceptable .sacrifice (P.s. xl.6-8; comp.
lleb. X. 8. w./. ; Ps. Ixix. 7-12; comp. Malt, xxvii. 27-30;
John ii. 17; vii. 5; Kom. xv. ;i). (,•) Tiie sulTerings are the
sir.trheil binly. feverish frame, intense thirst, offering of
gall anil vinegar, divisinn of his garments, agonizing <.-ry,
and broken heart (Ps. xxii. 1, 12-18; Ixix. 20-21; comp.
.Matt, xxvii. 31), neg.). (d) Notice al.so the traitor and his
doom (Ps. xli. 9; comp. John xiii. 18; P.s. l.xix. 23, seg.;
comii. Acl.s i. 20 and i's. cix. 8). (e) Observe! also the praise
of the delivered one and the worldwide significance of the
sulTerings (Ps. xxii. 22; c.mip. Ibb. ii. 12; I's. I\ix. 30, .si.y. ;
xl. 9; coriji). John xvii. 4). These Psalms prepare the way
for the suflerinf^ servant of Isa, liii.
(4) Isa. xl.-lxvi., belongs to the period of the exile.
These chapters form an organic wliole, into which are woven
previous Messianic references about the [lei-son of the .Serv-
ant of Jehovah. This Servant, like the Seed and the Son of
the Pentateuch and Psalter, is a generic term referring -pri-
marily to Israel, but culminating in the Messiah. Jehovah
wills him from the womb to be his servant, and anoints him
with his .Spirit. He is the gentle preacher and saviour of
the ]ioor, the meek, and broken-hearted. He restores the
remnant of Israel, is a covenant of the people, a light of the
Gentiles, Jehovah's sjilvation to the end of the earth (xlii.
1-9; xlix. .5-8; Ixi. 1-3; comp. Matt. xii. 17-21; John viii.
12; Heb. viii. 6; ix. 15: l,uke ii. 32 ; iv. IS, .leg.). He is a
sulfering servant (chap, liii.), without form or majesty, de-
spised and rejected of men, a man of sorrows and acquaint-
ed with grief. He is a sulferer, bearing his people's sorrows,
f)icrced for our transgression, crushed for our inii|uities, and
lis stripes were for our healing and peace. (Comp. Ps. xxii.
16; Ixix. 26; Zcch. xii. 10; Gal. iii. 13; 1 Pet. ii. 24.) All
were wandering sheep. Jehovah laid on him, the uncom-
plaining lamb, the iniquities of all. (Coinji. John i. 29 ;
Acts viii. 32; 1 Pet. i. 19; Kev. v. 6; vii. 14, etc.) His con-
temporaries did not consider this, but assigned him his place
with the wicked and with the rich in his death. (Comp.
John xix. 38-41. He suffers as a substitute, a trespass-
offering, and then reaps his reward in his exaltation, his
spoils of victorv, and his jirosperous ministry. (Comp. Heb.
ii. 10-13; Matt", xx. 28; John x. 11-17; Kev. i. 18; Ileb.xii.
2.) Chap. Iv. gives the Messianic invitation to the free
grace of the Gospel (Kev. xxii. 17). The sure mercies of
David, the everlasting covenant, are offered in him who is
the witness, prince, lawgiver of the people. (Comp. John
xviii. 37 ; Kev. i. 5 ; iii. 14 ; Acts v. 31 ; xiii. 34.) The seed
of the righteous servant enjoy the riches of the Gentiles as
they become the priests of Jehovah and minister clothed in
the garments of salvation; riglitcoiisiiess aiul praise spring
forth before all nations (Ixi. 9-11), who come up to the holy
places from the most distant parts (xlix. 12). Hunger and
thirst, the violent heat of the sun, together with all sorrow
and mourning, are banished from the land (xlix. 10; Ixi. 3;
comp. iv. 3; Kev. vii. 16-17).
The advent of Jehovah is no less prominent. In xl. 3-11
we see the herald of the advent, /ion and Jerusalem be-
come evangelists. Jehovah comes as the gentle shepherd.
This is applied to Ihe Baptist and Jesus in Matt. iii. 3.
(Comp. John x. 1-18; Luke xv. 3-7.) In liv. 5, «e^.. and Ixii.
5 Jehovah takes Israel as the wife of his youth and rejoices
over her as his bride; and in Ix. 1, seg., he becomes the light
and glory of his people, instead of the sun and moon (Uev.
xxi. 23-26). So in Ixii. 1, seg. the righteous of Zion and her
salvation becomes a bright and shining light to the nations;
she is called by a new name (Uev. ii. 17), Incomes a crown of
glory in the hand of the Lord, and is named Ilephzibah and
Beulah. Jerusalem is rebuilt with precious stones (liv. 11,
seg.; comp. Rev. xxi. 18-21); her walls are salvation and
her gates praise; they are open day and night, while kings
and nations enter therein (Ix. 11, seg.; Kev. xxi. 25), and
great is the peace of her children as they are taught of Je-
hovah (liv. 13: comp. John vi. 45; 1 Thess. iv. 9; 1 John ii.
20). In lix. 15-18 Jehovah ajipears as a warrior armed with
vengeance for his enemies and ledemplion for his people.
He pours out his .Spirit as water upon the offspring of the
people (xliv. ;5-5; comp. lix. 21), and puis his words in
their mouth for ever, and they spring up tis willows by the
watercourses, while the Gentiles claim to belong to Jehovah
and enroll (heinselves as his people. The <'all goes forth to
the ends of the earth, and the oath is sworn "that unto me
every knee shall bow and every tongue shall swear " (xlv. 22,
seg.), and the sons of the stranger come to the holy mount,
offering their sacrifices in the house of prayer for all nations
(Ivi. 6, .leg.; comp. Kev. viii. 3-5; Heb. xiii. 15, 16). Chap,
Ixv. 17-37 predicts the creation of a new heaven and earth,
lis well as of a new Jerusalem, in which there is no more weep-
ing or crying, but length of days, prosperity, and commun-
ion with God, in which the animal kingdom shares (3 Pet.
iii. 13; l\ev. xxi. 1). Ch. Ixvi. now describes the final ca-
tastro)(he and glories. On the one side all flesh assemble in
one immense congregation every Sabbath, as at the great
feasts, before the throne (Uev. v. 11, seg.; vii. 9-13, etc.);
on the other side, Ihe carcasses of transgressors are cast out
into the uiupienchable fire and to the never-dying worm.
Comp. ,M:itt. xxv. 41, .•<eg.; Uev. xx. 10, seg. ; xxi. H. seg.
The I'usl-ejilian l'ruphel.i. — (1) Ilaggai |)redicts that
heaven and earth will be shaken, kingdoms overthrown, and
MESSIAH
MESTIZO
689
the inslnimeiits of war destroyed (ii. 6, 22). The nations
will i)rinf; their ohoieest treasures into ttic house of Jehovali,
and the latter glory of tlie house will be greater than the
former (ii. 7-9). y^erubbabel, the servant of Jehovah, will
become his signet (ii. 23).
Ps. xciii.-xcix. are probably to be connected with the
tiuildin^ of the second temple, and thus with llaggai and
Zeiliariah. Their theme is the a<lvent or reign of Jehovah,
and thev belong to the divine line of prophecy which finds
Xulfdlmi-nt in Christ.
(2) Zeehariah (i.-vii.) presents Jehovah as a wall of fire
round aljout Jerusalem, and a glory in her midst (ii. 5, seu, ;
eomp. Isa. iv. 5; Jer. iii. 17). Jehovah dwells in the midst
of Jerusalem, which is inhabited by oM nwn and little chil-
dren (viii. 3. gi>ij.). The iirophet devcloiis also the thought
of the future ijcrsonal >lessiah, whom he calls the Branch
(iii. 8; vi. 12: conip. Isa. xi. 1 ; Jer. xxiii. 5). In his day the
iniquity of the land will be removed (iii. if) \ in him the
priestly and royal ollices will unite, and he w ill be the source
of the divine Spirit (vi.'9-15 compared with iv.).
(3) In Zech. xii.-xiv. Jehovah's shepherd is smitten by
the sword (xiii. 7-9). in consequence of which Jehovah's
hand is lurne<l in protection over the little ones (Matt. xxvi.
31-;i2: Mark xiv. 2?; Jolin x. 13); while the house of David
and the inhabitants of Jerusalem upon whom the spirit of
grace and supplication has been poured, looking upon Jeho-
vah's representative whom they have pierced, mourn great-
ly (xii. 10-14). A fountain for sin and undeanness is
opened in that day, and the land is purified (xiii. 1. wcr.).
Nations besiege Jerusalem, and are overthrown through ifis-
case, panic, and divine intervention (xii. 1-9; xiv. 1-1.5;
eomp. Joel iii. ; Kzek. xxxviii.-xxxix.). The remnant of the
nations goes u|i yearly to worship Jehovah the King at the
Feast of the Tabernacles (xiv. 16). Even the bells of the
horses and every vessel in Jerusalem will be as holy as the
high priest's tiara, and no unclean person will enter it any
more (xiv. 20, neq. ; eomp. Jer. xxxi. 38-40; Kev. xxi.-xxii.).
(4) Malachi introduces the herald of the advent, " my mes-
senger "(iii. 1). " Elijah the prophet" (iv. 5) — who is John the
Baptist, according to ilatt. iii. 1-12; xi. 10; xvii. 11 ; I^uke
vii. 27 — turning the hearts of parents and children to one
another. The coming one is filxn (the Lord), and the Ma-
lakh Jehovah, botli terms referring to Jehovah, the divine
Messiah. The advent is in judgment as the reliuer's fire
and fuller's lye, purging the sons of Levi, to offer acceptable
sacrifices. It is a day of fire, burning up the wicked as
stubble, while to the god-fearing the Sun of righteousness
arises with healing in his wings. (C'omp. Ps. l.xxxiv. 11;
Isa. Ix, 19; Deut. xxxii. 11.) This divine Messiah is Jesus
Christ (Matt. iii. 11-12).
(5) Paniel (whose book in its final form belongs to the Mac-
cabean period) describes the Messianic kingdom, the stone
cut out of the mountain, as destroying and supplanting the
kingdoms of the worUl (ii. 25-44), and the Messiah in the
form of "one like unto the Son of man " receiving everlast-
ing dominion and glory and the homage of all nations (vii.
13, seq.). Daniel likewi.se typically predicts the cutting off
of the Messiah, the ending of the Old Testament worship,
and the destruction of Jerusalem (ix. 26, w^.; eomp. Matt,
xxiv. \'t). He also declares that there will be a resurrec-
tion of the dead, and a day of judgment when the righteous
shall receive their inlierilance and shine as the stars iforever
and ever (xii. 2-4 ; eomp. Kev. xx. 12-15).
The fulfillment of these prophecies in their final or Mes-
sianic meaning Ix-gan with the birth of Jesus Christ, and
continues througliout these latter days of the dispensation
of grace until tlie second advent in glory at the end of the
World. This distinction of advents is not made in the Old
Testament, but first by the advent itself and the prophecies
of Christ and his apostles. Hence while the first advent
fulfills all those references on the divine side to the out-
poiu'ing of the Spirit, the establishment of a new covenant
with new institutions of salvation, and the growth of the
kingdom umler Jehovah's favor, and on the human side to
the more humble features, as of the prophet-like Mose-s, the
suffering servant of Jehovah, etc., yet the great mass of
Messianic propheev is referreil bv the Xew Testament writ-
ers to the second at^vent — on the divine side in judgment, on
the huuuin side in glory, and yet the human ami the divine
lines, which in the Old Testament renuiin ever apart, converge
in Jesus Christ the God-man at his first ailvent, who in his
first state of humiliation and his final state of glory either
has fulfilled, or is vet to fulfill, all the law and the prophets.
270
JylTERATiRE. — Kecent works on this subject especially to
be mentioned are Briggs's Mesxianic Prophecy (New Vork
and Edinburgh) ; von Orelli's Old Testament Prophecy of
the ('onxummaliim of Ood'n Kinydom (trans, from Germ.,
Edinburgh); Delitzseh's Messianic Prophecies in tlieir His-
torical Succession (trans, from (ierm.. New York and Edin-
burgh!; Kiehm's .^frssinnic Projj/iecy (trans, from Germ.,
New York and Edinburgh). This last contains a full list of
recent literature on the Messiah. C. A. Bbioos.
Revised by Edward Lewis Curtis.
Messi'na : province of Sicily. It occupies the northeast-
ern corner of the island, and has an area of 1,246 sq. miles,
with 500,000 inhabitants. It is mountainous, but the val-
leys are very fertile, and jiroduce excellent wheat, flax,
hemp, wine, oil, and fruit. Sulphur abounds.
Messina : a large seaport-town in the province of Jfessi-
na, Sicily. It lies in lat. 38' 17 38' N"., Ion. 15 35' E., and
risi'S amphitheater-like from the sea, backed by the rocky
extremity of the Siculo-Calabrian Apennines (sec map of
Italy, ref. 9-G). The harbor of Messina, the largest and
safest in the kingdom of Italy, is deep, spacious, well fur-
nished with qu.iys, and defended by a fort and citadel. The
annual amount of shipping it receives is over 4,000 vessels,
of 1.130,000 tons burden, the imports being wheat.cotton.and
woolen goods, hardware, etc. ; the exports, fruit, wine, oil,
essences, and silks. Messina, having suffered so often from
earthquakes and bombardments, now consists in the main
of fine new buildings, with well-paved streets and spacious
squares, flanked by stately palaces and adorned with foun-
tains and statues. The university was founded in 1549.
There are many noteworthy churches, and the old cathedral
is one of the most interesting monuments of the city, the
exterior being very quaint and curious, and the interior dec-
orated with the rarest marbles, porjihyry, jasper, lapis-lazu-
li, etc. The city is the seat of an archbishopric, and has a
university founded in 1549. For the earliest liistory of Mes-
sina, see JIessana. It suffered severely during tlie Punic
wars and during the Roman civil wars, also from the Goths
and the Saracens, the latter being expelled by the N'ormans
in the eleventh century. In 1282 12,000 Frenchmen per-
ished here in the terrible Sicilian Vespers. In 1783 the
town was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake. In
1848 Jlessina threw off the Bourbon yoke, but was reduced
to submission alter an oljslinate and destructive resistance.
In 1860 it was freed by the forces of Garibaldi. The cli-
mate of Messina is delightful, and the views are magnifi-
cent. Pop. of commune (1892) 141,000; of citv proper,
about 90,000.
Messina. Strait of (Ital. Faro di Messina, Lat. Mamer-
ti'num Fre'tum): a narrow channel of water connecting the
Ionian and the Tyrrhene seas, and dividing Sicily from Ca-
labria. Its length is 26 miles, its greatest width 12 miles,
its least 2 miles. The tide is most irregular in this strait,
the eastward current being vastly stronger than the west-
ward, and the flood and ebb succeed each other with great
rapidity. For a curious phenomenon witnessed here, see
Fata Mori-.a.na. See also Scylla.
Messis, Motsrs. or Matsys, Qi-intvn: painter: b. at Ant-
werp in 1450. He began by working in iron. The gates of
a well near the cathedral at Antwerp first attracted atten-
tion to his talent. The College of Louvain then ordered a
balustrade of him, but the immense fatigue of this work
proved too much for a fragile constitution, and being eon-
fined to his bed he occupied himself by painting images for
distribution to the le|)ers. Heafterward taught himself the
art of painting in order to marry a woman who was unwill-
ing to wed any one but a jiainter. He soon became famous
and received innumerable commissions. A triptych painted
for the wood-carvers' guild in Antwerp, representing Christ
surrounded by holy women, with the martyixloin of St. John
the Evangelist, and Herodias with the head of St. John the
Baptist, on the side compartments, is one of his principal
Works. His portraits were highly iirized ; ihiise of Erasmus
and of Egidius are especially gootl. He ilied in 1529-. His
son John, also a painter, was his pupil. W. J. Stillmas.
Mestizo, mes-teez5 [=Span. : Fr. wi(-7i'« < Viilg. Lat.
*niixli ciiis, deriv. of mixtiis. mixed]: in Spanish America,
a half-breed, the offspring of a white father and an Indian
mother. The white eharaeters usually predominate. The
offsi)ringof an Indian father and a <|uadroon mother (three-
fourths while, one-fourth N'egro, the latter by the female
j side) or a quintcroon mother produces what is called a brown
690
m£szAros
METALI-URGY
mestizo. A mcstizo-claro is tbc offspring of nn InJian fa-
tlier ami a mestizo iiiotlier.
M^'-sziiros. mils iiar-osh, Lazar : soldier: b. at Bi>jii, Iliin-
pary, Kili. -'0. ITUtJ: was educuteil first for tlie (.'hiircli, then
for t lie bar. but followoil in 1813 tlie summons of Iheeni-
rioror, Francis I.: enteivd tlie Austrian army as a volun-
teer; served in the cam|>ai};ns of 1814-lS; rose slowly, but
acfiuireil a solid ivimtation in the army, anil was made a
colonel in 184-4. When, in 1H48. Count Hatthyani formed a
sepanito Iluniriirian ministry, he chose Mrsziiicis as head of
the military deparliiunt, and althou;;!) he at first opposed
the st>paratioii of the .\uslrian and lluni;ariaii armies, he
organized the llun^irian army with s;r'""l rapidity and skill
when the decision was taken. After the declaration of in-
dependence (.\pr. 14. 184i(), he left the ministry and recch-ed
an active command, and after Gorgey's surrender at Vila-
cos (.\ug. Vi, 1849) he fled to Turkey: was sentenced to
death bv an .\ustrian court martial, and liangeil in efligy at
Vienna." lie afterward lived in France. Knghuxl, and the
I'. .S. 11. at Evwood. Herefordshire, England, Nov. 16, 1808.
Kevised by ,1. J. Kk.\l.
Mpta. niii taa: a river of Colombia and Venezuela, rising
in the Kiustern t'oniillera and flowing E. X. E. to the Ori-
noco ; length about ToO miles, of which about 180 miles are
in Venezuelan territory. The Meta is ]>roperly formed by
the confluence of the liiimadea. Negro, and Upia, almost di-
rectly E. of Uogota. It is navigable for steamboats to Cu-
buvaro. over 400 miles; portions of its lower course are a
mile wide. H. H. S.
Motiiliiie: a substance intended for application to all
kinds of machinery where friction is encountered, obviating
the necessity of oil or other lubricant. Us appearance is
that of a soft, dark, metallic compound. It is prepared orig-
inally in the form of a fine powder, and is then molded
into any shape required by hydraulic pressure. After mold-
ing it may be cut or turned to suit any form of application.
It is usually applied to journal-boxes in the form of cylin-
drical plugs or disks from i to ^'j; of an inch in diameter, in-
serted in holes bored near togetherover the whole inner sur-
face. In small bearings, such as spindle-bolsters and the
journals of sewing-machines, it is pressed into longirudinal
slots or creases. Several varieties of metalinc are manufac-
tured, differing in composition and adai)ted to use under
the various conditions encountered in running macliinery,
such as steel on brass, steel on cast iron. etc.
Revised by Ira Remsen.
Met'allnrpy [from Gr. ntra\hovpy6s, working in metals,
miner; fifraWov. mine, metal + Ipyov. work]: the science
and art of preparing metals from their ores. In very an-
cient times the word probably included all the operations
of raining, smelting, and the subsequent manufacture of
the metal into articles of use. Mining ha-s for many cen-
turies been recognized as an entirely distinct and different
calling, though metal-working, such as copper-beating and
founding, goM and silver smithing, and blacksmithing. con-
tinued for a much longer time to be regarde<i as metallur-
gical. As these became more commonly practiced, they
were looked upon as mechanical trades, each of which, with
the cxfiansion of metal-working, attained a separate exist-
ence and took a separate name. As the word is now used
by those who follow the calling, the metallurgist is strict-
ly one who prepares metals from their ores, and performs
in aildition such other operations as are necessary to the
production of a finished raw material. Thus in the met-
allurgy of iron is included not only the smelting of the
ores, but also the manufacture of wrought iron and steel
from the first product, and such processes of refining as are
nece,s.sary tti obtain the different marketable grades of iron
and steel. Only in a few instances does the metallurgist
carry his work so far as to produce a finished article ready
for imnK^liate use, thus adding nielallurgical engineering
to the proiluctivo bram.-h of his calling. These exceptions
arc nearly all confined to the manufacture of bulky and
low-priced goods, when economy requires the immediate
union of the smelting-works and the llnishing-shop. The
production of railway iron is the most prominent example
of this practice. On the other hand, true melallurgical es-
tablishments are frecpicntly proiliicers nf linished articles
which properly tielnng to chemical mannfaelures and other
branches of technical iiulustry, such as sulphuric acid, ar-
senic, paint.s, etc., but these are bv-product.s, obtained from
substances occurring in the ore which yields the metal, and
their manufaclure belongs to other branches of technology
than metallurgy. From the foregoing it will be seen that
while the meaning of the word metallurgy has in the process
of time become restricted to the mere production of metals,
instead of its old applicatiim to all the arts of working in
metals, the practice of the metallurgist has extended so
as to embrace the work of the chemist and the manufac-
turer of products which in former limes were not classed as
metallurgical.
The minerals from which the useful metals are obtained
form only a very small part of the earth's mass, so far as
known. The basic elements of the remainder include such
metals as sodium, potassium, etc., which, though employed
to a limited extent, are not technically classed among the
useful metals. The list of the latter has. however, Iweii
greatly extendetl by the increasing use of metals in modern
civilization. At present, iron, copper, lead. zinc, tin, silver,
gold, mercury, nickel, antimony, aluminium, bismuth, and
perhaps platinum, may. either on account of common use,
employment as currency, or importance of a|iplication, be
ranked among the useful metals; while cadmium, arsenic,
potassium, sodium, and magnesium have found some appli-
cation, though a very limited one in the case of the last.
Other metals, like ca>sium, cerium, etc., have been made for
the purposes of chemical study or for cabinet curiosities.
The science of metallurgy includes the [irocesses for ob-
taining all the metallic elements, but in practice the art of
metallurgy is restricted to the production of the useful
metals alone, the preparation of the others being the work
of chemical manufactories. Those minerals which contain
enough metallic base to make its extraction profitable are
called ores, and as the question of profit is dependent upon
local circumstances, a given mineral may be an ore in one
country and not in another. It is rare to find an ore con-
sisting entirely of the metal-bearing mineral, other non-
metalliferous minerals being nearly always mixed mechan-
ically with it. This oreless rock is technically known as
the gangue, and it plays a very important part in metal-
lurgy, frequently compelling the choice of operations that
are not favorable to the complete extraction of the metal,
or that are costly for some other reason. Twcj general
kinds of gangue are distinguished : First, earthy gangue,
which is either acid, from a iireponderance of silica, or
basic, when lime, magnesia, alumina, and iron most fre-
(piently occur. In this case two methods of removing the
associated rock may be used. One is mechanical, the ore
being crushed fine and passed through machines which
cause a separation of the heavy ore from the lighter gangue
by virtue of their different s])ecific gravities; or by subject-
ing the crushed ore to some uniform force which affects the
two minerals differently. This work, however, is usually
allotted to mining operations, and is one of its important
auxiliary operations called ore-dressing. The .smelter re-
ceives the dressed jiroduct. The other mode of separating
tlie gangue is by fusion with fluxes. A flux is any sub-
stance which will make the ore fusible and fluid at tem-
peratures which arc within our control. Pnirtically, the
operations of the metallurgist are confined to the treatment
of compounds containing silica for the acid, and usually
lime, magnesia, alumina, or iron for the base. Other
acids and bii-ses occur, but they play a very subordinate
part, and are always accompanied by one or more of the
above. The art of fluxing therefore simply consists in
adding silica when the bases predominalc in the ore, and
one of the above bases when the contrary is the case. Its
dilliculties lie entirely in the fact that the proportions must
be properly adapted to the metal under treatment and the
temperature recpiired. The second kind of gangue is one
that consists of a metal-bearing mineral, with which is as-
sociated the mineral containing the object of the metallur-
gist's labors. A ilistinction has to be made between these
two sorts of gangue — partly f(U' the reason Ilial the latter is
always basic, and partly because it is often impossible to
separate the two metallifiTous minerals by mechanical
means; and these ores therefore usually come into the
melallurgisl's hands just as they are received from the
mines. Many type-processes of metallurgy have been in-
vented to surmount the diniciiltics presented by such a
metalliferous gangue. Among metals occurring in this
manner the most frequent examples are tin. copper, lead,
nickel, gold, silver, and others in |iyrite (a bisulphide of
iron). Most ores consist of both earthy and metalliferous
minerals, and therefiu-e require both mechanical and chemi-
cal processes for their treatment. While the ores present a
great variety of combinations, three general classes may bo
METAI.rA'UCY
691
rcco^nizcil by tlio character of the negative elemi'iit com-
biiieil with tlio metnl. They are — (1) Native metals, in which
no ttcidifyin;; ciciiieiit occurs, llie metal itself being found
uncDiiibiiled in nature. These native metals are, however,
rarelv pure, but are generally alloyed. They are gold, sil-
ver, co|ijiir, |ilatinuin. and bi-iinuth. (2) Sulpliiiles, or com-
pimrids of the metal with sulphur as the negative element ;
and in this class may be ranked the compounds in which
arseniir and antimony occur, as they come under the same
general mode of treatment. Copper, lead, silver, mercury,
antimony, nickel, an<l zinc form such compounds. (;}) 0.\-
ides, which form the largest and most important class.
Iron, copper, lead, tin, zinc, and all the rarer metals belong
to it. .Many nu^t.-ils occur in two or in all three of these
classes, ami the ilivislou here made refers only to their com-
mon occurrence and the mode of treating their ores. The
general character of the processes by which a metal is ex-
tracted from its ores is not governed by the metal itself,
but by the negative clement with which it is combined.
The metal may decide the aih)|)tion of a particular class of
operations or apparatus, but tlie native metals may all be
obtained by mecliaui<iil dressing or by simple fusion; the
sulphides must all lie melted with some substance that will
combine with the sulphur and leave the metal free, or else
they must be masted aii<lthen treated like oxides: and theo.K-
ides of the useful metals are all reducible to metal by heat-
ing them with carbon or other reducing agents. In carry-
ing out these different processes a great variety of reactions
are employed, but only those of a general character will be
spoken of Iutc. Three grand modes of producing these re-
actions are employiMl, the dry, the wet, and electrolysis. In
the first the lluiditv necessary for the free action of the
substances employeil is obtained by heat; in the second by
solution in a liquid; and in the third by the electric cur-
rent. Two of these modes are frerjuently combined in the
treatment of an ore. So far as is known, the dry method is
the oldest; the wet followed a.s the more progressive part of
the art, having grown out of the establishment of chemical
science; while the employment of the electric current has
developed from the creation of the apjilication of electric
science to technical work. It has created a new branch of
metallurgy called electro-metaUurgy, which occupies a con-
spicuous place in the production of copper and aluminium,
and has some promise with zinc. The wet mrides of opera-
tion simply repeat the reactions of the laboratory, aiul are
therefore more under control and better understood than
those of the dry nu'lhod.
The melalliiiyi/ i>f the tinlive metals consists usually in a
combination of mechanical and chemical processes. When
the ore occurs in a vein, as copper, and sometimes gold and
silver, the vein-rock must be crushed fine; and the most
common apparatus for this work is the stamp-mill. A
stamp is a heavy pestle, of which the head is iron and the
stem nuiy be either iron or wood. It is supported between
guides, and rests U|ion an iron seat or die placed in a mor-
tar, and the crushing is performed by raising the stamp
and allowing it to fall upon the ore, which is introduced
upon the die, while a constant stream of water passes
through the mortar. Stamp-mills form a very im|iortant
part of the metallurgical apparatus used in the western
part of the I'. .S.. and their management includes many
important questions of theory and practice. The side of
the ranrtar contains a sieve of the [iroper degree of line-
ness, and as soon as the ore has been sulUciently crushed it
is carried through the sieve by the waler-current. It now
C(msists of metallic grains mixed with, but no longer at-
tached to, particles of rock. The succeeding operations are
intended to effect the separation of the metallic grains,
either by means of gravity or by taking up the metal (in
the case of gold and silver) in nu'rcury. Several modes of
utilizing the force of gravity are employed. One of the
most common is to run the stream of slime (the ore and
water) over coarse blankets. The metal, being heavier than
the rock, sinks to the bottom of the stream, aiul is caught
in the meshes of the blankets, from which it is afterward
removed by washing them in a tank of water. A simdar
separation will be obtained if the slime runs over a Mat,
shallow trough without blankets, provideii the force of the
current is not sulVn-ient ti> wash off the metal after it has
once settleil upon the trough. .Many other mechanical
methods of separation are employed. When mercury is
used, as in the case of gold and silver ores, the operation is
known as amalgamation; ami it is not yet positively de-
cideil whether this is a mechanical or a chemical act, but it
is probaljle that both of these forces are in<.'luded. The
mercury may be used either as a shallow bath, into which
the gold sinks by virtue of its greater specific gravity, or it
may be distribuleil in a thin layer over copper plates. The
former method is most employed in Kurope, and the latter
in America. Agitation of the mercury and slime by a per-
cussive movement of the vessel which contains them, or by
causing ripples and low falls in the stream, is thought ti)
increase the efficiency of the operation. A large part of
the gold and all of the platinum obtained is founil in .sands
and deposits of gravel. In this case the stamp-mill is not
needed, the mining being so managed that the sand is con-
veyed in a current of water through the separating or amal-
gamating machinery. I'latiniferous sands are first concen-
trated on blankets, as above described; the concentrated
sand is carefully washed by hand: the gold removed by
amalgamation : and the product, which contains about 75
per cent, of platinum, is sold to nminifacturing chemists,
who prepare the marketable metal, tjf the metals so far
considered, native copper and platinum are obtained only
by washing, gold ami silver by washing or amalgamation.
Bismuth dillei-s from the foregoing in having so low a fus-
ing-point that it is more economical to melt the metal out
of the ore by the operation called " liquation " than to crush
and dress it. The ore is therefore [ilaced in inclined iron
tubes holding about 25 lb., and heated to redness, when the
metal flows out,
Ne.xt to these processes in point of simplicity is the metal-
lurgy of the oxides. These ores include the most important
metals known, such as iron, copper, lead, tin, and zinc.
With the exception of iron, all of these are use<I pure in the
arts, and the mode of treating the ores is to heat or fuse
them in direct contact with the fuel. The affinity of carbon
for oxygen is so strong at high temperatures that the ele-
ments in the ore are dissociated, the oxygen uniting with
the fuel and passing off a-s a gas, leaving the metal to run out
in a fluid state, or in the case of zinc allowing it to escape
volatilized, to be subsequently condensed. This simple op-
eration is one of the oldest in the art. anil the time of its
discovery is unknown. It is certain, however, that one of
the oldest form of metallurgical ajiparatus is the shaft-fur-
nace, which is especially adapted to satisfy the conditions of
this operation. A shaft-furnace is either round, in section,
or consists of four vertical walls containing within them a
space which is usually much higher than it is w ide or deep,
tire being made within it. the ore fluxes, ami fresh fuel are
thrown in at the top.aiid combustion is maintained by driv-
ing a steady current of air in at the bottom. The especial
characterisiic of this apparatus is that the ore and fuel being
in immediate contact, and the amoimt of air being limited,
the carbon of the fuel must satisfy its affinity for oxygen
by extracting and combining with that cimtained in the ore,
producing the reaction known as reduction. This affinity
is so strong that most ores give up their oxygen at compara-
tively low temperatures, and reduction occurs while they are
still in the upper part of the furnace. As the materials at
the bottom are melted by the higher heat there and flow out,
the reduced ore descends by its own weight until it is in turn
melted and collected in the bottom of the furnace, from
which it is removed by tapping or opening a small hole
in the furnace-wall. Oxides of cop|)er. lead, ami tin may be
smelted in one operation to metal in furnaces of this kind,
which vary from 2 to ;iO feel in lu'ight. Ores of iron, which
are more refractory — that is, do not give up their oxygen
with the same ea.se — recpiire higher furnaces, technically
calleil bla-st furnaces, the extreme limits of which, in civil-
ized countries, are 25 and 100 feet, while barbarous nations
still employ very ru<le furnaces of 2 or 3 feet in height.
See Ht.AST Furnwce.
Zinc differs from the other oxides in being volatilizable
at high temperatures, ami it is therefore obtained by dis-
tillation. The ore is grouml fine, mixed with a pure car-
bon-fuel, like coal or anthracite, and placed in a tube nmde
of fire-clay. This is heateil to whiteness, at which tempera-
ture the carlion attracts the oxygen of the ore. leaving the
zinc to distill off as metal. In front of the tube are placed
condensers of clay anil sheet-iron, in which the metal col-
lects.
The metnllurfiy of the sulphides is more complicated than
that of either of the above classes. The metals of this class
are (1) volatilizable and (3) non-volatilizable. The former
include mercury and zinc. The compouml of mercury and
sulphur — cinnabar — is not stable at high temperatures if
suflicient air is present, the sulphur oxidizing and leaving
092
METALLURGY
the nictnl froo. Tbe ore is ihereforo lientcil to redness with
awess uf iiir. when the meixuric suliihiiie distills oil, and in
d liiiL,' S.I lircaks up into niertury and sidphurous acid. The
viijK.r is |.as-i'd throuj,'h larjrc'chainlKTs. where the metal
emideiiscs mid runs out. Soiiietiuies the dissociation of the
irit^nurv and sulphur is niiled by mixing; iron or linio with
the on-,' as the.se have a slron;,'er alliniiv for sulphur than
tlie metal. The sulphiile of zinc, called hleiide, is converted
to oxide by roa.stin^, which consists in heating it in con-
tact witli the air, whereby the sulphur is driven off as sul-
phurous acid. In some metallurgical iirocesse.--. however,
the aim of roasting is to produce a sulphate, which may be
subseipientlv extracted by leaching. It is then treated like
the oxide, as above described. In the treatment of the noii-
volatilizable metals three general processes are followed : (1)
Koasting and reaction : li) roasting and reduction : (S) pre-
cipitation. The first two depend upon the removal of the
sul|>hur by roasting; and this operation has a furnace espe-
cially adapted to its reiiuiremeiits which is in all respects
the exact opposite of the shart-furnace, allliough in a modi-
fied form the latter is also occasionally employed in roasting
operations. The apparatus usually employed is called a
reverberatory furnace, and consists of a horizontal cham-
lier with a low roof, having a fireplace on one side and a
cliimney on the other. The ore is placed in the chamber,
which is called the hearth. The flames proiluced in the
fireplace jiass through this chamber, and are deflected by
the low, arched roof upon the ore. Openings arc made in
the sides for the admission of air and for the purpose of
■ iiig the charge. In this furnace the amount of air is in
■ of that rei|uired by the fuel, so tliat the ore is sub-
j,, i-.l to oxidation. The oxide of sulphur, being a gas,
passes off. leaving the remainder of the ore as a solid oxide.
Various modes of utilizing this reaction are in use, depend-
ing upon the in<liviihial characteristics of the metals.
When pure sulphide of silver is roasted, metallic silver, and
not the oxiile. remains; but in the majority of other cases
the residue is partly or wholly an oxide. Roasting and re-
action is |)erformed by iiiterruiiting theoxidatiim when only
partially finished, thoroughly mixing the hall'-roastcd ore,
piling it up, closing the furnace-doors to prevent the en-
trance of air, and heating the charge to sucli a temperature
that the sulphur still remaining will combine with the oxy-
gen absorbed by the ore. In this way both the sulphur and
the oxygen are removed without giving the metal an oppor-
tunity to reoxidizc, and metal is accordingly the result.
Lead and copper ores are treated in this way. Roasting
and reduction consists in allowing the oxidation of the ore
to lx>eoiiie comiilete. and then treating the product as above
described for the oxide class. Lead, copper, antimony, and
nickel are obtained by this method. Precipitation consists
in melting the sulphide ore with some substance which has
a stronger allinity for sulphur than the metal already com-
bined with it. Lime. zinc, and iron are such substances.
but the first recpiircs too high a temperature for perfect
action, and the second is too dear. Iron is the onlv reagent
that is of universal application for this purpose. It may be
used either as metab>, oxide, or silicate, and the cinder made
in iron-Works is frequentlv employed. The unroasted ore is
melted with the iron or cinder and the fluxes necessary to
make the gaiigue fusible. A shaft-furnace is theoretically
the bi'st apparatus for the work, since no waste of iron by
oxidali<in can take place in it. The reverberatory is frc-
quently ilsciI, liceause in it the sulphur can be partly removed
by roasting at a low heat, and the operation finished by melt-
ing the residues with iron.
The outline of metallurgical practice here given relates
only to the most general princiriles. It is rare that an ore
can be smelted at once to metal of purity siitlicient for its
iininidialc use in the arts. Siimetimcs the baser metal con-
tains (■•nisiderable rpianlities of the precious metals, which
mu--t lie separated by further working. A refining process
is almost always applied to the cnide metal obtained from
it-S ores; and very often the process of smelting is length-
ened by making each operation iiicomplcle, and thus ob-
taining the iiii'lal by a gradual elimination of the elements
nliiiird with it. The reason for this is thai the impuri-
ties are always more vohtlilizable or more oxidizable, or
their oxidi-s arc more reducible, than the metal itself, and
by repeatedly subjecting the compound to operations which
affect its constituents in different degrees a complete separa-
tion is effected. It is found to be much easier to eliminate
these impurities from some eoin|Hnind of the metal than
from the latter when fully reduced, l-'or this reason the
metal is of ten combined with some element that admits of
perfect subseiiueiit separation; and this comiioiind is then
passed througli the purifying operations, in wliich there is a
gradual concentration of the metallic base. The element
employed for this purpose is sulphur. Oxides of copper arc
often turned into sulphides by adding some sulphide ore,
like pyrite, to them, instead of reducing them at once to
metal, which would not onlv cause .serious loss in the slag,
but also give an impure product in the case of impure ores.
The general belief that sulphur is the smelter's greatest
enemy is therefore unfounded. It is often his chief de-
pendence, and iiurposely added in his operations. A rich
ore is usually smelted without concentration. Of poor ores
there arc two kinils. The ore may contain a rich mineral
mixed with a great preponderance of gangue ; and when
mechanical concentration is not admissible, such ores are
usually melted raw, with fluxes to make the gangue fusible.
The product is the metalliferous mineral without the
gangue, and the process can then proceed on this rich prod-
uct with greater care. The other case is that of an ore
which contains a great deal of metalliferous mineral, but of
low grade. Such ores are usually subjected to some process
like roasting, by which part of the mineral is obtained in a
condition that will admit of its removal by the fluxes in the
fii-st fusion.
The products of the fusion of an ore are threefold : (1)
That containing the metal. This may be either metallic or
a ■' matte " when it contains sulphur, or "siieise" when it
contains much arsenic or antimony. (2) That containing
the gangue and fluxes; it is the stony part of the ore melted
to a glass, and is called slag when the bases are chiefly non-
metallic, and cinder or scoria w hen the base is chiefly a me-
tallic oxide. (3) The gaseous products, which, besides the
products of combustion, contain the oxygen of the ore and
such other constituents of it as are volatile.
MetallurCT is rapidly advancing as a science in conse-
quence of trie great aid given by the progress of chemistry.
At the present day the most prominent question is the use
of the electric current and the economical use of fuels. The
best construction of furnaces, the use of gaseous fuel (which
permits the employment of refuse carbonaceous materials),
the heating of the blast to increase the effect of the fuel
used, the utilization of the half-burned carbon which exists
in furnace-smoke, and the direct production of metals from
their ores in one or two operations, are all pha.ses of this im-
portant problem ; and these things are now chiefly occupy-
ing the attention of nielalhirgisls. Great care is also taken
in large works to make useful every element in the ore that
has a market value. To this en<l metallurgical establish-
ments are now large manufactories of sulphuric acid, ar-
senic, iron and copper vitriol, such paints as zinc white,
smalt, etc. The most noticeable instance of this economy is
the manufacture of sulphuric acid from [tyrile. which is a
bisulphide of iron. No less than 1..500,0(K) tons of this ore
are burned for this |)ur|iose yearly in Euro)ie. ])roducing
about two-thirds its weight of acid. Pyrite almost always
contains at least a trace of silver, and in I'Ingland large
quantities of the burned ore are treated for silver, of which
it contains about three-fourths of an ounce per ton. After
extracting the silver, a moderati' part of the residue is sold
to the iron-works and made into iron. This is jirobably
the most complete utilization of an ore known.
The iret mcthmJ of lieating ores consists in bringing the
metal into solution, and then precipitating it by some agent.
When the ore is an oxide or contains a native metal, the
solution may bo effected by treating it with an acid which
will dissolve the metal; suliihides may also be treated in
this way by first roasting them. Sulphuric and hydro-
chloric acids are those usually eniploywl. but they are too
dear in most localities, and Ihe use of ]nirchased acid is lim-
ited. Examples of such treatment are mostly confined to
the metallurgy of gold, platinum, copper, and bismuth.
The acidification of the metal is somelimes accomplished
liy healing it with some substance containing the aiad.
Thus silver is fii'cpicntly chlorinated by healing the roiusled
ore with salt, which contains chlorine. The resulting chlo-
ride of silver may then be extracted by solution in strong
brine, or it may be treated with iron, which re<luces the
chloride to inelal, and mercury, which aiiialgamalcs the
metal as fast lus formed. The most usual moile of accom-
plishing solution is employed with the sulphides, which arc
carefully roasted in such a manner that the proiliict is not
an oxide, but a sulphate of the metal to be extracted. This
is accomplished by regulating the temperature eiiii>loycd.
METALS
693
and when tho material operated on contains sulphides of
several metals, a proper management of the operation will
L'ive a product containing oxides of the metals which are not
desired, and a sulphate of the one which is to lie extracted.
The roasted material is then treated with water which dis-
solves the siilpliate, leaving the oxides: and the metal is
then precipitated by some reagent. Copper preci|)itates sil-
ver, and iron iirecipitales copper. This operation is em-
filoyed in the metallurgy of silver when the ores are pure:
lut the ore itself is not treated directly in tliis way, the
gaiigue being first removed by fusion, and the roasting ap-
plied to the resulting matte. Copper, silver, and nickel are
the metals most freipicnilv extracted by the wet way, but it
is also applied to gold, piatinum. and bismuth. For poor
ores it is usually much cheajier than the dry method, but
when the ore is rich, or if the gangue is a substance soluble
in acid, the use of acid and labor may be so great as to
make the dry method preferable.
In e/eclro-melalluiyi/ l\iK electric current is utilized for
the reduction of ores or the separation of metals. Its widest
application in the former direction is in the manufacture of
aluminium (see Ali'MIMI'm), where the introduction of elec-
trolytic methods has so cheapened cost that the metal is
now available for common use. The most conspicuous ex-
ample of the separation of metals is furnished by modern
copper metallurgy. In many ores cop|ier is associated with
a small quantity of the precious metals. The onlinary wet
methods did not admit of paying separation of the silver
from the metallic copper produced unless the latter con-
tained more than ;iO oz. of silver to the ton. The electro-
lytic method is much cheaper, and therefore adds a some-
what imporlant source to silver production. The crude
metallic copper as it comes from the hands of the copper-
smelter — being in recent yeai's the product of the Hessemer
converter — is cast into flat slabs or anodes, which, after
being covered with bagging, are suspended in vats contain-
ing an acidulated solution of sulphate of copper. Copper
sheets are alternately hung between the argentiferous cop-
per anodes, they acting as cathodes. By the passiigc through
the vats of an electric current the copper is dissolved from
the anodes, and is redeposite<l on the cathodes, the silver re-
maining behind with whatever impurities the coarse copper
may have contained. Very large quantities of argentiferous
copp.r are annually treated by this method in the U. S. and
in K'irope.
Tlie electrolytic method is also rapidly becoming the
standard in the refining and parting of silver, the process
being based on the selective power of nitric acid, by which
the silver is dissolved and reprecipitated with less electro-
moiive force than the usually accompanying metals, bis-
muth, lead, and gold. The silver to be treated is cast into
plates whieh are covered with linen b.igs, and areintnxluced
as anodes into the vats containing dilute nitric acid. Kolled
plates of line silver are used as cathodes. The current
causes the silver to dissolve, and it is deposited on the
catlKnles at the rate of 4'2 lb. per hour per electric horse-
power. The current used has an electromotive force of IJ
to U volts for each vat. The two works at St. Louis and
Pittsburg alone treat together daily 70.tK)0 oz. of silver.
Itevised by Charles Kirchuoff.
Metals [from Lat. metalhnn, metal, mine = Or. fifTa\-
Xoy. mine, metal : the most probable source of the wold is
the Semitic, cf. Ileb. iiia/al, to forge]: elementary bodies
especially characterized by their peculiar and generally high
luster, known as the metallic luster; by very great opacity:
and, with few exceptions, by their high sjiecific gravity.
The (ij)iicili/ of even the thinnest films is i>erfect, except in
the case of gold, which is so malleable that it can bo beaten
into films through which a greenish light is found to pass.
The color of the metals is generally white, although of vari-
ous tints ; zinc and lead having a bluish, bismuth a reddish,
auil calcium a yellowish tint, (lold is yellow, and copper
red. The metals have generally a high upecitic gravilij,
but potas>iuin, sodium, and lithium are lighter than water,
while magnesium and aluminium have a specific gravity of
I'?.') and :J-')(5 respectively. Of the others, the more impor-
tant vary from arsenic at 5'88 to platinum at 21'.5 in the
form of fine wire. The specific gravity of malleable metals
is deciiledly increased by compression. Mulliubilihi. or the
pro|>erty of flattening more or less utnler |)ressure of blows,
IS possessed by a large number of the metals. Gold has
been beaten inlii films only Tno'.roii of an ii\eli thick ; silver
is also very malleable, and so are copper, tin. and platinum.
although in an inferior degree. Iron, leatl, nickel, cad-
mium, and mercury, when frozen, are more or less malle-
able : bismuth is very slightly malleable in small globules;
while antimonv, arsenic, cobalt, and maiigaiuwe are brittle.
Zinc is rather brittle at ordinarv temperatures, but between
120' and l."iO C. it can be rolleJ into sheets, which remain
malleable when cold. At a higher temperature, 210 , it be-
comes very brittle again. Hammering and rolling render
malleable metals more or less brittle, but their malleability
can be restored by heating them strongly and slowly cool-
ing them. This process is called nniteuliny. Kelaled to
malleability is ductililij, the property of being drawn into
wire : but as this depends partly on the power of resisting a
strain, or tenacity, the most mulleable metals are not neces-
sarily most ductile : the order being as follows, beginning
with the mo^t ductile: iron, copjier, platinum, silver, gold,
zinc, tin, lead. Jlctals are drawn into wire by pulling them
through holes in steel plates. If they become brittle during
this operation, they must be annealed. In conductivity the
metals vary greatly. Silver is the best conductor of heat,
and bismuth one of the poorest. Silver is likewise the best
conductor of electricity.
Conductivity of Heat. — Silver. 1,000; copper, 736; gold,
532; tin, 145; iron, 119; lead, ho; platiimm, 84: bismuth,
18. The linear expansion of metal rods by heating from
0 to 100° C. is expressed by the following fractions: ir(m,
ri?; g"'d. rb; co[iper. j^V ; silver, yi^; lead, jix: zi''<-'.
3^ J. .Platinum expands only nVrt s'"! t'lis being very
nearly the rate of expansion of gla.ss, it is found that plati-
num wires can be inserted into fused glass without any dan-
ger of cracking the glass on cooling. The fusibility of the
metals covers a very wide range, mercury being liquid at
ordinarv temporal iires, and platinum requiring the heat of
the oxyiiydrogen blowpipe for its liquefaction. Osmium is
the most refractory of the metals, volatilizing without fusing
at a temperature capable of volatilizing platinum.
Fusing-pointa of Metals.
Mercuvv 39-44"
Tin....' 227-8
Cadmium 2-28
Bismuth 258
Lead 325
Zinc :... 413
Antimonv 425' C.
Silver...' 1.023
Copper 1.091
Gold 1,102
Cast iron 1,530
Nickel, cobalt, manganese, and palladium require the high-
est forge heat : molybdenum, tungsten, and cnromium only
agglomerate in the forge: titanium, iridium, rhodium, and
l)latinum are infusible except at the temperature of the
oxyhydrogen blowpipe. Wrought iron and platinum be-
come soft before melting, and pieces of iron or steel can
therefore be united by pressure while in this pasty state,
and porous platiimm sponge can be made solid. This is
called tceldiny. Volatility, or the jiroperly of assHniing
the gaseous state, is known to be possessed by most of the
metals, and is probably a jiroiierty of them all. It is espe-
cially characteristic of certain of them, which volatilize at
comparatively low temperaluri'S. Thus mercury yields a
sensible amount of vapor at '20 C, and at 350 boils; zinc,
cadmium, an<l magnesium volatilize rapidly at a red heat ;
and even gold and platinum may be vaporized before a
properly arranged oxyhydrogen blast. Arsenic passes off in
vapor without fusing. In hardness the metals vary at or-
dinary temperatures from the fluid mercury and soft, waxy
potassium to the exceedingly hard clironiium and manga-
nese capable of scratching glass and hardened steel. The
crystalline form of some of the metals has been deter-
mined; some being found naturally crystallized, as gold,
copper, and silver: others being deposited in crystals by
the galvanic battery, as tin : by sublimation, as arsenic; or
by fusion and gradual cooling, as bismuth. Zinc, arsenic,
antimony, ami bismuth crystallize in forms belonging to
the hexagonal system: tin is tetragonal; gold, silver, plati-
num, mercury, copper, lead, and iron are isometric.
The metals are found both free and combined in nature.
Gold anil platinum almost invariably occur free, for it is a
disputed question whether the gold so generallv found in
iron pyrites is combined with sulphur or not. Jiercury oc-
curs mainly as sulphiile. and sometimes metallic. Silver is
often found native, but more generally as sidjihiile. and
with sulphides of antimony, arsenic, copper, and lead ; also
largely as ehloride. Copi>er mainly as sulphide, generally
with sulphide of iron, also very commonly as carbmiate and
oxide, and in a few localities large deposits of native cop-
69i
MKTALS
METAL-WORK
per are founJ. The iron ores are the oxides ami carbonate ;
sulphide of iron furnishing sulphur, sulphuric acid, and
pri'i'U vitriol, but not beinj,' friMnrally Hccimntcil an iron
ore. Lend oceurs uuiinlv a> sulphide.' but the curlHinate is
also an inipMrtant ore. Tin is found ns oxide; the sulphide
is a less esteemed ore. althoujrh abundant in the English
liiines. The most valuable zine ores are the carlwnate and
sulphide; the oxide is less abundant. Nickel and cobalt
occur chietlv as arsenides and sulphides; bismuth, anti-
monv. and arsenic arc found combined with sulphur, and
also native, in sullicient iiuantities to be worked.
There are forty-nine of the elements universally consid-
ered as metals, tellurium, which is sometimes reckoned as
the fiftieth, bciiiK generally classed among the melalluids
with sedenium. to which it'bears close relations. Gold, sil-
ver, mercurv, lead, cop|)er, iron, and tin were known^to the
ancients. Potassium was discovered by Davy in 1807 while
acting upon potash with a powerful galvanic battery, and
this led to the discovery of sodium, lithium, and the metals
of the alkaline earths,' Rubidium, ca'sium, thallium, and
indium were disi-overed by the use of the spectroscope, in-
dium lieing the hist met'al discovered. Gallium was dis-
covered by Lecoq de Boisbaudran Aug. 27, 1875, during the
spectroscopic examination of zinc-blende from the Pierre-
fltte mine, vallev of Argeles, Pyrenees. It gives a violet
line at 417. and a faint band about -104, and is a white, mod-
eratelv hard metal, closely allied to zinc.
The metals have been' variously classified, according to
the purposes to be served by the grouping. To express
their electrical relations they were arrangeifin succession,
beginning with the most electro-positive metals, the alkali-
metals, and ending with the most electro-negative, the noble
metals : the noble metals being those whose oxides are re-
duced by heat alone — viz.. gold, silver, mercury, and the
metals of the platinum group. They are also classified ac-
cording to the properties of their oxides, some forming
powerful bases, as t he oxides of metals of the alkalies and
alkaline earths, with the lower oxides of most of the other
metals; others form only acid oxides, as arsenic and anti-
mony, and the higher oxides of chromium, manganese, and
iron'; while others, like scsquioxide of aluminium, may
sometimes play the part of acids and sometimes of bases.
The classification of the metals according to their equiv-
alence or combining power is the most accurate for the
general purposes of modern cliemistry. This method of
classification assumes the atomic weight of hydrogen as
the unit for the relative combining weights of the elements,
which are then placed in groups whose meml)ei-s have equiv-
alent combining proportions, and also possess certain prop-
erties in common.
1. Monad Metals. — The alkali metals, potassium, sodium,
lithium, ciesium, and rubidium, which form only one chlo-
ride each. Silver, although differing widely from the alkali
metals in general, is a monad, and yields an alum closely
related to potash alum.
2. Dyad Metals. — Harium, strontium, and calcium, whose
oxides are called the alkaline earths, form a group together.
Glucinum, yttrium, erbium, lanthanum, and didymium, all
rare metals, whose oxides are called earths, form a second
group. Zinc and cadmium, with magnesium, which is anal-
ogous in many of its compounds to zinc, although it was
formerly reckoned among the alkaline earths, form a tliird
group. The elements of each of these groups form only
one chloride. Mercury and copper constitute a fourth
group, and form each two chlorides.
3. Triad Metals. — Indium, forming only a trichloride,
and thallium ami gold, forming each a mono and a trichlo-
ride, Ijclong here. Thallium, however, has strong analogies
to ti)c alkali metals, and indium is capable of forming an
alum with ammonium.
4. Tetrad Metals. — Platinum, palladium, iridium, rhwli-
um, ruthenium, and osmiiuu ant classeil together, and all
fcjrm tetrachlorides, as well as dichlorides, excejiling rho-
dium, which forms a dichloridc and a trichloride, but is
retained here from analogy. Tin and titanium form a sec-
ond group of tetrads. Lead is considered quadrivalent,
because it yields a plundio-tetri'lhido with the liydrocarboii
radical ethyl. Zirconium and Ihoriiuun form tetrachlo-
rides. Iron, aluminium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and
cerium are also considcrerl as tetrads, although their proper
jHJsition is on some accounts doulitful.
5. Pentad .Metals. — Ars('inc and antimony form trioxides
and pentoxides, and bismuth is gr(ru|ied with them from
its analogy to antimony. Vanadium is regarded as u pen-
tad on account of its analogy to phosphorus in some of its
combinations. Tantalum and niobium have been shown to
form pentachlorides.
6. llexad Metals. — Chromium forms a hcxfluoridc. and
uranium is reckoned as a hexad from conipoumis similar to
those of chromium. Tungsten forms a nexchloride. and
molybdenum, being analogous to it, is considered hexadic.
Specific Oravilies of Melala at 15-5° C.
Platinum (in thin wire) 2150 Cobalt 8-54
Gold 19-50 Manganese 800
Uranium 18-40 Iron 7-7!)
Tungsten 17-60 Tin 729
Mercurv 13-59 Zinc 6-86-7-1
Palladium 11-30-11-80 Antimony 6-80
Lead 11-45 Arsenic 588
Silver 10-50 Aluminium 2-50-2-67
Hismuth 9-90 | Magnesium 1-75
Copper 8-96 'Sodium 0-972
Nickel 8-80 , Potassium 0-865
Cadmium 8-70 ! Lithium 0-593
Molybdenum 8-63!
Revised by Charles Kirchhoff.
Metal-wnrk : the manipulation and treatment of metals
and the making of metal objects of any kind, for use or or-
nament : also the objects so m.ide. Ordinarily the term is
not used formatters of jiure utility: thus we do not hear
of machinery or of barbed-wire fences or of brass faucets
aiul stop-cocks as metal-icork ; the term is applied rather
to the making of things that are more or less ornamental,
and to the things themselves. It is in that sense that it is
used in this article.
Metals are given the forms desired by several different
processes, as by casting, by hamtiiering. by stamping, by
filing or otherwise cutting away some part of the substance,
by rolling, as when sheet-metal is wanted, by drawing, as
w'ire. Moreover, the forms so produced are further modi-
fied by CuAsixo (g. v.), and the surfaces are treated either
by chiising or by Engraving {q. v.). Parts are put together
bv means of welding and soldering, and by means of rivets
and screws. The colors of metals arc changed or modified
by alhijage, t)i!it is, by melting two or more metals together
(see Alloy) ; by applying a t hin film of one metal to the sur-
face of aiuMlier, as in silver plating and in gilding ; by ex-
posure to washes and " pickles," which give different lints
to bronze castings; and by chemical changes of a sinqiler
kind, such as the formation of oxides and sulphides on the
surface. Moreover, color effects can be got by Damaskkkn-
INO ((jr. i'.). or inlaying one metal in another: by Niello-work
{(/. v.), by the .Japanese process imitated in the West of ham-
mering different colored metals together to produce a veined
or mottled surface; and by the corrosion or mechanical
roughening of parts in contrast with the brightness or
smoothness of others. Painting, too. of different sorts can
be applied to metals, and enameling can be apiilied with
perfect ease. Each metal allows of certain kinds of orna-
mental treatment, and is less adapted to others.
Jlommer-u'ork: (1) Wrought Iron. — The singtilar prop-
erly that iron has of keeping in a soft condition when above
red heal, though still far below the fusing-iioint. is its special
fitness for being shaped by hammciing. Jt has also the
property of uniting readily and strongly one nnuss of hot
iron with another when the two arc brought together and
hammered one into the other. Pieces so unite<l are said to
be welded together, and iron treated by liannnering when
hot is said to be forged. Iron-work j)roduced by these
means, especially when elaborate and of manyparls, or very
delicately worked, is called wrought iron. Nearly all the
artistic work in iron, in all ages and all |iai-ts of the world,
has been wrought iron. We know little of the iron-work of
the ancients: it has perished, and it does not .seem to have
been important as decorative art ; but that of the Middle
Ages is of the greatest interest. As the smiths of the lime
had no machinery to facilitate and hasten their work, every-
thing had to be done by sheer hammer-work ; the pieces of
iron were shaped, ilrawn out. (latteneil. curved, united in one,
split apart and spread into branches, formed into illloieseent
sprays, and Ihese grouped in antheniions — all by the hand
of man, aided only by simiile tackle for lifting and lower-
ing, and by pincers and haiumer. aiul now and then by
punches and dies of home manufacture. The gates, the
window-grates, hinges and locks, bars and bolts, made in
this way by patient handiwork, became almost of necessity
MKTAL-WOKK
•695
the moJiuin of whatever power of fanliistic iU'si};ii the
smith possL'Ssed. Such power of desitfii wus iiihorited, too,
from uiKestoFN unit taken up from teachers and masters,
who had worked in an eipially s|inMtaneons way all their
lives, and whom the soil and pupil hoped to excel; and ill
no department of decorative art is the early time more ad-
miraljle and enviable than in this of simple smith-work.
With each improvement made in the industrial arts of iron
the fine arts of iron liave {jrown more feehle.
Hammer-work : (2) HiimuHse-work. — 'I'lie practice of beat-
ing up patterns in relief in tliin plates of metal lecpiires
that .the artist's eye should be upon the work as it grows,
while the hammer-strokes mu.st be plied from the other
side, the reverse. For this |)uri)Ose a singular tool is used,
called sometimes a snarling-iron. It is a bar of iron
fixed strongly at its larger end, tapering toward the other
or free end, which is turned up at the point. An a.ssislant
poun<ls steadily upon the bar at a convenient distance from
the fixed end ; its elasticity then causes the turned-up thin
point to strike a series of slight blows upon the under side
of the plate of metal which the artist holds firmly above it.
In this way, as the plate is moved about, the relief pattern
slowly takes shape. Such repoiissee or re/)OH*se'-work, as
called by the French term generally used in Knglish, isdoiie
in gold and silver very commonly, nearly all the relief or-
naments in old silver plate being of this character, and
purely ornamental disks and i)lacpies being common in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries of art. At the same
epoch it was (lone in copper on a very large scale, cooking-
vessels, water-pots, and all sorts of bowls and dishes were
made of sheet-copper worked exclusively with the hammer.
It is done in bronze by the Orientals; the Japanese have
exquisite work of this sort, both simple and elaborate.
Lead has been treated in this way. and, at the other end of
the scale of hardness, so has steel. In modern times old
work of this sort has been imitateil and even surpasseil in
delicate finish as well as in boldness. Works of art of im-
mense size have been carried out chiefly by hammer-work ;
the most ancient bronze statues of the Cireeks were shapeil
in this way, and the practice has been revived in modern
times.
Hammer-work Hflped b>/ other Prnnenses. — It is customary
to carry out the ilesign and to diversify the surface of ham-
mer-wrought metal by means of sharp-pointed and edgeil
tools applied directly, and also by stamps and dies. Wrought
iron is worked upon while hot by tools with chisel-edges,
anil also with the sharp point; of course, only very simple
patterns are possible, such as zigzags and cro.sscs, and the
impression of gouge-shaped tools pioducing little arcs of
circles, and punches of circular form. For more elaborate
patterns and all reliefs, such as the sinii)lo leafage which
one sees in rich tiothic hinges and the like, a die is used
into which the hot iron is forced by blows of the hammer.
y^f/WM.tjjf'-work is retouched by the chasing-tool, and that in
a most elaborate fashion. (See Ciiasi.\-g.) In the eighteenth
century, which was, in Furope, the great time for goldsmiths'
and silversmiths' ilelicale and minute work, watcli-casi'S,
smelling-bottles, etuis, or small boxes of a decorative sort
were made of thin plates of precious metal worked in high
relief by the hammer and then chased with surprising ele-
gance. The back of a watch would be a ba.s-relicf contain-
ing a dozen or more human ligures well and delicately mod-
eled, with a suggested landscape for the background, and a
decorative border of scroll-work; and such a watch com-
manded no very exorbitant price. Knyraving may be used
also to decorate hammer-work (see FNiiBAvi.Nu) ; "indeed, it
is probable that the burin as well as the chasing-tool has
been used on the gold and silver n/wH.v.w-work described
above. In aiilii|uily the hrmr/.e cistip or caskets for toilet
articles and the like were made of thin sheets of bronze
hammered into the simple forms of circular and elliptical
cylinders, and received their chief ornamentation from the
graver. The touch of the sharp tool on the hot iron though
often spoken of as engraving can hardly be considereil so :
the graver removes some part of the metal, which is hardly
fciusible in hot iron, and the impressed lines and patterns on
wrought-iron hinges, lock-plates, etc., are rather cluused
than engraved, but actual chiseling in the cold iron has
been done, and even on a large scale. .lapaiiese decorative
objects are often finished in this way, and the famous
wrought-iron pillar of the Koiilab mosque in old I>elhi
seems to have been sculptured as if it were bronze or a still
softer metal. Oriental bronzes offer many such examples
of graver-work in the cold metal.
( 'itxi-work: (1) Cast Iron. — This material is not pure iron,
but has much carbon combined with it and also mixed with
it, and is more brittle and harder than wrought iron. It
does not give very clean and sharp castings, and it is too
hard to be tooled after casting, as is done with bronze, for
instance. Therefore, cast iron has never been a recognized
medium for works of fine art, although several attempts have
been inaJe to priKluce artistic castings. This is notably in
the case of wluit is called Berlin iron or Berlin jewelry,
which originated in (icrniany at the time of Napoleon's
supremacy, when gold jewelry was given to the nation and it
became a fashion to wear the inexpensive substitute. These
castings were of surprising delicacy, but more recent work of
the same sort is inferior. Another noteworthy attempt has
been the casting of large statues ancl groups by French
founders since 1875, some of which have approached real ex-
cellence. Brass also, and latten, which is not really differ-
ent from brass, arc used for castings, ami generally ilie cast
parts are subsidiary to larger works in sheet-metal. The
most important use of casting in the arts is in the case of
bronze. This is al» alloy of copper with tin, or with tin and
lead, or tin and zinc, or all three, sometimes having small
proportions of still other metals. Tin alone with copper
makes the hardest and finest bronze; the proportions are
generally aljout nine parts copper to one of tin, there being
no fixed rule. lironze has always been the especial materiiu
for artists; from early civilization to the nineteenth century
it has been in use for medals and medallions, bas-reliefs,
statues, and ilecorative objects. It gives a beautifully sharp
and delicate casting, and allows of great refinement of fin-
ishing Work upon the surface, so that it can be brought to
a full realization of the' artist's conception; then it bears
perfectly exposure to the weather, soon losing its golden
primitive color and taking a greenish tinge which comes
from a chemical change in the external particles, and is
called the patina. Jloreover, as many bronzes are not meant
for exposure out of doors, the patina is often given by arti-
ficial means, and many tints of green and brown and yellow,
olive and buff, and silver gray are produced by means of
'•pickles'' or strong acid mixtures. Some F^sLstern bronzes
are colored to resemble a crystalline surface, shot with little
spiruhr ; others are mottled and spotted, but these surfaces
are applied to vases and dishes in the main, and to those of
lilain outline and simple form. IJronze bowls and other
vessels, arms, weights, lamps, mirrors, and the like are found
among very early Fgyptian and Assyrian deposits. Uronze
statuary and relief sculpture come down to us in perfect con-
dition from (irecian times, from the Koiuan imperial epoch,
from the Hyzantine empire, and from the Middle Ages and
later times; some of it is hammereil and riveted, but by far
the greater part is cast-work. JIosl of the works of art in
this material have been lost to the world because of the in-
trinsic value of the bronze. Thus of the enormous iiumi>er
of large bronze statues and groups which are known to have
existed in Rome and the other cities of the empire, not half
a dozen have been preserved, apart from the great collection
found in a single villa at Ilerculaneum, and now exhibited
in the Naples JIuseum, In like manner very many pieces of
even the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries have been melted
down, and to this day newly f<mnd anti(pics are in iiumi-
U'lit danger of being cut up and sold by ignorant finders.
There is no doubt that valuable pieces arc being destroyed
ill this way every year in all the lands surrounding the
Mediterranean.
Stamped Work. — Much the most important kind is that of
medals and coins struck with adie. (See Mi:dal and Xi".Mis-
MATics.) Other instances of stamped work have been named
under wroujiht iron. Ajiart from this, stam[>s are used
chiefly in silverware and the finer vessels of |>ewter and
other chea[> metals. Small oriuimcntsiu relief are produced
in this way with good results.
Filing and chLieliiiij are used ill all kinds of metal-work,
ami are not the chief ft>rinative proi'esses in any.
Itolling is only an alternative of hammering in cases
where a flat sheet or a continuous bar or strip is reijuircti.
The flat sheet-metal nseil in ancient ci.-ts was niaile, as
armor was made, by the hammer; bars and the like were
made, as was also wire, by hammering the metal into a
griMivc ill the anvil. Jloilern processes of passing l)etween
rollers arc merely cheaper and quicker ways of doing the
same thing on a large sH-ale.
Drnwinij, as wire, is of the same nature, Init a modifica-
tion of wire-work is that called damaskeening, which is
strictly inlaying metal upon metal.
690
MKTAMEKISM
As n'i.'iiriU llu' i>ur|ioscs to wliieli metal-work i? put in tho
wav of JiroiMtiv, ,irt. it is c-ustniiiary to make nmiiy ilivi-
si.msaiiasn- : thus Rol.l ami silver plate is divi-
sible iiit" •■' ■I'xl <li>mestic, auil tliere is also the
j,i, " ', 1 eorponitioii plate, much
^, ; irimiiis thiiii on the con-
tin, ,, ,,, ,. arlislie. nut at all useful
Work put 11 ^,se' plaques, and the like;
and aU.i tli' ' "l"'" '''" person, such as
biiltMiis and buckless tliiU and I'inaigrelles. to all which
varieties the larf;o department of jewelry must be ailded.
(.See Jkwelrv.) In liKe manner in wri>u<:ht-iron work are
included not merely the jrratinjrs ami crest in^'s of architec-
tural pur|)ose, lull also arms and armor in all their variety,
steel lieiii- siil.si ituted for iivn.
There are certain ornamental processes which though not
metal-work themselves are closely allied to it, such as
Niello and Knamel (qi/. v.). Their use is practically limited
to gold and silver ware, e.vcept that in cases where enamel
is the chief decorative appliance, the design of the whole
piece Ikini; biu-ed upon the ellect of the enameling, the
metal basis niav !«> of brassor other inexpensive metal. The
fjllinir of eiiKraVeil lines with black or red wa.x. as in monu-
mentTd brassies (see liR.vssES, MONUMENTAL), is inlaying and
not essentially metal-work. Russell Stukhis.
Metamerism [pivtix ^ero-. corresponding to. duplicating,
from (ir. ixfrd. with + tir. /itpos, part]: in zoology, that
condition exhibited bv various types, like .\nnelids, Arthro-
P<k1s, and Vertebrates, in wliidi the body can be reduced
to a series of similar parts. Thus in an earthworm the
body is composeil of a scries of essentially similar seg-
ments arranged one after the other, each segment contain-
ing (Hprtions of the nervous, excretory, digestive, muscular,
and circulatory systems. In the Vertebrates this metamer-
ism is at first sight not so evident, but it is readily shown
to exist, anil upon its presence some of the nio<lern advances
of our knowledge of the relationships of the Vertebrates to
the lower forms depend. J. S. Kinqsley.
Metamerism, in chemistry: Sec IsoMEniSM.
Metamor'pliism [Or. ^«to. after, beyond, o\ cr + fu>p<tyli,
forml : a term extensively employed in the science of geology
to indicate all those changes in the mincralogieal compo-
sition and structure of rocks, whereby they are renilereil
harder and more crystalline (or at least not less so) than in
their original condition. In its broadest sense the term
metamorphism might apply to all chemical and structural
changes which go on in rocks, but by common consent it is
restricted to the above given meaning, and thus contrasted
with the terms weathering ami de.composilion. which are
used to cover those changes tending to make rocks less C17S-
tallinc and more soluble.
The two contending cycles of rock-history, decomposition
under atmospheric comlilions, an<l recomposition under con-
ditions of high tem[ierature and [iressurc, have long been
recognized. At the earth's surface crystalline masses be-
come hydrated or combine with carbon dioxide, thereby
disintegrating into soil; the debris thus formed is spread
out in seilimentary dejiosits, which, when deeply buried,
become recrystallized into hard and resistant rocks.
Metamnrphic ftoc/.s. — The fact of metamorphism on a
large scale was clearly appreciated by Iluttfin. who, over a
hundred years ago, in his flieori/ of the Earth, described it,
while considering heat as its ail-sulTieient cause; the term
itself sfMfTice owes to Lyell. For a century the processes it
embraces have received an ever-increasing amount of study
and attention from geologists.
Mi-tamorphic rocks are regarded as occupying an inter-
mediate iiosilioii between those of igneous and those of
sedimentary origin ; they arc such as owe their component
minerals and structures, in great part at lea.st, to the recrys-
tallization of pre-existing rocks without fusion. They in-
clude most of the so-called Crystalline Schists {q. v.),
which arc in part demonstrably of igneous, and in part of
wriimentary origin, altliongli a still larger nnmlierareso pro-
fusely altered as to leave their original character in doul)t.
Kinds of Metnmnrphlsin. — fine of the must apparent as
well as earliest recognized distinctions among metamorphic
nx;ks is to Iwi fouiul in the presence or ab.sence of an ap-
parently efTeclivo cause of nietainorphism. It was early
recognized that various intrusive igneous masses had pro-
diiii-d a dirict change by hardening and recryslallizing the
rixks around them. As these changes surrounded the entile
intrusive inao-s, and aa their intensity was seen to be [iropor-
MKTAMOKIMIISM
tional to the proximity of the eruptive rock, the efliciency
of the latter as tho metamorphosing agent was hardly to be
questioned. Such cai^es were therefore called contact or local
metamorphism, in contradistinction to those which disclose
no such active agent. These latter, which generally involve
much greater areas than the comparatively narrow zones of
alteration surrounding igneous intrusiims, have been called
cases of general or reijional metamorphism. In many in-
stances the etfects of this latter kind of metamorphism are
so like those produced by contact action that igneous
masses have been assumed as existing below the surface.
In the majority of cases, however, no such assumption will
account for the facts.
Within recent years the energy developed by the great
mechanical movements within the more disturbed zones of
the earth's crust has been recognized as an efficient cause of
the metamorphism of rocks on a vast scale, 'i'he faulting,
folding, and shearing of great rock-masses has generated
heat, stimulated circulation, and developed new minerals
and structures. Thus new rocks are developed from old
ones, and the completeness of the change is. in the main,
proporlionale to the intensity of the earth's movement.
Such metamorphism has been chWed di/namical or disloca-
tion metamorphism. The vast and complex problems which
it involves have as yet only just begun to be investigated in
detail.
Agents of Metamorphism. — Whether the primary exciting
cause of metamorphism be the intrusion of igneous masses
or the clislocation of the rock strata, the three most active
and necessary agencies in producing the changes called
metamorphic' are (1) heat; (2) moisture, or some other
mineralizing agent ; (3) pressure. Heat and pressure both
greatly increase the chemical action of igneous solutions,
while even a small amount of some substance, like fluorine,
chlorine or boron, capable of forming volatile compounds,
facilitates the formation of new minerals.
Another important factor in metamorphism is the presence
of a thick mass of overlying material which prevents the
free escape of heat and volatile substances, ana thus gives
them their maximum etliciency.
The result of metamorphism in a given case depends of
course not merely on the nature and intensity of the meta-
morphosing agents, but also on the kind of rock act<'d upon.
Limestone, sandstone, slate, and eruptive rock will yield
very different pnxlucts when subjected to the sjime riieta-
morphosing influences.
The metamorphic action on a given rock-mass may be
designated as macro-structural (cleavage or jointing), micro-
structural (crushing ami recementation of the constituents),
or chemical (formation of new minerals). In most cases all
three of these occur simultaneously. The separate consid-
eration of the action of each of the three metamorphosing
agencies, as well as of the three kinds of changes which they
produce, would carry us far beyond the space available for
this article. They are well described by Sir Archibald
Geikic in his article on Geology in the ninth edition of the
EneyclopcKdia Britannicd, and in his Geological Te.rt-ltook.
Origin of the 3fetamorphosing Agencies. — J/eat : In the
case of contact metamorpliism the necessary heat is f uriiislK>d
by the intruding igneous mass; in the case of dynamic
metamorphism it is [produced by friction in the rocks under-
going the disturliance. and in part also by the escape of heat
from below through the fissures formed. Moisture : Water
is present in all rocks, even the most compact and imperme-
able. The so-called quarry-water (eau dc carriere) is well
known to all practical stone-workers. Its amounl varies
greatly with the porosity of the rocks, but it is always pres-
ent. This furnishes the necessary moisture in the case of
contact metamorphism, although it is well known that ig-
neous rocks also contain large quantities of water and other
volatile substances. In the case of dynamic action the
crushing and faulting of rock-masses of couree greatly facil-
itates the presence and circulation of water. J'ressiire:
Great thicknesses of overlying strata may furnish a pressurn
which greatly increases the chemical activity of solutions.
In disturbed regions the strains to which the rticks are sub-
jected are very ellicient agents of metamorphism, as is shown
by the intensity of the changes, being jiroportiimal to the
amount of disturbance.
E.rperiments lielative to Metamorphism.— Mwch has been
learned as to the nature and processes of metamorphism by
experimentation. Foremost among the investigators in this
field arc Ilall, Schccrer, Rogers, and Daubree.
G. II. Williams.
METAMORPHOSIS
METAPHYSICS
697
Metanior'i>li08is : in zol'Aopiy, the term applied to those
cliaiiges fxliibited Ijy various uiiiiiiuls in tlicir giowtli from
the ejtjj to tlie adult condition in whieli they |m.s.s through
forms apparently very dissimilar. Possibly the most famil-
iar example is that alTorded Ijy the huttertly, wliere the
ealerpiilar, the first stage, heeomes transformed into the
ehrysalis. and this, in turn, into the winged form. (Sec
Entomoi.ohy.) These three stages at first sight are very un-
iilie. Jletamorphoses are very common in all groups of ani-
mals exeept the vertebrates, and in many eases they are
seized Hi)on l)y the evolutionist as indieating the atlinities
and lines of descent of dillerent groups. In this, however,
great care has to be exercised, for there is much evidi-nce to
show that not all the stages oasseil through are reminis-
cences, so to speak, of ancestral conditions, but arc compli-
cations introduced at a later period into the life-history.
J. S. KlXGSLEV.
Mt'faphor [from Lat. me/a'pliora = Or. fitraipoiHi.ileTiv. of
luraipipiiv. carry over, transfer; utra, over -I- ipiouv, carry] :
a figure of speech in which an ordinary term is displaced by
one which suggests merely a portion of its characteristics,
thereby instituting a comparison between the two circles of
ideas suggested by the two terms, on the basis of something
thev possess in eonmion, disregarding what is peculiar to
each. It may therefore be regarded as an abbreviated or
implied simile. Thus the metaphor nn irnn ii-ill implies the
simile a will strong as iron ; l/ie ship plows the st-d implies
the simile the ship cuts the water as a plow cuts the soil.
The substituted term usually replaces the- general and re-
mote with the concrete and familiar. The purpose of the
sul>sIitution is in general to stinuilate the imagination.
The sul'>stitution or transference is not merely or princi-
pally a feature of rhetoric or style. It represents a deeply
rooted tendency of natural speech, which plays an impor-
tant role in shaping the historical develo|pnient of the mean-
ing and use of words. When the substituted or metaphor-
ical term becomes through persistent use the ordinary or
regular, a permanent step has been taken in the develop-
ment of language ; thus the metaphorical use of the Latin
spiritus, breath, in the sense of spirit, becomes in the French
esprit a jjcrmanent fact of language. See Metonymy and
SvNKCDOcME. Bexj. Iue Wheeler.
Metaphysics [from Pir. ra /jerA tA <puatKi. liter., the (es-
says) aflir the ones about (external) nature, the subjects
treated after physics (in Aristotle's essays), but later taken
to mean the subjects higher than or above physics (>i«T(£,
after, beyond, above : tpuaiKii. pertaining to ipiiris or na-
ture)]: a system of thought aiming to explain the universe
by one or more general principles. The problem of meta-
pnysics is the discovery of the deeper nature of things, the
last truth which comprehends all the partial truths of the
dillerent sciences, physical and mental.
Conceptions of Metaphysics. — The various systems of
philosophy which have been propounded in history all deal
ultinuitely with the metaphysical ipiestion of " first cause"
or ■' ground " of things, and they nuiy Ije classed under four
heads, according as they have conceived the problem and
the method of solving it. These four conceptions or types
of thought may be called (1) the Aristotelian, (2) the Ger-
man, (3) the Scottish, (4) the Llerbartian conceptions, re-
speclircly :
1. The Aristotelian Conception. — Aristotle conceived the
problem of metajihysics to he the explanation of the reality
which lies deeper than the " physics — i. e. deeper than all
empirically ascertained knowledge, whether it be the truths
of psychology or those of physical and natural science.«. To
him metaphysics is the doctrine of the underlving, the per-
manent, the cau.se which itself has no cause. This view had
to .\ristotle, situated lus he was historically, two main points
of application. In Socrates the separation of truth, knowl-
edge, opinion (Sii^a) from reality, essence (ovaia) had ap-
peared. Socrates distinguished concepts from reality, and
aimed so to verify and define concepts as to make them uni-
versally true to reality. Plato wiilened the breach between
knowledge and reality by di>linguishin^ ideas(itia)i\s meta-
physical es.sences of which kmiwledge in consciousness and
things in the world were tyjios ami imperfect rcMe<tinns.
The problem presented to Ari.stotle tin nfore was twnfuld —
i. e. to explain knowledge and to explain reality. .Aristotle
aimed to combine these opposites in a view whi<h found in
knowledge the true reflection of reality, and this involved
the idenlitication of reality with the parlicidar things of
ntituro, which were the objects of knowledge. This general
position of Aristotle appears in the three leading doctrines
of his metaphvsics: (1) His doctrine of the relati(m between
the individual and the universal. Aristotle held, against
Plato, that reality resided not in the general notion or idea,
but only in the imrlicular thing in which the idea is real-
ized. Hence metaphvsics, as a science of what is universal,
must find its nuiteriai in the natural sciences — in the world
as it is given in experience. (2) The doctrine of " matter
and form " by which he distinguishes lietween reality as
matter and idea as form. The " thing " in nature is matter
from the iioint of view of fact, but form from the point of
view of thought — i. e., of the meaning, use, development
which thought attributes to it. Things are particular in
themselves (matter), but universid according as they enter
into a system (form). In order, therefore, to a true svstem,
a universal form, there must be particulars— material "things
—which embf«Iy it. (3) The doctrine of "mover and
moved," which though less essential in its development,
illustrates the same dual problem and its soluti(m. Slalter
he made the static element, without dynamic property or
movement; movement came from the "mover," which, liow-
ever, was not divorced from the thing moved, but pertained
to it as a higher category of its existence in the world of
forms or concepts. All of these positions show the unity of
Aristotle's thought, and at the same time the elements of the
problem of metaphysics as conceived in the Socratic school.
2. The German or Ontological Conception. — It is evident
that a system of metaphysics might he constructed from
either of the two points of view which Aristotle endeavored
to combine ; being nniy be asserted at the expense of knowl-
edge, on one hand, giving an ontological system, or knowl-
edge may be emphasized at the expense of being, on the
other, giving a gtiosiological system. The great svstems of
German metaphysics down to llegel (Kant, Schellin'g. Fichte
in i>art) arc of the former character, which as a type of
thought may therefore be said to have flourished, apart
from the rise of the Oriental mystical systems, raainlv in
Germany. It takes up the tradition of Plato and the philos-
ophers of the Eleatic school, who postulated a jirinciple of
being (ri M from which the world of things — knowledge
incliKled — might be deduced. Such a principle is capable
of a twofold construction, however. It may be conceived
in terms of the mind's object, i. e. the external world or
matter, and so become Materialism ; or it may be con-
ceived in terms of the mind which perceives its object — the
object tjcing in some way a manifestation of mind. In this
case we have some form of Idealism. It is this last tvpe of
doctrine which the German systems have developed. Ma-
terialism has had little avowed support as a conscious meta-
physical system. Idealism, in Germany, has been mainlv of
the ontological character. In Fichte ft became more sub-
jective and ethical in its interpretation of being, and in
He^el reached a reconciliation of the two points of view
whfch reversed the terms of Aristotle's attemjpt to accom-
plish a similar reconciliation. In Hegel the true is the uni-
versal; but it is an outcome, an ideal, a goal of nature; its
reality is its progress in the phenomenal world. In Aris-
totle the true is the particular, the thing in the world; but
it is form as well as matter, and onlv in its systematic inter-
pretation does its final truth, its icLeaiity, its meaning, be-
come evident.
3. Tlie Scottish or Onosiological Conception. — The other
alternative mentioned goes back to Six-rates: the alterna-
tive which emphasizes the subjective side of the process of
knowledge and attempts to find justification for the world in
the nature of thought and the soul. This view mav take
the form of an analysis of the mind's object so thoroiigligo-
ing that only the mind which knows is left ; in which case
we reach a form of subject ire idealism in contra.st with the
objective or ontological idealism already described; this
type of thought is associated with the name of Berkeley: or
— and this is the tradition of the Scottish school founded by
Reid — the mind may t)e held to have in it the direct witness
not only of its own existence and reality, but also of that
of things or truths outside of it. On this view metaphysics
either bi'comes Natural Realisi/i, a form of rational psychol-
ogy biu<ed on so-calleil "intuitions"' of the mind — which is
not metaphysics at all — f)r it takes the character of an
avoweil dualism in the structure of the universe. Natural
realism of a theological character has lieon the prevailing
philoso|ihy in the U. S. It also held sway in Hritain as a
sort of unavowed support to the association psychology, un-
til the (ierman mctai>nysics found footing both in England
and in Scotland.
C9S
MKTASTASIO
METELLUS
4. Thf Ilerhartian Cunception. — The most important nnd
widely ourrt-ut concTptioii— oxcciit possibly the secoiul men-
tioned uliove — goes by the niimc of Ilerbiirt, also n Cienniin
philosopher. It is a conscious return to tin- type of solu-
tion foumi in Aristotle; except tlml it poes further back nnd
lavs under contribution soruethinj; of the method of Socrates.
The first task of metaphysics, on this view, is to rectify and
justify ci'iicepts. This can be done only by an sideipuite
criticism, both of thoufrlil and of experience. C>nly on the
basis of such a patient criticism and mutual adjustment of
claims can philosophy proceed at all. The true cpiestion is :
What must we think' about cause, self, change, reality, God,
that our thought may be consistent and our lives true!
Knowledge can not, in the last analysis, contradict experi-
ence, for experience, in the last analysis, is knowledge. So
the real must ultinuitelv be reached throu','h such knowledge
as is undoubtedly the fiill teaching of experience interpreted
consistently with itself. In this basis Ilerbart reached a
doctrine of atoms or " reals " which had the i)r«)perties both
of objective existence and of jiresentation — a view which is
the historical outcome of such a conception of the problem
— i.e. the atomism of Leibnitz and the "real beings" of
Lotze. Metaphysics, then, builds itself upon all science and
takes light from" every source. This conception commends
itself to scientists anil to philosophers to whom the disposi-
tion to speculate is not considereil the metaphysician's high-
est endowment. It is becoming the dominant conception in
America. See Ladd, Introduction to Pliilosnphy; Ormond,
Basal Concepts in P/iilosophi/; Rowne. Jletaplii/sics.
Divisions of Jlelaplii/sics. — The indications now given
from the historical point of view may serve to show the
divisions of sul)ject-malter in this topic. Jletaphvsics is re-
lateil to general philosophy as part to whole. Philosojihy
includes not only the ultimate cpiestions propounded by
metaphysics, but, further, the justification of the partial
truths in science and life upon which metaphysics must rest.
Philosophy has three departments of inquiry: Qiiosiology,
or epistemology, devoted to an analysis of the nature and
validity of knowledge ; Ciisinologij, the detailed theory of the
>vorld as an orderly whole, involving the united results of
the sciences of nature and life ; and Ontolof/i/. the final syn-
thesis or construction of the concepts of gnosiology (the soul,
subject and object, etc.). and cosmology (problems of space,
time, design, etc.) in a final doctrine of being. This last is
accordingly metaphysics, properly so called, its specific prob-
lems being substance, cause, reality, being, God. See Idkal-
isM, Matkkialism, and Puilosopuv. J. Mark Baldwin.
Metastasio. m«-ta"fis-taase'e-o, Pif.tro: poet; b. in Rome,
Jan. 3, IG'.IS. His father, Felice Trapassi, of Assi.si, was a
pork-butcher, and he was himself as a boy apprenticed to a
jeweler. His beauty, however, and his readiness at song and
improvisation attracted the attention of the jurisconsult and
critic Graviua, who ado|ited him, Grecized his name into
Metastasio, had him carefully educated, and when he died
(1718) left him a considerable sum of money. He had al-
reaily, at the age of fourteen, written a tragedy, Giuslino,
and been received among the Arcadians with the name
Artino Corasio (Apr. lii, 1718). He soon spent his inherit-
ance, however, and had to seek his living in Na|)les (1720),
in the office of the advocate C'astaKiiola. who made him
promise to refrain from poetry. He could not keep this
promise, but wrote anonymously the tragedy yi'/irffmioHe, then
the Orti Esperidi (1722). In the latter of these pieces the
famous Marianna Benti-Bulgarclli, known as la liomanina,
took the [part of Venus; and soon after she fell deeply in
Im-e with the author and look him to live with her. They
went to Venice, then to liome, where Metastasio attractei
the attention of th<- Countess Althann, who obtained for
him the position of Cirsarirn poet at the court of Vienna.
In 17:iO he settled in Vienna, leaving /rt Jiomanina in Koine.
She died in 17;}-l, and showed that she had not forgotten him
by beipiealhiiig him herfortune, which he resigiie<l in favorof
her husbanil. He lived in gri'al honor at the Austrian court,
under Charles VI. and Maria Theresa, perhaps the most
famous poet in Kuroiie at t|iat lime. He was very intimate
with the Countess Allliann, and is said to have nmrried her
secretly. Many famous men were among his friends, he be-
longed to numerous academies and learned societies, and his
literary pre-emineiici' was universjdly acknowledged. In his
last vears, however, he wrote Utile, and that uninterestingly.
He died in Vienna, Apr. 12, 17N2.
Melastasio's fame rests chiefly upon his lyrical dramas, or
melodramas in the accurate sense uf that term, of which he
wrote a large number. Though the fundamenlal principle
is the same in all of these, yet they fall into several groups,
according to the period of his life in which they were written.
The earliest, like those already mentioned and like the
tjalate(i,i\\e Diiloni Ahnntlon(it<i {M'M), Uie Cutone {1727),
the .lW«.s'('r,sf (17^11), hardly deserve the name of plays, being
really only aziun i ilranimalir/ii; in which a t heme is employed
in order to string together lyrical and musical numbers.
With the Adriano (1731) begins a new manner, that of the
melodrama proper, in which there is something of true
dramatic structure, though here, too, music, rather than
action, really determines that structure. Here belong the
Demetrio, Jssipile (17;52). Vemofooiite, La I'lemenza di Tito
(1734). and Altilio Regulo (1740-50)— the last of which is
generally regarded as Metastasio's masterpiece. The pieces
of the last period of his life are few and mediocre. Besides
the dramas, he wrote also many lyrics — canzonette (of which
he was a master), sonnets, idyls, elegies, etc. He wrote also
various interesting bits of poetical criticism, and many
letters of a literary character. The best edition of Metasta-
sio's works is that of Paris. 1780-82, but there are many
fairly good Ijesides — c. g. in 20 vols. (JIantua, 1816-20), and
in 1(5 vols. (Florence, 1819). The Leilere are to be found in
two collections; G. Carducci, Lettere disperse e inedite di
P. M. (Bologna, 1883), and C. Antona-Tiaversi, Lettere disp.
e ined. di P. M. (Konie, 1886). For his Life, see A. Mussafia,
Pietro 3Ietasfasio (Vienna, 1882) ; ^"ernon Lee, Studies of
the Eighteenth Century in Italy (London, 1880) ; O. Tom-
masini, P. Metastasio e to svolgimento del melodramma ita-
liano (in Scritti Si storia e crilica, Rome, 1891).
A. R. Marsh.
Metas'tasis [= I.at. = Gr-iifrixTTturis. removal. change, de-
parture, deriv. of ixfeiaTaaBai. be removed, depart : utri, over
+ ?irTao-9oi, be put] : in pathology, the sudden removal of a
disease to a distant part, as when the disease called mumps
is transferred from the parotid to the ovaries or to the testes.
There are also metastatic abscesses, dependent upon the
transference of bacteria from a primary focus of supimra-
tion to distant parts by the blood. Tumors give rise to sec-
ondary nodes at a distance in similar manner, a small iiart
of the original tumor being carried to the distant part wlicre
it grows. William Peppkr.
Mctatlieria ; See Eutheria.
Metayer [Pr. nie'/oyer : Proven?, me^/^nrfier < Lat. *me-
dii'ta'rius, deriv. of medietas, mean, middle]: a name ap-
plied to the peasants of continental Kurope, and especially
those of France and Italy, that farm their land on shares.
This form of tenure was common all tlirough the Middle
Ages and to the end of the eighteenth century, but is fall-
ing into disuse. It is thought that the metayers were orig-
inally emancipated serfs, who, having neither land nor capi-
tal of their own, were fain to till the lands of another on such
terms as they could get. The landlord furnished the land,
the metayer furnished the labor; the landlord usually re-
ceived half the ju-oduce in France, two-thirds in Italy. Ten-
ures of this kind had a permanent character, and in this
respect offered some of the advantages of private land own-
ership; but the system did not give the fullest stimulus to
personal effort or to the improvement of the soil by the use
of capital. The laborer was unwilling to do extra work when
half of the sur)ilus produce would go to the landlord. The
landlord was unwilling to invest capital (beyond the neces-
sary miiiimuin which custom demanded), when half the bene-
fit of such capital would go to the laborer. In these respects
the English land system was better than the continental sys-
tem, since in England, under a system of money-rents, the
tenant obtained the whole immediate profit from his exer-
tions, and the landlord the whole permanent benefit from
the investments of fixed capital, so that each was stimulated
to do his best. A. T. IIaulev.
Metazo'a [Mod. Lat.; from Or. ^rrct, after -t-fijioi', animal]:
a term given, in contrast to Protozoa, to the great majority
of the animals, which differ from the Protozoa in the fact
that they are comjiosed of many cells, and these cells are
further differentiated into li.ssues and organs, while in the
Protozoa each cell perforins all the functions of life.
MctePliis: the name of a Roman family belonging to
the plebeian gens t'a'cilia. It first became known in history
during the first Punic war. when Lucius Ca'cilius Jletellus
was elected consul in 251 n. r. Its most conspicuous mem-
here were (1) (^uinti's ('.■ecilivs Mktellus SUcKiioNiri'S,
who defeated the Macedonians in 148 n. r. and the Aclm'ans
METEMONE
METEORITE
699
in 146 n. c. With Q. Pompeius he was censor in 131 B. c.
(they were the first plebeiims to hold this oflioe), and proposed
that all citizens shouKl he required to marry. His name
became proverliial as an example of luiiiian happiness. —
(2) QUINTUS C.KCIMCS MeTELLUS NUMIUIIL'S, who fought
successfully in 108 i). r. against Jugurtha, King of Numidia,
but was superseded by Marius, at that time his legate. — (3)
yuiNTL'S C.EciLiis Mkteixl's Celer, who was pnetor in
63 B. c, when Cicero was consul, and contributed much to
the suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline.
Revised by G. L. LIendrickson.
Mctcmonc : See Galabat.
Metciiipsycho'sis [Moil. Lat. = Gr. ^cTt^i^dix^f'J. trans-
migration of souls: utra, after, beyond, over, across +
ifiifivxovi/, animate, vivify: iy, in + iZ-ux^- soul]: the transit
of the soul from one stage of being or life to another, com-
monly called transmigration. As the belief that the soul
after death appears again in animals or in men and women
is spread all over the world, it wuidd appear to be anthro-
pologically innate, and to be the first form in which the
idea of immortality occurs to man. The early Egyptians
saw in it an explanation of the sufferings endured by many
men on earth, which sulferings were otherwise inexplicable.
Their entire religicju was based on this doctrine, that man
is a fallen angel, once an ecjual of the gods. He is to be
judged after death, and if his life on earth has been evil he
must renew his earthly existence, if not as a human being,
as an animal, according to his crimes. It was in India,
where the problems of metaphysics and ethics as connected
■with ontology and the destiny of the soul were elaborated
to the last degree on a pantheistic basis, that metempsychosis
was most ingeniously and extensively developed. All the
problems of fate, free will, and human suffering were easily
explained by the doctrine that the soul, an emanation from
Gixl, passed from life to life, and that the sins committed
in one existence were expiated in another. It was even
held that the account was kept so closely that a soul might
pass thousands of years or kalpas in one or other of the
heavens as a reward for good deeds or self-inflicted suffer-
ing, and yet be obliged to return to,eartli or hell to expiate
as an animal, man, or demon, certain sins. (See Buddhism
and Kakma.) To the jiure theism of the early Jews and
Arabs, or of the Shemilic race, who simply held that God
tlirectly made and willed all things, the idea of metemi)sy-
chosis was utterly oi>posed. According to the latter, the
soul is guided by laws which lie far behind the highest con-
ceivable idea of a God ; according to the former, God dis-
tinctly makes all laws with full self-consciousness. Conse-
quently, the Old Testament contains no trace of the trans-
migration of souls. After the building of the second temple,
however, foreign speculation and superstition flowed in on
them freely. The (liUjul Xes/iamolh, or theory of metem-
psychosis, forms an imiiortant doctrine in the Cabbalah, and
ere long a mass of wild and beautiful legends arose to illus-
trate it. The rabbis helil that David had been Adam, ami
is to come again as the Jlessiah, and that Simeon had been
Japheth. Many fanciful ideas si)rung up in the Hebrew
theory of traiisjiiigration — e. g. that wiien a woman had a
soul which had been that of a man she could not bear chil-
dren until God had breathed into her some part of a wom-
an's soul. The Greeks derived the doctrine of metempsy-
chosis from teachers who had taken it from Egypt or India.
Thales had taught it at an early period, anil it was subse-
quently greatly developed by Pherecidcs, Pythagoras, and
Plato. The Greek mysteries were, in fact, not only a .school
in which metempsychosis was taught, but an indispensable
grade or lodge through which all of the jispirants must pass
before they could be purified and pass on to higher stages
of existence. Pindar, setting forth the Orphic doctrines,
teaches that the soul must thrice lead a pure life before it
could be fully set five ; and Plato, refining on all the theo-
ries of his predoiessors, believed (or rather argued for) the
principle that souls had jire-existed, and that on earth they
assumed shapes corresponding to their character. What
with purification, penance, ami intervals of a mere ghost-
oxistencc apart from the body, Plato assumed that 10.(K)0
years must pass Ix'forc the soul wouhl attain divinity.
Hut .\ristotle, however, in many passages of his writings,
combats the doctrine of metempsychosis on the ground that
the soul is the efficient and final cause of the body, anil hence
that it is suited only to tlie body that it makes' and not to
some other body that it happens to enter. There is every
reason for believing that there were few religious or spiritual
systems of antiquity which did not eventually include me-
tempsychosis, strange as it appears at the present day. The
Epicureans denied it, but it appears to have been generally
inculcated as one of the deepest doctrines of the mysteries.
The Xeo-Platonists, who believed in magic, as in all the wild
deductions from a theory of a universal soul and life, of
which man was a part, assumed the doctrine of metempsy-
chosis as a natural inheritance. Gnostics and Maniih.eans
welcomed it, and the more speculative or mystical of the
Church Fathers found in it, as the Egyptians hail before
them, a ready explanation of the fall of" man and the doc-
trine of evil spirits. All are "dreeing their weird," or under-
going penance for sins. This considerable step toward recon-
ciling the existence of suffering with that of a merciful (iod
was distinctly set forth by Por]>hyry and Origen, and jiassed
from the East, with all the strange heresies of "illumina-
tion," in all probability, through such institutions as the
Cairene House of Light and the Knights Templar, into the
doctrines of the obscure sects of the Middle Ages in Europe.
The Taborites, an extreme branch of the Hussites, are said
to have believed in transmigration, and this view has been
thoroughly set forth by George Sand in Consiielo. The
Druids taught it, and of late years poetical philosophers
or true poets have found in its inexhaustible fitness for
romantic pictures and incidents subjects for their jiens.
It has also become familiar to a wide public since IStS
through the writings of Madame Blavatsky and the mem-
bers of the Theosophic Society.
Revised by W. T. Harris.
Metencephaloii : See Brain.
Mo'teorilc, Mt'teor'olite. or A'i'rolite [meteorite is
from (ir. ^erfupos, in the air, suspended on high : /leri. be-
yond 4- iflptty. raise ; meteorolite is from Gr. nfTtupos +
\l9os, stone ; aerolite is from Gr. iiip. air + \l$os. stone] :
terms used synonymously to denote a solid body that has
fallen from tlie heavens. They are not to be confounded
with those small luminous bodies that flash across the sky
every bright night, visiting us in large numbei-s at stated
jieriods, and called xliooting stars; for these last are doubt-
less composed of very attenuated matter, and are never
known to leave any solid residue behind them. (See Mete-
ors.) A genuine meteorite may flash across the sky, become
visible, and yet pa.ss on without sending to the earth any evi-
dence of its true character : but very frequent ly it falls to the
earth, and forms a permanent addition to our globe. These
bodies have been observed to fall in all ages of the world ;
and doubtless the earliest account we have of any one of
them is to be found in .Joshua x. 11 : at any rate, the [ilie-
nomenon referred to in that verse can be interpreted by ref-
erence to some of the more modern falls of meteoric stones ;
but one of the most remarkaljle falls recorded in ancient his-
tory is that of the Thracian stone mentioned by Pliny in the
fifty-eighth chapter of his second book of natural history.
It fell near ..l-^gospotamos in Thrace 4()' years before Christ.
Pliny describes it as being as large as a cart ; he describes
it also as being of a burnt color. It was held in veneration
by the inhabitants of the country, and the time of its fall
served to fix the period of certain imjK)r(ant events, as evi-
denced by the following statement to be found in the Pa-
rian Chronicle: "From the time when the stone fell at
yl-;gospotamos, and the poet Simonides, who died at the age
of ninety during the archonship of Theagenides at Athens,
is 205 years." Another ancient and memorable meteorite
is now at Jlecca ; for the celebrated black stone. I/aJar el
Aswad. that forms an object of adoration of the pilgrims
to the Kaaba at Mecca, is doubtless one of these bodies;
and some think, with very good reason, that the image which
fell down from Jupiter (referred to in Acts six. 35), aiid
was worshiped by the Ephesians, was also an aerolite.
To give an idea of the [ihenomena accompanying the fall
of these todies, we shall furnish a short statement of those
connected with the fall at I/Aigle, France, in l!S03. and that
in (luernsey co., O.. in 1860. At the time of the fall of the
L'Aigle meteorite the atmosphere was clear and calm, and
many persons oliserved a brilliant fiery ball passing rapidly
through the atmosphere; and a few moments after there
was heard a violent explosion, or rather succession of explo-
sions, lasting five or six minutes, the first two or three
sounds resembling those of cannon, and subsequent ones
that of musketry, then a rumbling noise like the beating of
a dnim ; all these noises being produced bv the original ex-
plosions and subsequent reverberations. The noise appeared
to proceed from a small rectangular cloud, parts of which
roo
METEOKITK
METEOROLOGY
from time to time wore thrown off by the successive explo-
sions; the noises were heard in mi urea of over UK) miles,
ami llie area over which tlie stones fell was about 6 miles
Uuif; bv ;i miles broail. Of the tiiiernscy full we have no
very tletiiiite ueeount of the meteorite diirin;; its llit;lu
lhniiii,'h llie atmosphere. This occurreil also in Ihe ilay-
ti I jifler one o'clock, when three or four distinct
I \ IV lieani, like the tiring' of heavy cannon, with
tii lit a second or two after each report. This was
f.illowed bv sounds like the tirin;; of musketry in quick suc-
cv^sion, which ended with a rumbliiij; noise like distant
thunder; and this eontiimed two or three minutes. The
lirst reports were so heavy as to produce a tremulous motion
like heavv thunder, causing the ;,'l:iss in the windows to rat-
tle ; the sound was so sin;i,'uliir that it caused excitement and
alarm, many snpposini; it an earthiiuakc.
There was a fall of meteorites in Iowa on Feb. 12. 1873,
from which many fni^ments, in all not less than 500 lb.
in weight, were secured. Iron masses assumed to be of me-
teoric origin are known to exist which weigh many tons,
and it may be readily believed that the larger detonating
and stone-producing meteors are, when they enter the air,
as large as these irons. On the other hand, the smallest
shooting stars, especially the telescopic ones, are |)robubly
not greater than small pebbles or grains of coarse sand.
The apparent size of all meteors is magnified by the sur-
roumling (lame and by irradiation, and does not therefore
indicate the real size of the meteoric body.
Fracture in Ike Air. — The meteorites coming from a sin-'
gle meteor must before entering the air have been in close
company, and probably were coherent. The resistance of
the air is a sullicient cause for breaking the body into frag-
ment.s. At the close of the fiight these fragments usually
are distributed over areas miles in extent. Upon them we
often find evidences of successive fractures. One surface
may show by its smooth form continued melting. On an
adjacent surface may be an accumulation of melted matter,
with clear evidence on its margin of its having come from
the other side. Another surface may show a mere accumu-
lation of melted matter, while its own material is not changed.
Another surface may bo more or less lironiied sis with smoke,
with some or all of its margins exhibiting a delicate round-
ing of the black crust of the adjacent surfaces, showing the
fracture to have taken place while the crust was soft. Still
other surfaces arc so slightly dis(-oh)red that it is impossible
to decide whether Ihe fracture may not even have been sub-
secpient to the fall, while numerous cracks extending into
the stony mass show that the disintegration was still in
progress. All these pecidiarilies are shown in some Iowa
meteorites mentioned above. This breaking is shown pe-
culiarly bv the fragments of a meteor that fell in India in
1801, which were picked up at places 3 or 4 miles apart, aiul
which fit to one another. Moreover, some of the fitting sur-
faces had the usual black crust, while others were unaltered.
Strncture of Milforiles. — The meteorites contain no ele-
ments, so far as we know, which have not been found on the
earth, but these elements are compounded diflercntly from
those of any terrestrial minerals. Iron is always present, usu-
ally in metallic form and combined with nickel. The stones
from different meteors differ much in their structure, though
thev may be grouped in a few well-marked classes. In gen-
eral, the meteorites resemble the igneous more than the other
rocks of the earth's crust. The iron masses have a crystal-
line structure, which is revealed by polishing a surface and
ctehiug it with acid. The lines il«veloped by the acid are
called the Wiilmnnng/dlten tit/iires.
f/rmi'x in Ihe MiU-orilex. — If fine chips of meteoric iron, or
powdered fnigments of the stony meteorites, be placed in a
vacuum ami then healed- modi;rately, they yield up gases
ci>ii-isting of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen", and nitrogen,
'i'hcsc ga.ses seem to have been absorbed at some former
time by the meteor, probably by Ihe iron of the meteor.
The spectrum of these gases corresponds to the spectrum of
the light of a comet's coma and tail.
.Mr'teorites are of two kimls, stony and metallic, the lat-
ter being composed mostly of iron. The general character
of Ihe i>luny vitrieli/ is (1) great variety in size, from that of
a pea to many cubic feet; (2) irregularity of form, with
rough and imfcnlerl surfaces; (li) they are coated with a
black crust or varnish, which <loubtless arises from the fu-
sion of the surface by the intense heat developed during
the rapid pas.sage through the atmosphere; (4) their specific
gravity is between .'J and 4; (5) the minerals constituting
the mass are principally of the class belonging to the py-
roxenes and oUvene.=. always containing more or less me-
tallic iron alloyed with nickel and cobalt. There are one
or two meteorites supposed not to contain this metallic
iron, but it is vci-y doubtful if such be really the case.
There are other minerals associated with them ; the most
interesting and constant are schreibersite (a phosphuret of
iron and nickel) and triolite (a sulphuret of iron). A frag-
ment of one of the Guernsey County meteorites gave for
its composition —
P«r cvot.
OUvene . .Ml «m
P^^TOxeiie 32 416
Nickf litVrous iron 10"690
Sc-lirfit>i'i-sile 0-OOS
Triolile 0015
Iron Meteorites. — This class simply represents the me-
tallic particles found in the stony meteorites, increased to
several pounds and even tons in weight, as exemplified by
the C'ranlx)rne iron in the liritish Museum or tlie Texas
iron (of less weight) in the Yale University JIuscum. All of
the irons that are known, except three or four, have been
discovered some time after their fall, this not having been
observed, their comjwsition being the only guide as to their
origin. There have, however, b<'en three of them seen to
fall, and these constitute the three most valuable speci-
mens of this class. They are the following :
Apram ' 1751
Dickson CO., Tenn 1885
Braunau 1847
The iron meteorites have the same irregular shape as the
stony ones, with a specific gravity of T and IS, with a com-
position of which the three following irons are types:
Iron
Nickel
Cobalt
Copper
Pliosphorus. .
TuairdI,
Oldham co. ,
Su Gregoilo,
Tenn.
K.
M.I.
8110
91 61
95 01
15 22
809
4-iO
0 43
0-25
0-51
0 011
trace
trace
019
005
008
In the interior of these irons it is not uncommon to find
nodules of sulphuret of iron, phosphuret of iron and nickel,
and graphite. When polished the surface of the metal is
very brilliant, and in some cases remains so ; in others the
surfaces are rapidly rusted.
Origin of Meteorites. — It was at onetime supposed Jthat
these nias.'Jes of stones and iron originuted in the atmos-
phere or were ejected from terrestrial volcanoes. Another
theory, advanced by Terzago, and subscquinlly by Laplace
(adopted by I'erzelius and others), and sustained in part by
liis mathematical calculations, is that they were projected
from the moon, but these crude notions have been long
since exploded. It is now fully understood that they form
a few specimens of countless small bodies or fragments, in-
visible in the most powerful telescopes, which are moving
like planets or comets in eccentric orbits around the sun.
Wo know nothing of them except when one happens to en-
counter the earth. Revised by S. Sewcomb.
Meteorol'ogy [Gr. Ta nfriapa. things in the air (see Mk-
TKORITKI + Xiiyos, reason, discourse] : the science wiiicli treats
of the atmosphere. It falls naturally into two branches, me-
teorology i)roper and C'i-iM.\Tor.oGV (q. v.). Meti'orology prop-
er treats of the weather and its causes, and of the pliysicnl
laws involved, including the instruments by which the phe-
nomena are observed. The in.strumentsarc discussed under
their proper headings. Jleteorology has a ju-actical and a
theoretical aspect. Tlie practical aspect is the one which
will be treated here, as of most interest to those who are
not professional students of meteorology. For those who
wish to pursue their studies further, the bibliographical ref-
erences at the end of this arti(de will serve as a guide.
Ancient meteorology included everything supposed to be
ai'-rial, embracing some things now known to be astronomic-
al, as comets and meteors. As it lackeil the means of ac-
curate olLservation it came to rely on jiseiido-observations,
and by the Middle Ages had become Ihorougblv astrologic-
al. A new and better era was begun by the invention of
the thermometer (before 1.5i)7) and barometer (l(i4;!). due to
the happy intuitions of Galileo, who started Ihe work of
striking off the intellectual fetters iniposcd by Aristotle
2.000 years before. Two hundred years were spent in de-
veloping these instruments and inventing new ones, in
gathering the enormous harvest of facts rendered possible
METEOROLOGY
701
by Ihcm, and in (lrawin>; the plain deduttions from these
filets, when u new em was initialed by the use of the syn-
clironous weatlier-niap. We are now in the woalher-map
period of the liistory of meteorology, and altlimifih we have
been but a short time in this period the advance maJe by
the science has been enormous.
The iivallitr-ma/> u a chart on which are {;ra|>liically rep-
resented nieteoroloj^fieul data taken simultaneously over the
entire area it re|)reserits. To make the map useful for fore-
casting the data must be collected and transferred to the
chart with the least possilile delay — within two or three
hours of taking the observations, if possiljle, and within four
at the outsiile. The happy idea of simultaneous observa-
tions was not a new one, but the immediate collection of
the data could not be put into operation until the success-
ful trial (ISK) of the electric telegraph and its extension to
a considerable number of widely separated plans (1847). In
1856 Prof. Joseph Jlenry began the use of the first iinnie-
diale weather-nuip. It was a wall map with movable sym-
bols, posted in the Smithsonian Institution. From the map
Prof. Henry deduced certain conclusions concerning the
weather which he sent to Congress. In 185T Le Verner, in
France, began the publication of an international bulletin
(a statement of current meteorological data, but not re-
duced to chart form), and from these he began predictions
for the jiorts in 18liO. On Sent. 16, 1863, he printed the
weather-map for that day, and distributed it to his corre-
spondents. This was the first current weather-mup pub-
lished, and the series has been continued since without in-
terru|>tion. It gives daily the air-pressure and winds for
Central and Western Europe.
In the meantime the disturbances incident to the civil
•war liad interrupted the orderly advance of meteorology in
the U. S. It was resinned by Prof. Cleveland Abbe, then
director of the Cincinnati astronomical observatory, who in
1869, with the gratuitous assistance of the Western L'nicm
Telegraph Company, began the collection and use of tele-
graphic reports from the adjoining .States : and on Feb. 2,
1870, Mr. Armstrong, the local manager for the telegrajih
company, undertook under Prof. Abbe"s direction, the mak-
ing of current weather-maps and their multiplication by a
manifold process. These maps were continued until Oct.
10, 1870, and were the first current weather-maps in the
U. S. The official scries of weather-maps in the U. S. be-
gan with tri-ilaily maps on Xov. 1, 1870, They were in
manuscript, and were made both in Washington and Chi-
cago. They were multiplie<l by a manifold [Hocess, and
were first jirinted May 2, 1871, at Washington. The ne.\t
series of odicial weather-maps was that of the British Me-
teorological Ollice, which first appeared in printed form in
the bulletin for Mar. 23, 1872. The nuiuber of series has
gradually increased since, until in 1894 there were eighteen
of them issued by as many ollicial weather services, besides
about seventy daily issued at local stations in the U. S. In
size they vary from 16 by 22 inches (U. S.) to 4 by 5 inches
(British). In Japan they arc issued three times daily (as
formerly in the L. S). In the U. S., and in Russia, they are
bi-daily. The remaining fifteen are daily, and all, except
the Australian, are issued on Sunday. The hours of obser-
vation are early in the morning, and — for the bi-daily —
early in the evening. At all stations of the V . S. there
Were 8.830 maps issued on June 1, 1893, of which 6,257 were
morning maps and 2..')73 evening maps. This nuikes a total
issue of aliout 3.000.000 maps per year.
In what follows, reference is always made to the Wash-
ington map unless otherwise specified. The maps issued at
other U. S. stations dilfer in some details from the Wash-
ington map, and the maps of the other national services,
although occupied with the same meteorological elements
ami serving the same pur|>oses, dilfer in many details.
The observations are taken at 8 a. m. and 8 P. M., in 75th
meridian time. This is what is called Eastern time, and is
closely the local time of Philadelphia and nearly that of
Washington. It is about seven o'clock local at Chicago, St.
Louis, and Xew Orleans; about si.\ o'clock for Helena, Den-
ver, Santa Fe, and El Paso; and about live o'clock for San
Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Portland. The ob-
servations are taken as nearly simultaneously, and as nearly
in the same way, with as similar instruments as i>ossiijle.
They are collected at Wa.>hington, reduced to maps, the
forecasts made, and the maps published within about three
hours from the time of observation.
The pressures of the atmosphere as shown by the barome-
ter are reiluced to sea-level before thev are entered on the
O —
29.79
---o
29.83
c—
29.74
--a
29.86
map. The reduction employed is in part founded on gen-
eral physical principles (tcrrel, Uecttit Adraiices in Meteor-
ology, p|j. 3!)2-4()2), and in part on an empirical adjust-
ment, such that it makes a consistent map. In the elevated
plateaus of the interior and mountain stations these reduc-
tions are somewhat uncertain and occiisionally introduce
illusory ap|>earances on the weather-map, but with the re-
ductions now used (due to Prof. H. A. llazen) those mis-
leading )>henomena are reduced to a ininiminn. These re-
ductions are made in order to render strictly comparable
observations taken at widely separated jjoiiits. If they
were not made the topographic elTects on air-pressure would
be the chief ones visible, ami those due to weather changes
would be masked. Any other level could be taken as the basis
of the map (as a plane 1.000 feet above sea-level, or 2,000
feet), or instead of the actual pressures reduced the varia-
tions from the average pressure for the day might be em-
ployed ; but the method actually used, though not free from
objections, is now universally employed on weather-ma|>s,
and its faults have become familiar to forecastei-s. Slight
culminations or hollows of air-pressure on the elevated
plateaus and mountains of the West are to be treated with
suspicion, but high or deep
ones arc reliable.
When the barometric
pressures liave been entered
on the map, lines are drawn
passing through all points
liaving the same pressure.
These are called inoiars.or
lines of equal pressure.
They are usually made for
each tenth of an inch of.
pressure, as 29'5, 296, 29-7,
etc., and are drawn as
shown in the diagram. If ., , r, • «• .
„„ „. ,; „ u ,1 . 1 1 DiAORiM 1.— Drawing of isobars,
one station has the reduced
pressure of 2979 and the next to the E. has 29-83. it is evi-
dent that the isobar of 29-8 must pass between them, and
will be at about a (juarter of the distance from the first to
the second, at the point A, It will not pass between the
first ami the one to the S. of it, because they are both below
298, but will between the latter and the (me to the E. of
that, as the last is 29-86 — and at the point B, about half way
between the two, connecting now A and B, with a sweep
suggested by its previous and following coui-se^and we have
the isobar of '29-8 for that part of the map. With practice
the isobars and other lines can be drawn with rapidity and
precisiim, but one rule should be always remembered ; these
lines, from the fluidity of the air, will always be in free and
easy sweeps, and will never make a sharp angle.
The resulting isobaric map will look like a contour map
in geography, [iresenting certain slopes from lower pressure
to higher and descents from higher to lower, the one often
ascending to a rounded area of highest pressure, the other
terminating in a rounded area of lowest pressui-e— each
covering a considerable area.
The culmination of highest pressures is one of the most
important features of the map, and a key to the meteoro-
logical situation. It is called an anti-cyclone, but, from its
resemblance to a hilltop on a topographic map, it is also
called, familiarly, a /i(^/(. Such a high is appearing in the
northwest corner of map Xo. 4, inclosing the unusually high
pressures of 306 or more. A high defines an area of fair
weather with dry air and gentle winds.. The air of a high
is relatively cool, but the absence of clouds and humidity
gives the sun's rays unusual power in the afternoon, and
the free radiation to the sky makes it unusually cold to-
ward morning. The high is therefore the region of ex-
treme daily changes in temperature. The air of the high is
dry, tonic-, and agreeable, but it is also the region of ex-
treme heat and cold and of untimely frosts, and if it re-
mains long it means drouth and failure of crops.
The area of lowest pressures is called a cyclone, or, for
topographic reasons and to avoid the common ass<H-iations
of violence with this word, a /o(c. From the low the pres-
sure a.scends in all direct ions. The low is the area of warmth,
cloud, moisture, rain, and high w-inds. Though it brings
close, warm, muggy, humid weather, and is consequently
depressing and disagreeable, its influence is benign, for it
brings the rain and keeps the air stirred, preventing the
stagnaticm so characteristic of a long droutli. The low is
even more a key to the meteorological situatiim than is the
high. The maps Xos. 1 to 4 show the successive fKisitions
Y02
METEOROLOGY
of a low, the path of whieli is iniirkcti out (especially on No.
4) by the stream of arrows. This low brought liigli wiiuls
to the tireat Lakes, but little rain. Lows are often called
storm-areas.
After the isobars come the iso/herms, or lines of equal
temperature. Thev are usually drawn for each 10" F.,
makini; an isotlienii for - 10 ,'0\ 10'. 20°, etc. (See the
broken linos on maps Xo. 1 to 4.) They are not reduced
for elevation. They usually run poleward toward a low,
and equatorward from a hiirh. Near a low is sometimes an
area of rapidlv warrainjr \veather — especially in front and
sun, because its direction is contrary to that taken by tlie
sun'in its diurnal course. For all cyclones or lows in the
nortiicrn hemisphere the spiral inflowing of the winds is
in a contra-clockwise directicm; for the ssime storms in the
southern hemisphere the direction of spiral inH(.w is clock-
wise. In the case of the unti-cyelones or highs, the air pours
out from the center with a slight clockwise turn in the
northern hemisphere, and contra-clockwise in the southern.
The velocity of the winds is not represented on these
maps, though it is on foreign maps, usually by the number
of feathers on the wind-arrows. The wind is usually gentle
Observations taken at 8 A.M. and at 8 P.M. 7Sth Meridian Time.
Barometer reduced to Sea level and 32' F.
— "O -~^Storm trach and location of Storm Centre.
Date aboue, time l,A.H. or P.M.) below.
O Key West
OCIoudless. (DPartly cloudy.©Cloudy.# Rain. ©Snow.
Isobars. Isotherms.
Arroivs point in the direction thcwind is blowing.
No. 1.— Weather-map tor Eastern U. S., Nov. SI, 1893, 8 a. m.
a little to the S. Correspondingly there is a colder area
in front of ami below a high. These, when they represent
a change of 20' or more, are marked out by a row of red
dots (shown in the accompanying illustrations as large black
dots). Such an area of "colder" is seen on each of the maps
Nos. 2 to 4, and on Xo. ;? it is divided into two. I.iocheimal
Lines connect jilaces having the same mean winter tem-
perature, and J-wcri/mal lines^ connect places having the
same mean temperature for tlie coldest months in the year.
The winds are presented on the maps by arrow-heads at
the stations, the arrows (lying with the wind, if, as at Du-
luth, the arrow points S. K., the wind is a northwest one.
A careful examination of the nnips will show, what is true
on the average, that the wind Hows spirally into the low, and
that the direction of the Indow is contra-clockwise (the
clock lying on its back, with face up). It is al.so called sinis-
tral, because to a man standing at the center it would
wind from the right liand to the left; also against the
with highs and fresh with lows, but there are many ex-
ceptions to this. Some lows have such gentle winds that
they would not attract attention, while some highs have
high winds on some part of their margins, generally on the
side next the nearest low when the latter is intense and not
far oil. These are questions of intensity, and lows vary
from extreme gentleness to the intensity of the hurricane.
The criterion for intensity on the weather-map is the
crowding of the isobars. When they are near together I ho
winds are high, and when far apart the winds are gentle.
The jierpendicular distance between two successive isobars
(or, more properly, the length of the line of force ius defined
in physics) is called the pressure gradieiil. and the above re-
lation may be stated as a rule : the shorter the pressure
gradient the stronger the wind.
The relations of direction of wind to the center of the
low can be stated as a rule or law. When it is cloudy and
humid and the wind is fresh, so that it is certain that (ho
METEOROLOGY
703
low is sulTK-icntly intonsp to be considered a storm, then the
rule is — stand with your face to the wind and the low uetiter
is to vour rijflit hand, u little behind you. This is called
Buvs- ballot's law, after an eminent Dutch physicist.
The cloudiness is indicated by the chan;;rs in the station-
circle on thi' niap. In maps Xos. 1 to 4 O means clear. O
fair or partly cloudy, ffi cloudy. The low usually has a
cloud-cap. which is likely to extend farther forward or east-
ward of the center of the low than behind or westward, and
more to the .S. than to the N.
The symbol for rain is •, a dark circle, that for snow •.
The rain often precedes the low, especially in the S. E. quad-
rant ; the snow may either replace the rain, or it may occur
to the rear of the luw, and towanl the high.
ciplc in the theory of pases that any pas or vapor, in the
presence of another, acts as if the other was not present,
provided it does not enter into chemical condiination with
the other. Hence the vapor of water in the atnicsphere
forms what is in many resjiects an indefn'ndent atmosphere.
This vapnr atniosphcri' is called the hydrunphire.iiwiX me-
teoroliigical conceptions are somewhat clearer if the hydro-
sphere is considered as a whole and by itself before consid-
eration is given to its interaction with tne dry atmosphere.
The fact of prime importance concerning the atmospheric
water is that it undergoes all of its changes of state (vapor,
liquid, and solid) within the range of actual nieleorological
temperalures, and that it is thconly element of the atmosphere
(|,,,r ,!,.,.: <... Wiili^r and ice evaporate into vajior, and this
Uiyh \Vin(U during Past
li Houra.
Alpena. Micli.
Chicago. Ul. . .
Cleveland, O..
Erie, Pa
OsweKO. N. Y.
MUo. DInMloa.
40
.%!
36
28
S. K.
S.E.
S.E.
S.E.
S.E.
O Ker W«t
I Observations taken at 8 A.M. and at U P.M. 7Sth Meridian Time. OCIoudless. ©Partly cloudy.0Cloudy. • Rain. O Snow.
Barometer reduced to Sea leeel and 32'' f. , , i_..u_.
— ♦0^5forni track and location of Storm Centre.
Date above, time {A.M. or P.M.) below.
Isobars; — Isotherms.
Arrows poiitt in the direction the wind is blowing.
No. 8.— Weather-map for Eastern U. S., Nov. SI, 1898, 8 P. M.
These are the elements of the weather-mnp. briefly stated.
They will be discussed more in detail in what follows. It
only remains here to statu one general jirinciple of the
highest im|Kirtance in the use of the wealher-nnip. It is
this: The weather in temperate regions drifts eastward with
aliout the speed of a pas.>i<'nger train. There are, however,
many variations in the jiaths and speed of highs and lows;
changes in intensity of all the elements also often occur.
The skill of the foreciusler consists largely in delecting the
signs of these changes, and this skill is the result of long
practice.
The IlydroKphere. — Before passing on to a discussion of
the mechanism of storms, it is m-ce.ssary to consider what
is, according to present meteorological theory, the chief
source of energy in storms — in fact, the element without
which we would have no storms. It is a fundamental prin-
coridenses again into liquid water and into ice. Each
change involves a change of energy. When water is evap-
orated, heat is taken up and removed from the immediate
surroundings, thus lowering their temperature; when water
is condensed, this heat is restored, raising the temperature.
A heat-unit is the amount of heat required to rai.so a kilo-
gramme of water a degree centigrade. To evaporate a kilo-
gramme of watiT at freezing requires 607 such heat-unit.s,
and at boiling 5;)7. The result is that, by evaporation and
condensation of water, the atmosphere liecomes a heat-en-
gine, with the sun's rays as the chief .•source of heat. and the
patches in the cloud-layers, where active condensation is tak-
ing place, as the cylinders. The vapor is [louring into the
hydrosphere at every point where it comes into contact with
a liquid or solid surface, at all times and at all tempera-
tures. EvaiKiratioii takes place even from a surface of ice
ro4:
METEOROLOGY
without visible transition throush the liquid state. It is
more free from a surface of turf than from a water surface,
and more free from the lattfr than from a surface of moist
bare soil. It is more free at higher temperatures, in the sun
than in the shade, in summer than in winter, in the tropics
than in higher latitudes. Evaiioration also depends on the
amount of moisture in the air, being the more free the drier
the air. ^Vind favofs evaporation, as also does the purity
of the water evaporatiil. Evaporation also depends sli^litl.v
on the air-pressure: it increases with decrease of pressure.
When the molecules of water free themselves from the
trammels umler which they were held when in the liquid or
the solid state, thev tend, aside from the intluence of grav-
ity, to spread equally in all directions. Their motion as
gaseous particles is rapid, so that this spread is a very
quick one. ,, , , .,-, , »,
The vapor of water in the air is called hiimidily of the
air. There is a limit to the amount of this vapor which the
air can contain. When the vapor has reached this point
the air is said to be saturated. If more vai)or is forced
into the air, the sur|)lus condenses, and the temperature at
which condensation begins is called the dew-point. The
amount of moisture in the air at any time, measured cither
by its pressure or tension as a i>art of the hydrosphere or
by the number of grains in each cubic foot of air, is called
the absohile hiimidili/. The ratio between the amount of
moisture acluailv in" the air and the amount which would
saturate the air' at its present temperature is called the
relative humidity. The relativehunudity shows whether the
air is moist or dry. and is naturally never greater than unity
which marks saturation — at least never under natural con-
ditions ; certain artificial conditions seem to cause super-
saturation. The lower the temperature, the lower the dew-
point and the smaller the absolute humidity at saturation.
In cold weather the relative humidity is often 1; in hot
weather, rarely. A\'hen the relative humidity is low, water
evaporates ra|)idly from the soil or from receptacles, furni-
ture shrinks, the" skin is likely to chap, and fine wrinkles
gather on the face. When tlie relative humidity is high,
plants look bright and freshen up, animals appear more
comfortable, and furniture swells and creaks.
The hydrosphere is a shallower envelope for the earth
than is the dry atmosphere. It thins out rapidly toward
mountain-tops "and toward the poles. It is also irregular,
variable, and stratified. The irregularities are produced by
night and day, sunshine and shadow, clear weather and
clouds. The variations are due to much the same causes.
The stratification depends on the principles of condensation,
as follows :
The humidity spreads in all directions until it reaches
some place already saturated, when condensation takes
place. This may be due to the chilling of the air in con-
tact with any free surface cooled below the dew-point, when
there is a deposit of dew, hoar frost, or frost-work (see Dew),
or it may be due to the chilling of the air by elevation and
consequent expansion, in which case cloud is formed, or
the water-molecules themselves may, in their journeys, pass
the elevation at which the temperature is that of the dew-
point, in which case a thinner cloud may be formed. (See
Clouds.) At the precise level or isothermal \Aanc where
the temperature is that of the dew-point, a stratum of cloud
will be formed, but the release of heat by condensation of
vapor and the action of the sun's rays on "the upf)cr surface
of the cloud now make this air warmer than below, and the
condensation has removed .some of the moisture, so that the
next cloud-layer can be formed only at a consitlerably
greater elevation. Above this may come a third layer and
possibly more, so that a distinct, though transient, layering
IS set up.
A fog is a cloud at the earth's surface, and is the result of
a supersaturation due to chilling.
We have now followed the molecule of water from the
time it left the moss of ice or liquid water until it is recon-
densed as dew or the element of a cloud. These particles
may now agglomerate until raindrops, hailstones, or snow-
flakes are fnrnied, when they fall to the earth as precipitation.
(.See Kaix. Hail, and Sxow.) A part of the precipitation
flows off the surface to streams, then to rivei's and the sea ;
a part percolates into the soil to anpiar at a distance in
springs, or to be evaporated gradually from the surface ; a
part is utilized in organic or inorganic changes; and a part
is evaporated sooner or later from the surface of the earth.
The amount utilized in each way depends on the sort of pre-
cipitation, the character of the surface ami soil, and the
character of the vegetation at the place of fall. In any cjise,
the molecule which falls is likely, by the aid of streams and
winds, to be carried far to leeward before it falls again.
Experiments indicate that dust plays an important part
in the condensation of atmospheric moisture, which con-
denses most readily on free surfaces, and such surfaces are
afforded by motes and particles of dust floating in the air.
These extremely small, solid masses fall with excessive slow-
ness through tfie air, and the resistance of the air causes
them soon to assume a uniform velocity, which may be but
a fraction of a foot per day. They also show a tendency to
make more or less distinct layci-s or strata in the air, tho.se
of about the same size tending to occupy the same stratum.
This is a tendency common also to sediments in water.
Lnii:i or Cyclones. — The air, like other gases, and even
liquids, shows a strong tendency to form vortices; which are
transitory because of friction. In a frictionless fluid they
would be indestructible. The tumultuous whirls from a fac-
tory chimney or from the crater of a smoking volcano, the
perfect whirls formed by a smoker, or by the puffs of a lo-
comotive at starting, illustrate these whirls because the
moving air is outlined by the smoke that moves with it.
The eddy of a windy street-corner is a stationary one due
to the olist ruction ; those seen in the movement of flakes in
a windy snow-storm are not stationary, but are very tran-
sient.
A more complete type of aerial whirls is found in the lit-
tle whirlwinds formed over a dusty road or field of stubble
on a hot afternoon. The sun's rays heat up the ground,
and thus the air in contact with it. until the latter becomes
hotter, and consequently lighter, than the air immediately
above. If the field is uneven the projecting points conduct
the lighter air up their sides, thus'giving it enough momen-
tum to send it on its way upwai'd, and the general effect on
looking across the field is that of a tremulous motion over
the whole of it. If there is no such aid to its start upward,
the lighter and warmer air remains below until it gets force
enough to ascend without help. Under these conditions a
horizontal view through the air gives a more or less perfect
mirage — a phenomenon which can sometimes be seen over a
liot street as perfectly as over a desert. When this air
breaks its bonds it is likely to do so at one point, and there
is a sort of drainage upward, resulting in a somewhat or-
derly inflow below and a consequent whirl, which on the
road is soon exhausted, but on the desert may last for a
lai'ge ])art of an hour.
Tlie whirls just mentioned are due to heated air alone,
and when the supply of hot air is intercepted or exhausted
they come to an end. If the whirl were very large and
moist air should flow in, then a continuous source of energy
— the condensation of moisture — would be added, and the
whirl would be persistent. Such is the so-called convcctive
theory of cyclones, and though this theory is not sati,sfac-
tory at all points, it is the only consistent and generally ac-
cepted exi)lanation of these phenomena.
The convective or aspiration theory of storms is as fol-
lows : An unequal healing of the air sets up at some place
a motion upward.' The air rushes in below to take the |)lace
of that which rises ; above, the air is chilled by expansion,
condenses some of its moisture to form a cloud-cap, then
flows out from the center above. The luight to which the
air rises is very small — probably not a hundredth of the
horizontal diameter of inflowing winds. Thus a cyclone is
a flat, horizontal vortex, a hundred times
as broad as thick, lying flat on the earth 0_
and moving as a whole eastward, with in- *-'
flowing winds on its lower and outflowing
on its upper surface.
That the air flows in spirally and not
radially, as might be expected, is due to
irregularities of inflow, and that the spiral
is contra-clockwise in the northern and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere is
due to the rotation of the earth.- Ferrel B, _^o
has shown (Pop. Treat, on Winds, pp.
77-88) that any body in motion horizon-
tally over the surface of the rotating earth
has a tendency to deflect to the right in a
the northern hemisphere and to the left Piaoram— Cause
in the southern. If the center of the low °V""** V"!! " 'in
is at C (diagram), the decrease of pressure fows.'"" '""
there will cause a particle of air at A to
pass radially along A B toward C ; but the earth's rotation
causes the deflection B I), and the particle actually reaches
.MKTEOROLOGY
705
D. F'rum tliis |)oint the suction, so to sjipiik, of tlio center
would cause the parlicle to move to K, l)Ut the curth's rotii-
lion, iitxl now also the nionientuin from the motion from A
lo I), will cause its actual path to be to the riglit lianii of
1) K. anil so on.
Thus the partii'le of air passes in 8 spiral path to the cen-
ter of the cyclone. .Meantime its velocity is increased as it
approiu-lies the center. This is due to tlie law of "j)reser-
vation of areas," or, as it is called in astronomy, Kepler's
second law. In meteorolo{;y it is sometimes so eflieient that,
eomliined with the action of inertia (the so-calleil centrifu-
gal force), it causes the particle near the center to circulate
around the axis without ever reaching' it, thus causin^,' a
iiartial vacuum aliout the axi.s — a feature of importance in
'Vrrel's Ihi'ory of torniuloes.
To obtain a clear idea of the mechanism of a cyclone, as
above exiilaini'd, let us f<dlow in ima^'ination a particle of
air from the time it enters until it leaves such a vortex.
Lyin^ on the extreme marjjin of a cyclone, it is caught in
the suction acticm of the center, and starts slowly toward it.
Its couisc is iit first alonir a radius, but the dellective elTecl
the speed becomes les.sand less, until finally it is thrown out
at the marjcin of the cyclonic disk, and conies lo rest in a
IK>sition decided by other than cyclonic law.s.
The low has a cap of cloud, 'fhis cap is not placed cen-
trally over the low, nor is it symmetrical. It is usually
ni(U-<' marked on the advaiicin;; or eastern side and on the
southern side of the low, and is thickest and lowest at some
point a little S. E. of the center. From here it thins out in
all directions, but most rapidly toward the rear. The ex-
treme edj;es. especially in front, are long streaks or lingers
of cirrus, and are at great delations.
The iirecipitalion (rain and snow) is usually greatest
where trie cli>uil is densest — that is, guniewliat alieaci and to
the right hand of the center of the low. .Snow in srpialls
and flurries often falls to the rear of a low, es|K'cially if it
is crowded by a high. The area of precipitation varies enor-
mously with individual storms, and the heaviest rainfalls
usually occur with st'condaries, lo be menti<meil hereafter.
Cyclones have an eastward motion in temperate latitudes
which has been variously attributed to the general drift of
the surface air, to the higher currents or anti-trades, and to
of the earth's rotation soon comes in play, and it bends its
path to the right <if the center. Then comes into action
the centrifugal force and the law of preservation of areas,
ami its path about the center becomes constantly smaller
anil more ci'-cular, while its speed tiecomes greater. Mean-
while it gets gradually into the central region where asiiini-
tion is active, and its spirals begin to rise. Eventually it
pa.sses the median plane of the cvclone, the suction weakens,
and is finallv reversed, the sjiirals become wider and wider,
271
Weather-map fur Eo-stern U. S., Nov. SS. 1S93, 8 a. m.
self-propagation due to the fa<l that the rain and cloud
center is a little in advance <if the center of low i>ressure.
They ari' disposed to follow haliitual jiaths, but this regu-
' '■ if (latli ' ' " ' ' ' '" *' '
larily of imtli is by no means lo be relied on in the case of
anv indiviilual cyclone.
'The movement of the cyclone over the station of nn ob-
server gives rise to n well-niarkeil s<>ries of phenomena last-
ing from <uie to three days. The barometer gradually falls,
reaches a minimum, then rises rather more rapiilly than it
700
METEOROLOGY
fell. The thermometer gradually rises until the center of
the low is passed, when it falls faster than it rose. The
fingers of the cirrus are first seen extending up from a Doinl
on the western horizon. They gradually extend, and are
followed by a sheet of cloud whicli grows denser and de-
scends lower until the rain-center has passed the meridian,
when the weather clears more rapidly than it clouded. The
weather thickens and it becomes more and more rainy until
the rain-center has pa.ssed the meridian, when the rain
passes off more rapidly than it came on.
The most interesting series of plienomena, however, are
those of the wind. The cyclone brings with it a series of
winds of its own, which pass along with it and so gradually
sweep over any station in its jmth. In the resulting and
successive changes in wind-diivction which are pi>ssib]e,
there are three^distincl cases depending on whether the
storm-center passes to the N. or S., or centrally, over the
station. If the center passes to the K., the wind starts in
as southerly, passes through westerly, and ends as a northerly
wind. It thus takes a clockwise change, or that with the
sun. This is called vecrhu;. If the center passes to the S.,
then the wind passes from soutlierly to nortlierly through
the E., or against the sun, which is called backinu. If the
center passes over the station, the wind is southerly when it
is coming on and northerly when it is going off. There is
no veering or backing, but' the wind simply reverses with
a longer or shorter interval of relative calm. This is a
remai-kable phenomenon in violent cyclones, in which cases
the calm center or "eye of tlie storm " is especially large
and well marked. Vessels have found the eye of the storm,
with its tremendous choppy seas but no wind, to be about
as destructive as the winds themselves.
If a line is drawn through a center of low-pressure and in
the direction of motion, then we have a right-hand half and
a left-hand half of the storm. In the northern heudsphere
the right hand (or generally southern) half of a violent
.storm is tlie more dangerous because the air there moves
with the velocity of the cyclonic wind plus the velocity of
progression of the storm as a whole. Tlie left-hand half is
the less violent half because the velocity of the air llurre is
that of the wind minus that of progression.
If a line be also ilrawti through the center, but perpen-
dicular to the preceding, the slorm is divided into four
quadrants, of which tlie front riglit-hand one is the most
dangerous, most cloudy, and most rainy.
Storms. — The larger storms (or atmospheric disturbances
accompanied with precipitation) are the more intense lows
or cyclones; the smaller ones are secondaries or minor wliirls
(in size not intensity) in th(^ general whirl of the cyclone.
One path of storms comes up from the West Indies. This
is the path of hurricanes. Another comes up from the
Philippine islands. This is the pat li for typhoons. These
are both violent cyclones of tfo[)ical origin. (See Hurri-
cane.) Typhoons are also known in the vicinity of the
Friendly islands in the South Pacific and in the vicinitv of
the JIascerene islands in the western part of the Indian
Ocean. The habitual paths of storms in the southern hemi-
sphere are not yet known except for small areas.
The secondarii's are minor whirls, often imperfect as
whirls, which are imbedded in the general whirl of the
cyclone, and most generally in the riglit-haiid anterior quad-
rant. They are most common in extensive and humid lows,
and appear generally in the hotter moist .seasons and in the
hotter hours of the day. They are local in character and
brief in duration. Among them are Tornadoes, Tiiundkk-
STORMs, Hailstorm, and C'LounnuRsx (i/q. v.). They alford
a large percentage of the rainfall of warm seasiins — the
more the nearer the tropics are approached. In the tropics
these minor disturbances appear to form locally, and inde-
pendently of any general storm.
Highs or Anti-cyclones. — In the highs the air descends
from above and flows out. The outflowing winds here take
also a sniral direction, but with dextral turn (in the northern
hemisphere) or opposite to that taken in cyclones. The
curvature of the s])iral is here gentle and the velocity gen-
erallv slight. The motion of anti-cyclones is generally less
rapid and more erratic than that of cyclones. They appear
in the VV. and disappear in the E., like cvclones, but their
paths are usually on more southerly latituiles ; while the cy-
clones u.sually leave the continent by the way of New Eng-
land or the f)rovinces, the highs usually leave by the Middle
Atlantic coast.
Gales are not unusually associated with highs, though
they are generally at a distance from the center ; are luost
frequent when a high is not far distant from a preceding
low, and are not accompanied with much precipitation. The
Texan Norther (q. v.) is a gale due generally to an anti-
cyidone in higher latitudes. A Cold Wave (q. v.) is a phe-
nouuMum of the advancing edge of a winter high following
closely on an unseasonable low. Where the cold wave is
accompanied by a fall of fine, cold-weather snow, in sharp
aci(;ular crvstals with a high wind, it becomes a Blizzaki>
(q. v.). which is dangerous.
Vertical Change. — The pressure of the air decreases with
elevation in free air or on mountains, but the change is
modified somewhat by temperature. The pressure at sea-
Icvel supports a column of mercurv about i!0 inches long.
At 1,000 feet elevation (temperature 40) it is 28-!)0 inches.
At 8,000 feet it is only 22- 14 inches. The rate of fall de-
creases with increase of elevation. The temperature falls
with elevation in the free air, but at a rate which varies with
the sea.son, the cloudiness, and the humidity. The sun's rays
are hotter at an elevation, but the air is thinner and less
warmed up by the sun. Glaishcr, in his remarkable balloon
ascent of Sept. 5. 1862, with the temperature of 59' F. at the
ground, found it 41 at a height of 1 mile: 32' at 2 miles;
18 at 3 miles; 8° at 4 miles; and 2' at 5 miles. The cirrus
clouds are formed of ice particles, and the temperature
where they are found must be considerably below freezing,
or the sun would melt them. Their average height is above
29,000 feet in middle latitudes. Hermite's pilot-balloon prob-
ably went to the height of 10 miles, and the automatic ther-
mometer registered —58" C.or —72' F., though with a break
in the record and some doubts as to interpretation. The
absolute humidity at l.QOO feet in balloons is on the average
88 per cent, of tliat on the ground, at 10,000 feet 31 per cent.,
and at 20.000 feet 11 per cent. On mountains the percentages
were somewhat greater at higher elevations — for instance,
16 per cent, at 20,000. The wind increases in velocity with
ascent, reaching a maximum at a moderate elevation, per-
haps 4,000 to oroOO feet.
Periodic Changes. — The diurnal rotation of the earth
causes a well-known series of periodic changes. The air-
pressure usually undergoes a double variation of small
amplitude, with maxima between 9 and 11, morning and
evening, and minima between 3 and .5 in the afternoon and
early morning. This appears to be a tidal phenomenon.
The temperature has a single maximum early in the after-
noon, and a minimum at about sunrise. This is simply a
result of solar and terrestrial radiation, and is dependent
for the amplitude on the state of the sky and other shelter-
ing conditions. The diurnal curve of absolute humidity
runs fairly parallel to that of temperature at extra-tropical
coast stations. Itdand, however, and in the tropics, the
afternoon maximum is cutout by rising currents of warm
air, due to the heating by the sun. There results a double
variation, with maxima morning and evening. The diurnal
curve of relative humidity runs in a direction the reverse
of that of temperature on which it depends.
The clouds show a distinct diurnal variation, but it is ob-
scured aiul complex because it depends on the kind of cloud.
For instance, the cumulus cloud is a day cloud, and is most
common on summer afternoons. The clearest times of day
are about sunset and sunrise. The wind shows a distinct
diurnal cliange in velocity, being highest in the afternoon
and lowest toward morning. It also shows diurnal changes
in direction, which vary with the topography. The best-
known case is that of land and sea breezes, occurring on
coasts in the tropics and elsewhere, where it becames heated
iidand during the day. This wind pours in from the sea in
the daytime and seaward at night.
The annual changes are even better marked and known.
In the interior of continents the annual change of air-pres-
sure is well marked with a maximum in winter and a mini-
mum in summer. On the oceans and coasts it is usually
slight and irregular. The changes in temperature and in
the elements depending on it— as wind, clouds, and precipi-
tation— are well known, as they make the seasons which so
profoundly affect all human activity. The maximum hot
weather usually occurs about the middle of .luly, and the
nuiximum cold about the middle of .January. S|)ring comes
in the V. S. both from the S. and from the W., and autumn
departs in much the .same way.
Many other periods have been suspected and investigated
without entirely .satisfactory results. A period agreeing
with the sun's rotation — between 26 and 27 days — bids fair
to commend itself eventually. The change of" the weather
with the sun-spot period (averaging ll-l years) also appears
METEOROLOGV
707
to be proven, but tin- relation is apparontly of a complicated
cliaracter, {living ditrereiit results at different stations. Yet
the coincidences are too numerous to be rejected as without
si{cnificanco.
Lunar periods — whether the revolution o( the moon (27
or 28 days), the lunation (aljout 2!) days), the saros (18 years
11 days), or tlie meteoric cycle (lU years) — have all failed to
net a footholil in scientific respect, thou};h much time has
been iiut on them, and they appear theoretically probable.
Weather periods dcpcndiuf; on individual j)lanets have en-
tirely failed to commend themselves to scientific students,
though many paradoxes rely on them for forecasts which
have received some popular approval and confidence. Kven
purely astrolo{;ical meteorolo;;y has its adherents.
Other and longer periods liave been suj^gested — as 35
years and 100 years — and striking coincidences can be
found for them, but they prove elusive when the attempt
is made to inspect them more closely. In general, there is
reason to believe that weather changes run in cycles, be-
cause this is the method of nature, especially in the phe-
nomenon of fluids, but it appears also probable that the
periods of the weather are very numerous, ami generally
mutually incominensuralile. As a matter of experience, no
cycles have i>roved useful in predicting the weather except-
ing only the diunwd and annual ones.
alluded to. Some of the leading principles for the U. S.
may be stated as follows:
1. Lows appearing in view to the W. of the meridian of
Iiake Huron generally direct their course across the Great
Lakes; those ai)pearing in view to the E. of this meridian
usually pass up northward in a path parallel to the Atlantic
coast. AH usualiv leave the vicinity of the U. S. on the lati-
tude of New England or the provinces.
2. Highs usually take a more erratic course, with more
varying velocity. They usually leave the U. S. on the lati-
tudes of the Middle Atlantic coast.
■i. Lows are more intense, better defined, and run on more
southerly courses in the cold than in the hot .season. In July
and August they are especially weak, ill-defined, and erratic.
The highs are more inclined to become stationary in summer
than in winter.
4. The lows from the West Indies are the most violent.
Next to these the most violent are from the high N. W.
Those from the W., S. W., and (iulf are generally gentle,
and the last usually afford abundant lu'ccipitation.
5. Severe local storms generally occur to the S. of a very
moist and unsefisonably warm low, especially if the latter
extends a trough of low pressure to the southward.
Many local signs, crystallized into the form of popular
weather proverbs, are of use in predictions. This is espe-
'v -,T t- ^sorf^^^*^ High Winds dwing Past
*>""' -(J- _^^, 13 Hours.
STATION.
Marquette, Mictl.... » S.W.
(ireeu liav. Wis :iO X.W.
Milwaukee. Wis. ... •■» X. W.
Chicago. Ill .•« I X.W.
Qrani) ttaveo, Mich. , 44
Sau(feen. Ont ,32
Port Huron, Mich.. 42
Toledo, O I 36
Cleveland.O ! 3S
Erie, Fa
Buffalo, X.Y....
Rochester, N. Y.
w.
w.
s.w.
N. W.
s.w.
S.W.
s.w.
S.W.
Heavy Rainfall in Past
IS Hours.
STATION.
O Key West
Marquette, Mich. .
AmouDt,
bicb««.
Observations taken at 8 A.M. and at 8 P.M. 75tli Meridian Time.
Barometer reduced to Sea level and 32^ F.
~-*Q—*Storm track and location of Storm Centre.
Date alKmCj time (A.M. or P.M.) below.
O Cloudless. ® Partly cloudy ® Cloudy. <
—^Isobars. — —Isotherms,
Arrows point la the direction the wind Is blowing.
' Rain. © Snow.
1. — Wt-alh.r n..i|' [ r 1
Foreca.itu for short periods ahead (thirty-six hours gen
erally in the U. S.) are made by nearly all the official weather
services hy means of the weather-map. The general prin-
eially true of the sunset signs, as they indicate the character
of westward or approaching weather.
The verification of predictions is difficult. With the l)est
ciples on which such forecasts are made have already been means available the forecasts of the Weather Bureau give
ros
METEORS
vcriBcation of 85 or 90 per cent. The precipitation is espe-
cially important in public estimation, hut the exact time
finil 'place of its occurrence arc especially hard to forecast.
Verified by the same methods, the popular paradoxes in
weather forecasts get only about 50 per cent., but a gener-
ous public forgets their failures and remembers their suc-
cc.'"'es. . ■ , 1
Experimental Meleorologi/. — This science is considered
one of observation rather than of experiment, yet it has an
experimental side of great interest. The electric spark, dif-
fering from lightning only in magnitude,' can now Ije easily
made. The cloudy condensation of aqueous vapor can be
produced with the aid of artificial dust particles, and so
controlled as to reproduce the color phenomena of the sky,
though not the different s|]ecies of clouds. Weyher (Am.
Met. Juurnal. vii., 17) has succeeded in mechanically pro-
ducing, on a small scale, whirls and vortices, which repre-
sent familiar forms of natural whirlwinds and waterspouts.
These lack the self-perpetuating power of water vapor in
the presence of strong contrasts of temperature, as found in
nature, but Espy thought ho had a means of obtaining this
by a great fire under suitable meteoi-ological conditions. He
tells, in his second congressional report, of the burning of
a cane-brake in Florida one hot afternoon, whii'h resulted
in, or was at least soon followed by, a cloud-formation and
a lieavv shower. His theory was that the fire caused a sta-
tionary whirl of relatively small magnitude, but large enough
to raise a mass of moist air so high that it was chilled by ex-
pansion, and condensed and dropped its surplus moisture.
A series of experiments on the production of rain was au-
thorized by Congress, and conducted by R. G. Dyrenforth, in
Texas, in 'the years 1891 and 1802. "Powerful explosions
were produced on the earth and in the air, with resull,s which
to the experimenter and his aids appeared favorable, but to
many onlookers, especially to those whose scientific training
inailc them most competent to judge, they ajipeared unfa-
vorable. It was generally agreed tliat the methods were ex-
Eensive and noisy, and that an explosion in a cloud might
ring dow'n a few drops of rain, but further than this there
was no general agreement. A secret met hod of rain-making,
said to be due to an Australian named Melbourne, was tried
in the western part of the U. S. during the summers of 18i)3
and 1803, with moi-e favoralile results. See also Climate,
Floods, Lightning, Rain, Weatiikr Burkau, etc.
LiTERATURK. — The literature of meteorology is very large.
Among current Journals may be mentioned: American Met.
Journal (.\iiri Arbor and Boston, since 1884); Symons's
Mont till/ Met. Magazine (\Aim\oi\. since 1866); Tlie Quar-
terly Journal of the Royal Met. Society (Lontlon) ; and the
yfe.t. Zeit-iclirift (Berlin). The later books in ICnglish are :
Waldo, Modern Meteorology (180;J); Abbe. Dcducfire Meth-
ods in Meteorology (with Rep. Chief Sig. Off., 1889), and
Met. Apparatus and Methods (with Rep., 1887) ; Ferrel,
Popular Treatise on Winds (1889), and Recent Adva7ice,-i in
Met. (with Rep. Chief Sig. Off., 1885); Grecly, American
Weatlier (1888) ; Abercrombv, Seas and A'^ics- in Many
Latitudes (1888), and Weal/ier (1887); Scott, Elementary
Meteorology (1883); Swainson, Handbook of Weatlier Eol/c-
lore (1873). For meteorological tables, see llazen, Jlet.
Tables (1888); Smithsonian Met. Tables (Misc. Coll.. 844,
1803); and the very complete and authentic Tables met. in-
ternationales (Paris, in three langiuiges, 1890). Harrington's
Met. Work for Agricultural Tnslitutions (Exp. Stations,
Bull., No. 10, 1802) contains many suggestions for meteoro-
logical work. The meteorological bibliographies of the
Signal Service and Weather Bureau afford a guide to the
literature generally. The weather-maps of the U. S. meteor-
ological service (how about 20,000 in inimber) and inter-
national maps of the same service afford a very large mass
of material for work. Mark W. Uarrixoton.
Meteors [from Gr. ^fx/upos, in the air. See Meteorite] :
a term used to denote many dilTerent objects and phenomena,
generally of short duration, that have their pljice in the at-
mosphere. Thus there are aerial meteors, as winds, torna-
does, etc. ; a(/ueou8 meteors, as fogs, rain, snow, hail, etc.:
luminous meteors, or those due to the action on light of ele-
ments in the air, as rainbows, halos, parhelias, mirages,
etc.; electrical meteors, as lightnings, auioras, etc.; and
igneous meteors, as shooting or falling stars, star-showers.
bolides or fireballs, aerolites or meteorites, etc. In present
usage the term meteor is generally limited lo the last group,
or to the ij^neous meteors.
Upon any clear night a person looking upward will from
time to time see a bright star-like point of light appear in
the sky, move rapidly several degrees in a right lino across
the heavens, and iis suddenly disappear, the whole flight
la.sling usually only a fraction of a second. This is a shoot-
ing or falling star. On certain nights these shooting stars
have been seen in immense numliers. Thus on the morning
of Nov. 13. 1833, they came .so thickly as to be described as
a fierv snow-storm. On Nov. 12, 1700, Nov. 13, 1832. Nov.
14, 18'66, Nov. 14, 1867, Nov. 14, 1868, Apr. 4, 1005, Oct. 24,
1366, Nov. 27, 1872, and on many other nights that could be
named, they came by thousamls. On the night of Aug. 10-
11 every year three or four times the usual number are to be
seen. The brighter of these displays are called star-showers.
Varieties of Meteors. — The shooting stars are of all de-
grees of brightness. Sonic are so faint that one looking at
them can not be certain that he sees anything, and some are
visible only in a telescope. Others may l)e brighter than the
planets, or even than the moon. These are called bolides or
fireballs, or by older writers flyivg dragons. Sometimes
they are seen in full daylight. The larger fireballs often ex-
plode into fragments, the parts chasing one another across
the sky or scattering in dilferent directions. In some cases
terrific explosions, as of distant and numerous cannon, are
heard over all the region a few minutes after the disappear-
ance of the ljo<ly. Tliesc are called detonating meteors. At
times from tliese detonating meteors come down stony frag-
ments, scattering themselves over a region miles in extent,
and usually striking the ground with enough force to bury
themselves in soft earth 1 or 2 feet. These fragments are
called aerolites or meteorites. See Meteorites.
Ueiglit. — By observers near each other the track of a
shooting star is seen in the same )>art of the heavens; but
when two observers see the same track fi-om two stations 50
or 100 miles apart, it appears in different parts of the sky.
Hence the actual altitude can be determined. It is found
that they are not seen higher than about 100 miles from the
earth, aiid they rarely come lower than 30 miles unless
they send down fragments. W'hile they are thus very far
above the region of clouds, tliey are still more distinct in
place from all other astronoini<'al phenomena, excepting,
perhaps, the auroras and twilight.
Numbers. — Shooting stars are seen on any clear, moonless
night. One person would on the average see not less than
eight per hour, but the number increases through tlie night,
so that about three times as many can be seen just l)efore
dawn as in tlie evening hours. A large group w-atching to-
gether can sec five or six times as many as one person, or an
average, at midnight, of 40 or 50 per hour.
Trains. — Jlany of the shooting stars leave behind them a
bright cloud of jihosphorescent light. Often this disappears
in a fraction of a second or in two or three seconds. Fre-
quently, however, a bright one leaves in its path a narrow
bar of light several degrees long. This contracts in length
and broaclens, sometimes changing into a small round cluud,
which slowly floats away ; but usually it retains its elongated
form, and after a fraction of a minute is seen to lose its
straightncss. If it lasts several minutes, the cloud gets
twisted forms, tlie result, no doubt, of winds in the upper
air and of currents produced by the meteor itself. One such
train lasted forty-five minutes, and they have been reported
as lasting more than an hour.
Color. — Tlu> meteors and their trains have various colors
— white, green, blue, yellow, scarlet, etc. Tliose whieli an'
seen on Nov. 13 of various years leave a bluish train. The
bo(ly and train of a large meteor may give in its various
parts all these colors.
Duration of Eligtit. — The duration of the flight is gen-
erally less than a second of time, but the brighter ones may
last several seconds. The fireball of ,luly 20, 1860, was in
sight over half a minute, which was, however, an extreme
instance, for its path was very long. It was first seen over
the State of Michigan, and last seen when it was 200 or 300
miles E. of New ^■ork city.
Velocity. — Some meteors move through the air with a
velocity of 8 or 10 miles, and some with a speed of 40 nr
more miles, a second. I^lie mean velocity is about 30 miles
a second, or 100 times that of a cannon-ball.
Jleteors are Astronomical Phenomena. — It is now uni-
versally admitteil by astroiiouicrs that igneous meteors are
caused by small bodies whii'h have l)een traveling alioiit
the sun in their orbits, and striking the earth's atmosphere
are burned by the intense heat due to the concussion and
friction. These bodies before they come into the air are
called meteoroids.
METEORS
ill
Oct. 19. laoa (O. S ) ;
•• 17, 1101 ••
" 15, lOItt "
" 14, 9S4 ••
" 15, 9.11
" 13, 90!! ■•
Meleorir. Showers. — On tlic niorninp nf \ov. 13, 1833,
fruin about three o'clock till flaylifflil, large numbers of
shooting stars were seen throughout the western hemisphere.
The very important fact was ncjticed that wherever the ob-
server mifiht be. the paths of the meteors across the sky
were always directed from a noint in the constellation Leo,
and that tiiis point kept its place auioiiK the stars notwith-
standing the earl It's rotation. This fact could be explained
only by n.ssuming that the paths of the meteors through tlie
air were straight lines parallel to each other, and were di-
rected from the constellation Leo; also that the meteors
were of cosmical not of terrestrial origin. Further research
established that there had been star-showers on the follow-
ing earlier dales :
Nov. 13, IK*) :
•• Yi. lT'.i» ;
" 9. HWS :
Oct. 28, ICrti (O
•• 8.'.. I.Wi
" S3, \am
These dates show a cycle of about thirty-three years, with a
change of date of about three days in a century, the apjiar-
ent change of twelve days in the seventeenth century being
due in the main to the difference between old and new
style. The cycle, the change of date, and the radiation all
implied that the meteors belonged to a group of bodies re-
volving about the sun in similar elliptic orbits. It was also
found that only five possible orbits could explain the cycle
and the radiation, and that one, and only one, of these ex-
plains the change of dale. This is an orbit whose period
IS 33J years, inclination 17' 4o', eccentricity about -rV, and
motion retrograde. According to expectation, the meteors
appeared again in thousands on the morning of Nov. 14 in
lf<t!ti, IMO;, and IS(>.S.
The swarm will complete another revolution in 1899 or
liKX), on Nov. 14 or 15.
Comet 1SG6 I. — A comet passed its perihelion in Jan.,
1866, which has an orbit very nearly identical with the
common orbit of the meteors as thus determined. The
comet is traveling with the group, and near the heail of it.
Ciimtts /.>';»;. — .\ stiir-shower ixjcurred in Oct.. 13(i6. Two
or three ilays afterward a comet appeared in the northern
heavens, and traveled along the track of the meteors. A
week later a second comet followed along the same path.
Probably both were meml)ers of the group.
Dimenxionxof ihf Leonid Meteor Stream. — These meteors,
be<-aasc of their radiation from the constellation Leo, are
called Leonidn. The ilenser part of the stream of meteors
is traversed bv the earth in from one to three hours, which
implies an actual thickness of 20.0IX) to .50,0t)0 miles. It
taKcs three or four years lor the stream to ]ia.-<s the node,
which implies a length of many hundreds of millions of
miles. The breadth in its own plane is unknown. The
numl)ers seen per minute in the middle of the brighter of
these star-showers imply that the mcteoroids have in the
center of the stream, as they travel through space, a mean
di.-ilance from their near neighbors of from 2-5 to .It) miles.
Tlie Auyitut Meteors and Comet /.sV/V ///. — There are
shooting stars every year on Aug. 9-12, numbering on the
morning of the lOih or lltli, with a clear, moonless sky, 200
or 300 per hour fcjr four observers. Thev nuliate from the
constellation IVrseus, and are hence called Per.neids. The
comet 18<)2 111. has an orbit that very nearly cuts the earth's
orbit at the i>oint where the earth is on Aug. 10. If a
stream of mcteoroids were moving with this comet, as the
Leonids move with comet ls(i(i I., they would uppiar like
the Persi'ids, the radiant being in the same place in I'erscus.
Hence it is rea.sonable to assu - -
comet 1S62 III. have like orbits.
e jjla
the
Pcrscids and
7'Ae Biela Comeig and ttie Andromedes. — A comet of
short period, making three circuits in 20 vears. was discov-
ered in 1TT2. ami observed in IKO."), 1.S2G, 1h:}2, 1845, and
1852. It 1S4.") ii was seen to be si'[mrated into two parts,
about 1.50.000 miles from each other. In 1852 the two
comets were alio\it 1.200.000 miles from each other. Since
that time they have never licen seen. The earth's orbit
came very close to the comet's orbit, (he earth cro.ssing the
comet's path at first early in Decemlier, but afterwanl,
owing to the action of .lupiier on the comet, late in Novem-
ber. Shooting stars were seen in considerable nnnil>ers Dec.
7, 1798, and Dec. 8, ls:{s. uiid at the latter time were ob-
served to radiate from .\ndroineda; they are hence calleil
Andromede.i. From this same point in the sky any meteor-
oicls traveling along the orbit of the Biela comets, and com-
ing into the air, would be seen to radiate. On Nov. 24 and 27,
1872, large numbers of Androii*,he preachers, but the "legal
and America, forming on Nov. 27 aTJuination of the general
character. The whole forms a stream. i.treiieral sujicrvision of
tent, hundreds of millions of miles in U-ngithe " district " and
Tlie April Meteors and Comet JSOl J. — tf, subject to re-
in large numbers have been observed in certaH!. Commit-
Apr. 2<l. radiating from a [K>int in the const ellatio't/> princi-
They are hence called Lyriads. They seem to be coiuiec'iefore
with the comet 1861 I. in the same way as the star-sliowcrs''e
with the comets already described. Brilliant displays of
shooting stars were seen in ('hina on this day n. c. 087 and
B.C. 1.5, anil in Europe A. D. 1095 and A. D. 1122, which prob-
ably were Lyriad meteors.
Xumbe-x of Sjmradic Meleorx. — Jfcteors wliich do not be-
long to a group arc called sporadic. By consiileringthe imm-
ber of such meteors visible each hour, their distribution over
the sky. and the average relative vclocitv of the mcteoroids
in space — all of which can Ijc determined with a certain de-
gree of a<curacy — we find that there are in the region
through which the earth is traveling 10,0(K) or 15,000 mc-
teoroids in each volume of the size of earth. In other words,
each meteoroid that would, in coming into the air. under fa-
vorable circumstances, furnish a meteor-track visible to the
naked eye, occupii'S an average space equal to a cube whose
edge is 200 or 300 mili-.<. The inimbcr of the mcteoroids
that enter the atmosphere daily is not less than lO.OOO.CKX).
If we include those smaller meteors which can Ijc seen only in
the telescope, that number may be multiplied twenty or
forty fold.
Theory of the Meteors. — The preceding facts lead to the
following theory of meteors, which is now iniiversally ac-
cepted. A meteoroid is a small solid body describing its long
elliptic orbit about the sun, like any comet. The number
of such small bodies is so great that every day many mil-
lions of them come within 4.(MXI miles of the earth's center,
the number being but little increased by the earth's attrac-
tion. They are entirely invisible until, at a height of less
than 100 miles from the ground, they enter air dense enough
to resist their motion and create light. Their velocity being
enormous, generally from 10 to 400 miles a second, an intense
heat is developed by the air directly in front of the body.
The anterior surface is in consequence melted away, the
melted matter being wiped off by the air. This streams
back, forming in part the apparent flame, and the train of
the meteor proceeds many miles before it is entirely de-
stroyed. I'lider favorable circumstances of velocity, chem-
ical and mechanical constitution, and size, the meteoroid is
not entirely scattered, but, breaking up into fragments,
comes to the ground in a shower of stones. These stones
often show traces of the flow of melted matter, also evi-
dences of successive fractures, and even the partially devel-
oped cracks which with further action would have become
fractures; but for this action of the air in arresting and
destroying the mcteoroids, we should be intolerably pelted
with them. The meteorites are all evidently fragments,
not sejiarate formations. They are in the heavens, to some
extent at least, grouped in streams along the orbits of known
comets, and hence nave some common origin with thera.
The continuity of these streams, the double and multiple
character of Biela's and other coineUs. ami the steady dimin-
ution of comets in brilliancy at successive returns, seem
to argue a continuous breaking up of the comet into frag-
ments by some cause — probably by the sun's heat. The
mcteoroids, hovi'evcr, are not constituents of either the com-
et's coma or its tail.
Literature. — The literature of this subject is exten-
sive. See, in particular, the various articles in The Amer-
ican Journal of Science, in the Astronornischen yaeh-
richten. in the Monthly Xotires of the Koyal Astronomical
Societv. and in the annual reports of the luminous meteor
committee of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science : also, the following separate wdrks: .Schia-
parelli. yote e Ritlexsioni sidia Teorin aslronomicn delle
Stelle cadenii (Florence, 1867), or its German translation by
Boguslawski (Stettin, 1871): KirkwomI, Meteoric .lA/ron-
omy (Philadelphia, 1867); and Comets and J/c/cor^ (Phila-
delphia, 1M73). II. A. Newto.v.
HevLsed by S. Newcomb.
Meters, in |>ros<Kly : See Metres.
Meters: appliances for measuring: especially any instru-
ment for recording the quantity or force of a (luid actuating
it. For a lull duicription of the meter used for measuring
illuminating gas, see Gas-uoutixo ; for the water-meter.
710
METHODISM
see Water-meter. In eleetricity the meter is a device for
measuring, for commerciul purposes, the energy developed
in an electric circuit.
The measure of electrical activity in practical units is the
watt, which is the product of the current flowing and the
dilTerence nf potential existing between the terjninals or
extreme limits of the circuit under consideration. By Olini's
law this is the equivalent of the square of the current mul-
tiplied by the resistance of the circuit. These statements
hold only in cases in which the activity is due to a steady
current. When alternating or variable currents are used
the expression is more complicated.
The energy developed is the product of activity and time,
and the practical units are the watt-hour and the kilowatt-
hour (1,000 watts for one hour). In the early days of elec-
tric lighting the horse-power hour was tlie prevailing unit.
This, which is eipuil to 746 watt-hours, has been abandoned.
Electric meters are from the nature of the case watt-meters,
under which title some details of the construction of the
best-known types will be found. It may be said that the
most successful forms are those in which a small electric
motor, so designed as to revolve with a speed proportional
to the activity of the circuit, actuates a counting device.
The latter, whicli should be direct-reading, generally con-
sists of a set of dials similar to those upon gas-meters.
Recording ammeters have also been used as electric
meters to some extent. Another form is the zinc voltam-
eter, which has been found a fairly accurate device for
measuring the energy supplied to glow-lamp circuits, etc.
See Electricitv. Electric IjIghtinu, Ammeter, (Jalvaxom-
ETER, and Watt-meter. E. L. Nichols.
Methodism : the system ot doctrines, polity, and worship
of tlie religious body called Methodists. The title " Meth-
odists" was applied to Wesley and some of his Oxford asso-
ciates not in derision, but as expressive of the regularity of
their religious habits, especially their punctual devotion to
the ritualistic services of the Church, for the members of
the Oxford " Holy Club," ,>is it was called, were not only
extremely "High Chin'ch," but exceedingly " rilualistic."
They were distinctively tfie '• ritualistic party " of their day,
notwithstanding the very simple practical character and
comparative liisregard for ritualism which the IMethodistic
movement subsequently assumed. The little society, formed
in 1739, grew slowly, and consisted in its sixth year of only
fourteen members, the most memorable of them being John
and Charles Wesley and George Whitefield. (See Wesley.)
The departure of the Wesleys to America terminated the
history of the "Oxford Methodists" and the existence of
the " Holy Club." The return of the two brothers to Eng-
land, however, revived the denominational epithet, for by
the next year (1739) they and Whileficld had spread a re-
ligious .sensation over much of the Uniteil Kingdom. They
were excluded from the pulpits of the national Church, and
had to preach in the open air, and in many places they and
their adherents were denied the Eucharist at the church
altars. They were therefore compelled to unite their fol-
lowers in "societies," to give them the sacraments, and pro-
vide for them |)laoes of assembling and worship. The year
17;!9 is considered the true epoch of Methodism. In that
year Wesley began the erection of his first clnipel at Bris-
tol, opened his famous " Old Foundry " in London, and
formed in the latter city his first "society," which he says
(in the introduction to his General Rules) was the " rise of
the Uniteil Society" — that is to say, of organized Met hoil-
ism. In the same year "bands" were formed, for the first
time, in the city ot Bristol, and it is the date of the first
publication by tlic lii-olhers of their ITynms and Sacred Po-
ems, the begitniing of that Methoilistic psalmody which
has spread over most of the Protestant world, and which
has been the chief liturgy of the denomination.
Thus had the " gnuit Methodistic movement" begun. It
soon extended over Great Britain and into Ireland. Addi-
tional "societies" were continually formed; Oeneral Hides
were prepared for them by John aiid Charles Wesley jointly.
These " Rules" are the recognized "terms of membership"
throughout the Methodist communion, and they expresslv
declare that no other "condition" than such as Ihey define
"is previously required of those who desire admission to
these societies." Phey are singularly liberal, being "re-
markable," .says a Methodist writer, "as containing not a
single dogmatic condition of communion." They are thor-
oughly practical, requiring as the "only eonditicin " "a de-
sire to flee the wrath to come and be saved from sin," and
the exemplification of this desire, first, by the avoidance of
certain specified vices ; secondly, " the doing good of every
possible sort, and sis far as possible, to all men," especially
in certain specified respects. Wesley, though at first, as he
acknowledges, a " High Churchman," and as strict a " ritu-
alist" as the Anglican Church jiossessed in his day, had
now become one of the most liberal of men. Through-
out the remainder of his life he refers often to the liberality
of the terms of membership in his societies, and demands
of all good men the sacrifice of sectarian bigotry and co-
operation in practical religion. Though he now formed
"societies," not churches technically or strictly considered,
yet when, many years later, he prepared a form of organi-
zation for the Methodist Episcojial Church in the U. S., he
still retained the (Jencral liules as presenting the only con-
dition of membership, and inserted in a sejiarate part of
the book an abridgment of the Anglican Articles, not as an
obligatory symbol to be virtually subscribed, but as a merely
indicative standard of the best theological opinions. Mem-
bers of the Church were to be amenable not so much for
their individual opinions as for making strife and trouble
in the denomination by them. It can not be questioned
that John Wesley was not only immeasurably in advance of
his own age. but also far in advance of ours in "evan-
gelical liberality."
The societies rapidly increased, and Wesley and his few
clerical coadjutors were soon compelled to organize more
thorouglily their converts if they would not labor in vain.
The societies were therefore divided into "classes" of
about twelve persons each, and placed under the inspec-
tion of select " leaders." They met weekly, sang, jirayed,
and related their Christian experience. The "class meet-
ing " has since been the germ of almost every Methodist
cliurcli ill the world. Eacli member contributed a penny a
week and a shilling a quarter for the support of the cause,
and thence arose the whole financial .system of Methodism.
The clerical laborers could not supply the increasing local
societies; laymen of natural talents were therefore recog-
nized, first as " exhorters," and then as "local preachers,"
to conduct their public services in the absence of their
clerical guides. (See JIaxfield. Thomas.) Wesley soon
called out some of his ablest "local preachers" into the
general field, to travel and pi'eaeh continually, like him-
self, his brother, and Whitefield; and thence arose the
lay itinerant ministri/ — one of the greatest factors in the
Methodist movement throughout the world. To give regu-
larity to the labors of these lay evangelists, they were as-
signed to dilferent .sections of the kingdom ; thence came
the famous Methodist "circuit" — of incalculable service,
especially in the early frontier settlements of the New
World, for it sometimes put under the regular ministra-
tions of one or two "itinerants" ])arishes 500 miles in ex-
lent. Over a given number of these circuit iireachers [ire-
sided a select itinerant, and thence arose the "district,"
with its "i)residing elder" in North America, its "chair-
man " in Great Britain. This officer assembled the preach-
ers and other " oflicial members" of each circuit four times
a year, for the better regulation of llieir work; thence arose
the "quarterly conference " ; a similar gathering from all
the circuits of a district constituted the "district confer-
ence"; the yearly gat luM-ing of all (he preachers of all the
districts, for the revision of their entire work and its redis-
tribution for the ensuing year, made the " annual confer-
ence." The latter, however, preceded, cliroiiologieally, the
other forms of "conference," Wesley having held the first
session in 17-14. In the V. S. the great territorial range of
the denomination has since 1792 rendered necessary a quad-
rennial session called the "general conference." composed
since 1812 of delegates from all the annual conferences.
Besides these peculiarities. Methodism h;is some minor
functions or distinctions which have contributed much to
its pojmlar effectiveness. Its "love-feast" was borrowed,
through its early Moravian associates (see Wesleys). from
the agapa" of the primitive Church. Bread and water are
distributed among the assembly at the opening of its serv-
ice, and the rest of the time is spent in the narration of
Christian experience. The "band meeting" was also copied
from the Moravians. Each sex met in its own bands; the
" class meeting" has generally superseded this institution.
The " watch-night " is usually celebrated on New Year's
Eve, its services closing with silent prayer at midnight. It
originated with the early Methodist converts among the
Kingswood colliers. It had been their custom to close the
old and hail in the new year with drunken orgies. Method-
MKTFIODISM
711
ism reclaimed hosts of these poor people, who clianped to
this new and devout form their ubservaiice of New Year's
Eve, ami pive it to the denomiiiHtioii lliroti);li<ml llie world.
The lay '■ prayei meeting ' is universal aiiiotif; Methodists,
and has heen elainieii as original with them, at least in the
modern I'hurch. (Smith's llixtunj of Milhoilixm, vol. i.,
hook iii.,<ha|). ii.) It is eharaeteri/.ed by great freeilom and
fervor, and espeeiully liy its popidar psalmody. Both sexes
iiave equal liberty of prayer and exhortatir)n in it.
The tlirotuyy of Jtelliodimi may l>c said to be substan-
tially that of the (,'hureh of England, though it eliminates
the alleged Calvinistie teachings of the Thirty-nine Arti-
cles. Wesley was thoroughly Arminiaii. and his followers,
with the exception of the Welsh Calvinistie .Methodists, are
universally such. The " minutes" of his early conferences
record many discussions with his assembled preachers on
theological subjects. Certain compilations from these docu-
ments, together with his sermons and his notes on the New
Testament, are recognized as the theological standards of
the English or Wesleyan Methodisls. In the U. .S. his
abridgment of the Anglican Articles is the onlv authorita-
tive Methodislic standard. It does not include iiis views of
the " witness of the .Spirit " and of " sanctification."' which,
though subjects of much interest to American Methodists,
are left freely to individual opinion and discretion. These
two doctrines have usually been considered, by outside
critics of Methodism, as peculiar to its theology. Neither
Wesley nor any subsequent authority of the denomination
Would admit them to be so. They consider them to be not
oidy biblical, but generally ailrnitted truths in Greek and
Latin Christendom. Wesley did not even go as far in his
teachings regarding the " witness of the Spirit " as many of
the older Protestant theologians went in the doctrine of
•■ a-ssurance." According to him, the .S|iirit, not by any
nnirvelous demonstration, outward or inward — "not by an
inward voi<e. though lie may do this sometimes" — gives
the peaceful impression to the justified man that his sins
are forgiven. To use his own words, "the Spirit so works
upon the soul by His immediate influence, and by a strong
though inexplicable operation, that the stormy wind and
troubled waves subside, ami there is a sweet calm ; the heart
resting jus in the arms of Jesus, and the sinner being Clearly
satisfied that all his ' iniquities are forgiven atid his sins
covereil.' " In his teachings on sanctification — or " perfec-
tion." a Word which he used because the .Scriptures use it —
he taught not absolute moral perfection. " \Ve are no more
to ex|)ect any man to be infallible." he says, " than to be
omniscient." A Methodist writer affirms that " perfection,
as defined by Wesley, is not perfection according to the ab-
solute moral law ; it is what he calls it, Christian perfection
— perfection according to the new moral economy intro-
duced by the atonement, in which the heart, being sancti-
fied, fuliills the law by love (Rom. xiii. 8. W). and its in-
voluntary imperfections are provided for by that economy
without the imputation of guilt, as in the case of infancy
and all irresponsible persons." See Armixiaxism.
Although in the foregoing remarks historical references
have been made chiefly to Wesleyan or English Methodism,
nearly all that has been thus far said is applicable to the
many divisions of the clenomination : for one of the most
nolewnrtliy facts of .Methodism is its essential unity. What-
ever disiinclive prefixes or affixes its inimerous bodies may
have adopted, they all hold to what they justly consider suli-
slantive Jlethodism. Thcv have very generally the same
practical system and interior regimen, and aim at the same
tvpc of spiritual life. They all have fraternal relations.
'1 hough tliere are now. according to the most cautious au-
thorities, more than 24.tXMMK)() persons receiving MctlnKlist
instruction, and from week to week meeting together in
Methodist buildings for the purpose of worshiping Almighty
(iod, anil though these are scattered over most of the out-
lines of the globe, yet are they essentially one people.
Wesleiian MethodintH is the title of the Hritish parent
body. 'I'he outlines of its early development have already
been given. During Wesley's life it wius chiefly controlleil
by his patriarchal authority, lie left, however, a Deed af
Deilardliiin, recognized in 1704 by the high court of chan-
cery, providing for the government of the "connection"
after liis decease. By this deed the annual conference is
composeil of KM) traveling pn>achers, with |)ower to fill
vacancies in their number. They are the " legid confer-
ence," but the other traveling ministers attend their .sessions
and .share in their debates, without the right of voting.
The president of the conference is elected for out year by
the " lepal conference" and the preachers, but the "legal
conference" can negative the noiuination of the general
body. He has during this term the general sujiervision of
the denomination. The proceedings of the " district " and
"cpiartcrly conferences" (above noted) are subject to re-
vision and amendment in the annual conference. Commit-
tees appointed by these minor Undies to prepare tlie jirinei-
pal business of the annual .session meet about a week before
the latter, and their meiisures are generally adopted by the
" legal hundred."' As tlie.se committees consist largely of
lavmen, the rigor of Vit;At:y's Iletd of Declaration is much
relieved by this concessive policy of the conference. Wes-
leyan .Methoilism can not, uinler that deeil, have " lay repre-
sentation," but it has nearly its ecpiivalent in the preliminary
committees. One of the.se, called the " stationing commit-
tee," makes a draft of the appointments of all the traveling
preachers for the ensuing year; this dticument is submitted
to the societies, which have the right of appeal to the con-
ference for changes. Its final determination is with the
conference. No preacher, however, can be appointed to the
same place more than three successive years. The Wesleyans
report (ly'JIJ) ;j.O:JG traveling preachers and 72ti.2H:j chiirch
members. The parent conference emjiloys in Cireat Britain
and Ireland 2.321 regular ministers. Besides these there were
in 1S!)2 in England alone 16,491 lav preachers. The num-
ber of church members in (ireat Britain and Ireland in
18i)2 was 4.")()..512. with 28.180 on trial, and in 18!W there
were 28 circuits in Scotland, with TjflTu members exclusive of
those on trial. Their missions are carried on in Ireland,
France, .Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Italv, .Spain, Malta,
Egypt, India, Ceylon, China. South and West Africa, the
West Indies, IIonduriLs, ami the Bahanuis. These missions
employ 2.."i(}2 paid agents, including 3:J2 who are regularly
ordained and are wholly engaged in the work of the Chris-
tian ministry. Besides there are 4.582 lay workers v»ho ren-
der important service gratuitously, while the number of
church members is 42,448. The children in the mission
schoirls numl)er (18.2!)"). The parent conned ion has in (ireat
Britain 8:33 day-schools, conducted by 2.l2!t certificated, as-
sistant, and pupil teachers, and containing 177,015 pupils;
also C.!I!I2 Sunday-schools, containing i):J8,;J27 pupils, taught
by 12!),280 persons. The Wesleyans have conferences, allili-
aled and suixirdinate to that of England, in Ireland, France,
South Africa, and West Indies. The conferences in Austra-
lia anil New Zealand are now independent of the parent
body, and form the Australasian Wesleyan JMethodist
Church. A union of all the various Methodist bodies in
Australia under the name of the L'nited Church of Austra-
lia is Itkely to be effected, negotiations to that end l)eing al-
ready (18!)4) at an ailvanced stage. The Wesleyans publish
a quarterly review. 8 monthlies. 6 weeklies, and s«-veral mis-
sionary and Sunday-.school periiwlicals. .Some of these are
in their foreign fields; most of them are official, others are
inilependent. They have 4 collegiate institutions, 4 theo-
logical schiMils, 2 im|Kirtant normal seminaries, and numer-
ous academies or boarding-schools.
The Calrini.itic Metliodists arose from a difference be-
tween Whitefield and Wesley respecting the Calvinistie doc-
trines. Wesley, as we have seen, was thoroughlv .Arminiau,
Whitefield as thoroughly Calvinistie. After Wesley's cele-
braleil sernlon on "free grace" they pursued separate
though parallel lines of jiublic labor. Personally they be-
came cordial friends again, but their followers were never
reunited. The Calvinistie Methodists were finallv organizetl
in three denominations. The first was called Znrfy Ilunl-
ingdon'x Connection. Her ladyship was their liln'ral |>atron
anil their chief director. .She purchased or built for them
numerous cha|>els. Their fuustors were st'ttled, they used
the liturgy of the national Church, but their system of gov-
ernment was es.st>niially congregational. They early estab-
lished a theological school, which still exists under the title
of Cheshiint College. Thev have not shared the pros|ierity
of the other MethiMli.st boilie.s. The British ndigious cen-
sus for IKiil ri'ported their nunilKT of chnpels as lOJi. with
necommodations for about :i!i,(KK» hearers. They have now
(18!i;!i less than (>0 preachers, and less limn 40 chaiiels.
The second bmly of Calvinistie Methmlists. the \\'liifr field
Metliodisln. no longer exist as a "connection" or denomi-
nal ion, but some of their early churches survive among the
independent congregat ions of England.
The third and greatest result of Calvinistie Methodism
bears the title of the Wrhli Cnlviiiistir Methndi*tr. Welsh
Methodism was independent of English Methmlism. Iwith in
origin and organization. Its first " s<K'ieties " were formed
:\-2
MEXnODISM
ill 1735. The chief founders were Howell Harris, Grillitli
.tones, Daniel Rowlands, and Tlionias Charles, the last
named surviving long enough to shape llie later history of
the ilenoiuinatiun. Its first " assoeiatioii " was heUl in 1743,
two and a half years prior to the English Methodist Confer-
ence, under Wesley, in London. In 1811 it wiis more thor-
oughly organized, and in 1864 the organization was com-
pleted by the constitution of the General Assembly. The
Church is Presbyterian in doctrine and polity, and is a
member of the Presbyterian Alliance. The latest statistics
(1892) are : In Wales, synods, 2 : presbyteries, 24 : ministers,
687: local preachei's. ;!40 ; deacons, 4,870; Sunday-schools,
1,544, with 24,;i52 olliccrs and teachers, and 191,341 jiupils;
communicants, 2O3,.")02. In the U. S.. synods, 6 : presby-
teries, 19; ministers, 95 ; local i)reachers, 20;comniuni-
cants, 11,915; Sunday-school officers and pupils, 12,;i7<i.
The Weslei/aii Melkodist Neic Connection, is the title of
an organization originally composed of 7 preachers and
about 5,000 si^ccders from the parent connection, who for
certain alleged grievances withdrew in 1797, under tlie Icad-
ei-ship of Alexander Kilhara, an able preacher, who had been
expelled the preceding year for his zealous advocacy of lib-
eral changes in the system of government which Wesley
had established. The New Connection adopted equal lay
and ministerial representation in its conference. It ex-
tended into Ireland, and for a considerable time was the
refuge of members of the elder body who were dissatisfied
with their restricted liljerties. The ministry of this denomi-
nation (1893) comprises 201 traveling and 1,20G local imach-
ers, and its membership 36,055. They have 461 cinn-clies,
and 452 Sunday-schools with 11,238 officers and teachers
and 87.208 pupils.
'}L)ie Primitive Melhodist.i form one of the most impor-
tant branches of the great Methoilist family. Lorenzo Dow
introduced the camp-meeting from the U. S. into England
about 1807. William Clowes, a Wesleyan local preacher, ap-
proved and labored in these " open-air " assemblies. Hugh
Bourne, a layman, but an influential chapel trustee, saw in
them an important means of reaching multitudes of the
common people who could not otherwise be brought un<ler
religious inlluence. lie defended them in a pamphlet;
counter publications were issued by the preachers of Burs-
leju and .Macclesfield circuits. Xo small agitation ensued,
and in 1807 the conference denounced camp-meetings, and
" disclaimed connection with them." In 1808 Bourne was
exfielled from the connection ; two years later Clowes was
also expelled. They continued, however, their " out-door
meetings," organized tlieir converts in classes, and in 1810
established the Primitive Jlethodist connection. It re-
tained the doctrines and internal discipline of Wesleyan
Methodism, and attempted to restore the primitive sim-
plicity of the latter in dress, manners, and living. It re-
vived Wesley's custom of ''out-door preai-hing." an<l licensed
women to preach. Its church government is notably liberal
toward the laitv, two-thirds of its annual conference lieing
laymen. The t'rimitive Methodists have done much good
among the neglected classes of I'higland : they have also es-
tablished several foreign missions. In the l). .S. thev have
(1891) 5,630 members. Their aggregate membership is" (1892)
201.803, their traveling ministers 1,217 and local preachers
16,814. They have 4,624 churches, and 4,104 Sunday-schools
with 62,804 oflieers and teachers and 446.915 pupils.
The Primitive Weslci/ans of Ireland must not be con-
founded with those of England, above noticed. The Irish
body was distinguished by its partiality to the Established
Church in Ireland, and originated in"that partiality. As
early as 1795 the British conference allowed its pri'.achers
to administer the .sacraments to their people, under speci-
fied restrictions. The Irish conference (a branch of the
former) voted in the next year tliat it was not expedient
for the preachers within its territory to avail themselves of
this concession. Al)out twenty years later (1816), in com-
pliance with an extensive demand of the people, the conces-
sion of the parent conference was adopted. In a vole of 88
mendicrs there was a minority of 26 which sturdily insisted
that their people should still resort to the Established Church
for the sacraments. Tliis, it was argued, was Wesley's de-
sign down to his death regarding all his societies, except
those of America, where the Anglican establishment had
ceased to exist. Adam Averell. one of the most command-
ing members of the Irish conference, withdrew from the
eoimection, leading with him the minority and about 10.-
000 members. Wesleyan Methodism hist by this schism at
least one-third of its numerical strength in Ireland. The
Irish Primitives had no great success, and in 1878 they re-
turned to the parent body.
Besides the above, there are minor sects of Methodists in
England, among which may be nuntioned : (o) The Jnde-
pi-ndeni Jhthodixts. who, beginning with one church at
Warrington in 1797, were soon associated with churches in
JIanchesler and Macclesfield, and formed a union in 1805 at
Manchester. The annual meeting of 1808 at Macclesfield
comprised churches from eight places. Each church con-
trols its own affairs by the entire membership or by repre-
sentatives. They have no salaried ministers. Local socie-
ties have various nanu'S. such as lnde|iendent Methodist,
Free (iospel Chunh. Christian Brethren. Benevolent Meth-
odist. Christian Lay Church. Their joint name was changed
in 1843 to The United Free Gospel Churches, and they in-
clude (1891) 101 societies, numbering 6,614 members," 335
ministers, and 20,228 Sunday-school pupils, (b) The Protes-
tant Methodists, chiefly .seceders from the Wesleyan societies
of Leeds, who became disaffected in 1828 because the socie-
ties placed an organ in onoof theirehapels. More than 1,000
communicants, inchuling56class-leadersand 28local jireuch-
ers, combined in the schism, (c) The Weslei/an Metliodint As-
sociation.originated in 1835 by a secession chiefly under the
direction of Rev. Dr. Samuel Warren, who with his fol-
lowers opposed the introduction of theological schools
among the Wesleyans. Though Wesley himself had pro-
posed such means of ministerial education, it was assumed
by the seceders that they were incompatible with the ge-
nius of Methodism, and would bo adverse to its |)rosperity.
The Protestant Methodists of Leeds united with these Asso-
ciation Methodists in 1836. (d) The lieformed Methodists
originated in an extraordinary proceeding of the parent
Wesleyan conference in 1849, when six of its members,
some of them eminent men. were arraigned before that
body and half of them reproved, the other half expelled,
under an accusation of disguised hostility to the confer-
ence and of secret co-o|ieration with the Wesleyan Meth-
odist Association. It was alleged by the accused and their
nniny friends that the action of the conference was pre-
cipitate, and violated the legal formalities in such cases
required. It excited profound agitation throughout the
eoimection, and no less than 100,000 Wesleyans seceded.
These last-mentioned three boilies were consolidated in 1857
under the title of the United Methodist Free Churches.
They have adopted a " liberal " system of church govern-
ment, admitting laymen to their annual conference or as-
sembly, and giving independent jurisdiction to the circuits
over their interior or local affairs. They report (1892) 421
traveling and 3,291 local preachers, 86.805 members, and
200.039 Sunday-school pupils, (e) The Bilile Christians,
sometimes called Bryanites from William U'Bryan. a Meth-
odist of Cornwall, who preached on independent lines in
unevangelized parishes for about six years, and then organ-
ized the first society in 1815 in Devonshire. The first con-
ference was; held at Baddash Launceston. in Cornwall, Aug.
17-26, 1819, and was attended by twelve jireachers. Here
the question whether women should jircach was discussed
and ileeided alTinnatively. They rejHirt (1892) 280 travel-
ing and 1,910 local preachers. 32,879 members, and 53,683
Sunday-school pupils. (/) The Wesleyan Reform Union,
formed in 1859, a remnant of the schism of 1849 (who were
unwilling to be merged in the United Methodist Free
Church), numbering, in 1892. a mendiership of 8,274; Sun-
day-school pupils, 2 1,288; with 17 salaried -iind 540 unsalaried
preachers. It will be observed that .secession has jdayed a
conspicuous part in the history of English Methodism. The
frequency of this evil is attributable largely to the ardent
po|)nlar elements which it has been the task of the denomi-
nation to gather and improve, but still more perhaps to the
restricted and rigid ecclesiastical system which Wesley's
Deed of Declaration has entailed upon the parent body.
Every schism in the history of Jlelhodism ha« been occa-
sioned by ecclesiastical (U- economical provocations: no theo-
logical defection or controversy has ever seriously disturbed
the denomination in any part of tlie world.
Methodism has had its chief mission in the New World,
where by its peculiar practical system, especially by its
mini.sterial '•itinerancy," it has spread the provisions of re-
ligicm coe.xtensively with the ever-extending emigration,
until it has become the largest Protestant denomination of
the U. S.
The Methodist Fpiscopal Chtirch is the title of the ear-
liest Methodist organization in the I'. S. Philii> Embury,
with othfcr Wesleyan emigrants from Ireland, began to hold
MKTiionrsM
:i:i
meetings fur preft<'hing and prayer in New York city as
early lis 17(i<i. In llu> next ye^r Capt. Tlininas Wt-ldi, a British
officer, wliii like Kinhury Inul been a Wcslcyan liical prcaclicr
in KnKlaiiil, visitcil tlie little flock, ami preaclicl to tlieni in
his re^finicntals. excil ini; much (lopnlar interest. The captain
also preached on Long Island, in New Jersey, Philailelphia,
Delaware, and Maryland, and is honored as one of the I'liief
fonnders of American .MetlnHlism. Kmlmry's confireRat ion
increased rapidly in Xew York. In 17(J7 they worshiped in
a rifritinfj-loft, whl<-h was thronged, and in 176,S they huilt
the famous old ".lohn Street chapel,"' supposed to he the
first Methodist church erected in the Western hemisphere,
thnu^'h aliout the same time Robert Strawbridtce (another
Irish Wi'slcyan) bei;an to preach, formed six.-ieties. and built
asnniU chapel on Sam's Creek, Frederick co., Md. Same
Methodist authorities still consider it doubtful which had
priority, Kmbury or Strawbridge : the t'hurch jrcncrally,
however, rccofTiiizes the date of Embury's labors (17fit)) in
New York as the epoch of .-Vmerican Melhodism. In 1709
Wesley sent over two of his itinerants, I'ilmoor and Hoard-
man, who labored successfully in and about New York and
I'hiladelpliia. They were followed in 1771 by Wrij;ht and
Asbury. The latter became the represenlalive character
and most effective bishop of the denomination, and did
more for its outspread and permanence than any other man
in its history. In 1773 Wesley sent over two more itinerants,
Kankiii and Shadford; and this year is also memorable for
the session of the first Methodist conference in North
America. It was held in Philailelphia, and reported l,l(j()
members of siK-iety ancl 10 preachers — the same number
of the latter as constituted Wesley's first conference in
Knirland twenty-nine years before. Notwithstanding the
disturbed condition of the country during the ensuing
Kevolutionary war, the cause prospered, and in 1784 en-
rolleil l.'i,000 communicants. There were now 84 preachers,
traveling 4(5 "circuits," for by this time a consiclerable
native ministry had been raised up. Hitherto, the -Melhod-
ists had l>een dependent on the colonial Knglish Church for
the sacraments, none of their own preachers having yet been
ordained; but in this year Weslev ordained two ot his Eng-
lish itinerants, Whatcoat and Vasey, to the function of
firesbytcrs, and consecrated Rev. Dr. Thonuts Coke as a
lishop, anil sent them to America with authority to organize
the scattered societies as a distinct Church, under the title
of "The Methoilist Episcopal Church in the V. S. of Amer-
ica." He sent with them a printed liturgy and formulas for
ordinations, the sacraments, marriage, burial of the dead,
etc., abridged from the Book of Common Prai/er, ami sub-
stantially the same as those still in force in the Methodist
Jiouk of Discipline. Coke and his two presbyters assembled
a general conference about Christmas at Baltimore, where
the plan appointed by Wesley was adopted, and Asbury (at
Wesley's suggestion) was ordained successively ileacon, pres-
byter, ami bishop. Wesley was led to these extraordinary
measures by the abolition of the authority of the Knglisli
Church establishment in the colonics, by the urgent de-
mand of his .American people for the sacraments, and by
his repeated failure to obtain relief for them in the ordina-
tion of some of his preachers by the Bishop of Lomlon,
A consolidated and distinct Church had at last come into
existence in North .America. It retained the ecclesiastical
svstern of English Methodism, as well as its theology, except
tliat its chief administrati<ui was placeil in the hands of
bishops. As it rapidly extended over the continent its an-
nual conferences were multiplied, until in 17!)"i n'gular
"general conferences" were created, meeting quiulrennially,
and compri^ingall the traveling preachers who could atten<l.
It was found necessary at last, by the growth of the min-
istry, to make the general ci>nference a dfleiintril Ixwly. It
a.ssembled as such, for the first time, in 181'2. at the Old
John Street church. New York. The ratio of delegates to
the number of traveling preachers has been necessarily
changed from time to time. Since lS72tlie p<ipular demand
for lay representation having prevailed, the delegates have
consisted of one minister for forty-five of the prea<hers, and
two laymen for every annual conference, except in confer-
ences having but one ministerial delegate, where but one
lay deleg;ite is alloweil.
The quadrenivial general conference is the supreme assem-
bly of the Church — legislative, jmlicial, executive. It elects
the bishops, who are, in fact, but its executive agents; it
makes all laws except minor local regulations, which aiv left
to the annual conferences; it tries jmlicial a(ipeals from
the annual conferences; it is itself under constitutional re-
straints, called " Restrictive Rules," which can be susfwnded
or changed only by the concurrence of specified majorities
in the general conference and in all the annual conferences.
.\merican Methodism has now a (piartirly conference for
each circuit ; a district conference, wherever desired, for all
the circuits which arc under the care of each presiding elder;
annual conferences for larger sections of the country, em-
bracing often considerable portions of one or more .States;
and a general conference, comprehending all the annual
conferences. The work of the denomination is thus under
peritxlical supi'rvision in a series of sessions exteniling from
a (|uarter of a year to four years. The jireachers are a|>-
pointed at the annual conferences for one vear, but they can
be assigned for five succes.sive years to liie same ap|Hiiiit-
ment. The bishops make these aii|H>intments, aiiled by the
presiding elders; the latter can lie continued six years on
the same district. The bishops are required by an or-pjnic
law of the Church to travel at large. The whole nation is
their common diocese. The denomination has a powerful
publishing insiilution called the "Book Concern," with
above $;j.00tj.000 capital. It has two large establishments-
one in New York, the other in Cincinnati — with branches
and depositories in other cities from Boston to .San Fran-
cisco. It issues a bi-monthly review, two monthly magazines
(one in German), a monthly Sunday-school journal, several
weekly Sunday-school and tract papers in different lan-
guages, and thirteen weekly religious newspapei-s. There
are also over twenty unollicial or independent religious
journals issueil in various parts of the Church. Its theology
and ecclesiastical economy have been sufficiently indicated
in the preliminary remarks of this article. Though the de-
nomination maintains episcopacy and the two ministerial
orders of deacons and presbyters, it does not claim for them
divine right or scriptural oliligation. It regards them only
as expedient for its own peculiar working system. Episco-
pacy it esteems merely lus an ollice, not as an "order." The
English Methodists have neither bishoiis nor deacons, but
the .\merican .Methodists recognize the Wesleyans as a gen-
uine Church. Wesley did not believe that any particular
system of church polity is enjoined in the Holy Scri[itures,
and the claim^)f any denomination to validity as a Christian
Church does not rest, in the estimation of Methodists, on its
form of organizalioii. but on theological and moral grounds.
One of the iiKPSt momentous events in the history of the
Methodist Episcopal Church was its division, by the separa-
tion from it of all the conferences (save one) in the slave-
holding States, ami their organization as the Methouist
Episcopal Church South (q. r.). It would be impossible
hero to enter into the arguments, pro and eon. of this great
ecclesiastical controversy, nor is it desirable. Later national
events have extinguished the chief cause of the strife, and
fraternal and conciliatory measures have been taken by both
parties, and organic reunion is a subject ot serious if not
hopeful discussion. Both churches have since the civil war
had signal success.
There are now (1893) in the Methodist Episcopal Church
140 annual conferences and missions. 18 bishops. 16.4.)4
traveling preachers. 14.'J74 local preachers. ■i,.')i4.0.5;} lay
members. "27.989 Sunilay-sc-hools with '2,4 1 1 ,.'J'J.') pupils and
yiCO.'iO officers and teachers. 24.."):{5 churches, 9,300 parson-
ages, and projiertv in churches and i>arsonages amounting
to !j!r20,9.').'i.00S. It has .'>4 universities and colleges, 9 col-
leges and seminaries for women. 18 t heological .schools, 54
cla.«sical .st-minaries. and 73 foreign mission scho<i|s. It has
foreign missions in Mexico. South .\niericji, Sweden, Nor-
way, Denmark, Gennany, Switzerland. Italy, Bulgaria. Af-
rica. Imlia. Jaimn. China. Korea, and Malaysia. In .\friea
it has 2 conferences (Liluria and Congo); in China i: in
Germany 2. with a publishing-house ami a theological semi-
nary : iii .Sweden 2 ; and I conference each in Mexico, Fin-
land, Norwav, Switzerlaml, Italv, and Ja|uiii. It has ,5 con-
ferences in India, where, particiilarlv in the north, very
successful work is now in o[>eration. Its home missions are
numerous anil very fruitful, especially among the (ierman
ami .Scandinavian population. Its (ieniKin work includes
10 conferences, with 711 traveling and .">tKI lo.al pnachers,
58,311 communicants, K49 chunhi>s or clia|«U. !KI9 Sunday-
schools with KI.HIO officers and teachers ami .">.'>.:!S2 pupils,
3 college.*, 2 orphan asylums, a weekly journal, a Siinday-
scliool periodical, and a monthly magazine. From this
prosperous home German work its missions in Germany ami
Switzerland sprang. Tin' Scandinavian domestic missiops
have 137 traveling anil 190 li«al preachers. 224 churches,
14,340 memlKTS, 210 .Sunday-schools with 1,721 officers and
Tli
METIIODIS.M
F^
teachers and 10.618 pupils, a weekly journal, and a weekly
Sundav-school paper. The total sum contributed for home
and foreign missions in 18U2, including the receipts of the
woman's societies, was §l,694,y4().57. The grand total of
money raised in 18SI2 for all purposes was |21.883,820.~>1.
The order of deaconesses was officially recognized and or-
ganically connected with the Church iii 1888. The organi-
zation of the young people of the Church for Christian work
was formally introduced into the J3isc(/j/ine, in 1893, l)y the
adoption of the Epwortli League. See Epwortu Leaoi'E.
The Melhodiat J'roleatant Church arose from a contro-
versy in the Methodist Episcopal Church against tlie alleged
exclusively clerical government of the denomination. The
secedere opposed episcopacy and demanded lay representa-
tion. They organized at aiconvention held in Baltimore,
Md., in 18;i0. which in a session of about twenty days formed
a constitution, retaining the doctrines and essential disci-
pline of the elder Church, but excluding ef)iscopacy and
estaljlishing equal lay and clerical representation in the
government of the Church. At this convention there were
83 delegates representing 80 ministers and about 5,000 mem-
bers ; and at t heir first general conference in 1834 they re-
ported nearly 500 preachers and about 37,000 members. Its
annual conferences have presidents elected by ballot. It
has a delegated general conference, composed of laymen and
preachers sent from its annual conferences. They were
themselves divided by the controversy on slavery into t he
Methodist Protestant' Churcli of tlie' Northwestern States
and the Methodist Protestants of the Southern States; in
1858 the Northern branch assumed the title of the Methodist
Church, proposing to combine under this name the various
Methodist sects which have rejected episcopacy. The two
branches were reunited in 1877 under the old title Methodist
Protestant Church. They have (1892) 1,511 traveling and
1.073 local preachers, 165,162 members. 2,181 churches, 1,881
Sunday-schools with 15.838 officere and teachers and 105,423
upils.' Tlicy have publishing-houses at Baltimore and
'ittsburg. and colleges at Yadkin. X. C, Bowdon, Ga.,
Adrian. Mich., and Westminster, Md., the last named hav-
ing akso a theological department.
'J'he Wcshyan Methodist Church originated chiefly in the
anti-slavery controversy ; the question of lay representation,
however, became one of the motives of its organization.
.Some of the most zealous anti-slavery preachers in the
Metho<list Episcopal (Church called a convention at Utica,
N. Y., in 1843, where the new Church was formed on a ba.sis
identical in theology and internal discipline with that of
the elder body, but excluding episcopacy and presiding
elders, and providing lay representation. They have an-
nually elected presidents of conferences and stationed chair-
men "of districts. Their preachers are appointed by a com-
mittee, the conference having authoritative revision of the
appointments. Local preachers as well as laymen have rep-
resentation in the annual and general conferences. At the
time of the organization of this body it reported 6,000 mem-
bers, with 300 jireachers, traveling and local. It reports
(1893) about 16.000 members, 241 traveling and 241 local
preachers, 491 churclies, and 417 Sunday-schools with 2,380
oflicers and teachers and 16,676 pupils. Its publishing-house
is at Syracuse, N. Y.
Tlie African Methodist Episcopal Church, whose mem-
bers are sometimes called Alle.nites, was organized at Phila-
delphia in Apr., 181G, under tlie guidance of Richard Allen,
afterward Bishop Allen. They considered themselves dis-
])araged and oppresse<l in the Methodist Episcopal Church
and, finding no redress, formed themselves into an inde-
pendent body, consecrated Allen as tlieir first bisliop, and
adopted a system of government substantially the same as
that of the parent Church. They have spread consideralily
in the Middle and Southern States, and have'extended into
Canada. They report (1891) 4,1,58 ministers. 9.913 local
preachers, 4.074 churches, 475,565 members, 4,275 Sunday-
schools with 41,958 ollicers and teachers and 325,000 pupils,
and 38 schools and colleges with 134 teachers and 4,000
students. They have a publishing-house at Philadelphia.
The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church originated
in a secession of Negroes from the Methodist Ei)isco])al
churches of New York city in 1820. They retained all the
distinctive features of the oarcnt Church, but elected their
bisliojis quadrennially until 1880, when the tenure of the
ofTice was made for life or during good behavior. These
oflicers were not consecrated by formal ordination previously
to 1888, at which time a provision requiring the laying oh
of hands was inserted in the ritual. They report (1891)
425.000 inembers, 3,650 traveling aiul 7,926 local preachers,
3,.)00 churches, 3,200 .Sunday-schools with 30,560 officers
and teachers and 300,000 pupils. They have a college and
3 high schools, and publish a (piarterly and several weekly
periodicals. Their publishing-house is in New York. .Some
measures for the organic union of the two last-named (Afri-
can) bodies have been taken, and considerable progress has
(1894) been made toward such a consiiinniatiim.
The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in America
consists mostly of former African members of the Methodist
Episcopal Church South. After the civil war the colored
inembers of the Methodist Episcopal Church South desired
a separate organization ; this desire was acceded to, and the
new Church was accordinslv formed on Dec. 16, 1870, at
Jackson, Tenn. It has (1891)" 130.824 members, 1,800 travel-
ing and 4,024 local preachers, 3,196 churches, 1,961 Sunday-
schools with 7.731 ollicers and teachers and 78,455 pu|)ils.
No white person is admitted to its nieiiibership. It main-
tains 4 schools with about 700 students. In its theology
and polity it is a copy of the Methodist Episcopal Church
South, and the latter extends to it parental care, without
trenching on its inde])endence. It includes but a fragment
of the former numerous African membership of the Meth-
odist Episcojial Church South; some of these remain in the
latter, some have joined the jlethodist Episcopal Church,
and thousands have been absorbed in the two African Epis-
coi)al Churches above mentioned.
The United Brethren in Christ, though bearing the same
name as the Unitas Eratrum, or Moravians, have no lela-
tions with the latter, but are Methodi.sts, and are often called
German Methodists. In theologv and polity tliey are nearly
identical with the Methodist S<]piscopal Church, having
bisliops, a general conference, and annual conferences. They
date from 1705, when their lirst society was organized by
Pliilip William Otterbein. Their first annual conference
was held in Baltimore in 1789. lint their present organization
was formed and tlieir name adopted at the conference held
in 1800. They report (1893) 1 ,544 ministers, 472 local jjreadi-
ers, 2,976 churches, 204,982 members, 3,493 Sunday-scliools
with 33,895 officers and teachers and 228,024 pupils. They
have a publishing-house at Dayton, O. The Vniled Brethren
in Christ (Old Constitution), numbering about 800 churches
and about 22.000 members, are those who since 1889 refuse
to acknowledge the revised and anieiuled confession and
constitution of that date, and maintain that the old consti-
tution is the only organic law of the Church.
The Evangelical Association is also an organization of
German Methodists, sometimes called Albrit/hts, from the
name of their principal founder, .lacob Albright.- They
were organized in 18(10. and their first general conference
was held in 1816. They liave (1891) 1.227 ministers. 619
local iireacliers. 2.062 churches, 150,234 members, 3,535 Sun-
day-schools witli 25,000 officers and teachers and 177,839
pupils. Their publishing-house is at Cleveland, 0.
The Free Methodist Church was formed at Pekin, Niagara
CO.. N. Y., in 1860. chiefly by friends of two preachers of the
Methodist I'j|)iscopal Churcli wlio were expeUed from the
Genesee conference. They disclaim episcopacy, but have an
elective superintendent, whose term of service is four years,
and insist on congregational singing, excluding instru-
mental music ; on free seats in the congregation ; on ex-
tempore preaching; on plainness of dress and living; and
es|)ecially on the doctrine of Christian perfection. They
have (1891) about- 700 ministers. 613 local preachers, 95"3
churches, 22,861 inembers, 952 .Sunday-schools with 13,376
officers and teachers and 76,160 pupils. TheFree Methodist,
a weekly journal, is published at Chicago,
The Methodist Church, Canada, is the final resultant of
the union of several distinct organized bodies of Jlethodists
effected at the united general conference in Belleville, in
Sept., 1883. .S])oradic Methodism existed in Canada as
early as 1780, but its first organic planting was in 1791
by the Methodist Episcnpal Churcli, when William Losee
was appointed to Kingston circuit under .lesse Lee, ju'esiding
elder of tiie New England district of the New \ork con-
ference. A steady increase for twenty years resulted in
1811 in two districts. Upper and Lower Canada, with 3,117
members. The war of 1813-15 reduced the membership
nearly one-half. The Canadian annual conference was
formed in 1824. and in 1828, the general conferi'iice approv-
ing, the Methodist Episcojud Churcli in Canada was or-
ganized. Meanwhile during the war (1812-15) and the years
following the missionaries and societies of the British Wes-
ley an CViurcA appeared, soon followed as early as 1824 by those
MKTIIODISM
METHODIST Kl'I.SCOPAL f'lIL'KCII SOUTH 715
of the yew Conneclion Melhodiiils, the BihU ChriMians,
and tho Primitire Mtlhodists, all from Eiiglaml. In Wi'i
a union of tlio Methodist Episcopal Church in t'anada anil
tho Hrilisii Wcsleyans was prematurely fornied on the Eng-
lish basi.s, hut broken ajjain in 18;i4-35, wlien the former re-
api)eareil, thoupli numbering at this time only one-twelfth
as many as Iho Wesleyan body. In 1840 the Canadian and
British Wesleyans were sejiarateil. but reunited in 1847 as
the Wesleiian JliUiodist Church in Caiiailn. In 1874 the
Wcsleyan Methodist Church in Canada, the New Connection
Methodists, and the W'esleyan conferences in the Maritime
Provinces luiiled as the Methodist Church of Canada.
Finally, in 188;^, a basis of union having been agreed upon,
the Methodist Church of Canada, with 1,216 ministers and
128,644 mcml)ers, the Methodist Episco|)al Church in Canada,
with ~'>'.> ministers and 25,671 members, the Primitive
Methoilist Church, with 89 ministersand 8,0!)0 members, and
tho Hible Christian Church, with 7U ministers and 7,;!!I8
members, united under the title of The Methodist Church,
Canada. Tliey have (18'J2) 1.701 ministers, 246.283 mem-
bers, H.142 Sunday-schools with 29,986 officers and teachers,
and 2;i9,60O pupils, and 665 "Epworth Leagues with 27,730
members.
Among the Xegro settlers of Canada about the year 1834
certain ministers of the African Methodi.st Episcopal Church
organized societies, and aliout 1838 these societies were or-
ganized into the Canadian annual conference of that
Church. The British Methodist Episcopal Church was or-
ganized Sept. 26, 1856, at Chatham, Ontario, in accordance
with a privilege granted in answer to a memorial presented
by the Canadian annual conference of the African Method-
ist Episcopal Church to the general conference of that body
tho same year. It reported in 1893 19 traveling and 21
local preachers, and 2.500 members.
The following table will supplement the statistics given
in the preceding account:
ORGANIZATIONS.
Lool
prcachln.
TnxllDii
mlnifUn.
Mem ben.
I. British Weslevans :
Branches.
Great Britniii and Ireland
19.005
S.OtiS
2,977
637
634 760
80,355
Totals
24,073
3.6)4
715.115
11. Otrer British Methodists :
Welsh Culviiiistic
.340
16.772
3.291
1,2U6
1,910
540
335
687
1,1.t3
421
201
280
17
203..'502
196,183
86 805
Uuiteil Free
New Coiiin'ClioQ
Biltle christians
36.055
.12.879
8 274
United Free Gospel
6,614
24,394
2.759
570,312
III. U. S. AND British .America :
,\. Kuiscovttl.
.Meth.Hltst F.pisc.pnl
14,274
6,181
9.913
7.928
4Ti
619
i.tm
75
19
16.4.54
5.:i<W
4.1.5H
3.650
1,544
1.287
l,t<00
112
21
2..524.0S3
i.ifls.siiu
475..505
42.1.000
220.9.S2
1.5(I.2.M
1.10,824
3..'*)tl
2 ."lOO
Mel hodist Kpisei )i)al South
African Metiiodist Episcopal
African Methodist Kpiscopal ZiOQ
United Ilrethren in Christ
Evnnjji'lical .\ssricirtlinn
Colored .Melhodist F.piscipnl
Union .Arneriean .^It'tl^M,lLS^ Episcopal...
Hrilisti Methodist F.piscoijttl.
Zion Union ,\postolic
2,346
951
48.808
84,3»t
5,235,821
B. Xon- Episcopal.
Methodist Church. Canada
2.142
1,073
613
241
20
lis
150
142
ao
i,n)i
1.511
700
241
05
6«
50
64
8
246 2S3
16.5.162
22 861
Free Met h... list
Weslcvan Mel hodist
Welsh Calvinistie
Afi'ienn Uiii m Methodist Protestant
Con^rejrational Mi'thodist
Itf.lXW
11.915
5,990
5 .V.!.">
Priinitiv.- .MethiHlist
6.620
2.600
Totals
4,.S26
4.426
481,856
.SlMMARY.
I. British Wesl.-vans
11. other BritisirM.ihodists
24,078
24,394
43,803
4.526
3.CI4
3.7.59
3l,a'i4
4.426
71.5.115
570.312
5,2.'«,«21
481,8&6
HI. A. Kpiscopal in U. S. and Br. America
B. Nun- Kpiscopal
Totals
Add ministers
90.796
45,133
7,003.104
45.133
Grand total
'. 1 7,018.237
LiTERATtTHE. — Southev, John Wesley (New York, 1820);
Di.xon, Methodism in America (London, 1849); Bond, The
h'conomi/ of Methodism Illustrated and Defended (New
York, 1852): .Vsbury, Journals (3 vols.. New 'York, 18.52);
Taylor, Wesley and Methodism (New York, 1852); Elliott,
History of the Ureal Secession (Cincinnati, 185-5); Stevens,
History of the Ifeliyious Movement of the Eighteenth
Century called Methodism (3 vols.. New Y(jrk and London,
18.58-61). anil History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in
the United States of America (4 vols.. New ^ ork, 1864-67);
Smith. History of Wesleyan Methodism (3 vols., 4th ed.
London, 1865) ; Goss, Statistical J/istory of the First Cen-
tury of American Methodi.sm (New York,' I8661 ; Osborn,
Outlines of Wesleyan Jiililioyraphy (London, 1869); Wedge-
wood, .Julia, John Wesley and the Evangelical Reaction of
the Eighteenth Century (London, 1870); Bedford, //M/ory
of the Organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church
South (Nashville, 1871); Tycrman, Ai/V- and Times of John
We.fley (;i vols.. New York. 1872) ; The Oxford Methodists
(New York, 1H7:J), and Life of George W'hilefield (2 vols..
New York. 1878); Crane. Methodism and its J/ethods (New
York. 1876) ; Porter, ,4 Comprehensive History of Methodism
(Cincinnati. 1876) ; Simpson, .4 Hundred year's of Method-
ism (New York. 1876). and Cyrloimdia of Methodism (rev.
ed. Philadelphia. 1880); Wood, Methodism and the Centen-
nial of American Independence (New York, 1876); Daniels,
Illustrated J/istory of Methodism (New York, 1879); Bigg,
Connesional Economy of Wesleyan Methodism in its Eccle-
siastical and Spiritual A.spects (London, 1879), and The
Living Wesley (New York, 1874); -Matlack, The Anti-Slai'-
ery Struggle and Triumph in the Methodist Episcopal
Church (New York. 1881); Fir.it (Ecumenical Methodist
Conference (New York. 1882); Atkinson, Centennial His-
tory of Metliodism (New York. 1.''84) : McTvcire, His-
tory elf Methodism (Na.sliville. 1884): Hyde. 'The Story
of Methodism (Springheld, Mass., 1887); Wakeley, Lost
Chapters Recovered from the Early History of Method-
ism (new ed. New Yolk. 1889): Second (Ecumenical Meth-
odist (^(inference (New York. 1892); Ciirtiss. Manual of
Methodist Episcopal Church History (New York and Cin-
cinnati, 1892); Tigert, Constitutional Jlistory of American
Episcopal Methodism (Nashville, 1893); Methodist Year
Hook; General Conference Journals.
Bevised by .John F. Hurst.
Methodist Episcopal C'liiireli South: a division of the
Methodist Episcopal Church in the L". S. formed in 1846.
The subject of slavery was discussed with painful interest in
1844 at the General Conference in New York and metisures
were adopted in the interest of peace for a separation of the
Church into two distinct organ izjit ions. This is concisely
set forth in an account of the organization of the MethcKlist
Ei)iscopal Church South, inserted in the Discipline of 1846
as follows : '■ In the judgment of the delegates of the several
annual conferences in the slavcholding States, the continueti
agitation of the subject of slavery and abolition in a portion
of the Church, the frequent action on that subject in the
General Conference, and especiallv the proceedings of the
(ieneral Conference of the Methodi.st Episcopal Church of
1844 in the case of the Uev. James 0. Andrew, D. D., one of
the bishops, whose wife owned slaves, produced a state of
things in the South which rendered a continuance of the
jurisdiction of that (ieneral Conference over the conferences
aforesaid inctmsistent with the success of the ministry in
their proper calling. This conviction they declared in
solemn form to the General Conference, accompanied with
a protest against the action referred to, assured that public
opinion in the slaveholdiiig States would demand, and that
a due regard to the vital interests of Christ's kingdom would
ju.stify, a separate and independent organization. The de-
velopments of n few months vindicated their anticipations.
The Church in the .South and Siuthwest, in her primary as-
semblies, her qiiarterlv and annual conferences, with a una-
nimity unparalleled in ecclesiastical history, approved the
course of the delegates, and declared her conviction that a
separate jurisdiction was necessary t4i her existence and
prosiK'rily. The General Confertmce of 1844 having ailopti-d
a Plan of Separation and provideil for the erection of the
annual conferences in the slaveholdiiig States into a sepa-
rate ecclesiastical connection, under the jurisdiction of a
Soutliern General Conference, the delegates of the aforemen-
tioned conferences in a pulilislied address riHommended that
a convention of delegates from the saiil conferences, duly in-
structed as to the wishes of the ministry and laity, should
716 METUODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH SOUTH
METHYL ALCOHOL
assemble at Louisville, Ky., on the first day of Slav, 1845.
The eonveution met, delegates having been formally ap-
pointed in pui'suance of this recommendation, and after a
full and minute representation of all the facts in the prem-
ises, acting under the provisional Plan of Separation, de-
clared by solemn resolution the jurisdiction hitherto exer-
cised by the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal
Church over the conferences in the slaveholding States en-
tirely dissolved, and erected tlie said annual conferences
into a separate ecclesiastial connection, under the style and
title of The Metliodiat A'/)i.sri>pnl Church South, the first
General Conference of which was lield in the town o[ Peters-
burg, Va., on the first day of Jlay, 1846." By this measure
were severed from the parent Church 1.474 traveling
preachers, 3,5.50 local preachers, 3:J0,710 white members, 124,-
811 Negro members, and 2,i)78 Indian mission converts,
making an aggregate of 462,428. The Plan of Separation
was conceived in the most fraternal spirit, and its acce|)t-
ance by the South was urged by such distinguished North-
ern men as Drs. Olin, Elliott, and othei's, who believed that
the Church in the South would be ruined if Bishop Andrew
were deposed from the episcopate (as virtually proposed in
the pending resolution), and in the North if he exercised his
episcopal functions in the Northern conferences.
The Southern conferences organized according to the
provisions of the Plan of Separation, and at the first General
Conference (in 1846) Joshua Soule, senior bishop of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, and Bishop Andrew adhered
to the Southern brancli. and were recognized in their epis-
copal character; and William Capers, J). I)., and Robert
Paine, U. D., were elected and consecrated as their colleagues.
Lovick Pierce, D. D., was appointed to bear the fraternal
regards of the conference to the General Conference of the
Methodist Episcopal Church which met in Pittsburg in 1848,
but that conference declined to receive him in his otEcial
character, and repudiated the Plan of Separation as null
and void. A refusal to divide the Church property with the
Southern Church led to litigation, which was finally termi-
nated by a decision of the Supreme Court of the U. S.,
which recognized the validity of tlie Plan agreeably to the
claim of the Methodist Episcopal Church South. The court
affirmed that according to its provisions ■' the religious as-
sociation known as the Methodist Episcopal Church in the
U. S. of America, as then existing, was divided into two as-
sociations or distinct Methodist Episcopal churches, as in
the bill of complaint is alleged." At first the bishops of
the Methodist Episcopal Church (North) declined to ex-
ercise their functions in the Soutli ; but during the civil war
(1863-6.5) an<l since, in obedience to the instructions of their
General Conference, they have organized annual conferences
in all parts of the South, as have also the " African " and
" African Zion" connections, thus taking from the Jlethodist
Episcopal Church South a large i)art of its colored members,
of whom it numbered nearly 200,000 in 1860. At the General
Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1872, mes-
sengers were appointed to bear fraternal greeting to the Gen-
eral Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Cliurch South,
which met in Louisville in 1874. The manner in which
these messengers fulfilled tlieir mission and were received
by the conference was highly creditable to both parlies. The
conference responded fraternally to their communications,
and authorized the bishops to appoint commissioners to
bear fraternal gi'eetings to the General Conference of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, which met in 1876, and to
adjust existing difficulties between the two connections.
The venerable Dr. Lovick Pierce, who served on a similar
errand in 1848, was appointed (in connection with Dr. .lames
A. Duncan, president of Kandoljih-Macon College, and
Chancellor Garland, of Vanderbilt University) to lead this
fraternal commission, but was too feeble to "attend. Since
this conference perfect fraternity has existed between the
two chur<-lies. The adjustment of all existing difficulties in
the way of fraternity was referred to a joint commission of
ten memljers (five from eacli Church), which met at Cape
May, N. J., iu Aug., 1876. The action of this commission
was indorse<l by the next succeeding General Conferences of
both churches. Though all the Arminian Methodists in the
world agree in the great essentials of Jlethodism, yet there
is considerable ililTerence in matters of polity, which render
organic union diHUiill, but do not interfere with fraternal
intercourse. The two Melhodisms, e. g., difieras to the rel-
ative powers of the bishops and the general conference —
the Methodist Church South holding that the bishofis are a
co-ordinate branch of the government, and can not bo de-
posed by a delegated general conference, except as they may
be excommunicated by regular process of trial; which wa^
the vexed question that divided the Church in 1844. The
Methodist Episcopal Church has made an addition to the
terms of memljcrship not sanctioned by the Metliodist Epis-
copal Church South, and altered the general rule on slavery,
which the Methodist Episcopal Church South has canceled
as not being in the General Rules as drawn up by John
Wesley. There are also minor differences in the organiza-
tion and powers of district and quarterly conferences.
As the great theater of the civil war covered the region
occupied by the Methodist Episcopal Church South, it suf-
fered greatly thereby. Churches, parsonages, seminary build-
ings, etc., were destroyed or alienated from the C'hiirch in
many places; thousands of its members perished : ami after
the surrender the greater part of its Negro membership was
taken into other folds. The Church i-allied its fortunes with
wonderful energy. The statistics for 1892 report 5,868 travel-
ing ministers, 10 bishops, 6.481 local preachers; white lay
members, 1,289,545; colored. 357; Indians. :i,9G4; total min-
isters and members, 1,305.715; churches, 12,856; parsonages,
3,015 ; value of churches. §30.287,112 ; of parsonages, |3,693.-
436; Sunday-schools, 13,426; teachers, 95,204 ; i)U])ils, 754,-
233. $459,658.89 was contributed in 1892 for missions. In
1893 50 universities an<i colleges and 139 other schools,
with a total vahie of $4,485,042. and a total endown)ent of
$1,538,000, were reported as under the care of the Church,
and the number is constantly increasing. The p\iblishing-
house, located in Nashville, is a magnificent institution; it
is supervised by a book committee appointed by the Gen-
eral Conferi^nce. and managed by two book agents. It em-
ploys an editor of books and of" The Christian Advocate, a
weekly sheet, the organ of the General Conference; and also
a SuiKlay-school secretary, who edits a Sunday-school maga-
zine. The Sunday-school Visitor, and other publications in
that department. There are many other weekly papers
issued in various parts of the connection. A theological
and literary Quarterly Heview is published at Nashville.
The board of missions has its bureau in the publishing-
house ; it employs three secretaries, and superintends the
missions in China, Japan, Mexico, Brazil, and among the
Indians. The domestic missions are managed by tlie several
annual conferences within whose bounds they'are located.
The property formerly held by the Church for the colored
people has been legally transferred (as also the membei-s for
the most part) to the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church
in America. The Vanderbilt University (located at Nash-
ville, Tenn.), the largest and best-endowed institution of
learning in the .South, is wielding a powerful influence in
the Church. The Church Extension Society supplies desti-
tute places with comfi>rtable houses of worship. See Dis-
ciplines. General Jfinules. and Journals of the Genei-al
Conferences of the ^lethodist Episcopal Church and Meth-
odist Episcopal Church South ; Redford's Organization
of the Methodist Epi.'n'opal Church South: Myers's Dis-
ruption of the Methodist Kpi.'icopal ('hurch: Howard's
Reports of the Supreme (^ourl ; .M(;Tyeire"s Manual of
the Discipline and History of Methodism : Summeis's
Commentary on the Rilnul of the Methodist Epi.vopat
Church South: Peterson's llnndliook of Southern Method-
ism ; and the article on Methodism.
Kevised by Wilbur F. Tillett.
Melliodists: See Methodism.
Mftlioma'nia [from Gr. /ie'flT). strong drink, drunkenness
+ liavia. nuulness. maiiial: See Dipsomania.
Methyl Aleoliol, Metlivl Hydrate. CarbinoL Pyroxv-
11c S|irrit, or Wood-iinp'htlia (CH,0 = CUsOIl) [methyl,
from Gr. ^«'eu, spirit, wine + Batj, wood, is a word clumsily
ctmstructed to represent wood-spirit] : a liquid found asso-
ciated with acetic acid in the watery product from the distil-
lation of wood ; it may also be formed (1) by treating melliyl
chloride with jwtassic hydrate; (2) by distilling oil of win-
tergreen, wliich is chiefly methyl salicylate, with polassic
hydrate.
" Preparation of Commercial Wood-spirit. — The crude
watery liquid (pyrol igneous acid) obtained by the distilla-
tion of wood is redistilled; the first tenth which passes over
is rectified over slaked lime, whereupon considendile am-
monia is given oil; sulphuric acid is then added, which fixr<
the remaining ammonia anil precipitates some tarry iiialtc-i-:
the li(|uid is redistilled and rectified several times over
quicklime. Oak-wood yields about 3 gal. crude wood-spirit
to the cord. The crude product has a strong aromatic odor.
METICS
METRES
■IT
and turns brown on koophi)^. It contains consiJprable
(|iiitntitii'!j of acetone, nietliyl acetate, ethyl acetate, ami lig-
none or xylite, which is the tliiiiethyl acetate of cthvlcne.
I'he piirijlcation tif crude wimd-«piril is efTecle<l Ly satu-
rating it with fused calcic chloride, with which the methyl
alcohol fiiriiis a coMi|iouiid which is not decomposed by a
tempenilure of IIM)° ('. It is tlu'U heated over a water-bath
as loiiK as aiiythiiiiC volatile is given olf. It is then distilled
with water, and the product is rectified over ijuicklime. A
purer product is obtained when the crude product is distilled
with strong [xitash or soda Ive previous to the treatment
with calcic chloride. To obtain perfectly pure methyl alco-
hol an ether of methyl, as the oxalate, must be first prepared
from the wood-siiirit.
Proj)trti>f«. — Methyl alcohol is a colorless, mobile liquid,
having a purelv spirituous odor, like that of common
nl.i.hol. Sp. gr. = 08142 at 0' C. It boils at 06-66-5,
It burns willi a pale llame. and is used as a substitute for
alcohol in spirit-lamps. It mixes with water, alcohol,
and other, and clissulves. fixed and volatile oils and mo.st
resins. It unites directly with some substances, forming
cnmpoiuids like the alcoholatcs. in which it takes the place
of water of crvslallizatioii ; with calcic chloride it forms
CaClj.iClIjt); with anhydrous baryta, HaO.JCII.O; with po-
tassium and sodium, KCllaDaiid Xat'lIjO. I5y oxidati<iii
it is converted into furmicacid. C'1I,0 + 0 = IlC'llOa + HaO.
Calcic hypochlorite ^lJleaehing-powder) converts it into chlo-
roform.
Impurities. — The impurities of ordinary wood-spirit are
aldehyde, acetone, and very snndl (quantities of other sub-
stances. Acetone is the most objectionable impurity, if the
alcohol is to be useil in the preparation of aniline colors.
Revised by Iba Remse.n.
Metics (in Or. MfVoiKoi) : the foreigners who resided in
Athens. In :ill!) it. c. they numbered 10.000. They had to
choose a protector from among the Athenian citizens to
represent them in all ollicial acts. In return for this pro-
tection the men paid a capitation tax of 12 drachiuic (about
$2.40), while widows paid 6 drachmae. Neglect to pay this
tax was punished with sale into slavery, as was also the
illegal assumptinn of the active rights of citizenship. They
might nut marry frci'-bnrn Athenian women, nor own real
estate, but still they ha<l to pay the extraordinary war
taxes. In solemn processions they acted as bearers of para-
sols and vases. In return for special services to the stale
they might be advanced to the i>osition of laoteltix, which
freed them from the capitation lax and from the necessity
of having patrons, and put them on an equal footing with
the free-liorn citizens as far as regarded the owning of real
estate and the performance of liturgies, but did not confer
upon them the right to vote. J. R. S. .Sterreti'.
Me'tis (in (ir. Mtjtis): a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys.
She was the perse mificat ion of wisdom, and was the first
wife of Zeus, who swallowed her liecause of a prophecy that
her child would dethrone its lather. In this way it came
about that Athene wils born from the head of Zeus himself,
and Metis ceased to be ilangerous to him. i. K. S. S.
Mctoilic Cycle: See t'vcLE.
Meton'yiny [from Lat. melony'mia = Or. iieTannla. liter.,
change or transfer of name; ftfri, over, .icross + oxo/ia,
name]: a figure of speech in which an ordinary term is
displaced by one which naturally suggests it, on account of
some constant relation, as of cause and effect, occasion and
result, or of contact in time, place, or use. Thus an ai't ion-
name is use<i to denote the concrcle result of an action, as
union, in the sense of a united body, or to denote an object
which conditions the action, as dirrlling in the sense of
house. So the name of a poet is used for his works, the
name of an inventor for his inventions, of a disc'overer for
his iliscovery, of a king for his people, of a general for his
army, etc. t >ther relations iletermine the metonymy in, e. g.,
throne for king, houm for audience, cuinine for cookimj or
food, etc. As in the case also of metaphor (see MetaI'Hor),
these occasional transfers of terms often result in |ieriiia-
nent changes of signification; thus beads, prayers, has In-en
Iiermanently transferred to a mechanism used in connec-
tion with prayer. See ilETAPUOR and .Sv.vkchochk.
Benj. Ioe Wheeler.
Mftro, or Meter [from Fr. metre, meter, from (ir. litrpoy.
nieasurcl; the linear base of the metric system of weights,
measures, and moneys. Theoretically, it is the -nnniVBOiit''
part of the quadntnt of a terrestrial meridian; actually, it
is the length of a bar of platinum designed to rcpresint
that dimension (:j-280H!K) feet = :«»;t707y inches), now de-
posited in the Palace of the Archives of France iu Paris.
See Metric .System.
Mclrps, or Meiers [from Or. ixfrpov, measure, niea-surc in
poetry, metiej: the adaptation of speech to measurement
by rhythmical units. Particular results of the prwcss are
called metres, the science of meter is called metric, and the •
art of composing meters is called rersijication. For general
principles and definitions, see Prosouv, Ruvthm, (^i.a.\titv,
and \'erse.
1. I)A(.TVLir Metres.— The fundamental foot is the dac-
tyl (-^ w v^). which may be replaced by the s|x>ndee (-^ — ).
The most common verses are —
1. Ilejrameter, composed of two cola, with ea-sura between.
See Hexameter.
2. Peuliimeler (so called), composed of two cataleetic trim-
etei-s, with invariable cjcsura (dia-resis). Rhythmically this
verse is a hexameter. The true pentameter is rare and' even
doubtful. It is confined to lyric poetry, and is usuallv not
truly dactylic.
3. Tetrameter, used in Greek and Latin chiefly in lyric
systems, and in Latin to form distichs with hexameters, as.
Quo nos cumque feret melior fortuna parcnte,
Ibimus, o socii comitesque.
4. Trimeter. — The trimeter and trimeter cataleetic
(— >^v^ — ^w— ) are important elements of longer verses,
but are scarcely used in CJreek sis indepemlent verses. In
Latin the trimeter cataleetic alternates with the hexameter
in the first Archilochian stanza, as,
DilTugere nives, redeunt jam gramina campis
Arboribusque coma-.
5. Dimeter. — The versus aJonius of Sappho, sometimes
called a dactylic dimeter, is logau-dic :
—^ ^ y^, risit Apollo.
In English, feet containing three syllables with stress on
the first are usuallv read rather as tribrachs, or at least are
tiiseme ; so that tlie so-called spondees arc usually read as
trochees. Still the name "dactylic" is used of this kind of
meter. Though it is not very conunon, every variety of it
occurs from the monometer, or single foot, tti the hexame-
ter with the last fool complete (— w w). Each verse pre-
sents the three varieties: acatalectic, cataleetic in disylla-
bum, cataleetic in syltabam, as in these hexameters:
Now with a sprightlier springiness bounding in triplicate
syllables.
Welcome once more to a home that is better perchance than
the old one.
Would there be .sorrow for me f there was love in the pas-
sionate shriek.
II. Anai'.estic Metres. — The fundamental foot is the
anapa'st (^ w -^-l. which may be replaced by the sjKmdee
( — !-) or the dactyl (— %^ >^); but four shorts must not fall
together. The rhythm is<'specially a<lapted to the march;
hence the dipinly, representing a single step of both feet, is
the measure.
L Tetrameter (Cataleetic). — This verse, cxclnsively used
in certain oarls of ancient comedy, consists of a dimeter
and a cataleetic dimeter, with ca'sura (iliieresis) iK'tween.
The last entire foot is always an anapa'st. The scheme,
therefore, is
''A'yf 8^ ^iaiy ifSpfs &fuivp60ioi, ipvWatp ytfta wpoa6fju>toi.
2. Dimeter and Ifi/permeler. — In Ixilh tragedy and com-
edy a series of dimeters with an occiLsional monometer,
closing with a cataleetic dimeter (called iuir(emiiic), is often
usi'd, forming a si/sli-m or /i;/pi rmeter, which is recited con-
tinuously, as if it were one long vers<'. Hence the end of
each colon except the liust is treated exactly as the end of
the first colon of the tetrameter, having none of the jiriv-
ilcges of a vcrse-eml :
& fi^ya ff«M*^ KIkti, rhe iftiy
Kci ^J) A^yoit OTtipaimHriiL.
These sj-stenis are u.scd sometimes as nian-hes, sometimes
in dialogue In'tween the chorus and odors, and in come<ly
it often forms the clos«' (ficStirit) of a |>assnge of tetrameters.
The acatalectic dimeter has la'sura in the middle.
718
METRES
The catalectic dimeter, or paroemiac verse, was also used
continuously in sonifs to lie sung by soldiers as they marched.
There is also a looser lyric composition, in which the
parnMuiac may be used si'veral times in succession. In both
the latter ea.se's the spondee may be used anywhere.
Sometimes a psissage of dimeters is divided into several
systems, the end of each being indicated by the paroemiac.
' In Latin the para-miac is not employed as in Greek, the
tetrameter is little used and is sometimes aeatalectie.
In English tlie most usual verse is the tetrameter, that is,
four feet, called ••' dimeter " in the ancient languages, as.
When the lowlands shall meet thee in battle array.
Or, with rhyme between hall-vei-ses, and paroemiac close :
Not a soul of thom all could the dangers appall
Of the hazardous pons iisinorum.
Occasionally other verses are used, containing from two
up to seven feet. The rhythm is more readily produced
than the dactylic, as the latter requires an initial stress that
is often inconvenient.
III. Trochaic JIktrks. — The fundamental foot is the
trochee (-^ -J), which may be replaced by the tribrach (~i, w ^),
the irrational choree (-'■">, v2/ ^ >), the light dactyl (-'^ w,
-'-^^, and, in lyric poetry, the triseme syllable (^). The
measure is l\u-. dipody (— w — £- ; Lat. also — £/ — £-). The
rhythm is light and lively.
1. Tetrameter. — The complete tetrameter was little used,
but the catalectic was much employed in certain pai-ts of
Greeli comedy and (especially the older) tragedy, and also
in the Latin drama. It consists of a dimeter and a cata-
lectic dimeter, usually, though not always, separated by
cssura (dia>rcsis) :
_^_S.|-^-S,l-^-S.|-^-A
The substitution of two shorts for one long, and in Latin
the admission of irrational feet into the odd places, lend the
verse great variety of form. (See Iambic Meters.) Exam-
ples:
XpiJiuaTw*' 6.i\irrov ov^4v itrriy ou5' dirwjuaToi'.
In qua ciyitate tandem te arbitrare vivere.
Hipponax used a tetrameter seazon with long penultimate
syllable.
2. Dimeter and Hi/perineter. — Sometimes, especially as
the close (eicflcffir) of a passage of tetrameters, a series of
continuously recited dimeters terminating with a catalectic
dimeter, thus forming a system or hypermeter, was em-
ployed, especially in Greek comedy. In Latin the catalectic
dimeter (or tetrapody) without irrational feet occurs with
other verses, as,
Tunditur dies die.
3. Tripody or Ithyphallic. — This is a colon, chiefly used
in asynartete verse. It is no doubt sometimes a ditneter
with syncope {vaptKreuris). Thus, ^t&iov KojcifTToy may be either
— ^ — ^ — ^,or — ~^ — -^' A.
In English there is a considerable variety of trochaic
verses, but the most common is tlie octaraeter (correspond-
ing to the classical tetrameter). Its cola are usually sepa-
rated into distinct verses, as,
Tell me not in mournful numbers,
Life is but an empty dream.
But sometimes the two run continuously, as in Locksley
Hall :
In the spring a young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts
of love.
It is impracticable to jjlaee the stronger stress uniformly
on the odd feet in English, nor is it probable that this was
done by the ancients.
IV. Ia.mdh: Metres. — These are the metres in which the
fundamental foot is the iambus. The movement of the
verse is more vigorous than the trochaic, and can not be
treated as trochaic willi anai-rusis. though the form would
be the same. For a detailed treatment, see Iambic Metres.
V. Ionic Metres. — The fundamental foot is the ionicns
a minori (^^ — -i-), or tlie ionicus a majori (-'■■^^^).
Resolution tr-^ and contraction (oo) often occur, and by
anac^lasis (IviKKaais, brealiing up) the first of the two shorts
may be placed between tlie two preceding longs; that is, the
dicboneus {— ^ — ^) may be suljstituted for the ionicus a
majori whether the verse begins with anacrusis {^-J) or
not. The nujvement is plaintive, and can scarcely be sus-
tained in English.
1. Dimeter. — This verse, with or without anaclasis. is oc-
casionally used in the Greek drauui. Sometimes syncope
occurs. The schemes therefore are —
(n) v^ w ^ v^
(c) WW wwi-J, or WW WW— A,
with some other variations. Scheme (4) is much used in the
late Anacreontics, with occasional reversion to scheme (o) :
(fr) 4v afxlWattrif avdyKa^,
{b) 4<Topa.s Tao' Si Aths noj,
(c) dxoAfj'ci?;' aTOfmTwv.
2. Trimeter. — The trimeter is rare, occurring a few times
in Greek Ivrics an<l in an ode of Horace (iii., 12) in connec-
tion with (limeters, forming a sort of system. Most of the
passages where the dimeter and trimeter are found in lyrics
allow (if some of them do not require) division into other
verses than these.
3. Tetrameter Catalectic, or Galliamhic. — The original
form of this verse was —
which by anaclasis became-
By resolution and occasional contraction in both these
schemes the verse assumes many forms. Tliere is difference
of 0|)ini(m which of the two forms was felt to be funda-
mental, but there is reason to believe that sometimes tlie
one was intended and sometimes the other. There is occa-
sional reversion to the original form in one colon or the
other. The extant examples, though the verse is of Greek
origin, are almost entirely confined to the celebrated Attis
of Catullus (Ode Isiii.). beginning —
Super alta vectus Attis celcri rate maria.
ww^w^w^^l WW^^WWW^
The second colon here is not ww-^|wviw|w— with
iambic rhythm, though this seems the true scansion in some
verses. The movement of these verses of Catullus is wild
and weird to suit the subject-matter.
The Boadicea of Tennyson is often erroneously called
galliambic.
Other ionic verses (such as the Sotadean, w w ]
ww| ww| ■y^, nearly always with anaclasis)
arc of little importance.
VI. Choriambic Metres. — The foot is the choriambus
(choree or trochee + iambus. -^ w w — ). The difference be-
tween ionic and true choriambic rhythm results from the
opening foot. Real choriambic meter is very rare, and is
confined to lyric poetry. So-called <-horiambic verses are
usually (according to some, always) logatedic. the seeming
clioriambus being — w w >- or —^ w — , as in Hor. Od. i.. i., 1 :
Jhrcenas atavis edite regibus.
or Hor. Od. i., xviii., 1 :
Nullara, Vare, sacra vite prius severis arborem.
These are the ascleptadeus minor and major. (See LooA-
reiiic ]\Ieters.) The triseme syllable always closes a word ;
hence a pause may often be used (-^ w — a) in reciting.
VII. Antisi'astic Metres. — " Clioriamliie" verses some-
times begin with a SievKKafiov aSii<popov (two either long or
short syllables, ^ — ). These sylluliles are now called a 6n.si.s.
When they form an iambus (J — ) tlie ancients divided thus,
w w|w w| , and called the meter antispastic (lani-
(Tna<rTiK6s. from avrlairaaTos, drawn in opposite directions),
and the foot (w -2- -^ w) nntispa.<it. The metre has no real
claim to recognition.
VIII. Cretic JIetres. — The fundamental foot is the ere-
tic (■'- w -=-), wliicli derived its name from the frequent use
of tlie rhythm by the ancient Cretans in dance melodies.
By resolution the first jiason (-^ w v:/ w) and the fourt h piCon
(vi, w w -=-) become its substitutes. In Latin the form — > —
is allowed. Thc^ rhythm is confined to lyric poetry. The
verse chiefly used is the tetrameter, as,
^Afles ot) trpiv yf Suv, Ifrrfli aaipis, 4aX' 'ohws.
^ \^ — — \^ — — — \.^,_/\_y — \.> —
Te sequor, quin vocas spectatores simul.
In English the rhythm is impraetic-alile. and even in the
musio of modern limes its use is very rare. It is dilliciilt
METKKS
MKTRIC SYSTEM
710
for us to avoiil making it trochaic with triscmc sylhiblcs,
— ^' •^'—, or with pauses, — >^— A — w— A. Soiiic-
tiiiies seeiniiif,' crctics are really trochaic.
IX. Hacchii: -Mktrks. — The feet are the bacchius {^ — — )
niiil the aiitiliacchius (-^ -«• w). If the first long be renioveil
from a erelic vei'se (see VIII.) a rliylhni lia.seil on the bac-
chius results, and if a long be [iretixed the antibacchic
rhythm results: but both are calh'il simply bacchic. Kx-
cept in Latin comedy (where three longs may form tho
foot) the meter is Utile used, us.
Verses of various lengths occur. Sometimes the last long
is omitted. (JceiLsionally a seeming bacchic verse is really
trochaic with triseme syllables. The context must be con-
sidered. The rhythm marks intense interest.
X. DocuMiAc .Mktrks. — The measure is the complex foot,
^j.j.^-1-, culled docliniius (h&xj^ms. aslant), probably from
its peculiar, alinornial rhythm. By the use of irrational
syllables for the shorts aiid two shorts for the longs, the
foot as.sumes about twenty ditlerent forms in actual use.
The movement denotes extreirie agitation resulting usually
from overwhelming grief. UncluMii are found only in Greek
lyric poetry (/coM/uoi and iSai airi aK-nvni), antl are sometimes
ndxiMl with liacchii or iaml)i in llie same verse; and often
dochiuiac verses are mixed with iambic trimeters. Exam-
ples of a diiMxly and a induopoily are:
\u ivaKadaproi *'AtSow Xi^^f,
ri /x' &pa tI fi oAcKcis.
..^ vi w vi. w »^ -'■
To reduce the rhythm to ordinary triple time it has
been proposed to read verses like the second one cited
vi. -_< w vi- ^ -... -'-, which makes the fundamental form
^ — £■ ^.^ -£• A. The foot vi — seems to occur in other me-
ters in Pindar: but both there ami in the docliniius it is
better to treat it as in the case of syncope in modern music,
and read ^ -'-. The treatment of iambi and bacchii mingled
with dochmii will depend on the view taken of the doclimii
themselves, and metricians disjigree.
XI. LooA(Ki)ir Metkks. — Logacedic rhythm is a modified
form of the trochaic. The relative stress of the ictus-sylla-
ble is thought to have been less marked than in ordinary
trochees. Logacedic metro was much used in the lyric parts
of the Greek drama and by some of the lyric poets, and
many of the verses were borrowed, and in some cases mod-
ified! by Horace, and a few by Catullus. For a detailed
treatment of this metre, with illustrative examples, see
LooAiBDic Metres.
XII. Daotvlo-epitritic Metres. — The rhythm is a com-
bination of dactyls with epitrites (,-^^ — —). The cola of
either sort may be catalcctic. The elements most in use are
Av^^-£.^^-£._, -i-^^-i.^^^, j-^j.—^ —■^■^, which
are combined in various ways, .\nacrusis is sometimes
founil. There is ilillerence of opinion as to the correct
scansion. In practice it is best to make the dactyls and
spondees of the dactylic elements, and the trochees and
spondees of the epitritic elements, all equal to each other
by slight change of the tempo of the trochees. One favorite
methotl is to read the trochees i— ^. The rhythm is con-
fined to Greek lyric poetry, and wa.s much used by the
tragedians and I'indar. Samides are :
o^vK6fjLCW K( fiaOvv ■K6vrov WfpcUTCUS.
The name (^irfrpiToj = ciinlaining one and a third) "epi-
tritrite" is derived from the fact that apparently the spon-
dee is one and a third times the length of the trochee, or
Wffii : Spo-is : : ;{ : 4 ; but the ancients always spoke of me-
trical forms from the standpoint of the words (/i^prj Ki^tas)
rather than the rhythm.
XIII. AsY.VARTETE Mktbes. — Asyiiartete (iurvviffrrrrot. iin-
eonneeted) verses are cmiiposed of hetemgeneous members.
In tireek there were a good many, but most of them are
represented by very few fragments. In Horace tho follow-
ing occur:
L Greater Archilochinn.
~Cv3 — cc — I ■'
1-----==
Solvitur acris hiems grata vice veris et Fuvoni.
The last two syllables may Im ^ ■'-, but the tro<diees should
not be read with triple ratio (•— w). Some make the dac-
tyls cvclic.
2. iHeyinmbic (Archilochian).
Sribere vei-siculos amore percussum gravi.
Hiatus and syllaba anceps are allowed before the diaeresis.
3. lamlieleijir, (I/oniliaii). — This is like the preceding with
tho cola interchanged :
Deformis a'grimoniic dulcibus adhwjuiis.
The elcgiambic and iambelegic may each be read a.s two
verses.
XIV. The Satubxiax Verse. — This verse was used by
the Romans before Ennius introduced the Greek dactylic
hexameter. We have only a few short inscriptions and
some fragments composed in it, and there is a dispute
whether the stress is determined by the rpiantity or by the
word-accent, as in English. According to the iii'st theory
the fundamental scheme is
\^ -^ \^ -^ \^ -^ ^ H -^ \^ -^ \^ — ;^
Dabuiit malum Metelli Xaevio poeta'.
The queen is in her parlor, eating bread and honey.
According to the other theory (letting -^ denote an accented
or half-accented syllable, and w an unaccented syllable), the
scheme is
Diibunt malum Metelli Xaevio poetse.
In her parlor the queen sits, eating bread and honey.
Under either theory the verse exhibits manv licenses.
MiLTOX \V. HrMPIlREVS.
Metric System : a system of weights and measures de-
signed to remove the confusion arising out of the excessive
diversity of weights and measures prevailing in the world,
by substituting in place of the arbitrary and inconsistent
systems actually in use a single one constructed on scien-
tific principles and resting on a natural and invariable
standard. The proposition for the creation of such a sys-
tem originated in 1791) with I'rince Talleyrand, then Bishop
of Autun. He recommended the length of the pendulum
beating seeimds in latitude 4.5' as a suitable linear Imsis.
and introduced into the National Assembly of France a de-
cree embodying this proposition and providing for a scien-
tific determination of the exact length of this pendulum by
a commission to be composed in equal numbers of members
of the French Academy of Sciences and of the Royal So-
ciety of London. This decree, with some modification, was
adopted, and tho king, Louis XVI.. was reque.sted to open a
correspondence on the subject with the King of Great lirit-
ain, which he did; but, owing to the temper and the public
troubles of the times, this overture met with no response.
Similar aiiplications to other nations were more successful,
and in subsequent proceedings, Spain. Italy, the Nether-
lands, Switzerland, Denmark, and Sweden participated by
sending delegates to an international commission. The
system itself was, however, niatureil by the labors of a com-
mittee of the Academy of Sciences, embracing Horila, La-
grange, Laplace. Mongc, and ('oii<U)r(et. five of the ablest
mathematicians of Europe. Their report, dated Mar. !!•,
1791, after considering the comparative fitness, as a stanil-
ard of length, of the pendulum and of the earth itself in
some one of its natural dimensions, ileciiled in favor of the
latter, and reciunmended lus the standard unit of linear
measure TTrWninioth of the quadrant of a terrestrial merid-
ian. The re|iort was comniuuicateil to the .\s.seinbly and
receive<l its .sanction. Committees of the Acaileniy were
then charged with the duly of making the necessary ile-
tcrminationsof the standanl units, including those of cajiac-
ity and weight as well as that of length. An arc of the
meridian passing Ihrough Paris and extending from Dun-
kirk to lianelona was measiire<l Irigououictrically by De-
lambre and Mechain, an operalii>n of immense lal)or which
occupied seven years ; the object being to a.scertain with tho
greatest exactness the length of the linear base, called the
meter. It was resolved to make the unit of volume equal
to the capacity of a cubical vessel measuring one-tenth of a
meter on its edges; and the standanl of weight, the actual
weight of distilled water which shouM fill such a vessel at
the tein[«'rature of maximum density. The weight of a
given volume of water under these conditions was made a
■20
METRIC SYSTEM
METROXOME
subject of elaborate invest iiration by n committee of the
Academy, and in conformity witli the results obtained the
standard unit of weiglit. called the gramme, was fixed at
ro'iJTit'i part of the standard weight above mentioned, which,
beinsr 1.000 grammes in weight, is called the kiloyrumme.
On the fourth day of the month Messidor, in the seventh
year of the republic "one and indivisible," the interna-
tional commission above referred to, after having carefidly
tested the accuracy of the standards prepared by the com-
mittees of the Academy, proceeded in a body to the Palace
of the Archives in Paris, and there deposited the standard
meter, a simple bar of platinum, which represents the linear
base of the system, and the standard kilogramme, a simple
cylinder, also of platinum, wliich reprcsenls the unit of
nietric weights. The value of these units had, however,
been ascertained much earlier with an accuracy sutficient
for all practical purposes : and by a law passed on Aug. 1,
1793, the metric system was established as the oidy legal
systein of weights and measures for France and the French
colonial possessions. Tlie system has since been successively
adopted by Holland, Belgium. Spain, Portugal, Italy, the
German empire. Cireece, lioumania, British India, Mexico,
New Gran;uUi, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, the Argen-
tine Ccmfederation, and Chili. Switzerland, without adopt-
ing the system in full, has given to all her standards metric
values, and Deinnark has done the same for her standard of
weight. Austria has adopted the system for custom-house
purjioses, and Turkey has introduced a metric measure of
length. In (ircat Britain the use of metric denominations
in business transactions hiis been made legally perinissil)le;
but, by a singular inconsistency, the metric weights and
measures 'themselves are not allowed to be kept in trades-
men's sho|>s and employed in actual commerce. In the
U. S., metric weights and measures were legalized by an act
of Congress passed July 27, 18G6, and at the same time the
bureau of weights and measures at Washington was di-
rected to prepare and furnish to the executive authorities
of the several States authenticated standards for the veri-
fication of metric weights and measures used in commer-
cial affairs. The aggregate population of the countries in
which the metric system has been established by law
amounts to nearly 350,000,000: of those in which it has
been partially introduced, to about 70,000.000 ; and of those
where its use is legally permissible, to 70,000,000 more. It
has thus been adopted by largely more than half of the
civilized and Christian world.
The question whether the prototype meter of the archives
is really, with great severity of exactness, TBTraWtrath part,
of a terrestrial quadrant is regarded as a futile one, and of
no great jiractical importance from the point of view of
metrology ; the fact l)eing that we are not sufiRciently well
aciiuainted with the figure of the earth to warrant the
adoption of it as a basis for a system of measurement.
Tne desirability of .settling all doubts as to the stability
of the system and the permanency of its unit-bases, as well
as of providing authenticated copies of the prototype stand-
ards to be distributed to the governments of all metric na-
tions, and of .securing such standards against the danger of
alteration in all coming time, led to the assembling at Paris,
in the year 1870, of an international commission to consider
and acijust all questions connected with this subject. In
this commission, thirty independent powers were repre-
sented. The deliberations of the commission, interrupted
by the war of that year between Prance and (iermany, were
subsequently resumed, an<l resulted at length in an interna-
tional convention providing for the mainti'nauce at Paris
of an International Bureau of Weights and Measures, to be
supported by pro ralit contributions from all the signatory
powers, ami charged with the care of the prototype stand-
ards, and with the duty of constructing an(i verifying copies
of those standards not oidy for the powers interested but
for othergovcrnmenls, or even for corporations and individ-
uals who should apply for them and should be willing to
pay the expense attending their construction and compari-
son. This convention was signed in Mar., 187-(. the diplo-
nuitic representative of the U. S.. Mr. Washburne, being,
by consent and direction of the President, one of the sign(?rs.
It was resolved by this commission that the prototype meter
and the prototype kilogramme of the archives shall V)e
recognized and perpetuated forever as the true bases of the
system, witliout regard to any doubtful questions which
have been raised as to the exactness of their corres[iondenc.e
with their theoretic values.
The units of the metric system are five — viz.: 1. The
meter (the tinit of length) = 3-280899 feet = 39-37012
inches.
2. The are (the unit of surface) = the square of the
meters n!)-60332 sq. yards.
3. The liter (the unit of capacitv) = the cube of one-tenth
of a meter = 0-26418635 gal. = 1-0567454 quarts = 2.1134908
pints.
4. The store (the unit of solidity) = one cube meter =
35-336636 cubic feet = 1-308764 cubic yards. Tliis unit has
fallen into general disuse.
5. The gramme (the unit of weight) = 15-43234874 grains
troy.
Each unit has its decimal multi[)les and submultiplcs ;
that is, weights and measures ten times larger or ten times
smaller t han the unit of t he denomination preceding. These
multiples aiul submultiplcs are indicated by prefixes j)laced
before the names of the several fundamental units. The
prefixes denoting nniltiples are derived from the Greek lan-
guage, and are deka. ten ; liecfo, hundred : kilu. thousand ;
and mi/ria. ten thousand. Those denoting submultiplcs are
from the Latin, antl are deci, tenth ; eenii, hundredth ; and
viilli, thousandth.
The unit of itincrarv measure is the kilometer, which is
equal to 0-G2138 mile. "
The unit of laud measure is the hectare, equal to 2-47114
acres.
The unit of commercial weight is the kilogramme, eqtial
to 2-20462125 lb. avoirdupois.
The system of French moneys is connected with that of
raeti-ic weights by the creation of a coin of standard silver
(nine parts pure silver and one of alloy) to represent the
monetary unit, called the franc, having the weight of ex-
actly 5 grammes; the coins of higher and lower denomi-
nations being multiples and submultiplcs of this. As in the
coinage system of France gold and silver are equally stand-
ard metals, it is necessary that their relative values, weight
for weight, should be determined by an arbitrary ratio.
This ratio is fixed by law at 15i to 1 ; and accordingly the
twenty-franc piece of gold, commonly (though not legally)
called the napoleon, has the weight of twenty times 5
grammes divided by 15^, which is equal to 6-4516 grammes
of standard gold. See Units and Weights and Mkasures.
Revised by E. L. Nichols.
Metrodo'nis (in Gr. Vl-nTp6Supos): (I) a philosopher of
Chios (330 u. c.) : (2) an Epicurean of Athens (277 u. c.) : (8)
a rhetorician and statesman of .Scepsis under Mithridates
Eupator (140 b. c.) : (4) a philosopher of Stratonicea (110
B. c): (5) a frecdnuin of Cicei-o: (6) a writer of epigrams in
the time of t'onstantine the Great. J. R. S. S.
Met'ronomc [Gr. nerpov, measure, measure in poetry and
music + veiiety, deal out, distribute, divide] : in nuisic, an
instrument for the measurement and regidation of time.
As the directive terms usually prefixed to musical compo-
sitions, such as adaijio. hntn. andante. aUegro, etc., can only
give to the performer an ajiproximate idea of the rate or
velocity intended by the composer, various means have
been employed to indicate the speed with more precision.
The metrimome, invented liy .Tohn Maelzel, a mechanician
in the service of the Emperor of Austria, and brought into
tise in the early part of the niiu'teenth century, is a simple
but ingenious contrivance by which any degree of slowness
or rapidity can be marked, and jiractically shown with the
greatest exactness. The instrument is small and portable,
inform between that of the pyramid and the obelisk, and
consists of an inverted steel iicn<hdum (8 or i) inches long),
<m which is a .sliding weight wliich may be moved U]i or
down the pendulum, and thus brought opposite to any of
the figures on a gi-aduated scale in its rear. The pendulum
is moved by simple wheelwork. and makes a loud tick for
every vibration. The sliding weight determines the rate of
vibration. If it is near the [joint of suspension, the motion
will be rapid: and the rapidity decreases in proportion as
the weight is moved toward the rcnuite end. In practical
use the object is to ascei-tain how many minims, crotchets,
etc.. of a given piece of music arc to be ijcrformcd in one
minute. The numbers on the scale have therefore refei-ence
to a minute of time — i. e. when the weight is placed at 50,
fifty beats or ticks will occur in each minute : when at 100,
one hundred beats in a minute, etc. The rale at wliich any
piece of music is to be playeil is thus easily found when the
metronome mark is jilaced by the comjioser at the begin-
ning. For example, p = 50. means that when the sliding •
weight is placed at that figure on the graduated scale, the
METROPOLIS CITY
MEUUTIIE-ET-MOSELLE
r2i
lu'iiJuUiin will viliiate once fur every minim in the music,
hikI tluit tliori" will lie (ifty iiiiniiiis (or their value in other
notes) in a minute of uctuiil or eloek-time.
Metropolis City: city (founded in isjjii on the site of
Kort Mussac, hnilt by the French ami Indians about 17(XJ);
capital of Miu'^sac co.. III. (for location of county, si'e map of
Illinois, ref. K'-K): on the Ohio river, an<l tlie .Si. L., Alt.
and Terre llaulc Kailroad ; l")(i miles S. E. of St. I^ouis. It
is in an af;ricultural rejtion ; has hi;y;h school, jrraded schools,
ti churches for while people and 2 for colored, iiublic library,
ami a monthly and 2 weekly newspapers; ami contains saw
and planiiif; mills, pipc-fonndry, wheel and wagon material
works, lli>ur-niills. stave, heading, ami veneer factories, and
pottery-works. I'op. (1«S0) 2,««S; (18t»0) 3,573 ; (1893) by
school census, 4.(183.
Editor of " Massac Jol'rnal-Republican."
Metsys, Qimntin : See Messis.
JlettiTiiirli, met'er-nich, Clemk.ns Wk.nzki, Xkpoml-k
LoTHAit. I'rincc: statesman; b. at Coblenlz, May l.j. 1773;
studied jurisprudeiue at .Mcntz and Stnissburg: was ein-
ployi'd liv the .Austrian (iovernment in diplomatic service
at The Hague in 17114. but returned to \ ieiina after the
conquest of the Netherlands by the French; married in
17!>5 the granddaughter and sole heiress of Prince Kaunitz ;
was employed at the Congress of Kastadt (17!>7-!)U). and
went in ISOl to Dresden as ambassador, in 1803 to Berlin,
and in ISIKi |o Paris; on Oct, 8. 1K(«). was made Minister of
Foreign .Mlairs. anil on May 2o. Is-Jl, diancellor of the em-
pire, which positions he held till Mar. 13. 1848. With great
slirewilness he kept Austria out of the great eonllict of
1813 until she could make her own con<litions for her par-
ticipation, and at the Congress of Vienna (1814), of which
he w!is unanimously chosen president, he procured for Aus-
tria a great cxleiision of territory and a prominent position
in tiermany and Italy. For the next thirty years he actually
stood at the head of the continental politics of Europe, anil
bv the congresses of Aix-la-Cha|>elle (1818). Carlsbad (181!)).
Vienna (1820), Lavbach (1821), \ erona (1822), Miinchengratz
(1833), Toplitz (183.i), etc, an<l by the aid of the Holy Alli-
ance, he succeeded in suppressing almost every national or
liberal movement in Europe. He completely worked out
his system within the boundaries of Austria, which by cen-
sorship, poliie, etc., was almost hermetically shut out from
the rest of Kuroiie. Xevertheless, on Mar. 13. 1848, the
revolution in \'ienna compelled the prince to flee for his
life. He resided in London till Nov., 1849, when he re-
turned to Vienna, where he lived in retirement till his
death July 11, 1859. A collection of his writings (flfnA-
wiirdiqkeiten) has been publisheil and an autobiography (8
vols., Vienna, 1880-^M).
Mptz : a citv and fortress of Oermany; in Alsace-Lor-
raine; on the Nioselle (see niapof Oerman Empire, ref, 6-C).
The town is beaulifiilly situateil on both sides of the river,
which divides into several arms, surrounded by mountains,
and is one of the strongest forlrcsses in the world. Seven
strong forts— Plappeville and St.-t^uentin to the W., St.-
Eloy to the N., St.-Julieii to the N. E., Les ISattes to the E.,
t^uenleutothe.S. E., and St. Privat to the S. — crown the hills
around it. It is the seat of the highest authorities of Lor-
raine, of a bishop, of a civil and commercial tribunal, etc.,
and hius an acadi^my, a college, two seminaries, a school of
artillery, a museum wilh collections of linm.in anti<piities.
coins, and pictures, a library containing 30.000 voliunes, and
an arsenal. The most imiiortant public buildings are the
Cathedral of St. Stephen, a Gothic structure, begun in the
thirteenth century, the nave flnished in 1392, the choir in
the sixtet-nlh cenlury, with a tower 387 feet high, contain-
ing a bell weighing" 2(i0 cwl.; the Church of St. Vincent,
begun in the thirteenth century; the Church of St. Eu-
charius, built in the twelfth ceiitnry; and the Palace of
Justice, built in the eighteenth. The esplanade has beau-
tiful walks; opposite staml nmgniticent barracks. Hrnshes,
fur, felt, leather, paper, soap, silk, woolens, embroideries,
drugs, etc., are manufactured, and a brisk trade is carried
on in wine, timber, corn, and hides. Pop. (18!)0) fi0.18C.
Met/,, wlmse ancient name was Diitxiurum or Midinma-
Iricn. was dest roved by Allila in the liflh cenlnrv, then lie-
came the capital of Austrasia, fell, on the division of the
empire of Cliarlemague, to (ierimiuy, and wa-s established as
a free imperial cily. governed by a count in the name of
the emperor. In 1444 the Fa-nch besieged the city with-
out taking it, but in 1.552 Henry II. gained p«issession of it
under pretense of bringing aid to the Protestant German
princes. The Emperor Charles V. besieged it in vain from
Oct., 1552. to .Ian., 1553. By the Peace of Westphalia in
1648 the auljiority of France' over Metz, as well ai> overToul
and Verdun, was acknowledged and guaraiitee<l. Bv the
war of 1870-71 the stale of affairs wiis entirelv chanjfed.
The fortre.s,s, which had been much slreiiglheiied by Napo-
leon 111., forineil the principal point <jf supjiurt for the im-
perial army drawn uji along the (iirinan frontier, ami after
the first defeats at \\ eissenburg and Worth it served as a re-
treat for the largest part of the army, numbering more than
180.000, under Marshal Bazaine. Prince Frederick Charles
inclosed .Metz with an array of 200.lK)t) men, and thus the
memorable siege began wliich emlcd with the surrender
both of army ami fortress. On del. 27, 1870. the capitula-
tion was concluded, accor<ling to which the fortress was to
be occupied by the Ciermans, and the French army to go to
Germany as prisoners of war. The French army, including
the sick and the national giiar<l, comprised 173,000 men,
with 6,(K)0 oflicers and 3 marshals. The war material, wortli
80.000.(W0 francs, comprised 800 cannon, furniture for 85
batteries, 66 mitrailleuses, 300,000 muskets, an enormous
numberof sabers and cuirasses. 2.000 wagon.s, etc. ; .53 eagles
and colors were taken. By the Peace of Frankfort (.May 10.
1871) Metz was ceded to the German empire, and the Ger-
man military administration has strengthened the fortre-ss.
.See Bazaine.
Mt'tzger, Karl Albert Emil: geographer; b. at Cob-
lenlz, Germany, Oct, 19, 1836; was gazetted second lieuten-
ant in the Prussian engineers (pioneer corps) in 1856, but
the following year he resigned and entered the Dutch serv-
ice, going to Java, and entering the trigonometrical survey
department. From 1S05 to 1875 he was actively engaged
in Irigonometrical work in Java, when he returned to Eu-
rope, settled in Stuttgart, and devoted himself to geographic
stuilies. He had an intimate knowledge with the far East,
and was a frequent contributor to sciciilitic journals. His
principal work was his Weltlexicon (1888), or gazetteer of
the world, intended for those interested in commerce and
industry. D. July 6, 1890. M. W. HARRi.viiTO.v.
Motzil, Gauriel: iiainter; b, at Leyden, Holland, in
1615; d, in 1659. He formed his stvle on that of Terburg
and Gerard Dow. but surpa-ssed both in drawing. He left
many genre pictures of great excellence, of which the
Louvre possesses the most famous examples, viz.: the por-
trait of Admiral Trump, A Soldier Offering ttefreshments
to a Liidy. A Chemist Heading near a Wiiidoic, and The
Fruil-market at Amsterdam. W. J. S.
Menu, niim. Jean, de (Jeax Clopixel) : poet ; b. at Meun-
sur-Li>ire. France, about 1250. He studied in the schools at
Paris, and while still thus engaged (1277) he took up the
KoMANCE OF the Kose (q. I'.) where it had been left bv
Guillaume de Lorris and completed it. though in a very dif-
ferent spirit. Later he wrote several other works, though
of far less repute than his first. In 1284 he translated for
Jean de Bricnne. Count d"Eu, the De re militari of Vcge-
tius ; later still, the Letters of Ahilard and Jlelulse, the
Marvels of Ireland of Girand de Barri, the book of the
English monk Aelreil on Spiritual Friendship, and the De
Consolatione philosophiie of IkH>tliius. Between 1291 and
1296(f) he wrote his poetic Testament, full of criticisms on
his contemporaries, but also of sincere piety. He became a
person of wealth and distinction. He died before Nov.,
1305. See the llistoire lilteraire de la France, vol. xxviii.,
pp. 391-439. A. R. Marsh.
Meiir'silis.JonAXXEs(Dutch,7>«'.VcHr.<l: classical scholar;
b. at Loozduiiien. near The Hague, on Feb. 9. 1579 : sludiinl
philology ; travcknl much. and liecame Professor of Ilistorj-
at Levden in 1610. afterward of (ireek, but left Holland,
disturbed by the political broils in his count ry, and accepted
a [Misition at the .Vcailemy of Soriie in Denmark, where he
died Sejit. 20. 1639. He was one of the most learned men
of his age. and his filussiiriiim Gnrcn-barliarinn (16141 and
Atlienie BatiiviriUV2'>\. as well as his nnm<'r<>us nioin'graphs
relating lo the Greek literature, mostly reprinted in Gmno-
vius's Thesaurus Anliijiiitatum Ir'nirariini. htv still of in-
terest. He also edited Lycophron's Alij-andra. Apollonios
Dyscolos. Philoslratus. and the works of .some of the By-
zantian historians. His works were edilcnl by I^mie (12
vols, fol., Florence, 1741-63). Revised by .X.GruEMA.N.
Meiirllie-et-Moselle, mort ii-mij-zel' : a department of
Norlheaslern France; formed on Sept. 11, 1871, after the
Franco-German war. It comprises an area of 2.025 .sq.
722
iMKUSE
JIEXICAX ANTlgCITIES
miles ; consists of the arroiulissements Bricy, Ijiineville,
Nancy, and Toul, anil contains some of the most beautiful
scenery and some of the most fertile soil in France. Vine-
culture is the chief occu^iation ; half of the surface is occu-
pied by vineyards. Capital, Nancy. Pop. (1891) 444,150.
3Ie«se. Fr. pron. miiz : department of Northeastern
France, comprising an ai'ea of 3.403 sq. miles. It extends
alonj^ both sides oi' tlie river Jlaas, which is inclosed between
two ranges of U>w hills running parallel with it. The val-
ley is veVy fertile and produces wheat and good wine ; cattle,
horses, swine, and bees are reared. The hills contain iron,
limestone, and gvpsum. Capital, Bar-le-Duc. Pop. (1891)
292.253.
Meuse. or Mans : a river of Europe which rises in France,
in the south of the department of llaute-Marne. Proceed-
ing N., it crosses the northwest corner of the department of
Vosges. traverses the departments of Meuse and Ardennes,
and in the wild mountainous region still known as tlie For-
est of Ariienncs pours tiirough a wild, romantic gorge ; on
reaching Givet it enters Belgium, and at Namur, where it
receives on the left its largest tributary, the Sambre, almost
doubling its volume, changes its course to N. E., and psisscs
Liege, where it is augmented by the Ourthe. At Bommel it
draws so (dose to the Rhine as to be brought into connuuni-
cationwitli it ; resuming its western course and finally turn-
ing N. W., it joins the left bank of the Waal, one of the
arms of the Rhine, and gives its luune to the mighty accu-
nuilated flood of these streams. Proceeding W. the Jleuse is
divided near Dordrecht into two great rivers, one of whicli
bends round to tlie N.. and reaches Rotterdam ; the other
branch contrnues W. ; and shortly after the two branches
again unite and discharge tlieinselves, amid shoals and
quicksands, into the North Sea. Total length, 600 miles,
of which 400 are navigable.
Mexia : town (founded in 1873) : Limestone co., Tex.
(for location of county, see map of Texas, ref. 3-1) ; on the
Houston and Tex. Cent. Railroad ; 80 miles S. of Dallas,
181 miles N. W. of Houston. It is in an agricultural re-
gion ; is a shipping-point for cotton, hides, and live stock :
and has an academy, 2 public schools, 6 churches, a national
bank witli capital (if $50,000, a private bank. 3 weekly news-
papers. Hour, planing, and s.-iw mills, canning-factory, car-
riage and wagon shops, and tin and slieet-iron works. Pop.
(1880) 1,298; (1890) 1,674; (1893) estimated, 2,700.
Editor of '• Ledger."
Mexican Antiquities: the relics of races inhabiting
Mexico before llie adven' of Europeans. The Toltecs, Az-
tecs, and other well-known Nahuan peoples followed one
another in their occupation of Mexican territory, building
and deserting tlieir cities and monuments. Preceding ami
alternating with them were other nations and tribes of less
note. The most striking of the many existing features of
pre-Columl)ian culture in Mexico are the ruins of cities,
temples, and monuments. The dismantled remnants of a
chain of colossal structun^s extends from Chihuahua on the
N. to Honduras on the S., the best-preserved examples oc-
curring S. of the valley of Mexico. The degree of preserva-
tion is', however, not a reliable index of the original stability
and perfection of the struct urcs. as some were in rains when
the conquerors lauded, and others were so situated that
they were exposed to devastation by the Ein-opeaus and
were totally (lemolislied. Tenochtitlan. Cholula, and Tez-
cuco, centers of Naluiatl culture and power, were, with the
downfall of these peoples, leveled with the ground, while
Teotihuacan, Xochicalco, and Mitla, already in ruins, arc
still standing.
The mural remains of Mexico are often characterized by
great massiveness, although they never exhibit pronouncinl
megalilhic features. The plan of the buildings was often
complex, and the area covered large. The masonry was
well constructed of stones laid in mortar. Grout and sun-
dried bricks were also extensively used in some sections.
The true arch was unknown ; doors and windows were
bridged by wooden lintels, by slaVjs of stone, or by smaller
stones overl.aiiping.
Tlie walls are often covered with elaborate figures in low-
relief and sculptured columns; and slabs and masses of
stone, some of enormous size, are found. The Almaraz
monolith, discovered on the site of San Juan Teotihuacan,
weighs upward of 18 tons. The pottery is varied in form,
rich in color, and abounds in aesthetic and symbolic designs.
Each section has its distinctive groups of ware, indicating
the strong individuality of the tribes and nations. Imple-
ments of stone flaked and polished are numerous, and the
number of minor carvings, statuettes, charms, and orna-
ments is very great. Objects of metal are common, and
some elaborate ornaments in gold and gold-copper alloy
have been preserved. Iron had not come into use.
Tlie most striking features of many of the ruins are pyra-
mids and pyramidal masses of earth, cement, and masonry.
This was not so during the period of occui>ation, as these
structures were the nuclei of elustersof ceremonial buildings
and of dwellings, traces of which have, as a rule, disappeared.
The largest is that of Cbolnla. which in its present much-
altered state is upward of 1,400 feet sipiare at the base and
is nearly 200 feet in height. Tliey were Ijuilt in a great va-
riety of forms, and of such matei'ials as were at hand. They
were freijuently finished with cement or faced with neat
masonry, and were furnished with, terraces and stairways,
and the truncated summits were generally occupied by pub-
lic or religious structures. In no case were they simple
pyramids serving exclusively as monuments or as receptacles
for the dead, as did the pyramids of otlier countries.
Casas Orandes. — The ancient ruins of Northern Mexico
are closely related to the better-known ruins of New Mexico
and Arizona. Cliff ruins are found in the mountains, and
deserted pueblos are scattered over the valleys of Chihua-
hua. The most not(!d example of the latter class is known
as the Casas Grandes, in the northwestern part of the state.
The princijjal ruin consists of three or more clusters of rec-
tangular apartments cimnected by obscure walls, and occu-
pying an area of about 250 feet in width by 800 feet in
length. The walls appear to be composed of cement or
grout, a mixture of earth, gravel, and cut straw, which was
built up in sections by pouring the plastic material into
movable boxes of the thickness of the wall, the boxes being
moved along when the contents had properly set, just as the
Chinese do at the present day. Tlie heavier walls are five
feet thick at the base, and still stand to a height approxi-
mating three stories. Neither the period of occupation nor
the people concerned are known, as the site is said to have
been deserted when first visited by the whites. Many less
important ruins, mostly reduc^ed to mere heaps of clthris.
are scattered about. Stone was used in localities where it
could readily be obtained.
QiiiDiadd'—Vive hundred miles fartlier S. in Zacatecas
are tlie ruins of (Juemada, of which nothing is known as to
period or people, and the relation of these remains to those
of other sections is not well made out. The pueblo has
been extensive, and evidently wjis the center of a flourish-
ing community. Its situation reseinliles that of many of
the pueblos of the north, occupying a somewhat precipitous
but irregular mesa-like elevation, from 200 to 500 yards
wide and half a mile long. It was inclosed where ajiproach
was easy liy h(>avy walls of m.'isonry. The plan of the
pueblo is irregular, conforming to the topography of the
site. The walls, terr.ices. inclosures, columns, temples, and
pyramids, are substantially constructed of uncut, flag-like
stones laid in reddish mortar tempered with straw. There
are indications of plastering, but no carving or other orna-
mental work ; and no arches, doors, or windows have been
noted.
Tiiln, Tenorhtitian, Texeoco. — Between Quemada and
Teiiochtillan. the center of the Nahuan enqiire, there are
numerous interesting remains. Tula, the most northern
center of culture wit h which any historic people is definitely
associated, is said to have been "a Tollec city of early date
•ami great iniporlauce, but ex]ilorations conducted by Char-
nay and others develop little of an architect ur^il kind, and
the few reliefs found ni.'iy apparently as readily belong to
Aztec as to Toltec culture.
On the sites of Tenochtitlan. the Aztec capital, now Mex-
ico, and Texeoco, the Acolliuan capital, its rival, almost
nothing is loft ot the splendid structures of the pre-Spanish
period. Two of the most notalile pieces of sculiiture in
.Vmerica, the Calendar stone and the composite idol, the
god of war and the goddess of death, were dug up on the
site of the present cathedral of .Mexico where the great
Tcocalli, reached by 120 steps, (mce stood; and farther out
toward the lake excavation discloses layer after layer of art
remains representing successive occupations, the lower char-
acterized by the rudest kind of pottery. At Texeoco, on
the eastern side of the lake, there are still meagre traces of
a number of structures, probalily pyramids, and numerous
carvings on stone and minor relics of clay.
On the hill of Texcocingo, a few mile's beyond Texeoco,
there are unique remnants of ancient chambers, and foun-
>«'
MEXICAN ANTIQrrriKS
MEXICO
723
tains ai;(l stairways and statuary carveil in the solid rock.
The hill itsolf, several hundred feet in heiijlit, was in the
perifxl of Nezaliualeiiyotl fairly remoileled liy llie cunning
chisel of the sculptor, and masked and crowned with arti-
ficial •structures.
Anioiij; the ruins of San .Juan Teotihuacan, 25 miles \.
o( Mexico, ari' two massive pyramids which overlook the
cruuibliuj; ruins of a oncc-exten>ive city, the history of
which is almost wholly lo.st. Aside from the pyranuds. the
most strikirif,' feature is the so-called street of the dead, a
broad hijihwiiy over half a mile in leUfilli, bordered by
ruined temples, teocalli«, and other structures. The larger
pyramiil stands a little to the E. of the liisliway, and is
surrounded by earthen walls and low mounds. It is about
200 feet high, and aliout TATi feet s(piare at the base; the
summit is truncated, ami measures 00 by !)0 feet. The
smaller pyramid is abmit 1411 bet high, and approximates
500 feet s(iuare at the base, the Uattened summit measuring
about 40 by (iO feet. 'I'he.se structures appear to be com-
posed of somewhat heterogeneous materials, having been
nnisheil with coatings of cement, and possibly to some ex-
tent with facings of stone. There are signs of narrow ter-
races, and originally spacious stairways probably led up to
the temples that crowiieil the summits. At the south base
of the smaller pyramid the roadway expands into a large
plaza, near the center of which is a small mound: at the
base of this lies a mnch-iuutilated iilol of large size ami an-
other, fouiul among the mounds on the west side of the
court, has been removed to the Musi''o Naciomil.
Choluld. — Next in interest to Teotihuacan is Cholula, a
more recent center of Toltec power, situated some GO miles
to the S. E. of Mexico and a few miles W. of the city of
I'uebla. The pyramid foinid here is one of the most iiote<l
aboriginal structures in America. It wjis stormed and
taken by Cortes, by whom the native temple crowning its
summit was destroyed and ri'placed by a Roman Catholic
church. It rises abruptly from the plain on the E. to the
Hat suninnt, and descends on the \V. in a nuiuber of ter-
races, now not clearly defined. Excavations on the N. and
E. show a mixed construction, a succession of accumulations
composed of adobe bricks, earth, and cement.
Xiichiriiku. — The ruins of .\ocliicalco, about (io miles
S. W. of the city of Mexico, are exceedingly ititeresting.
The principal structure is situated upon the summit of an
oblong conical hill 2 miles in circumference and 4(X) feet
high. This is surroumled by stone terraces and pierced by
mysterious galleries and clnunbers not yet satisfactorily ex-
plored. Kike the hill id Texcocingo, this "hill of flowers "
was probably at one time fairly remodeled liy art and cov-
ered with walls and buildings. The summit is level, and is
sjiid to measure 2?<0 feet by :i2H feet. It is surroundetl by a
wall, and occupied by a iminber of ruins, the principnJ of
which is a i>yramidal structure 58 by 68 feet at the base,
and retaining a height of 20 feet or more. The walls are
built of large, accurately dres.sed blocks of porphyry, brought
apparently from a distance of several miles; they contract
from the tjivse to a height of perhaps 8 feet ; above this they
rise vertically for 4 or 5 feet, and then expand in a wiilc
cornice. Above this are remmmts of a second story, and it
is said that originally there were several stories, the full
height being given traditiomilly as 65 ftet. The elTcct thus
suggested would have a close general resemblance to that
of the remarkable pyramid of l'a|>antla near the Gulf coast,
150 miles X. W. of Vera Cruz. The entire surface is cov-
ered with mythic figures sculptured in low-relief. This
structure, whieh has decided points of resemblance to
other important architectural remains in Mexico and Cen-
tral America, is not assigned, even trailitionally, to any par-
ticular people.
Milla. — According to Cliarnay the remains at Mitin, 15
miles S. E. of Oaxaca, are now reduced to three pyranuds
and six palaces. The best-preserved group consists i>f three
buildings surmounting low mounds nf earth ami stone, and
forming three sides of a sqiuire court. The opposing struc-
tures on the E. ami W. are nearly oblitCnited, but that on
the N. is well preserve<l. This Imilding has a T-shajH^d
plan, and was entered from the court by three doorways.
The entrance is into a court ;56 feet wide anil lliO feet in
length, along the miildle of which is a row of tapering
porphyry colinnns, six in number, that onie supported the
roof. The walls are faced outside with neatly cut stnne in
large blocks, laiil to form sunken panels of varying size, in
whieh by nu'ans of stucco a series of tasteful geometric
decorative patterns liavc been worked. The floor is paved
with flat stones, and the inner surface of the walls is of un-
hewn stone ; both \icre originally plastered. The pyranuds
are refluced to shapeless mounds. According to Zapotcc
tradition, Mitla was a great religious center.
Oaxaca furnishes a number of less imiiortant groups of
ruins, as at Monte .Vlban, /achila, and Tchuantepec.
The state of culture attaine<l by the most advanced of
the Mexican iiati<ins was that of well-advanced barbarism,
and if we are to juilge by the originality and apparent vir-
ility of their genius, there is a slrmig probability that had
they been left alone to work out their destiny they would
have passed gradually into the succeeding stages of civili-
zation and enlightenment.
AuTHoKlTiKs. — Lord Kingsborough. Antigiiilien of Mexi-
co (V^Q, eiK.) ; Bancroft, The yntice Jiarrx of the I'uotic
States (5 vols., 1875); Cliarnay, Tlie Ancient Cities of the
AV«' World (1860|; Barllelt, Sdrralire of Ksplonilions
(1854); Chavero, Mexico, a traves de los xiylos; N'adaillac,
I'rehiatoric America. W. H. Holhi^.
Mexico [from Aztec Mexitl, name of a tutelary divinity;
Span. Estados L'nidos Mexicanoe. Mexican I'niteil Stales]:
a federal repulilic of Xorth America, occupying the whole
width of the continent between the I'. S. on the X. and
Guatemala and British Honduras on the .S. E. ; limited on
the E. by the tiulf of Mexico and lliv Caribbean .Sea, anil on
the \V. and S. W. by the Pacific Ocean. The main portion,
which has been aptly compared to a cornucopia in form, is
aliout 1,950 miles in extreme length from X. \V. to S. E.,
and 750 miles wide in the northern part, dwindling to 140
miles at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Besides this main
liody the republic includes the two peninsulas of Lower
California on the X. \V., nearly separated by the Gulf of
California, and Yucatan, a northerly projection of the
southeastern end, between the Gulf of Mexico and the Car-
ibbean Sea. Owing to these peninsulas the coast-line is
very extensive, aggregating over 6,000 miles.
Topograph!/. — 'I he main portion of Mexico is essentially
a high plateau, framed and traversed by mountain ranges
and descending by terraces to more or less extensive strips
of lower land on the coasts. The plateau, in Mexico and
Puebla, is about 8,(XI0 feet in average height above the sea;
thence it falls northward to 8.600 feet at El Paso del Xorte.
On the western side it is bordered by an almost unbroken
mountain chain, the Siena Madrc, which enters the republic
from Arizona and traverses it in a S. S. E. direction. In
its northern part the axis of this range is at least 250 miles
from the western coast, descending to it by a .series of ter-
races, but sharply cut down on the eastern or jilateau side;
farther S. it is much nearer the f)cean. Several rivers cut
through the .Sierra Madre. forming deep valleys or caflons.
The mountains on the eastern side of the plateau are paral-
lel to the (iulf coast and at no great distance from it; but
they form rather a series of groups than a connected range.
The highest peaks are southward, in Vera Cruz, where the
Cofre de Perole attains 13,415 feet. Between lats. VJ' SO
and 18° 30 an irregular line of mountains, sometimes called
the Cordillera de Anahuac. may be traced E. and \V. across
the country; it does not form a continuous chain. Imt it
embraces all the highest masses and all. or nearly all, the
active volcanoes of Mexico. Beginning at the W., the most
remarkable peaks are the Xevado de Colima, 14.:!65 feet,
and the Colima volcano, 12,743 feet (these two nearly in the
line of the Sierra Madrel ; the isolated recent volcano of
.lorullo in Miehoacan; the group formed by Popocatepetl
(an active volcano), 17,7!»8 feet, and IxtaccihuatI, 16.(i76
feet ; Malinche, 13.575 feet ; Orizaba (an extinct volcano,
also on a line with the eastern Imrder of the plateau), whieh,
according to Scovell and Bunsen, rises to l!s.314 feel. Iieing
the highest mountain in Mexico, and, with the prolnible ex-
ception of Mt. .St. Elias, the highest in Xorth America ; and,
finally, the active volcano of Tiixlla, near the Gulf enasi,
S. E. of Vera Cruz. lielween and near tlies<- mountains
there are evidences of plutonic action in numerous extinct
craters; and it is noticeable that the voh-aiiic Kevillagigedo
islands in the Pacific ami the Cireater Antilles in the West
Indies lie in the same line. S. of the Cordillera de Ana-
huiu' the whole of Southern Mexico is essentially mountain-
ous, though the ranges arc to some extent broken in the
Tehuantepec Isthmus; the axes of the ranges, as well as the
coast-lines, trend E. and \V. Parallel to the Pacific coast
the Sierra .Madre delSur is continued into Gualeinala. Tho
plateau falls gradually northward, and is ilividi-<l by sub-
ordinate ranges into well-marked basins, which, in turn, are
724
MEXICO
varied with hills. The best known of these basins is that
called the Valley of Mexico or Anahuac, about the city of
Mexico ; it is over 7,500 feet above the sea, completely in-
closed and partly occupied by several small lakes. The Sajio
of Guanajuato is somewhat similar in character, and there
are other basins to the N. W. and N. K. In Northern Mex-
ico the Bolson de Mapiini occupies Southeastern Chihuahua
and the adjacent parts of Coahuila and Duran^o. It is a
vast basin, probably at one time the bed of a f^jreat inland
lake, and still containing shallow bodies of alkaline water
which often dry up entirely ; but most of the Holson is com-
pletely dry and uninhabitable, forming the Chihuahua des-
ert. The rivere of the plateau have cut deep caiions, as in
Jalisco, or wide valleys, as on the eastern side, and along
these the lowlands of the coast are often continued far into
the interior. The traveler in Mexico is seldom out of sight
of high hills or mountains ; and the endless variety of sur-
face, with the corresponding dillerences of vegetation, make
Mexico one of the most picturesque countries in the world.
The narrow peninsula of Lower California is little more
than a rocky continuation of the Sierra Nevada. Yucatan,
except in its southern part, is low ; and the northwestern
part (Campeachy), witli Tabasco, contains a wide strip of
lorest-covered alluvium.
/.stodrfs.^Most of these are near the coast, and unimpor-
tant ; the most notable are Cozumel, E. of Yucatan ; Tiburon
and Guarda, in the Gulf of California; and the Tres Marias,
off San Bias. The outlying Revillagigedo group, in the
Pacilie, is sterile and nearly or quite uninhabited.
Harbors. — The Pacihc coast has several excellent liarbors,
including the fine bays of Acap\ilco and San Bias and the
smaller one of Mazatlan. The Gulf ports are all more or
less open, and some are mere roadsteads. Vera Cruz, the
most important port of the republic, has only a small har-
bor, imperfectly sheltered by a reef, and during northers
ships have frequently been wrecked before the city. An ex-
tensive breakwater, now (1894) in course of construction, is
intended to furnish an effectual shelter.
Rivers and Lakes. — The rivers of Mexico generally rise
on the plateau or among the mountains, rapidly descend to
the eastern or western lowlands, and, after passing through
a small extent of alluvial land, enter the Gulf or the Pacific.
Tliey are therefore essentially highlaiul streams, generally
small, swift, obstructed by rocks, falls, and rapids. A few
only are navigable for short distances, especially the Grijalva
and" its branch, the Usumacinta, in Tabasco. The former
is regularly ascended by small steamers to San .luan Bautista,
90 miles, and during flooils considerably farther ; and the
latter is said to be navigable for loO miles, but is very
crooked. The llio Grande del Norte or Hio Bravo, on the
confines of the U. S., is 1,500 miles long, or much longer
than any exclusively Mexican river ; but it is navigable only
for a short liistance and for vessels of light draught. The
Pilnuco, on the northern boundary of Vera Cruz, forms, with
its connecting channels and lagoons, a waterway of some
importance; and inuneruus small rivers of Vera Cruz, Ta-
basco, and Campeachy admit light-drauglit vessels near
their mouths. Y ucatan has no rivers of importance. On
the Pacific side the largest rivers are the Lerma, or Kio
Grande de Santiago, Ilowing through Jalisco and forming a
tleiqi cafSon, and the Jlescala. or liio de las Balsas, which
rises in Puelila and reaches the ocean on the cunfines of
Guerrero and Michoacan. Neither of these is navigalile ;
the scheme for improving the Mescala as a means of inler-
oceanic eoinmunication is probably im|)racticable. The riv-
ers of Sonora, though of considerable length, are useless as
waterways. The Colorado enters the northern end of the
Gulf of California, flowing for a short distance through
Mexican territory. The largest Mexican lake is the beauti-
ful Lago de Chapala, on the confines of Jalisco and Jlichoa-
Ciin. Various small lakes are scattered over the plateau, the
most important being those about the capital, Mkxico (g. v.).
The swampy depressions of the Bolson de Mapimi hardly
deserve the name of lakes. Of the many lagoons along t he
(iulf coast the most important are the Laguna de Terminos,
in (>'ampea<^hy. and the Laguna .Madre, in Tamaulipas.
Geology. — Tlie very complicated geology of Mexico has
been studied only in fragments, and no clear general state-
ment of it can yet be given. The higher mountains, espe-
cially of the Sierra Madre, are formed of granite, which
passes under the general surface of the pLnteau ; but it is
here covered and in great part hidden by a tangle of erupt ive
and raotamorpliic rocks — porphyries, basalts and trachytes,
schists, and crvstalline limestones — and these contain the
richest mineral deposits. The recent volcanic action along
tlie east and west belt of the Cordillera de Anahuac lias re-
sulted in extensive deposits of lava and ash. In the north-
ern atid eastern parts of the plateau lower spaces, between
the mountains, are largely occupied by unaltered limestones
and sandstones, mostly of Mesozoic age. Generally the
coast belts show metamorphic and eruptive rocks; but in
some places, princijially along the Gulf, there are Quater-
nary deposits or recent alluviums. Yucatan appears to be
largely formed of Tertiary limestones. For Minerals, see
below.
Earthrmakes, though frequently felt in Southern and
Western Mexico, are seldom severe, and have never, within
historic times, been very destructive.
Climate. — From the snow-clad peaks to the hot and moist
coast lands and the dry northern deserts, Mexico presents
every possible gradation of climate; but, owing to the ter-
raced character of the jilatcau edges, three zones of tempera-
ture are pretty clearly delined in the inhabited lands. Mex-
icans distinguish these as the tierra calienfe, hot or trop-
ical land, extending to about 3.000 feet in the latitude of
Mexico ; tierra templuda. temperate, 13,000 to G,000 feet ; and
tierra fria, cold, aliove 0,000 feet. The latter embraces
all the higher parts of the plateau, and is cold only in a
relative sense, the cliniate being, in fact, very mild and
equable ; at Mexico city, for example (7,350 feef), the mean
temperature is about 60' F., commonly descending to 45 or
40" in the early morning, but seldom to the freezing-point.
At higher elevations and farther N. the temperature is of
course more severe. The tierra teniplada. especially on the
terraces facing the Gulf, is called, wit h reason, the " paradise
of Mexico,'' combining as it does a balmy climate with the
most magnificent scenery and a wealth of serai-tropical vege-
tation. In the coast regions of the tierra caUente the mean
temperature varies at different points from 75' to 85° P. In
general, the winter months are characterized by a somewhat
lower thermometer, less frequent rains, and on the Gulf side
by frequent " northers," or storms from the N., very destruc-
tive to sliipping and accompanied by a sudden lowering of
temperature. During the summer montlis the heat in many
parts of the tierra caliente is oppressive : and at some of the
ports — notably Vera Cruz. Progresso, Tampico, Acapulco,
Mazatlan, and GuaymaSj — is nearly always accompanied by
epidemics of yellow fever; these rarely extend to the tierra
te.mplada, and never to the tierra fria. Most of Eastern
and Southern Jlexico has an abundant rainfall. The rainy
season, wliere it can be distinguisheil. generally extends from
May to September; but along the (iulf no part of the year
can be called dry; and in parts of Tabasco and Campeachy
there is a second rainy season in January and February.
The northern and northwestern states, with Lower Califor-
nia, are deficient in moisture except in favored places; and
the great Bolson de Jlapimi is so dry that much of it is un-
inhabitalile without irrigation. Sir Climatk.
Vegetation. — No country in the world shows so many va-
riations in the aspect of plant life as Mexico. In a few
hours' ride one may pass through pine-forests, oak glades.
weedy slopes, plains or ravines bristling with cacti, tangled
scrub, heavy tropical jungle, and bright-green alluvial
meadows; and each of these seems, for the time being, to
cover the whole country. The very irregular distribution
of the climate zones is evident when one finds in the heart
of the plateau valleys filled with tropical growth or fields of
sugar-cane, while above them may tower pine-clad mountains
and snowy peaks. Sometimes the types of vegetation are
strangely "combined ; thus in the mountains of Guerrero
palm-trees grow side by side wit h pines at the level of 7,500
feet. Broadly speaking, the plants of the tierra caliente arc
tropical in cluiractei-, those of the tierra templada are semi-
tropical, and those of the tierra fria resemble the temperate
flora of the U. S. True forest is generally confined to the
mountain-sides and to some alluvial flats along the coast,
especially on the Gulf side ; the latter is tropical jungle, and
the range upward extends to woods principally of oaks, and
finally to the high pine-forest. The coast lands, where not
alluvial, are generally occupied with a low. scrubby growth,
with numerous cacti and spiny |);ants: and this is prevalent
over much of Yucatan. The plateau is counuouly nmre or
less open. The nuinl)er of useful indigenous plants is very
great. They include mahogany, tropical cedar, ebonv, rose-
wood, and a largo number of other cabinet woods in tlie low-
lands, besides oak and |)ine in the mountains; rubber, copal,
and various gums ; jalap, cassia, ipecacuanha, and many
other medicinal species ; logwood, aruatto, indigo, carlanio,
MEXICO
and other ilyes; and vanilla. Two species of Agave are
particularly valuable, and both are now cultivated on a large
scale: llie -1. 'i"(eri'c((»i«, or the niaffuev-plant of the hijjh
plateau, the jui<e of which, fernuMiled. is chiclia, a national
l>evcra},'e ; and the henii|Ucn-plant of the lowlands, yicMing
sisal hump, now the principal product of Yucatan. There
are luiinerous other vegetable filjers, liut little utilized.
ZoUhxiij. — Mexico, as a whole, is included in the neotropi-
cal /.oiilogieal region (see America, Soith). and is generally
united with Central America as a sub-region, the Central
.\inerican. This sub-region, however, is not very clearly
defined ; in fact, the animals of Mexico, as a whole, closely
resemble those of Hra/.il, dilTering only in a certain propor-
tion of s|>ecies and genera. There are the same or very
similar monkeys, jaguars, armadillos, rodents and opossums,
toucans, parrots, humming-birds and trogans, serpents, in-
sects, ami land-shells ; and the sjime ty|)cs of fishes ami
alligators are found in the rivers. Owing to the great
variety of surface an<l elevation the fauna is exceedingly
rich and varied, ilmugli the larger species tend to extinction.
As the bouniliiry of the neotropical region nearly corre-
sponds with the northern limit of Mexico, there is naturally
a mingling of forms with those of temperate Xorth .Vinerica.
In the hot lands, for example, the jaguar ranges into Texas;
and the bullalo formerly roamed over the high plains of
Xorlhern Mexico, All the Euro[)can domestic animals have
been introduced.
Cochineal-culture, formerly very important in the southern
states, is now almost abandoned, the dye being largely
superseded by chemical substances; in ISlil less than sfl.JO.-
t)()0 worth of cochineal was exported. The pearl-fisheries
of the Gulf of California were formerly very productive,
and are still important.
Mincrnh. — In mineral wealth Mexico stands in the first
rank, and her riches are practically inexhaustible. N'early
all the metals exist ; but among them silver is so prominent
that it has absorbed much of the enterprise of the country,
and may be said to have shaped its history. Among the Az-
tecs gold, being easily obtained in placer mines, was the chief
precious metal, and it first attracted the cupidity of the
.Spaniards; but as the coni|uest extended from Mexico
towaril the N. rich silver districts were discovereil in (pu'ck
succession. *he most renowned being those of Guanajuato.
San Ijuis Polosi. Zacatecas, and Durango. These attained
an immense development in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, when enormous fortunes were made in them and
fortunate proprietors sometimes purchased titles of nobility
bearing the names of their mines. In 1800 llumbohlt esti-
mated that the Veta .Madre. or main lode of Guanajuato, had
vielded one-fifth of the silver then current in the worlil.
The Valencia mines are said to have produced $2i(5,0<)0.(K)0
from 1770 to isjil. jmil the Catorco mines of San Luis I'o-
tosi yielded if loO.OOO.OOO in seventy-seven years. Thousands
of mines have been abandoned, especially in Guan-ijuato, but
new ones are constantly being oi>ened. At present tlie great
sdver regions are Zacatecas. San Luis Potosi, Chihmihua,
Coahuila. tiuanajuato, and Hidalgo; but there are mines in
nearly all the stales. The most common method of reduc-
tion is the bmiliriii de ptttio or mercury process, invented
by Bartolomc de Medina in \'m1. The hyposulphate or
leeching process is now employed in several of the northern
distri<-ts. and some ores are exported' to Germany for smelt-
ing. The silver ores geiu'rally contain a percenlage of golil,
and most of the gold now obtained in Jfexico is a surplus
product of the silver mines. Placer-gold mines are profit-
ably workeil in Mexico. Michoacan, Guerrero, ami some of
the northern states. Cinnabar is widely distributed, but
during the colonial [leriod the extraction of mercury was
restricted liy law in order to protect the Spanish mines : and
it is only of late years that the deposits have lipen worked,
princiimlly in .Morelos, Guerrero, anil San Lin's Potosi ; ow-
uig to the great demand for mercury in silver n-dui'lion,
these mines bid fair to be largely developed. Jjcail occurs
jjrincipally in connection with silver ores, but also separate,
especially in Hidalgo and (^ueretaro. where it is extracted to
some extent. Copper deposits are sjiid to be very extensive,
notably in ^[ichoai'an. Chiapas, and Smora, but they are
genendly neglected ; the mines of Fiower California yielil
5.000 t<ins yearly. Tin. zinc, platinum, bismuth, antimony,
etc.. have been rep<irtiMl. but have never been utilized. Iron
(magnetic ore principally) occurs in immense and very rich
beds. The celebrated Cerro ilel .Mercado. near the capital
of Durango, is a hill 6-10 feet high,composeil almost entirely
of iron ore, which averages 70 i>er cent, of metal ; it is cal-
culated that the hill contains .•JftO.OtXI.OOO tons. This and
other d(>posits hanlly less rich havi- been worked only on a
small scale, owing principally to the lack of transjiortalicui
and of coal. liecls of the latter have lately been reported
from Coahuila, Soiiora, Michoacan. Puebla, Oaxaca, Guerre-
ro, Niievo Leon, etc. The Coahuila coal is now exporte<l to
the L'. S. in considerable quantities. That fif Sonora is an-
thracite, and is believe<l to l«? very valuable. Efforts are
iH'ing made (1894) to develop the U-ds of Puebla and other
states. Sulphur exists in large quantities in the volcanic
craters; salt is obtained in the coa.st lagiHins ami in mines
of the northern states, and asphaltum and petroleum are
said to be found in paying tpiantities. Marble of fine cpial-
ity is mined in Mexico. Xuevo Leon. etc.. and ap[X'ars to be
widely distributed. The beautiful Mexi<an onvx (a semi-
transparent alabaster) is quarried in Puebla, and is largidv
used in the manufacture of ornamental objects. Manv kinds
of precious stones are reported, but the only ones of iin|Mir-
tance at present arc ofials ; these are extensively exported,
and the best are of fine quality anil often very large ; the
most productive mines are in tjuerctaro and Guerrero.
Calculations of the amount of precious metals which have
been jirodnced by ]Mexico are always defective. The records
of mints and other sources show an output from 1521 to
1891 of lj::i.r)70.370.247 in silver and !f276.!»70.17:i in gold,
but these are proljably very far iielow the true totals. (See
Mtntnanil Coinage l}elow.) Mining enterprise is now (1894)
more active than at any i)revious period. The aggregate
annual fpiodiict of gold and silver is estimated at from $40.-
OOO.IMW to !f;42,O0O.OO0. Haticroft calculates that the entire
mineral prinluct of Jlcxico reaches $67.0(JO,OO0 annuallv.
About 240.000 men arc regularly employed in the mines.
Politirnl Diviiiong. Area, and Pnpiilalioii. — Mexico has
an area of over 7.iG.2;t2 sij. miles, anil a population of about
12.000,000. It is divided into twenty-seven states, two terri-
tories, and a federal district. The following table exhiiiits
the situations and areas of the several states, with their ap-
proximate population.*, in 1893.
GcLF States :
Yucatan
Canipeachy
Tabasec.
Vera Cruz
Tainaiiljpns
I'AciFic States:
Cliiapas
Oaxaca
Ouerrern
Miclioacan
Collnia
Jalisco
Sinaloa
Sonora
Cestbai. State-s :
Puet»ln
Tlaxcala
Morelos
Mexico
IlitlaiKO ..
Qiier^laro
(iiianajiiato
Apuos Calientes...
Xokthekn States:
.<An Luis Potosi...
Zacaieca-s
I>iiranp>
Nuevi^ l.eoD
Conliuila
Chiliiiahiifi
Tkuritohies ;
I.ow*T CaliforDia .
T.-pie
Federal district
Art* iB tq. 01.
28.180
ao.868
9.814
2r.4M
39.339
29.TS5
88.778
2i.>m
S8.70»
8.704
87.86-1
se.i8t
77,5»1
PopnltttloD.
365.610
95.16(1
111,880
Ml ,824
173,a(W
a48.6(W
815,4l!ll
3M.40I)
630.9*1
74.600
l.2*W.!S00
a45.7:«
14U.5eO
18.739
845.840
1.9)16
143.515
1.650
14.3..WO
10.064
S8S.6:.0
7,;.'i8
5fi5.4.'W
3.938
811.475
IS.MO
l.l«7.-i.'8
2,895
148. 1S5
Totals
84.446
85.389
43.589
SU.896
89,376
S9,918
11.561
463
550.670
NU.640
255.B,VJ
871. 9S7
8 U.I •57
846.740
134.130
478.7.50
Of this population about 4,500,000 are Indians, descend-
ants of the ancient inhabitants of the countrv; 5.000,(KIO
are mestizoes or persons of mixed white and Indian (and
sometimes Xegro) Idood ; and 2.4(Kl.O(Kl are of Euro|«>an
(mostly of Spanish) ra<'e. Some of th- Indians, as the
(ttomi tribes, show little aptitude for civilization, and others,
in the northern states and territories, are practically inde-
pendent. In general both the Indians and niesti/iics show
a desire to advance themselves, and frequently they attain
the highest .sixMal and political position-i; President Juarez,
for example, was a pure-blinHleil Indian.
Mexicans are often accused of indolence and lack of en-
terprise. Considering the great progress which the country
has made since 18T0, these defects can hardly be chargotl on
r26
.MEXICO
tlic nation as a wliolf, tliouirh Ihcy tloubtless exist in some
individuals. Tlie long civil wars retarded improvements,
encouraged lawlessness, and made the peasant careless of a
future whose course lie could not foresee. To some extent,
at least, they fostered iiulepeiidence and self-reliance, and
the iiianv political exiles brought back to their country
the advanced ideas which they had gathered abroad. Tlie
better class of Mexicans arc brave, liberty-loving, intelli-
gent, anil ([uick to adopt new customs. They are hot parti-
sans, but are beginning to see the necessity of majority rule.
Slavcrv is not "merely abolished, but its influence is now
hardly felt: workmen are well treated and respect them-
selves, and class distinctions arc hardly known. Above all
the people are optimistic, and have a thorough belief in
their countrv and its future. (Taml)ling and the lower forms
of sport— the bull-ring, cock-iigliting, etc. — still have a
strong hold cjii the jieople, but intelligent men are waking
up to the harm whicii they produce.
Governinenl.— The constitution of Feb. 5, 1857, is in force,
but has been sevei-al times amended. It is very similar to
that of the U. S. The states are free and sovereign in the
control of their internal affairs. The federal executive is a
president, eliosen for four years by indirect popular suffrage.
He may be re-eleoled. In case of his death or absence his
place is filled by the president of the senate for the preced-
ing moiit h ; formerly the succession w^is vested in the presi-
dent of the Supreme Court. The president is assisted by a
cabinet of seven secretaries, appointed and removable by
him. Congress now consists of a senate and house of depu-
ties. There are two senators from each state and two from
the federal district, elected for four years, half the seats
falling vacant every two years. Deputies are elected for
two vears in the ratio of one for every 40,000 inhabitants.
The "eleven justices of the Supreme Court, with the fiscal
and attorney-general, are elected by popular suffrage for
terms of six years. The constitution guarantees freedom
of speech and" religion and freedom of the press, subject
onlv to the regular action of the laws. The great improve-
ment of the country is shown in the marked decrease of
crime; the laws are "now effectually administered in all ex-
cept tlie wildest regions. Brigandage, once the scourge of
Jlexico. has been nearly extinguished by the action of the
severe but salutary law "which condemned every brigand to
death and made his trial a summary one. The army has
been reduced (18!)4) to about 40,000 inen. By the addition
of the permanent and general reserves it can be increased to
160.000. The navy is very small.
Religion and Education. — Most Mexicans are Roman
Catholics, and until 1857 the Roman Catholic was the state
religion. Ecclesiastics had great influence in political af-
fairs, and the C^hurch controlled education and absorbed
much of the wealth of the country. Church and state ai'e
now absolutely separated, and the" laws assure perfect free-
dom of worship. By the law of Sept. 25, 1873, it was de-
clared that the nation recognized no state religion. Jlar-
riage is a civil contract. Monastic orders are prohibited,
and (at least in the larger cities) the clergy must wear secular
dress in the streets. Ecclesiastical institutions are not al-
lowed to acquire real estate. Public schools are supported
by the national and state governments, and are unsectarian.
Primary education is coin]iulsory in most of the states, and
all classes show a commendable desire to have their children
taught. In 1891 there were in the republic 12,791 schools
of all grades, with 722,4:i.") pupils. The National University,
opened in 155;i, has been abolished, its place being taken by
schools of law, medicine, and engineering, which are in a
flourishing condition. There are various other institutions
for higher education in Mexico and in the state capitals
su]iported by public or private means and by the Church.
The principal libraries, museum, art .school, observatory,
etc., are at the federal capital. Literature, iis in other Span-
ish-American countries, has been somewhat unequally de-
velo])ed. In history and the kindred studies of archaeology,
ethnology, and bibliography Mexican scholars stand deserv-
I'dly high, but in natural sciences, poetry, and fiction few
names of note have appeared. Musical talent is general,
ami both music and drama are well supported.
Mints and Coinage. — The silver peso or dollar is the
standard of value ; it weighs 27,073 grammes, or 417-7903
grains, 9.027 jiarls in 10.000 being pure silver. The gold
20-peso |jiece weighs u22'2340 grains, 875 jjarts in 1,0(X) be-
ing pure gold : the proportionate value of these, and the
value of the silver peso in foreign exchange is of course
subject to fluctuations. There are eleven (xovernment
mints, which are leased to i>rivate inilividuals, but are sub-
ject to inspection. Any jiersoii may have gold or silver
coined at these mints on the payment of 4'()18 per cent, on
gold and 4-41 per cent, on silver coins. The total amount
coined during the fiscal year 1891-92 was — silver, 25,527,018
pesos; gold, 291,540 pesos: be-sides 156,694 pesos in copper
cents. A large amount of coin, especially silver, is exported,
and the pe.so is current in many .Spaiiisli-.\nierican and even
.'Vsiatic countries. Counterfeit coins are friMpieiit in the
rural districts. Ten or twelve private banks issue bank-
notes, but no Government paper-money is in circulation.
Weights and Jleasures. — 'rhe metric systems have been
introduced, and are coming into general use in large places.
In the interior the old Spanish weights and measures are
still generally used. The libra (i)ouiiii) is equal to 0'46
kilog. ; the arroba is 25 libra.-i. The rara (yard) is 0'837
meter, or 2 ft. 8'9 in. ; the league is 0,6665 varas.
Finances. — On June 30, 1892, the public debt was officially
stated as follows (in Mexican dollars) ;
External debt, £16,500,000 (at jiar) $82,500,000
Internal debt —
Consolidated 3 per cent 31 ,042,850
Railway bonds (Government lines).. . 22.089,875
Railwav debts 15,926.608
Other debts 21,640,177
Total $91,949,510
On Sept. 30, 1893. the total debt, at current rates of ex-
change, was estimated at about £25,000,000, or $121,000,000
in U. S. money. Measures have been taken to complete its
consolidation. About 58 per cent, of the revenue is de-
rived from imjiort and export duties. 35 per cent, from in-
tei-nal taxation, and tlie rest from mints and other sources.
The revenue of late years has increased steadily, while
expenses have been much reduced; in the fiscal vear of
1891-92 the revenue exceeded the expenditures for tlie first
time in the history of the republic. Owing to the fall in the
price of silver, the financial conditions since then have been
less favorable ; but they have been met by a rigid system of
economy and increased taxatiim in certain <lirections, and
the debt has been but slightly increased. It should be re-
membered that ;\lexiGo has granted in railwav siil^idies, from
1870 to June 30,1892. no less than $93,500,000," of whicli nearly
$65,000,000 had been actually paid up to the latter date. In
fifteen years $522,00l),000 h.as been expende<l in public im-
provements, while the country has met its other obliga-
tions.
Means of Commnniration. — The first railway line — that
from Vera Cruz to Mexico, noted for its magnificent scenery
and reniarkaljle engineering works— was comiileted in 1872.
Since then, a«d especially since 1880, the republic has
shown great activity in railway building. In 1892 the total
length of all Mexican lines in operation was 0,330 miles.
These include the Mexican Central, from Jlexico to El
Paso, and the National, from Mexico to Laredi' (these two
bringing the capital into connection with the railway sys-
tem of the U. S.); the Inter-oceanic, from Vera Cruz to
Acapulco, etc. ;\Iost of these have been built by the aid of
Government subsidies with foreign or native capital. The
federal Government is now (1894) engaged in the construc-
tion of- a line across tlie Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The re-
|)ublic has about 19,000 miles of coninum roads, some of
them good but the greater jiart execrable, especially in the
mountain districts. " The lack of bridges is es]ieeially vexa-
tious to the traveler by diligence or on horseback, as he is
often detained for days by swollen streams. In 1892 there
were 31,842 miles of" telegraph, mostly national or state
property. The telenhone, electric light, and tram-cars have
been iiiiroduced in larger places.
Agncnlture. — On the higher lands maize and beans are
the most important agricultural products, and the f(K)d-sta-
ples of the poorer classes ; wheat and other (cereals grow well
in some places, but are not extensively cultivated. Maguey
is largely grown in many places, and city markets are regu-
larly supplied with iiulqne by a special railway service on
some lines. In the tierras templada.i and calientes the
])rincipal crops, besides maize jind manioc, are coffee of ex-
cellent (piality, especially in Vera Cruz ami Colinia: tobacco
in Vera Cruz", Jalisco, Oaxaca. etc. : cacao in Tabasco and
Campeachy ; rice in Morelos and the Gulf Stales; henequen
in Vucatai'i ; and sugar-cane in nearly all the slates. The
cultivation of tropical fruits on a large scale has been un-
dertaken along the Gulf coast,. the crops going to the New
MKXRO
721
Tobaecoi. .
Oums
Ixtle
Vftiiilla...
Woods . . .
1.459,090
703.574
617,300
9(.9.01-,>
1,673,738
c
Orli'iins iimrk(^t. fiittlo, shocp, and goals are largely bred
ill sDiiie i>r tlu' norllii'rii slati's.
Manufactiirr.s. — Tlie CDttoii-factorios of Piielila, Jalisco,
Vi-ni Cruz, I'liahuila, Tiaxcalii, and the federal district now
ein|ilov al)()Ut 3~>.0()0 operative.s, and the annual product —
priacipally coarse mania or slieeling — is valued at $1~>,CM)0.-
000. I'arpets. W(«)len underwear, and cloths are now pro-
duced on a cousiilerahle scaU-. There are minierous ilour-
niills and distilleries, a few breweries, soaii-faclorie.s, j)aper-
mills. powder-mills, tile-factories, etc. Vera Cruz is the
principal center for the manufacture of cigars and ciga-
rettes, though they are made all over the country. The
peculiar broad-brimmed Mexican hats, saddles, silver orna-
ments, jewelry, etc., are generally made at small establish-
ments, but they are of line quality and the aggregate prod-
uct is very considerable; to these may be added furniture,
clothing, books, etc. The handiwork peculiar to the Indians
shoulil be mentioned. It includes various kinds of terra-
cotta and glazed pottery, often highly- arti.stic ami much
prized ; feather-work, hammocks, nrtilicial flowers, etc.
Commerce. — The total exports for the fiscal vear 1892-93
were valued at |i8T.5()!),32I. Nicxican money. Tiiey included
the following items:
Silver coin 8'.'7.17n.«)r, Hides SJ.iW.LW
Silver «.7:W,s<il
Silver ore lO.iMO.T.iO
Ar^^eiitiferous lead 7.40-2.611
Copper («<i.37'.i
Heuequen 8,Ky:J,071
Coffee 8.727,119
The exports, including precious metals, at present largely
exceed the imoorts as recorded (this is partly due to the
payments on tlie foreign debts). The U. S. receive about
two-l birds of the exports and furnish more than half the
imports; much of the remaining trade is with Kngland.
Iliatory. — Before its iliscovery by the Spaniards Jlexico
was occupied by .several Indian races, the Xaliuas (Aztecs,
etc.) being dominant in the southern part of the plateau,
with their principal towns about the lakes in the valley of
Mexico. (See Aztecs and Mkxicax Antivi'Ities.) The ex-
oration of the Gulf coast by Grijalva (1.518) was followed
jy the .S[)anisli inva-sion of the country (1519) and the taking
of the Aztec capital, Ti-nochtitlan. in 1521. (For events of
the coiKiuijst, see Cortes. IIeknando. and Mo.ntezima.) The
Spanish cmony of Xew .Spain, thus formed, was erected into
a vieeroyalty, and rapidly became the richest Eurojjean pos-
session in the Xew^ World, with the single exception of
Peru. From the new capital at Mexico conquest was
pushed over the whole plateau and both coasts, and even-
tually far into the present territory of the U. .S. The first
viceroys ruleil all the Spanish possessions in North America
from the southern boundary of Costa Rica to Flori<la, as
well as the We.st Indies and the Spanish East Indies.
Orailually their authority was restricted in the outlying
territories, and in the eighteenth century the East Indies
and Ginitemala, or Central .Vmerica, were entirely .separated.
Xew Spain was divided into the three "kingdoms" of Xew
Spain. New (iaiicia, and Xew Leon, corresponding to South-
ern, Xorlhwcstern, and X'ortheastern Mexico, to which were
added the Territories of Texius, Xew Mexico, and California,
with an undefined extent northward. This viust territory
was subdivided into many " inlendencies," the bases of the
modern states. In the latter part of the eighteenth century
the northern part w;is separated as the "Provincias Inter-
nas." though it was reunited to Mexico after the inde-
pendence. The viceroys nded with great splendor, and the
country experienced no greater disturbances than a few
Indian wars and descents of buccaneers on I he coast. Enor-
mous fortunes were am)us.se<l in the silver mines, in the East
Indian trade, which centered at Acapulco, and often by
speculation and brilwry in olllee ; but commerce was heav-
ily fettered to protect the Spanish monopolies. .\11 impor-
tant civil and ecclesiastical offices were absorbed by Span-
iards. The Creoles or whites born in the country had few
privileges, and suffered fri>m unjust ami heavy tax.ation
and oppressive laws; and the Inilians and mestizoes were
kept in a state of degradation and semi-servitude. To these
grievances must be added the n^strictions on literature and
e<lucation, the tyranny of the Inquisition, the lack of secu-
rity for personal liberty, and the venality of the courts.
Hatred of the Spaniards naturally produced a desire for in-
dependence whi<'h found its opportunity in the disturbed
state of Spain during I lie Napoleonic wars. On Sept. Iti.
1810, a revolt broke out near (^ueretaro headeil by the priest
Hidalgo. U soon assumed formidable pro|>ort ions, and for
a time threalened to drive the .Spanianls oul of the country,
but after several bloody battles it was suppressi'd and the
leaders were shot. (See Hiiialoo.) Small uands of insur-
gents kei)t up the struggle in the mountains, and the inva-
sion of tlie northeastern provinces by Mina (1817) did much
to foster the spirit of independence. Still loyalty to Spain
was by no means dead, ami when (1821) a young army ofll-
ccr named Itnrbide advanced the plan of an independent
Mexican empire under a Spanish liourlKjii prince, it was
eagerly seized upon even l)y the avowed republicans, and
generally by the army. Itnrbide and (Juerrero marched on
Mexico, and the last viceroy was forced to give in his adhe-
sion to their plan. Spain refuseil to ratify this treaty with
"rebels," and the first Mexican congress made Itnrbide
himself emperor (.lune, 1822). This outcome of the struggle
was bitterly opposed by the old republicans. After a
troubled reign of less than a year Iturliide was deposed and
a republic was formed. (.See Itihbiue.) The term of the
first presidint. Victoria (1824-281. was generally prosperous,
but soon after it ended the republic was plunged into civil
war, and for many years was subject to the military dicta-
torship of Santa Anna (q. c). l)uring this pericxi Texas
seceded and joined the U. S.. leading to a war with that re-
l)ublic (1846-47) which terminated in the cession to the V. .S.
of all the territory X. of the Hio (irande, and California.
The final deposition of Santa Anna (1854) opened the way
to the reformed constitution of 1H57. but tliis change in-
volved the long and bitter struggle of the " Keforin war."
1857-60. (.See Co.moxkort and Jiarez.) The triumph of
the reform party under the Indian statesman .luarez was
hardly accomplished before France interfered in the affairs
of Mexico (1861), and after two years of war made the ill-
fated Maximilian emperor. (.See Maxi.miliax.) The V. S.
finally forced the French to withdraw, leaving Maximilian
to his fate. He was soon defeated and shot by the republi-
cans (1867), and tluarez. who had bravely upheld the consti-
tuticm even when driven from the country, was reinstated,
and ruled until his death. Under him the constitution of
1857 w.is cemented, and the modern era of }irogress and
prosperity was inaugurated. Gen. Porfirio Diaz first at-
tained the presiilency in 1877 through a short civil war. but
he has ruled with wisdom and firmness, and is now (1894) in
his fourth term. See also SPAXisii-AMERirAX Literatire.
AiTUORiTiKs. — llislorv : Mora, Mijico i/ siis rernlucioiies
(.3 vols., 18:^6): Ahunan.' Iligloria de ilejico (5 vols., 1849-
52); H. H. Bancroft, Jfinlory ufllie Paofic Stales {Mexico),
6 vols., 1886-88 (a very complete bibliography in vol. i.) ;
also Pi}piilar Iltstory of lite Mexican People: Prescott. Con-
(/iiest of Mexico : XoU, A Short Iliatorn of Mexico (1890).
Zoi'Uogy and botany: The Biulo</ia Cenira/i-Aweriraiia,
edited by Godman and Salvin (in coui-se of publication,
1894). General W(U-ks, travels, and geography : Janvier, Mex-
ican Guide ; A. K. Conkling. Oitide to Mexico (1866) ; Ham-
ilton's Mexican Uatidbook (1883): Bureau of the American
Hepnblics, Handbook of Mexico (1890) ; H. II. Bancroft, Re-
sources and Development of Mexico (1893): the works of
Cubas. Orozco y Berra, Charnay. and Bandelier (on antiqui-
tiesV: Humboldt, Chevalier, Ciistro, and Brantz .Maver; the
travels of Ward and Ober. Herbert H. Smith.
Mexico: a state of the republic of Mexico; centrally
situated in the southern part of the plateau, liordering on
Queretaro, Hidalgo. Tlaxcala, Puebia, Morelos, (iuerrero, and
Michoacan. Area. 10,064 sq. miles; pop. 828.(i.'a) (these fig-
ures do not include the cajiital and fedi-ral district, which are
surrounded by the state). Capital. Toluca. The surface is
much broken by mountains of the Anahuae system. On the
southern border the giant ma.sses of PoiHicatepetl and Ixtac-
eihuatl are in plain sight from the city of Mexico: on the
E. the irregular range called the Sierra Xevada separates
the valley of Mexico from the plateau of Puebia ; on the W.
there are other high mountains; and the central range,
called the Sierra de las Cru<'e.s. culminates in the Xevado de
Toluca (14.020 feel), and diviiles the vallev of Mexico from
the somewliat similar but higher basin of 'foluca. Some of
the southea.s|ern valleys are within the lierra caliente — i. e.
below 3.000 feet — and grow sugar-<-ane and other tropical
proiluets. The silver mines of I he .st«le an- very pnxluctivc ;
mercury, gold, sulphur, and marble of excelli'nt quality are
mined. Cereals and magiiev (for [lulqiie-making) are the
principal products of the higlier laixls. .Mexico is one of the
princip.-d manufacturing states, making cotton and woolen
cloths, glass ami porcelain, saddlery, hats, etc. Public in-
struction receives much attention. 11. H. Smith.
r2S
MEXICO
MEYER
Mexico (Span. Mexico, or Mejicd) : capital and largest
city of the Mexican republic; in the federal district ; lat. 19'
25' 45' X., Ion. 99° 5' 15' W., and about 7,;^50 feet above the
sea (see map of Mexico, rcf. 7-G). The valley of Mexico,
in which it is situated, is an inclosed basin, 50 miles long
by 35 miles broad, containing six shallow and more or less
brackish lakes, some of them now little more than swamps.
Formerly these lakes were larger and partly continent.
The site of the city was originally a marshy island in Lake
Texcoco. Here, according to their own accounts, llie Aztecs
settled in 1325, calling their pueblo Tenochtitlan and some-
times Mcxitl (apparently an apjwUation of the war-god,
Iluitzilopochtli), whencethe modern name. The island was
Eartially protected from floods by a dike, and was approached
y causeways. The chiefs of Tenochtitlan became, during
the fourteenth century, dominant over the southern part of
the plateau. Opinions differ as to the extent of their jiower;
but the drift of modern research is to reject the idea of
an Aztec empire ; probably the pueblos and tribes of the
plateau remained in a state of semi-independence, though
Tenoclititlan extorted tribute from them ; some, as Tlaxtala,
were certainly free. The Aztec capital was taken by the
Spaniards in 1521, after most of the low buildings compos-
ing it had been destroyed. (See Cortes. Hernando.) Cor-
tes made the.mistake of building his capital on the ruins of
the olil city, though there was plenty of high ground near.
The walersof the lakes have receded, and the city is now
several miles from the nearest of them, though still ap-
proached by causeways over low and often swampy ground ;
canals, bordered by vegetable and flower-gardens, connect
the outskirts with 'fexcoco and Chochimilco; the city drain-
age, heretofore, has been into the former lake. Having no
outlet, these lakes swell with the summer rains, forcing back
the polluted water into the city ; during the colonial period
the waters frequently rose so high a.s to flood tlie streets to
a deplli of several fec^t, and this during long periods. 1'he
inundations have practically ceased, partly owing to the
natural decrease of the lakes and partly to the expensive
dikes, and to a huge drainage canal which was constructed
in the seventeenth cent\iry ; but these did not dispose of the
city sewage. Built on a sub-soil of swamp and without
proper drainage, Mexico has always been an unhealthful
place, especially in the poorer quarters ; intestinal diseases
and swamp fevers are very common, and there have been
frequent epidemics of typhoid and typhus. Water quickly
gathers in very sliglit excavations, so that it is impossible to
dig cellars ; the resulting dampness, together with the rare-
fied atmospliere at tliis elevation, often induces pulmo-
nary complaints, especially among strangers. It has fre-
quently been proposed to drain away all the lakes, at an
enormous expense, and this may eventually be done. Works
initiated under JIaximilian had for their primary object
the disposal of tlie city sewage, and secondarily the regula-
tion of the level of the lakes. After nuiny interruptions
these works were essentially completed in 1894. They in-
clude a canal nearly 30 miles long and a tunnel of nearly 7
miles. With these and other sanitary measures, it is be-
lieved that the health of the city will be greatly improved.
There are two fine atiueducts, bringing a somewJiat inade-
quate water-supply from the liills ; that of Chapultepec
follows, very nearly, the line of an Aztec aqueduct. Mex-
ico is regularly laid out, with moderately wide streets which
cross each other at right angles, aiul are usually well paved
and lighted ; tram-cars run through the princi])al ones to
several suburbs. The usual central S(iuare (now adorned by
a garden) is faced, by the cathedral, which is on or near the
princiiial Aztec temple (teoealli). The present building was
begun iiL 1573 and consecrated in 1645, though then far
from complete ; it is regarded as the finest church edifice in
Spanish America, and the interior is elaljorately decorated,
some of the paintings, it is said, being by Murillo. Another
side of the S(|uare isocc\ipie<l by the Goverimu'iit palace, on
the site of that of Montezmna ; it was the residence of C'or-
tes (partly burned by rioters in the seventeenth century, but
rebuilt) and of the viceroys. It now contains the principal
Government offices, senate chamber, hall of ambassadors, etc.,
and the Government pawn-shop, an important institution.
Other buililings of interest are the offices of the Inquisition
(now turned into a medical school), the mint (the oldest in
the republic), custom-house, convent of Santo Donnngo,
various churches, and the numerous charitable in.stitutions.
Iturbide'spalace.a very large structure, is occupied asa hotel.
The Panteon contains many elaborate monuments, the finest
being that in honor of Juarez. The better class of dwellings
at'c solidly Imilt of stone, with interior courts; living-rooms
are generally on the second floor. The Nalioiuil Museum is
especially rich in antiquities, including the sacrificial stone,
hideous idols, etc., found near the site of the teucalli, and
sculptures from the southern states and Yucatan ; the min-
eral collection is very complete. There are several libraries,
the most important, and perhapsthe most valuable in Amer-
ica, being the Biblioteca N'acioiial. with 155.000 volumes (in
1892) and a priceless collection of historical mainiscripts.
The Academy of San Carlos contains more valuable paint-
ings by old mastere than any otiier art-gallery in America.
There are excellent astronomical and meteorological ob-
servatories; several scientific schools receive Government
aid, and are doing good work ; and schools of law, medi-
cine, pharmacy, engineering, technology, fine arts, nmsic,
etc, take the place of the old university. The city and fed-
eral district are well supplied with good public and private
schools of all grades. The principal outdoor resorts are
the A'lameda. a public park and promenade with superb
trees ; the Pasco de la Viga, along a camil t)f that name ;
and the Pasco de Bucareli, continued to Chapultepec in
the Paseo de la Reformas, and a<iorned with a tine bronze
equestrian statue of Charles IV. and nu)nunuMils to Colum-
bus, Guateuiotzin, and Cortes. JMexico is now connected
by rail with most of the states and the U. S., and is a center
of manufactures and commerce. Much of the trade is in
the hands of foreigners. Pop. (1892) 329,535. The federal
district hiis an area of 463 sq. miles, and a population of
478.750 : it includes, besides the city, the towns or suburbs
of Tacubaya, Guadalupe, Tlolpkm, etc. H. H. Smith.
Mexico: city; capital of Audrain co., JIo. (for location
of county, see map of Missouri, ref. 3-H); on the Salt I'iver,
and the Chi. and Alton and the Wabash railways ; 108 miles
X. W. of St Louis. It is the seat of Hardin College (Baptist,
opened 1872), and has a military academy, a national bank
with capital of §50.000, 2 State "banks with combined ca|)i-
tal of ^250,000, and 2 daily, a monthly, and 3 weekly
periodicals. The industries comprise the manufacture of
flour, fire-brick, wagons, and plows. Pop. (1880) 3.835 ;
(1890) 4,789 ; (1892) 6.150. Editor of "Lkdger."
Mexico: village; Oswego co., N. Y. (for location of coun-
ty, sec map of New York, ref. 8-G) ; on the .Salmon creek,
near Lake'Ontario, and the Rome, Water, and Ogdensburg
Railroad; 17 miles E. of Oswego. It contains 4 churches,
3 district schools, an academy, a weekly newsimper, and
flour and grist mills, carriage-factories, corn-canneries, but-
ter-dish factorv. and agricultural-implement works. Pop.
(1880) 1,273; (1890) 1,315; (1893) l.:325.
Editor of " Indepexdext."
Mexico, Gulf of; a vast inland sea. corresponding in
many ways with the Mediterranean; nearly surrounded by
the fj. S.'and Mexico, and partially shut off from the .\tlan-
tic by the island of Cuba. It is connected with the At-
lantic by two comparatively shallow channels known as the
Straits of Florida and the'Yucatan Channel. The former
has a maximum depth of 344 fathoms and a cross-section
of 11 sq. miles; the latter, with a greatest depth of 1.164
fathoms, has a cross-section of 110 sq. miles. These meas-
urements, together with other data, obtained by the U. S.
Coast and (Jcodetic Survey, show that only a part of the
Gulf Stream comes from the Gulf, instead of the whole
of it, as has been long supposed. The area of the Gulf,
cutting it off by a line {nnn Cajie Florida to Havana, is 595,-
000 sq. miles. The lOO-fatlumi line marking the true con-
tinental border is distant from the present shore about 6
miles at Cape Florida. 120 miles on tne west coast of Flor-
ida and the north coast of Yucatan, and 130 miles opposite
Louisiana and Texas. Should the surface of the Gulf be
lowered 100 fathoms, 208.000 sq. miles, or one-third of its
area, would be added to the land. The greatest depth is
2.119 fathoms. A submarine plateau to tlie N. W. of the
center of the Gulf, and below 2,000 fathoms, is known as
Sigsbee's Deep, after its discoverer. The northern pai't of
tht' Gulf has lieen filled with sediment from the Mississippi,
and many facts indicate that the liottum in that region is
slowly subsiding on account of the weight of the silt de-
posited upon it. See also (ji'LF Stream. Consult Rrporl of
Superintendiml of United Stales Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey for JSS3-S4, pp. 619-621. Israel C. Rissell.
Meyer, Adolf Bkrniiard, M. D. : ethnologist and or-
nithologist; b. at Hamburg, Germany, Oct. 11. 1840; was
educated there and at the Universities of Gottingen, Vienna,
Zurich, and Berlin. From 1870 to 1873 he traveled in the
MEYEK
MKVKKBKER
72!)
Ptiili|)|)iiiP anil >[iiljiy islands; sinci'lH74 lii' lias liccii (lirr>f-
tniiif (111' Ifiiyal Ziiiilu^^icahiTiil Aiillir(i|i<i-Kiliniit,'ni|iliic Mii-
siiiiiis nf Diisilin. Dr. Meyer's oi>nti'iliiilii>ns lo urnilhcilo^y
and ctlmuloifv uio niiiniioiis, and liavo a|i|ii'ariMl in thoiiiih-
lirations (if liic Iwulinj^' sticntilic sucictics of Kuni|io. Bo-
siiles those lie liius, us direelor, issued sixteen volumes of
inernoii's an<l reports of the Dresden Museum. Amonji his
other works are Abbilihinyen vim \'ogelii/:flelte {4to, parts
1-21, lST!i-'.)4); Dif JlirselHieweihsuiiniihiitg zu Jlori/zburff
(folio, C-i plates, lS8.i-,S7); I'lmir Ann-. J{a>/.(1-, uiiil ISirk-
wild uiid seine Aharleii ^folio, with atlas of 17 plates, 1H,S7);
Album roll ('elebe.sli//ieii (1SS7); Album roll I'liilippinenli/pen
(1H85-8!1, with ii'i plates); and irurina im Obergntlthal
(Kiirntlien, folio, 14 plates, 1885). V. A. LriAS.
Mpyer, Ehuahu, .M. D. : ophtluilmolo;jist ; b. at Des.sau,
N'ov. i:i, 18;i8: studied at the Universities of Halle, Herliu,
and Paris, prailualin;; Jl. D. at Berlin in ISGO: settled in
J'aris, in lK(i:t, to praetiee his speeially. In 186!) ha pub-
lished .Uiildi/iex (les i/eu.r,a work that has passed llirou;,'li
a number of editions and has been translated into Herman,
Eiii;lish, Spanish, Italian, and Kussiau. In 1883 he became
eoeditor of the Revue yeiierale d'oplilhulmologie. S. T. A.
Meyer, (ikoro IIkrmann, von, >I. D. : anatomist and
physiolo^jist ; b. at Frankfort -on-t he-Main, .\ujr- "', XHX't;
.stuilied in the I'liivc isiliesof Heidelberj; and Berlin, under
Tiedemann ami .1. Miiller, {^raduatiiii; .M. D. from the latter
seliool in 18:t7: in ISIO was privat doeent in the University
of Ti'iliiiificn ; in lH-14 aeeepted the position of prosector at
the University of Zurich, subsequently becoming Professor
of Anatomy. Ilis contributions lo physiological anatomy
are very valuable. Among his works are: Lelnbnch ile'r
phjixinliiyischen Aniiliiiiiie den Jleimr/ien (Leijizig, IH.-iG);
Die Statil; uiid Merhanil; des meiisclilir/icn Kiwchenqeruxtes
(Leipzig, 187:i) ; I'nxere Sprachwerkzeuye und Hue ^'erweii-
duiig zur Bildung dcr Sprachlaule (Leipzig. 1880).
S. T. Armsthoxo.
Meyer. GrsT.iv, Ph. D. : pliilologist ; b. at Gross-Streh-
litz, Silesia, N'ov, 25, 1850; .studieil at the University of
Breslaii : from 1871 to 1874 was teacher in the (iymnasium
attiotha; in 187G became privat decent in Prague; since
1877 hai been Professor of C'om|)arative Philology at (iraz
in Steiermark : is a member of the Imperial Academy of
Vienna; is aiitlior of Die mil ytiialen yebildilen I'lanenx-
stUinme (187;i); Zur Ueachlehtc der indoyerm. Slammbil-
ditnt/ und DeclinaliiM (1875); (Irierliisrhe Grammalik
(1880 ; 2d cd. 1886) ; Albanesisc/ie Sludien (3 vols., 188:}-i)2) :
Unsays und Sludien zur Sprachgexchichle und Volkskunde
(1885); Iiei.se/ikizzen (lu.H Grieehenlaitd und Italien (1886);
Alhanesisehe (Irammalik (1888); Oriechixrhe Viilkslieder in
deulscher yar/ibildiiny (1890); Elyniiiliiyisrlies WUrlerbuch
der albanesi-Hi-lien S/inirhe. lie is the fust authority in the
field of Albanian philology. Bk.sj. Iiik W'ukeler.
Meyer, IIeixrich August Wimiki.m, Th. D.: Bible com-
mentator; b. at Gotha, Jan. 10, 1800; studied theology
in Jena: was pastor at (Jsthausen (1822), llai-ste (is:il),
Hoya (18:i7), Xeusladt (1841); after 1848 he resided in Han-
over, and there <lied June 21, 187:^. As early as 18:i2 his
labors as an cxegetical commentator upon the New Testa-
ment were recognized in (iermany as uniting sound learn-
ing and the most searching eritieisiii with an orthoilox. con-
siTVative faith. Knuii that day to the jieriod of his death
he was constantly iiulting forth new editions, masterpieces
of exegesis. Unable to finish the New Testament himself,
because the wimderful sale of his commentary had obliged
him to make these fre(|uent revisions, which were of the
most thorough and candid character, he gavi' Thessalonians
to Kevelation to others. An English translation of his com-
mentary appeared at Hilinburgh under I he supervision of Uev.
W. P. Dieksciii, of the Uuivei-sily of (ilasgow, anil Kev. K.
Crombie, of St, .Mary's College, in twenty .volumes, 187;{-X2.
of which there is a greatly improved American edition (11
vols., New York, 1884-88)," Kevised by .S. M. J.vcksox.
Meyer, Joiiaxn Gkorh, called Meyer von Kreineii :
fenre-painter: b. in Bremen, Oct. 2S, 18l:(: d. in Berlin,
)ec, 6, 1886. He was a pupil of Dil.sseldorf Academy; set-
tled in Berlin in lS,r2 ; became Professor of the Academy
there 1863; w.is a member of the .\msterilam .\eailemy.
He was awarded a medal at the Centennial Exhiliitiou.
Philadelphia, 1876, His pictures, almost all of small size,
brought high prices dnrinir his lifetime, and many of them
are owned in the U. S. The Letter is in the Wolfe collec-
tion, Metropolitan Museum, Xew York. W. A. C
Meyer, Jri.irs Lotiiak, von. Ph. I). : chemist : b. at Varcl.
in <)lclenliurg. .\ug. lit, 18:i0; studied medicine in Zurich and
W iirzlnirg, then chemistry, iiiuthematics, and physics in
Heidelberg and Kc'inigslierg: graduated at the Uiiiversitv
of Wiirzburg in 1857, his thesis being JJie Ouae des lilules;
taught in llie forestry academy of Neusladl-Eberswalde
after 1866, in the Cu'rlsriilie P'olytecliiiic Institute after
1868, in the University of Tiibinge'n after 1876, and in that
of lioltingen after 18N5. I), at Gottingen. Apr. 14, 18f)5.
lie contributed many technical pa()ers to chemical period-
icals. S. T. Armstroxc.
Meyer. Leo, Ph, D. : conifmrative jihiloUigist ; b. at Ble-
deln, in Hanover. July :'), IKid; studied at Gottingen and
Berlin: in 1862 became assistant professor at (Jottingeii ;
since 1865 has been Professor of (ieriiiau and Comparative
Philology at Dorpat in Hussia (Livonia); is the aiilhor,
among other works, of (iedrangte Verghirhuny der grirch-
ixehen und laleinisclien Deklinalitm (iiMi'i); Vergleirliende
(Iriimmolik der griecli. und litt. Sprtiche (2 vols.. 1861-05;
vol. i., 2d ed. 1884); Die gutische Spracbe (186!)); (Jrie-
chische Aorisle (187!)). Bexj. Iue Wheeler.
Meyer, Luuwio, M. D. : alienist; b. at Bielefeld, Ger-
many. Dec. 27, 1827; studied in the Universities of Bonn.
Wiirzburg, and Berlin, graduating .M. D. from the latter in
1852; began his psychiatric studies in the Berlin Cliarite
Hospital, later going to the Hamburg general hospital: in
18()6 was elected professor at the University of (iottiiigeii,
and became director of the asylum for the insane. His
papers on various topics connected with insanity have been
imblished in the Zeilachrift fur I'sychiatrie and the .4rr/iic
fiir Paychiatrie. S. T. Armstroxg.
Mejer. Pail: jihilologist : b. in Paris, Jan. 17. 1840: has
been Professor of the Languages and Literatures of Southern
Kiirope at the College de France since 1876, director of the
ficole des Charles, and member of the Acadcmie des In-
scriptions et Belles-Lettres. He is also secretary of the
Societe des Aneiens Textes Fran(;ais, has been one of the edi-
tors of the Uomaniii since its foundation in 1872, and was
one of the first editors of the Kevue critique d'histoireet de
litterature, begun in 1860. Besides many jiapers in period-
icals, such as the two just mentioned, the .Itthrbnch fiir
romanische und enylische Lileratur, the Mi'moires de la
Socieli: de liiiyuiMiipie de Paris, the liibliotheque de I'^cnle
des Charles, etc., which are impiuiant for the study of the
Proven(;al and OUl French languages and literatures, he
has also pulilished in separate volumes a number of editions
of luedia'val texts and other works. Among these are liar-
laam und Jnsaphat (1864), an Old French poem, with II.
Zotcnberg; Le lioman de Flamencn (1865); Les derniers
triiubadours de la Provence (1871) ; lierueil d'ancienn tejies
bas-lotins proven^anx el franfais (1874-77, not yet com-
plete); La Chanson de la croisade rontre les Albiqeois {'i
vols., 1875-70); Daurel el Belon (1880): fUrarl de Hous-
xillon (1884), a Iranslalion : Fragments J'une ^'ie de Sainl-
Thoma« de Canlorbiry (1885); Alexandre le Grand dans la
litterature f ran false du moyen iige {'2 vols.. 1886); L'llis-
toire de Guillaume le Jffarechal {\o\. i., 1801); La Chan-
sonnier franfois de Saiiit-Oermain-des^l'res (\o]. i.. 1801),
with G. kaynaud. K. S. Sheldon.
Meyer. Victor: chemist: b. in Berlin, Sept. 8, 1848;
studied in Berlin; became Professor of Chemistrv in Stutt-
garl 1S71. in Zurich 1872. in Gottingen 18>'5, in lleidelberg
1880; has made exhaustive resi'arches in organic chemistry.
Is author of Pyrochemische I'ntersurhunyen (with Langer,
1885); Die Thiojihenyruppe (IK'^8); Ergrbnisse and Ziele
stereochemischer Fursrhuny (1800): Lrhrbnrh der Organ-
ischen Chemie (with Jacobson. 18!)1); Tabellen zur qualita-
tiven Analyse (with Treadwell, yd ed. 1801); Aus yatur
und M'issenschaft (1802).
3Ieyerbeor, mlcr-ljilr. GiAro>io(Iialianizeil form of Jakoii
Mkver Beer; composer: b. in Berlin, Sept, 5. 17!n. His
fallier, James Beer, a wealthy Jew, who appreciated cul-
ture and had a fondness for art, gavi' his three sons,
Michael, Wilhelm, and Jakob, the full advanlages of edu-
cation. Giacomo (or Jakob) hail a genius fiU' music, and en-
joyed the benefit of the best teaching that could bo com-
manded. In 18(M> he was admitled lo Vogler's select scIhmiI
at Darmsladl. and in dose intimacy willi Karl Maria von
Weber, who had alreaily composed operas, he stinliid liiinl
and successfully for two years. .\| this lime Meyerln-er
comiiosed an oratorio. Gull und die .\atiir. In 1812, under
Vogler's auspices, the opera of Jephlhah was produced at
730
JlP^YERSDALE
MKZIKIAC
Munioli. It failed, and the discnncpi-tod composer, drop-
pinj; drainiUk; music for a time, returned to the piano, and
acliieved great distinction in \'ienna. A second opera. Die
Beiden hCalifen, failed. Italian mnsic alone was po|)ular,
iind Meverbeer went to Italy to learn the methods of the
Italian school. Thenceforward his labor was snccessful.
Ilis Romilda e Cos/ama (1812) at Padna, his Semiramide
<181',)) at Turin, liis Ennna di Resburi)o (1820) at Venice,
were received with praise. In 1822 Margaret of Aiijau
was bronglit out triumphantly at tlie Scala in Milan. The
next year J/Efiile di (rreiuita was produced with Lablache
jind l^isaroni. In 1824 the Cracia/o was received with im-
mense favor at Venice. Tliis closed the first period in the
■composer's career. The second period opened in Paris,
witli Robert le Diable, which was brought out in 1831, and
roused nnprecedented enthusiasm, not in Paris only, but in
(rermanv and all over Knrope. The Huguenots followed
in lS:!(!,"and a<lded new laurels to Meyerbeer's fame, it be-
ing the first of wliat may be termed "historical'' as distin-
guislied from the ]iurely romantic lyric drama. The ap-
pearance of TIte /fugueiiiitti made an epoch in operatic art.
Thirteen years passed befon^ tlie Propliete was comph'ted.
In 1854 came L'lJIoile du Nord, live years later Dinorah,
also known as Le Pardon de Ploennel. both works inferior
in dignity to the two preceding. L'Africaine, the w^irk of
vears, waited long for an opportunity, and was not produced
till ls(;,5, a year after tlie composer's death, which occurred
in Paris, May 2, 1804. See the Life, bv Blaize de Bury
(1SG.5) and tiiat by Henri Mendel (1868).
Meyersdalc, or Dale City : borough ; Somerset co., Pa.
(for location of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. (i-C) ;
on tlie Casseliuan river, and the Bait, and Ohio Railroad ;
ll:i miles S. E. of Pittsbin-g. It is in an agricultural and
mining region, and has flour and planing mills, iron-fo\in-
drv, furniture-factory, stoneware-works, large lumber inter-
ests, and two weeklv'newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,423 ; (1890)
1,847,
Meynert, Tiikodou, M. D. : alienist and neurologist; b.
&t Dresden, Saxony, .lune lo, 1833; gradu.ated M. 1). at the
University of Vienna in 1861 ; in 1865 was decent for the
Anatomy of the Brain ; in 1806 was prosector of the Vienna
Insane Asylum ; in 1870 director of the psychiatric clinic
and Extraordinary Professor of Psychiatry at tlie univer-
sity; in 1873 elected Professor of Neurology; in 1885 niadc^
a, privy councilor. He was president of the Psychiatric
Association, vice-president of the Vienna Medical Society,
and a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vi-
<'nna. Ills researches on the anatomy of the bi-ain and his
writings on medico-psychological subjects have been of
great value in advaiu-.ing this department of medical sci-
ence. Among his publications are Zur Jlecha/iik des Ge-
hir)tbaues (V'wnnn. 1S74): Pttgchiatrie Klinik der Erkran-
kungen des Vorderliinis (Vienna, 1884). He was coeditor
of Psi/cliiatrisctie.s Ceiitralblatt from 1871-78, and of Jahr-
biichirfar Psgchiatric for 1879. D. May 31, 1892.
S. T. Armstrong.
Meyr, Melchiob: autlior; b. at Ehringen, in the Kies, a
fertile plain included by the Pranconian and Suabian Jura,
Bavaria, June 28, 1810; studied at Munich and Heidel-
berg ; devoted himself to literature ; lived in Berlin 1840-52,
afterward alternately at Munich and Ehringen, where he
died Ajir. 22, 1871. His best-known productions are Duke
All/ert (1852); iSlories from the Mies (1856): Charles the
Jiuld (1802); and New Stories from the Ries (1871). In the
Stories from the Ries he gives a series of exquisite pictures
of the peasant life of his native country, which rank among
the best village tales written in the German language.
Revised by Julius Goebel.
Mcy'rick, Kiiehehick : theologian; b. at Ramsbury vi-
•carage, Wiltshire, Kngland, Jan. 28, 1827 ; educated at Trin-
ity Collegc^ Oxford, wliere lie was successively scholar, fel-
low (1847-00), and tutor (1851-59), and has since lield the
university ollice of select preacher (1855-.56, 1805-00, 1875-
76). He was the chief founder of tlie Anglo-Continental So-
ciety; publisheil The Practiced Working of tlie. Church in
Spain (1851); The Moral and Devotional Theology of the
Church of Rome (1857) ; The Outcast and the Poor of Lon-
don (XHTiH); Is Dogma a Neressilg ? {\^>i:i): 7'he Doctrine of
the Church of A'ugland in Jfolg Communion Restated (1885;
3d ed. 1891)'; The Church in Spain (1892); and controver-
sial writings against Roman (!atholicism ; has contributed
to Dr. Smitli's Dictionary of the Bible, to the Speakers
Commentary, to the Pulpit Commentary, and to Hodder and
Stoughton's Theological Library. Editor of the Foreign
Church Chronicle and Reriew. was examining chaplain to
the Hisliop of Lincoln (1808-85); principal of Codrington
College, Barbados (1886-87); since 1868 has been rector of
Bickling, Aylsliam, Norfolk. Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Meyrick, Sir Samuel Rusu, LL. D. : archiPologist ; b. in
London in 1783; was eilucated at Queen's College. Oxford,
and became an advocate in the ecclesiastical and admiralty
courts, but devoted his chief attention to arclKcological
studies, and contributed innumeralile papers to 'J'he Gentle-
man's Magazine. His specialty was the collection and illus-
tration of ancient arms and armor, of wliich he ultimately
formed a large collection. Among his works were The His-
tory and Antiquities of the County of Cardigan (4to, Lon-
don. 1810) ; Tlie Costume of the Original Inhabitants of (he
Briti.sh Islands (1815); ,1 Critical Inquiry into Ancient
Armor (1824; improved ed. 3 vols., 1844), with more than
100 colored plates; and Engraved Illustrations of Ancient
Arms and Armor, a Series of J54 Etchings (by Joseph Skel-
ton) of the Collection at Goodrich Court (2 vols., 1830). The
prints in the last-named work are valuable, but there is littlf
archa'ological accuracy in the text of any of his publications.
1). in London, A\n: 2, 1848. Revised by" Russell Sturgis.
Mpzeray> mdzra', Frax(;ois Eudes, de : historian ; b. near
Palaise, Normandy, in 1610; began his literary career as a
jxiet, but turned soon to liistorical studies, and published in
1043 tlie first volume of his liistoire de France, which pro-
cured for him the patronage of Richelieu, who gave him a
pension of 4.000 livres and the title of historiographer. His
Abriige chronologique de Vllistoire, de France (1068) is con-
sidered better than the principal work. D. in Paris, Julv
10, 1683.
Meze'reon [from Pr. mezereon, from Arab, and Pers.
mazariyun, camellia] : in materia medica, the bark of shrubs
belonging to the genus Daphne, especially D. mezereum, D.
laureola, and D. gnidium. They are natives of Europe and
Asia, sometimes seen in cultivation in the U. S. They are
of the order Thymeleacea\ The bark has strongly irritant-
narcotic properties. It was once extensively employed in
medicine, and now has a limiteil use in cases of rheumatism
and other diseases. The fresh bark will quickly blister the
skin. Revised by H. A. Hare.
M^zieres. mnzi-iir' : a fortified town ; the capital of the
department of Ardennes, France ; on the Meuse, opposite
Charleville, with which it is connected by a bridge. It is
155 miles by rail N. E. of Paris (see map of France, ref. 3-6).
In 1520 it was successfully defended by Bayard against
Charles V., and his banner is still preserved in the hotel de
ville. Tlie anniversary of the deliverance of the town, Sept.
27, is still observed. The pi'esent fortifications were planned
by Vaiiban. The school of military engineering originally
founded here was siic(ressi\ely tran-sferred to Metz and Fon-
tainebleau. The iron industry has gradually been concen-
trated at Charleville. Pop. (1891) 6,551.
Mf'ziorcs, Alfred Jean Fbani^'ois: critic; b. at Rehon,
Moselle, l>'rance, Nov. 19, 1826. He studied at the fieole
Nornialc Supcricure, and then at the French school in Athens,
obtaining the degree of docieur-cs-lettres in 1853. In 1854
he was made Professor of Foreign Literatures at Nancy ; in
1863 he was given a similar jiosilion at the Sorbonne, having
already served some time there as stippleant. In Jan., 1874,
he was elected to the Academie Fran<;aise to succeed Saint-
Marc Girardin. His studies were chiefly in Italian, English,
and German literature, and most of his publications have
hjid to do with one or tlic otluu- of these. We may mention
Etude sur les oeuvres politiques de Paul Paruta (1853);
Shakespeare, ses ceiivres et ses critiques (1861) ; Predeces-
■9eurs et contemporains de Shakespeare (1863), like the pre-
ceding crowned liy the French Academy; Contemporains et
successeurs de Shakespeare (1864); Dante et I'ltalie nou-
velle (1865) ; PUrarque, d'apres de nouveaux documents
(1867); La sociite franfaise. etc. (1869); TV. Goethe, les
oeuvres crpliquces par la vie (2 vols., 1872-73). Mezieres has
contributed much literary criticism to the Ti'i^i'He des Deux
3Iondes and Le Timps. Since tlu! Franco-trerman war he
has interested himself in politics as a moderate republican.
In 1881, and in 1885, he was elected deputy. Of liis more
recent jiublications may be mentioned En France : X VIII'
et XIX" siecles (1883), and Ilors de France: Italic, E.'tpagne,
Angleterre, Grece moderne (1883). A. R. Marsh.
Mezirinc, mc-zc'e're'J^'a'iik', Claude Gaspar Bachet; clas-
sical scliolar; b. in Bourg, France, Oct. 9, 1581. He be-
MEZZO
MIASMA
rsi
longed to the Jesuit onlcr, but subsequently became an
apostate and luiirrieil. llu was one of the most learned men
of his time; is now chielly known as the author of a
eommentary to I lie Ihroiilfx of (}ii<l. a work full of recon-
dite learniiij,'. The lii-st edition (lO'^O) is one of the rarest
<if books, a second was, however, issued in two volumes by
llaye du Sauzet (1710). A. Q.
Mezzo, med zo [llal., liter., middle, lialfiSiian. medio:
l'ortu]tr. meio : Kouinan. niiez:Vr. mi in miili, parmi, etc.
< Lat. mediun. mid. in the middle] : in music, a terra of
diminution, sisnifyinf; the half, middle, or mean between
two thin]L;s of a positive nature or ilescription. Thus a
mezzo-soprano voice is one whose range is between the so-
prano and alto. Mezzo forte (or iii. /.) is rather loud, and
mezzo piano (or m. p.) rather soft. Mezzo voce, in like man-
ner, implies the use of only half of the usual force of the
voice.
Mezzofan'ti, Giusebpe Gaspardo: line:uist; b. at Bo-
loj^na, Italy, Sept. 17, 1774. At the age of fifteen, besides
Greek and Jialin. he already knew mant foreign European
languages. Having enteretl the pricstlrood (1797), he was
appointed Professor of Oriental Languages and librarian at
llologna. In 1m:J1 he removed to Home; in 1833 succeeded
Angelo Mai as chief kee|)er of the Vatican library; and in
1838 was made a cardinal. He is said to have spoken over
fifty languages, but this faculty was not combined with any
great meivsure of intellectual power. 1). in Uome, Mar. l6,
184!). His books and papers became the property of the li-
brary of Bologna. There exists but a single printed work
of his. an eulogy pronounced in 1810 upon his old master in
(ireek, Eminanuele da Ponte. See his Life, bv Charles Will-
iam Russell (1808 ; 2il ed. 1863).
.Mezzotint En^ravin^: See Exora vino.
Miako, nuM--aa ko : a .Iiipanese name meaning "metropo-
lis," and therefore synonymous with Kioto, frequently ap-
plied to the old capital of .Japan now called Sai-l;io. or
■•Western capital," to distinguish it from Tokio (litei-ally,
'• Eastern capital "), the present capital of the country.
Mlall, Euward: politician; b. at Portsmouth, England,
ill isdi); was educati'il at the Protestant Dissenters' College
at Wymondlev; became an Independent minister at Ware,
and afterward preached at Leicester; removed to London
in 1840 and established The yonconformisi ; in 1844 aided
in establishing the British Anti-Church Association, later
known as the Liberation Society; was an unsuccessful can-
ilidate for Parliament in 1S4.') and 1847; was clecte<l for
Kochdale ,Iuly, 18V2; lost his seat 18.J7; represented Brad-
ford in 1869-74. Mr. Miall was a conspicuous parliamentary
ailvocate of nnitdioml sulTrage and an opponent of all re-
ligious endowments. He pidjlished Vieii-s of the Voluntary
Principle (184-5); £thir.<< of yonconformity (1848); Titk-
dfcds of the Chiirrh of ICiiglnnd to her Parorhiitl Endow-
ments (\SG\): Politict'of Christianity (\mA): and Wayside
Musings and lieminiscenres (I86.'5). I). Apr. 29, 1881. See
the Ltjfe by A. Miall (1884).
Miami (ml-aamee) River: a river in Dade co., Fla. :
formed in the Everglades by outlets of Lake Okeechobee. It
flows into Biscayne Bay. At its mouth is a fine grove of
c(jc'ia-palins.
.Miami Kiver: a stream of Ohio; rises in Hardin co.,nins
in a southwest cours)', passingthe cities of Troy, Dayton, and
Hamilton. It is a rapid stream, flowing through a lieautiful,
fertile, and populous valley, and joining the Ohio below
Cincinnati. It is l."iO miles long, and furnishes muc'.i water-
power. Its nltimate source is l,33.j feet above tide. A canal
extends along the river. — The Little Miami is a smaller, nn-
navigable stream, flowing through a fertile and hilly region
to the E, of the Miami, and reaching the Ohio 6 miles above
Cincinnati.
Miamis: See Alooxquias Indians.
.Hiuinisbiirg: village; Montgomery co., O. (for location
of county, see map of Ohio. ref. 6-C):" on the Great Miami
river, the Miami and Erie Canal, and the Cleve., Cin., Chi.,
and St. L., and the Cin., Hannibal, and Dayton railways;
10 miles S. of Dayton, the county-seat, iiO miles X. of Cin-
cinnati. It is in a tobacco-growing region, has excellent
water-power, ami contains .several mills and factories. 2 na-
tional banks with coml)ined capital of $200,000 ,and 2 weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,936; (1890) 2,952.
Miami University : an educational institution at Oxford,
Butler CO., O. ; incoriioraled in 1809 : opened as a grammar
school in 1818, and a.s a college in 1834. It derives its origin
from a grunt of the township of Oxford, made by Congress
to the Stale of (Jliio in 1802, to be held in trust'for educa-
tional purposes. During the years 1873-84 the institution
was closed. Tbe university is non-sectarian, governed by a
board of eighteen trustees ap[iointed by the Governor of the
State, and receives an annual appropriation from the Legis-
lature, Its library contains 10,000 volumes. President, Rev.
W. O. Thompson, D. D.
Miaiitononioh : sachem of the Xarragansett Indians and
nephew of Canonicus; a.ssumed the government alMHit 1636,
and in that year concluded an alliance with the government
of Massachusetts. He aided the colonists in the Pequod
war 16.'J7, and was friendly to Roger Williams and other
early settlers of Rhode Island, to whom he nuido grants of
land. Having engaged in war with L'ncas, sachem of the
Mohegans, he was talcen prisoner, carried to Hartford, and
by the advice and consent of the commissioners of the
Uniteil Colonies was returned to Uncas to be executed. He
was taken to the spot where he had been defeated. Great
Plains, near Norwich, and there was put to death by the
tomahawk by a brother of Uncas. A simple monument,
erected in 1841, marks his grave.
Miao-tse, or Meao-tse (literally, sons of the soil): abo-
riginal tribes who early appear in Chinese history, and who
formerly occupied extensive tracts in C"entral China, espe-
cially in the neighborhood of the Tung-ting Lake, but who
have been driven by the advancing Chinese into the more
inaccessible mountain regions of the S. and .S. W., chiefly
Kwei-chow and Kwangsi, where they still maintain a prac-
tical indepeiirlence, though in the period Kien-Lung (1736-
95) many tribes were eompelle<l by the presence of supe-
rior Chinese forces, which had fallen upon them unawares,
to accept Chinese sovereignty. Some have gradually be-
come assimilated to the Chinese, and a few have risen to
position among the mandarins. They are divided into about
fifty clans, ranged in several larger divisions, known as the
Red, the White, the Blue, and the Black Miao, from the
color of their dress. Their numbers are unknown.
Physically they are of smaller stature than the Chinese,
have regidar features, and seem to l)e ethnically afliliated
to the Siamese family. They are skillful hunters, but en-
gage to some extent in the cultivation of the soil. Like the
Li of Hainan the young people do their own match-making.
Disputes among them are settled by the arbitration of the
elders. R. Lillev.
Miaoiilis, mee-owlis, Andreas Vokos : revolutionist; b.
at Hydra. Greece, in 1770, where he received his surname
3liaoulis from his commanding a felucca (Turk, miaout).
Ho devoted himself and his property to the Greek revolu-
tion (1821), was made commander-in-chief of the fleet, and
by his invincible courage and fertility in expedients gained
.several brilliant successes over greatly sui}erior Ottoman and
Egyptian forces. With self-sacrificing loyalty to the na-
tional cause he resigned in favor of Lord Cochrane, and con-
tinued to serve a.s a simple captain. Afterward he was rein-
stated in his office by Ca|>odistnas. the president of Greece,
but opposed the latter's Rus,sian temlencies, joined the op-
position, and became much involved in the political contro-
versies of the time. He was a meml)er of the deputation
which went to Munich (18;52) to offer the Greek crown to
King Otho. D. at Athens, June 24. 1835, and was buried
at the Pira'us, near the sup^rased grave of Themistocles.
E. A. Gkosvenor.
Minsnin. or Malaria. or Faliidism [miasma is Mod. Lat.,
from (ir. fdarna. stain, pollution, defilement, deriv. of luaivtv,
stain, taint, pollute] : a term which is said to have been used,
with a signification similar to that which it has to-day, as
long ago as the time of Hippocrates, who, in his tn^atise On
.4 1'rs, attributes various diseases to a mixture of the blood
with vitiated air. Xot long ago the generally accepted
teaching of meilical writers was not more definite or ra-
tional than this: for miasma (malaria) was reiranled as an
imponderable enninaliim, usually from marshy grounds,
which obtained access to the bliwd by way of the lungs, and
thus poisoned the biKly. The word miiusma has had st>nie-
whal different significations at different times: thus it has
been nseil to indicate injurious emanations from the soil or
from dead or living vegetable or animal organisms, lieing
synonymous with effluvia, .\gaiii it has been applied (es|ie-
ciallyin Paris) to the influence on health of [K'rs<ins afflicted
with infections diseases. Pn>liably the best modern defini-
tion of miasma — excluding that which rests upon a bacteriu-
rs-2
MIASMA
MICAS
logical basis (to be spoken of later) — describes it as that cle-
ment ia the cause of diseases [Jeculiar to certain Ideations
(usually marshy), which is found in the air of such places,
and which is known only by the etlects of its operation.
Formerly the production of malaria was loosely attributed
to the soil; but in recent years it has been attributed lirst
to the vegetable contents of soil and afterward to minute
fungous growths — bacteria. Prof. Leon Colin, of Val-dc-
Gnice, has proposed the term " telluric intoxication," as
more accurately fitting the idea intended by the words ma-
laria or miasm, namely, that certain diseases were pro-
duced by the action of air coming from soil, the energy of
which is not expended upon vegetation ; at present neither
this term nor the idea it conveys has much standing in
medical circles. The same may be said of the idea that
malaria or miasm is derived from decaying vegetable matter.
However reasonable these ideas may appear to some con-
servative students of the causation of disease, and however
imperfectly established may appear the hypothesis that
malarial diseases are caused solely by invasion of the body
by bacteria, this is the view of almost all modern writers on
the subject. In 1879 Prof. Tommasi Crudeli, of Rome, and
Prof. Klebs, of Prague, found a microscopic fungus in the
lower strata of the air of a malarial region in Italy, and in
tlie soil and stagnant waters, which they named bdcillns
malarUe. This organism they cultivated in various media,
and separated the "solid part of the product of their culture
from the licpiid by filtration and repeated washing. They
then injected the solid residue, properly diluted, under the
skin of healthy dogs, and produced in them what the experi-
menters regarded as typical intermittent fever. This expla-
nation of tiie causation of malarial fever has recently been
to a great extent supplante<l by tlie opinion, first advanced
by Laveraii. that there is always present in the blood of
patients with malarial fever a peculiar -organism (ha'inato-
zoon) not found in any other disease. This organism, which
is regarded as a parasite, has been carefully studied by Prof.
Osier and Prof. Councilman, of Johns Hopkins University,
and Prof. Dock, of the University of ^Michigan. The differ-
ent forms and ])liases of malarial fever are (according to this
theory) associated with various forms and stages of develop-
ment of the organism which is sometimes called the Plas-
modium malariii' Ldupraii.
These germs are found in the blood-cells, and also free in
the blood-fiuid. They are seen to have very different shapes,
but all the shapes are ((uite cliaracteristic. The most strik-
ing forms are gloljular masses containing pigment granules,
and those of a fairly round shape, with or without one ox-
more flagella. In some cases they are seen to havoa body
depressed on one side like a saucer, presenting, when seen
on edge, tlie appearance of a crescent. Laveran objects to
the use of the term pUixiiuidinm. on the ground that it is
botanically inaccurate, and he prefers to call his germ a /le-
mulozoaire.
The germ theory of the nature of malaria, though, ably
supported by the writers named and other observers, has
not yet been fully ac<^epti'd. Prof, von Jaksch, of Prague,
a most competent authority, states — after referring to the
various bacteriological theories — that the contradictory state-
ments of recent writers show that the question as to the
specific cause of intermittent fever is not yet satisfactorily
solved — a conclusion wliicli the facts fully bear out. The
fact that malarial fevers occur very frequently in the
neighborliooil of uuirshy regions has led to the use of such
terms as "marsh miasm" and "paludal fever"; but mala-
rial fevers are by no means confined to moist ground; for
they have raged with great severity in arid districts, as
when the British army, under the Duke of Wellington, was
operating in Kstremadura and near Ciuda,d Rodrigo in the
Spanish Peninsula. The Campagna near Home is also a dry
region in which malarial fevers are very common. Still
miasma, or malaria, is in general most active in the neigh-
borhood of moist ground in which decaying vegetal)le mat-
ter is present. It is also often liberated from soil which has
long been undisturbed, as when canals are made or streets
are dug up.
The common belief of medical writers is that malaria
effects an entrance into the human system by the air-pas-
sages; and the very oliscurity of this process and the multi-
plicity of the symptoms, and the vague character of some
of the phenomena attributed to malaria, probably serve at
times as a cloak to conceal inaliility jiroperly to diagnosti-
cate cases of other diseases. That which is typical of mias-
matic or midari.-d fevers is the regular repetition of a series
of the following phenomena: a chill, a rise of temperature,
a sweat, and a period of com]>arative freedom fmm any of
these symptoms. The various forms of intermittent and
remittent fevers will be described under these titles, it will
sutVice here to merely mention them as the results of mias-
matic or malarial influences. Hesidc these, disturbances of
the digestive apparatus, of varying degrees of severity and
diarrha-a, as well as nervous disorders, dysentery, etc., are
attributed by medical writers to the same agency.
The action of miasm is best combated by all measures
calculated to elevate and maintain at a normal standard tlie
vital functions — good food, good air, cleanliness, good habits,
and courage. Removal from suspected regions, and the ad-
ministration of certain drugs, chief among which is quinine,
will often cut short the progress of pronounced cases of
malarial intoxication, while other cases end in death or
permanent disability. Charles W. Dulles.
Micall : one of the minor Hebrew prophets; b. at More-
sheth, near Gath. lie lived in the latter half of the eighth
century n. c, and was a contemporary of Isaiah. Mic. iii.
13 is quoted in Jei* xxvi. 18 to justify the latter in foretell-
ing the destruction of Jerusalem. Jlicah's |)rophecies are
written in a vivid, poetical style, and refer chiefly to the fate
awaiting the two Hebrew nations. The style is not unlike
that of Isaiah. Micah deals with social and popular rather
than political sins. He named Bethlehem as the birthplace
of the Messiah (Micah v. 2).
Micas [mica is Jlod. T^at. in form, from Tjat. mica, crumb,
grain, but evidently connected in meaning with mic are,
shine] : a group of very interesting and widely spread min-
erals, belonging to tlie Unisilicates. and containing silicic
acid, with varying proportions of the alkalies, magnesia,
lime, and protoxides of iron, with the sosquioxides of alumin-
ium, iron. an<l manganese, usually a little flourine, and
more rarely titanium. Titanium occurs to the extent of 7
or 8 per cent, in the rare mica aafrophi/llite. which also con-
tains zirconia. Lepidulife. which is confined to a few locali-
ties, and the very rare cri/op/ii/lli/e contain an important
percentage of lithia, with a little rubidia and ca'sia. The
micas occur generally in thin, shining scales, usually trans-
parent, but opaque in some very dark varieties of 4ioWe and
lepidomelane (an iron-potash mica). More rarely, some of
the micas are found in large plates, and occasicmally six-
sided prisms. Unless decomposed they are distinguished by
a very easy cleavage, splitting readily into extremely thin,
clastic lamimo, and showing usually a pearly luster on the
cleavage faces. The most important m'\i-;\* aw pldognpite,
hiotiie, lepidolite, and muscovite. Phlogopite, or magnesia
mica, contains magnesia as well as potash, among the pro-
toxides, with very little of the oxides of iron. It is ortho-
rhombic, with an optic-axial divergence of 3°-20°. It is
light colored, usn.nlly yellowish brown, and very liable to
alteration. Phlogopite occurs chiefly in serpentine, crystal-
line limestone, and dolomite. Biotite {magnesia-iron mica)
is hexagonal, generally dark green or black, and is similar
in composition to jililogopite. but with 5-10 per cent, of ses-
quioxiile of iron; sometimes much more, l.epidolite is very
interesting, because it contains the rarer alkalies. Musco-
vite (potash 7nica) contains principally potash among the
protoxide bases, witli some soda, and among the sesc|uioxides
alumina, with generally 2 or 3 per cent, of sesquioxide of
iron. It is orthorlumibic, and has an optic-axial divergeiu-o
of 44°-78'. Muscovite includes nearly all comiuon mica,
and is a constituent of granite, gneiss, and mica-schist ; it is
also found sometimes in shales and other sedimentary rocks
in small scales, and may occur in eruptive rocks and granu-
lar limestone. Being usually of light color, quite transpar-
ent, and very tough, it becomes valuable when found in
plates of considerable size, and is then used in stoves for
doors, etc. There are very few localities where marUetalile
mica is found, the supply for the U. S. being almost con-
fined to mines in Haywood, Yancey. Mitcludl. and Macon
COS., N. C, where the mineral is found in granite rock with
coarse feldspar, and to Gi-afton Co., N. II., where the Paler-
mo mine is now the principal source of sheet mica. It has
also been mined to some extent in South Dakota, Wyom-
ing, and New .Mexico, but not in quantities nor of high
quality. In recent vears the production has amounted to
about'7r),00() lb., val'ued at i?10n,000. A considerable quan-
tity is imported into the U. S. from Canada, the principal
depo.sits being in Ottawa County. American dealers in mica
have lists of 19:J sizes, ranging from li by 2 inches to 8 by 10
inches as the standard sizes. The preparation of ground
illCA-SCUlST
MICIIELAXGELO
mica fur use in the inanufHc-tiire of wall-paper has become
u .si'puiHlc iuduslry. See Uiotite.
Ueviseil by Charles Kirchiiokf.
Mica-schist: a inetanioriihic, striitilied, schistose, crys-
tiilliiie riK-k, always filiated in texture, anil coniiiosed of
Vaiialjle proportions of mica and quartz. It };railually ])asses
in one direction into jfneiss and in anotlier into quartz-schist.
Arf/illiuitius 7nica-«c/ii«/, aceordiiifj to C'otta, may be re-
{^iirded as '• an imperfect mica-scUisl, or as a somcwliat crys-
tallized clay-slate."'
Michael Aiigclo : See Miciielanqelo.
M ichai-Iis. Ivaroi.ixa : Sec under Vasconcellos, Joaquiu
An'ioMo Fo.nskca, d»'.
.Micliae'lis. JoiiAX.N David: theologian: b. at Halle, Ger-
many, Keb. 27, 1717; studied theolojry. Oriental lan;,'ua;;es,
and biblical arclncolo^y under his father, who was professor
at the university: traveled in Holland and Knglanil. and
was appointed professor in 1745 at the Univei-sity of (iottin-
fjen, where he dieil Aug. 22, 17U1. Jlis works, the results of
immense loarninj; and great acuteness, are very numerous,
and contributed much to a fuller undei-standinj; of Holy
Writ, cs|«'cially the Old Testament. His theological stand-
point may be indicated as a transition from the old ortho-
di>xy to the subsequent rationalism, ami on his age he exer-
cised a considerai)le intliience. His principal works, are
Jnlroduction lo the Xew Trstamtnt (2 vols., tioltingen, 17.50),
translated into Knglish by liishop JIarsh (6 vols., Ijondon,
182;)), and Commnttiiries on the Laws of J/uses ((i vols.,
Frankfort, 1770-75), translated into English by Alexander
Smith (IHIO, 4 vols.). Of great importance is also his Sup-
plemtnla ad lex. hehr. (17H(), 2 vols.), which contains excel-
lent contributions to the knowledge not oidy of the lan-
guage, but also of the anliiiuities and hislorv, of the Old
Testament. Sec his Auluhioijraphy, ed. by j". M. Hassen-
camp (Uinteln, 17Uli), and Correnpuiidence (3 vols., Leipzig,
K',I4-'.M)). Itevised by S. M. Jackson.
Michaelmas: the festival of St. Jlichacl the Archangel,
ccli-braU-cl ..n Srpt. 2'.).
.Michael I'alu'olo^iis: See Bvzaxtixe Kmpire.
Michalec, mikhaal-ets, Martix : poet; b. at Litomefice
(l.citmcritz), Holiemia, in 14'!4 ; was educated in schools of
the Bohemian Hrethren; was ordained pastor at Brandejs
n. O. in 15:{1, olliciated as superintendent of various com-
munities of the Hrethren in Bohemia and Moravia; became
a member of the supreme council, and was elected bishop in
1.5:t7. I), in 1.547. He was a talented ami ehxpient speaker,
and he wrote a numlier of polemiud tracts and numerous
s(iit</n. thirty-one ol which are contained in the Brethren's
hymn-book. J. J. Kral.
Michaud, mi^^'sho. Joseph Francois: journalist and his-
torian ; b. at Alliens, Savoy, June 19. 1707 ; went to I'aris in
1791 ; wrote in the Gazelle L'nivertielle, PuMilliin de la
Ouerre, and Cutirrier liepnblirain, three royalist papers,
and showed himself a stanch defender of the monarchy ;
founded in 1794 the Qnnliditniie ; wa-s condemned to death
Oct. 27, 179.5. for his anti-Kevolutionarv opinions, but suc-
ceeded in getting the verdict annulleil ; was banished to
Cayenne by the Directory, but escaped and hid himself
among the Jura Mountains, where he wrote his iiopular
[locm, Le Prhilemps d'lin Prosrril (Paris, 1S()4: 2d eJ. 1827);
returned to I'aris under the consular government, but con-
tinued to adhere to the cause of the Bourbons; formed,
with his brother and Giguet, a publishing firm, and devoted
himself principally to historical studies, though he once
more, after the Kestoration, took U|>.journalism and renewed
the (^iKilidieiiiie. His principal historical works are J/is-
/(lire den urnyrfs el de la chute de Vtmpire de Mi/mire (2 vols.,
1801); Jlisloire de Croisudex (:l vols., 1812-22): Currexjxjn-
dance d'Orient (7 vols., 18;j:i-:j5); Collection de Memoires
pour serrir a f llistoire de France depiiix le XIII' sierle
t;f2 vols., ]8.36-:l9). He also participated in the pioduclion
of the edition of the liioqraphie I'liirenulle, published from
181 1 to 1828. D. at I'assy, Sept. :JU. 18;{9.
Heviseil by B. B. Holmes.
Miclinnx, mi'e'sht), .\ndr£ : botanist; b. at Satnry. near
Vei-saillis. Frame, Mar. 7, 174<i ; was the son of a rich farm-
er, and was bred to agiicullire ; studied liolany under the
Jussieus; in 1779 sent many British trees to France for
culture; botanized in Spain in 1780, and collected seeds
for French cultivators; was in Asia 17><2-8.5, whence, after
many adventures, he returned with a rich supply of seeils
and plants; was 178.5-97 the French agent in North Amer-
ica for the eolli'clion of usi-ful trees and shrubs for mitu-
ralization in France; made near Charleston, S. C, and
New York (in Bergen Co., N. J.), large nurseries for arbori-
culture. In 1791) he returned to France, but suffered ship-
wreck and the loss of all his elliets. After wailing m
France in jioverty and hunger for the arrears of his pay, he
started in 1800 uimn Baudiii's expedition to Australia, but
at the .Mauritius left the expedition and went to Madagas-
car, where he died Nov. IH, 18U2. His principal works arc
a Trealixe on the Oaks of Xiirlh America (in r'rench, 1801 ;
Germ, trans. 1802), and a Flora Boreal i-Americana (180^).
Michaiix, Fkax<;ois Anuke, M.D. : botanist; son of
Andre Michaux ; b. at Versailles, France, in 1770 ; fora time
was his father's assistant in the L'. S., and was himself sent
in 1802, and again in 1806, to study the botany of the Jlis-
sissippi valley and collect useful seeds. He published a
Treatise on the XaturuUzalion of Atnericitn FortM 'I'ree»
(1805); a Journal of his travels (Paris, 1804; Kng. trans.
London, 1805); a work on the Bermudas (1800): Sorllt
American Sylva (in French, 1810-13 : in Knglish, the trans,
bv Hillhouse, 1817-19; completed by Nuttall and others
1842-50). In 1810 Michaux was rece'ived into the French
Academy of Sciences. D. at Vaureal, France, Oct. 23, 1855.
Michel, niei-sliel', Francisvie : scholar; b. at Lvons,
France, Feb. 2, 1809 ; d. in Paris, May 21, 1887. In 18;{y he
became Professor of Foreign Literatures in the Faculty of
Bordeaux, and retained the position until his death. Ik-
was one of the most distingui^hed students of media'val lit-
erature, especially Old French, in Eurojie. He edited a large
imniber of important Old French texts, among them : Tris-
tan, reciieil . . . des poemes relatifs a ses aventures, etc. (2
vols., 1835-39) ; Laxs inedils des XII' et XIII' sieclet
(183(i) ; Le chanson de Poland (1837): Le Pomnn du St.
(fraal (1841) ; (iirartz de I{o.-ieHho (1850) : Le Poman de la
Pose (2 vols., 1864). He also published a number of works
dealing with the mediaeval period, among them : Ilistoire
des races mandites de la I ranee et d Fspagne (2 vols.,
1847) ; Ilistoire des tissus de soie au moyen age (2 vols.,
1852-54); Le pays bas(jue. etc. (1857); Les Ecossaia en
France et les Franfuis en £cosse (2 vols., 1862).
A. R. Marsh.
Michel. Georges: landscape-painter: b. in Paris. France,
in 1703 ; d. there in 1843. His pictures, long unnoticed, have
come into prominence in artistic circles bv their being in-
cluded in exhibitions with the works of Jlillet. Koussean,
Corot, and their contemporaries, but they have no claim to
rank with them in merit. His compositions are almost all
of the same general character and are almost monotone in
color. W. A. C.
Michel, Julius, JI. D. : ophthalmologist : b. at Wiirzburg,
Germany, July 5, 1843; studied medicine in the Univer-
sities of W'tirzijurg and Zurich, graduating M. I), at the for-
mer in 1860, and serving as Horner's assistant at the latter
for several years; estalilished himself iiL Leipzig in 1872;
in 1873 was elected Extraordinary Professor of (Iphthalinol-
ogv in the University of Erlangen, where he remained
until 1879. when he accepted the same chair in the Lniver-
sitv of Wiirzbnrg. Among his published works are iJie
histologische Structur des Iris-stronia (Erlangen. 1875);
Die Pn'ifung des Sehvennogens und Jer Farhinblindlirit
beim Fi.tenoahnpersonal und hei den Truppen (.MunicI:,
1878); Lehrbiich der Aiigrnheilkunde (Wiesbaden, 1884).
He was editor of the Jahrexbrrirht Qber die Leislungen und •
Fortschritte iin Gebiete der Ophlhulmologie for 1877.
S. T. Armstrong.
Michel, Louise : revolutionist : b. at Vroneourt, Haute-
Marne. France, in 1.839; won distinction by her musical
anil poetical talents; opened a sihool in Moiitmartre, i'aris,
in 1800; in 1870, during the Commune, fought on the bar-
ricades in the uniform of the National (Juard ; was taken
pri.soner at Versailles and sentenced to death, but the sen-
tence was commuted to trans]Hirtation to New Caledonia
for life: returned to Paris on the granting of amnesty to
political prisonei-s in isso. Her continued activity and c<im-
munistic undertakings led to her imprisonment in 1883 and
in 1886. Later she look up her n'sidenee-in I.K>ndon. She
has published Memoirs (1880). and a novel. T7ie Microbe*
of Society. C H. Thiriulr.
Michelangelo, or .Michelugnolo. or .Miehelaii§riolo. of
the family of Buoiiarrota .Sinione, generally called Michel-
ANUELu Buonarroti : sculptor and jiainter; b. at Capresc,
(34
JIICriELANGKLO
in Tuscany, Mar. 6, 1475. He was apprenticed to Gliirlan-
dajo (I)on'ienico Bigordi) in his early youth, and received
admittance when about fifteen yeai-s old to the strange, in-
formal academy of fine art which Lorenzo the Magnificent,
chief of t lie Medici, had allowed to form itself in his gar-
dens at San Marco in Florenqe. Here he attracted Loren-
zo's attention and was aided by him, but the great patron
died in 1492. It wa.s probably at about the same time that
were executed the two bas-reliefs now in the Buonarroti
Museum at Florence, the unfinished and confused composi-
tion called The Centaurs and a Madonna and Child with
emblematic figures in the background. Almost immediate-
ly after this he was at work upon a statue of Hercules
larger than life, which statue must have been finished be-
fore he was twenty, and which was thought worthy, thirty
years later, to be a present to King Francis L That statue
is lost, but a marble statuette of a kneeling angel with a
candlestick, in the Church of San Domenico at Bologna, is
known to be of this epoch, and the beautiful statue of St.
John the Baptist, in tlie Berlin Jluscum, is with probability
considered a work of Michelangelo's boyhood. The strong
tendency toward pure form as a means of expression, seen
in this rapid and almost total abandonment of painting for
sculjiture, remains a lifelong characteristic. The profound
knowledge of the human form, and the almost perfect mas-
tery of its movements and aspects, gained at so early an age,
mark him as one of the very greatest technical artists whose
works are known.
He had made a hurried visit to Venice and had dwelt
some months in Bologna and a year in Florence, constantly
at work upon sculpture, most "of which has disappeared,
when Cardiiuil di San Giorgio called him to Rome, which
city he first reached in June, 1496. The statue of Bacchus,
of the NatioiuU .Museum at Florence, was sculptured dur-
ing the following two years, but his other doings at this
time are not recorded. The beautiful so-called cupid of t he
South Kensington I\ruseum is generally admitted to be his
work, and is thought by many to be of this time; it repre-
sents a vigorous youth kneeling on one knee, the left hand
held high seems to hold a bow, the right to seize an arrow
on the ground ; he seems about to shoot downward from
a height, and is rather a hunter than a cupid. In 1498
Michelangelo undertook one of the noblest sculptures of his
lite, the Fieta. or group of f lie Madonna holding the dead
Christ upon her knees, which is in St. Peter's church at
Rome. This is perhaps the only piece which the artist ever
signed ; it bears the words Michael Angelus Bonarotus
Flore.v Faciebat, cut in large capitals on the belt which
passes over the shoulder and across the breast of the Virgin.
The beautiful Madonna and Child in the cathedral at
Bruges, in Belgium, almost certainly a work of this artist, is
probably a work of the same time.
It should be observed that it was Michelangelo's habit to
work the marble himself; contemporary witnesses state that
he did even the rough first shaping, at least in some cases.
This would be necessary when he did not have full-size
models before him ; and it is doubtful if he made such
models, or anything more than small sketch-models for
study and experiment. It had not then become the custom
for sculptors to liring tlu' clay models to absolute complete-
ness that workmen might copy it in the marble, leaving
only the linal touches for the sculptor. In fact, no accurate
process of pointing wsus in use. Michelangelo's practice dif-
fered from that of his contemporaries only in boldness and
unhesitating certainty.
Ill l.Wl tiie artist returned to Florence, and was at once
occupied with the I'iUiious David, the colossal statue which
was finished in 1504, and which had stood for 320 years in
the open air at the iloor of the Palazzo Vecchio, when, about
1875, it was put under cover in the Academy of F^ine Arts.
This noble work is a study of the forms of adolescence, and
is bold in its recognition of all that is awkward and imma-
ture in the yout liful body. The action is of the moment of
preparation before the sling is whirled and the stone dis-
missed. A great undertaking of this time was a whole
series of apostles for the cathedral of F'lorence ; one only
was begun, the .S7. Mitllheiv. whose rough-hewn effigy, half
detached from the block as if a bas-relief, is in the Florence
Academy. The five statuettes of the Piccolomini altar in
the Cathedral of Siena belong to these years, also the model
of a bronze Darid. sent to France and s'et up in the court of
the Chateau of Bury, but now lost, and most probably t he two
tondi, or round bas-reliefs, each of the Madonna and Child,
one of which is in the National Museum at Florence and
the other in the Royal Academy in London. At this time
was painted, for Angelo Doni, the one existing movable pic-
ture which is known to be by Michelangelo, the round IIoli/
Fam ill/ in i\u'. Tribune at Florence. It is extremely char-
acteristic of the artist: St. Jo.sepli, an old man. sits behind
the Virgin who is seated on the ground, and w ho takes the
child from her liusband over her right shoulder without
turning round, and with a free and vigorous movement of
both arms; the background is occupied with nude figure*
grouped upon a low stone wall ; there is no landscape and
no architectural adornments of any kind. An immense
painting was undertaken at this time for one wall of the
great hall in the Palazzo Vecchio; the cartoon only was
made, and this was destroyed a few years later; its subject
was a number of soldiers surprised while bathing, and
hurrying to dress and arm themselves. Jlost of the year
1504 must have gone to this cartoon, and at the close of
that year the artist was called to Rome again, and began a
task which was to harass him for many years and to remain
unac-hicvcd, the great momiiiient of Pope .lulius II. That
vigorous and warlike ])ope had been elected at the close of
150;i ; at his command Jliehelangelo sketched a gigantic
structure " eighteen cubits by twelve," three stories high,
including forty statues, some of tliem colossal, besides bas-
reliefs and ornaments. Half of the year 1505 was spent
in mere superintendence of quarrying at Carrara ; early in
1506 he hurried from Rome to his liome in Florence, be-
lieving that the pojie cared no longer for the tomb, and
would not pay his expenses. The pope tried persuasion and
threats to bring him back, and even letters to the rulers of
Florence, and at last in Nov., 1.506, Jlichelangelo yielded,
met the pope in Bologna, and began work upon a colossal
seated bronze statue of Julius, which occupie<l him for
eighteen nujuths. and was destroyed four years later in a
revolt. Then began another exhausting struggle with au-
thority and a four-year task, though this one ended in
a triumph and in a gigantic work of art. which has been
preserved as a permanent possession of Europe. Pope
Julius insisted upon the painting of the vaults of the chapel
which had been built by Pope Sixtus IV. in the Vatican
— a iilain room 180 feet long, 44 feet wide, and nearly 70
feet nigh. The walls liad already been adorned with large
frescoes by Botticelli. Ghirlandajo, Luca SigiKirelli, and
Perugino, 'most of which .still remain, and with portrait-
figures of popes, but the vaulted roofs were now to be dec-
orated. In spite of great unwillingness to leave sculpture
for so vast a work of painting, Michelangelo put up his
scaffolding and began ; at the close of 150!) the scaffolding
was St ruck so that the half-finished work could be seen ; at the
close of 1512 the roof was shown again, and this time in tho
state in which it has remained since, not (luite complete it is
thought, but a marvel of figure-drawing and of cdinposition,
perhaps the greatest achievement in painting in Kurope.
A very simple architectural framework is painted on the
smooth vault, and this affords bases for grou|)ed caryatides,
liedestals for single sealed figures, seats for larger figures of
prophets and sibyls, medallions filled with small composi-
tions, and frames'in the flat middle of the ceiling for nine
pictures of Bilile story; fnurleen lunettes and the smaller
vaults above them are filled in like manner with huge
groups, so that there are in all perhaps iiOO human figures,
draped and iuidra,iicd, luost of them larger than life and
many of them gigantic. In this great work Michelangelo
had little help from other artists, for it ajipears that he had
little jiower of bringing around him men who should work
in harmony with him. The human figures, with their con-
ventiouid drapery, and the slightest indicated architectural
setting, fortn the whole decoration ; there is no other orna-
ment. Then, as there is no lands<'aiie, no costume, and
almost no incident in this giant work of art, so there is no
depth and richness and little variety of color. Michelan-
gelo was not in the usual sense a colorist, lint a modeler
of plastic form, to which he gave only so much flesh color,
such gray, dull yellow, and dusky blue in the drapery, and
sucli negative stone-gray tor the'an'liitecture. as would suf-
fice to keep his work from being a monochrome.
For the next ten years there is a singular and confused
record of constant diversion of the great sculptor's and
painter's thoughts from the work, which he alone eimld do,
to building, which others could have done better. The rule
with the great men of the Beiiaissanee had been, "Great in
one art. great in all." The assumption was that he who
could handle form and color, who had the eye trained to see
as artists see, the hand practiced to execute, and the spirit
MICHELANGELO
alert to doiil with tanRiMc nixl visililo roalitios, must needs
be fjood ill all wiiys. If ho cuiild iiioilfl a ^rciit statue ho
could cut a die or build a church ; even more, he would bo
thought fit for cinployiiieiit as engineer, civil or military.
Accordiiisly, aiiioiij; the more complex ami specialized arts
of the sixleeiilh century, the same was expected of Michel-
angelo. Pope Lio X.. who liad begiiii to reign in 1.513 and
who was one of the .Medici, was in Florence at the close of
l.'ilo and decided to erii])loy him on the front of .San Lorenzo,
the church which still stands with its brick wall as bare as
if months of the precious life of a great artist ha<l not been
wasted in thought for it. A new coiitra<-t was made with
the executors of Pope .luliiis for his toml). planned on a
much smaller scale, ami statues to form part of this were
kept in hand; a model was made for the front of San
Lorenzo, and once more many months were spent in the
marble quarries. Then came a plan for building a library
at San Lorenzo, and next a scheme for decorating the new
sacristy of the same church, and putting up tombs of pow-
erful members of the Me<lici family. Only an orderly and
peaceful life and iierfect system would have enaliled the
artist to achieve all that was thrust upon him. but his mas-
ters seem to have decreed that he shouM not liavc those ad-
vantages. They strug'ried with one another and counter-
manded their own orders, and while all Italy was contend-
ing for the artist's services, felt free, each in his turn, to |)ut
him to trivial tasks which ho could not decline. The Risen
Christ of the Church of Sta. Maria sopra Minerva in Koine
is the one important piece of scidpture known to have been
completed during these years — a life-size figure, concerning
which the most contrary opinions are held by modiTii critics.
It is peculiar in being wholly nude, the slight drapery of
metal being put on at a later lime. Like the Christ ol'The
Last Judgment, it is a muscular and powerful man, and
many critics think it lacking in proper sentiment. The
same year that this was set up (15'31) Leo died, and Adrian's
short reign came in, to be followed in 1.52;! by that of
Clement \'1I. Clement was another member of the Medici
family, and the work of San Lorenzo was to be pushed ac-
cordingly.
There is no doubt that four or five tombs were proposed,
insteail of two only, and that the two Medicean popes, Leo
and Clement, were to be honored in this way. The two
tombs which were finished are in memory of comparatively
unimportant princes of the family. No monuments of art
in Europe are lietter known by photographs and engravings
than these, or have been more fully described and criticised.
As works of associated sculpture they are of enormous im-
portance, but their architectural value is slight, and the
sacristy itself is not a very successful piece of decorative
building.
The statues made about this time for the tomb of .Julius
II. can not now be identified with certainty, except two of
bound captives, which are in the Louvre. Other figures,
made perhaps for that tomb or perhaps for the front of San
Lorenzo, seem to belong to this epoch of the artist's life ;
such are the four male figures of the Hoboli gardens, and
the so-called Victory and the so-called Adonis of the Na-
tional Museum at Florence. The Vietory is a most impres-
sive and vigorous group, but unfinislicd and capable of
many dillerent explanations. The year 1.537 brought with
it a revolution in Florence, and three yeai-s of fortifying,
administering, and exile for Michelangelo; then came siil)-
inission to tlie Medicean tyranny again, the production of
the Apiillo, in the Florence National Museum, and work
eontinueil on the sacristy at San Lorenzo, until it ami its
contents reached nearly the condition in which we see them.
The .Medicean monuments were not finished as wo see
them till l.");i4; in that year Paul III. was elected pi>pe. and
in the following year Michelangelo was inaile chief archi-
tect, painter, and sculptor to tiie Vatican. This meant a
further diminution of the work to be done for Pope .hiliiis's
tomb, for which the giant Moses, now in the Church of S.
Pietro in Vincoli. had been sculptured — enough by itself, as
Pope Paul declared, to grace his [iredecessor's tomti — and
the immediate undertaking of the vast fresco of The Last
Jiidi/miiit at the northern end of the Sistine chapel. There
were four years of pretty steady work upon this great lal)or.
and at Christmas-time. 1541. when the artist was nearly
sixty-seven ycare old. it was shown to the people of Rome.
It can hardly be judged now; the painted drapery added
by Daiiielo da Vollerra. the fading of colors, the smoke and
lust of many years, have stripped the fresco of the tints and
•ho gradations that it was meant to have had. The compo-
sition of lines and masses can still be judged, in part, and
the absence here as in the roof paintings of any s-jurce of
interest but the one of the human body in vigorous action,
an<I the combinations of form which this alone can give.
The next great work which he timlerlook has suffered stil!
more, and is now scarcely to be considered the handiwork
of .Michelangelo — the frescoes of the chapel built by Paul
III. in the Vatican, close to the Sistine chapel. These two
[laintings, the Vrncifixion of St. Peter ami the \'ision of St.
Paul, were in hand from 1.5-12 for seven years. Except
for this work, architecture took up most of the old man's
thought and strength. The Fariiese Palace, a favorite un-
dertaking of Pope Paul III., owis its comph'tion t(j him;
the two structures on the Campidoglio are his, and in his
seventy-second year he became architect of .St. Peter's
church, then not very far advanced. He labored at this
great task until his death, but his .successors have greatly
changed the church from what he meant it to be, and the
cupola itself is the principal result of his labors on the
church. This indeed is a Irinniph; no other European
dome is so beautiful ; and there seems little reason to doubt
that its beauty is due to Jlichelaiigelo himself, lie was
|ieculiarly one who worked alone and without consultatiim
or aid ; moreover, the wooden model which was certainly
made in the artist's time, and which was followed in it's
main lines by the builders,' has been most thoroughly dis-
cussed and the claims of all disputing artists fully weighed.
Michelangelo himself saw built only the drum or cylindrical
wall below the cupola; but we are safe in fjiving him the
credit for the whole of this lovely conception, which can
only be judged rightly from without by those who will pass
around the western and northern sides of the great church
and look at the whole mass from the rising hillside of the
Vatican gardens. Within as well as without the cupola is
of unsurpassed l)eauty. Michelangelo has, however, no high
rank as an architect, for the power of conceiving a graceful
form, without much capacity to give it organic and con-
structicinal life and with little knowledge of iletails, is not
a very rare nor a very exalted gift. His infiuence on the
development of architecture was bad, or was at least not
good, not calculated to oppose the evil tendencies of his
time in Italy.
As painter and as sculptor his position is vcr>' exalted.
Great differences of opinion exist, naturally, aboutnis works
of art ; the lovers of Greek art ilo not bow to his powerful
but often inat^curate modeling and drawing ; the lovers of
jjainting in its noblest form, as at Venice, can not find
the fullest enjoyment in his frescoes; the admirers of the
refinement and transcendental feeling of the true Uenais-
sance can not worship the man whom they rightly regard
as the leader and embodiment of the Decadence. In the
second half of the nineteenth century there seems to be no-
where a school which is founded upon the study of Michel-
angelo's work : that remains, in its highest reach, the object
of wonder and admiration as of the most W(mderful achieve-
ment known to us of grave and somber thought expressing
itself with almost unsurpassed te<-linical skill, imlividual in
the extreme, iTwe fine art, as being the creation of the mind
which had previously saturated itself with knowledge of
nature, but still causing far more astonishment than love,
and more fitted to stimulate than to teach.
Throughout his life, but especially in his later years, Mi-
chelangelo wrote sonnets and other poems, most of them
of abstract .subject, religious, mystical, or philo.sophical.
The text of these had been known before 1803 cmly in an
extremely falsified c<mdition, for the great uum's nephew,
Michelangelo the Younger, had rearrangeil and almost re-
composed the poems. All old editions of the poems and
all translations of them and conclusions drawn from them
are therefore worthless, and the student must go toGuasti's
edition (Florence, lytj;!) until a still more critical one shall
be published. The letters published by Milanesi (Florence,
1S7.5) are also accessible now as never before ; but it ajijiears
that the most unrea-stmable difficulties are thrown ni the
way of stuilents wishing to consult the original diKiimeiits
in ilie Casa liuonarroti in Florence, and therefore the stu-
dent is still at the mercy of two I'ditors.
During his last years .Michelangelo remained stanch to
his duties as architect of St. Peter's, ami re>isti-<l numerous
temptations to umlertake work elsewhere, lie keiit much
of his strength till the end, and was incapacilaloil for but a
short time. 4lying in Koine, Feb. I.'*. 1.504.
HlliLloc.R.tFiiv. — The latest book on .Michelanp-Io is John
Adiiington .Symonds's The Life uf ilichelamjelo liuonarroti
736
MICHELET
MICHIGAN
(2 vols., London, 1893). In tliis documents not before ac-
cessible have been used. Tlie book is inadequate in its
oritieal api'reciation of fine art, but is valuable and trust-
worthy, and contains iiseful illustrations. Charles Ikatli
Wilson, Life and Works of Miclietangelo liuonarroli (dd
cd. London, ISSl), is of great importance because of tlie mi-
nute examination nuule by the author of the frescoes in the
Sixtine chapel. There are many other books on this sub-
ject, and a sufficient list of tlie Important ones is given in
vol. i. of Mr. Syuionds's work. Russell Sturois.
Miflielct, nn^'sh Id', Jules: historian; b. in Paris, Aug.
21, 17»8, and educated at the Lyceum of Charlemagne, in
which he was elected professor in 1831. After the revolul ion
of 1830 he was appointed chief of the historical section of
the roval archives, and in 1838 Professor of History and
Morals at the College de France. In \S'A he lost his posi-
tion, both at the archives and at the uuivei-sily, as he refused
to take tlie oath of allegiance to Louis Napoleon. D. at
Hyeres. Feb. 9, 18T4. Of his historical writinp, the most
iiiiportant are Histvire de France (16 vols., 1833-67); His-
toire de la Revolution (7 vols., 1847-53) ; Precis de VJiintoire
moderne (1827); JUstoirc liomaine (2 vols., 1831); of his
polemical writings are Le» Jesuits (1843); Du rretre. de la
Femme. de la Famille (1844) ; Le Temple (1846) ; Puloyne
et Russie. Leyende de Kosciusko (1851) ; Principautes danu-
biemies{Vi'>i) ; of his miscellaneous writings, VOiseau (1856) ;
L'Insecte (1857); L' Amour (1858); La Femme (1859); La
Montague (1868) ; jVos Fits (1869).— His second wife, Atha-
NAiSE MicHELET, who Survived him, assisted him in these
latter works.
Michelet, Karl Ludwig: philosopher; b. in Berlin, Dec.
4, 1801 ; studied first law and afterward philosophy, and
was appointed Professor of Philosopliy at the rniversity of
P.erlin in 1829. The study of Ari>totle was enriched hy his
Fthik des Aristoteles (1827) and Examen critique de I'ou-
vrage d'Aristote, intitule Mctaphysique (1836), which was
crowned by the French Academy. On German philosophy
he wrote Oeschiclite der leztcn Systeme de.r Philosophie in
Deutschland (1837); Schelliny und Ilegel (1839); Entwicke-
luw/si/eschichte der neuesten devtschen Philosophie (1873).
His own standpoint — a modern reconstruction of Neo-Pla-
tonic Christianity — is principally developed in his Die Per-
sijnliclikeit des Ahsuluten (1844); Der historische Christus
(1847); Die Zukunft der llenschheit (1853); Xaturrecht
Oder AW/Usphilosophie (3 vols., 1866). D. Dec. 16, 1893.
See his autobiography, W'ahrlieit aus meinem Leben (1884).
Miclielozzi, iiu'e-ku-lot'se'e, MicHELOZZo: sculptor and
architect; b. toward the end of the fourteenth century in
Florence, where he died at the age of sixty years. He wurUcul
with Douatello, whom he helped at Naples with the Bran-
cacei monument. He built fort^osrao dei Medici the palace
now known as the Palazzo Kiccardi ; he followed this patron
into exile to Venice, where he built the Library of St. George
for the Benedictine monks, and made many designs for pri-
vate and public works. On his return to Florence with
Cosmo lie repaired the Palazzo delta Signoria, which Ariiolfo
had designed : he built tlie Dcuiiiuican convent of St. Mark,
linished in 1452; cmistructed the Toriiabuoiii palace, and,
by order of Piero dei Medii'i, designed a chapel in the Church
of the Virgine Annuiiziata. A statue of Faith in the Bap-
tistery in the same city is his work. At Bosco he designed
the Capuchin convent; at Mugello the palace of Callaggi-
nolo; and at Fiesole the Jlozzi palace and the church and
convent of St. .Jerome. Michelozzi also designed and made
a model for a hospital for pilgrims, which Duke Cosmo or-
dered to be erectctl at .Jerusalem at his expense, and at the
order of the duke he constructed an acjueduct for Assisi,
and erected a beautiful fountain there. At Perugia he re-
stored the convent and designed the ancient citadel. When
Francesco Sforza bestowed a palace in Milan on (!osmo,
Michelozzi wius sent to enlarge and ornament it with sculp-
ture. The chapel of St. Peter, Martyr, in St. Eustorgio, of
Milan, is also his work. W. J. Stillman.
Micliie, PuTEit Smith : oflicer and educator ; b. at, Brechin,
Scotland, JIar. 24, 1839; his family removed to Cinciuiiati,
O., ill 1843; he graduated at tlie'U. S. Military Academy
.June 11, 1863; was ])romoted first lieutenant Con)S of En-
gineers June 11, 1863. and captain Nov. 23, 1865. He served
during the civil war in the ojicrations against Charleston
and ill tlie siege of Fort Wagner June, 1^63, to Jan.. 1864;
was chief engineer northern district, department of the
South, and of the district of Florida Jan. to Apr., 1864, be-
ing engaged in the battle of Olustee. He was assistant
engineer Array of the James Jlay to Aug., 1864, and chief
engineer Army of the James and departments of Virginia
anil North Carolina Aug., 1864, to Mar., 1865; was assistant
ins])ector-geiieral Twenty-fifth Army-corps Mar. to July,
1865, being engaged in the action at Drewry's liluff, assault
and capture of Fort Harrison, and in charge of the construc-
tion of lines of works, the Dutch Gap Canal, and the engineer-
ing operations of the left column of the Army of t he Potomac
in tiie pursuit and cajiture of Gen. Ijcc at Ap|)omattox Court-
house. He was made brevet captain and major for gallant
and meritorious conduct during the Richmond campaign of
1864, lieutenant-colonel for the Apiiomattox campaign, and
brigadier-general of volunteers for meritorious services in
1864 ; was on duty at the Military Academy as assistant pro-
fessor in the departments of engineeringand chemistry 1867-
71 ; appointed member of commission to Europe to collect
information on fabrication of ir(ui and steel June to Nov.,
1870; Professor of Natural and Exjierimental Philosophy at
the U. S. Military Academy Feb. 14. 1871; is a member of
board of overseei-s of Thayer School of Civil Engineering;
is the author of works on analytical mechanics, liydro-me-
chanios, and wave-motion, and of the Ldfe of General Upton.
James Mebcur.
Michigan [from Indian Mitchi Sawgyegati, liter.. Lake
Countryj : one of the U. S. of North America (North Central
group): tlie thirteenth State admitted to the Union.
Location and
Area. — It is shu-
atcd between 41°
43 and 47' 33' N.
lat. and 82° 24'
and 90° 31' W.
loll., and covers an
area of 78,915 sq.
miles, of which
1,485 sq. miles
are water sur-
face. It consists of
two peninsulas, of
which the lower,
resting on Ohio
and Indiana, and
bounded on all
other sides by the
lakes and their
connecting waters,
extends 300 miles
toward the N.. with an average breadth of 200 miles; while
the upper, resting with its southwest border on Wisconsin,
stretches eastward between the lakes to St. Marys river, the
outlet of Lake Superior, with a length of over 300 miles and
an average width of ,50 or 60 miles.
Physical Features. — During the glacial epoch the whole
of ]\lichigan was buried bencatli several thousand feet of
ice, whicli fUjwed in a southerly direction, and which greatly
modified the ])revious topograjihy. In the lower peninsula,
where the rocks, eroded by glacial action, lie deejily buried,
the relief of the land, as now seen, is almost wholly the re-
sult of the deiiositioii of clay, gravel, sand, and bowlders by
glaciers and by the streams flowing beneath the ancient ice
sheet or issuing from its margin. The direction of the
streams also W'as determined by inec^ualities of the surface
left when the ancient glaciers retreated. Imperfect drain-
age has left thousands of lakes filling depressions in the
surface, and in thousands of instances .sliallow lakes have
bei'ii filled with marl and peat, and now fcu-m swamjis or
have been drained, and furnish rich soils for vegetable
gardens. Over considerable areas there are no surface
streams, the rainfall being conducted away by percolation.
Beneath the general covering of glacial deposits there is a
system of stream channels, excavated in hai'd rock, traces
of which may sometimes be recognized at the surface or
discovered by wells anil bnrings. but it has no immediate
relation to the present surface drainage. In the lower ]ien-
iiisula lliere are several summits wliicli attain elevations of
from 100 to 700 feet above the lakes, but these are seldom
abriqit, and are scarcely distinguishable in the generally
monotonous topograjihy. Through the central portion ol
the peninsula, from Saginaw Bay. .S. W.. there is a broad,
low tract of country which would be transformed into a
strait, leaving the country to the N. as an island should
the waters of Lakes Michigan and Huron be raised 75 feet.
A high-water stage of the Great Lakes, which came later
Seal of Michigan.
^m
k
^
MICMIGAX
737
than the glaciers, luft beaches at elevations of .several hun-
driMl feet al«>vo the pre^seiit lake surfaces, and spread fine
clays over the sulnnerged borders. These ancient lake
iidt;es may be ea.sily recoj^nized in both the lower and U[)-
per |)eninsula.s. On the Lake .Michipm shore of the lower
peninsula are lar;;e tracts of <lriflin>f sand fornlin^J dunes,
which travel inlaml in the direction of the prcvailin;; winds.
Heiilniiy. — The rocks below the superficial drjiosilsof the
lower i«'ninsula are saiulstone.s, liniestone.s, and shales, rang-
iiii; in ajje from the coal-measures downward to the Upper
Silurian. Iteneath these, but not comiii;; to (he surface,
are still older Paheozoic strata. The Trenton limestone un-
derlies the entire peninsula at a depth in the central part
of about 2,0O0 feet. At an early date in tin- deposition of
the strata a central basin was formed by subsidence, which
was lilled as its bottom was lowered, so tluit the younger
rocks, the coal-meiisures, occur in u somewhat circular area,
aliout which the older rocks come to the surface as concen-
tric rings. Owiiiff to the exi-stencc of a central basin, the
brines and salt deposits included in the rocks at the time of
their formation have not been Hooded out. In the eastern
half of the upper peninsula the geological strata are a eon-
tiiMUilion of tliose existing in the lower iieninsula, the sand-
stone dills along the southern shore of Lake .Superior form-
ing the northern part of the basin referred to. The west-
ern portion of the upper |ieninsula, however, jircsents a
markeil contrast with tlie rest of the State. The hills rise
to an elevation of from a few hundred to about 1,:J00 feet
above the lake, but their ruggedness luus been much .softened
by glacial erosion. Among the boldest topographic feature*
is Keweenaw Point, which projects into Lake Superior as
a long ridge, with an elevation of from SOO to !ll)0 feet,
and owes its prominence to numerous dikes and sheets
of igneous rocks which have withstood erosion. The char-
acteristic rocks of this 'egion belong to the Algonkian pe-
riod, which includes the copper ami iron bearing nnks, and
to the Archiean, incluiling the granites. With these rocks
is found a reddish samlstone of the Cambrian period, which
has lieen ouarried for building purposes.
Mineral Hfnoitrcex. — According to the U. S. census of
18',)(), .Michigan in l^W'J produced 40-34 percent, of all the
iron ore niineil in the U. .S., Alabama and Pennsylvania
conniig next with 10'S2 and 10'7.5 per cent, respiutivelv.
Hotween 18.s!) and 1M!)2 the output increased from 5.».)(J,ldU
to 7,2(»T,8T4 tons. The total output of the mines in the
State to the end of 18!ia is estimated at ();i.!l01,S83 tons.
These mines, which furnish 86 per cent, of the output of
the Lake Superior region, are found in three ranges: the
Mari|Uette range, of which the most important mines are
those of Ishpeming; the Menominee range, of which the
principal mine, the Chapin. has a yearly output second
only to that of the Xfirrie ; and the Gogebic range, of which
the Norrie is the leading mine. Until 188!) .Manjuette was
the most important port for the shipment of iron ore. l>ut
in that year the lead passed to Eseanaba, which in 1892
shippe<l 4,t)12.1!»7 tons, nearly half the entire <ire shipment
of the Lake Superior region. Only a very snudl part of its
iron-ore product is smelted within the State, and that in
charcoal-plant furnaces, of which in the year 1889 there
were twenty-one, representing a capital of ^.'),68!),T()1, and
producing charcoal ])ig iron valueil at !f:^.!•82.287. or nearly
a third of the charci>al iron produced in the U. S. The
U. S. produci'S a third of the world's copper, and of the out-
put of the U.S. .Michigan furnishes a third. Its copper
mines are all situateil on the peninsula jutting out into
Lake Superior, and terminating in Keweenaw Point. Of
the l(l!l,;)7t»,D()0 lb. of copper which these mines produced
in 18!)L tlie t'alumet ami Ilecla mine alone vieMeii (i.'i.OlX*,-
<K)0 lb., the IJuinev l(l.:!tH1.0f)(). the Tanuira<'k' l(I.Ut!l.41.). the
Os<'eola 6.4->.J.74lt. the Franklin 4,2.">:!..">7.'i, the Atlantic :!.G48,-
000. and all others less than 2.000.1KM) lb. each. It isrsti-
mated that up to .Ian. 1, 18!)'.>. the Lakr SuiH'rior mines had
|u-odueed a grand total of 1.4(K).0:i4.411 lb. of reline<l co|>-
|>er. The metal is found in the rock as free copper, and
IS separated by crushing and washing. The brine and
salt stored in the nx'ks underlying the State have N-cn
reached by wells. These wells vary in depth from 8.">0
to 2,200 feet, and the salt-bearing rwk lie ileepest in the
wi>stern part (if the State. In 18!»0 the wells of the Stale
yiehled ;i.8:t7.li:!2 barrels, valued at ii!2,:iO2..'i70, out of a
total pnxluct for the U. S. of 8.77«.!I!U l>arrels. valunl at
^4,7.52,289. Of the gypsum produced in Michigan, which
forms alxiut half the yield of the entire country, the larger
part comes from Kent Countv, where, in the neighburhiHid
273
of Grand Rapiils, there arc deposits not far below the sur-
face covering an area of 10 or 12 sfp miles. About a third
of the gypsum jiroduced in the .Stale is calcined into plas-
ter-of-1'aris, while the remainder is sold as land plaster.
The quarries at Grindstone City supply the U-st quality of
stone for wet grinding. Sandstone is quarried in consiiler-
able quantities for building jmrposfs in the up|)er peniii-
sula, where the sui>i.ly is unlimited and of line quality.
Soil und Product iunx. — I Iwing to the commingling of the
dfhrin of nuiny kinds (.f rocks, the soils of .Michigan are of
varied composition, and in large areas verv fcrtilr. The fol-
lowing summary from the census reiwrls' of 1880 and 1890
shows the extent of farm operations in the State:
FARMS, ETC.
1880.
1890.
Total number of farms 1.M.0OH IT-.' »44 ir9
Total aen-uue ot farms 1S,8U7,«0 14,7S5',oa« 71
Valui- (>r farms, iucludiog builUinKS ' { i
aud fences j $4fl9.103.1Sl ?55«.190,670| 114
• luerease.
The following table sliows the acreage, yield, and value
of the principal crops in the calcudur year 1893 :
CROPS.
Acr«»fc
TUld.
Vtiai.
Corn
919.4.12
1,!J09.145
891,428
127,013
80.199
59.396
195,700
1,280,305
2l.790..M8bush.
19.920.T14 ••
23,177.128 •■
1.625.786 "
1,315.204 ••
825.601 "
14,077.500 "
1,869.245 tons
S9.805.742
11 'XA M07
Wheat
Outs
Rye
715.337
Barlev
Buekwlieat
Potatoes
Hay
437.570
6.6H4.HT5
17.iaa.2!M
Totals
5,062,618
$54,101,775
On Jan. 1, 1894, the farm animals comprised 50.3.779
horses, value ^80,3:i."i.!t49 : :i.02f) miile.s, value f:2a7,.')36; 468,-
711 milch-cows, value $i;i.2o0.460: 4?2.397 oxen and other
cattle, value «;9.4!I4.0.".4 ; 2.:J'.I2.017 sheep, value $.").469..j23 ;
and 720. 7C6 swine, value ^.j,161,40.j : l.itul value, ?;«;!,948.927.
The fruit-crop is varied. The apple-crop in particular is
large, varving between the cxtriiius of 1,803.836 barrels in
1891 and '5.296.233 barrels in 1889. The peach belt of the
State lies chielly under the lee of Lake Michigan. Of the
total crop of 781.970 bush, in 1891, Allegan County yielded
.508,783 bush., while Kent and Van liuien Counties produced
88,483 and 45.0.")0 bush, respectively. The various kinds of
small fniits are largely cultivated.
Litmhir. — According to the U .S. census of 1800, Michigan
in 1889 ijioduced 197.5 per cent, of all the lumber cut in the
U.S., or an amount about equal to the combined product of
Wisconsin and Minnesota, the two .States which stand nearest
to it on the list. When lumbering liegan in Michigan the
State jiosscssed enormous wealth in its pine-forests, which
were found X. of a line running nearly W. from Port Hu-
ron, ami which are estimated to have ccinlaimd 1.50.000.000.-
0(K) feet of Jiimber. For the marketing of this lumlicr there
existed the most ample facilities, the logs being lloated down
the rivers and their tributaries swollen by sju-ing rains, and
the lumber being shipped from lake ports. So rapidly has
this process been carried on that of the once apparently
inexhaustible pine-supply of the State, ninc-lenliis have
already been cut. While the time is not remote when the
[>inc will have disjipiwart'd, yet the .State possesses vast
wealth in its extensive hardwooil-fore.sts. Tlu> abun<laiice
of liimlH'r has given an impetus to the manufacture of
furniture, nearly ^10.1HMI,(XK) being invested, fully half of
the amount in the factories at Grand Kapids.
Finheriex. — The lislieries of Michigan, representing in 1891
an investment of ^l.(K)0.(KK). and giving em|"lovment to over
4.000 men, vielded in that vear 33.714.864 lb., valued at
#1,0.58.028. Ywo-thir.ls of the catch of the State onsisis of
trout and whitefish. of wliiili Lake Michigan yields nearly
half, while the rest is furnished in e<pial proixirlions by
Ijike Sii|>»'rior and Lake Huron. To replenish the lakes
and sin-ams a board of fish commissioners has eslablishe<i
hatcheries at Delniit. Paris, Glenwmul, anil Saiilt Sle. Marie,
and the Feileral GoveninienI has established others at Al-
pena and Norlhville.
Cliiniile. — The climate is inlermedintc l)etween that of
the relatively moist New Kngland ami that of the relatively
dry DakoltLs. It has also some features |H-<'uliar to its posi-
tion. In the spring the (inal Lakes, the waters of which
warm up more slowly than the land, serve to hold back the
738
MK'IIIGAX
Slimmer temj)eraturos. Ilenoe spring comes late ami with a I
rush, its actual duration being extremely short, sometimes not |
temperature for certain selected stations, where observations
were taken for the number of vears indicated :
STATIONS.
J...
K,b.
\1 .-. Apr.
M.y.
Juiia.
Jiy.
Aon.
S.P..
OcL
Not.
Dw.
t
Monthly Average, or Normal
Temperature.
1TS°
24-8
24-8
21-5
101
52
66
61
63
56
2-6"
20
2-4
1-9
1-8
18 0°
2;o
23-4
2:j-8
16-8
58
64
.58
64
69
2-2"
2-3
2-2
21
1-r
232»
32-4
30-8
30-8
230
66
T5
ri
TO
70
2-1"
2-5
2-4
2-6
1-6
44B
43 0
45 3
37-8
T9
82
81
Si
87
21"
22
2-4
24
20
49-4°
57-6
54 1
58-3
48-2
91
90
86
90
92
3-4"
3-3
3 3
30
26
59-8°
67-2
B3-6
67-7
58-4
97
94
90
99
95
3-6"
3-6
40
3-8
3-7
65-9°
71-8
682
71-6
63-2
98
101
90
101
100
3-2"
8-6
29
3 4
31
63 ■C»
70-0
66-3
68-8
63-5
93
99
92
96
98
3-7"
2-9
2-9
2-8
31
57 -so
630
60-2
60-4
572
9a
97
88
90
97
4-0"
2-5
3-6
31
4-2
45 5°
51-4
49 8
48-3
45-4
87
85
61
81
87
40"
2-7
3 5
2-6
3-3
.33 •3°
3«-8
381
35-8
.32-2
67
70
72
72
69
3 0"
2-6
31
2-2
2-5
21 7°
.30-4
30-6
25-4
23-7
56
65
61
62
59
2-5"
2-5
2-5
20
2-3
18 j-cars.
18 *'
Detroit
19 '•
24 '•
17 '•
Hiyhest Temperature
recorded.
20 years.
22 '•
Grand Haven
20 "
9 "
19 "
Monthly Normal Precipita-
tion (rain and melted snow).
19 years.
22 '■
Detroit
21 "
24 "
21 "
' Principally from observations made at the State Agricultural College of Michigan.
t Period of observation.
more than a fortnight. Slay Day in Michigan is almost inva-
riably cold and raw. In tlie autumn, the lakes, wliose waters
cool slowly, prolong the autumn and give several weeks of
cool, stimulating, and beautiful weather, which may exten<l
well into December, and sometimes is prolonged beyond
Christmas. Moreover, the extremes of temperature are cut
down at both ends, so that the weather is not likely to be either
so cold in winter or so hot in summer as it is in adjacent States.
The accompanying tables give the average and the extreme
The number of storms that pass over the State in the
course of a year is large. If maps were drawn for a num-
ber of years, showing, in black, the ])ath of each storm, the
successive maps would become blacker and blacker, and the
blackest path would be in the vicinity of Alpena. The
following table gives the average number of low-area storms
crossing centrally over the State each month during the
decade 1883-92, and shows also their distribution among
the three indicated divisions:
STATIONS.
Jan.
Feb.
M«r.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nor.
Dec
2 6
1-6
15
1-6
1-7
1-5
20
1-4
0-6
12
1-2
0-9
1-7
10
0-8
17
0-8
0-5
2-4
0-9
0-3
20
0-6
0-4
20
0-6
0-5
2-4
ri
10
2-6
1-5
1-4
17
Upper half lower peninsula
1-9
11
Totals
5 7
4-8
40
3 3
3-5
30
3-6
30
31
4 5
5-5
4-T
Divisions. — The Michigan State census of 1894 showed eighty-five counties, as follows :
COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS, WITH POPULATION.
COUNTIES.
Alcona
Alger
Allegan
Ali)eua
Antrim
Arenac
Baraga
Barry
Bay
Benzie
Berrien
Branch
Calhoun
Cass
Charlevoix
Cheboygan
Chippewa
Clare
CHnton
Crawford
Delta
Dickinson t
Eaton
Emmet
Genesee
Gladwin
Gogebic
(Jrand Traverse.
Gratiot
Hillsdale
Houghton
Huron
Ingham
lohia
Iosco
Iron
Isabella
Isle Royale
Jackson
Kalamazoo
Kalkaska
Kent
Keweenaw. .....
Lake !..
*E«f.
4-J
2-G
7-H
4-J
4-1
5-J
2-F
7-1
5-J
4-H
8-G
8-1
8-1
8-H
4-1
3-1
2-1
5-1
7-1
5-1
3-G
3-F
7-1
3-1
7-J
^-I
2-D
4-H
6-1
8-J
1-K
6-K
7-.I
7-1
.^-J
2-E
6-1
8-J
8-H
4-1
7-H
1-F
5-H
Pop.
1890.
5,409
l,a:)S
.SH.'.KJl
I5,.'iKl
- 10.413
S.tiKi
3.(13(3
S3.78:j
56,412
5.2:i7
41,*5
20.791
43..5(ll
9.(W(i
ll.'.ISli
12.11111
7..55S
2«..'')0',l
2.1tli2
i:>:.m
' 3S2',694
8,756
39,430
4.208
13,166
13,.%55
28,068
30,i;60
35,389
2K..5-15
.37,666
:12.801
l.'>,22^(
4. l:W
IH.TKl
135
45,031
39,273
.5.160
1011,922
2,8114
0,.505
Pop.
1894.
5,411
l.as4
31), 185
17,715
12.427
6.1)41
4.2:i2
23,(iHl)
61,21)2
8.0U0
4.-),(as
26.204
47.471
21.176
1II,!«I
13,8%
1.^1.319
7,;)?5
26.21)2
3.710
19,2.')9
14,61)11
32,612
10,381
40,5.53
4.1100
H.OSJ
17,.514
28,770
30,271
44,174
82,3-19
.3!),089
34,817
12,339
5.293
21,439
None.
4li,.527
42,0.55
5.637
121,919
2,8(M
5,895
COUNTY-TOWNS.
Harrisville
Au Train
Allegan
.Mpeiia
Bellaire
Standjsh
L'Anse
Ha.stiugs
Bay City
Benzonia
Berrien Springs,
Coldwater
Marsliall
Cassopolis
Charlevoix
Chebo.vgan
Saultste. Marie.
Harrison
St. John's
Grayhug
Escanaba
Iron IMountain. .
Charlotte
Harbor Springs.
Flint
Gladwin
Bessemer
Traverse City...
Ithaca
Hillsdale
Houghton
Bad Axe
Mason
Ionia
Tawas Citv
Crystal Falls....
Mt. Pleasant....
.Taclcson
Kalamazoo
Kalkaska
Gi'and Hapids. .
Eagle River
Baldwin
Pop.
1894.
466
aso
,673
,131)
716
848
9.57
.014
,1)311
369
726
,285
,599
.324
.71)6
,1).">6
,244
746
.441)1
,.")i;5
,124i
.638
,.350
1)23
,420
882
.528
,051
,ii(;k|
,121
,178i
,071
,761
,1)21
,230l
,2116!
,178
Lapeer
Leelanaw
Lenawee
Livingst(»n
Luce
Mackinac
Macomb
Manistee
.Manitou X
Mar(piette
Mason
Mecosta
Menominee. . .
Midland
Jlissaukee
Monroe
Montcalm
3lontmorency.
Muskegon
Newaygo
Oakland
Oceana
(Igemaw ......
Ontonagon . . .
Osceola
< )scoda
Otsego
Ottawa
l'res<pie Isle . .
Knseummon . .
Saginaw
St. Clair
St. .Joseph
Sanilac
Schoolcraft
Shiawa.ssee
Tuscola
V,an Hiiren.. . .
Washtenaw
Wa.vne
Wexford
Tiit:ik
*Ref,
7-K
4-H
8-J
7-J
2-H
2-1
7-K
5-H
3-H
2-F
5-H
6-1
.3-F
6-1
.5-1
8-K
6-1
4-J
7-H
0-H
7-K
6-H
5-J
2-D
5-H
4-J
4-1
7-H
3-J
5-1
C-J
7-K
8-H
6-K
2-a
7-J
6-K
.'*-H
8-J
8-K
5-H
Pop.
1890.
29,213
7,944
48,448
20,858
2,455
7.8:)0
31,813
24,2:)0
860
39.521
16.385
19,697
33,630
10,6.57
5,048
32,337
32,6.37
1,4.'<7
40,013
20,476
41,245
15.698
5„583
3,756
14,630
1,904
4,272
85,3,58
4,6h7
2,o;«
82,273
52,105
25,3.56
32,589
.5,818
.30,11.52
32,508
30,541
42,210
267,114
11,278
"•1.S89
Pop,
28,874
9,895
48.541
20.435
2,,348
7,2:W
32,:182
26,112
917
38.004
18.418
2O,7:J0
2:i.?36
13.22:j
6,956
.3:J,179
34,155
2,435
37,323
19,124
42,088
16.,51)7
5,636
6,873
16,475
1,.S04
4,79-1
39.075
,5,1)10
1.6.57
81,841
,54,315
25,087
33,944
7.127
.32.827
.34,411
31,0.59
43,41)1
292,.|95
14,047
2,241,454
COUNTY-TOWNS,
Lapeer
Leland
Adrian
Howelt
Newberry
St. Ignace
Mt. Clemens . , .
Manistee
Marquette
Ludingtou
Big Rapids
Menominee
Midland
Lake City
Mtmroe
Stanton
Atlanta
l^Iuskegon
Newaygo
Pontiac
Hart
West Branch
Ontonagon
Hersey
Mio
(iaylord
Grand Haven,.,
Rogers
Roscommon
Saginaw
Port Huron., . .
Centerville
Sanilac Center. .
Manistique
Corunna
('nro
Paw Paw
Ann Arbor
Detroit ,
Cadillac
Pop.
1894.
2,952
880
9,511
2,500
1,1,36
2,068
6,647
13,449
9,724
8,244
S,202
12,532
2,484
1,075
5,613
1,303
113
20,222
1,231
7,276
992
1,223
2,070
331
'"ini
5,267
686
186
44,642
18,140
706
414
2,oa3
1,551
1,780
1,406
11,069
237,8.37
6,105
* Reference for location of counties, see map of Michigan,
t Formed since census of 1890.
; .\line.\eil 111 I I, ,41 I.
S In Lake Supei'ior.
4..1.K and Leelanaw Counties since 1894,
Aune.\edxo Keweenaw County in 1897.
MICUKiAN
739
Prinri/ml Cilifr, and Towns, with I'opuUitimi in is:)'i. —
I)ftn)it. 2:l7.H:n: (iniiid Uiipids, 7!).424 ; Siiginaw. 44.042:
Mm Cilv.yo.Oo'.l: .IiickM.n.'-'-'.GU : KaUiiimzoo.21,(l."i3; JIiis-
kf;ioii,-i(V.'--'2: Tort Iliinih. IS.IK): Laiisiiis. 15.847 ; Battle
('reek. 1.5..*)22: .Maiiistff, i:i.44i»: Mi'iumiime. 12.">.'i3 ; West
l!av Cilv, 12,;W7: Alpena. 12.i:!!»: Ishp.iiiin!,'. 1I.6.S7; Aim
Ari)or, ll.lMJit: Kliiu, l(l,42(): Man|iielt.'. !».724 ; Adrian,
9,.")11; Iruinvoocl, y,824; Iron Mimiitaiii, 7,()oy.
PiipiiUiliiin tiiiil AVir/'.v.— In ISUO, 74!).ll:t: lH7n. 1,1H4,0.VJ:
IKSO, l.(5;m.!t;i7; IS'IO. 2.()!i;i.8S!» (native. 1..5.'")0.(M)!) ; f<.reifrii,
.')4:i,880 ; males. 1.0!)1.78(): females, 1.()()2,1U!I : white. 2.072.-
884 ; colored, 21,0(».j. of whom 1.5.223 were of African descent ;
120 Chinese. ;i8 .lapanese. and 5.024 civilized Indians).
Commerre. — Miclii^tn ha.s a large forei;;n commerce,
chielly with Camula, the exports inchidinf; iron ore, copper,
SJilt, buildiiiK-stoJie, Inndier, ^1'"'". f'-'^'i- meats, frnit, car-
riages, and railway cars. 'I'he I'.S. customs ilistricts and
ports of entry are Detroit, (Irand Kapids, Ihnnn, .Michifran
(eity), and Superior, and durinj; the calenilar year 18!)3 the
combined imports amounted in value to $0,82.5,242, and the
■ xports to itil7,02'.),!)08.
Finance.— In 18!t.! the State debt amounted to *10.ei2.8;},
the uncalled-for balan<e of an adjusted past ilne iion-inter-
est-bearins loan of ij!.5.000.000. The financial report for the
vear eiidiiijj; JuiU' :iO, 18i(4. showed balanc'c on .luue 30, 18!).'i,
$547,511.74: receipts from .Iniie :iO. lS!»:i. to .luiu- 30. 18114.
$:i.043.6l!l.28; expenditures dnriu'r same jieriod *:!.e69,305.-
75: leavinj; a balance, .lune .30. 18!)4, of $.521,825.27.
Bankini/.— On Dec. 111. 18!)3. there were ',»'J national banks
with combined capital of $14..584.0O0. individual deposits of
$31,789,110. ami surplus and profits of $5.048,42.5. The State
banks, whicdi included savings-banks, intmliered 1.59 on Oct.
3, 189:i, and had c,.ml)ined capital of $1 '.102.9.5.5, individual
deposits of $54,71)5,740 (of which $33,.502.444 belongid to the
-ivings-banks). and surplus and profits of $4,010,277. The
■ Tganized banking interi'st was thus represented bv 2.58
banks, with $2H.tt'<0.y55 capital. $80,494,862 in deposits, and
$10.2.58.702 in surplus and profits.
Means of l'i)m>niinicalion. — The first railway built in
Michigan was the one between Port Lawrence, O. (now
Toledo), and Adrian, which was ooeneil for trallic in 1830.
In 1837 the Legislature authorized the construction by the
State of three railw.iys, traversing the State from K. to W.,
of which the central hail been built from Detroit to Kala-
mazoo, and the southern from Monroe to Hillsdale, when in
1840 they were .sold to private corporations. The two rail-
ways reached Chicago in 1853, within a few hours of each
other. The progress of railway construction is shown bv
the following figures, giving the numlier of miles of track
within the State at the end of each decade : 1840. 104 : 18.50,
380; 180lt. 770;,1870, 1,739; 1.880, 3.823; 189(». 0.957. On
Dec. 31, 1892, the total mileage was reported at 7.440-9.5.
A coa.st line of over 1,600 miles affords unequaled facili-
ties for water transportation. Of the 3,784 craft engaged in
carrying the .53..5(IO,000 tons of freight transported on the
Great Lakes in 188i), about 1.000 belonged to Jlichigan. In
1892. vessels numbering 33..80(J. with 24.785,000 registered
tonnage, [lassed through Detroit river, and 12,580 ves.sels,
with 10.(i47.2O3 registered toniuige. passed through St. Mary's
river and canal. The only other canal in the State, 3 miles
long and without locks, connects the northern end of Port-
age Lake with Lake Su|)erior.
Churches. — The census of 1890 gave the following statis-
tics of the religious bodies having each a membership in the
State of 5.0(J0 and upward :
DENOMI.NATIO.NS.
Roman Catholic
MfitiodiMt Episcopal
Hiiplist I
I.uthtTan. SyiK'Mlieal Conference.'
I'n-sli in till"' U. S. of America
(.Ninnrepat tonal
rrot<*siuriT Kpisenpal .
LllllierAn, Mu'tiican .'^yncnl
Oernmn Kraii. Svnod'of N, .\
Lutlii-ran. <!< neral Council
Christian Hcfornicil
Kvan^'elienl .\s.sociaiion
Refornn'il ("hiireh in Atneriea. . . .
Lutheran. JninI Svn. of l>hio. etc.
Disciple,s of Christ
Unil<-il Bnlhri-n. Old Constitution
Free-will Haptist
United Brethren in Christ
■low.
ChgRhM
Mimb<n.
Vdiia of
chanb
400
409
sas.soi
S3.071..V.O
l,Ol«
l.(M2
(W.'.IW
.3.739.SV)
S!B
41.'.
34.14.'.
1.H5H.419
IS7
no
i7.47a
4(»I,SS11
as8
840
ii.oss
S.S14.l..'i«
Ml
S4I)
34..'rf«!
1..VW,(1.'.5
1«)
aw
I8.(»4
l.(V4.%5.'.l
62
Vli
11.011
l.')7.'.»:»
50
SO
I0.!Hi8
!M4.450
TO
70
8.710
153.350
44
fa
7.7ie
174.101)
134
1*)
6.li77
1W,45(I
4.'i
.M
6.600
SfiS.Slll)
21
41
6.-.>l7
145.7H)
n
75
5.7H8
lliO.O,'*
lU
104
5.004
119..VO
1«8
] 187
5.435
a77.-.«75
138
1 1S7
5,801
133.850
Schools. — For primary education the townships are di-
vided into school districts, each with a board of three mem-
bers chosen at the school meeting. In 18!)2 there were 7,175
school districts, 7,000 school-houses, and a school enrollment
of 447,407 out of a total school population of 600,:i91. The
total revenue for school puriioses wa.s $0,082,317, of which
till' primary-school fund yieldecl $900,810, the one-mill tax
$616,805, aiiil the taxes voted by .school districts $3,826,-
310, the balance being derived from miscellaneous sources.
The primary-school fund hail its origin in the grant made
by Congress of a siction in each township for eilticational
purposes. In many of the more populous districts the
schools have been graded, the statistics of 18!I2 showing 572
graded school district.*. To enccjiirage grading the law per-
mits two or more contiguous districts to unite to establi.sh a
grailecl .school. High sdiools an; but grailed schools of a
more ailvanced character, the line between the grammar
school and the high school beingdrawn. as a rule, at the enil
of the eighth grade. The educational .system of the State
culminates in the University of Michigan, a State institution
managed by an elected board of regents, anil having in
Mar., 1893, about 160 professors and instructors and 2,778
students. The Normal School, at Yj)silaiiti. the .Vgricultural
College, at Lansing, and the Mining-school at Houghton,
complete the list of State educational institutions. There are
also a number of colleges in the Stale supported by religious
denominatii>ns.
Lihriiries. — According to a V. S. fiovernment report on
nublic libraries of 1.000 volumes and upward each in 1891,
Slichigan had 139 libraries which contained 733.377 bound
volumes and 80.734 pamphlets. The libraries were classified
as follows: (ieiieral. 47; school, 36; college, 14; college so-
ciety, 1 ; law, 2; medical,!; jiublic institution, 7; State,
1; social. 24; .siientilic. 2 : garrison, 1; not reported, 3.
Post-offices and Periodicals. — In .Ian., 1.894. there were
1,900 post-oflices, of which 1()3 were iiresidential (0 flrst-
clas.s. 37 .second-class. 120 third-cla.ss). and 1,803 fourth-class.
There were 740 money-order oflices, 6 mf.ney-order stations,
and 32 postal-note oflice-s. The newspapeirs and periodicals
comprised .53 daily, 11 semi-weekly. 5(i5 weekly. 3 bi-wceklv,
15 .semi-monthly. 76 monthly, 3 bi-monthly, and 1 quarterly
[lublications: total, 727.
Charitable. Refonuaton/. and Penal Institutions. — The
first charilable institution organized in the .State was the
School for the Deaf, established at Flint in 1851. The school
had in 1894 about 300 pupils and 18 instructors. The blind
were al.so admitted to this school until 1880, when a School
for the Blind was established at Lansing. An institution
peculiar to .Michigan is the State I'uljlic School at Cold-
water, established in 1874 to afford a temporaiT home to de-
pendent anil ill-treated children who. if between the ages of
two and twelve and sound in body and mind, may be sent
there by Ihe superintendents of the poor under the order of
a judge of probate. In 1891 there were 198 children in the
school and 1,3.53 in homes whiih had been secured for them,
and where Ihey continue to be wards of the State. There is
a Soldiers" Home at (irand Hapids. The Legislature of 1893
made provision for a Home for the Feeble-minded and
Kpileplic. The Stale has also made generous provision for
the insane. In three a.sylums. located at KalaniaziKi (opened
in 18.5!l), at rontiac (opened in 1870). and at Traverse City
(opene<l in 1878), the total number of patients in 1892 wsls
2,74JS. a law of 1893 provided for a fourth asylum to be
hxated in Ihe upper peninsula. For .such criminals as
might beiome insane the ,\.syluin for Insani' Criminals was
established at Ionia in 1.S8.5. but in 18!ll, upon provision be-
ing ma<le for the transfer to it of the dangerous insane, it.s
name was changeil to the Michigan Asylum for Dangerous
and Criminal In.saiie. The .Slate Prison at .lackson was es-
tablished in 18;i9. The Stale House of Correction and Re-
formatory, eslidilished at Ionia in 1877, was ilesigned for
younger and K'ss hardened male oflTenilers, but it h.'is no
distinctive reformatory features and differs from the Slate
Pri.son chiefly in the exclusion of life-prisoners. In ImiIIi
institutions tile prisoners are einploveil in various kimis of
manual lalior in the immediate service either of the State or
of contractors. A third prison. corrt'S|xinding to tht-se, es-
tablished at Maniuette in 18,sl,5. is known as the State Hiuise
of Correction and Branch of the State Prison for the I'pper
Peninsula. The number of inmates in the thn-e prisons in
1892 was 768. The State Board of Corrections and Chari-
ties, consisting of four members ap|Miinted by Ihe (iovernor
for eight years, one every si-coiid year, and of w liich the Gov-
ernor is ej- officio a nieinbcr, is intrusteil with the duty of
740
MICHIGAN
MICHIGAN, LAKE
inspecting tlip charitable, reformatory, and penal institu-
tions of the State, as also county jiiils and asylums, and of
reporting annually to the Governor the. results of such in-
spection, together with such recommendations as it may
deem proper. An agent of the board may be appointed by
the Governor in every county, ehari;o<i with the duty of ad-
visinfT the courts in regard to juvenile offenders, of seeking
suitable homes for ehihlren wlio have become wards of tlie
State, and of exercising oversight over those who have al-
ready been placed in homes.
Political Organization. — The Legislature is composed of
two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives,
the former having 33 and the latter 100 members, elected
in both cases from single districts. During its term of two
years the Legislature, unless specially convened by tiie Gov-
ernor, has but a single session, which begins on the first
Wednesday in .January of the year following the election of
its members. To the Governor the constitution intrusts a
qualified veto power, the didy of enforcing the laws, includ-
ing the right as commander-in-chief to make use of the
militia for the purpose, the authority to remove for cause a
large number of appointed and elected officers, and the par-
doning power. In the thirty-three judicial districts into
which the State is divided circuit judges are elected for
terms of six years, whose duty it is to hold at least two
terms of court yearly in each of the counties belonging to
their circuit. The Supreme Court consists of five justices
elected for terms of ten years, one being elected everv second
year, and each acting as chief justice during the last two
years of his term. The right to vote is given to male citi-
zens of the U. S., including those who have declared their
intention to become citizens, who are twenty-one years of
age and have resided in the State three months and in the
township or ward ten days preceding the election. The
right of women to vote and to hold office is limited to school
districts. The constitution prescribes that every sixteenth
year the question of general revision shall be submitted to
the voters.
History. — The early French missionaries and traders, di-
verted from the more direct route by the hostility of the
Iroquois, moved westward by way of the Ottawa and French
rivers and Georgian Bay, establishing settlements at Saultf
Ste. Marie and at St. Ignace. about thirty years before Cadil-
lac's appreciation of the strategic importance of its position
made him in ITOl the founder of Detroit. The town was
surrendered to the English Xov. 29, 1760, within two months
of the fall of Montreal. Two and a half years later it nar-
rowly escaped falling into the hands of Pontiac at the head
of a general movement on tlie part of the Indians to check
the encroachment of the whites. In the Revolutionary war
Detroit was the base of British operations in the Northwest,
and their retention of it for thirteen years after the conclu-
sion of peace resulted from their unwillingness to abandon
that region to the U. S. Forming part at first of the Xortli-
west TeiTitory. oi'ganized by the ordinance of 1787. and be-
longing after the division of the latter in 1800 to the Terri-
tory of Indiana, M ichigan was in 1805 organized as a separate
Territory. Its first executive. Governor Hull, surrendered
Detroit to the British in Aug., 1812, but the disaster was re-
trieved in the following year in consequence of Perry's vic-
tory at Put-in-Bay. Under the able rule of Lewi's Cass,
Governor from 1814 to 1831. emigration, hitherto held in
check by danger from Indians, bad roads, and erroneous
views in regard to Die soil, streamed into the Territory. It
was under the administration of Stevens T. Mason who,
though but nineteen years of age, was appointed territorial
secretary upim the resignation of Cass to enter .Jackson's
cabinet, and who acted as Governor during nearly tlie whole
remaining period of territorial existence, that Michigan or-
ganized itself as a State and applied for admission into the
Union. Us admission was retariled by its border contro-
versy with Ohio, Michigan claiming that the boundary
should be the continuation from the west boundary of Ohio
of a line running due E. from the most southerly point
of Lake i\Iichigan, and hence reaching Lake Erie S. of
Toledo. A proposition made by Congress to admit the State
on condition that it should relincjuisli to Ohio tlie territory
in dispute and accept in its stead a consideralde addition of
territory on the northwest, being the greater part of what is
now known as the upper peninsula, was first rejected, but
shortly afterward accepted, and on Jan. 26, 1837, the Stati
was admitted. The constitution of 1835 was revised in IS.^O,
when, among other changes, judges and heads of depart-
ments were matle elective.
C.OVEUNORS OK .MICHIGA.V.
Under Frencji, Dominion.
Samuel Clianiplain 1622-3,5
M. de Moutniaffny ]6:iG-J7
31. d'Aillebout. 1648-50
M. de Lauson 16.'>l-56
M. de Lausou (son) 1656-57
.^I. d'Aillebout IftW-SS
31. d'.-irKciison ]l).58-«0
Baron de Avaugour 16G1-6.S
M. de 3Iesey 1663-1)5
M. de Couroelles 1665-72
Couut lie Frontenac 1672-82
M. de la Barre 16K2-S5
M. de Nouville lliR5-8<J
Count de Frontenac 1689-08
.11. de Callieres ie!19-1703
31. de Vaiulivuil 17CB-2o
31. de Beauliarnois 1726-47
31. de Oiilissoniere 1747-19
31. de la .IoiU|niere 1749-52
31. de Qiiesne 1752-55
31. de VaudreuU de Ca-
vagnac 1755-63
Under British Dom inion.
James Murray 1763-67
Guy Carleton 1768-77
Fi-ederirk Ilnldimand 1777-85
Henrv Haniiltna 1785-86
Lord Dorchester 1786-96
Territorial. — A'. W. Territory.
Arthur St. Clair 1796-1800
Midi iyan Territory.
William Hull 1805-13
Lewis Cass 18i:j-31
Ueorge B. Porter 1831-34
S. T. Masou, ex officio 18»4-35
State.
Stevens T. Mason m35-40
Willinni Woodbridge 1840-11
J. Wright (iordoniactingi 1*11-42
.lolwi S. BaiTv 1W3-45
.■Vl]jheus Kulrh 1816-17
Wm. I, Grecnlj (acting). 1847
Epaphroditus Ransom . . . 1848-19
John S. Barry 1850-61
Robert McClelland ia52-53
Andrew Parsons (acting). ISS^WM
Kinslev S. Bingham 1855-68
3Ioses Wisner 1859-60
.\ustin Blair 1861-M
Henry H. Crapo 1865-68
Henry P. Baldwin 1869-72
John J. Bagley 1W3-77
Charles 31. Croswell 1877-81
David H. Jerome 1881-a3
Josiah W. Begole 1883-85
R.A.Alger 1885-87
Cyrus G. Luce 1887-91
Edwin B. Winans 1891-93
John T. Rich lMW-97
Hazen S. Pingree 1897-
Indiana Territory.
Wm. Henry Harrison .... 1800-05
Authorities. — Coo\ey. Michigan : a History of Oovern-
nients (Boston, 188,5) : Campbell, Outlines of the Political
History of 3Iicliigan (Detroit, 187H); Cocker, Ciinl Govern-
ment of 3Iichigan (14th edition, Detroit, 1802); Michigan
and its Resources. com\>\\n\ by autliority of the State (4th
edition, Lansing, 1898); Michigan Manual, published bienni-
ally by the Secretary of .State ; other State [lublications, in-
cluding Public Acts, Joint Documents, and Farm Statistics
of 3Iichigan; Michigan Semi-Centennial Addresses (De-
troit, 1886); Reports of the eleventh U. S. census, etc.
Richard Hudson.
Micliigaii City: city; La 'Porte co,, Ind, (for location of
county, see map of Indiana, ref. 1-D) : on Lake Michigan,
and the Lake Erie and W., the Louis., New All), and t'hi.,
and the Mich. Cent, railways: 50 miles E. of Chicago, It
contains 15 churches, a central and 5 ward public schools,
St, Mary's Academy (Rimian Catholic), St. .lolm's and St.
Luke's parochial schools (Lutheran), the Northern Indiana
State Prison, a sanitarium, a U. S. life-saving station, electric
street-railway, a beautiful public park on the lake front, a
national bank with capital of .*25U.000, a State bank with
capital of $50,000, and 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers.
The city has an extensive trade in lumber, salt, and iron ore.
Its manufactories include foundries, planing-mills, railway-
car factory, glass-works, and several chair-factories. Pop,
(1880) 7,366 : (1890) 10,776, Editor of '• News."
Mii'liignn. Lake: a lake of the Laurentian system, com-
municating with Lake Huron by the Straits of Mackinac.
From the maps of the U. S. Lake Survey it has been com-
puted that Lake Michigan, including Green Bay, has an
area of 21,729 s(|. miles. It is somewhat smaller than Lake
Huron, and ranks third in the series of (ircat Lakes, Its
mean surface elevation is .582 feet above the sea, and is the
same as the level of Lake Hunm, Its maximum depth is 870
feet ; the bottom of the basin is therefore some 300 feet below
sea-level. Its shores are low, unpicturesque, and without
embayments except at the N., where Green Bay indents tlie
western and Grand Traverse Bay the eastern shore. About
its southern and eastern borders there are immense accumu-
lations of sand which has l)een thrown ashore by the waves
and currents, and drifted inland by the wind. In this way
heavy forests have sometimes been buried, as may be seen
at Sleeping Bear bluffs and other localities.
The level of the lake undergoes many changes, due to va-
riations in the direction and foi'ce of the wiiui, seasonal and
secular variations in rainfall ami evaporation, fluctuidions
in atmospheric pressure, etc. The average differences of
level as shown by twenty years' observation do not exceed
1-3 feet, but protracted gales blowing steadily in one direc-
tion may cause a rise or fall of several times this amount.
A tide in the lake was detected from observations made by
the U. S. Lake Survey at Chicago, having an amplitude of
li inches for neap and about 3 inches for spring tide. The
MIClIKiAN UNIVEUSITY
5IICK0C0SM
741
lake has an iiiiporlaiit influence on thediiimte of its shores,
as its wains aif Wiinmr tliaii tlie air in wiiiK-r ami cooler
in suiuincr. The ellVcl of this ainelioiatioa of climate is
shown by the aliunilance and rich flavor of the fruiLs of
Michifjan. Like its sister lakes. Lake Michigan aljoiinds in
fish, anil is an important comiuercial liifjhway. See also
St. Lawrkxck liiviiK. Iskakl C Klsseli-
Micliii;iin I'nivcrsitj': an institution of learninjcat Ann
Arbor. Mich. CiMiu'nss, in the year 18'.iC. set a[iart two town-
ships in the Territory of .Michii;an for the future founilalion
of a university, which was aiconlin^'ly ostalilished bv the
first Lejjislature of the new Stale Mar. IH, 1h:J7. though not
opened until Sept. lit ), 1H4I. It is supported by the State,
uikI open to students of both se.xes on the payment of a
suiiill null riculation fee an<l of an annual charge of from $20
to ^'i'). .lames 1$. An<;ell, LL. 1)., has been its president since
1871. To the original academic institution a medical de-
partment was added in 1850. a law deijarlment in 18oi), and
subseijuently a school of pharmacy, a nomo-opathic medical
college, and a dental coUeije. Tlie depiirlment of literature,
s<ience. and the arts embraces nine rejiulnr courses of four
vears and a <,''"aduale course. In that department courses in
civil, minim;, mechanical, and electrical engineering are
given. The total number of instructors in lSli;}-!)4 in the
various departments was 161 ; the numlier of students was
2,778. The libraries contain aliout 80,()(K) volumes. A fine
observatory was erected by citizens of Detroit in 18.j4. The
grounds of the university embrace ^m acres, and the build-
ings were erected at a cost of !^70I),()(M). The university
fund, derived from the sale of lands, annually yielils about
$:{8.-">00. A sixth-of-a-mill ta.\ levied by the". State for the
univei-sity yielded (ISl*-*) about $18.').t)00. The Legislature
at each session for many years has made generous appro-
priations for the university. The annual expenditure av-
erages about Sjiitt.l.tX'M). The government is in the hands of
eight regents, elected by the popular vote of the State.
J. 15. AxuKLL.
Micliipieoten, mish-i-pi-ko'ten (great mushroom, accord-
ing to Lacombe): name of a river, harbor, bay, and island
in or emptying into northeastern Lake Superior, and forin-
ing parts of Ontario. The river is the outlet of many lakes,
and descends through them by a series of rapids and cascades
into the Bay of Micliipieoten. It has clear and abundant
water, except in summer; abounds in trout, sturgeon, and
other fish, and forms with Moose river a boai route from
Lake .Superior to Hudson Bay, over at least thirty-nine port-
ages. It reiiuiiis sixteen days to reach Moose Factory, at
tile mouth of .Moose river. At the mouth of Micliipieoten
river was the Micliipieoten House of the Hudson Bay Com-
pany— one of its largest fortified posts, established at an
early date, and long the busiest place on Lake .Superior.
Fifty miles S. W. is the island of Micliipieoten, 25 miles long
K. and W. by 10 broad, rocky, inhabited, cut up by fiords
on the south side, culminating in an elevation of aliout 800
feet above the level of the lake. It has inexhaustible sup-
plies of native copper. M. W. Hakhixuton.
Mk-hliiusll. inik mash: a town of Palestine; in the tribe of
Benjamin ; 'J Roman miles X. of .Jerusalem. It was a point
of great strategical iinpurtance, and played a conspicuous
part in several of the wars of the Israelites (1 Sam. xiii., xiv. ;
Isa. X. 28). It became the seat of government under .ludas
MaccabaMis (1 Mace. ix. 73). It is now a small village, called
Jlukhmash. S. M. J.
Miclioucail, mee-slio-aa-kaan' (often written }[erhimcan):
a soiitliweslern state of .Mexico; bounded N. \V. by Colima
and .lalisco. N. by (iuanajuato and (^ueivtaro. E. by Mexico.
.S. bv Guerrero, ami S. \V. bv the Pacific. Area. 2;!.70;i srj.
miles. P,,p, (i-stimaled. IS'.K!) 8;)0.'.I23. Capital, Morelia.
Somewhat X. of the middle the state is traversed from K.
to W. by forest-covered mountains, which, farther \V.. in
Jalisco, join the .Sierra Madre. Xone of them is snow-
capped, and the highest point in the range and in the state
appears to be Tancitaro (about 11,.")00 feet). X. of these ex-
tenil the plains and rolling country of the plateau aliout
Morelia, generally open lands, dotted with luKes; <if these,
the largest are the Lago de Chai'ala (7. f.), on the border
of Jalisco, ami the Lago de Patzcuaro. S. of the mountains
the country is extremely varieil, long ridges descending
toward the coast and sejiarating fertile valleys of the lierra
templiuld and lierra ralinite. In the southeast, and .S. of the
principal mountain range, there is an arid basin, covered
wUh lava aiul cinders, and containing the isolated recent
volcano of Jokullo (q. v.). The climate, except in some
fiarts of the coitst land, is liealllifiil, and in the interior is
ike that of a perpetual spring. The state is aluindantly
watered, the two largest streams being the Mescala and
Lerma, respectively on the southern and northern frontiers.
The .soil is so fertile that this has been called the "garden
of Mexico." The [irincipal crops are maize <in the plateau,
coffee in the middle valleys, and sugar-cane and cotton (for
home consumption only) in the hot lands. Cattle-raising is
an important indusiry in the high lands. This is not one
of the great mining stales, but gold, silver, anil copper to
the amount of about $2.000,IKJU annually (.Mexican money)
are extracted, and a number of other minerals are reporteii.
-Manufactures, as yet in Ihi'ir infancy, consist mainly of
woolen and cotton cloths and small hand-works.
IIi:kuekt II. Smith.
Mii'liuii. meesliorr, Jkan IIii-i'oi.vtk: [ireacher and au-
thor; b. at La Koche Fressange, Correze, France, Nov. 21,
1806; was educated in theCollegeof Angouleinc; studied the-
ology ill the Seminary of .St. Sulpice, in Paris; was ordained a
priest in 18;J0 ; preached with great success in Bordeaux, An-
gouleme, Perigueux, Paris, and other places; accompanied de
Saulcy twice to the Hast, in 18.50 and in 186:5; was made an
honorary canon of Bordeaux and Angouleme. ll. at Mon-
tauzier. Charente, May 8, 1881. His numerous works belong
to apologetics or archaeology, or to that new science he has
designated as "graphology." The first group comjirisesia
femme et la famille dans le calliolicisme (l>i4n): Apologie
ehrefienni' uu XIX' siecle (186:5); Vie de Jexu-nCi vols., 1865);
the second, iSlafixlii/iie monumentule de la Charente (1844-
48); Mimoijraphie du chCileau de la Kncltef oucaiill {\S4S);
Solution ttouvelte de la question dea lietix saints (l852);
Voyage religieux en Orient (2 vols., 1854); the thiril, Sys-
teme de graphologie (1874); and the semi-numthly review
Grapliologie. .See \'arinard, Jean-IIipjwlyte Micliun,sa vie
et ses aiurres (Paris, 188:5).
Mickiovicz. mits-kycv ich. Adam Bernard: poet; b. at
Novogrodek, Lithuania, Dec. 24, 1798 ; studied at >Iinsk and
Wilno; was appointed teacher of Latin and Polish at the
gymnasium of Ivovno. and published in 1822-2:5. at Wilno,
two Volumes of \toems, Puez ye (containing ballads, hymns,
and the epic Oraiyna and the iJziady). which at once gave
him rank among the greatest poets of Poland, and decided
the contest between the old diLssical and the new romantic
school. A journey to the Crimea (1825) gave rise to a series
of sonnets, Sonely krymskie (Moscow, 1826). For participa-
tion in Zan's conspiracy he was banished to the interior of
Russia, and here lie wrote the great patriotic epic Kunrad
Walleiirod (St. Petersburg. 1828). Having received permis-
sion to make a tour of Europe, he went to Germany and
Italy, and finally settled in Paris (18:52). There he published
Ksiegy narodii polslciego (Books of the Polish Xation, Paris,
18:52). in which he describes the mission of Poland in a bib-
lical style. His greatest work, however, is the modern epic
Pan 7'adeusz (Paris, 18:54), in w Inch the poet, like a modern
Homer, faithfullv portrays Lithuanian life in 1812. In 1840
he was appointed Professor of the Slavonic Ijanguages and
Literature at the College de France, ami his brilliant lec-
tures attracted much attention; but afterward he became
concerned in various fanatical religious anil political idans
designed bv Towianski. anil his lectures were sus|)endea. In
1849 he eilited La Tribune du Peuple (a daily). In 18-52
Xapoleoii III. made him librarian at the arsenal in Paris.
Ill 1855 he was sent by the emperor on a secret mission to
Constantinople. I), in that citv Xov. 28, same year. He
was burieil at Montmorency, l\iris. Mickiewiez is justly
considered the greatest of all Slavonic poets.
Revised by J. J. Kr.(l.
Micmacs: Sec Alooxquiax I.ndu.ss.
.Microhaclcria : See Fekme.ntation.
Micnibes: minute living beings, instnimental in the
production of fermentation and decay, and of many conta-
gious diseases afl'eeting man and the lower animals. See
Ba( T1.111A iiiiil Baiteriolouv.
MiiToooci'lis : the general name applied to
minute spherical bacteria, many of winch pro-
duce diseast's in plants and animals. The name ^ ^ ,
is also applied to a particular genus of the splier- • >
ical bacteria. See Baiteria and FermE-NTAtios. jjicrococcl
Mi'crooosni \V,t. lUKpiKoaiuis. little worldl: a
name ajiplied liy the a-lrological philosophers of the Mid-
dle Ages to man, who wius conceive<l of as the epitome
or miniature representation of the universe, which was
7i2
MICROFARAD
MICRONESIA
named by thera Macrocosm, or the great world. This theo-
ry, a very ancient one, was believed to explain the supposed
influence of the stars upon the events in the history of the
human I'ace and of individual men.
Microfarad : See Farad.
Microm'eter [Gr. iuKp6s, small + litrpov, measure] : an
apparatus for measurini; small distances. The term is usu-
ally limited to a contrivance placed in the field of view of a
telescope or microscope. Gascoigne in 1640 first suggested
the idea of measuring distances in the field of view of a tele-
scope by separating iiu>chanically the edges of two brass
plates placed in the focus of the eyepiece. Auzout and Pi-
card in 16G6 described a micrometer in which silver wires
take the place of tlie brass edges. Felix Fontana in 1775
substituted spiders" web for the silver wires, which seems to
be, in connection with the previous suggestions of Bradley,
the incipient idea of the modern position micrometer. A
fixed micrometer is mentioned by Cassini. and Cavallo used
a strip of mother-of-pearl ruled to j^^Trth of an inch. Roemer
hints at the heliometer with two object-glasses in 1675, and
Bouger first calls it by that name in
1748: but it remained for Dolland
in 1753 to construct a heliometer
with a divided object-glass.
The simplest form of micrometer
is the reticulated micrometer shown
in Fig. 1, which consists of a net-
work of lines whose distances apart
are known. The apparent size of
an object in the field of view then
becomes known by noting how
j-jQ [ many divisions of the micrometer
are occupied by its image. Scales
ruled on glass, such as shown in Pig. 3, are sometimes sub-
stituted for the reticule. These lines are rendered visible at
niglit by artificial light. For the observation of very faint
objects. Prof. Rood suggests (Amer-
ican Journal of Arts and Sciences,
3d series, vol. vi., p. 44) an inexpen-
sive scale micrometer made as fol-
lows : A dead black surface is formed
on a thin plate of silver. Lines are
ruled through the blackened surface,
ending at the edge of the plate. The
plate is then put in the focus of the
eyepiece, so as to obscure less than
halt the field of view. The lines
Yici 2 "■''^ illuminated by the light of a
distant lamp or diffused light, which
reaches tliem through an opening cut in the telescope tube
between the observer's eye and the ruling on the silver
plate. The ring micrometer is a circular metallic ring fixed
in the focus of the telescope
such as shown in Fig. 3.
The Filar Micrometer. —
This is the micrometer now
most commonly used in as-
tronomical instruments. It
is called filar because its
essential feature is a system
of fine spider lines, having
the ap])earaiice of threads.
In a rectangular frame,
a a a a, slide two rectangu-
lar forks, h b b and c c c,
which can be moved by the
screws // by turning the
graduated heads y g, which
are graduated usually into 100 equal parts ; at a and a are
two pointers. If the head is turned so that 100 divisions
■ will pass the point a, obviously we move one of the forks
a distance equal to the distance between the threads of the
screw /. The forks carry two spider-lines, e and d. Tlie
distance apart of any two points in the field of view may be
determined by making the line e bisect one of them, "and
the line d the other, and at the same time having the line
joining them parallel to /. For every entire revolution of
the screw / the line e or d passes over a single tooth of the
comb c. By not-
ing the number of
teeth included be-
tween the lines e
and d, and also
noting the read-
ings of the pointei-s
a and a, the exact
distance between
the two points be-
comes known, ex-
pressed in terms of
the distance be-
tween the threads
of the micrometer
screw//, wliich has
usually about 100
threads to the inch.
One division on the
head of the microm-
eter screw would
in this case corre-
spond ^ to -nr^TOth
of an inch. When the filar micrometer
Fio. 5.
Fio. 6.
is attached to a
graduated circle, so that it can be rotated around the axis
of a telescope, as shown in Fig. 5, it is called a position mi-
crometer. The spider-lines are illuminated by lamplight at
night.
The Double-image Micrometer. — In this form the images
of two objects are made to coincide in the field of view,
either by the motion of the two halves of a divided object-
glass of a telescope, in a line parallel to the line of section,
or by the separating of the two halves of a simple eye-lens.
The motion in either, case is effected by proper micrometer-
screws, and the displacement of the lenses necessary to effect
a coincidence gives the data necessary to determine the an-
gular distance between two objects. The first form of in-
strument is called the heliometer, and is superior to the po-
sition micrometer
in that much larger
distances can be
measured. The sec-
ond form is known
as the double-im-
age eyepiece mi-
crometer. Either
the reticulated or
the filar m icrometer
may be used with the microscope, but one of the best micro-
scojje micrometers is that known as Jackson's micrometer,
and shown in Fig. 6 aiul 7, where n is a frame containing a
glass plate on wliich a scale of fine lines is ruled. This
scale can be moved by a screw
s, so that when placed in (he
focus of the eyepiece b c any
desired line of the scale may
be made to bisect any point in
the field of view. The distance
between two points may easily
be determined in terms of the
scale divisions.
See for discussion of errors
of micrometers Chauvenet's
Mcmual of Practical Astrono-
my. For a very complete description of various forms of
micrometers see The Encyclojjo'dia liritannica, article Mi-
crometer, by David Gill. For index of literature on mierom-
eter, and descriptions of, see Dr. Pliilip]i Carl on J)ic I'rin-
cipien der astronomische Instrumentlciinde (Leipzig. 1863).
Revised by S. Xkwcomb.
Micronc'siii [tJr. iuKp6s. small + c^os, island] : one of the
three grand geographic, or more j)roj)erly ethnographic, di-
visions of Oceanica, comprising the Marianne, Caroline,
Marshall, and Gilbert groups, and those lying to (he N. and
N. E. of the MarianiK's, with a lombiiied area of about 1,300
sq. miles, and an estimated population of 01,000, or seventy
per square mile. The Micronesians are closely allied to the
Polynesians, but quite distinct from the Melanesians. There
MKROI'IIONK
MICUOSCOPE
743
is appiirontly soiiio nc^nto mixture, and also coiisidi'rablo
.Maliiyaii iiilfriiiiii^liiif;. '"it there are also traces <it' a race
of slill elcanr eomplexion. M. W. IIakkinuto.n.
9Ii<'ri)|ilii)iH>: a device for increasing the nni[ilitii<ie of
llie iiiirmli' sound-waves received by the telephone and thus
lo intensify the effeel in the telephonic receiver. The name
is tjenerally applied to apparatus in which the chan;;e in the
electrical resistance of j;raphilic carbon with varyin;;; ores-
sure is utilized. Numerous forms of the microphone liave
been described, of which the carbon button invented by Edi-
son has come into Keneral connnercial use in telephonic
transmission. This button consists of a layer of pulverized
carbon between two metallic disks. To one of these, wliich
is free to move, is altaclied the stylus of the telephone trans-
mitter, the motions of which vary the pressure upon the
powdered carlion. This carbon button is placed in circuit
witli ft battery and with the prinniry coil of an inductorium.
To tlie secondary circuit of this induction coil is eonnccteil
the line ami the receiving telephone. This sinii)le device
has ;,'reatly increased the practicability of teleiihonic trans-
mission to a distance. B. L. Nichols.
Mlcropjle: See Entomology.
Mi'croseopp [<>r. fuKpis. small + <rKOJte!y, look at, view] :
Those objects which are too minute to be seen l)y the un-
aided vision are brouirht into view by the instrument called
micrimcope. The period at which the microscope first be-
came generally known was about the year I.iiJO, /.acharias
Jansens and iiis son haviufj made the inslrumeni at that
time. Fontana (lOlH) and Slellati (IGS.')) also made use of
the microscope, and llie latter publisheil ailcscription of the
anatomy of the bee, includini; its minute structure. With
the sini|)le microscope (a sinj;le lens) Swannnerdam, Leeu-
wenhocck, ftn<l others made many discoveries ; in fact, it
would seem that the sinnile lens served to establish the im-
mense value which this inslrumeni was destined to render,
and has rendered, almost every department of science. 'I'he
form of single microscope used by Dr.
Nathaniel Ijieberkuhn (1740) consisted
(rf a small lens placed in the center of
a p(jlished concave speculum of silver,
1 bus allowing a brilliant light to bo re-
flected upon the surface of the obje<'t.
(Fig. 1.) Leeuwenhoeck's discoveries
were nuule with a single lens mounted
between two jjlates, each plate pierced
with a hole. The objects were fastened
to needles or plates of talc, which could
be brought into position by means of
screws. As each instrument was arranged for oidy two or
three objects, Jjeeuweidioeek had a large inmdier of such
sim])le niicroseopcs. From the time of Zacharias Jansens
(lolHI) to the period when uncorrected instruments were be-
ing abandoned, many forms of microscopes were constructed
by men of science and by opticians in Kngland, Prance, Ger-
many, anil Italv. Prominent among those to whom the de-
velopment of tlie microscope is ituc arc Adams, Baker, Hill,
Uelabarre, and Wollaston. The great diflicidty which beset
the.se early microscopists was the spherinil and chromittir
ahrrriitionx of the lenses, by which the image formed was
distorted in figure and surrounded by a colored fringe.
Wollaston and Fraunhofer directed their attention to the
improvement of these defects, which resulted in the c«le-
brated Wollaston doublet called by its inventor "periseopic
microscope," and the combination liy Fraunhofer of two
glasses in juxtaposition, forming a single aehronuitic oliject-
glass (1811)). Kuler as early ils 1776 discovered the achro-
matic objective. The value of clear dehnition had now lie-
come so established that the greatest scientists of the day
were engaged upon the subject of achromatism, both theo-
retically and practically. In IHi!) .Mr. Jackson Lister efTected
one of the grenl<>st imnrovcinents in the construction of the
object-glass, using a plano-concave lens of flint ghuss and a
double convex of crown. These two lenses were cemented
together by Camula balsam.
I$y a simple microscope is understood a single h'us or set
of lenses, by means of which the object is viewed directly.
The ordinary hand-magnifier or pocket-lens is an example.
Here one, two, or three lenses nuiy be employed, A more
convenient form consists in having the simple microscope
nu)unted upon a stand provided with an arm made to move
up and down liy means of a rack and pinion or other device.
The steadiness attained by this addition enables much use-
ful Work to be accomplished, such as dissecting nniuuil and
KlQ. 1.
vegetable tissues, studying in a rough way fragments of
rock, plants, etc. Iland-nuignifiers, to be serviceable, must
range in focal length between 2 inches and half an inch.
High i>owers on this [ilan are generally knosvn as the C'od-
dington lens, .Stanhope lens, and Wollaston doublet. It
seems that the Coddington li'us was really invented by Sir
David lirewster, its present name hftvingljeen given to it by
Mr. Carey, who constructed one for Jlr. Coddington, anil
supposed that he was the originator. This Codilington lens
consists of a sphere of glass with a grmne cut all around it
and filled with dark, opaque material ; the definition is good,
and the instrument is used in collecting spicimeiis for study
with the larger microscopes, or where a rapid view is desired
of many objects. Under the head of compoitiul microscopes
may be includeil those furrnshed with an object-gla.ss and
an eyepiece, or ocular, which further amfililies the image
formed by the object-gliuss. A stand furnished with stage
or object-carrier, quick and slow motions for focusing, with
many accessories, constitutes the complicated though easily
managed modern instrument.
In order fully to comprehend the optical arrangements
of the microscope it seems best to consider very briefly some
of the laws of optics which are innnediately connected with
it, and, as lenses are the chief i)arts to be looked into, to be-
gin with their study. '• A lens is a piece of glass or other
transjiarent substance having ils two surfaces so formed
that the rays of light in passing through it have their direc-
tion changed, and are made to converge or diverge from
their original parallelism, or to become parallel after con-
verging or diverging."' When a ray of light pas.ses in
an obli(pie direction from one transparent medium to an-
other of a different density, the direction of the ray is
changed both on entering
and leaving; this influcnee
is the result of the well-
known law of refraction, that
a ray of light passing from a
rare into a dense medium is
retracted toward the perpen-
dicular, and vice versa, (Fii:.
2.) The ray k e falling per-
pendicularly on the fiiece ot
glass at I' is colli inued in .-i
straight line to h. Now. if
the same ray should take the
course a e — thai is. obliijucly Fio. 4.
— instead of passing in a
straight line a e m b. it will be turned out of its course, or
refracted, to d, which is nearer the periiendicular a k h.
a e is the inci<lent ray, and the angle a e k the angle of in-
cidence with the perjiendicular k h. From e to d is the re-
fracted rav. and the angle d e i/ is the angle of refraction to
the perpciidicular. .\ftcr the "change in the course of the
ray has taken place in the glass, we find that when the ray
is allowed to pass out from the glass, as at d c, another benil-
iiig takes place, by means of which the course is made paral-
lel with the incident ray a e. only its course is shifted a
little to one side. With any railius, as d e. describe a circle
from the center e: then the angle of incidence n e k is meas-
ured by the arc a a', and the are <?' d measures the angle of
refraction g e d. The line a k equals the sine of the angle
of ineiilcnce. and d <) equals the sine of the angle of refrac-
tion. The sine of tlie angle of incidence (in a given trans-
parent medium) has always the same ratio to the sine of Ihe
angle of refraction with all degrees of obliquity of the inci-
dent rav.
Lenses are of various forms, and change the course of liglit
missing through them acconling to their special figure. )n
Fig. 3 are represented the
different shapes of lenses.
a is simple, jiarallel glass,
b a meniscus or concavo-
convex lens, f a double con-
cave, d a plano-concave, e a
double convex, and / a
plano-convex. In the optical constniction of Ihe micro-
scope, convex and concave lenses are chiefly employed, the
convex lieing the most important form, as the concave is
used more for the purpose of correcting the errors which
exist in simple convex glasses. The I'ourse of parallel rays
when they pass thi-ough a convex lens is changiHl, and
brought to a point called a focus, the prinri/ml fuctis. and
the distance from the center of the lens to this [Miint is the
focal length. Diverging rays are rendered )iarallel in thoir
-Z
Fio. !».
lu
MICROSCOPE
Fio. 4.
6 P— ^^T^r
Fio. 5.
passage through a convex lens, and the focal distance for a
double convex will be one-half that of a plano-convex hav-
ing the same curved surface. The focal length ileiiends
ui«ni the curvature of the lens and its index of refraction,
so t liat a lens of crown glass
will have a longer focus
tlian one of llinl with the
same curvature. The prin-
cii>al focus, in general
terms, may be considered
as the distance of its radius
for a double convex lens
(tliat is, in its center of curvature), and at twice the distsmce
of its radius for a plano-convex, parallel rays being under-
stood as passing through in both ctuses. A concave lens
refracts light in exactly the opposite manner from convex ;
hence parallel rays are'caused to diverge, etc. By means of
a convex lens a great number of rays ])roceeding from some
point of an object are united in one point ; each ray carries
witli it the image of the point from winch it proceeded ;
therefore, all tlie rays unit-
ed form an image of the
object, and the image is
brigliter in proportion to
the number of rays united.
" If an object be placed at
twice the distance of the
principal focus, the image,
being formed at an equal
distance on either side of
the lens, will be of the
same dimensions with the object." (Fig. 4.) As the object
approaches the lens, the image increases botlx in size and
distance from the lens ; and as the object is withdrawn from
the lens, the image is smaller and closer to the glass. The
smaller the image the more brilliantly it is illuminated;
and, on the other hand, the light decreases as the image in-
creases in size. Images formed by simple lenses are usually
imperfect in two respects ; they are distorted, and they are
surrounded by a col-
ored fringe. These
defects are due to
the spherical form in
wliich the lenses are
ground, as practically
such curves as the
ellipse and hyperbola
can not be acciu'ately
made. The ravs of
liglit, then, in passing through a convex lens, are not all
brought to the same focus, but those on the peripliery come
to a point first— i. e. nearest to the lens — and then tliose
rays passing through closer to the center, afterward or far-
ther from the lens. (Fig. 5.) Tliis phenomenon to which
t he distortion of the image is due is called sphencal aber-
ration. A concave lens has precisely the same defects, but
of an opposite character; hence, as will be seen furtlier
on, by combining the convex and concave a compound lens
is obtained in which figure-distortion is greatly reduced.
Chromatic aberration is due to the fact that the liirht, wliicii
consists of rays of different degrees of refrangibllity. in its
Ijassage througli the lens has tlie more refrangible ravs
lir.iught to a focus first, and those of less degree at a greater
distance from the lens. (Fig.G.) Chromatic aberration can
be corrected by the combination of two media of opposite
form and of different refracting and dispersing power. By
thus neutralizing tlie dispersion the refraction is not en-
Red.
Yellow.
Blue.
Fig. G.
Fig. 7.
tirely overcome, but it is modified. With a lens of crown
glass, double convex, index of refraction 1-.5U), dispersive
power 0-036, focal length 4^ inches, cemented to a concave
lens of flint, index of refraction l-.'")89, dispersive ])ower
0-0303, focal length ^ inches, the combined focal IiMigtli 10
Indies, an image free from color will be produced, wliich
can be better understood from Fig. 7. L L is a double con-
vex of crown glass, and I I is a concave of flint glass. The
ray S falHiig on tlie lens L L at F is refracted just as
it would be were it to fall on a prism ABC whose faces
touch the lens at points of entrance and emergence of the
ray. Tlie ray S F goes on to form the sjiectrum P T, with
P V, the violet ray, crossing the axis/\ , and going to the
upper end of the spectrum, and the red ray going to the
lower end of the spectrum T. The flint-glass lens, however,
I I, or tin- prism A a C. histead of allowing the rays to take
the course indicated above, unites the rays F V.F R at /,
refracting the ray S F without color from S F Y to F/.
The ray S' F is refracted in tlie same manner to/.
27(6 Magnifying Power of a Lens. — In order that an ob-
ject may be seen, it must be at such a distance as to form
an image of some ajipre-
ciablc size upon the retina;
and it must furtliermore lie
sufficiently illuminated to
pi-oduec an imiiression.
The apparent size of an ob-
ject depends upon the an-
gle which it subtends to the
eye, or the angle formed by
two lines drawn from the
extremities of tlie object to
the center of the eye. (Pig.
8.) The lines from A and
R form twice the angle at the center of the eye that 0 and
W do; therefore the object 0 W seems one-halt the size of
A R. The angles formed as just described are called tlie
visual angles. The eye can receive rays of a certain charac-
ter only to produce distinct vision, and the rays must be par-
allel or slightly divergent,
so that the crystalline lens
may form an image of the
object upon the retina. Tlie
distance or limit of distinct
vision ranges from 6 to 10
inches; and when an object
is brought closer to the eye,
although it appears larger,
it becomes more and more
indistinct as the distance
decreases, due to the fact that the rays which enter the eye
are becoming more and more divergent. W'iien a convex
lens is interposed between a near object and tlie eye, it re-
duces the divergence of tlie rays forming the pencils issuing
from it. and in this manner enables the rays to enter tlie
eye so that an image may be formed upon the retina. (Fig.
9.) The more important laws of optics re-
lating to the micriiscope will be considered
as the various parts of the instrument are
described.
In the simple microscope, as has been
seen, several lenses may be used, but they
all act as a single glass; now, in the com-
jiound microscope, there are two parts, the
object-glass, which may be a single lens, and
the eyepiece or ocular, and this can also be
a single lens. (Fig. 10.) The object-glass
C B forms an enlarged and inverted image
A' B' of the object A B, and the eye-glass gj^
L 51 receives the diverging rays from tliis
image, as if from an object, and brings them
to the eye at E. so that the object appears
greatly magnified, on the same principle as
the simple instrument. The magnifying
power can be varied by changing the power
of the objective, of the eyepiece, and by al-
tering the distance between object and ob-
ject-glass, eye-glass and object-glass. By
approaching the object to the objective, and
moving the ocular to a greater distance
from the object-glass, the image is increased
in size; and, conversely, by increasing the
distance from object to object-glass, and less-
ening that between the latter and eye-ghiss,
the image is reduced in size. In order that y^^. m
a greati-r portion of the object may c-onie
witliin range of the eyo[)iece, and so be made visible, a third
lens(F F, Fig. 11) is placed between the objective and the
eye-glass. As the I bird lens limits the circle of light or field
of view which is seen in looking into a microscope, it is
MICROSCOPE
745
called the field-glans. The eye-glass and fielil-plass together
are eonsidrrcd us uiie, and termed eyi-iiieci; or ocular. The
Iluygheiiian is the most usual form of eyiiiiece. and consists
of two plano-couvcx lenses (Fifj. 12. KE and V V) with
their plane siirfa<<'s toward the eye.
The lenses "are pluced at a distance
equal to half the sum of their focal
length, or, to speak with more preci-
sion, at half the sum of the focal
length of the eye-glass and of the dis-
tance from the field-glass at which an
image of the object-glass would be
foruu'd by it. A stop or diaphragm
li li must be placed between the two
lenses in the visual focus of the eye-
gliiss, which is, of course, the position
wherein the inuige of the object will
be formed by the rays brought into
convergence by their passage thrcjugh
the field - glass. Iluyghens devised
this arrangement merely to diminish
the spherical aberration, but it was
subsequently shown by Boseovicli that
the chromatic dispei-sion was also in
great part corrected by it."
The uhjcet-glass — which, !is has been
stated, may be a single lens — is of the
utmost imporlance; it is this [lart of
the instrument that requires the great-
est amount of care and skill in con-
struction, and therefore requires spe-
cial attention. The distortions known
as spherical and chromatic aberration
are the obstacles to be overcome in
the construction of the object-gliuss.
Now, it has been shown that, by com-
bining a double convex lens of crown
glass with a plano-concave of flint, the sphericjil and chro-
matic errors may be remedied — not in a single combination
of flint and crown glass, but bv means of two or more so-
called achromatic lenses. To .Joseph Jackson Lister is due
the discovery by means of which the errors in the object-
glass may be almost if not entirely overcome. Lister's re-
sult, which was communicated to the
Koyal Society in 1830, may be stated as
follows : Plano-convex achromatic lenses,
of the form shown in Fig. 13, are most
easily constructed. When the convex
and eoiwave lenses have their inner sur-
faces of the same curvature cemented to-
gether, much less light is lost by reflec-
tion than if the lenses are not cemented.
Every such plano-convex combination
lias some point /, not far from its nrin-
cipal focus, from which railiant light
falling upon the lens will be transmitted
free from spherical aberraticm ; the point
/ is called the aplanalic focux. The
incident my f d makes, with the perpen-
dicular i il, an angle considerably less
than the emergent ray e y makes with the
perpendicular at the point of emergence. The angle of
emergence is nearly three times as great as the angle of in-
cidence, and the rays emerge from the lens nearly parallel,
or converging to a focus at a moderate distance from the
liiis. If the radial point is now made to approach the lens
so that the ray fd ey becomes more ilivergent from the axis
as the angles of incidence and emergence become more
nearly equal to each other, the spherical aberration liecomes
negative or over-corrected ; but if the radiant (loint /contin-
ues to approach the glass, t he angle of incidence increases, and
the angle of
jf J*- '' emergence di-
" "" Ji minishes and
becomes les-;
than theangle
of incidence,
ami the neg-
ative spher-
ical aberra-
tion proiliiced by the outer curves of the conipound lens be-
comes again eipial to the opposing positive alierrations pro-
duced by the inner curves which are cemented together.
When the radiant has reached th4s point / (at which the an-
Fio. 12.
glc of incidence does not exceed that of emergence sf) much
as it had at first come short of if, the rays again )iass the
glass free from spherical al)erration. The point / is called
the shorter aplanatic fixus. For all fioints tietweeu the two
aplanatic foci /and / the spherical aberration is over-cor-
rected, or negative ; and for all radiant points more distant
than the longer aplanatic focus/, or less distant than the
shorter aplanatic focus/, the spherical al)erration is under-
corrected, or positive. These aplanalic foci have another
singular property. If a radiant point in an oblique or sec-
ondary axis IS situated nt the distance of the longer aplanat-
ic focus, the image situated in the corresfHinding conjugate
focus will not be sharply defineil. but will have a coma ex-
tending outward, ilislorling the image. If the shorter aiila-
natie focus is used, the image of a point in the secondary
axis will have a coma extending toward the center of the
field. These peculiarities of the coma, produced by oblique
pencils, are found to be inseparable attendants on the two
aplanatic foci. These principles furnish the means of en-
/".:::--?
L
Fio. 15.
Fro. 14.
tirely correcting both chromatic and spherical aberration,
and of destroying the coma of oblique pencils, and also of
transmitting a large angular pencil of light free from everv
species of error. Two plano-convex achromatic lenses (A jf.
Fig. 14) arc so arranged that the light radiating from the
shorter aplanatic focus of the anterior combination is re-
ceived by the second lens in the direction of /". iis longer
aplanatic focus. If the two compound lenses are fixed in
this po.sition, the radiant point may be moved backward or
forward within moderate limits, and the opposite errors of
the two compound lenses will balance each other. Achro-
matic lenses of other forms have similar properties. It is
found in practice that larger pencils free from errors can be
transmitted by employing three com-
pound lenses, the middle and posterior
combinations being so united as to act as
a single lens, togethef balancing the ab-
errations of the more powerful anterior
combinations. (Fig. 1.5.)
In many objectives it is required that
there should be what is termed a large
"angle of aperture," by means of which
the definition is much improved. "The angle of aperture
is that angle which the most extreme rays that are calla-
ble of being transmitted through the object-glass make at
the point of focus." A miicli larger quantity of light
passes through a lens of high angular aperture. The lenses
constructed upon the principles given are termed dry lensea
— i. e. a layer of air is between the objective and the front
of the eoiniiination ; for higher powers, however, the im-
mersion si/slein is now generally used, which is simplv the
intervention of a drop of water between the object and the
lens, and cons<'(|uenlly the rays of light from the object pass
through water instead of air. The inter|)osition of the
water seems to prevent reflection of certain rays which
would otherwise be lost; and therefore with the immersion
.system a greater amount of light can |«ass into the ghuss.
Immersion lenses, as a ride, can not be used dry, although
objectives have been made by Tolles, Wales, and other o|>-
ticians that work bf>tli as wet or dry. Some makers con-
struct two fronl.s, <ine forrfryand the other for ire/ fcK'Usiiig.
the middle and posterior combinations remaining the same
in both instances.
The great perfection obtained by opticians has'rcndered
imperfect the performance of certain higher fiDWers when
dilTerent thicknesses of gla.-is are used for covering the object.
The discovery was made by A. Uoss that a very marked dif-
ference exists in the pix'cision of the image aecortling as the
object is viewed with or without the thin cover.* A cor-
rection for this has been effected by Koss by giving to the
• Mieroscoplcol objeeta are examintNl upi>n plittew of frlasft 1 loch
by 3 iiielM-s. ami fovt-reil with a disk it s. inure of tliiti ^luss; I his cover
is for Ihe imriM>st» both ef [troteeliiar Ine ol.jtvt aiiit of preventing
the formation of moisture or (ieleteriuus vapors fnio ninlimif the
exposed portion of the objective.
7 -to
MICROSCOPY
MIDDELBURG
front pair of the objective an excess of positive aberration,
by unifer-correcting it, and by giving an excess of negative
aberration to the niiildle and posterior combinations. When
the lenses are adjusted for an uncovered object, by bringing
the anterior eoin'binatioii closer to the middle and jiosterior,
a certain amount of positive aberration can be produced
whicli will neutralize tlie negative aberration caused by the
covering glass. A screw-collar is added, therefore, to those
lenses which require the change in the position of the front
lens, and in this manner the different thicknesses of glass
covei-s are easilv disposed of.
Objectives are named accortling to their magnifying jiower.
Unfortunatidy, there is no uniform system upon which the
lenses are constructed. In Great Britain and the V. S. lenses
are called 1-inch, i-inch, ^-inch. etc. On this principle it is
supposed that 10 inches is considered the standard for dis-
tinct vision, and therefore the 1-inch object-glass would
produce an image at 10 inches distance enlarged 10 diame-
ters,* the l-incii (at the same distance) 30 diameters, the
i-inch 40 diameters, etc. Lenses made in France and Ger-
manv are named according to an arbitrary system adopted
by the maker himself; and Hartnach, of Paris, simply gives
a series of numbers, 1, 3, 3, •}, etc., to designate the various
powers. The eyepieces of American and English manufac-
ture receive the" letters of the alphabet to distinguish t_hem ;
the A eyepiece magnifiying 5 diameters; B, 10; C, 15, etc.
Hence the 1-inch objective with A eyepiece gives a power
of 50 diameters; ^-inch, 100 diameters. Continental eye-
pieces are named 1, 3, 3, in just the same manner as are the
objectives. Low-power objective glasses are those of longer
focus than the ^-inch; medium, i-^ths, ^th, and Jth ; high,
from |th to Vylh. which is about the highest.
Reference has been nuule, in a general way, to the stand,
which carries the eyepiece and object-glass, together with
the object. In nearly all modern stands coarse or rapid ad-
justment is effected uy milled heads, which move the tube
by means of rack and pinion, while the fine adjustment is
made by a delicate screw (also provided with milled head),
which acts upon a lever, and this lever moves the nose car-
rying the objective. The stage or object-carrier likewise is
freqiiently given freedom of "motion both laterally in the
direction "of the optical axis of the instrument, while at the
same time it can be nnide to rotate concentrically. Below
the stage is what is termed the sub-stage, into which can be
fitted the achroinatie condenser, polariscope, and various
other accessories. The sub-stage is provided with centering
screws, rotation, and vertical motion. The various accesso-
ries of so much value to the microscope can be best studied
in the larger works devoted to the special subject.
Revised by E. L. Nichols.
Microscoi)y : the use of the microscope and the preparation
of objects to be examined by it. (See JIicroscopk.) The use
of the microscope in medicine is confined to the examination
of solids and fluids of the body. It is of the utmost impor-
tance in distinguishing the changes which are produced in the
body in various diseases, and tlie diagnosis of diseases by such
changes. Pi>i-Iia[)S the greatest use of the microscope which
has l.ieen made in recent years is in the recognition during
life of the i)athogenic bacteria, ami in this way diagnosing
disease. Thus in the case of consumption the earliest proof
of the presence of the disease may be obtained by the ex-
amination of the expectoration and the detection in this
of the tubende liaeilli. Of scarcely less importance is its
. use in the examination of the urine and other secretions of
the body. It has also an imjxjrtant part to play in medi-
cal jurisjirudence, especially in the examination of stains
for the presence of blooil. In I he examination of fluids they
are either ])laced in their natural state under the micro-
scope, or they arc treated before examination in various
ways with the view of rendering certain substances in the
fluiils more easily recognizable. Frequently in tlie exami-
nation of fluids, particularly urine, it is better to allow it to
stand for some time until the solid sulistances contained in
it have settled, ami then to examine the sediment. The
examination is rendered still easier by the use of the centrif-
ugal machine which separates the solid matter. In the
examination of the tissues of the body they may either be
torn apart with needles and the cells examined, or they
• As the Imape is enlarged et^ually in all directions, ten diameters
would n^presi'iit a space occupied by ttie iinairi' 100 timt-s Kieat.«r
than the original objcH^t. The simple form of writing magnifying
{lower is, x 1(1, which means inagnifiHd ten diameters. When very
ligh magnifying power is used, the expression in diameters is more
convenient than siiperflcial measurement.
may be divided into very thin sections, and these sections
examined. The sections are prepared on an instrument
called the microtome. A certain degree of consistency must
be given them in order to render it possible to divide them
into these thin sections. This may be done either by freez-
ing the tissue and then cutting it, or by subjecting the tis-
sue to the action of alcohol or other hardening fluids. The
sections so -prepared may either be examined without fur-
ther change, but better results are usually obtained by
treating the sections with suitable coloring fluids, which
have tlie effect of rendering certain of the constituents more
easily visible. W. T. Councilman.
Slicrozyiiia: See Fkkmentation.
Micylliis (Jlolsheym), Jacob: classical scholar; b. in
Strassburg, Alsace, Apr. 6,1503; studied under Melanch-
thon ; was .ippointed director of the Latin school of Frank-
fort in 1 53't. After a stay of eight years, he was compelled to re-
sign owing to an anti-humanistic ])ro]iaganda of certain Lu-
theran Kel'ormers, and accepted a professorship of Greek at
Heidelberg ill 1533, but meeting the same opposition here,
he again returned to Frankfort in 1537, where the classicists
had finally triumphed. Ten years later he was recalled to
Heidellierg. With the powerful aid of the JIargraves Fred-
erick II. and Otto Eoinrich, he and Jlelanchthon reorgan-
ized tile university on a firm humanistic basis, elevating it
to a high position among the learned institutions of Europe.
D. Jan". 28, 1558. As an author, Jlicyllus is deservedly cele-
brated for his elegant Latin poems, published after his
death by his son. under the title Sih-ae (1564). Of his phil-
ological works, which now possess only an historical value,
may be mentioned his editions of Ovid; the so-called fables
of Jfi/ginus. his master-piece ; Vita Euripidis, de tragcedia
et eius partibus: a Latin translation of Liician (1538);
translations of Germania, Histories and Annals of Tacitus,
one of the earliest translations of a classic author into Ger-
man ; a commentary to Boccaccio, Zle genealogia Deorum.
See I. Classen. J. 31., als Schulmann, Didder und Oelehrte
(Frankfort, 1859). Alfred Gudeman.
Mi'das (in Gr. Mi'Sas) : in Greek mythology, son of Gordius
and King of Phrygia. He was the leader of the Phrygians
from Eurojie to Asia Minor. His name alternated with
that of GoRDius (q. v.) in the Phrygian royal family. There
wore three JMidases and four Gordiuses, and both names
continued to live in Gordium and Jlidiwum. One of the
Midases entertained hospitably the drunken Silenus. He
thus promoted the worship of Dionysus, and became the
center of a number of popular myths. Thus Dionysus gave
him the power of transforming^everything ho touched into
gold, but the gift proved a terrible curse. The man would
have starved to death had not the god helped him a second
time. By bathing in the river Pactolus the auriferous power
was transferred from the body of Midas to the waters of
the river, and they became henceforth productive of gold.
He was merely the type of the immensely wealthy king in
the times before Croesus. Another time he was chosen um-
pire in a musical contest between Ajiollo and Pan. He
gave the prize to the latter, and the angry god punished
him by changing his cars into those of an ass. Jlidas con-
cealed the deformity under a Phrygian cap, but one of his
slaves, a barber, happened to discover the secret. Unable
to keep it to himself, and yet not venturing to tell it to any-
body, the slave dug a hole in the soil, and whispered the secret
into" the hole, which he filled with earth, but the reeds wliich
grew upon the spot always sang when the wind blew among
them, "Midas has ass's ears." The original Midas was a
Silenus or Satyr, and the ass's ears were but the ears of the
Satyr, and afterward became familiar in the Attic drama
and in art. (See JIarsvas.) l^^or an cxc-ellent discussion of
this whole subject, see Perrot and Chipiez. llistonj of Art in
Pliniqia, etc. (London, 1893. pp. 1-331), where the literature
wiiri'ie fniiiul cited. Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
MidMdbiirg : capital of the province of Zealand, Nether-
lands ; situated on the island of Walclieren ; 4i miles by
rail N. B. of Flushing (see map of Hollanil and Belgium,
ref. 8-C). It is a handsome town, and has many iniblic
squares and interesting buildings, among which the town-
hall is the most remarkable, built by Charles the Bold in
1468, and oriianiented with twenty-five colossal statues of
Counts and Countesses of Flanders. The (commerce of Mid-
delburg has greatly declined, but it has stuiie manufactures
of cotlim, and an active inland trade. The town is men-
tioned in the middle of the twelfth century, and received
its charter in 1225. The brilliant point in its history is the
MIDDKLUUKG
.MIDDLK AGES
r47
defeiit of the S|ianiai(ls in \'i'\, after a sicgo of two years.
The wars l)et«'i'cii France aiid Great lirilain in tlic Ijegin-
ning of the niiieteenlli century nearly ruined the town.
Pop. (18S8) 16,4.J5.
Middi'lbiirtr. I'atl : nnithenialician : li. at Middclbur/;,
island of WaUlieren, Xetherlands, in 144."); studied at tlie
L'niversity of liouvain : took holy orders, and wils appointed
chaplain at the Church of St. bartholoinew in Ins natiye
city : but. pruachinf^ a little too zealously against i{,'iiorance,
drunkenness, gluttony, and other habits of that day, he was
expelled from the city, and retiinied to Louvain, where he
lectured \yith fjreat success on mathematics. Chosen by the
craiid council of Venice to the chair of Mathematics in
T'adua, he afterward became physician to the Duke of Vr-
t)ino, on whose recommendation he was apjiointed Hishop of
Fossombrone in 14!)4 by I'ope Alexander VI. With Julius
II. and Leo X. he stood in great fayor, and presiiled over the
fifth Lateran Council (151 ''-IS). I), in Konie, Dec. 15, VM.
lie was one of the first to urge the necessity of reforming
the calendar, showing in his learned work Paulina, de recta
J'asclup ('fhhriitione, et ile die I'assioiiin Domini nostri
Jesu-Chriuli (fol., lol^i). that the great Kiuster fesliyal \yas
not celebrated on the day delcnnined by the Council of
Xiee. but sometimes a whole month earlier or later. Some
of his many other writings treat the same subject, such as
the Epistola ad Universilnlem Lovanienxem : De Panchate
rede ob.iervandi) (1487), which occa.sioned a long contro-
versy, during which he published Episloln apologetica nia-
giMri I'diili de Middelhiirr/o. alumiti iinirersifa/ifi Lurrini-
enxin, in answer to a criticism by Pierre de liivo, Professor
of Theology at Louvain.
Middle Aarcs: the term generally useil to designate that
great historical period lying between the ancient and mod-
ern epochs of the world's civilization, and separating them
from each other as young manhood separates youth from
mature manhood.
1. Chronoloi/i/. — Concerning the exact date of the begin-
ning and end of the mediicval period tfifferences of opinion
exist, some authoi-s regarding the triumph of the Franks
over the remnants of the Koman |iower in Gaul at the bat-
tle of Soissons (4-S6 a. d.), others the overthrow of the West
Koman empire in 47(i A. D., and still others the accession of
Charlemagne in 76y A. u., or the dissolution of the Frankish
empire in 84:5 a. u., as the opening events. Some consider
the discovery of America, othei-s the discovery of printing,
most the German Keformation, and a few the Westphalian
Peace (164.'^), as marking the close. Those historians who
consider ancient history to comprehend the world's history
down to the dis.solution of the Roman state begin the Mid-
dle Ages with the overthrow of the Roman power liy the
(iermans and the settlement of the Vandals, (iotlis, Angh>-
Saxons, Franks, and Burgundians upon Romanic soil in the
last half of the fifth century ; while those who regard Teu-
tonic history in its more specific light, and consider each
nationality ils having its own childhood, youth, manhood,
and old age, are inclined to look upon the life of the Teu-
tonic peoples down to the dissolution of the Frankish Euro-
pean empire (see Feaxks) as the j>eriod of their wardship,
and hence to set the beginning oi the following period of
young manhood or middle age between the years 814 and
H4;i A. D. ; while, as regards the boundary of the epoch on
the other side, very nearly all are agreed that the great
events of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries — viz., the
discovery of printing^ the discovery of America, the em-
ployment of gunpowder, the development of the al)solute
monarchy in the state, and the Reformation in the Church
— desigiuite the point where the spirit of civilization was
throwing off its medijpval and taking on its modern form.
2. Events. — The cardinal events of the Jliddlo Ages
were —
(a) The reaction of the spirit of nationality against the
artificial union of the Frankish European empire, produc-
ing the treaty at Verdun in H4;! a. u. between the dilTerent
sovereigns of the Carlovingian house, whereby the empire
was divided into three independent kingdoms, correspond-
ing in their territorial extent very nearly to the geograph-
ical basis. of three distinct types of nationality, \vliich had i
been for three and a half centuries developing themselves,
and which may be termed from that time forward Italian,
German, and I'Vench.
(A) The reaction of individuality against the authority
of law imposed from without, w)iich may be termed a
great series of events rather than an event, realizing them-
selves all through the media'val period, and sjililting Eu-
rope up into a multiplicity of petty .sovereignties, .standing
closed and hostile over against each other, tjlockading trade
and intercourse, and producing unceasing intestine strife.
(r) The great invasion of the Scandinavian Vikings (836-
912 A. D.), striking the deatliUow to the tottering Carlo-
vingian powers, already threatened by the Saracens in the
S. and the Magyars in the E., compelling the members of
this dynasty, in their impotence to defend their lands and
peoples, to give way to stronger arms ami cleverer genius,
occiisioning thus the elevation of the Capetians to the
throne of France, changing (jermany into an elective mon-
archy, and delivering emperorless Italy over to three-quar-
ters of a century of most fearful intestine struggles.
((/) The settlement of the Xorthmen upon the territory
of Xorthern France, founding there the dukedom of Nor-
mandy, accepting the culture of the Romanized Franks
both in state and Church, setting the great North into con-
nection with the Continent, and opening it up to the in-
fluences of Christianity and the ciyilization of the Romanic
world ; and then from this continental basis making con-
quest both of England (10(56 A. D.) and Southern Italy
( 1029-85 A. u.), and founding independent kingdoms upon
Anglo-.Saxon and Italian soil.
(e) The crusades, eight in number, reaching chrono-
logically from the year 1096 to 1270 A. D. In this great
European movement, in which the chivalrous type of
Christianity, beginning with the consecration of King
Clovis's sword to the service of the Church, culminates,
the peoples of Europe, especially those of Romanic na-
tionality, impelled chiefly by the power of religious fanati-
cism, threw themselves back upon Asia with the nominal
purpose of freeing the Holy Sepulcher from the desecra-
tions of the Turks. In 1099 a. i>. Jerusalem was captured
and a European kingdom erected in I'alestine. which ex-
isted with changeable fortune for nearly two centuries. In
1291 A. D. the hust remnants of European sovereignty in
Syria were extinguished, but the influence which the move-
ment and its results exercised upon the course of European
civilization \yas all-guiding and iiermanent. Six millions
of men fierislied in these undertakings. Among these the
nobility as a class suffered far the most severely, bcith in
loss of life and property. From some districts this class
was almost entirely obliterated. Moreover, the establish-
ment of a political connection \vith Asia had led to the
establishment of an intercourse and trade %yhich enriched
the burgher class as much as the wars had impoverished
the nobility. The elTect of this change in the conditions
of property upon the political constitution of Euro|K! was
most marked. The political power passed over more and
more to the cities and the burgher da.ss, and the old feudal
constitution began to be undermined. The results as re-
gards the Church were of a double nature Its temporali-
ties had been immensely increased, in thflt it fell heir, for
the most part, to the property of those who perished in
these great religious adventures, having been made the
guardian of the same during the absence of the owners;
and its moral |iower entered upon the period of its decline,
not only because the increased wealth of the Church led to
luxurious living on the i)art of the clergy, but because also
that povyer of religious fanaticism and unreflecting devo-
tion upon which the Church of that age so much rested had
been broken of its intensity and exhausted. The crusades
were, after all, powerful elements in opening the way for the
absolute monarchies and the Reformation.
(/) Lastly, the re-establishment of the Carlovingian im-
ferium by <»tho the Great (962 A. lO. under the name of
loly Roman Empire of the German Nation, thus bring-
ing, both for weal and for woe. the German and the Koman
into direct contact with each other, and paving the way for
that great conflict between ]H)|>e and ein|^'ror for the su-
premacy over European Christendom which, of all the move-
ments lif the Miildie Ages, was the most continuou.s, imi>or-
tant, and heavy wilh results. (See Fba.nks.) The ilergy had
ever regarded tlie Carlovingian imiKriiini as their own crea-
tion. In it Eui'o])can Christendom hail found its point of
unity. No wonder, then, that they sustained it to the last,
ami when it fell, felt themselves conii>elled to look for a new
center and a new head. What more natund than that all
eves should be turned toward the Hishop of Komef From
tlie moment of the dis.soliition of the Carlovingian ira-
perium the watchword had been the establishment of the
" papal monarchy," and the withdrawal of the Churc-h, with
its profKjrty and its personnel, from under the jurisdiction
TiS
MIDDLE AGES
MIDDLEBORO
of the secular powers to unite it under the sovereignty of
the pope, both as ref^ards temporal and spiritual matters.
In this way it would make piod that which Imil lieou lost
in the dissolution of the imperiuni — viz., the principle of
unity in European Christendom. During the century and
a ipiarter between the treaty of Verdun (843 a. d.) and the
re-estaljlishment of the empire by Otlio (062 a. d.) this had
been the reigning idea in the C'hurdi : and the cliief rea-
son why it (lid not tlien come to realization was the lack
of a mighty personality upon tiie papal throne, liy the pow-
er of wliosc genius that which lay in the consciousness
and desire of the Church niiglit be made an objective re-
ahty. This power was attained when Hildebrand became
first the manager and maker of popes, and then pope him-
self under the title of Gregory VII. Tlie creation of the
college of cardinals witli the sole power of electing the
pope, and the laws against marriage and simony, were the
chief means made use of in the establishment of the Euro-
pean papal monarchy. These measures, or something with
the same nominal purpo.se, were indeed, to a certain extent,
justified by the needs of the time. The conflict between the
emperors and the nobility of Rome over the papal appoint-
ment had been productive of such confusion and bloodshed
as to become an offence to all Christendom, while the un-
chastity and venality of the clergy luid risen to a fear-
ful height. These measures, though nominally taken for
the purpose of correcting abuses (a fact which justified
them fully in the eyes of the unthinking masses), were
attended by far more wide-reaching results, and were used
for the execution of a far more wide- reaching plan in the
mind of Gregory and his assistants. He had conceived the
relationship of the Church to the state to be that of the
soul to the body, and meant to realize in the world of fact
tlie forms of his idea. By the constitution of the college of
cardinals he would withdraw the papal office from under
the influence both of the secular princes and the laity, and
place it under the immediate control of the narrow ecclesi-
astical aristocracy of the Roman diocese. It was not meet
that the body should choose the organ through which the
soul realized its will. By the forbiddance of priestly mar-
riage he would cut the bond of blood and interest which
connected the servants of the Church with society at large,
and make the clergy the complete and willing executors of
the papal will : and by the laws against simony he would
withdraw the bishops and abljots from their feudal relation-
ship to the secular princes in whose territories their bishop-
rics and cloisters lay, and bring the property for which they
owed feudal service to the state under the complete and in-
dependent ownership of the Church. It was one of the
most daring attempts to unsettle and transform the rela-
tionships of property which the world has ever known.
Borne by the power of such personalities as Gregory VII.,
Alexander III., Innocent III., and Boniface VIII., the cau.se
of the papacy aud the universal Church monarchy was for
two and a half centuries, from the beginning of tlie eleventh
to the middle of tlic> fourteenth, powerfully and successfully
pushed forward ii|)on the road of universal European sover-
eignty. By the help of the great German dukes, who were
ever striving for more independence of the imperial power,
the triumph over the mightiest secular lord of Christen-
dom, the Roman German emperor, was secured, while Eng-
land, Scotland, Poland, Hungary, Aragon, and the Two
Sicilies became little more than iiefs of the ]iapal throne.
It was Philip the Fair of France (128.5-1314 A. n.) who Wvi^t
opposed with success this growing and threatening ])ower.
Through force and intrigue the papal seat was remmed by
liiiu from Rome to Avignon (KiOT A. v.), and became thence-
forth a luxurious court devoted to pleasure and the interests
of French politics. From this time forth 1h(! moral influ-
ence of the pajiacy and of the Church declined from year to
year ; and the scientific discoveries and revival of learning in
the fifteenth century, and the Keforuiatiou in thi! sixteenth,
lifted society above that stage of its civilizatiim wliere the
Church C!in absorb the state.
3. Spirit and Genius of the Middle Ages. — From the
above-mentioned facts it is not difficult to generalize a con-
ception of the spirit and genius which brought them forth.
Defiant self-reliance upon rude [ihysical force in regard to
the attainment of all things lem]ioral. and superstitious sub-
'ection to a sacerdotal order in regard to things unseen, un-
nown, and rej)resented as eternal ; narrow selfishness in
regard to the duties and functions lying near and in the
common course, cimnected with the most chivalrous devotion
to the mystical, the undefined, and the distant ; the direst
i'
immorality and disobedience to law and order, coupled with
the most exaggerated and enthusiastic religiosity ; bold ud-
venture.someness without defined purpose ; fancy and im-
agination without reflection ; faith without reason ; devotion
without huuianity — the.se are simie of the contradictions
which cliaracterize the mediieval spirit. Those great cathe-
dral piles testify not only to the power of the imagination
and devotion of the age, but also to the undervaluation of
the human sufferings and sacrifices through which they
were founded and builded.
4. Insiiiufions of tin: JJiildle Ages. — This spirit and ge-
nius incorporated itself in the two aU-comjirehending insti-
tutions, the feudal state and the hierarchical Church. The
spirit of the age was far too oljjective to conceive of the au-
thority of law as based u|)on the common consciousness of
the governed. The individual felt no internal behest to ob-
sei-ve the rights of his neighbor any further than he had by
contract or promise agreed to do so. Personal contract,
varying in the details of its terms with time, place, and cir-
cumstances, occupied thus the proper ground of universal
political law. Under such an order the common man could
only protect himself liy contracting for his protection by
some great man, whose land and people furnished him the
means of protection. The cost of such protection to the
common man was the surrender of his own land to the own-
ership of the lord, retaining only the possession of the same
as a fief, and rendering certain tributes or services to the
lord for such possession and protection. The vassals of the
same lord were connected with each other not directly, but
only through their feudal relation to a common lord, and
different lords only through their feudal relation to a com-
mon superior or by confract with each other, and so on un-
til the sovereign lord of the land was reached — the apex of
the feudal pyramid ; only the pyramid was inverted, with
the greatest weakness where the greatest strength ought to
be. These actual relationships were legalized through the
ratification obtained mediately or immediately from the
kingship and the imperium, in which latter office the sum
and substance of all' authority was theoretically held to ex-
ist as the immediate gift of God to one man through his
vicegerent upon earth — the pope. The practical result of
such a system was anarchy in the state. In regard to the
Church, the same externality of idea manifests itself in the
conceptions of authority and grace. The sum and substance
of all authority and grace were conceived as proceeding
from Christ to the chief of his apostles, to whom the pope
was successor ; by the latter dealt out again upon the bishops
in their consecration, and then by these in turn upon the
priests and laity. The power to bind and to loose, to damn
and to save, became thus, according to this conception, the
property of a close cornoi'ation, which by the power of ex-
communication from the company of the saved ujion earth,
with all its attendant consequences upon the social and
political status of the individual, and of the threats of eter-
nal punishment hereafter, held the souls of men in a state
of s|iiritual subjection of a most degrading nature. The
practical result of such a system was spiritual despotism in
the Church.
Men have been wont to call the Middle Ages "Dark
Ages." On the cont rary, they are full of light. In them
the great questions of llie relationship of individual right to
political right, of local government to central government,
and of ecclesiastical government to secular government,
were raised and drawn into conscious consideration. Had
the European eni|)ire of Charlemagne been periietuated,
Europe might have become a second China, but would never
have been what it is — viz., the source of the civilization of
the modern world. The unceasing conflicts of the Middle
Ages between private right and public law, local govern-
ment and central government, state authority and Church
authority, were necessary to bring men out from under the
monotony of slavish subjection to the artificial, external.
Church-state system of the (.'arlovinginn (■mi)ire, and de-
velop them liv the antagonism of thought and will into the
power of producing systems more reflect I'd aiitl more free.
See Fkuuai, System.
The reader may further consult — for history of the Mid-
dle Ages, Emerton, Hallani, Leo. Kortiim, Riickert. Ranke,
Weber; for history of tlie jieriod of the (iermau emperors,
Giesebrecht and Waitz ; and for history of the city of Rome
in the Middle Ages, Gregorovius. John W. Buhqess.
Middlcboro: town : Plymouth co., Mass. (for location of
county, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 4-J) ; on both sides
MIDDLEBURY
MIDDLETOWX
749
of the Nainiuskct river, and on the X. Y., N. II. anil Hart.
Uailroad ; 10 miles K. i>f Taunton, 1)4 miles S. l)y K. of Bos-
ton. It is one of tlie oldest towns in the county; derives
excellent ]»)wer for manufacturing,' from the river, which
has three falls, comprises several villages, and lias several
churches an<l inihlic schools, an acaderuy, pis and electric
lij,'ht plants, a free public library (founded \XH) contain-
ing; (i,()0(J vohimes, a national bank with capital of ^.")0,(MW,
a savings-bunk with <leposits of over ^ToD.OOO, and two
weekly newspapers. For many years the town has been
noteil for its manufactures, which include shoos, woolen
goods, himlier, varnish, marble, shovels, and needles. Pop.
(18S0) 5,2:i7; (18U0) C,0<5.j ; (ISii.l) 6.6N!».
MiildU'bury : villaj^c: capital of Addison co., Yt. (for
location nf ci.iinty, see map of Yermont, ref. 5-A) : on Otter
creek, and the Cetit. Yt. Kailroad ; *i miles N. X. \V. of Hut-
land, ;)5 miles S. of ISiirlin^'ton. It is in an ajjricultural
region, and Iuls excellent water-power, six i)roductive mar-
ble iiuarries, and several large lime-kilns. It is the scat of
Middlobury College, and contains three libraries (Ladies',
Sheldon Art .Museum and Library, and Middkbury College)
with nearly 2o.0()() volumes, a national bunk with capital
of $iOO,0(M), a Weekly newspai)er and a monthly college pub-
lication, and tlnur-mills, pulp-mills, and iron-furnace. Pop.
(IMs(l) l,s;j.t; (IHIIO) 1,762. Editor of " Keoister."
Middlelnirj' College: an institution of learning at Mid-
dlebury, Yt., established in 1800. It is coeducational and
{lurely collegiate, its curriculum being partially elective and
eading up to the degrees of A. B. and H. S. The (eighth)
president, Ezra Urainerd, LL. D., was inaugurated in 1886.
The faculty numl)ers nine, the departments of instruction
being menial and moral science, natural history, physics
and chemistry, mathematics, Greek, Latin, English, moilern
languages, history, ami political science. The main build-
ings are the chapel, with lecture-rooms and laboratories,
Starr Hall, the main dormitory, Painter Hall, containing
the library and the gymnasium, IJattell Hall, for young
women. Of these buildings, the first three are of stone and
are surrounded by a beautiful park of 30 acres.
C. B. VYrioht.
Middle C: in music, the note standing a fifth aliove the
F or bass clef and a fifth below the Ci or treble clef. Its
place is therefore on the added-line between the bass and
treble clefs. It takes its name from this circumstance, and
also from its midway position on the general scale. The C
clef, whether placed on the third, fourth, or any f>ther line,
is always renresentative of the note or sound called " mid-
dle C," and the lines and spaces above and below are named
accordingly.
MidfHo Kn^Iisli: See Exglisu Language.
.Miildleport: village ; Xiagara Co., X. Y. (for location of
county, see map of Xew York, ref. -l-C); on the Erie Canal,
and the X. Y". C and Hud. Riv. Railroad : midway between
Buffalo and Rochester. It is in a fruit-growing region,
ships large quantities of general produce, has a ship-yard
and drydock, and contains saw and planing mills, paper-
mill, grist-mill, foundries, fumiture-f.ictory, large fruit
canning and evaporating works, and a creamerv. Pop.
(IHHO) 771 ; (IS'JO) 1,217. Editor of " Herald.
Middleport: village; Meigs co., O. (for location of coun-
ty, see map of Oliin, ref. 7-(i): on the Ohio river, and the
Col., Hock. Yal. and Tol. and the Ohio Cent, railways; 2
miles S. of Pomeroy, the county-seat. It is in an agricul-
tural and coal-mining region, and has important manufac-
tun's. large river commerce, a national bank with capital of
$.")0.(KH1, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) :},032 :
(18!)0) ;t,2ii.
Mid(llesl>oroii«rli : municipal, parliamentary, and county
borough : in the ccniuly of York, l-'ngland; at the mouth of
the Tees; ,50 miles N. of York (see map of England, n'f.
5-1). Il has very important iron ami steel works and con-
siderable exports of coal, liesides ship-vards, dieraical-works,
salt and stnla wurks, wire. nail, aiul tulie works, marine
engineering works, sawmills, and manufactures of rones
and sailcloth. The pulilie buililings include a town-hall, a
market-house, and a royal exchange. The liocks, o[>ened in
1842 and extendi-d in 187.'), have 1.700 feet of (piays, and
can aeeommml.ite vessels of ;i,lMK) tons bunlen. Middlestmr-
ough was founded in I^CIO. and in IsJil it hail a population
of l.")4; in 1S41, of .'>,4('):!. In 18.50 iron ore was discovered
in Eston Hills, and in 18S1 the population of the niuniiMpal
borough had increased to 5o,2)^, In 18'J1 it was 7o,,51C.
Middlesex: a county of England; bounded .S. by the
Thames, ami E. and W. by its two alUuents, the Colne and
the Lea. Area. 28;J s<]. miles. A great part of the county
consists of grazing lands and market -gardens, which supply
London with milk, hay, and vegetables. Pop. (1891) 3,251,-
671.
Middleton : town of Anmipolis co., Xova Scotia; 103
miles \Y. N. \V. of Halifax (sec map of (Quebec, ref. 2-B).
It is a station on the Wimlsor and Annapolis Railway, and
northwestern terminus of the Nova Scotia Central Railwav,
near the historic AnnaiMilis river. There arc rich iron and
copper mines in the vicinity, and near it are the altradive
Xictaux Falls. Pop. (with environsj 2,000. M. \V. H.
Middleton, Convers, D.I).: theologian and classical
sehojjir ; b. at Kichmond, Yorkshire, Englaml. Dec. 27, l«8;j ;
graduated at Candjridge 1702, and became a fellow of Trinity
College 1706. He was for vears engaged in an acrimonious
quarrel with Richard Bentley (see %\()u\C>- Lifr of lirnllni);
wrote A Lilt^r fnnii lliniie shoiring an i.'j'aci Cunfnrmili/ be-
twttn I'dperij (ind l'<i</fi>ii/i»i (17211); became principal libra-
rian of Cambridge (1722); was Woodwanliau Professor of
Mineralogy 1731-34. His best-known works are an uncrit-
ical and highly eulogistic Life of Cicero (1741): Inlrodur-
tory Discourse (1747); and the Free Inquiry (1748). violent
attacks on ecclesiastical miracles. D. at llildersham, Julv
28, 1750. Cf. Leslie Stephen, English Thouyht in the
Eighteenth Century. Revised by A. Uudemax.
Middleton, Thomas: dramatist; b. probably in London
about 1.570; studied law at Gray"s Inn; became a dramatic
author; assisted Rowley, Massinger, Fletcher, and Ben Jon-
son in the composition of some of their plays, and prixiuced
several dramius, among which are A Jlad ^\'orld, my Mas-
ters, Wo/iien beware Women, A Trick to Catch the (ild One,
The Changeling, and The Spanish Gipsy. In 1623 he
wrote a very clever satirical comedy {A Game of Chess) on
Prince Charles's unsuccessful wooing of the .Spanish infanta.
The performance of the play was stojiped by royal order,
but the action against the author was afterward drojijjed.
His plavs were edited bv Rev. Alexander Dvce (5 vols.,
1840) and by Bullen (8 vols., London, 1886). D. July, 1627.
Revised by II. A. Beers.
Middleton, Thomas Faxshaw, D. D. : bishop and Bible
scholar; b. at Kedleston, England, Jan. 26, 176!); was edu-
cated at Christ's Hospital and at Pembroke Hall, Cam-
bridge; took orders in the Church of England 1729; be-
came archdeacon of Huntingdon 1812, and was consecrated
May 8, 1814, at Lambeth, first Bishop of Calcutta, in which
city he arrived Xov., 1814: died there of fever July 8, 1822.
He was an elegant scholar, and as a writer is remembered
for his Dorlrine of the Greek A rticle. aj)//lied to the Criticism
and Illustration of the A'eic Testament (London, 1808; 5th
ed. 1858). A volume of his sermons, charges, and trails
was publishecl in 1824. See his Life, bv Rev. C. \Y. Le Bas
(2 vols.. London, 1831). Revised "by .S. M. Jacksos.
Middletown : city (settled in 1650, incorporated in 1784);
formerly a port of entry, and one of the county-seats of
Middlesex co.. Conn, (for location of county, see map of
Conneclicul. ref. !t-ll): on the Connecticut river onposite
Portland, with which it is connected liyan iron railwaybridge,
and on the X. Y., X. II. and Hart. Railroad ; 15 miles .S. of
Hartford, 24 nules X. E. of Xew Haven. The city is pleas-
antly situutiMl, is laiil out with broail. tree-shaileil streets,
and has daily steainlMiat communication with Xew York
and Hnrtforii. the river being navigable here for vessels
drawing 10 feet of water. Yaluable freestone and feldspar
and the rare coliunbiie are found in the vicinity, silver and
lead were formerly mineil. and gold has been found. The
city is the seat of Wesleyan I'niversity (Methodist Episco-
pal, opened 1W31). of the Berkeley Divinity School (Protes-
tant Kpi.scofial. opened 1847), the Connecticut Hospital for
the Insane, anil the Connecticut Industrial Si'lunil forOirls;
contains 5 libraries (the I'niversity. Divinity School, Insane
Hospital. Industrial School, and the Ru»s<'ll) with aliout
7.5.0<M) volunu's, 4 national lianks with combimd caoilal of
$1,06!I.3(K). a State bank with capital of iCtKl.dlKl. and 2 sav-
ings-banks with surplus of $.500.(KKI. and 2 duilv and 3 other
perioilicals. Pop. (1880) 6,820; (IS'.H)) !».Oi:t.
Editor ok " Penxt Press."
Middletown: town: Xewca.slle co.. Del. (for location of
county, see map of Delaware. n>f. 3-M); on the Phila.. \Vil.
and Bidl. Hailroad; 25 miles .S. by \Y. of Wilmington, the
county-scat, 52 miles S. \V. of Philadelphia. It is in the
750
JIIDDLETOWN
JIIDRASH
great peach-growing region of Maryland and Delaware, and
has carriage, harness, and agricultural-implemeut factories,
fruit curing and canning worlis, 2 national banks witli com-
bined capital of !f;ltiO,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 1,280; (1800) 1,454.
Middletown : city (incorporated in 1888); Orange co.,
N. Y. (for local ion of county, see map of New York, ref.
7-J) : on the Wallkill river, aiid the Erie, the N. Y., Onl. and
VV., and the X. Y., .Sus. and West, railways ; 24 miles W. S. W.
of Xewburg. 06 miles N. X. W. of Xew York, ll is in an
agrii;ultural and dairy region, is the seat of the Xew York
llomceoi)atliic Hospital for the Insane, and has 12 churches,
graded high scliool, 13 other public schools, 2 libraries
(Leonora S. Bolles Jlemorial and Public School), 2 national
banks with combined capital of $260,000, a savings-bank,
and a monthly, ;:i daily, and 5 weekly periodicals. There
are silk and handkerchief mills, woolen-hat factories, and
saw and file works. Pop. (1880) 8,494 ; (1890) 1 1.977.
Editor of " Press.''
Middletoivn : city ; Butler co., 0. (for location of county,
see map of Oliio. ref. 6-C) ; on the Miami river, andtheCiii.,
Ham. andDay., the Cleve., Cin., Clu. and St. L., the Cin. and
Day., and tlie Jliddlc. and Day. railways; ;i2 miles X. of
Cincinnati. It has tlic Holly system of water-works, gas
and elec-trio lights, 2 national banks with combine<l capital of
1550,000, an incor|)orated bank with capital of §50,000, and
2 daily and 2 weekly newspapers. Tliere are 7 paper-mills,
2 tobacco-factories, 2 paper-bag factories, foundry, planing-
mill, and flour-mills. Pop. (1880) 4,538 ; (1890) 7,681 ; (1892)
estimated, 10,000. Editor of " Journal."
Middletowii : borough (founded in 1756, incorporated
in 1828) ; Daupluu co., Pa. (for location of county, see map
of Pennsylvania, ref. o-G); at the junction of Swatara
creek with the Susquehanna river, and on the Penn. and the
Phila. and Reading railways; 9 miles S. E. of Ilarrislmrg.
It is in an agricultural region, has good water-power from
Swatara creek, and Imd the first furnace in America for the
manufacture of blister steel, erected about 1793. It has
water, ga^;, electric-light, and electric street-railway plants,
brownstone and limestone quarries, tube ami iroii works,
iron-furnaces, railway-car sliops, furniture-faetoi-y, tannery,
and large lumber interests, the Frey Orphan School, a na-
tional bank wit ll capital of .|85,000. aState bank with capital
of ^;50.000, and a ilailv and two weeklv newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 3,351 ; (1890) 5,080. Editor of " Journal."
Midge [M. Eng. mifjge < O. Eng. mycge, : 0. H. Germ.
»i«fCffl > Mod. Germ, mileke, moth; cf. Gr. fivTa]: a name
applied in England to several dipterous insects resembling
gnats and mosijuitoes in their habit of feeding ujxm the blood
of men and animals. .Some are of the family Chimiiomidie,
which has representatives in Xorth America. In the U. S.
the name is especially given to the wheat miclge, Cecido-
mijia tritici, a most destructive insect, which lays its eggs
in the blos.soiniiig ears of wheat. Deep plowing destroys
many of them by burying their cocoons in the earth, arid
late-sown spring wheat generally blossoms so late as to es-
cape their ravages. For gall mitlges, see Gall Insects,
Midhat Pasha: statesman; born of humble parents in
1823 in Constantinople, where he was educated, lie early
entered the civil service of the Ottoman Government and
gave proofs of executive ability. He visited England .and
Prance in 1819. The following yearhe was macle a pasha. He
was at various times governor of Uskup. Bulgaria, and Salo-
nica. In each province he constructed roads, built bridges,
favored industry, ami with a firm hand put down lawlessness
and crime. The reactionary party always looked uixin him
with disfavor; hencehis appointment as grand vizierin Mar.,
1873, was considered a significant event, as was his speedy
removal from that olfice. He was the real chief among the
conspirators who deposed Abd-nl Aziz (Mav 30, 1876) and
Murad V. (Aug. 31, 1876). Made grand vizier (Dee. 33,
1876) by the new sultan, Abd-ul Ilamid II., he was an object
of suspicion as instrumental in the overthrow of two sultans,
and held office only till Feb., 1S77, when he was dismissed
and banished. He spent some time in Paris, where he pub-
lished La Turquie, son passe el son aiv.nir (1878). Soon
after he was made governor of Smyrna, and then of Syria.
In 1881 he and several other pashas were accused of murder-
ing Sultan Abd-ul Aziz. At the trial he was convicted and
condemned to death, but on the representations of Great
Britain this sentence was commuted to imprisonment for
life. D. May, 1884, in Arabia. E. A. Grosve.nor.
iMIdiaiiites: an ancient Arabian race, the descendants
Of Midiau, the fourth of the six sons of Abraham by Ke-
turah (Gen. xxv. 2). They were idolaters. They appear to
luive dwelt mainly to the S. of Moab. The Sinaitic penin-
sula was a part of their territory, and the Tawarah Arabs,
now dwelling there, are supposed to be their descendants.
Moses dwelt in the land of Midian and nuirried a daughter
of a priest of Midian (Ex. ii.). Jlidianites joined Moabites
in desiring Balaam to curse Israel (Xuni. xxii.). They op-
pressed Israel and were signally defeated by Gideon (Judg.
vii.-viii.). Revised by S'. M. Jackson.
Midland : city ; capital of Midland co., Jlich. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 6-1) ; at the junc-
tion of the Tittabawassee and Chi|)pewa rivers, and on the
Flint and Pere Marq. Railroad; 18 miles W. of Bay City.
It c(jntains 7 churches. 4 public schools, and 2 weekly news-
papers, and manufactories of lumber, shingles, hoops, pails
and tubs, salt, and bromine. Pop. (1880) 1,539 ; (1890) 3,277 ;
(1894) 3,484. Publisher of •• Republica.v."
Midlothian: See EDiNBURGnsniRE.
Midnupiir: district and city of the Bardwan division,
Bengal, British India. It is the southernmost of the dis-
tricts of Bardwan, and extends from the Hugli estuary on
the E. to Chota X'agpur on the W. Area, 5,082 sq. miles.
Pop. about 2,500,000. The central and southeast portions
are a densely populated plain, while the northern plain is
dry, and the northwest contains tlie Jlehals jungle, an undu-
lating, picturesque country, alive with wild beasts and ser-
pents, and almost uninhabited. The cultivated portions are
but little above sea-level, and suffer much from Hoods from
the rivers and cyclonic inundations from the coast. The
city is 62 miles S. of Bardwan, and about the same distance
W. of Calcutta, on the Kusi river and terminus of the
High Level Canal (see map of X. India, ref. 8-1). It is very
subject to fevers and endemic cholera. It is a center for
work carried on by missionaries from the U. S. Bronze and
copper utensils are manufactured in large numbers, and the
sale of these, as well as the connnerce in indigo and silk for
the district, is centered in a great bazaar in this city. Poji.
35,000. Mark W. Harrington.
Mid'rasll [from Heb. midhrash. commentary, explana-
tion] : a general name for the study and amplification of
the Bible as current in the Jewish schools during the times
of the Mishniih and Talmud. As the Bible was regarded as
the source of all rit ual and ethical laws and practice, and of all
religious and philosophical ideas, it became necessary to de-
duce new ordinances, new principles, and new doctrines from
its wording. This the Jlidrash did by comparing parallel
passages, by making use of allegorical explanations, and by
casuistical deductions from real or fancied peculiarities of
expression. The oldest Midra,sh busied itself not (jnly with
Ilagga<lah (see Talmud), but also with Ilalachah. Hala-
chah, which was not derived frf)m the biblical word, was
called iMishnali. The oldest Jlidrasliic works belong to the
period of the Tannaim, the teachers who lived from 100 B. c.
to about 300 A. D., though the redaction which we now pos-
sess was made later. These are the 3Sechil(a to Exodus, the
Sifrd to Leviticus, and the Slfrii to Numbers and Deuter-
onomy. The Midrash thus became also a sort of running
commentary on the Bible. In course of time this use of the
Midrash gradually usurped the place of the older and more
general use. It came to denote abnost exclusively the Ilag-
gadah. As such it w'as based largely upon the religious and
ethical discourses delivered iu school and .synagogue, and
follows the biblical pcricopes. Though certain rules (3lid-
dnt/i) were laid down which were to govern this exposition,
still the greatest latitude was allowed. The Jlidrash was
not intended to be an exposition of the Bible in our sense
of the word. It sought to find in the Bible an indication,
however slight, for the principles or ideas it wished to ex-
press. The lives of the patriarchs and of other great men in
llebrew hisrory, eschatalogical and mythological ideas, the
Divine Being.and philosophical prolilenisof all sorts, formed
the subject-matter of the later Midrashim. They are full
of aneeilotes, bright and witty sayings, and a truly Eastern
wealth of imagery. It is impossible to tell how early such
Midrash collections wen; made. The word Midrash occurs
in the Bible (2 Chron. xiii. 22, 24, 27). The book of Chroni-
cles itself, when compared with the books of Samuel and
Kings, is a sort of historical Midrash. The same method of
exegesis is to be found in the Xew Testament (Matt. xxii.
31; Gah iii. 16; iv. 23; R(mi. x. 0-8). in the Hellenistic Jew-
ish literature, in the Apocrypha, tlie Taroumim (q. r.), and
MIDRIFF
MIGNONNETTE
.1
the pseuilppijjrupliic wrilin^^s of the tiiiic. Both Tiilimuls
are full uf il. A whole hiuiic-li of Jewish literature has for
its ohject the collection and arrangement of the later Mid-
rash. Sco.Ilwism Literature.
lilTER.iTL'RE. — Zuiiz. Die Uuttesdienxtlichi'n Vorlrdije tier
Juden (2(1 eil. 18'.)',') ; Steinschnei<ler, Jewinh [jilerulnre ( Lon-
don, 18.)7, |i|>. •"), ••ipi/.) ; Karpeles, (rescliic/tle ihr Jiiiliiclien
Lileratnr (Ui-rlin, IMStj, i.. pi). ;i;j-,'. .wq.); 1). IlolTinann. Zwr
Einlfilitng in dii- kuliicliischrn Midra-ichiin (Herlin, ItSfST);
Scliilrcr, (le.irh. dfs Jud. Volkes im Zeitnltrr Jesu (Leipzi;;,
1SM6, i., p. lOS; ii., p. 278); IlanilinrKcr, Keal-KiicijclopSdie
fur liihfl und Tii/iiiiid; Strack, MiJritsch. in ller/,o!;-I'litt
J{eal- I-Jnri/rlopiidii' (ix.. pp. 7'>'Z,tifi/.) ; Tli lor, ('umponilion
Ue.r iifindixrhen Ilninilien, in (iriitz's Monatsschriff, vol.
xxxviii. ; Lerner, Anhige itnd QmUin dm Jieri-xrlii/ Uahbn
(Fr«nkfort-on-thc-^Iain, 1.S.S2): .T. II. Weiss. Ziir Oixrli. der
Jiid. Traditian (\i>\s. ii. and iii., Vienna, 1S71-.M;!): .lellinek,
Bflh Ilnmiilrasch (\jQ\\y/.\>i. l.s.):{-.')7; Vienna, lS7;t-77); A.
WUnsche, Bibliotheca rabbinica (Leipzig?, 1.SS1-K2).
KlCH.\RD GOTTIIKIL.
.Midriff: See DtAPiiR.voM.
Midway: town; Woodford cc, Ky. (for locati<in of coun-
ty, see map of Kentucky, rcf. li-ll); on the Louis, and
Kash.. and the Queen ami Cresc. railways; 14 miles W. of
Lexington. It is in the bluo-prrass region, is noted for its
breeding-farms for lliorou;;hl>red horses anil shorthorn cat-
tle, ships large quantities of grain and tobacco, and lias
the Kentucky Female Orphan School, two State banks \vith
combined capital of '^ll.j.OOO, and a weekly newspaper.
Pop. (ISSO) il.JO; (18!)0) 1,185.
Midwifery: See Obstetrics.
Mierovelt, meerd-velt, MiciiAEr, .Tanso.v : painter; b. at
Delft, Holland, May 1, 15G7; studied painting under A.
Montfort at Blockland, and became one of the most cele-
brated portrait-painters of his time. Albert, Archiluke of
Austria, established him at his court, allowing him com-
plete liljerly to practice his own religion, .Mierevelt tieiiig a
Meunonile. He left Delft only to paint the Counts of Niis-
sau, whose portraits are excellent examples of his skill. It is
said by .Sandvart that no less than 10,000 portraits \yere
produced by Mierevelt. 1). July 27, 1641. W. J. S.
Mieris. Franz: painter; b. at Delft, Holland, in 1635.
lie studied under tJerard Dow. and became famous at an
early age. The -Vustrian archduke inviie<l .Mieris to estab-
lish himself at Vienna, ollering him a pension besides his
own price for all his pictures, but a love of independence
prompted the artist to refuse this olTer. The Grand Duke
of Tuscany having generously paid him for several works,
Mieris presented him with his own portrait, now in the I'f-
fizi at Florence. The Louvre possesses nine of his highly
finished works. D. in Rome in 16!K). W. J. S. "
Mifflin, Thomas: soldier; b. in Philadelphia in 1744 of
Quaker slock; was educated at Philadelphia College; be-
came a merchant, and in 1772-73 was in the Legislature;
was sent to the Continental Congress in 1774; joined the
Revolutionary army, thus severing his connection with the
Society of Friends ; was made quartermaster-general ; rose
to be brigadier-general in 1776, and major-general in 1777,
serving with great honor; was replacecl by (ieu. Xathaniel
Greene in the quartermaster's department in 1778; in con-
sequence of charges of mismanagement resigned his com-
mission, which Congress refused to accept ; was .sent to
Congress in 1782, becoming its president in 1783; was
speaker of the State Legislature in 1785 ; was in the conven-
tion of 17M7 which formed the I'. S. Constitution; was
president of the Pennsylvania executive council 1788-110;
president of the .State convention of 17(10; Governor 17!»1-
isixi. 1). :,t LanciLster, Pa., Jan. 20, 18(W).
Miffliiiburif: borough (founded in 1702); Union oo.. Pa.
(for location of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 4-F);
on BulTalo creek, ami the IVnn. Railroad : 0 miles W. by S.
of Lcwisburg. the county-seat. It is in an agricultural,
limestone, and iron ore region, and has .stca?ii llour and
planing mills, furniture, carriage, sleigh, and buggy facto-
ries, 2 oil-factories, and 2 weekly newspapers. I'op. (1880)
1,168; (1800) 1,417; (1893) estimated, l.tiOO.
Editor of "Times."
Mi^dol [= Heb. watch-tower] ; a Kx-ality mentioned (Rx.
xiv. 2. etc.) as near the place where the Israelites crossed the
Red .Sea. The word indicates the necessity of guarding a
ford where a shallowing of the waters due to natural causes
rendered the land liul>le to incursions by predatory bands
from the East. The existence of a Migiiol (Magdolum)on
the Roman itinerary N. of the middle of the Isthmus of
Suez gave nearly all of its probability to the now exploded
theory of the Exoilus route projiosed by Brugseh Bey. See
Menzaleh. Charles R. Giu.ett.
Milliard, nieen'yaar', Xichola.s : painter; b. at Troves,
France, in ]()03; d. in Paris in 1668. He stuilied painting
under Boucher, iiut afterward was much influenced by the
works of Prinuiticcio. On his way to Ronu', where he spent
two years, he stopped at .\vignon to paint a ceiling, and fell
in love with a young girl, whom he married subsequently.
On his return he established himself at Avignon, Inus ac-
(|uiring the designation of Mignard of Avignon, to distin-
guish him from his brother, Mignard " the Roman." He was
patronized by Cardinal Mazarin, and through him received
an order to paint a portrait of the king, after which he
painted the jiortrails of all the members of the court, in-
cluding the Princess of KIbiinif as .St. Cecilia. He also
painted two pictures for the Chartreuse of Grenoble, and
wasappointed professor of the Academy of Painting. Louis
XIV. intrusted him witli the decoration of his ground-floor
apartment at the Tuileries. and was so much pleiLsed that
he comniissioneil him to paint another room, but Mignard
soon died through overwork. W. J. Stillmax.
Migiinrd. Peter; painter; b. in 1610; brother of Nicholas
Mignard. His father desired him to become a doctor, but
at the age of fifteen Peter painted the jMirlraits of his med-
ical professor's family in one piciure. thus showing Ids
artistic proclivities. After studying under Boucher, and
later under Vouet, he was attracted to Rome, where he lived
with Dufresuov, who had been his fellow pupil, and who
continued to direct his studies. He visited Venice and
many other Italian citie.s. and on liis return to Rome re-
ceived an order to paint the pope, .Alexander VII. He spent
twenty-two years in Rome, then was recalled to Paris by
Louis XIV. ' JIazarin introduced him to the royal family,
and the cupola of the Val-de-tirace was assigned to him to
decorate. Subsequently he did decorative work in St. Eu-
stache, in the small gallery at Versailles, and elsewhere.
He was elected president of the corporation of St. Luke,
which he heliied to revive. Louis XI V. held him in great
favor, ennobled him, and on the death of Lebrun made him
court painter and director of the royal manufa<tories. He
became member, professor, rector, director, and chancellor of
the Royal .Academy of Painting and Sculjiture.all in one day.
His paintings at the Val-de-Griice and at St.-Cloud are his
most remarkable work.s. The Louvre contains seven of his
pictures. He was also an engraver. D. in Paris in 16!t5.
W. J. Stillmax.
Migiio. meefi. Jacques Pavi, : publisher; b. at St.-Flour,
Cantal, France, Oct. 25, 1800; studied theology at Orleans;
was ordained priest in 1824, and appointi'il curate at Pui-
seaux : went in 1833 to Paris and founded the ritrainoii-
tanist journal /yT^iirer*. which he sold in 1836 and founded
at Petit Montrouge, near Paris, the Imprimeiie Catliolique.
which soon became one of the most remarkalde industrial
establishments in France. From this oflice issued t 'ulhclion
des Orateiir.s Sarrex (100 vols., 1846-08); /'(tlniluyiiv CiirHun
Comph'tKf: {'•'•'M) vols.); Enci/rloptdie Tlie'iiliii/ii/ite (111 vols.).
In the establishment were also manufactured orpins, slatu-
arj-, pictures, and all kinds of church utensils. D. in Paris,
Oct. 25, 1875. Reviscil by S. M. Jaikso.n.
MiirilPt. nn^en ya'. Francois ArorsTE JIarie: historical
writer: b. at .\ix.' Provence. Fnince. May 8, 1796; was olu-
cated at .\vignon: studied law at the .Academy of .\ix at the
same time with Thiers: removed to I'aris in 1822: pri'diiced
a dissertation on feudalism and the insti^itinnsof St. Louis;
then followeil /fislnire de la Ri'vidutinn /'r(iHf<ii>f (18241 ;
i:tth ed. 1880); Ilixloire de Marie Stuarl (1851; 6lli ed.
1884); Vie de Franklin: Anionio Pert! el rhilipi>e J I.
(1845; 5th ed. 1S81); Charles Quint, son ahdicalian. run
sejmir el xn mnri an nionnx/Pre de I'li.s/c (18.54; 10th e<l.
1882); fUngex Jfialariqiiex (1864; 5th ed. 1S.K41. and other
works; was in 18:iO-4.S iliivctorof thearchivesof the foreign
ministry : member of the Institute and of the .Aeftdeiiiy.ami
commander of the Legion of Honor, etc. D. in Paris. Mar.
24. 1884. .See Trefort, Jlignet und geine irerke (Budapest,
1885).
Mignonnelto. min-yftn-et [= Fr., dimin. of mignon,
darlini:! : |"iiiular nameof an herb, sometimes half shnibbv ;
a native of North Africa; universally cultivated for it-« de-
licious fragrance. Its botanical name is liestda odorala.
752
MIGRAINE
MIKOVEC
and it belong to the order BesedacecB. Weld {q. v.) also is a
species of Reseda.
Miarraine, Megrim, or Hemicraiiia [migraine is derived
throiisli Fr.aiul IjiiteLat. from Lat./iemi'crrtHfVijGr.^/jiicpoWa;
V'-. I"'lf + KpiwW, skullj: i)an)xysiiuillieadac-he. usually oMf-
sided, with nausea, and disorders of vLsion. The disease is
often hereditary, and usually bejiins in youth. It is most
freriueiit in women and the nourotic. It is uoleworlliy tliat
niaiiv celebrated men have sutTere(l from it. Often noeause
can be found, but it is quite frecjuently dependent upon eye-
strain, disorders of the uterus and ovaries, adenoid growths
in the pharynx, and diseased conditions of the nose. The
attacks are precipitated by certain foods, by emotional ex-
citement, and sometimes apparently without cause. The at-
tacks may occur at regular intervals, so that the patient can
foretell the very hour of onset, though more often the recur-
rence is irregular. Tlie duration varies from some hours to
several days. In the simplest form there is one-sided liead-
aclie with nausea, followed by vomiting and relief. In some
patients remarkable visual l>heIlom(^na precede an attack.
There may be simple blurring of vision, subjective flasliesof
light, or bright zigzag lines (forlilication spectra). More
rarely there are distinct illusions of animals, as dogs and
cats,"or even distinct landscapes. Transient hemiauopiamay
occur. Disorders referable to the other special senses are
rare. There is sometimes numbness and tingling of the arm,
face, and tongue. Karely transient muscular weakness in
tlie arm is present. There may be loss of speech during the
attack. The pain usually begins in a small spot on the fore-
head, or temple, and spreads thence over one side of the head.
It may finally involve the whole head and neck. The face
on the affected side may be pale and later flushed. The dis-
ease is not dangerous. It often ceases of itself at middle
life. Treatment depends on removal of the cause and
personal hygiene. W. Pepper and C. W. Burr.
Miguel, Dom Maria Evaristo: prince: b. in Lisbon,
Oct. 26, 1802; the third son of John \l.. King of Portugal,
by the Spanish princess Carlotta Joachima; went in 1807
to Brazil with his parents, fleeing from the French armies.
Here he grew up entirely neglected. When he returned
to Europe in 1821 he could neither read nor write. At
ten years of age he was a drunkard ; at fifteen his de-
baucheries and atrocities amazed the jieople. He was,
nevertheless, his mother's favorite, and seems to have re-
turned this love, while he hated his father and brother,
and considered tliem as strangers. Soon after the return
of the royal family to Portugal he began to form conspira-
cies against his father; open revolt followed. The plan
was to depose the king, and, if necessary, to kill him; but
he fled on board a British uum-uf-war, and by his esca])e
Dom Miguel's pl.nu was foiled. The prince was banished
from Portugal May 13, 1824. On May 10. 182G, John VI.
died, and, in order to prevent a civil war, the eldest son,
Dora Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, resigned the Portuguese
throne in favor of his daughter, Jlaria da Gloria, and
offered her hand to Dom Miguel. lie assented, made oath
on the constitution, and entered on his regency during the
miniu'ity of Maria; but he soon broke his oath, subverted
th<^ constitution by the aid of the clerical party, dissolved
the constitutional Cortes, assumed absolute power, filled
all the dungeons of the country with the liberals, and ruled
Portugal for several years by terror, while he gave him-
self up to the wililesl dissipation. In 18:i2 Dom Pedro
arrived at Oporto with a Urazilian fleet. In 18:i:{ he con-
quered Lisbon, and on May 20, 1834, Dom Miguel was
brought to Genoa by a Portuguese man-of-war, having
agreed never to re-eut,i;r Portugal. As soon as he ari'ivcui
at Genoa, however j?jie protested against the agreement, but
the only I'esult of the j)rotest was that he lost his pension
from Portugal, and all his property was confiscated. He
afterward married .a German princess. D. at Brondjach,
Baden, Nov. \'^, 1800.
Miltado, rae"e-kaa'do [Jap. mi, exalted + Icado, gate. Cf.
title Sublime I'nrle applied to the Sultan of Turkey]: the
title usually applied l)y foreigners to the hereditary ruler of
Japan. It is, liowevrr, rarely heard in Japan itself, having
passed away with the abolition of the feudal .system. 511-
ka<lo denoted first the imperial court, and then, by a com-
mon Oriental figure, it [jassed over t-o the person of the em-
jicror. The Japanese prefer to use the title of Tnnslii
(i.e. Son of heaven), or Ju/lei, ihe Japanese eipiivalent of
Chinese Hwang-ti or Imperial Huler, as miu-e in harmony
with the modern system of government. Mikado h;i^ i here-
fore become a merely historical or literary term, associated
with the odes of the Man-yoshu and with courtly ronumces
like the Geiiji Moiwgatari. J. Jl. Dixon.
Mikliailov, A.: See Sheller, A. K.
Mikliailov, mee-kaa't'e-lof, JIikuail Lariosovich : Rus-
sian writer ; the son of an ollicial and of a Khirgiz princess;
b. in the Ural Mountains in 1820. In 1844 he went to St.
Petersburg, but was unable to pass the entrance examina-
tions to the university, though he followed the lectures for
a while as an outsider. From time to time he sent poems,
mostly translations, to the newspapers, and in 18ol he pub-
lished his best story, Addin Adumovich, which made hnu a
reputation. In the following year he settled down to a
regular literary career, writing for different journals, and
especially for the Suvremmenik (Contemporary), to wliich he
contributed tales, serious articles (among them one on the
poets and novelists of the U. S.), and many translations,
particularly from Heine. From 1858 to 1801 he traveled in
Europe, but on his return was arrested for his connection
with certain proclamatiotis, tried. and sent to Siberia. There
he died in 1865. His translations from Heine were pub-
lished in 1858, and his works in 1859 (2 vols., St. Petersburg).
A. C. COOUUGE.
Mikliailovskii-Danilevslii'i. Ai.eksandr Ivaxovich :
Russian historian; li. in 17110; studied at the University
of Gottingen, and after his return to Russia was given
a position in the nnnistry of Finance. In tlie f<jllowing
years he served in the campaigns against Napoleon, and
he, was present at the Congress of Vienna. From 1815 to
1818 he traveled in the suite of the Emjieror Alexander ;
was major-general under Diebitsch in the war against
the Turks (1829). D. Sept. 21. 1848. He was the author of
histories of the w-ar of 1800-12 against the Turks, and the
military operations against the French, in which he took
part. The latter books have been translated into German.
Mikhailovskii's style is excellent, but he is often partial and
inaccurate. His complete works appeared in seven volumes
(St. Petersburg, 1849-50). A. C. Coolidoe.
Miklosicli, raik'lo-zich, Franz, von, Ph. D. : founder of
Slavic philology ; b. at Luttenberg, in Steicrmark, Nov. 20,
181;!; in 1848 was elected member of the Reichstag; from
1850 to 1886 was Professor of Slavic Philology at Vienna;
in 1862 was made life-member of the Reichsrath. His chief
works are Vergleichende Orammatik der sldvischeii Sprac/i-
en (4 vols., 1852-74) ; Lexicon Palceoslovenico-Gr(eco-Lati-
niim (1862-65) ; Ueber die Mundarteyi und die Wanderuiigai
der Zigeuner Europas (1872-77) ; Etgmahigisches ^^'!jrier-
huch der slavischen Sprachen (l88C). 1). in A'ienna, Jlar.
7, 1891. Benj. Ide Wheeler.
Miklnclio-Macla)'. Nicholas, von : traveler and natu-
ralist ; b. in the Ukraine in 1846. In 1865 he went to Ger-
many, where he pursued his studies at Heidelberg, Jena, and
Leipzig, and met Dr. Haeckel, with whom in 1807 he visited
the Canary islaiuisand Morocco. In 1869 he visited the Red
Sea and Asia Jlinor. He had already decideii to devote
himself to an investigation of New Guinea, and in 1870 he
started for that almo.st unknown land. From that time
until not long before his death he was almost constantly
traveling, his longest stay in any place being two years
or more at Sydney, Australia. He was in New Guinea
1871-72, 1874, 1877, 1879-80, 1881, and 1883. He also trav-
eled through the Malay Peninsula in 1874-75, the Caroline
and Admiralty islan<ls in 1870. and East I\Ielanesia in 1879.
llis publications were very numerous, but are scattered.
The most of them appeared under the auspices of the Im-
perial Geogra.()hical .Society of St. Petersburg, or in the
Dutch Nat. 1'ijdxc/irift of Batavia. These writings related
to geography, anthropology, linguistics, and zoology. His
name did not readily lend itself to expression in western
languages, and he himself varied in the Geriium form for it.
He sometimes signed himself N. von JIaclay. The name is
sometimes written Miklukho-Maclav and Jliklucha-^Iaklai.
D. Apr. 15, 1888. AJark W. Hakuinoton.
Mikovec, inik'w-vets, Ferdinand BRetisi.av : dr.imatist
and archaeologist; b. at Sloup (Pirkstein), Bohemia, Dec.
24, 1826 ; was educated at Ceskil Lipa an<l Prague ; made a
special stiuly of Bohemian history and archa'ology, and con-
tributed numerous essays to Bohemian and (ierman maga-
zines. In 1848 ho was politicilly active in the Bolieinian
and Servian commotions, returned to Prague in ISIO, but
went to Leipzig when> in 1850 lie publislieil a German trans-
lation of the letters of JohnUuss, tlie Bohemian martyr and
MILAN'
MILAX I.
753
Reformer. In 1851 lie estublislieil at Praciie a inni;a/iiic
ilevoted exclusively Id iH-llrs-leltres. tlie Lum'ir, then the
only one of its kirn] in Bolieniiu. He wmle two sueeessful
irageilies, Zdliuba ruilii I'iemi/Hloinkeho (The Kxtinction of
the I'reniyslides. I'nifine. l>i'>l) unil Diinitri Jcaiioric
(PrHjjue. IH.jti). ami loft two other ilramus in MS. In \>ioS
lie hecaine editor of the Utaroiitnosli a /Mtmiilki/ zeiiii; ieske
(Uobeiuian Antiquities). U. at Prague, Sept. 22, 18(i2.
J. J. Kkal.
Mil'iin (Itnl. Milano) : large town of Northern Italy : in
lal. 4."i 28' X., loll. !>' 11' E., lying in the eelitei- of the great
fertile |>laiii of the Po, hetween the Alps ami the Apemiines,
the .\driatie and the Liirurian .Seas (see map of Italy, ref.
3-('). The Oloiia, a small stream, washes its southern wall,
and the town iseoiinecled by navigalilu canals with the .Vdda,
and, through the Tieino. with the Po. Uailways centering
in an imposing station unite Milan with all the large towns
of Italy. The cireumference of the city, following the walls,
vhich nearly inclose it, is about 8 miles: it has fourteen
gates, the most striking being the Porta .Sempione on the
X. \V., at the entrance of the great Simplon road, whose
construction is hero commemorated by a inagiiiticent tri-
umphal arch begun in 1807. In the center of the eily is the
Piazza del Duomo, which has been greatly enlarged, and from
which tramways and omnibus lines extend in all directions.
The streets of .Milan generally are broad and clean ; the pal-
aces, though soiuelimes of immense size, lack the media;val
grandeur of those of Florence.
f'/iiirclies. — Milan is the scat of an archbishopric, and is
celebrated for its lino ehiirehes. Of the 240 existing in
the middle of the eighteenth century, Maria Theresa and
Joseph II. suppressed 117: others have been abandoned
since, so that the present number is al>out 80. The Cathe-
dral of Milan, an Italian (iothic structure, is one of the
most spleiicliil temples in the world, being exceeded in size
only b\' .Si. Peters an<l the Cathedral of .Seville. It was
begun ill lHOti (lleinrich .\rler, of Gnmnden, being the archi-
tect, according to some — Matteo da Caiiipione, acccordiiig
to others), and was in great part completeil by 1500. I'lidor
Napoleon the work was actively resumed in 1805, and fur-
ther decorations and repairs are constantly going on. The
interior of this cathedral is 477 feet in length, 186 feet in
breailth ; height of nave 1.58 feet, of dome 214 feet, of tower
360 feet. The nave is supported by fifty-two columns, the
four sustaining the dome being 10 feet and the others 8J
feet in diameter, canojiied niches with statues taking the
place of capitals ; the pavement is of mosiiic : the vaulting,
painted to imitate carved stone, has Ix'en injured by damp-
ness, and is unworthy the rest of this wonderful editico.
The roof is a forest of Gothic turret.s. 98 in number, dec-
orated with exquisite carvings : the exterior of the cathedral
is adorned with 2.000 statues, the interior with 700. Pass-
ing over other very notowoilhy churches, that of St. Am-
brose, founded in ;{87 by the illustrious archbishop himself,
is of the greatest interest to the architect, the antiquarian,
and esfieciallv to the lover of early Christian art. Near
Santa .Maria Jella Grazie, in which are very interesting fres-
coes, etc.. is the convent containing that ruined masterpiece
of art, Leonardo da Vinci's Liitl Siipprr.
Art-iinllrries, LibriirieH. etc. — The Brera Gallery alone
contains more than 400 oil-paintings, many of great exeel-
lelice, besides admirable frescoes, etc. In the same building
is an archicological niusoum and the Xatioiial Library,
founded by .Maria Theresa in 1764. and enlarged by privaie
donations, libraries from suppressed monasteries, etc., until
it now counts 2.)<t.000 volumes. The famous Ainbrosian
Lilirary, foiindeil by Cardinal Borrnmeo, has also risen to
160,0(X) volumes, besides about lO.(KH) manuscripts, some of
the greatest rarity. The adjoinins,' (iailery of Art contains,
among its countless tR'asiiivs, invaluable original drawings
and manuscripts by da Vinci. In adilition to public collec-
tions. .Milan has 26 private picture-galleries of more or less
interest. There are 15 mus<Minis of natural history, 14 of
ineilals and antiquarian objects generally.
I'tiblic JwliliiHuim. — The charitable and educational in-
stitutions are on a most liberal scale, and admiralily man-
aged. The schools, academies, musical conservatories, etc.,
have a hiu'h n-nutation. The lln'ater l.ji Scala is the soconil
largest ill Italy and one of the larg)st in Kiiropc. The
public gardens and the Bjislione ili Porta Venezia furnish
charming promenades, and the drive through the Corso and
around the walls is most agreeable. Amonu' 'he noted eiii-
flces in the eitv should Ik; mentioned the Victor Kmmanuel
274 ■
Gallery, or arcade. It represents a Latin croxs. 06f) fe«t
long. 48 broad, and 85 in height, with a cupola 165 feet high.
The roof consists of two glass vaults, one 6 feet above the
other. This galler)- is entered from the Piazza della .Seal*
through a superb Corinthian arch of granite, extends to the
Piazza del l>uonio, and contains alnnit IWI brilliant shops.
The muiiici|jality has s|K-nt large sums of money, besides
the cost of the ground, on the new cemetery outside the
Porta Garibaldi.
Commerce and IiiduMnj. — The geogra[ihical iK)sition of
Milan secures it an immense inland trade, chiefly in grain,
rice, cheese, silk, and cotton : it also cxjiorts much country
produce. It is the chief liiiancial and banking center of
Italy, and has very imjKirlaut manufactures of si Ik.s, velvets,
woolens, ghjves, machinery, art-furniture, and porcelain.
llistunj. — At the time of its conquest by the Komans
(220 B.C.) Milan was the largest town of ('isalpinc Gaul.
Cicero and Marcus Brutus were afterward among its gov-
ernors, and in the third century it almost rivaled Rome.
It was Christianized very early — tradition says by St.
Barnabas — and was made illustrious in the fourth ceiiturj-
by the good and groat St. Ambrose. It suffered severely
from the barbarians in 452. and in 558 was destroved by a
nephew of Vitiges. who, according to Procopiiis. slew 300,-
000 of its inhabitants, .tiitcr many vicissitudes Milan in
the eleventh century became once more independent and
had a population of 300,000. Its moral and intellectual
prosperity rose with its material wealth. The celebrated
.\rclibishop Aribert offered every encouragement for the ed-
ucation of the young, and from her schools of jjliilosophy,
medicine, etc., Slilan sent forth her jirofessors to Biirgundv,
to France, and to (iermany. .\fter this followed a series of
disastrous wars, ending with the destruction of the city by
Frederick Barbarossa in 1162. It was, however, rebuilt
with marvelous rapidity, and in 1176 the Jlilanese, aided
by the neighboring towns, defeated Frederick at Legnano.
In 1227 they were once more crushed by Fre<Ierick II. In
12.59 an attempt was made by the terrible Kzzelino to get
possession of the city, which failed, ami from that time till
1447 it was governed by the ducal house of the Visconti.
The so-called Golden Ambrosian republic, of three years'
duration, was followed in 1450 by the dukedom of the
Sforza, which lasted till 1500. From that time Milan con-
tinued for the most part under a foreign yoke, French,
.Spanish, or German, until 1796. when the French entered
Milan and X'apoleon made it the capital of the Cisalpine
republic. In 1814 the .\uslrians took possession of the city
and promised a liberal government, but pursued an entirely
opposite policy. Insurrections broke out (181.5. 1821, 183:1),
each followed by arrests, imprisonments, executions: and a
state of chronic conspiracy existed until the "Glorious Fire
Days' Revolution." which began on Mar. 18, 1848. and ter-
minated in the expulsion of the Austrians. After four
months the enemy returned victorious. A new but disas-
trous insurrection was attempted in 18.53. On June 8, 18.59,
Milan welcomed the Franco-Italian army within her gates,
and Victor Emmanuel as the sovereign of her choice. The
city is at present highly prosperous. Pop. of commune
(1893, estimated) 426.500.
Milan: towTi: capital of Sullivan co.. Mo. (fur location
of county, see map of Miss<iuri, ref. 1-F) ; on the Chi., Burl,
and Q. and the Quincy. Cm. and Kan. City railways ; 2.50
miles X. W. of .St. Louis. It is in the center of the blue-
gra-ss region : raises fruit, grapes, and berries in abundance;
has large farming an<l stock-growing interests : and has de-
posits of coal, fire-clay, mineral paint, ainl gooil building-
stone in the vicinity. Farming, coal-mining, and manu-
facturing are the principal industries. P(ji. (1880)1.117;
(18'.M>) l,2;i4 ; (1892) 1,375. Editor ok*" KEriBUc.t.v."
Milan: cily : (iibson co., Teiin. (for location of county,
sec map of Tennessee, ref. 6-B); on the Louisv. and Xashv.
and the 111. Cent, railways; 93 miles .V. E. of .Memphis. It
h-As six churi'hcs, a college, a high sch<><pl, a weekly iiews-
pa|)er. and steam cotton-gins, saw and Hour mills, barrel-
factorv. and fruit-canning works. Pop. il8M)) I.fiOO; (1890)
1,.546 ; (1893) estimated. 2.0tK). EniToR of " Excbamie."
Milan 1.. Obrknovitch : Kine of .S«.rvia: b. .\iig. 22,
1854: s.in of Miloseh Vephremovitcli ; was a student in the
Lvcj'e Loiiis-le-(irand. when, on the assjissinati<>u of his
c.msin. Prince Michael III., he suicetd.'d (July 2. 1868) as
Prince Milan IV., ami (.\ug. 22. 1S72) ••n reaching the age
■ if eighteen he personally assuim-*! the n'iiis of government,
lie ileclared war against his suzerain, the sultan, in 1876,
75-t
MILANfis Y FUENTES
MILDEWS
but his army under the Russian general TchernaTotT was
always ignoniiniously beaten and only the intervention of
Russia imposed peace and saved Servia from serious loss of
territory. Participating shortly after in the Rnsso-Turkish
war, the independence of Servia wjis recognized by the
Treaty of Berlin (July 13. 1878). Servia declared itself a
kingdom (Mar. G. 1882), and Milan took the title of Milan I.
On the union of Eastern Koumeliaand Bulgaria (Oct., 188.5),
Milan invailed Bulgaria, but was speedily e.\|)elled, and his
army disastrously defeated at the battle of Slivnitza, fought
on Servian soil. Only the intervention of Austria stopped
the progress of the Bulgarians. Milan abdicated (Mar. 6,
1889), proclaiming his son Ahwander king under a regency
till the attainment of his majority. Some time after he re-
nounced the rights of his rank and nationality, taking the
title of Count Takovo. Milan married (Oct. 17, 1875) Nat-
alie, the daughter of the immensely wealthy Russian Col.
Keschko: was divorced illegally Oct." 34, 1888, and reconciled
to his wife Mar. 7, 1893. ' E. A. Urosvenor,
Milaiifes y FuiMites, mcc-la'ii-nas'ec-foo-antas, JosE Ja-
cinto : poet . b. at Matanzas, Cuba, Aug. 16, 1814. His family
was poor, and in early life he was a clerk al Matanzas and
later a blaeksmith"s assistant at Havana : maiidy by self-in-
struftion he obtained a fair education, and aliout 1833 some
of his verses were published, attracting an immediate and
wide attention. In 1838 he published a tragedy. El Conde
AlarcuK. which is confessedly one of the best dramatic works
of Cuban authorship. Soon after, through the influence of
Delraontc, he obtained a position as secretary of a railway
company, which placed hira in comparatively easy circum-
stances. A mental disease which attacked him in 1842 was
not alleviated by a journey in the U. S. and Europe in 1848-
49 ; he sank into helpless melancholia and died at Matanzas,
Nov. 14, 1863. After Here<lia, Milanes is the most popular
of the Cuban poets. A collected edition of liis works was
published at Havana, 1846, and a more complete one in Xew
York, 1865. Herbert H. S.mith.
Mild y Fontaiials, mee-laa'ee-fon-taa-naals', Manuel :
.scholar ; b. at Villaf ranca del Panades, near Barcelona, Spain,
May 4, 1818 : d. in Barcelona, July 16, 1884. After studying
law (licentiate, 1841), he gave himself entirely to the liistory
of literature — especially that of Catalonia and Spain — and in
1845 was made Professor of Literature in Barcelona. For
many years he was the most eminent representative in the
Spanish Peninsula of the scientific study of the Romance-
languages and literatures. Among his works maybe men-
tioned Romancerillo Catalan (1843: 3d ed. 1882); De los
trovadores en Espuna (1861) ; De alqunas representaeionea
catalanes (1864) ; De la poesia heruico-poptdar castellana
(1873) ; Pn'ncj'pios de. literalura general (1874) ; Estudios de
lengua cafalaiia (1875); JS^otas sobre la infliiencia de la
literalura italiana en In catnlana (1877); Poetes lyriques
Catalans (Montpellier, 1878). He wrote many learned articles
also for the Romania and other journals. A new edition of
his works, edited by M. .Menendez y Pelayo, is in course of
publication in Barcelona (vol. i., 1888 ; vol. ii., 1889).
A. R. Marsh-
Milaz'zo : seaport-town ; in the province of Messina,
Sicily; on the Gidf of Milazzo; about 27 miles W. of the
city of -Messina (see map of Italy, ref. 9-(!t). This town stands
partly on the shore and partly on a high promontory. The
harbor is sufficiently largo and deep to receive sliips of war.
The exports consist chiefly of oil, wine, salt fish, linseed,
dried fruits, etc. Milazzo (anc. Mile) was founded by the
Zanclei more than 700 years before our era, and has shared
the general vicissitudes of the islaml. It has been the
theater of many battles, the last in 1860, when Ciarilialdi,
July 20, obtained a brilliant victory over the Neapolitan
troops, followed l)y the surrender of the fortress of Milazzo
and the city of Jlessina. Pop. (1881) 7,971.
Milblirii, William Henry, I>. D. : lecturer and preacher;
b. in Philadeli)hia. Pa.. Sept. 26. 1823 ; removed in child-
hood to Jacksonville. 111.; studied at Illinois Colli^ge, not-
withstanding a partial loss of sight ; became a Jlethodist
itinerant preacher at (he age of twenty, chiefly in tlie South-
ern States; was settled for a time at Montgomery, and after-
ward at Mobile, Ala. ; became a popular and eloquent lec-
turer and W!is six times chaplain to ("ongress, and in 1893
was chosen as chaplain to the U. S. Senate ; went to Great
Britain in 1859, and lectured with success in the principal
cities. On his return he was ordained in the Protestant
Episcopal C!hur(!h, but returned in 1873 to Methodism. He
is widely known as " the blind preacher," and has published
Rifle, Axe, and Saddle-Bags (1857); Ten Years of Preacher
Life (1859) ; and Pioneers and People of the Mississippi
Valley (1860). Revised by A. Osborn.
Mildews [mildew is from 0. Eng. mehdPaw : 0. H. Germ.
mililou, probably meaning, originally, honeydew ; Germ.
mehlthau has then suffered corruption under influence of
»ie/i/, meal ; cf. Goth, mili]', honey : (ir. ni\t : Lat. jhc/] : tlie
general name applied to many microsco|iic fungi, now
pretty well restricted to two families of parasitic plants dis-
tinguished as the Downy Mildews {Peronosporacecc) and the
Powdery Mildews (Enjsiphem).
In Great Britain the rust of wheat and other cereals is
called mildew, but this usage does not prevail in the U. S.
(See Rusts.) The mildew of cloth exposed to dampness, con-
sisting of reddish, brownish, blackish, yellowish, or even
greenish patches, is caused, at least in part, by minute fungi
of various kinds (e. g. Cladosporinm herbarnm, PeniciUum
glaucum, Aspergillus glaucus and A. rosetts, Papulospora
sipedonioides. etc.). The large genus Botri/tis, of the so-
called im]ierfect fungi, are often known as mildews. They
attack dead or languishing plants, e. g., the lettuce mildew,
Polri/tis riilgaris.
The Downy Mildews {Peronosporacew) consist of branch-
ing unseptated threa<ls which grow in and through the tissues
of their hosts. Certain branches protrude through the
breathing pores of the host (Fig. 1), and jiroduce great num-
bers of spores (summer spores, or conldia). These spore-
bearing branches (conidlophores) occur in such great num-
bers that they give the surface a downy appearance, whence
the popular name. Downy Wildews.
Fig. 1. — Downy mildew of the grape: a, dia^ammatic section of
affected erape-leaf ; 6. branches beariuK couidia ; c, two resting
spores ; rt, germinating conidium ; e, cronidium after the esriipe
of zoi'ispores ; /, active zoospores ; g, zoospores at rest, and ger-
minating (all Diagnified).
The snmmer spores germinate quickly, either by send-
ing out a tube whic'h develops directly into the threads of a
new plant (as in lettuce mildew), or by each one breaking
\\\t internally into a number of active bodies (zoospores)
which swim" about (In dewdrops and films of moisture on
leaves) for a time, and then become rounded and covered
with a cell-wall, after whicli each sends out a tube, wlileli
develops Into a branching thread. This latter method of
germination Is characteristic of the downy mildew of the
grape.
The resting spores are formed within the tissues of the
host, by the fertilization of an enlarged globular cell (the
otigone), by a slender cell (the antherhl), resulting in the
formation of a thick-walled cell (Fig. 1, r). These resting
spores (oospores) remain for some time In the decaying tis-
sues of the host and then germinate I ly forming zoospores,
as In the second kind of conldia described above, eventually
giving rise to a new generation of the parasite.
About 100 species of Downy Mildews are known. Former-
ly these were all placed In the single genus Peronospora, but
live genera are now recognized as follows:
P/ii/loplit/inrn. — Conidlophores at first simple, afterward
branched ; conldia producing zoospores; resting spores thin-
walled. The most important species is P. i7ifesians, the
MILDEWS
MILES
755
cause of the potato rot. (See Rot.) Another species is the
bean luililew or blif^ht (/'. plutseoti), which attacks the leaves,
stems, anil pods of Lima beans.
ScleruKpora. — Conitliophores simple ; conidia producing
zoiispores; restinj; spores thick-walled. Represented in the
U. S. by .S'. gramiiiicolu, which attacks the leaves of "fox-
tail " KfLsses (Sftiiria).
I'la.smopara. — t'ouidiophores witli lateral branches ; co-
nidia forniini; zoiispores ; resting; spores thin-walled. The
downy mildew of the grape (/'. viiicuta. Fig. 1) belongs here.
It attacks the leaves, yuuiig twigs, ami berries, and is often
liannfnl.
Uremia. — Conidiophores dichotomously much branched ;
conidia germinating by an apical tube. The single species
is the lettuce mildew (li. lacluim), which attacks garden let-
tuce and many wild plants related to it.
Peroiiospura. — (.'onidiopliores dicliotomonsly much
branched; conidia germinating by a lateral tube. Radish
mildew {P. paraxilica) attacks the leaves and tlowers of
radishes (often greatly enlarging and distorting the latter),
and many other crucifers. The so-called onion rust is a
downy mildew (P. schleideni) which attacks and tlestroys the
leaves.
The Powdery Mildews consist of delicate, white, septate
threads which grow upon the epidermis of higher plants,
here ami there sending out a short " sucker " which pene-
trates the epidermal cells. Many vertical branches are
Flo. *. — rurliciri of a lent arf.'.-i.'a \viTri priwa-Tv rnilil^^w. showing
threads on the epidermis : a, conidia ; 6, 'sporocarps.
produced, which break up into spores, whose great numbers
give a white powdery appearance to the surface (Figs. 2 and
3). These spores (summer spores, or conidia), which are
Fio. 3.— a, conidia of powderv mildew <Kryitiphe (frnminiii) : ft. spo-
rocarpof ohtTPi" mildew i'T\i{toxphfrrii <>.rvroTi//irr) : r, sporoenrp
of lilac miUWw' i yfirrn.tphtrra ahii) ; fi, same ruptured, all mas:-
nifled about IflO limes.
capable of quick germinnlii>n, soon produce more mildew
upon unaffected areas, and thus rapidly spread the parasite.
A little later the globular fruits (sporocarps) are produced,
within which are the long-lived sac-spores (Fig. 3, (/), which
live through the winter and thus propagate the parasite the
next season.
Tliere are somewhat more than 100 species, distributed
among half a dozen genera, as follows:
£'/-^x//;/(('.—.Spore-.sacs several; appendages simple threads.
Abundantly reproscnti-d by the pea niihlew (A', communin),
often destructive to gai-den peas, attacking both leaves and
pods, and the powdery mildew of composites and verbenas
(E. cichoracearum). frequently very injurious to cultivated
verbenas, sunflowers, asters, etc.
Unciniila. — Spore-sacs several ; appendages coiled at the
tip. Grape leaves and fruits are often seriouslv injured by
the powdery grape mildew (f. /leca/or), which is probably
the same narasite !is that known in Europe as Oidium tuck-
eri. Maple-leaves are often attacked bv a siiecies ( U. actris),
and willows by another (U. salicis).
Jlicronphwra. — Spore-sacs several ; appendages dichoto-
mously Iji-anched at the tip. Most commonlv represented
by the lilac mildew (.1/. alni. Fig. 3, c), which covers the
leaves in autumn with a dirtv white mould-like growth. It
attacks also honeysuckles, elms, walnuts, and many other
trees and shrubs.
Phyllactinia. — Spore-sacs several; appendages needle-
shaped. Represented in the U. S. by but one sjiecies (/'.
stiffuUa), the powdery mildew of magnolias, hawthorns,
ashes, elms, birches, alders, hazels, beeches, etc.
Sphnrolheca. — Spore-sac single; appendages simple
threads. The hop mildew (S. humuUs) is often destructive
in hop-fields. Rose mildew (S. pannosa) is frequentlv
troublesome in greenhouses, appearing as a white powdery
growth upon the leaves. Aiiutlior species (S. mors-uva) i&
the powdery mildew of the gooseberry.
Podosphwra. — Spore-sac single ; appendages dichotomous-
ly branched at the tip. The principal species in the U. S.
is P. ojri/rantftrp (Fig. 3, b), the powdery mildew of cherrj-,
plum, and apple leaves, which is especiaUy harmful to young
trees.
Various remedies and preventives have been used for the
mildews with more or less success. The fumes of sulphur
are effective for the powdery mildews. Spraying with am-
moniacal copper carbonate, or some of the copper suljihate
solutions (Bordeaux mixture, can celeste, etc.), has been
found effective in both the powdery and the downy mildews.
Charles E. Bessev.
Mile [0. Eng. mil, from Lat. milia. millia, mile, deriv.
of mil le {pa'suur»).ii thousand (paces); cf. Germ, meile, Fr.
mille]: the name for a great number of lineal measures,
each remotely derived from the Roman mile. Among the
principal miles are the following :
English and V. S. statute mile = 1-
Roman mile = -9193
English nautical or geographical mile = M53
German, four English nautical miles = 4-611
Scotch mile =: 1-127
Irish mile = 1-273
German short mile z= 3-897
long " =5-7J5;l
Prussian mile = 4-6H0
Danish " =4-684
Swedish " = 6648
The geographical mile is one minute of the earth's equator.
Our statute mile was fixed in yueeii Elizabeth's time at
5,280 feet, and has not since been changed.
Revised by S. Newcomb.
Milplli, mee-lerie"e, DoMENiro: poet ; b. at Catanzaro, in
Calabria, Italy, in 1!S41. Destined f.ir the priesthuod, he
turned aside to literature, and that of the most pagan kind.
In ist>4 he wrote an oile to I'go Foscolo, which was trans-
lated into English, and then back into Italian by a writer
ignorant of its origin. The list of his poetical' works is
Uuig: In (/lomip'ja (1873): Oinmndn (ls^4); Jlirmalia
(1874) ; ()d\ /)n<7flrnf (I87!l) ; Pnierld (187!t) ; Itifcrrpla (18,sl);
// rapimento di Elena (18W2); Caiizniiirre (1,SS4|; \'eide
nnlico (cla.ssical translations, 188.'>). He has also iniblished
under the pseudonym I'oiite di Lara a Ixiok of Jiimt that
has been very popular. lie is one of the most extreme
of the so-called I criWi'. and many of his utterances have
brought upon him the severest denunciations. A. R. M.
Milps. Xelsov Appletos: soldier; b. at Waehusettvillc,
Ma»., Aug. 8, 183'J; entered the volunteer service as cap-
756
MILET DE MUREAU
MILICZ OF KliEMSIER
tain in the Twenty-second 3Iassaehusctts Volunteers Sept.,
1861 ; was distinguished at Fair Oaks and at Malvern Hill ;
became adjutant-general of a brigade; was ajipointed Sept.
30, 1862, colonel Sixty-tirst New York Volunteers, which
he commanded at Fredericksburg; was severely wounded
at Chancellorsville ; was appointed brigadier-general 3Iay
12,1864; was distinguished in the Kichmond campaign of
186-1; appointed brevet major-general Aug., 1864: major-
general of volunteers Oct., 186.5; colonel of Fortieth In-
fantry U. S. army .July 28, 1866: transferred to the Fifth
Infantry Mar. l'>, 1869, and conimis.sioned brevet brigadier
and brevet major-general U. S. army Mar. 2, 1867; briga-
dier-general U. S. army Ucc, 1880 ; major-general Apr. 5,
1890. Me commanded several military departments, and
lias distinguished himself by his success in suppressing Ind-
ian outbreaks. He was in command of the U. .S. troops sta-
tioned in Chicago during the riots in .July, 1894. tin Oct. 5,
1895, assumed command of the army. Jamks JIekcur.
Milet de Mlirpau, mc'e lii de-mii ro', Lons Marie An-
TOINE Destouff, Bai-on : soldier and statesman ; b. at Tou-
lon, France, .June 26, 17-56, of a noble family from Lorraine;
entered the army in 1771, and was made a captain in 1779.
As a member of the States-General he usually voted with
the right, but returned soon to active service as commander
of the artillery of the army of Italy. In 1792 he was called
to Paris to edit the journals of I'erouse, and performed the
task with great ability ( Voyage de la Perouse autour du
monde pendant hs annees 17S5-8S, Paris, 1797-98, 4 vols,),
thovigh it presented peculiar difficidties, as the revolution-
ary government wanted the text changed in favor of the
Revolution. In 1799 he was for a short time Minister of
War, during the empire prefect of the department of Cor-
reze, and under the Restoration president of the board of
administration of the Hotel des Jnvalidos. Napoleon re-
fused to give him any command, but made him a baron.
D. in Paris, May 6, 182.").
Mile'tns (in Gr. Mi'a.7)tos) : one of the most flourishing
cities of Ionia, on the Sinus Latmicus, opposite to the mouth
of the Meander. It existed as a town at the time when the
Greeks planted their first colonies in Asia Minor; but on
the arrival of the lonians under Neleus all the male citi-
zens of the ancient population (Cariaus or Leleges) were
massacred. Miletus soon became one of the most powerful
maritime and commercial places of the Mediterranean. It
monopolized the trade of the Euxine ; it sent its vessels
into the Atlantic; it formed a great number of prosperous
colonies, such as Abydos and Lampsacus on the Hellespont,
Cyzicus on the Propontis, Sinope and Araisus on the Eux-
ine, and others in Thrace, the Crimea, and on the Borys-
thenes. It continued to flourish under the Lydian and
Persian rule, liut after its unsuccessful revolt against Per-
sia in .500 B. c. under IIisti.eus (q. v.), its strength was bro-
ken. Darius treated it with great severity. Most of the
inhabitants were massacred, and the rest were transported
to Ami)e, at the mouth of the Tigris. The place was then
given up to the Carians; and when the Persians were com-
pelled, 479 B. c, to retire from the coast of Asia Minor, it
revived. It gave some signs of life during the Peloponne-
sian war by throwing oft the Athenian yoke; it afterward
attempted to resist Alexander the Great, and continued a
place of commercial consequence nntil deslroved by the
Turks. Its site is now occupied by Halat or Palattia, described
as '• a fever-stricken place." See Rayet and Thomas, Milet
et le Oolfe La/mifjue (Paris, 1877). ' J. R. .S. S.
Miley, .lonx, I). D., LL. V>. : minister and educator ; b. in
Butler CO., O., l)ec. 25, 1813; educated at Augusta College,
Kentucky; entered the Methodist Kpiscoiial ministry in
1838; was pastor 1838-48; professor in W esleyan Female
College, Cincinnati, 1848-50; pastor 1850-73; and Professor
of Systematic Theology in Drew Theological Seminary since
1873. He has published 7'lie. Alnnemeni in Cliriiit (18fO) and
Systematic Theology (2 vols., 1892-94). J. F. II.
Milfoil : See Yarrow.
Milford : town (origihally known as Wepowage, site pur-
chased from the Indians Feb. 13, 1639, settlement independ-
ent till 1643, then merged into the colony of New JIaven):
New Haven co.. Conn, (for location of e'oinity, see map of
Connecticut, ref. 12-F); on Long Island Sound at the
mouth of the Wopewaug river, and the N. Y., N. II. and
Hart. Railroad; 10 miles S. W. of New Haven. It contains
5 churches, public high school, Klmwood School for boys
(opened 1884), lyceunrwith library (founded 1858), soldiers'
moiuiment (dedicated 1888), 2 ancient burying-grounds,
and a savings-bank. At the 2.50tli ainiiversary of its settle-
ment (1889) a memorial bridge across the river at the head '
of the gorge, built of granite, with a tower, and granite
blocks inscribed with the names of early settlers on its cop-
ings, was <ledicated. The industries of the town comprise
the manufacture of shoes, straw hats, fish oil. and bone fer-
tilizers, and the cultivation of oysters. Pop. (1880) 3,347;
(1890) 3,811.
Milford : town (founded in 1794) ; Kent co., Del. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Delaware, ref. 5-N); on both
sides of the Mispillion river, and on the Phila., Wil. and
Bait. Railroad; 96 miles S. of Philadelphia. It is in an
agricultural, fruit-growing, and fruit-curing region ; is a
ship])ing-point for general produce; contains 0 churches. 3
public schools, a prej)aratory school, and 3 weekly newspa-
pers, and has consiih^rable ship-building interests. Poji.
(1880) 1,240; (1890) 1,226.
Editor of " Peni.vsular News and Advertiser."
Milford : town : Worcester co., Mass. (for location of
county, see map of Massachusetts, ref. 3-F) ; on the Charles
river, and the Boston and Albany, the Grafton and Upton,
and the N. Y. and N. E. railways ; 30 miles S. W. of Bos-
ton. It is one of the largest boot and shoe manufacturing
centers in the U. S., and has, besides, manufactories of ma-
chinery and straw and cotton goods. There are 2 initional
banks with combined cajjital of $385,000, a savings-bank, a
public library (founded 1858), and 2 didly and 3 weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 9,310 ; (1890) 8.780 ; (1895) 8,959.
Editor of "Journal."
Milford: village (settled in 1833); Oakland co., Mich.
(for location of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 7-K) ; on
the Huron river, and the Flint and Pere Marij. Railroad ;
43 miles N. W. of Detroit. It is in an agricultural region ;
has good water-power and manufactories of foundry prod-
ucts and farming implements, and contains 4 churches, 2
public schools, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1.251 ;
(1890) 1,138; (1894) 1,226. Editor of "Times."
Milford : town (incorporated in 1794); Hillsborough co.,
N. II. (lor location of county, see map of New Hampshire,
ref. 10-E): on the Boston and Maine Railroad; 50 miles
N. W. of Boston. It is in a granite-quarrying and dairy-
ing region ; contains a high school, public library (founded
1868), a national Ijank with capital of .$100,000. "a savings-
bank, and a weekly newspaper, and manufactui-es hosiery,
knitting cotton, picture and mirmr frames, and furniture.
It is a popular summer resort. Pop. (1880) 2,39H; (1890)
3,033. Editor of "Farmers' Cabinet."
Milford Haven : a deep inlet of the Atlantic, on the
southwest coa^t of Wales (see map of England, ref. 12-B).
It is about 15 miles in length; average width 3 miles; has
deeji water, and is one of the best ports of the British do-
minions.
Millian, mee'lo', or Millail : town ; in the department of
Avevron, Prance; on the Tarn, half a mile below the influ.x
of the Dourbie (see map of France, ref. 8-F). It is beauti-
fully situated, surrounded with picturescpio hills covered
with vincyarcls and forests. It has large tanneries and
manufactures of gloves, and carries on a considerable trade
in leather, wool, and timber. During the religious wars it
was one of the chief strongholds of the Calvinists, but its
castle was demolished by Jjouis XIII. Pop. (1891) 16,181.
Miliary Fever: See Sweating Sickness.
Milicevif. mil-i-chev'ich, Milan: author; b. at Ripanj,
near Belgrade, Servia, May 7, 1831 ; studied theology ; be-
came a teacher in 1850, obtained a state ollice in 1852,
and was ajipointed secretary to the Servian Minister of
Education in 1861. He has published important geo-
graphical and ethnological ww'ks: Kiijezex'ina Srbia (The
Principality of Servia, Belgrade, 1876); 2irot Srba set-. il
jaka^ (Servian Peasant Life; in the Glasnik. 1867 and 1873);
Selo Zlonelica, etc. (Belgrade. 1880) ; The Jiingdoin of Ser-
xda (Belgrade, 1884) ; also some stories of Servian life, Jiir-
mvna i Fatima, etc., and Zimnje veferi (V\'intcr Evenings,
Relgrade, 1879). In 1865 he translated llilferding's P/.s-ma
ob iMorii Serliov i Bolgnr (Notes on the History of the Ser-
vians and the Bulgarians). J. J. Kral.
MilifZ of Krenisipr: reformer; one of the most influ-
ential precursors of Huss; b. at Kremsier, a village near
Olmutz, in Moravia, in the beginning of the fourteenth
century, probably in 1325. In 1350 he took holy orders; in
MILITARY ACADEMIES
ti>i
l.*?6fl he was mailn canon of tlif Catlipilnil of St. Vitus, in
rruf:Me, anil in the same year he wa.s a|i|Miiiileil secretary to
the Emperor Charles IV., whom he aceonipanied to Ger-
many. In l:i(i:i lie resi{jneii all his posilions, retired U)
some lonely plaee in the Bohemian torest, ami then re-
turneil to l'rai;iii', where he lie;;an lo pnadi to the i>oi)r
people in the slreet,s — not in l.alin, Imt in ISohemian. ile
cau.*eil a ftreat sensation, as a sermipii in the native tonpiie
was at that time somethiiiff altogether unheard of, l)ut he
also made a deep impression : and he aetually sueoeedeil in
clcaniti!; out one of the most obnoxious streets of l*ra;;ue,
the lieuatki, and induein<; the fallen women who had in-
habited it to enter the eliarilable institution called the Je-
rusalem, which he had established for their liiiietil. It
soon bejian, however, to dawn upon him th:it the roof nf
the evil was in the Church herself — in her corruption, in her
vices — and it gradually became clear lo him that Antichrist
hatl come, and that radical and .sweeping; reforms were in-
dispensable. In i;i67 he repaired to Kome to confer with
the pope; but when he announced, by a placard on the
gate of St. I'eter's. that he was going to preach on the pres-
ence of Antichrist, he was arrested by the lnc|uisition. lie
was, however, soon after releiused and allowed to return to
I'rague by L'rban V., who treated him with great kindness.
FnjMi l;!(i!l to ViTi he again preacheil in Prague, but in the
latter year dissensions arose between him and his brother-
priests in I'ragne, and they formally accused him of heresy
before the pone. He was summoned to Avignon to defend
himself, which he did successfully, but he died there, before
the verdict was announced, June 2i>, 1374. His Libellua de
Antichristo is still extant. Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Military .\oa<lpinips: academies for training men for
service as military ollicers. As they now exist they are of
(piite mo<lern origin. In mo.lern times many circumstances
have combined to make war far more a nnitter of science
and skill, and less a matter of brute force and courage, than
formerly. Hence the great neiressity for a thorough [irepa-
ration of ollicers. upon whose character and ability the re-
sults of war, with all its momentous consequence.s, must
very greatly depend. .Xs the peculiar instructnm and train-
ing reipiired can not be furnishi'd by the ordinary eiluca-
tional institutions, special schools have been judged neces-
sary, and have been carefully organized by the mo.'it en-
lightened nations. Only the principal military schools of
some of the great military powers are here noticed.
(treat Britain. — 1. flir liiii/al Mililan/ Acndemi/ at
Woolwich, instituted in 1741, for the purpose of educating
candidates lor commissions in the artillery and engineers.
The education is chielly technical. Admissi<m is by open
competitive examinations, conducted by the civil servi<'e
commissioners. The candidates pa.<sa preliminary examina-
tion in mathe?natics. French or (ierman, English writing
and composition, geometrical drawing, and geography,
after which they pass the decisive examination in the fol-
lowing subjects: I. Mathematias (compulsory), mechanics,
analytical geometry, conic sections, Latin, French, German
(optional). 11. (ireek, English history, physics, chemistry
or physical geography, and geology. III. English compii-
sition, free-hand and geometrical drawing. The candidates
select only four of the subjects in group I., ami one in group
II., taking all of group III. .\ge of admission, sixteen lo
eighte^'ii years. The course of instruction lasts two yeaiv,
and embraces mathematics, fort ilicat ion, artillery, military
drawing and reconnoissance, French or German, elementary
chemistry and physics, drills, and exercises: certain volun-
tary subjects being allowed to be taken up at the option of
the student. At the end of the first year the courses of the
engineers and artillery are conducteJl separately, the high-
est choosing the engineers. The cadets pay an annual con-
tribution, which, however, is not the same for all, being
greatest for sons of civilians, less for sons of military and
naval ollicers, and least for s<ins of decea-sed ollicers whose
families are in pecuniary distress: the rpieen's cadets j>ay
nothing. At present there are 202 cadets anil about thirty
professors ami instructors, besides the governor and his
.staff. On grailuation the cadets are commissioned lieiiteAi-
ants in the engineers or artillery.
2. The /{<ii/al MiUlnri/ Cnlliye at Sandhurst, instituted
in 1711!). for the purpose of affording a spo-ial military edu-
cation to candidates for commissions in the cavalry and in-
fantry. Admission is as for the Koyul Military Academy,
and the preliminary entrance examination is quite the sjime.
The decisive entrance e.xainiiiation includes the following
subjects: I. Malliematies, Latin, German, French. II.
English history, (ireek, higher mathematics, physics, chem-
istry or magnetism and heat, physical geography and geol-
ogy. III. English composition, free-hand and geometrical
drawing. The candidates select three of the subjects in
group I., one in group II., taking all of HI. Age of admis-
sion seventeen to twenty years. The course is one year, and
embraces military ailministralion, army organization, minor
tactics, fortification, military reconnoissance. drill, riding,
and gymnastics. The caiiets pay an annual contribution,
varying in amount, as in the Royal Military .Academy. The
number of students is now :i(X), with about thirty professors
and instructors, in addition to the staff of governinent. On
graduation the cadets are commissioned lieutenants in the
cavalrv or infantry.
'A. i'he >Staff College at Sandhurst, organized in 1858, is
for the instruction of officers in the duties of the staff of an
army. Admission is wholly by competitive examination,
open to officers of all arms of ihe service, including artil-
leiy and engineers. Candidates must have served five years,
have certain certificates from their superiors, and be under
thirty-seven years of age. The subjects of the competitive
examination are mathematics, military history and geog-
raphy, French, (ierman (for officers of the Indian staff corps,
Russian or Hindustani), and fortification, military draw-
ing, and minor tactics: mathematics, one language, mili-
tary topography, and minor tactics arc obligatory ; the re-
maining subjects are at the option of the candidate. The
course lasts two years, and einliraces fortification and artil-
lery, topography and reconnoissance. military history and
geography, military a<lministration and law, French, (jer-
man, or Russian (one language only), lectures in applied
sciences (voluntary), riding. Much time is devoted to i)rac--
tical outdoor work, including orientation and tactical dis-
cussions. The number of students is sixtv-four. with fifteen
jirofessors and instructors, exclusive of the staff of govern-
ment. Upon graduation the officers are assigneil to staff
duly (in some arm other than their own) for four months in
the camp at Alder.shot, after which they return to their or-
dinary regimental duties, and are available for assignment
to staff duty.
4. Great Britain has also the Royal ilititnry College of
Canada (Kingston), the Royal Srhonl of JJilitary Engineer-
ing at Chatham, the Adranced Class of Artillery Officers at
Woolwich, the School nf Gunnery at Shoeburyness, and the
School of Musketry at Hythc.
France. 1. The Pal ytechnic School at Paris. — This cele-
brated school was founded in 1794, but received its or-
ganic law in 17!)!) from La Place, then Minister of the In-
terior under Napoleon. It is a scientific .school, giving a
preparatory education for several branches of the public
service — viz., the engineers, artillery, and staff, the depart-
ment of powder anil SJilt[)eter, the navy and marine artil-
lery, the naval architects, the hydrographical engineers, the
corps of roads and bridges [pouts et chaiissees). the corps of
mines, the telegraph department, the tobacco department,
and for other branches requiring an extensive knowledge of
mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Admission is wholly
by competitive examinalion. Age of admission, sixteen to
twenty-one years, or, if in the army, not over twentv-five
years. The candidate must have the degre<' of bachelor of
science or of bachelor of literature, and is examined in
F'rench, resolution of triangles, figure and color drawings,
algebra and analytical geometry, descriptive geometry, phys-
ics and chemistry, and German. The course lasts two years,
and embraces analysis, descriptive geometry and stereotomy,
mechanics and machines, physics, chemistry, astronomy,
geodesy, architecture and public works, topography, military
art and fortification, composition and French literature.
German, history, figure, landscape, and color drawing. The
number of pupils is about 520, with about 40 professors an<l
instructors, exclusive of the staff of government. Pupils
pay a certain amount annually, but aid is given by Ihe state
to those needing it. On graduation, those who enter the
army or navy are commissioned s«'cond lieutenants.
2. The Sfiecinl Military School at St.-Cyr (or^ninized in
1808) is intended for the instruction of those destined to be-
come officers of infantry, cavalry, and the marine corns.
Age of admission. s<>venteen to twenty-one, whether in tne
army or not. Admission is wholly by compt>titive examina-
tion in the loUowijig subjects — viz.. arithmetic, algebra and
plane trigonometry, geometry, descriptive peonietry, me-
chanics, cosmography, physics, history, geography, (ierman,
English (volnntary). Candidates must have the degree o{
758
MILITARY ACADEMIES
bachelor of science or of literature. The course of study
lusts two years, embracing topography, fortification, legisla-
tion and administration, artillery, military history and mi-
nor tactics, geography, and military exercises. There are
jibout 1)50 pupils, with 43 professors and instructors, and 26
military olliccrs of instruction in drill, etc., exclusive of the
staft of government and administration. On graduation
those who pass are commissioned second lieutenants, the
rest complete their service in the ranks.
3. The Superior War School in Paris, instituted as the
Staff School in 1808, reorganized in 1875 for the inirpose of
educatnig otTicers in the duties of the general staff. The
candidates are lieutenants or captains of the army (excep-
tionally also of the nuirinc corps or naval artillery), who
have served at least five years, without limit as to age. Ad-
mission is by competitive examination in the following sub-
jects: Army organization and military history, minor tactics,
German, administration, artillery, fortification, geography,
topography and riding, inclmling a written solution of a
problem iii minor tactics, and one in administration, and a
topographical map. The nours'3 is two years, embracing
military history, strategy aud tactics, applied tactics, general
stalf duty, administration, fortification, telegraphy, geodesy,
geologv, "topography, and hygiene. There are now about 163
pupils,' with 25 instructors and profi'ssors, and 8 visiting lec-
tui'ers, besides the director and his staff.
4. France has also the School of Artillery and Engineers
at Fontainebleau, the Cavalry School at Saumur, the IMili-
tary Orphan School at La Flechc, the Medical School in
Paris, the School of Military Hygiene at Lyons, the Oytn-
nastic School at Joinville-le-Pont, the School of Musketry
at Chalons, the Infantry School at St.-j\laixent, the Artillery
and Engineer School (tor non-commissioned officers) and
the 3Iilitary Administration School at Versailles.
Prussia. 1. The Cadet Schools. — There are seven of these
schools — viz., a senior cadet school at Lichterlelde, near Ber-
lin, and six junior cadet schools, preparatory to the senior,
situated at Potsdam, Culm, Wahlstatt, Bensberg, Ploen, and
Oranienstein. Their purpose is to educate and train youths,
particularly for the military service, thus insuring a supply
ot efficient officers for the army. Admission is by examina-
tion, not competitive, but fixed for every particular age.
The classes ot the jutiior schools are arranged to correspond
to a Real scho(.)l, with the classes sexta, quinta, quarta, lower
tertia, upper tertia, the ages of the |.iupils ranging from ten
to fifteen years; candidates may enter any one of these
classes. The full course in the junior schools is five years,
and embraces religion, German, Latin, French, English,
mathematics, physics, history, geography, natural liistory,
drawing, and writing. On graduation the pupils enter the
senior cadet school. The full course at the latter is five
years, with the classes lower secunda. upper secunda, lower
jirima, upjier prima, and selocta. The course embraces re-
ligion, Gernuin, Latin, French, English, mathematics, his-
tory, physics, chemistry, drawing, writing ; and in the selecta
military sciences (ordnance, minor tactics, fortification, to-
pography, drawing, and service duties) and French. Those
who complete the upper secunda may pass the ensign exam-
ination at once, or enter the selecta (if sufficiently developed
Ijhysically) or the [irima (if not) ; those who fail enter the
army in the ranks. Those who complete the lower prima
pass the ensign exanunation, or enter the selecta or up|ier
jprima. Those who complete the upper jirima take the
graduating examination aud enter a war school. TIk' gradu-
ates of the selecta may pass the officers' examination with-
out attending a war school. In each junior school there are
about 200 piqiils, and in the senior school over 800. ('adets
in all these schools pay a certain sum, but state aid is given
as circumstaiutes require it.
2. The War Schools. — These schools are eight in immber,
situated at Glogau. Potsdam, Neisse, Kngers, (/'assel, Ilan-
over, Anclam, and i\Ietz, and are designed for 1 he instruction
of those intended for officers of all arms. The conditions
for entrance are the commission of ensign (officer aspirant),
five months' service with troops, and not over 24| years of
age. The ctoursc ot instruction lasts nine <ir ten months,
and is subdivided into a theoretical and a practical course:
the former (limited to the forenoon) embraces tactics, forti-
fication, science of arms, military surveying and drawing,
and military correspondence: the latter (generally in the
afternoon tlu'onghout the course) embraces drill, gymnastics,
swimming, fenciirg. riding, musketry practice, and service
duties. The pn]iils who ]iass tlic graduating (officers') ex-
amination are commissioned second lieutenants.
3. The Tr«r Academy in Berlin. This is designed to fur-
nish an education in the liigher branches of military science
to offic^ers of the army, to prepare them lor general staff duty,
and to furiush a supply of well-trained ofiicers for the higher
comnuinds. Admission is by competitive examination, open
to all officers who have served three years with troojps (with-
out limit as to raid< or age), and who are characterized on
their qualification lists as good duly officers with troops, in
sound health, of established character, studious in habit,
and free from pecuniary difficulties. The entrance exami-
nation includes minor tactics, ordnance, fortification, sur-
veying, history, geography, algebra, geonu'ti'y, and French.
The course lasts three year.s, and embraces minor tactics,
ordnance, fortification, geodesy, general history, general,
physical and military geograpliy, matlienuitics, history of
strategy, physics, military history, military administration,
surveying, general staff duty, chemistry, military liygiene,
militarv law, history of literature, sieges, French, and Rus-
sian. Part of the course is voluntary. Practical instruction
in the field is also given, particularly during yearly rides of
instruction in minor tactics, surveying, general staff duty,
etc. There are about 300 jiupils. During the vacaticms, at
the end of the first and second years, the officers are detailed
on general staff duty in arms other than their own, and on
graduation they return to their own regiments, being after-
ward selected for the general staff as required, lieutenants
being promoted to captains out of turn.
4. Prussia has also an Artillery and Engineer School at
Charlottenberg, near Berlin, a Military Hiding School at
Hanover, a School of Musketry at Spandau, a School of
Gunnery at Tegel, near Berlin, and two medical schools in
Berlin.
Austria, Russia, Italy, Spain, and other powers have their
systems of military schools, of which those of Austria and
Russia ai-e noticeable.
The UNrrED States. 1. The 3Iilitary Academy at West
Point, N. Y. The conception of a military academy in the
U. S. dates back to 17T6, when a committee was appointed
by the Continental Congress to "prepare and brnig in a
plan of a military academy at the army." No further ac-
tion appears to have been taken. Washington invited the
attention of Congress to the subject in 1793, and in 1790
recommended the institution of a military academy. The
result was, finally, the act of Mar. 16. 1802, founding the
Jlilitary Academy. Between 1S02 and 1812 there were in all
only six instructors at West Point, of whom only from two
to four were present at the same time, and there were only
eighty-nine graduates. The uniform of the cadets, nearly
the same as now worn, was prescribed by a general order in
1816.
Although owing much to the efforts of its two first superin-
tendents, and especially to Col. Jonathan Williams, the real
initiation of the academy, as it has since been, dates from
the apiiointment ot Brevet Major (afterward Gen.) Sylvanus
Thayer of the Corps of Engineers, who assumed command
July 28. 1817. He established the office of commandant of
cadets ; introduced the division ot classes into sections, trans-
fers between the sections, and weekly class reports showing
weekly i>rogress. and by a system of daily maAs indicating
the individual progress of cadets. The check-book control-
ling the cx|ienscs of the cadets, the extensive use of the black-
lioard, and the essential parts of the regulations now govern-
ing the academy are due to him. Ten months of the year
were allotted to academic <luties. and two months to those of
camp. He inculcated by precept and exanqile that spirit of
devotion to duty and unquestioning. ]irompt obedience to
lawful authority which still distinguish the graduate of West
Point.
hi the a|)pointment of cadets it has been admitted as a
jirinciple that the sons of those who have lost their lives in
the defense of the nation should have preference. The cus-
tom of appointing cadets from districts naturally arose in
accordance with the tendency todislribulo all appointments
under the general Government in |iroporlion to representa-
tion, and was converted into a law in 1S43. The numthly
pav of cadets wiis )f28 iu 1803, .f24 in 1845, .^30 in 18,-)7, in
1864 about $50; the pay in 1885 was $540 a year. A board
of visitors, to attend the annual examinations and report on
the condition of the Academy, provided for in 18H) l)y regu-
lation from the War Department, was first assembled after
Maj. Thayer becauu' superintendent. Discontinued by the
act of 1843, it was iigain authorized by act of Aug. 8. 1846,
the nuiuibers to be selected by the President from half the
number ot Slates arunuilly, altermiting with the other half;
MILITARY ACAUKMIKS
MILITIA
759
the number of members wns reduccfl to seven in 1868 ; nnil
to this number were atldcd in 1870 two Senators and three
membei-s of the House of Kepresentiitives, to bo rtesifjnated
respectively by the President of the .Senate and tlie Siieaker
of the House. The a^^retrale amount appropriated from
1864 to 1884 WHS $6,180,:i;il.07 ; from IMH.j to 18!I'.> (botli
inclusive). *:i.',>87.7(X).;Jl ; the largest bcinj: that for 18!»0,
which was 4l"'2,7CGO!l, and included the appropriation for
a new gymnasiuui and a new academic buildiufj.
Present Orgdnizatiun. — The general commanding the
army ha-s, under the War Department, supervision and
charge of the academy. The stuff of government and in-
struction consists of (1) the superinlen<lent,* directing the
studies and exercises, and exercising command over all per-
sons belonging to the academy, and commanding the mili-
tary post. The military staff includes an adjutant, quarter-
master, commissary of subsistence, trea-surer, surgecin, and
assistant surgeon. (3) The commandant of cadets, an ollicer
of the army, who is the instructor of artillery, infantry, and
cavalry tactics, and is charged with tlie discii)liiie and ad-
ministration, and commands the battalion of cadets. He
ha-s eight aj^sistants, likewise army ollicers. (;i) Seven com-
missioned professoi-s, one professor detailed from the judge-
advocates of the array, an instructor of practical military
engineering, and an instructor of ordnance and gunnery,
taken respectively from the Engineer and Ordnance Corps ;
these (the superintendent and commandant included) con-
stitute the academic board. There are about forty-three
assistant professors and instructors, including those in tac-
tics, and one swordma-ster. Kxcept seven professors, all offi-
cers and instructors of the academy are officers of the army
detailed for the duty, usually for a period of four years.
The academic board examines candidates for admission and
cadets, recommends text-books, maps, models, etc., draws
up programmes of instruction, etc., grants diplomas, etc.
For the purpose of discipline and tactical instructi<m the
cadets are organized as a battalion of four companies, each
under the supervision of an instructor of tactics, willi offi-
cers and non-commissioned officers selected from the cadets
themselves. Usually cadet officers are selected from the first
class,! sergeants from the second class, and corporals from
the third class. There are also a cadet adjutant, quarter-
master, sergeant-major, and quartermaster-sergeant. The
position of cadet otlicei-s affects their relation to other cadets
only when on duty as officers.
Adminsion. — Eacli congressional district and Territory
and the District of Columbia are entitled to have one cadet
at the academy. The ap|)ointments are made by the Sec-
retary of War at the reipiest of the Representative or dele-
gate in Congress from the district or Territory, of which
the person appointed must be an actual resident. The
President also appoints ten cadets at large. Candidates
must be between seventeen and twenty-two years of age, at
least 5 feet in height, and free from anv infectious or im-
moral disorder, and from anything wliicli may render them
unfit for military service. They must be well versed in
reading, writing, and orthography, arithmetic, elements of
English grammar, descriptive geography, particularly of
America, and history of the U. S. Those admitted ,are re-
quired to sign articles binding themselves to serve the L'. S.
eight years from date of admission, unless sooner discharged.
An oath of allegiance to the U. S. is also required.
The coiirne of kIiiiIi/ embraces the follciwing subjects : (1)
Infantry, artillery, and cavalry tactics and military police
and discipline; (2) mathennitics, including algebra, geom-
etry, trigonometry, mensuration and surveying, descriptive
geometry, analytical geometrv, ilifferential and integral cal-
culus ; (;i, 4, and 5) F^nglish, P'rencli, and Spanish languages ;
(6) drawing, comprising topography, with pencil, ink, and
colors, etc. ; (7) heat, chemistry, elect riiily, mineralogy, and
geology; (8) natural ami experimental |>hilosophy, com-
prising mechanics with up|ilieations, acoustics, optics, and
astronomy; (!)) ordnance and gunnery; (10) history, geog-
raphy, and ethics; (11) law, including general principles,
international law. Constitution of the L". S., etc.. Rules and
Articles of War, courts martial ; (12) practical militarv en-
gineering, etc.; (i:?) military and civil engineering and the
science of war. By a system of nnuuTical marks the pro-
• Up to .Iiilv 3-3. 1%6. tlie RiiperintenOfnt vras nn ofHoer of enjji-
npers, of wliirti corps tiie ni'adt'iny irself formeii part, liy tli** act
of that (late ttie siipiTintctnlciiry was ttirown open tu all bruuclies of
the service. See LNtiiNEEiis, (.'orps of.
+ Tile classes are numbered iu inverse order of the years of their
serrice at the academy —that moat recently entered being the fourtli,
etc.
ficicncy of a cadet's daily recitations is measured ; and tliese
are taken into account in making up the merit rolls iu each
branch, as well as in the general class standing.
Discipline is very strict — more so than in the army, and
probably than in any other similar inslitutiun. The aim
IS to inculcate habits of prompt and cheerful obedience to
lawful authority, of neatness, onler, and regularitv, and of
thoughtfulncss and attention in the discharge of duty. A
scrupulous regard for one's word is also required. The
system of punishment fur rjlfenses is remarkable for in-
flexible enforcement rather than for severity. Uesides de-
merit marks, which count in making up the cla.ss stand-
ing, cadets are further liable to three classes of punishment :
(1) privation of recreation, etc., extra duty, reprimands,
arre.^ts. or confinement to room or tent or in the light prison,
reduction to ranks of officers and non-commissioned offi-
cers ; (2) confiiienienl in dark prison ; (3) suspension, dis-
mission with the privilege of resigning, public dismission.
Punishments of the first cla.ss are inflicted by the superin-
tenilent or with his approval; that of the second class by
sentence of a court martial, except in case of mutinous con-
duct or breach of arrest. Jlonthly statements of conduct
and progress in studies are sent to parents or guardians.
Upon graduating, the class is divided by the academic
board into three sections of varying and unequal numbers,
according to cla.ss-rank ; the highest, usually very small and
sometimes wanting, is recommended for promotion in any
corps in the army: the second, for any corps except the
engineers; the third, in any corps except the engineers and
the artillery. Commissions for tne rank of second lieutenant
arc then usually conferred by the President in accordance
with these recommendations.
2. The U. S. has also the Engineer School at Willets Point,
N. Y., the Artillery School at Fort Monroe, Va., the In-
fantry and Cavalry School at Fort Leavenworth. Kan., the
Light Artillery and I'avalry School at Fort Riley, Kan.,
and the War College at Newport, R. I. .loil.v P. WissER.
.Military Discipline, Military Engiueering, etc. : See
DlSCIl'LlXE, E.VOIXEKRIXU, etc.
Military Law: See Marti.il L.tw and Court Martial.
Military Orders: See Knight, Knights Templar, etc.
Militia f= Lat. military service, soldiery, deriv. of miles,
mi litis, soldier] : that portion of the military strength of a
nation enrolled for discipline and instruction, but local in
its organization, and engaged in active service only in cases
of emergency. Originally the term was synonymous with
the cognate derivative " military," as embracing the whole
body of national troops, whether embodied for actual serv-
ice or relegated to industrial pursuits. It is the organized
national reserve in contradistinction to the regular army
and the levee en masse of a country, and therefore compre-
hends the '• volunteer" organizations of Great Rritain and
the U. S., the National Guard of France, the Landwehr and
Landstiirm of Germany, and similar organizations in the
other European states.
In Great Britain alone, of the European states, is reliance
placed upon voluntary enlistment for maintaining the va-
rious militia organizations in time of jieace, and for recruit-
ing the regular army Vioth in peace and war. The British
militia system originated in the Anglo-Saxon /i/"'. »n J '"
the warlike feature of the ancient posse comitaliis. The
fvrd was overshadowed by the feudal system, was revived in
the struggle between the crown and the barons, and was
superseded by the "trained bands" created by James I.
These were iii turn suppressed, and at the Restoration the
existing system, in its essential features, was established.
Under it the (iovernment apiioints lords-lieutenant of coun-
ties, empowered to call out. embody, and cnminaiui the
" regular militia " and to appoint its officers. The quota for
each county is e.stablishcd by (iovernment, and in the failure
of voluntary enlistment a levy by ballot would be made
upon all non-exempted inhabitants of the county : but prac-
tically these quotas are kept up in time of peace by volun-
teers.' This force assembles at .staled perioils for military
exercise, and can lie "emlxidied" in any national crisis.
Most of the regiments were embodied in the Crimean war,
and many of them during the Indian mutiny. They may
not be sent out of the kingdom unless they volunteer, and
then only by provision of I'arliament ; but this exemption
does not apply to a portion, about one-quarter of the whole
force, called the "militia reserve." The militia of the Unit-
ed Kingdom in 18113-94 comprised 140.:t08 men, of whom
12;!.744 were classed as "effectives." The volunteers, how-
760
MILITIA
ever, constitute tlie great national reserve. First organized
in 1804, they in 1813 nunibereil over 400,000 effectives, but
diminishing in numbers as danger became le.ss immiiu'iit,
they wore absorbed in tlic local militia. A revival of niili-
tarv spirit was, however, initiated in 18.^1), and in 18'J4 the
strength of this force, including the yeomanry cavalry, was
274,54!). By furnishing paid adjutants and drill-masters to
these corps, granting them certain pecuniary allowances,
arming the men, and employing a staff of inspectors under
the immediate direction of the War Office, the Government
maintains this force in a very creditable condition of elli-
{jienev; but, excepting the yeomanry cavalry, it "may not
be employed in time of civil disturbance." All of it, how-
ever, may be embodied for active service anywhere in Great
Britain in case of invasion.
In Switzerland there is, nominally, at least, no standing
array, but a corps of educated officers is maintained ; every
citizen is held to military service, and is taught its exer-
cises in the schools; and the war-strength of the country
is divided into a " regular force " of about 80,000, a reserve
of about .50.000, and a l.andwelir organization.
In the U.S. the militia becomes national only when called
into the actual service of the Federal Government. Dur-
the Revolutionary war, 1775-83, the Federal armies con-
sisted of State troops adopted by Congress, and this system
of maintaining a military force prevailed till after the pres-
ent Union was formed. Although eminently qualified for
militarv service by the experiences of the French and Ind-
ian wars. Continental militia, as sucii, played no prominent
Cart in the Revolutionary struggle. Availalile only for
rief periods, it was deficient in discipline, and therefore
uncertain under fire; and it was mainly to the regular
troops, or "Continental line," that the revolting colonies
were indebted for national independence. The following
table, compiled from records of the New Hampshire His-
torical Society, exhibits the number of troops. Continental
and militia, furnished by the thirteeen original States :
Massachu.setts . . .
Connecticut
Virginia
Pennsylvania
New Yortv
Maryland
New Hampshire .
New Jersey
Nortli Carolina.. .
South Carolina. . .
Rhode Island
Georgia
Delaware
Totals 231,971
ContiDentAls
or regulars.
907
,939
,678
,678
781
912
,497
726
263
,417
,908
,679
,386
15.155
7,792
5,620
7..337
3,304
4,127
2,093
6,0.55
(?)
(?)
4,2iM
(?)
376
56,163
Under the Constitution, Congress has power to provide for
the organization, equipment, and discipline of the militia,
and for its government while in the service of the U. S. ;
and the States are prohibited from keeping troops in time
of peace except under congressional consent ; but the ap-
pointment of the officers and the authority for training
the militia accoi-ding to the discipline prescribed by Con-
gress is expressly reserved to the respective States, (^'on-
gressional enactments for maintaining a uniform system
of militia throughout the Union require the enrollment in
each State of all non-exempted able-bodied male citizens,
resident, between tlie ages of eighteen and forty-five ; es-
tablish the manner of organization ; prescrilK^ as the sys-
tem for its disi'ipline and field exercises that obtaining
for the time being in the regular army; and provide for
arms, pay, pensions, etc. Though the necessity of a well-
regulaled militia to the security of a free State is recognized
in the Constitution, the arguments of .statesmen and the
logic of facts have alike failed to secure that attention de-
manded by the gravity of the subject. Since 17S)5 there has
been no general revision of tlie system. The militia code is
obsolete in many particulars, and in some of the States gen-
eral enrollments are unknown, and in oth(M-s the stated
musters for exercise are mcu'e burlesques upon military dis-
cipline, A judicious system would secure an effective mili-
tary reserve of over 3,000,000 men ; but as a matter of fact
the only existing militia _\vorthy of the name is found in
the uniformed volunteer (Ti-ganizations maintained in many
of the States as " National or State Guards," and tiiese forces
do not aggregate an etrective force of over 50,000.
The President is commander-in-chief of the militia of the
several States when called into the actual service of the
U. S., and is empowered to call out these forces, by orders
to such officers of the militia as he may choose to address,
in event of invasion, actual or imminent, and in eases of
insurrection or rebellion against the authority of the U. S.
or any one of the States thereof; and lie may continue the
militia in service for a period not exceeding nine months.
Wliile so employed the troops receive the pay, rations, etc.,
of regular soldiers, are subject to the Rules and Articles of
War, and their officers take precedence in rank nest after
officers of like grade in the regular service or in such vol-
unteer organizations as may also be in the service of the
U. S. The efficiency of this system was first tested in the
war of 1812-15, in which some of the militia rendered mo.st
valuable service, particularly in defense of positions, but
much embarrassment was caused to the national Govern-
ment by pretensions in some of the States — 1st. that the
State executive could decide whether or not to furnish
quotas called for; 2d, that the militia could not be sent out
of the U. S., or even bi'vond its own State: and 3d, that it
was exclusively under the command of its own officers, and
subject only to the personal command of the President.
These pretensions arose of course only in localities where
the war was unpopular, but they have never been quieted
by statute. The troo]is in the civil war demonstrated that
citizens make thorough soldiers, but the lesson of that and
all other modern wars has been that civilians are not so
transformed by prestidigitation. The armies in the field at
the close of tiie civil war were veteran troops, regulars in
all but name; and the time that was required for the drill
and discipline of militia and volunteer forces after pressing
necessity for their immediate employment had arisen would
all have been saved if these men could have been drawn
from an efiicient military reserve. The war of 1813 repeat-
edly exhibited the melanclioly spectacle of large bodies of
U. "S. troops marching to the battle-field without under-
standing a single principle of elementary tactics: and the
first draft of national militia (call of Apr. 15, 1861) in the
civil war was practically worthless; before they could be
fully organized and reasonably disciplined their terms of
service began to expire, and their only actual service fit-
tingly terminated in the disaster of the first Bull Run.
Fi'om the Final Report of the Provoi<t-31arslial-General
United States Army it appears that the total number of
militia, volunteers, and drafted men received into the service
of the U. S. during the civil war was 2.()i)0,401 ; that there
were actually 1,000.516 men in the field when hostilities
ceased, of whom about 978.000 were volunteers or con-
scrifits: and that the national enrollment exhibited, at the
same time, an available reserve of 2.254.063 men. From
the same authority is compiled the fullowin^ exhibit of
militia, called for and accepted as such, during the war:
STATES.
Call of Apr. 15, 1S6L,
for 15,000 militia for
three monthb' service.
CaUaf Aug. 4, 1869,
for 300,000 militia for
nine months" service.
MUltU for 100 dajt,
mustered into service
lietween Apr. 93 and
July 18, 18M.
Quota.
Men
furnished.
Quota.
Men
furnished.
«»»- fur'n'ld.
Maine
New Hampshire...
780
760
780
1,560
780
780
13,280
8,123
12.500
780
3,123
2,:340
io,i53
4,b8:i
4,883
780
780
780
780
3,123
3,123
771
779
782
3,736
3.147
2.402
13.906
3,123
20,175
775
■ ■ 'm
4.720
12.S.W
4.G86
4.820
781
817
930
9.609
5,0.53
4,898
19.080
2.712
7,145
69,705
10.478
46,321
1,720
8,532
4,6.50
890
S6.8.58
7,620
1,736
4.781
16,685
2,0.59
5,602
1,781
10,787
32.215
1.799
4,000
12,000
ia'666
30,000
20,000
20,000
5,000
10,000
*167
Massachnsett.s
Rhode Island
Conuecticul
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
6,809
5.640
709
7,075
Maryland
West Virginia
Dist. of Columbia..
1,297
86,254
21,2.50 1 3.37
26.148
7.197
Illinois
11,328
11,686
11.904
2.6S1
958
1,228
Wisconsin
8,134
968 10.570
10,591 17.269
3,901
"656
14,905
1,771
441
i..w6
780
1,500
North Carolina —
Nebraska Terrify .
Totals
73,391
91,816
334,885
87,588
113,000
8-3.613
• Accepted for three months.
Revised by James Mercur.
Mir.K
7«1
Milk fO. Knff. meotc. meotue : O. IT. Germ, mihih (>Mod.
Germ, intlch) : loel. niJiV/c : GoUi. viilukx; cf. Lul. mill gere :
Gr. i/itX^tii/ : Sunskr. vmarj, slroke, nili]: tlio <liariicteri.stic
seeretioii uf the inuiiiiiiury ^Itinils which sup|ilic.s llie iial-
uriil iiDiirishiiiriit f(ir llie yuuiiK of all iiiaiiiniiils. I'luler
ndrniiil cciiiiilioiis it is an oi>ai|uo, wliito liijiiiil, often
tin^'eil with yellow or blue. It is heavier anil more viscous
thiifi water, anil, when fresh, has a faint, iileasant odor ami
an a;rreealile, sweetish taste. When first iirawn it is nearly
neutral, often K'^'i'if? ""^ arnphotirie reaction, i. c. it reacts
aeiil with blue litmus and alkaline with red litmus; usually
the aeid reaction is most marked. Human milk is nearly
always alkaline, and milk from carnivorous animals acid.
In a short lime milk becomes decidedly acid, owiiij; to the
conversion of milk-susar into lactic acid. Milk when fresh
is a mechanical mixture in the form of a thin emulsion of
butter-fat and milk serum. All milks, from whatever
source, have the same pcneral properties and contain the
same proximate principles, t hi' only difference found between
milks from dillereiil races of animals or from iliiTerent in-
dividuals of the same race bciiifi caused by slifjht variations
in the proportion of the several constituents.
Cows' milk, on account of its great importance as human
food and because it has been more thoroughly studied than
any other, will be considered as typical of all milks. It is
white or yellowish white, the yellow tint beinj; imparted by
the butter-fat, as closely skimmed milk uniformly has a
bluish-while, ofmleseent appearance. A hifrhly colored milk
is characteristic of some breeds of cows, especially I he Guern-
sey, and to a somewhat less extent the Jersey, t he intensity of
the color varying considerably with individual ainmals of all
breeds. The color is affected by the food and by the period
of lactation, it being more marked when cows are in good
pasture than when they are fed dry foddi'r, and higher in
the earlier stages of lactation than toward the end. Its spe-
cific gravity ranges from about 1'028 to VO'-iH. according to
the amount and character of the solids w^hich it contains;
the average is about l'0;i2.
Microscopic Appearance. — Under the microscope milk
appears to be a transparent colorless liquid, in which are
sus|>ended an immense number of yellowish translucent
globules having a high refractive power and a |)early luster.
These globules, which constitute the fatty portion of the
milk, vary greatly in size, the diameter rangnig from about
•001 ram. for the smallest to al)oul •()! mm. for the largest;
the average diameter is about ■004 mm. The number of
globules varies from less than 1.000,000 to over .i.UOO.OOO in
a cubic millimeter of milk, from which it is estimated that
a single drop of goinl milk will contain from 150,(MM),0(K) to
200,(K)0,000. The nundier gradually increases, and at the
same time the size diminishes, as the period of lactation ad-
vances, there being usually two to four times as many at
the end of the lactation period as at the beginning. Breed
characteristics are also marked, although individual varia-
tions are very great within the breeds. So far as the sub-
ject has been studied, the gh)bules in Jersey and Guernsey
milk have been found the largest and those in Ayrshire and
Holstein milk the smallest. On account of the greater fa-
cility with which large fat globules separate from the se-
rum, the size of the globules is an important factor in butter-
making, especially when any system of gravity creaming is
used; the difference, however, practically disappears when
the centrifugal cream-separator is used.
It was formerly suppo.scd that the fat globules were in-
closed in a thin membrane, wlxich is ruptured by churning,
thus permitting the globules to adhere, forming granules of
butter; this hvpothesis was supported by the fact that ether
fails to dissolve fat from fresh milk when the two arc
shaken together, but dissolves it readily if a little acid or
alkali is first added to the milk, the explanation being that \
the meiidjrane was destroyed by the acid or alkali, thus
permitting the solvent to come in contact with the fat. As
all of the phenomena indicating a membrane may be dupli-
cated in artificial emulsions where no membrane can exist,
and as the globules in milk may be divided by agitation at
temperatures above the nudting-poiiit of the fat without
changing their appearance or properties, it is fair to a-ssume
that milk is a simple emulsion and that the globidcs of fat
are free, being prevented frotn running together or being
dissolved by the surface tension of the liipiid around them.
Yiehl of Milk. — The yield of milk depends chieHy upon
the individual characteristics and the breed of the animal,
and is influenced by age of cow, period of lactation, and
food. The average yield of ilairy animals throughout the
U. .S., including all breeds and all conditions of treatment,
is between 3,(KI0 and 4,000 lb. \>vT year. The llolstcins leacl
all other bre«Mls in quantity of milk produced. The Ad-
vaured liiyiHtrii contains luinies of a number of aidmals
that have records of over 20,0(KJ lb. iier year, and one cow is
reporled to have produced :{0.;{1H4 lb. in liO.'i days, an aver-
age for the whole year of over Vii lb. r>er day ; her maximum
yield was 112 11). 7 oz. in one day. This cow weighed l,;iC.'>
lb.; the average weight of milk would therefore equal her
own weight every IC^ days. The Ayrsliires are also heavy
milkers, but are not so remarkable in this respect as the
Ilolsteins. With proper care the yield of milk increases as
the cow grows older, until seven or eight years old, when a
maximum is reached. The greatest flow is usually obtained
within a few weeks after calving, and then gradually dimin-
ishes until the end of lactation. A generous ration rich in
albuminoids is conducive to a large milk yield.
Froducis of Milk. — For ci;eam, butter, cheese, etc., see
Butter and (.'qeesk.
Chemical Coxstituexts of Cows' Milk.
In most analyses of milk only two direct determinations
are made, viz., the toUd solids, obtained by evaporating the
water and drying the residue at 100° C. to constant weight,
and the fat, which is that portion of the total solids that is
soluble in anhydrous ether. More complete analyses show
that both the fat and the solids not fat are mixtures of sev-
eral compounds having widely different properties.
Jiuller-fal is a mixture of several neutral fats or glycer-
iiles (glycerol salts or ethers of fatty acids). Nine fatty
acids have already been obtained by the saponiJicatir)n of
butter-fat, and it is likely that still others will be found
when better methods for separating the insoluble acids have
been devised. The acids found in butter, in combination
with glycerol, are, according to Kirchner, oleic, palmitic,
stearic, butyric, cuproic. caprylie, capric, myristic, and butic.
The first five mentioned are the most important, and are the
only ones which will be considered in this place. !is only mi-
nute quantities of the others are found in butter. The gly-
cerin compounds of these acids are
Ohin. C3lle(C,oHsi02)3, a constituent of all animal and
vegetable fats. When pure, it is nearly colorless and liquid
at temperatures above the freezing-point. It yields !>5'7 per
cent, of oleic acid.
I'nlmitin. CaHsiCuHjiOj)!, occurs in many animal and
vegetable fats. It is a white solid, melting at 62-b' C. ; it
yields 9.")'28 \wt cent, of palmitic acid.
Stearin, t'sIUlCiellsi^'s)!. is found in all solid animal
fats. It is a white solid, melting atao° C; it yields 95-73
per cent, of stearic acid.
Jiu/yrin. C3Hs(C'4ll70j)a. is a heavy oily liquid, having a
rancid odor anil a disagreeable taste. It yields y7'4 per cent,
of butyric aiid.
C'nproiii. C3llii(Ci)n,,0j)i, is a colorless liquid, with prop-
erties simUar to butyTin. It yields 90'1 per -cent, caproic
acid.
Oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids derived from the corre-
sponding glyeerides are insoluble in water, and are not vol-
atile; they comprise about y7'.5 per cent, of the butter-fat.
The proportion of each has not been accurately determined.
Butyric and caproic acid are soluble in water and volatile;
they comprise about 7 per cent, of the butter-fat.
All of the fats used in the adulteration of butter are com-
posed of olcin, stearin, and palmitin, glyeerides which vield
upon saponification fatty acids which are insoluble antl not
volatile. The estimation of the soluble and volatile acids is
therefore the best means of detecting spurious butters.
The specific gravity of butter-fat at 15 C. is, according
to Kleischmann, •)t:5 when referred to water at 4 C. : its
melting-p,)int ranges, according to the amount of liquid and
.solid glyeerides, from 29 C. to 41 ('., with an average of
about 33 C. The properties of but ter-fat, viz., color, spe-
cific gravity, melting-point, and amomit of volatile acids, are
to a considerable extent dependent upon the breed of cow,
the character of the ration, and the jn^riod of lactation.
The solids not fat in milk consist of protein matter (casein
and albumen), milk-sugar, and salts (ash), with minute
quantities of other organic compounds (galactin, lactoglobu-
lin, urea, creatin, fibrin, cholesterin, and citric acid). The
solution of the solids not fat in water constitutes tlic milk
serum.
The Nilrogtnout Portions of Milk. — (1) Ca*ein : Undei
normal conditions ca-sein is the most abundant protein IhkIv
found in milk, to which it is peculiar, us it has not witii
r62
MII.l
certainty been identified anywhere else. It differs from
other albuminoiils in containing phosphorus, and in bcinR
precipitated by rennet. Its composition, according to llam-
niarsten, is as follows: Carbon H'-i, hyilrogen 7, nitrogen 15' 7,
sulphur 0-8, phosphoi-us 0-85, and oxygen 22'65 per cent.
Little is known concerning its molecular structure. Its
solutions turn the plane of polarized light to the left. When
dry it is a white solid, very sliglilly soluble in pure water or
in solutions of neutral. salts — readily soluble in water made
slightly alkaline, the solution being neutral or slightly acid,
also solulde in water to which carbonate of lime is added,
the carbonic acid being liberated. If the solution in lime-
water be carefully neutralized with dilute phosphoric acid,
neither the casein nor the phos|>liate of lime, whicli is pres-
ent in considerable quantity, ajipears to be precipitated.
This solution has the opalescent appearance of closely
skimmed milk; it is therefore i)robable that the white color
of milk is to some extent due to the casein and phosphate of
lime which it contains. It is questionable if in these cases,
or in milk, the casein is in perfect solution ; it seems more
probalile that it is diffused through the liquid in the form
of a thin jelly. It is, however, to all practical purposes, a
complete solution, and will be so considered in this article.
Casein solutions are not coagulated by boiling, although
the surface becomes covered with a tough skin, which is re-
newed when removed. It is jirecipitated unchanged by
saturating its solutions with sodiuui chloride or magnesiuni
sulphate. It is precipitated from neutral solutions by all
mineral acids, the precipitate being again dissolved when
an excess of acid is added. The coagulation (souring) of
milk when it is left undisturbed for a few hours is caused
by the formation of lactic acid from the milk-sugar by the
growth of the lactic ferment. The most characteristic
property of casein, which distinguislies it from all other
albuminoids, is that utilized in the manufacture of cheese,
viz., its coagulation by rennet. This reaction occurs only in
solutions containing salts of lime and at temperatures be-
tween 15' C. and 60° C. Casein and alkaline albuminate
have many properties in common, but their identity has not
been fully established. Normal milk contains about 3 per
cent, of casein, the range in individual cases being from
about 3 to 4 per cent. We are indebted for most of our
knowledge concerning the properties of casein to the I'e-
searches of Schmidt. Soxhlet, and Ilamniarsten.
(3) Albumen is found in all milk. Its properties are
similar to the albumen of eggs and that of the bloofl serum.
It is soluble in water. It is not precipitated from its solu-
tion by dilute acids and not by rennet. When warmed to
70°-7.5° C, it is coagulated. Normal milk contains an aver-
age of about 0'6 per cent, of albumen. Colostrum milk, on
the other hand, contains a much higher percentage, the
amount sometimes reaching 30 per cent.
(3) Ldctdijlobulin was discovered independently in cows'
milk by Sebelien and Krinnerling at about the .same time.
Only small quantities of it occur in normal milk, usually
not over 1 milligramme per liter, but in colostrum milk
several per cent, have been found. It may be separated
from whey by carefully adding sixliinn hydrate to neutral
reac^liori ami then saturating with magnesium sulphate. Its
solutions are coagulated by heating to G7°-76° (J. It is sim-
ilar to, but not generally considered identical with, the para-
globulin of blood.
(4) Oiilnctin, or laetoprotein, belongs to the group of ]ie)>-
tones, and occurs even in fresh milk, which on the average
contains about O'l per cent. It is not precipitated by boil-
ing, nor by acids, l)ut is precipitated by mercuric nitrate,
alcohol, tannin, and other reagents, which precipitate pep-
tones.
(•"i) Fibrin. — The presence in milk of a small quantity of
a nitrogenous principle having similar properties to blood
fibrin was first mentioned by Babcock. The ("vidence upon
which his conclusions are based may be thus sumnuirized :
First. The peculiar grouping of the fat globules of milk
after it is drawn, which is amdogous to the grouping of the
blood corpuscles of blood, lioth of which jilieuouuMia are ])re-
vented by the addition of substances which interfere with
the coagulation of fibrin. Second. The decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide by milk, which reaction, although much
less marked than with blood fibrin, is of the same miture, in
that it is prevented by first heating the milk to boiling. This
reaction may be modified by applying tincture of guiacutu
and hydrogen peroxiile to a liller-]iaper that has been moist-
ened with fresh milk and then dried at ordinary tempera-
tures; the paper will be colored faintly blue wherever any
clots of fibrin occur. Clots of fibrin arc heavier than the milk
.serum, and, as they usually contain globules of fat, offer con-
siderable resistance to creaming. The inclosed fat globules
are usually sullicient to float the small clots which accumu-
hite in the cream, and cause this to give a stronger reaction
for fibrin than (he skim milk or even the whole milk from
which it is derived. When a centrifugal cream-separator is
tised, the fibrin clots are mostly collected upon the sides of
the bowl, and form a large proportion of the slime found in
the separator-bowl after it has been use<l. This slime often
give nearly as strong reaction for fibrin as blood.
In consequeilce of the resistance which fibrin clots offer
to creaming, any condition which prevents their formation
should facilitate the separation of cream, and such appears
to be the case so long as the means employed docs not at
the same time tend to se|iarate the casein or other constit-
uents of the milk. For instance, the ad<lition of small
quantities of caustic soda or potash to milk gives a very
rapid and efficient creaming. The rapid cooling of the
nulk directly after it is drawn delays the coagulation of
the fibrin and facilitates creaming. Close creaming by the
deep-setting system is best explained by this fact.
Normal milk appears to contain about.one-thousandth as
much fibrin as blood, or on the average about '0003 per
cent. This amount, snudi as it is. on account of its great
tendency to coagulate and adhere to the sides of the cream-
ing vessel, may nuilerially affect the practical work in the
creamery. When the ()uantily is much increased, sponta-
neous coagulation of the milk takes place without the de-
velopment of acid. The examination of a few milks which
coagulated in this way showed in every case that the
amount of fibrin was abnormal, at least so far as this is in-
dicated by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
(6) Cren/in and nren, svdjstances belonging to the amide
group, have been separatetl from milk ; but they never occur
except in minute (luantitios, and have no influence upon the
quality of the milk.
J/(7X--«!(j«7-, lactose, lactin (CuHjjOu -I- UjO), is a peculiar
carbohydrate found in all milks, and in no other animal
secretion. According to Bouchardt it also occurs in the
ripe fruits of Aehras sajmld. When pure it is a white
solid, crystallizing in the rhombic system with one mole-
cule of water, which it gives up slowly at 100 C. ; it is
easily and completely removed at 130°-140° C. ; at 170-
180' C. it loses the element of water, being changed into
lactocaramel, a brown amorphous solid. The dry crystals
are hard and gritty between the teeth, and have only
a slightly sweet taste. It is soluble in 6 parts of cold
water and in 2'5 parts of boiling water; it is insoluble
in absolute alcohol and in ether. With pure yeast it does
not undergo the alcoholic fermentation, but by the action
of certain micro-organisms the sugar is so changed that the
alcoholic fermentation takes place. Upon this depends the
production of konniiss. It readily undergoes the lactic fer-
mentation, being changed into lactic acid, and to this is
due the ordinary phenomenon of the souring of milk. Jlilk-
sugar is usually manufactured from whey, a waste product
obtained in the nuinufacture of cheese, by evajKiration and
crystallization, it is used in infant and invalid foods, as
well as in pharmaceutical preparations.
Citric Acid. — One of the most interesting discoveries
connected with the composition of milk is that it contidns
a small amount of citric acid. Soxhlet first called atten-
tion to the fact that the amount of lime dissolved in milk
couM oidy be explained by the presence in nulk of an or-
ganic acid. Later Ilenkel, in Soxhli't's laboratory, suc-
ceeded in separating citric a<'i<l from milk, and showed that
it was a normal con.stitiu'nt of all milks. This acid is the
same as that in lemons. On the, average id)Out 0-1 per cent,
of it is contained in milk, so that the nulk of a good cow
would contain each day more citric acid than a large lem-
on. This acid is in combination with the ash constituents,
otherwise it would render the milk distinctly acid, and
probaldy cause the coagulation of the casciue. The quan-
tity in milk appears to be independent of the nature of
the ration.
The Ash — Mineral Constituents. — The mineral constitu-
ents of milk arc: Potassium oxide, K^O ; sodimn oxide,
NaaO; calcium oxide, CaO ; magnesium oxide, ]\IgO ; ferric
oxide, FcaOa ; phosjihoric pentoxide, PjOt ; sulphur trioxidc,
SOs ; and chlorin, ("I.
The metallic oxides are mostly combined with phosphoric
acid and CI, b\it as these are not sullicient to neutralize the
alkalis, the remainder must be united with organic acids.
MILK
7C3
The SOj iiiul a porlion of llie PiOj in the ash are derived
from orpiiiic t'oinpyiinds in the milli. The ush amounts to
about 0'7 per cent, of tlie milk.
The total solids in eows' milk vary from 11'64 per cent, to
V.y'M per ceiil., averafjinj; about l:{ per cent.
liilhi' fjriijiliie talile {jiven below are grouped together
all of the eonstituints menlioiKd, in proportions whieh
represent upproxiniately the average composition of cows'
indk. Moreover, as the same constituents enter into all
milk, it is typical for milk in general. It is safe to say that
milk is uniformly poor. Other breeds have their character-
istics more or less pronounced, and there are in all breeds
certain families noted either for the quantity or quality of
their milk production.
The table in the preceding paragraph gives the averages
of analyses of milks from dillerent typis of cows. The
analyses are taken from Koenig's tables, and represent the
average of hundreds of cows in each class mentioned.
The analyses made during the ten vears ending 1889 at
the milking trials of the British Dair)' farmers' A^ociatioo
TAULE SIIOWINO THE COMPOSITION OF MILK.
Milk... 100
Bult«r-fat . . . . 3'6
Glycerides of t
lUHoluble and I
noD-voIalile f
acids. J
Glycerides of
soluble and
volatile
acids.
3-3i
OSJ
Milk serum 96 4
f Olein
Palmitin
Stearin
Myrestin
Butin, trace
Butyrin
Capninin
Caprylin, trace
Cuprudu, trace.
Casein S'OO
Albumen O'OO
Laetofrlobulia
(ialactin
Fibrin, trace.
^lilk-sugar 4"5
Citric aciil O'l
Potassium oxide 0*175 i
Sodiiun oxide 0070
Calcium oxide O'HO |
Magnesium oxide :'. 0"017
Iron oxide 0"001
Sulphuric anhvdrie 0"027
Pliosphoric anhydric 0* 170
Chlorin 0' 100.
Water
V V
uHd . )
J-02
Lce. . . )
Fot.
36
Containug nitrogen... 8'8
Ash.
Solids not fat... 91.
Total solids.
12 7
87-8
1000
the individual variations in the composition of cows' milk
show wider ditrerenccs than is found between the average
composition of milks from different races of animals.
The Proi'ortiojj of Milk-coxstituents.
The average composition of normal cows' milk derived
from nearly H(M) iiiialvses collected by Koenig fi-om all parts
of the world, including milk from all breeds of cows kept
under a great variety of conditions, is as follows :
C0MF0NK.NT PARTS.
Meu.
MlDlmom.
10315
8717
3 69
802
0-53
488
0 71
12-88
9 14
10379
90 69
647
4-23
144
6 03
I 21
19-78
10264
Water
80 32
Fnt
1(17
Casein
r^9
0 23
Suijar
211
Ash
035
Total solids
9-81
Solids nut fat
The circumstances which contribute to the wide varia-
tions shown will be considered under the following heads:
1. Indifidudlilji and Hdre. — In almost every herd of
dairy cows will be found some animals which give poor
milk, measured by the amount of fat which it contains,
and others which give milk much richer than the average;
so persistent are these traits under all natural conditions
that the individuid tendency of the animal is recognized as
the most imporliuit factor which contributes to the (pialllv
of milk produciMl. These peculiarities may be intensifieil
and, to a certain extent, established by careful breeding
through several genei-ations, until they become family or
breed characteristics which, within certain limits, may lie
depended upon. In this way the Channel island cattle
Analyses of Milks from Different Breeds.
PARTS, ETC.
Chumrl bUod
MyMdJcrwy),
Sborthon.
Dmch oUth.
llobWa-Frin.,
OldMtKUT, lie
Ajinliln.
Water
&1-70
4 65
3 (M
SOS
0 94
14-80
9-68
47
87-20
845
3-21
B 45
O-tffl
1280
935
63
87-85
8-42
3-40
4-61
0-7S
12 15
M-73
73
86-93
Fat
3*58
Casein
Sugar
Ash
8 t2
5-43
0-64
Toral solids
1807
9 49
Number of analyses . . .
41
(Jerseys and (Suernseys), noted for the uniformly rich milk
which they ]>roduce, have been developed. On the other
hand, the Ilolstein cattle bi-ed through many generations
toward quantity of milk with little regard to its quality,
have come to be the greatest milk-producers, although the
give the following averages for yield and composition of
milk from different breeds {Agr. Gazette, Nov. 18, 1889) :
shorthorns. .
Shorthorns. .
Jerseys
Jerseys
Guernseys . .
Guernseys . .
Dutch
Ay rshires . ". .
I.)ev(jus
Kcd polled . .
Welsli
Kerrys
Crosses
Namb«r
of OOWI.
Tteldof
diy, lb.
P»r oenL
ofioUdi.
Pff C«Bt.
oflkl.
ofiollda
But fftt.
119
43-13
12-87
8 ra
9 14
31
4,^ 80
1289
8 81
908
118
27-87
14 36
4-56
9 80
43
28-41
14-94
5 47
9-47
49
28-30
14-00
477
928
14
31 15
14-46
5 03
9 48
7
43 31
1211
326
8-85
13
34'28
13 48
4-15
9 28
2
30-12
14 -.34
4-90
9 44
3
43' 10
12-72
360
912
1
46-00
12-74
4-16
8.58
3
28-50
14 22
4-40
9-82
28
89-12
12-91
869
9-82
The averages for these bree<ls in 1888 and 1880 show a
marked improvement in the general quality of dairy cattle,
due to intelligent breeding and select icm. The possibilities
in this direction are still furthershown in the figures below,
which are the averages for the prize winners in the .same
show in 18512 (London Live Stock Journal, Oct. 21, 1892):
Shorthorn
Jersey
Guernsey
Ayrshire
Kerrvsand Dexters.
rnitch
Polled Aberdeen
Number
VWd pCT
PVMIL
Fir mil.
Per«BL
odoUdi
not fat.
of eowa.
d>>, lb.
ofiolUa.
«hu
3
59-4
1290
8-T8
9-18
3
29 6
15-49
6 18
931
2
38-5
14-31
5-41
8-90
2
40 5
18 (H
4 22
9 42
3
803
1339
4-40
8 99
1
61-8
1285
8-86
899
1
603
1874
4-99
8 75
The individual variations within each breed arc very wide,
so that it by no means follows that a cow will give ricli milk
becaus<> she is a Jersey or a Gucrn.sey. or ptnir milk because
she is a Ilolstein or an .Vyrshire. ftven in the above trial
from selected eows the range in qiudily is large. Kach of
the 3 shorthorn cows entered pave |"raclically the .sjime
amount of milk, still the |)er cent, of fat in their milkninp^d
from 2'!tl to i-liU; the H Jersevs, with a difference of less
than l.f lb. of milk per day, htiil a ditTeri'nce in iht cent, of
fat from .>-20 to 7-M4: and the milk from the :i Kerry cows
varieil from :i-TO to 5-11 [H^r cent, of fat. The individual
variation within the breeds is much greater than is found
between these animals, selectwl as they have l>een for this
trial on account of theirsuperiority either in yield or quality
of milk. As a rule, phenomenally rich milk is not given by
those cows or breeds that are noted for their largt- yields.
Verv few- aiutlvses of cows' milk arc n-corded that have
TG-i:
MILK
shown more than 10 per cent, of fat, and in neariv all cases
where this has occurred the cows have cither been sick or
were at the time giving verr small quantities of milk. So
far as known, there is no case on record of a cow giving as
much 85 15 lb. of milk per day that contained over 9 per
cent, of fat. A number of butter records have been reported
that would require from 1-5 to 2.5 per cent, of fat iii the milk
yielded during the trial, provided the butter was of stand-
ard quality: but no such record is accompanied by analyses
of either the butter produced or of the milk from which it
wa.s made.
'2. Period of Lactation. — The time after calving during
which a cow continues to give milk without going dry is
known as the period of lactation. Occasionally cows are luet
with that give milk continuously from one calving to the
next, but such cases are not common. Usually cows go dry
from four to eight weeks before calving. Cows which have
been spayed or that are farrow often give milk for years
continuously. An average period of lactation is about 300
days. Cows generally yield the maximum quantity of milk
soon after calving, the amount diminishing with more or
less regularity from this time until the flow ceases, or be-
comes too small to be obtained with profit. As this period
advances, the composition of the milk gradually changes.
As a rule, both the fat and the solids not fat increase slight-
ly, but many eases are foun<l where one or both of these
constituents diminish. The following table, compiled from
tests given in the Tenth Annual Report of the New York
agricultural experiment station for 1891, shows the nature of
these changes. There were fourteen animals experimented
upon, the breeds represented being Holstein, Ayrshire, Jer-
sey, Guernsey, American Holderness, and Devon. The firet
month represents the time from calving to the first day of
the following month, and is of course much affected by the
nearness to calving. The table shows the general averages
for the breeds for the first ten months of lactation. Under
the heading casein is included the total nitrogenous matter
of the milk :
MONTH
OF IJVCTA-
TIOX.
Yield of
mUk, lb.
ToUil
EOlidl,
per ceut.
F.t,
per cent.
Ca«ein,
per cent.
Sugar,
per cent.
A.li,
per cent.
Sullds
not lat,
per cent.
1
atso
687-3
586-7
547-9
538-7
5a3-3
510-4
471-2
470-4
418-6
14-09
13-13
13-04
13 -.30
13.56
13-90
14-08
14 00
14-17
14-41
4-86
4-13
4 07
4-22
4-23
4-35
4-39
4-39
4-51
4-46
3-53
3 05
3-23
3-42
3-32
3 61
3-51
3 51
3-80
3-81
500
5-20
5-01
5-06
5-29
5 24
5 42
5-35
5-13
5.39
0-69
0 72
0-71
0-70
0-70
0-73
0-74
0-74
0-71
0-73
9-33
9 00
8-97
9- 14
9-33
9-55
969
9-61
9-66
9-95
2 ...
3
4
5
6
7...
8
9
10
3. The Milking. — The first portion of milk drawn at anv
milking contains much less fat than the last portion, the
difference being sometimes as much as 10 per cent. ; but
otherwise there is very little variation from the beginning
to the end of the milking. The following analyses of the
first and last half-pints from the same milking illustrate
this point :
MlLKINfiS AND
STRIPPI.NGS.
COMPOSITION OP MILK.
COMPOSITION OF
MILK SERCM.
Water.
Solid..
Fat.
Water.
Solldi.
First milk
88-17
80-82
88-73
80-37
11-83
19-18
1127
19-63
1-32
9-63
1-07
10-86
89 -.35
89-43
89-69
89-66
10-05
10-57
10-31
10.34
Strippiiifcs
First niiltc , .
Strippiugs
Average for first milking.
Average for strippings. . .
80-52
89-56
10-48
10-45
_ The interval between milkings also appears to have con-
sidenible influence, the milking which follows a short inter-
Tal usually being richer in fat t ban that obtained after a long
interval. As a rule, three milkings per day not only result
in a larger yield of milk than two milkings, but in milk
richer in fat.
The manner in which the milking is done has a decided
influence upon the per cent, of fat. Some milkers always
obtain richer milk than others from the same cow. In a
trial at the Wisconsin agricultural experiment station be-
tween two milkers with 4 cows, the test continuing for sev-
eral days, the average per dav for each milkt^r was for A,
72-a lb. milk with 4-20 per cent, of fat; for B. 801b. of milk
with 4.68 per ceut. fat. There was not a single change that
was not in favor of B. When a cow was milked fast and
slow by the same milker, the fast milking in every case
gave the richer milk, the difference in some cases being over
1 i)er cent, of tat ; an average of tests continuing over
several days with 6 cows being per day for the fast milking
169 lb. milk with 4-6:i per cent, fat : for the slow milking,
16.5-4 lb. milk with 4-2:5 per cent. fat. When cows were
milked in an unusual manner, the milk obtained was much
poorer than the average. A cow which gave milk testing
on the average about 5 per cent, of fat, gave, at four succes-
sive milkings when milked one teat at a time, milk which
test<>d 2-9, .5-00, 4-06, and 3-78 per cent, of fat. Another
cow tested in the .same way gave, when milked two teats at
a time, milk testing 4 per cent, fat, when milke<i one teat at
a time 2-7 per cent. fat. The greater the departure from the
usual method of milking the poorer wa.s the milk obtained.
When milking-tubes were used, the milk obtained tested
only 2-92 per cent, fat, while hand-milking of the same
cows gave milk testing 4-72, the test being with 6 different
cows and continued with 3 of them over a period of 7 days.
The greatest difference with any cow was 1-93 per cent, fat
when milked with tubes and i)-47 per cent, fat when milked
by hand. These observations seem to indicate that the
elaboration of the milk is more active at the time of milking
than at other times, and that it depends to a considerable ex-
tent upon the nervous condition of the animal. The best
results are always obtained by regularity ami kindness.
4. Food. — There is a common notion t hat t he kind of food
fed has a marked influence upon the per cent, of fat in the
milk produced. The results, however, in careful trials, at
numerous experiment stations in the U. S. and in Kurope,
indicate that no rule that will apply to all cows can be
stated, as it has been found that some animals respond favor-
ably to one ration and others to another. The only point
upon which all agree is that a generi>us ration made up of
sucli feedstuff's as are relished by the animal is most con-
ducive to good results. Among those feeds which have the
re|jutation of increasing the fat in milk may be mentioned
palm-nut meal, cocoanut-meal, sugar-meal, and corn-germs;
the first two are not used to any extent as feeds in the U. S.,
the sugar-meal is a waste product from the manufacture of
starch and glucose from corn, and the corn-germs a waste
product from the hominy-factories. Poods rich in fat have
no tendency toward increasing the fat in milk. The follow-
ing rations are typical of the best dairy practice in the U. S.
The amounts are for cows of 1,000 lb. weight in full milk :
(a) Pasture with 5 to 8 lb. of a mixture of equal parts of
corn-meal and wheat-bran, (b) Hav (mixed clover and tim-
othy), 20 lb. ; wheat-bran, 6 lb. ; oat-straw, 6 lb. (e) Com
silage, 40 lb.; clovei--hay, 8 lb.; wheat-bran. 6 lb.; corn-
meal, 3 lb. {d) Clover-hay, 12 lb.; oat straw, 8 lb.; corn-
meal, 6 lb.; wheat-bran, 3 lb.; cotton or linseed meal, 2 lb.
Colostrum is the milk secreted for a short time after par-
turition. It has a yellow color, is much more viscous than
normal milk, has a salty taste, a peculiar odor, and gener-
ally a slightly acid reaction. Owing to the large amount
of solids which it contains, its specific gravity is high,
rarely falling below 1-040, and in extreme cases reaching
I'OSO. Under the microscope there are shown, in addition
to the globules of fat, numerous granular bodies of variable
shape, ■00.5--025 mm. in diameter, containing minute glob-
ules of fat. These bodies, which are peculiar to colostrum
milk, are known as " colostrum cells " ; they have been gen-
erally supposed to be cast off epithelium cells from the
udder, but more recently are considered to be while blood-
corpuscles that have uiulcrgone fatty degeneration. These
cells rapidly <liminish in number from the first milking,
and usually disappear within three or four days. The com-
position of colostrum is very variable, no two samples being
alike. Its most marked peculiarity is the high per cent, of
albumen, this being from ten to thirty times as large as in
normal milk ; the casein and ash are also high, while the
sugar and fat are usually low. The following analyses by
Eiigline illustrate this fact :
CONSTITUENTS OF COLOSTRUM.
Specific gravity
Total solids
Fat
Casein
Albumen and globulin
Sugar
Ash
Fint milking
Fifth day
after ailviOK.
after calTing.
1-071
1 033
27-70
18-15
8-11
3-94
620
2-86
15-60
1-12
1-85
4-, 55
2-04
0-68
MILK
765
Tho average composition of the first milking as given by
Koeiiig is:
WaliT 7405 per cent.
Tiital solids !aii."> "
CttSfiU 4MHJ •*
Albumen y.i Hi
Kat 3 IS •'
SuKar aw
Ash IM
Other Milks. — Human milk ditfers froni cows' milk
chiefly in containing less protein inatter and more sugar.
It is whiter than cows' milk, anil usually ha.< an alkaline re-
action when fresh. The curd formed by the addition of
rennet or acids is not as firm as tliat from cows' milk. Its
average coinnositinn, as derived from over lUO amilyses
compiled by Koenig, is — water, yT'41 percent.; casein. VtW
per cent. ; albumen, TiG per cent. ; fat,ii'7y percent.; milk-
sugar, G'21 per cent.; ash. 0;jl |)cr cent.
Mares' mill: is poor in fat and protein, and rich in sugar.
A^.'<es milk is very similar in general composition to Imman
milk, and where obtainable is used in preference to cows'
milk fur infants. Sheep's milk is very rich in fat and other
solids; it is used quite extensively in some parts of Kumpe
for the manufac.ture of cheese of high grade, duals' milk
is very similar to cows' milk, but contains on the average a
little mure protein and fat. The average composition of
these milks, according to Koenig, is :
Mares' inillc . .
As.ses" milk . .
Sheep's milk .
Qoats' niUk. . .
Wain,
Cudn.
AltauMD.
Fit.
MIU-
0078
89M
8iltl3
US'TI
1-34
007
4-97
320
1 .5.5
109
rat
r«4
6-86
4-78
.5 07
5 99
4 91
4 46
0 35
0-51
0()9
0 76
Preservation- of 5Iilk.
Nearly all the changes in milk which cause it to become
unsuitable for food are caused by the growth of micro-or-
ganisms, the germs of which are introduced into the milk
after it is drawn. These germs fall into the milk from the
udder and the skin of the animal during milking, and from
the air, which always contains immense niunbers of them,
especially in stal)les where the milking is done, or are de-
posited upon the vessels in which the milk is handled.
Scrupulous cleanliness may reduce their number, but even
with the greatest care it is impossible to exclude them en-
tirely from the milk used fur domestic purposes. These
geriiis multiply rapidly in milk, and within a few hours
or at most within a few days, according to the cunditiiuis
under which it is kept, the original properties of milk be-
come entirely changed. The most common change is that
known as souring, manifested by an acid taste and coagula-
tion of tho ciusein. There are several kinds of organisms
that produce this change, which consists in the transforma-
tion of the milk-sugar into lactic aciii. Only a portion of
the sugar is chanired in this way, as the development of the
organisms is hindered by the acid formed, and ceases en-
tirely when the acid amounts to about 1 per cent. Other
organisms produce dilTerent changes, such as slimy, ro|>y,
and bitter milk, us well as numerous taints. .As it is" impos-
sible to excluilc germs from milk, it is necessary, in order to
preserve it iinehanu'ed for even a few hours, either to pro-
vide conditions which are unfavorable to the growth of or-
ganisms or to destroy them before the nnlk has become un-
suitable for food. Nearly if not all of these organisms grow
most rapiilly at tem|x>ratures between 30 and 40 ('. (86-
104' F.), decreasing rapidly as the temperature falls and
ceasing at the freezing-point: at temperatures below 4 C.
(40' F.) there is very little change. This s\iggests that the
most |)ractical way of keeping milk from day to day. or
where fresh supplies can not be obtained at frecpient inter-
vals, is to cool it to as near the freezing-point as possible.
Antise/)lic.t. — Certain mild antiseptics, among whicii may
be mentioned boracie aciil, borax, ami salicylic acid, have
been recommended, and to a considerable extent used, for
the preservation of milk for domestic purposi>s. .Ml such
substances interfere more or less with tho action of the ili-
gestive organs, and usually agtrravate disea.ses of the kid-
neys; their use is not to be reconimend<>d, and under no
cireumstances should milk preserved in this way be ii.serl as
foiKl for infants or invalids. The use of the antiseptics
mentioned has been prohii>ited in France and (iermany anil
very giM\erally condemneil by Inianls of health everywhere.
Sterilized or Pusleiirizerl Milk. — A large demand has
grown up in cities for milk that has been heated in closetl
ves.sel3 to temperatures ranging from 65' to 80 C for a
sutlicient time to kill the organisms containetl in it; the
besl results are obtainetl when the milk is reheated twentv-
four to forty-eight hours after the first heating, the jars
being kept closed. .Such milk will keep wilhuut undergoing
the usual fermentations to which milk is subject .so lung us
the cans containing it are kept closed and a<-cess of germs
prevented: it will, however, soon sour after the cans are
opened. The flavor of milk prepareil in this way is slight-
ly different from fre>h milk, but is not objectioimble ; its
use for invalid and infant fo<«l is rapiilly increasing. The
greatest objection made to it is that the cream which sepa-
rates is not readily nungled again with the whole mass, eji-
pecially if the cans have been kept in one position for a cou-
sideral)le time.
Condensed milk is prepared by evaporating milk at low
temperatures in vacuo to about one-thinl of its original
volume. Most of the manufacturers add a considerable
quantity of cane-sugar to the milk after it is condensed.
Inclosed in air-tight cans, it may be kent indcfinitelv and
transporte<l to all jiarts of the world. Itilutcd with about
two parts of water, it is the best substitute for fresh milk.
'J'he following aiialy.ses, compiled by Dr. Koenig, show its
average composition :
CONSTITl'ENTS OF CO.NDE.VSED
MILK.
Water
Protein
Fat
Milk-su^ar , ,
Cane-sugar. .
Ash
58'»»
11-92
]3'42
I4'49
218
Ui.kj to wllcb
oitaa of U anatyiM.
2S'61
1I-78
1035
13-84
86-22
2-19
TTie Use of Pure Cullures. — The aroma of butter and the
characteristic flavors of the different varieties of cheese are
now quite generally recognized as being due to changes in
the constituents of milk brought about by the action of cer-
tain species of bacteria. It is therefore important that
milk and cream for dairy purposes be kept under conditions
favorable to the growth of bacteria which contriliute to the
best results. Very successful experiments in butter-making
have been made by introducing jiure cultures of these bac-
teria into the cream and allowing them to develop before
churning. In Denmark some lorge creameries have been
operated upob the plan of first sterilizing the cream by heat
and then inlrodiKing the desired culture. Hulter of supe-
rior quality is being made in this way. Little has yet been
done with iiure cultures in the manufacture of cheese, but
undoiiblcdfy the most promising field fur improvement lies
in this direction.
Methods ok .Analysis.
The estimation of the fat and the total solids is sufTi-
cient to show the value of milk for technical puri)Oses and
to detect the usual adulterations. Jlore detailed analyses
comprise the estimation of the casein, albumen, milk su-
gar, and ash. The other constituents mentioned on previ-
ous pages are rarely determined, as, so far as is at present
known, Ihey play no important rule in the dairy industry.
Eslimalioii of Total Solids. — The simplest meth(H{ of
making this determination consists in evaporating upon a
water-l)ath from '2-ii irrammes of milk, in a fiat-bottomed
platinum or nii-kel '".Ish .T cm. in diameter, that has been
previously weighe<?, and drying the resiilue at 100' C until
of constant weight. A little ignited asbestos placed in the
dish before weighing absorbs the milk and greatly facili-
tates the drying by exposing a larger surface. Clean, ig-
nited sjind has been extensively useil instead of asln'stos fur
this iMirposc. but the latter is to be preferred. The weight
of the ilry residue represents the tutaJ solids in the amount
of milk taken.
Kstimnlion of Fat. — The principle involved in nil of the
gravimetric methods is lo extract the fat from the dried
n^idue with anhydrous ether, and after evaporating the
ether in a tared dish to weigh the residual fut. Sluiiy
methoils of accomplishing this have liecn devist'd. That in
use at the \Vis<-onsin a^'rieultiirnl ex|K'riiiU'nt .station,
whicli ailmits of the use of the same sample of milk for the
estimation of liotli solids and fats, is as follows: A hollow
cylinder "i inches long aiul } inch in diameter, made from
finely |iorforate<l sheet copper or tin (if of copper, it .should
lie plated with nickel or silver to prevent oxidation), is
nearly filled with ignited asbestos and weighed. From 2 to 5
r66
MILK
grammes of milk lire run on to the asbestos, which quickly
absorbs it. The cylinder is then dried at 100' C. until of
constant weight. The difference between the first and sec-
ond weight gives the total solids. When dry the cylinder is
placed in a continuous extraction apparatus, anil the fat
extracted with ether, which, being received in a weighed
fiask, is dried and weighed. The Adams method, quite
generally adopted by Knglish cliemists, consists in absorb-
mg the milk upon coils of fat-free filter-paper, which, alter
being dried, are extracted with ether as described above.
Besides the gravimetric method for the estimation of fat,
several others based upon different principles have been
quite extensively used. .Among these may be mentioned
Soxhlet'sareometric method, which depends upon the specific
gravity of the ether solution, which separates when definite
quantities of milk, caustic potash, and ether are mixed to-
gether. The method is accurate, and has been very exten-
sively used in Europe. i'Vser's lactoscope and the pioscope
depend upon the optical properties of milk. They are very
simple of manipulation, but can not be depended upon for
accurate work.
Since 1888 a number of simple volumetric methods de-
signed for dairymen and others not versed in chemical
manipulation have been introduced. The most prominent
of these, which give accurate results, are Short's, Patrick's,
the Leffman,and Beam and Babcock's methods. The latter
is extensively used by dairymen for testing the value of their
cows, and is being very generally introduced in creameries
and cheese-factories throughout the U. S. for the purpose of
making dividends upon the " relative value plan." This
method is described as follows :
Apparatus. — The test-bottles (Fig. 1) for this test should
contain not less than 40 cubic cm. up
to the neck. The graduated neck
should be about 10 cm. long and 5 or
6 mm. in diameter ; the graduated por-
tion should contain 2 cubic cm. and
be divided into 50 equal parts, each of
which represents '2 per cent, of fat
when 18 grammes of milk are taken
for the test. The pipette for measur-
ing milk (Fig. 2) has a mark at 17-6
cubic cm., and will deliver approxi-
mately 18 grammes of average milk.
The acid graduate (Fig. g) has a single
mark at ITo cubic cm. The centrif-
ugal machine for whirling the bottles
should be so arranged that the drum
carrying the bottles will make from
700 to 1,000 revolutions per minute.
The diameter of this drum should not
be less than 15 inches and need not
exceed 20 inches. Commercial suljilm-
ric acid having a specific
\
Fia. 1.
Fia. 3.
gravity of 1-82 to 1-83 is
required for the test.
Making the Test. — The
milk is first carefully
mixed liy pouring from
one vessel to another, and
the proper amount is meas-
ured into the test-bottle
with the 17'6 cubic cm.
|)ipette, and 17'5 cubic
cm. of HjSOt added from
3 the acid measure. The
bottle is then shaken until
the contents are thorough-
ly mixed; considerable heat is evolved, the cotitents being
changed to a dark-coffee color. While still hot the test-
bottles are placed in the centrifugar machine and whirled
for four or five minutes, when the fat is found in a clear
layer resting upon a dark liquid. Suflicient hot water is
then poured into the bottles to fill them to aljout the 7 jier
cent, mark, after which they are whirled again for about a
minute, when the reading can be taken. The method is ap-
plicable to the estimation of fat in cream, skim-milk, butter-
milk, and in cheese.
Estimation of Casein and Alhumen. — These are usually
determined together by multiplying tlie nitrogen by 6'25.
The nitrogen is most easily determined by the Kjeldahl
method.
Si/f/ar may be determined after precipitating the casein
and albumen by titration with Fehling's solution, or more
quickly with the polariscopc. When the other constituents
are determined the sugar may be found by difference with
sufficient accuracy for most purposes.
Ash. — From 5 to 10 grammes are dried in a platinum or
porcelain dish and the residue burned in a muffle-furnace
at low redness until all of the organic matter is destroyed.
Detection of Adulterations.
The usual adulterations of milk are the abstraction of fat
and the addition of water. Owing to the wide variations in
the amount of fat which different milks contain, it is im-
practicable to determine by any method whether a portion
of the cream has been removed from the sample of milk if
the source of the milk is unknown. It is therefore necessary
for the better protection of the public against frauds of this
kind to prohibit the sale of any milk as pure which contains
less than a minimum amount of fat, which is fixed by law.
In most places this limit is placed at 3 per cent, of fat; in
Massachusetts and some other States it is3'5 per cent. Any
milk which falls below the established standard is supposed
to be skimmed, and the |ierson who offers such milk lor sale
as pure violates the law, and may be punished, although the
poor (juality of the milk may be caused by poor cows and
not by dishonesty on his part.
The variation in the amount of solids not fat in milk is
much less than that of the fat. In mixed milks the solids
not fat are usually above 9 per cent, and rarely fall below 8'5
per cent, in milks from individual cows. In Great Britain
and in most of the U. S. where standards are established
the minimum for solids not fat is placed at 9 per cent. Skira-
milk contains a trifle more solids not fat than pure milk,
while milks to which water has been added contain less.
If, therefore, a sample of mixed milk is found which con-
tains less than the established standard of solids not fat, it is
considered to be watered. The judgment in regard to a
watered milk turns entirely upon the amount of solids not
fat. and has nothing to do with the amount of fat which the
milk contains. A milk may therefore contain a higher per
cent, of fat than is required by law and still be condemned
as watered if the solids not fat are below standard.
In States where there is no legal stan<lard for the solids not
fat, no arbitrary rule can be given for determining a watered
milk. Frauds of this kind may. however, be
detected in the following maimer: Whenever
the solids not fat fall much below 9 per cent,
it is a suspicious circumsiance, aiul a sample
of milk from the same herd, taken at the time
of milking by an authorized person, should be
tested in the same way. If in this sample,
which is known to be genuine, the per cent, of
solids not fat is found to be about tlie same as
in previous trials, it is prot)al)le that the milk
has not been tampered with at any time. If,
however, the per cent, of solids not fat in the
samples taken at the farm are up to the required
standard, it is strong evidence that water had
been added to the milk which tested low.
The usual methods of aiudysis already de-
scribed are too complicated, and require too
much time for the use of milk-inspector,s, who
often have large numbers of milks to examine in
a single day. The method generally employed
by them is to determine the specific gravity of
the milk with a delicate lactometer and the per
cent, of fat by some of the rapid volumetric
mcthoils. From the <iata thus obtained the
total solids and the solids imt fat can be calcu-
lated with sullicient accuracy.
The lactometer is a hydrometer especially
adapted to the examination of milk; many
kinds are in use, all of which have the same
general form, viz., a narrow stem to which is
attached an elongated bulb weighted at the
bottom so as to float in an upright position
with the stem ])arlially submerged. The depth
lo which the laclometer sinks depends ujion
the specific gravity of the milk in which it is
placed, a heavy milk causing it to rise higher
above the milk than a light one. The lactome-
ter generally used in the U. S. is graduated
from 0° to 120°. 0° being the point to which the
instrnment sinks in pure water at 00 F. and
100 the point to whicli it sinks in a licjuid having a specific
gravity of 1 029, this being assumed to be the lowest specific
/
s
Fio. 4.— Que-
vfime's luc-
Itum'ttT.
MILK-FEVER
MILL
767
gravity compatible with pure milk. The scale of this Inc-
toiiieter is intended to show the per cent, of milk huvin;; a
specific Ki'avity of 1'02U whicli the sample e.xamineil con-
tains. This, however, it does not do, as the addition of
cream to milk, thus renderin;; it richer, affects the readinj^
ill the same way as the addition of water. For this rea.son,
anil also Ijecause it is necessary when the readings are to l>e
used in connection with tiie per cent, of fat for the calcula-
tion of the total solids to know the specilic gravity of the
milk, the (^ueveiiiie lactometer is to be preferred. The scale
of this hu'tometer expresses in thousandths the difference
between the specific gravity of the liquid tested and water,
the specific gravity of water being 1. The specific gravity
is easilv derived from the reading by dividing, it by 1,(X)0
and adding 1 to the quotient. To illustrate : a reading of
3:i on this lactometer is equivalent to a specific gravity of
l-0;i;l The scale of the ordinary lactometer may be con-
verted into the Quevenne scale by multiplying by 29.
Among the formulas used for the calculation of total solids
from the specilic gravity and per cent, of fat may be men-
tioned those of Fleischmann and Babcock. Fleischmann's
fornnila is —
6^
Total solids :
Babcock's formula is —
Solids not fat = f jqq_^.^^...^ - 1 j x (100 -/)2-6.
In both of these formulas /= per cent, of fat in milk and
S = specific gravity of milk at 13' C. Both tables are given
to aid in calculations.
A simple formula which docs not require the use of
tables is
L+--:f
Solids not fat = -
3-8
in which L = reading of Quevenne lactometer and /= fat.
LiTKRATiRE. — Martiiiy, Die Milch (Dantzic, 1872);
Fleischmann, />/e J/»/A(;rejM»ese?i (Brunswick, 1877); Kirch-
ner, Ilitmlbnck d. Milchwirthscltaft (:!d ed. Berlin, 1891);
Otto, Die Milch und Hire Prod'nkte (Berlin, I8U2); Die
Milchzeiluni/ (Bremen, 1872 to date) ; Konig, Xusam-
mensehung der menHchlichen Nahruiiys- und Ueiiuasmittel
(i.-ii., Berlin, 188!) and 1893); von Klenzc, Ilandbuch d.
Kdserei 7Vc/i;ii7.- (Bremen, 1884) ; Sheldon, Dairy Farming
(London); Arnold, American Dairying (Kochester, X. Y.,
1879); Blyth, Fnodn, their ConipoKitioit and Anali/sis (Lon-
don, 1882); Flint, Milch CowKniid Dairy Farming (Boston,
1889) ; Boeggilil, Meieribriiget i Danmark (Copenhagen,
1891) ; Hoard. Dairyman (Fort Atkinson, Wis., 1869 to date) ;
The Analyst (London, 1876 to date); Agricultural Science
(State College. Pennsylvania, 1887 to date); Experiment Sta-
tion Record (Washington, I). C.) ; agricultural experiment
station reports and bulletins from Maine, New Hampshire.
Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut (Xew Haven and
Storr's School), Xew York (Geneva and Cornell rniversity),
Pennsylvania. Illinois. Kentucky, Wisconsin. Iowa, Minne-
sota. See BuTTBR and Cheese. S. M. Babcock.
Milk-fevor: a name applied to a short febrile attack
which sometimes attends the beginning of the milk-se-
creting process, a few days after childbirth. It is often
a mild form of infection and may be ushered in by pro-
found and rather alarming chills, but is unimportant ex-
cept as sometimes simulating the on.set of puerperal fever,
for which it is occasionally mistaken. Farmers and veteri-
narians apply the name to puerperal perilonitis of the lower
animals, and to a severe form of cereliro-spinal meningitis
which sometimes attacks cows after calving. The last-men-
tioned disease is treated by cathartics, merciiVy, aconite, and
heat to the spine; the former, by opium, aconite, mercury,
and hot abilominal fomentations. Revised byW. Pepper.
.Milk-mirror. The: See Escutciieox.
Milk-sickness: an acute disease endemic in sparsely
settled parts of the L'. S. ; alTecting cattle primarily, and
human beings as a result of eating the flesh or drinking the
milk of affected cattle. In cattle it is called /mdA/ct and
slotvK. It is pnibalily infectious in nature, but no particular
micro-organi<m has been discovered. The symptoms in cat-
tle are marked muscular weakness, tremor, vomiting, and a
peculiar fetor of the breath. In man the disease comes on
suddenly and presents similar symptoms. Fever, coated
tongue, great fetor of breath and vomiting, with profound
wealiness, arc the characteristics. Fortunately, the disea.'«>
is much less freciuent than formerly. The treatment should
aim at control of the fever and relief of urgent symptoms,
with supporting remedies to prevent exhaustion. \\ . P.
Milk-snako : a popular name for a harmless snake found
in the eastern parts of the U. S. See Kl.Mi-s.VAKE.
Milk-sugar: Sec Cheese and Mii.k.
.Milk-tree: popular name for any tne the trunk of
which when incised yields a milky fluid fit for food. Such
are the cow-tree, found in the Caraccas islantls ; the kiria-
guma, or (Jymnema lactiferum, of Ceyhm, used for domes-
tic purpo.ses; and the labayba (hiU-v, or L'liphorl/ia halmimi-
fera, of the Canary islands, which yields a wholesome juice
resembling sweet milk.
Milkweed Family; the Asclepiadacecr ; a large group
(1,700 species) of milky-juiced dicotyledonous herbs, slirul)S,
and trees, with opposite leaves, gamopetalous flowers, free
bicarpellary ovaries, and mostly united stamens. Thev are
widely dispersed, especially in the warmer portions of the
earth. In the l'. S. there are about 100 species, more than
half of which (the common milkweeds of fields and low-
lands) belong to the genus Asctepias. JIanv sjiecies are
grown for ornamental purposes, esi)ecially tlie species of
AsiLKl'lAS (<j. v.), Vincetoxicnm, Cer.opega. Ifoya.aml Sliipe-
lia. The last are leafless cactus-like plants from South Africa.
Their flowers are showy, but have an offensive smell.
Charles E. Bessey.
Milky Way: See Galaxy.
Mill, James: philosopher; b. at Logie Pert, Forfarshire,
Scotland. .\pr. 6. 1773; was educated at the University of
Edinliurgh. and was licensed as a preacher in the Scottish
Xational Church 1798. but abandoned that career in conse-
quence of a change of religious opinion ; became a tutor in
Uie family of Sir .lolin Stuart, whom he accompanied to
London in 1802, and settled in that capital as an author.
Ue edited The Literary Journal; became intimately con-
nected with .leremy Bent ham, residing in his house and ex-
pounding his opinions to the English public ; wrote an
elalwrate History of British India (3 vols., 1817-18), which
Frocured him an important post in the oflicc of the East
iidia Company; was one of the chief contributors to The
Westminster A'eriew (1824); published a treatise on Politi-
cal Economy (1821-22); wrote largely for the Encyelopiedia
Britannica on political and social subjects, and was author
of a remarkable philosophical, work. An Analysis of the
Phenomena of the Human Mind (2 vols., 1829). In this
work the principle of "association," stated by Hartley, re-
ceived a penetrating application to the whole range of
psychological pmlilcms. The " association psychology " was
thus expounded and the foundation laid for its great and
acute development bv later British writers, notably Spencer
and Bain. 1). .lune 23, 1836. Revised bv J. M. Baluwi.n.
Mill, John Stiaht ; philosopher, logician, and i>olitical
economist ; son of .lames Mill, philosopher; b. in London,
May 20. 1806. His father t(Hik sole charge of his education,
and' conducted it in a way to secure a precocious develop-
ment. Mill says of himself; "I have no remembrance of
the time when' I began to learn Greek; 1 have been told
that it was when I was three years ohi." At eight he was
reading Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plato; and during the
next four vcars he read the works of the leading Latin
authoi-s anil the Greek poets, dramatists, orators, and [ihi-
losophers, even to Aristotle's Rhetoric. In the ,<ame period
he was grappling with the problems of the calculus and
higher mathematics, and finding his recreation in reading
history and books of experimental science, interspersed
with earnest converstitioiis with his father as they took
long walks together. In his fourteenth year he wai; taken
through a complete course of political economy, with the
help of such bonks as were then publishe<l and of discus-
sions with his father. l']i to this time he had been ex-
cluded from participation in the ordinary sports of chihlren
and from a.-vsociat ion with other boys. -\\ hen about four-
teen he left Kngland for a year, spent mostly in the south of
France. There he imbibed a taste for niomilain scenery,
took lessons in fencins and other forms of bi.dily exert'ise,
attended lectures on science, and studied the higher mathe-
matics under private tuition. He carried home with him
a strong and permanent interest in continental lilieralisni,
which <|Ualified his subsequent political views. He receive<l
the impress of his father's religious skepticism to such a
degree that he confesses, " 1 am one of the very few exam-
Cles in this countrv of one who has not thrown off religious
elief, but never li'ad it. I looked upon the modem exactly
768
MILL
MILLEDOLER
as I did upon the ancient religion, as something which in
no way concerned me." On his return from France lie as-
sisted his father in preparing for tlio press a work on po-
litical economy. Soon after he studied law with John
Austin, a disciple of Bentham. All liis associations identi-
fied liim with IJentliam's school of philosophy, to wliich he
claims to have given the title " utilitarian." When seven-
teen years old his father secured for him an appointment
from the East India Company, in whose service lie remained
for thirty-five yejire. rising steadily from the lowest grade of
clerk to the highest post in his department, that of examiner
of India correspondence. The same year (J.S3;i) Tin- West-
min'iter Review was establislied hy Bentham and liis fol-
lowers as a radical organ in politics and religion. Young
Mill began at once contributing to its pages, and made it for
many years the eliief medium for publishing his literary
efforts. From 1835 to 1840 he was its principal conductor.
When only twenty-one he edited Bentharn's great work On
Evidence, adding notes and supyilemcntal chapters of his
own. With the bringing out of liis Si/xtem of Logic, Ralio-
cinative and Inductive, in 1818. he became prounnent as a
strong, bold, radical writer on philosophical subjects. This
■work embodied the peculiarities of empirical philosophy and
association psychology. After having previously treated parts
of the subject in a series of essays, he published in 1848 his
full treatise, entitled Principles of Political Economy, with
some of their Applications to Social Philosophy. This work,
like tlie Logic, has passed through several editions in Eng-
land and the U. S.. and has a place among the standard
works on the subject. On the dissolution of the East India
Company in 1836. Mill, thrown out of his office, turned his
attention altogether to literary labors. He published in
185!) a work 0« Liberty, which strikes at the despotism of
public opinion over individual freedom of thought. In the
same year "was issued a collection of his Dissertations and
Discussiotis, Political, Philosophical, and Historical, which
had previously appeared m The Westminster and Edin-
burgh Reviews; also an essay entitled Thoughts on Parlia-
mentary Reform, in winch he advocated the extension of
suffrage without distinction of sex on the basis of educa-
tional qualifications. In 1865 Mill was returned to Par-
liament, but his career in that body disappointed his con-
stituents and the public generally. His chief prominence
was in advocating tlie measure to admit women to the suf-
frage, which failed. In the new election he was rejected,
and retired from public life. Duringhis remaining years his
residence was in the south of Europe, near Avignon, varied
by spending some time twice a year in the neighborhood of
London. He devoted his time to miscellaneous literary
work, the fruits of which were in part presented to the pub-
lic under his own eye and in part reserved for posthumous
publication. Of the hitter, his .■l«/oi(y^?'rt/)/iy and Essays
on Tlieism are worthy of special notice. In 1830, when in
his twenty-fifth year, he formed the acquaintance of a Mrs.
John Taylor, and was drawn into an almost idolatrous devo-
tion toward her. She shared in his literary work, and he
says, rather extravagantly, " What I owe, even intellectu-
ally, to her is in its detail almost infinite." In 1851 that
'• most valued friendship of his life " was consummated by a
formal marriage. His wife died at Avignon in 1859, after
which he fixed his residence near her grave. There, with
lier eldest daughter, he cherished her memory as a "re-
ligion," and endeavored still to regulate his life with
supreme regard to her approbation till his own death, on
May 8, 1873. Besides the works above noticed, Mr. Mill
gave to the public the following — viz.: Consideratiims on
Repre-ientative Government (1861); i'lilitariaiUsm {1802):
Auguste Comte and Positivism and Examination of Sir
William Hamilton's Philosophy (1865) ; England and Ire-
land (1868); The Subjection of Women (186!)); Chaj)ters
and Speeches on the Irish Land Question (1870). His
Autobiography appeared soon after his death, in 1873, and
the Three Essays — Nature, The I'tilily of Religion, and
Thei.im, in 1874. A clear and candid presentation of Mill's
views and character is given in a little memorial published
in 1873, which is made up of twelve distinct sketches by H.
K. Fox Bourne, Herbert Spencer, J. E. Cairns, Henry Faw-
eett, and others well acquainted witli the man and familiar
with his writings. Also see the biographies by Bain (1882)
and Courtney (1889). The infiuence of J. S. Mill upon
British philosophy was extraordinary, especially at Oxfcu'd.
before the rise of the Neo-Hegelian movement represented
by Green. The association psychology became the orthoilox
system, ministering as it did to utilitarian ethics and to a
positivistic agnosticism in metaphysics and religion. More-
over, by his system of inductive logic. Mill emphasized the
tendency to natural science conceptions and made easv the
introduction of the views of Comte. Mill is the founder of
the inductive or empirical logic. See Lnductio.n and Logic.
Kevised by J. Mark Balowi.v.
Millais, mil'hT', Sir John Everett: portrait, genre, and
landscape painter; b. at Southampton, England, June 8,
182!». He studied in the Koyal Academy, London, wdiere
in 1843 he won a silver medal for his Pizarro Seizing the
Inca of Peru, and a gold medal in 1847 for his Benjamites
Seizing the Daughters of Shiloh ; became a Koyal Academi-
cian 1863 ; was created baronet in 1885 ; won a" second<-lass
medal at the Paris Exposition of 18.55; medal of hcmor at
the Exposition of 1878 ; was made an officer of the Legion
of ILmor 1878; memljer of the Institute of France 1883;
meinl)er of the Academies of Antwerp, Edinburgh, Madrid,
and Koine. In 1847-48 he formed one of the small group
of British painters called the Pre-Kaphaelites who had John
Ruskin as their champion, but he did not long adhere to the
peculiar theories of art held by that lirotherhood. He is the
leading portrait-painter in London, and some of his pictures,
such as A Huguenot (1851), Yes or S\'o (1875). and Eflie Deans
(1877), have achieved a widespread popularity through en-
graving and other reproductive processes. He succeetled
Lord Leighton as president of the Royal Academy. 1). at
London, Aug. 13, 1896. William A. Coffin.
Mil'lard. David : clergyman and author ; b. in Ballston,
N. Y.. Xov. 24, 1794 ; became a minister of the " Christian "
denomination 1815 ; was pastor of a church at West Bloom-
field, N. Y., 1818-32, and at Portsmouth. N. H., 1837-40;
published 7'he True 3Iessiah E.ralted (Keene, K. H., 1818;
2d ed. 1825) ; edited for several years a monthly maga-
zine called The Gospel Luminary ; visited Palestine in 1841,
and published A Journal of Travels in Egypt, Arabia
Petra'a, and the Holy Land during lS41-4^ (Rochester,
N. Y., 1843) ; settled again at West Bloomfield. and was from
1845 to 1867 Professor of Biblical Antiquities and Sacred
Geography at Meadville Theological Seminary. D. at Jack-
son, Mich.. Aug. 3, 1873. See the Life by his son, Rev.
D. E. Millard, 1874. Revised by S". M. Jackson.
Millau: See Milhau.
Millbury: town (set off from Sutton in 1813); W^orcester
CO., Mass. (for location of county, see map of Massachusetts,
ret. 3-F) ; on the Boston and Albany and the N. Y.. N. H.
and Hart, railways; 6 miles S. of Worcester, the cotmty-
seat. It contains 7 churches, 15 graded and 2 district schools
held in 7 buildings, a national bank with capital of ^200,000.
a savings-bank with deposits of over |!800.0()0, a town library
(founded 1864) containing over 7,000 volumes, and a weekly
newspaper. There are 5 woolen. 2 edge-tool, a hosiery, a
linen shoe-thread, an electric-car, and a loora-heddle manu-
factory, indigo (lye-works. 2 foundries, machine-shop, and
sash, door, and blind, and wood-turning factories. In this
town Thomas Blanchard constructed the first nuichine for
turninsr irregular forms, the principle of which has never
been improved. Pop. (1880) 4,741 ; (18!)0) 4.428; (1895)
5,222. D. Edmund .March.
Millcdgeville; city (formerly the State capital); capi-
tal of Baldwin co., Ga, (for location of county, see map of
Georgia, ref. 4-n) ; on the Oconee river at the head of navi-
gation, and on the Cent, of Ga., the (Ja., and the Mid. Ga.
and Atlaiilie railways; 39 miles E. N. E. of Jlacon. It is
the seat of the Georgia Normal and Industrial Collen;e for
Girls, the Middle Georgia Military and .Agricultural Col-
lege (a branch of the State University) and the Georgia
.State Lunatic Asylum. It is in a cotton-growing region,
and has water-works, electric lights, a State bank with capi-
tal of §50,000, a weekly newspaper, and oil. machinery, i>ot-
ferv, and brick works. Pop. (18,S0) 3,800 ; (18!)U) 3,322;
(1893) estimated with suburbs, 5.000.
Editor ok " Union-Recorder."
Millodolor, mil doler. PniLiP, D. L). : college president;
b. at Khinebeck. N. Y., Sept. 22. 1775; graduated at Co-
lumbia College in 1792; became pastor of the Cii'rman Re-
formed church in Nassau Street. New Y'ork, in 1794, of the
Third Presbyterian church in Philadelphia 1800-05. of the
Rutgers Street Presbyterian church. New Y'ork, 1805-13, of
the Collegiate Reformeil Dutch church 1813-2.5. and from
1825 to 1840 was president of Rutgers College. New Jersey.
He was one of the founders of the American Bible Society
D. on Stateii Island, N. Y., Sept. 22, 1852.
MILLENARIANS
MILLER
Y69
Millciiii'rians, or, less commonly, ("hiliasts : thosi» who
IkpM tli.it till- second a<lvi-nt of Christ jirfiedes thu end of
the world, and that ut his eominfj the pious dead will be
raised and will reij,Ti with him upon the earth for a thou-
sand years, the so-ealled millennium of Hev. xx. 1-7. This
theory has always liud believers and advocates in the Chris-
tian ('liunh, hut never has received confessional sanction.
In the first century those who accepted it were called Chili-
asts. The ablest work in Knfjlish aj;ainst it is by Kev. llavid
ISrown, TIte Second Coming of our Lord (London, 184(5).
An elaborate work upim eschatology in general, on the mil-
lenarian side, is bv (i. N. II. I'uters, The ^^lnocratic King-
dom (3 vols.. New Vork, 1884). ' S. M. Jackson.
Millennium, or, less commonly, Cliiliasm [millennium
= Late Lilt.: L«t. mit'h; thoiis;ind + ««««.<, year; chili-
iiKni is from <ir. x'^'it^Auis. deriv. of x'^'<". t'lc'sand] : the
thousand years of the .Alessiah's reii^n on earth supposeil to be
tauirht in Hev. xx. 1-7. There are two theories to which all
the numerous theories on this suliject may be reduced:
1. The literal, according to the Jewish form of which, as
tauKlit first 20(1 years B. c, the Messiah shall reign in Jeru-
salem, and the Jews restored to Palestine shall enjoy remark-
able and continuous prosperity ; and in its Christian form,
the so-called Chilia-sm, as found in I'apias and others. Chris-
tians no less than Jews shall share these temporal lili'ssings
with the Jews. These views persisted in the Church and were
revived by the radical party among the early Protestants,
but the sober sense of the Church was against them. 2. The
spiritual theory declares that the number 1.000 is used in
.Scripture as denr)ting an indefinite large number. So the
thousand years of Kev. xx. 1-7 is not to be taken literally, but
as figurative of that long period of spiritual prosperity
which the Church shall enjoy before the coming of Christ
and the end of time. S. M. Jackson.
MilIo))ods [I-at. mil'le, thousand + pes, pedis, foot]: See
MvRiArouA.
Millepore [Lat. mil'le, thousand + po'nix, pore] : name of
a genus of Ilydroidea. which unlike most hydroiifs produces
a sort of coral which is smooth and branching, and ha.s very
small cells occupied by the polyjis. These cells are unlike
those of the true coral in that they arc divided by horizon-
tal partitions. *)n account of the presence of these parti-
tions the millcpores and their allies formerly were grouped
with a number of fossil forms in which similar partitions
or " t-ables " exist, in an order, TnbitlaUe. The uivestiga-
tions of llickson have shown that at least one species of
millepore produces medusi." (see Hydroids), which, however,
never become separated from the parent stock. The s|iecies
of millepore are few, and on account of their delicate skele-
ton they play but a minor part iu the formation of coral
reefs. The stag-horn coral, so common in tropical waters,
is Millipora alcirurnia. J. S. KiNOSLEY.
Miller. CisciN.NATis Hf.ixk, known in literature as Joa-
quin MiLi.Kii: poet; b, in Wabash District, Ind., Nov. 10,
184L In 18.54 he went to Willamette Valley, Ore., and
soon after to the California mining regions. In 1860, after
stuilying law, he was admitted to the bar in Oregon ; in 18(53
editinl the Kugene Democratic Register for a short time : iu
18(5li was elected ili.strict judge of Oregon, and served in that
position four years ; settled in New York about 1874, having
made a visit to u'urope in 1870. Ho wrote Songs of the
Sierras (1871); Pacitic Poems (1873); Songs of tlie Sun
//(i;i<i.< (1873) ; Unwril/en History (IH'i): The Ship i'» the
Desert (1875) ; First Families of the Sierras, a novel (187.'));
Ailrianne, a Dream of Jtali/ (1870); t)ne Fair Woman,
a novel (1870); Songs of Italy (1878); Shadows of Shasta
(1881); The Uuld-seekers of the Sierras (1884); and Songs
of the Mexican Seas (1887). llis novel The Danitea (1881)
was successfully jiroduced as a play. He afterward liecamc
a journalist at Washington, D. C. and in WXl removed to
t>akland, Cal. Revised by II. A. Beers.
.Millor. llniii: geologist; b. Oct. 10. 1802, at Cromarty,
.Scotland : lost his father when he was five years old. but re-
ceived, nevertheless, a very C(Uis<'ieiitious and careful edu-
cation by his two uncles; acquired an extensive and well-
iligcsted knowledge of Knglisli language, histriry.and litera-
ture, and developed ehrly that powcT of acute observatii>ii
which afterward made him celebrated in literal uri' and
science. He ilid not care, however, to attend a university.
In 1810 he was apprenticed to a stone-mason, and he worked
at this trade steadily till 18:16. though devoting all his lei-
sure hours to geological researches (Uid to reading. In 1821)
276
he publishp<I a volume of Poems written in the Leisure Flours
of a ■loumeynian Mason,ani\ became a freipient contributor
to dillerent periodicals. In 18;i6 he received a second-ac-
countantship in a braticb bank at Cromarty, luarried, pub-
lished his Scenes and Legends of the Sorlh of Scotland,
and during the Non-intrusion controversy in the .Scottish
Church his Letters to Lord Brougham on the Auchlerarder
case brought him prominently before the public. In 1840
he went to Edinburgh as editor of The Witness, a Free
Church organ, and it was in the columns of this pa|KT he
first published The Old Red Sandstone, or iWw Walks in
an old Field, which ma<le a great sensation, not only on
account of the im^K>rtant geological disci^veries it con-
tained, but also by its exact reasoning and finished style.
He also published First hnpressions of L'ngland and its
People (1847) ; Footprints of the Creator (18.50) ; JJy Schools
and Schoolmasters (18.54), an interesting sketch of his edu-
cation : Testimony of the Rocks (1857), etc. I^ast sat-
isfactory were his attempts to establish perfect harmony be-
tween the details of religious doctrines and scientific views.
His denial of the universality of the Deluge and of the lit-
eral meaning of the word "day" iu the first chapter of
(ienesis aroused much susj)icion among his coreligionists,
anil even met with some severe criticism; while, on the
other hand, his assertion that the entire ty|>e of organic be-
ing was changed by each geologioul period did not escape
the sneere of the scientists. During this hard work, con-
tinued through many years without flagging, his brain at
last gave wav, and he shot himself at Poitobello, near Ed-
inburgh, Dec. 26. 18.56. See Peter Bayne, The Life and
Letters of Hugh Miller, London.
Miller, James Rissell, D. I). : clergyman and editor ; b.
at Frankfort Springs, Pa.. Mar. 20, 1840; was educated at
WestminsterCollege, Pennsylvania; wasjiastorof the United
Presbyterian church. New Wilmington, Pa., 1867-69 : of the
Bethanv Presbyterian church, Philadeljihia, lSH!»-78 : of the
IJroadw-ay Presbyterian church. Rock Island. 111.. 1878-«0;
of the Holland Memorial Mission, Philadelphia, 1881; and co-
pastor of the same organized as an inclependent church.
Since 1880 he has been editor for the Presbyterian board of
pulilication, and has also published Week-day Religion
(1880); Home Making (1882): /h //i* .S7t/)« (1884) ; Silent
Time (1886): Come ye Apart (1887); The Marriage Altar
(1887); Practical Religion (ISi^); Bits of Pasture (181»0) ;
Making the Most of Life (]8i)l) ; Mary of Bethany (1801) ;
Dew of thy Youth (1801) : The Erery Day of Life (1802) ;
and numerous smaller books, and paiupldets and leaflets.
C. K. HoYT.
Miller, Joaquin : See Miller, Ciscinnatus Heine.
Miller. .Iosepii, known as Joe Miller: actor and re-
puted humorist ; b. in England in 1684 ; was a comic actor in
London, somewhat celebrated for his ready wit. and died
there Aug. 16, 1738. The collection entitled Joe Miller's
Jests, published the year after his death (1730). was really
made by the publisher. John Moltley (1602-1750). and con-
tained little or nothing really derived from the }>erson
whose name has thereby become a synonym for stale jests.
Miller. Orest Fedorovicii : writer and professor: b. in
Reval. IJussia, in ls:i;i: studied at the University of .St. Pe-
tersburg, where in 1S61 he was appointed teacher of Russian
literature, particularly of its beginnings. In 18<>5 he pub-
lished ?7ie Slav (^leslion in Life and Knowledge ; in the
following year Lomonosov and the Reforms of Peter the
(treat ; in 1860 H\a Murnmtts i Bogartyrsro A'ierskoe
(Ilia Muromets and the Heroism of Kiev) — his best-known
work, a study of the Russian popular myths. He is alsti the
author of The Slav World and Furope (l>*~7l; Lectures on
Russian Literature after Gogol (3d ed. 1887); and other
works. Miller is one of the foremost of the Slavophils, al-
though not an extremist. A. C. Coolidge.
Miller, Patrick: one of the numerous inventors of
steam-navigation ; b. at Dalwinston, Diimfries."^hire. Scot-
land, about 1730. He was a wealthy country gentleman,
fond of mechanical experiments ; maile some improvements
in artillery: began in 178.5 some experiments in ship con-
struction and propulsion U[xin a U'ch near his estate, and
fiublished in 17n6 a pamphlet giving an account of a vessel
le had invented. In this pamphlet he slati-il his conviction
that the steam-engine cimld tieemployeil to work the wheels.
In 1788 he, with the aid of James Tavlor. projielleil a boat 5
miles an hi>ur by a steam-engine. The experiment proving
unsatisfactory for several reasons, it was abandoned, but
770
MILLER
MILLET
after the successful experiments of Fulton his claims to tlic
invention were put forward. D. at Dalwinston, Dec. 9, 1815.
Miller. S.\muel Free.man, LL. I).. D. C. L. : jurist ; b. at
lilchmond. Ky., Apr. 5, 1816 : was educated at Transylvania
University; became a phy.sician. and afterward a lawyer.
In 1848 he became an advocate of the emancipation of the
slaves, and in 18.J0 removed to Iowa : was successful as a
lawyer ; declined all public offices until 1862, when he was
appointed one of the justices of the U. S. Supreme Court.
He held this office till his death, and for many years was
the senior justice of the court. Among his notable official
acts were the opinions on the Lt)uisiana slaughter-house
cases, in which lie defined the differences between the
rights of the general Government and those of the Slates;
and on the Kilbourn-Thompson case, where the constitu-
tional authority of Congress as a co-ordinate branch of the
Government was for the first time defined ; and the mo-
tion before the Electoral Commission in 1877, which led to
the judgment that Congress hail no authority to go behind
the returns of the legal officers of a State. At the centen-
nial celebration of the adoption of the Federal Constitu-
tion by the convention in Philadelphia, in 1887, he was the
principal orator. D. at Washington, D. C, Oct. VS. 1890.
Miller, Warner : politician : b. in Oswego oo., N. Y.,
Aug. 12, 1838; graduated at Union College in 1860; be-
came a teacher in the Fort Edward collegiate institute, but
when the civil war liroke out he enlisted as a private in the
Fifth New York Cavalry. He fought under Gen. Sheridan,
and attained the rank of lieutenant. He was a delegate to
the national Republican conventions of 1872 and 1888; was
elected to the Xew York Assembly in 1874 and 1875, and
to Congress in 1878 and 1880. On July 16, 1881, he was
elected IJ. S. Senator from New York for the unexpired
term of Thomas C. Piatt, who had resigned. Mr. Miller's
term expired in 1887. He was nominated by acclamation
for Governor of New York by the Republican convention
Aug. 28, 1888, but was not elected.
Miller, William : founder of the sect of Millerites ; b. at
Pittsfield, Mass., Feb. 15, 1782; settled in Poultney, Vt.,
1804 ; served as a captain of volunteers on Canadian fron-
tier during the war of 1812 ; moved in 1815 to Low Hamp-
ton, Washington co., N. Y., and in 1831 began to announce
the speedy second coming of Christ, which, by his interpre-
tation of the biblical prophesies, he fixed for the year 1843,
at which time the world would be destroyed. In a few
years his converts in the U. S., Canada, and Great Britain
numbered many thousands, and were popularly known as
Millerites, though they styled themselves Second Ad ventists.
(See Adventists.) D. at Low Hampton, N. Y., Dec. 20,
1849. See his Life, by Sylvester Bliss (Boston, 1853), and
by James White (Battle Creek, Mich., 1875).
Revised by S. JI. Jackson.
Miller, William Hallowes, F. R. S. : mineralogist; b.
in Wales in 1801 ; gra<luated at Cambridge in 1826 ; became
fellow and tutor of St. John's College ; succeeded Dr. Whew-
ell as Professor of Mineralogy 1832 ; was appointed in
1843 on a royal committee to superintend the construction
of parliamentary standards of length and weight in place
of those destroyed by fire in 1834, and undertook the resto-
ration of the standard of weight, which he finished in Mar.,
1854. He served in 1807 on a commission to iiuiuirc into
the condition of tlie cxclieiiuer standards, and in 1870 on
the international commission upon the metric svstein. He
jniblished in T/ie Phildfiophicnl Magmine. and the Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society many important papers on min-
eralogy and crystallograijhy, for which he received in 1870
one of the royal medals. He was for many years secretary,
and subsequently president, of Cambridge Philosophical So-
ciety, was foreign secretary of the Royal Society 185&-73,
and was a member of the principal scientific societies in
Europe. D. May 20, 1880. ^
Millerites: See Adventists and Miller, William.
Millertbiirg' : village ; capital of Holmes co., O. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Ohio, ref. 4-G) ; on the Cleve.,
Akron, and Columbus Railway ; midway between Cleveland
and Columbus, and 80 miles from each city. It is in an
agricultural region, with coal-fields and iron mines in the
vicinity, and has 7 churches, 2 union schools, electric lights,
2 weekly newspapers, and flour and planing mills, tile and
brick works, foundrv and machine-shops, and furiiiture-fae-
tory. Pop. (1880) "1,814; (18!)0) 1,923; (1893) estinuUed,
2,200. Editor oe " Holmes County Farmer."
Millersblirg ; borough; Dauphin co., Penn. (for loca-
ticm of county, see nuip of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-G) ; on the
Susquehanna river, and the Northern Cent. Railway ; 26
miles N. of llarrisburg. It is in an agricultural region, and
lu'ar the famous Lykens coal-fields; is an important coal-
shipping point ; and has manufactories of lumber, axles,
wheels, ta[)S and dies, brooms, and carpets. Pop. (1880)
1,440 ; (1890) 1,527 ; (1893) about 1,670.
Editor ok " Herald."
Miller's Thumb, or River Biilllientl : a small fish of
the cold streams and lakes of Northern Europe. Its scien-
tific name is Coitus gobio. It lies quiescent on the bottom
among stones, making a quick spring when disturbed. It
is very destructive to the eggs of trout. Numerous similar
species of Ciittus are found in the cold brooks of Northern
America. See Cottid.e. D. S. J.
Millet [from Fr. millet, dimin. of mil (whence Eng.
mill, millet): Ital. miglio < Lat. mi'lium. millet; cf. Or.
fieXivjj and O. Eng. mM] : any one of numerous grasses of
several distinct genera and species. The Milium effusum,
found throughout Europe and Northern Asia and in the
Northern L'. S., is a slender grass of the tribe Panicecr, 4
to 6 feet high, which has never been cultivated, but is
abundant in the woodlands l)oth of Great Britain and
North America. The true, cultivated millet of ancient and
modern times belongs to a third genus, Pamcum, which
embraces no less than 850 species. Paniciim miliaceum is
sown chiefiy for forage, though the seeds yield a very nu-
tritious flour. The Hungarian, German, and Italian millets
are now classified by botanists under the genus Setaria. It
is these coarse setarias which are known as millet in the
U. S., where the crop is grown chiefly for forage, and is
made into hay. The requisites for successful culture of this
millet are a moderately rich, well-tilled soil, and a fine and
closely compacted seed-bed. The seed should not be sown
until the ground is thoroughly warmed, June 1-15. It is
sown In-oadeast and lightly brushed in. Jlillet requires a
large amoiuit of moistm-e from frequent showers in order
to make its best growth, but it will not do well on a wet or
sodden soil. It is a plant of very quick growth, and is
usually cut within two months after seeding, or as soon as
the seed-heads have appeared, and before the seed has har-
dened. The process of cutting and curing is the same as
for hay from other grasses. Jlillet hay is less nutritious
atid less palatable than that of the finer meadow-grasses,
but since it furnishes a large amount of fairly nutritious
forage and is easily and quickly grown on new soil, it is a
favorite crop in those localities where permanent meadows
have not yet become established. If the plant is allowed to
become ripe before cutting, the forage is less digestible and
less palatable, and the ri]iened or partially ripened seed
contains a diuretic principle which makes its use as a fod-
der objectionable, particularlv for horses.
Revised by H. H. Wing.
Millet, mee'ya', Aim^ : sculptor; b. in Paris, Sept. 27,
1819; studied under David d'Angers; began to exhibit in
1842, and attracted great attention in i857 by a statue,
Ariane, which was bought for the nniscum of the Luxem-
bourg. Of his other works may be named the Mercure, in
the Louvre, and La Jennesse effcuillnnt cles roses, on the
tomb of Henri Murger, the poet of boliemian life, and an
Apollo and Pegasus for the Paris Opera, and especially the
colossal equestrian statue of Vercingetorix at Alise-Sainte-
Reine, in Burgundv. He became an olllcer of the Legion
of Honor in 1870. "D. in Paris, Jan. 13, 1891.
Mil'let, Francis Davis: genre and portrait painter; b.
at Mattapoisett, Mass., in 1846; was a pu[)il in the Royal
Academy at Antwerp, where he won medals in 1872 and
1873; stiulied also in France and Italy; elected a member
of the Society of American Artists 1880; National Acade-
mician 1885; vice-president of National Aciulcmy 1891;
member of the American Water-cohn- Society and Royal
Institute of Painters, London ; was awarded a second-class
mcilal at the Paris Exposition of 18H9. His pictures repre-
sent life in England during the eighteenth century, and
scenes in ancient Rome, Pompeii, and Greece. He is a writ-
er of fiction and descriptive articles in the magazines, and
made a high reputation as the correspondent of the London
Daily Telegraph in the Turco-Russian war. He illustrates
his own articles. His Between Two Fires (engraved in Tlie
Century Magazine for Sept., 1892) was purcliased by the
Chant rev Bequest at the Royal .Academy Exhibition. Lon-
don, in istrj. and one of Ids best works. An English Inn, is
MILLET
MILLS
771
ill the riiion liOiigiio Club, New York. Studios in New York
and at Broadway, Worcestershire, EuKhind.
VVll.UAM A. COFFI.V.
Millet, mt'elii', Jean Francois: <;eiiro and hindscape
rifiinter; li. at (ireville, Manche, France, Oct. 4, 1814; il. at
liarliizon, Seinc-et-Marne, Jan. 2«, \H~~i. He was a |iuj>il
of Moucliel and of Lanfjlois at CherlHiurjf, ami of Paul Uc-
laroche in Paris; was awarded sec<mil-cla.<s medals at the
Salons of 18o3 and 1H64; first-class at the Paris Exposition
18tiT; decoration of the Legion of Honor lS(i8. He was
well trained in acadenii<' study, but desiring to (jet inspira-
tion froui nalnrc by direct contact with the scenes he
wished to |iaiMt, he went to live in the country. He was
poor, and for a hmg time his pictures brought him but slight
pecuniary return, but toward the end of his life they began
to be appreciated bv collectors who had formerly been un-
able to see any merit in them. Since his death his works
have been praised by artists and critics and sold at very
high prices, one of his best-known pictures, T/ie A)i(/elun,
(185!*) having brought ^100,000 at auction in Paris in 1889.
This picture was exhibited in the principal' cities in the
I'. S., but was finally purchased by a French amateur, JI.
Chauchard, and taken back to Paris. It has been called
Millet's masterpiece, but it is by no means the best of his
works. If this title is to be given to any of them, it un-
doubtedly belongs to The ^/'/ea/iero (18,57) which was bought
from its owner, .M. BischofTsheim, by .Madame Pommery, of
Reims, in 1889, and presented to the Louvre, where it now is.
-Millet was one of the greatest artists of modern times. Tlie
list of his best works includes, besides the two already men-
tioned. The Sower and The Water-carrier, both in the col-
lection of Mrs. W. II. Vanderbilt, New York ; The Grafter
(William Rockefeller. New York); Peasant Leaning on his
IloeCSl. Van den Eynde, Paris); The Sheep Park (M. Bel-
lino, Paris); T/ie TurK-ey-lceeper {C. A. Dana, New York);
The Chitrner (F. L. Ames. Boston); Buckwheat TVireshers
(not carried tocomplelion.CjuincvShaw, Boston); Tlie Plant-
ers ((^uincy Shaw, Boston) ; The' Potato Harvest (W. T. Wal-
ters, Baltimore) : Breaking Flax (W. T. Walters, Baltimore) ;
and Death and the Woodcutter (ov:iu't\ in France). The most
eomi)lete work on Millet is Vie et CEuvre de J. P. Millet, by
.\lfred Scnsicr (Paris, 1881). William A. Coffi.n.
Mirii-Casso'ne, Gianxina: poet and improvisatrice ;
b. at Teramo, Abruzzi, Italy, in 1827. She is said to have
composed verses when but five years old ; at the age of sev-
enteen found a literary guide in de Martinis. Having
heard the poet Regaldi improvise, she was seize<l with an
impulse to emulate him, in which she was encouraged by
Regaldi himself. She gave public improvisations in the
Abruzzi, in Calabria, ami finayy at Naples under the pro-
tection of the h'arned Giulio (ienoino. In the same way sho
nuule a tour through the Two Sicilies, wjis honored with
two silver medals, and in Rome with a medal of gold. Iler
name was not generallv known throughout Italy until after
18o7, when she began lier poetical excursions through Tus-
cany and Uiiper Italy. In 1860 she met with the greatest
success at 'lurin, then the royal residence; and a pension
was tKjstowed upon her by the minister de Sanctis. In 1869
she was appointed inspector of the elementary schools for
girls of Southern Italy. A normal .school for young women
was afterward established in Rome, and she was appointed
sii[)erintendcnt, a jiosition she held till her marriage with
Ferdinando Cassone, schools-inspector at Caserta. Her first
published verse wivs entitled Qual e il piit bel pregio delta
donna (18.54). Later her poems were collected in two vol-
umes (18(W-6;!). Revised by A. R. Marsh.
Milligaii, William, D. D. : theologian; b. in Edinburgh,
Mar. 15, 1821 ; graduated at St. Andrews (18;W) ; was minis-
ter at Cameron, Fifeshire, and afterward at Kilcompihar
1844-60: Professor of Divinity and Bililical Criticism at the
University of Aberdeen from 1800. He was |irincipal clerk
to the General Assi'inblv, and moderalur of As,seinblv in
1882. 1). in Aberdeen. Dec. 11, 1893. Among his nublished
works are Words of the Xew Testament as Altered oi/ Trans-
mission and Ascertained by Modern Criticism (with Dr.
Robert.s, Edinburgh, 1873); The Resurrection of our Lord
(London, 1881. and subsequent editions); The Revelation
of St. John (Baird lecture. 1885, published 1886); a Com-
inenlary on the (iospel hy John (with Dr. .Moulton. in SchalT's
Popular Commentari/, New York and Edinburgh, 1880) : Rev-
elation (in same series, 18Si) ; Elijah : his Life ami Times
(in the Men of the Bible Series, 1889); The Book of Revela-
tion (Expositor's Bible Series, 1891); The Ascension and
Heavenly Priest hood »of our Lord (Baird lectures for 1801,
London and New York, 1892) ; 7'he Resurrection of the
Dead (1894). \V. J. Bkkcuer.
Millikpii's Rpnd: post-village of Madison parish. La, ;
on the Mississippi river; 15 miles above Vicksburg, .Miss.
In June, 1863, near this place, a Confederate force of 2,500,
under tieii. H. McCullough, attacked a body of coloreil
troops, numbering 1,400, ami jiart of an Iowa regiment, un-
der Gen. E. S. Dennis, but with the assistance of gunboats
from Admiral Porter's fleet they were repulsed.
Mills, Charles Karsxer, M. D. : alienist and neurologist ;
b. at Falls of .Schuylkill, Pa., Dec. 4, 1845; graduated M. D.
at the Universitvof Pennsylvania in 1871 ; was Professor of
Physics in the Wagner Institute, Philadelphia, from 1870
to 1873,_!ind lecturer on Physics in the Franklin Institute
from 1872 to 1873 ; was lecturer on Electro-therapeutics and
Nervous Diseases in the Philadelnhia School of Anatomy
and Surgerv in 1876, lecturer on these subjects in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1877, and in 1887 was made lec-
turer on Nervous and Mental Diseases in that institution. He
is the editor of a System of Nervous Diseases, and is a well-
known author of papers on his specialty in medical journals. •
S. T. Armstrong.
Mill.s, Clark : scul[ilor; b. in Onon<iaga co., N. Y., Dec.
1, 1815. His first trade was that of a millwright, his second
that of a [ilasterer. From this he |)roceeded to sculpture,
which he began to practice in Charleston. S. C. lie was
self-taught, had never been in Europe or seen the works of
the masters in his art. His first work was a bust of John C.
Calhoun, which the city of Charleston purchased and placed
in the town-hall in 1846. This led to other portrait-busts
of local celebrities. In 1848 he was invited to funiish the
design for an equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson for the
Government. The result was the statue on Lafayette
Square, near the White House, in Washington, chiefly re-
markable for the poise of the horse on its hind legs. 'The
ne.\t performance was the colossal statue of Washington at
the battle of Princeton, also in Washington, which was un-
veiled Feb. 22, 1860. The casting of the colosstil statue of
Liberty, after Crawford's design, for the dome of the Capi-
tol, was finished in 1863. I), in Washington, D. C. Jan. 12,
1883. Revised by Russell Stiruis.
Mills, David, LL. B. : politician ; b. in Oxford, Kent co.,
Ontario. Mar. 18, 1831 ; graduated at Michigan University;
.studied law and was called to the bar in 1883. He was su-
perintendent of schools for Kent County 1856-65; was era-
ployed by the government of Ontario to define the north-
western boundary of the province in 1872, and was one of
the coun.sel em|)loyed in the argument before the British
Privy Council in 1884. He was elected a member of the
council of i)ublic instruction for Ontario in 1875: since 1867
has had a seat in the Parliament of Canada: and was Min-
ister of the Interior 1876-78. He is the author of several
important political pamphlets. Neil Macdonald.
Mills, Robert: architect and engineer; b. in Charleston,
S. C, Aug. 12, 1781 : studied architecture in Washington,
under Benjamin H. Latrobe. the original designer of the
Capitol ; designed and supervi.'ie<i the erection of several im-
portant buildings in Philadelphia. The single-arch bridge
of 740 feet spanning the .Schuylkill river attests his origi-
nality and skill as an engineer. The custom-houses in New
London and Jliddletown, Conn., and in New Bedford and
Ncwburyport. Ma.ss.. the marine hos|iitals in Charleston and
New Orleans, and the .State penitentiary of Louisiana were
all built according to his designs ; so, also, was the Wash-
ington Monument in Baltimore. After comiileting other
important works he returned to South Carolina in 1820, and
was made Stale architect and engineer. In 18:37 he was re-
called to Washington, where he was appointed by President
Jackson the archite<'t of the general Government, and held
this ofTice during the administrations of Jackson and Van
Buren, designing and supervising the erecti"n.of the Trea.s-
ury buihling and (ieneral Post-otnce building. The Patent-
oflico building also was erected under his supervision. The
design for a national Washington Monument was made by
him, but his plan for a circular colonnade around its base
was not carried out. and only the bare oU-lisk was erected
(184H-84). He publisheil Statistics of South Carolina (18'26),
accompanied by a folio atlas: American Pharos, or Light-
house Guide (1832); atul a Guide to the Xational Eircu-
live Offices (1842), D. in Washington, D. C, Mar. 3. laV).
Kevise«l by Ui'ssELL Stirois.
772
MILLS
:\IILXE-EDWAUDS
Mill9. Samtel John: "father of foreign missions in
Americii"; b. at Torringford, Conn., Apr. 21, 178:5; en-
tered Williams College in 1806, and in Sept., 1808, was the
principal organizer of a society of undergraduates w)io con-
templated heeoming missionaries in foreign lands. This
was the first organization in behalf of that object in Amer-
ica. He graduated in 1809 ; spent some months at Yale Col-
lege studying theology atid seeking adherents to his mis-
sionary project ; entered Andover Theological Seminary in
1810, and associated himself with Messrs. Judson, Nott, and
Newell in memorializing the General Association of Massa-
chusetts, tlien in session at Bradford (June 28, 1810). upon
the subject of missions, an act which resulted in the forma-
tion of the American IJoard of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions. He was licensed to preach in 1812, and ordained
in 1815 ; spent three years in missionary labors in the .South-
ern States, and two years in New York and other great cities,
engaged in promoting the formation of the American Bible
Society and the American Colonization Society, as well as
other missionary organizations, and was sent by the Colo-
nization Society, along with Rev. Elienezer Burgess, to
Western Africa, to .select a site for a colony. They pro-
' ceedcd first to England to confer with British philanthro-
pists (1817), and aecomi)lished their object in Africa in the
following year, in what is now Liberia, but on the return
voyage Mills died at sea, June 16, 1818. See his llemoir,
by" Rev. Gardiner Spring (Xew York, 1830).
Mills, Sebastian Bach : pianist and teacher ; b. at
Cirencester, England, Mar. 13, 1838 : was educated by his
father in the strict English cathedral school. Then he
studied in the Leipzig Conservatory, and on graduation
made a successful concert tour in Germany; removed to
New York in 1857, and took a leading position as a concert
pianist. He was for many years a familiar and favorite
pianist, and has played with all the great orchestral socie-
ties. In 1866 and 1867 he made an extended concert tour
with Parepa and Carl Rosa under the Bateman manage-
ment ; but gradually he retired from public life, and has
devoted himself exclusively to teaching. His compositions
are almost exclusively for the piano, and belong to the
brilliant bravura school, of which he was a fine exponent.
I). E. Hervey.
Mill Springs: post-village of Wayne co., Ky. ; on the
Cumberland river. During the civil war, on Jan. 19, 1862,
the Federal troops, 28,000 strong, under Gen. George H.
Thomas, and the Confederate troops, 10,000 strong, under
Gen. George B. Crittenden, met in battle about 5 miles from
this place. The latter were led by Gen. Felix K. Zollicoffer.
who was killed, and his forces defeated with a loss of 190
killed, 60 wounded, and 89 prisoners. Of tlie Federal force.
38 were killed and 194 wounded.
Milltown : a post-village of Charlotte co.. New Bruns-
wick ; on the St. Crois river ; contiguous with St. Stephen,
and directly opposite Milltown, a post-village included in
the limits of the city of Calais, !Me., with which it is con-
nected by bridges (see map of (Quebec, ref. 6-G). Immense
quantities of lumber are sawed and shipped here. There
are eighteen gang sawmills on the Canada side alone, lie-
sides an edge-tool factory and other works. Milltown has
an academy, three churches, a circulating library, and sev-
eral schools. Pop., with St. Stejihen, about 4,000.
Revised by M. W. Harrinoton.
Millville: city; Cumberland co., N.J. (for location of
county, see map of New Jersey, ref. 7-B) : on the Maurice
river, here navigable, and the W. .Jersey Railroa<i ; 40 miles
S. of Philadelphia. It contains 13 churches, high school
(building completed iu 1894 at a cost of $2.5,000), 15 public
schools, public library and reading-room (founded 1864),
gas and electric lights, electric railway connecting the
city with Bridgeton, the county-seat, a national bank
with capital of )J1()0,000, manufactories of inm. glass, and
cotton, and 3 weekly newspapers. North of tlie city is
Union Lake, 7 miles long, on the banks of whicli is an ex-
tensive public park. Pop. (1880) 7,C60 ; (1890) 10,002 ; (1895)
10,46(5. Editor of " Republican."
Milm.tn, He.nry Hart, I). I). : historian; b. in London,
Feb. 10, 1791; was the son of Sir Francis Milman. M. I).,
an eminent physician (1746-1821). He was edu<vited at
Eton and Brasenose, Oxford; became a fellow 1815: took
priests' orders 1816; was Bamjiton lecturer 1827: Professor
of Poetry at Oxford 1831-31 ; rector of St. Margaret's, West-
minster, and canon 1835; dean of St. Paul's 1849. D. at
Sunninghill, Sept. 24, 1868. His chief works are a prize
poem, Apollo Belvedtre (1812); Fazio, a successful tragedy
(1815); iVj/nos, a poem (1818); The Fall of Jerusalem, a
poem (1820); The Martyr of Aiilioch, and other poems
(1821); Hampton Lectures (1827); llidory of the Jews
(1829); History of Christianity to the Abolition of Pagan-
ism. (1840); History of Latin Christianity (1854-55); a
sumptuous editiun of Horace (1849) ; an edition of Gibbon's
History of the Decline and Fall, with notes, etc. His Po-
etical and Dramatic Works, of which a collected edition ap-
peared in London, 1839, in 3 vols., attracted much attention
in their time, but are now forgotten with the exception of a
few liymus. His historical writings at first encountered
much criticism — chiefly on account of tiie strongly pro-
nounced liberal Church views on wliich they were based.
Revised by W. S. Perry.
Milmore. Martin: sculptor; b. at Sligo, Ireland, Sept.
14. 1844; emigrated with liis family to Boston in 1851 ; en-
tered the studio of Thomas Ball in 1860: modeled an alto-
relief of an ideal subject entitled I'hosphor; made busts of
Sumner. Longfellow, Ticknor, and other distinguished citi-
zens ; received in 1864 a commission to execute granite statues
of Ceres, Flora, and Pomona for the Horticultural Hall at
Boston, a task which occujiicd him two years; designed in
1867 a bronze statue for the soldiers' monument at Forest
HiU Cemetery, Roxbury, and subse<|ueiitly was emjiloyed
by the city of Boston to execute an army-and-navy monu-
ment, which was placed on Boston Common. D. in Boston,
July 21, 1883. Revised by Russell Sturgis.
Milne, John, F. G. S.. F. R. S. : geologist and seismolo-
gist ; b. in Lancashire, England, in 1848. He distinguished
himself as a student at the Royal School of Mines. London ;
traveled in Iceland; was engaged 1873-74 in mining in New-
foundland : visited, with Dr. Beke, Northwest Arabia, and
finallv in 1875 accejited a position as Professor of Mining
and (jeology under the Japanese Government, a post which
he still holiis. Much of his time has been devoted to seis-
mology, on which he is the recognized authority. He
founded the Seismological Society of Japan in 1886, and is
author of the volume on Earthquakes in the Natural Sci-
ence Series. J. M. Dixon.
Milue, William. D. D. : missionary ; b. at Kinnethniont,
Aberdeenshire, Scotland, Apr., 1785; went to China as a
missionary in 1812; visited the chief islands of the Indian
Archipelago, and established Iiimself at Malacca, whence he
circulated throughout Eastern Asia the Scriptures, as well
as religious books in Oriental hmguages written and printed
by himself. He published The Indo-Chinese Gleaner, a
quarterly magazine, aided in translating the Bible into
Chinese, and wrote Retrospect of the Protestant 3lission to
Cliina (Malacca, 1820). I), iu Malacca, May 27, 1822. See
his Life atid Opinions, bv Rev. Robert Philip (London,
1839). " Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Milne-Edwards. Ai-rnoxsE, M. D. : geologist and natu-
ralist; son of Henri JMilne-Edwards, naturalist ; b. in Paris,
Oct. 13, 1835; graduated as doctor of medicine 1859: be-
came professor in the Paris School of I'harmacy in 1865. and
memi)er of the Legion of Honiu' in 1868; ollicer in 1884;
succeeded his father in 187() as iirofessor at the Musee. He
is the author of many important papers on zoiilogy. and par-
ticularly on the anatomy of fossil birds, most of which have
appeared in Annnles de Science JVaturelle and Comptes
Nendus. His Pecherclies Anatomiipies, Zoologiques et Pa-
la>ontologl(pies snr la Famille des Chevrotaiiis (1864) is an
important work, but his masterpiece i» Itecherches Analo-
micpies et PaUpontologiques pour servir a I'Histoire des
Uiseaux fossiles de la France (1866-72).
Revised by F. A. Lucas.
Milne-Edwards, Henri, M. D. : naturalist ; b. at Bruges,
Belgium, Oct. 23. 1800; was the son of an Englishman; tinik
his mi'dical degree in Paris 1823; became Professor of Nat-
ural History at the Lyce.e Henri IV.; Professor of Natural [
History at tlie Musee 1841 ; Professor of /Cocilogy 1862; dean
of the Faculty of Sciences; member of the Academies of
Sciences and of Medicine: commnniler of the Legion of
Honor, etc. Author of Anatomical Jtesearches Concerning
(Crustaceans (1828); Handlmok of Materia Medica (1832);
Elements of .ZToiVoyv (1834-35; licw cds. 1840. 1851): Nat-
ural History of Cruslnceans (1837-41); a new edition of
Lamarck's Xatiiral History (1838-45) ; Lefons sur la Phy-
siolof/ie (10 vols.), and of a great number of valuable scien-
tific papers. D. July 29, 1885. Revised by P. A. Lucas.
MILXER
MILTOX
773
Millier, John. D. D., F. S. A.: arohspoloffist and pnlern-
iciil writer; Ij. in Lomlon, (Jot. I-l, 1752; was oilucatcil at
Diiiiay: liecanu* a Itoiiian (.'atliolic priest in 1T77; hecame
in I'^dii titular Histiiip uf I'astabala and vice-apostcilie of the
Miilland dislricl uf Knglaiid, but was i>xpolled from ids
ollice l)y the Knfflish Catholic board in IS28. 1). at Wulver-
lianipton. Apr. 111. 1820. lie was author of Ifmlori/ and
AnlKiitilieH of Winc/ieK/fr (Winchester. 17UH-1S()1, 2 vols.;
3d ed. IWilt, wilh his Memoir); Ldli-rs lu a I'rebenilnry
(IWOO; Hth ed. Derby, IH-Ci); Ecdesianlical Arrhilectiire of
Engliind duriiK/ the Middle Ages (London, IHll; 3d etl.
1h;{.)1: 'J'/ie End of Heliyinus Conlrorersy (IKIS; luh ed.
Dublin, 185!)) ; and a Vindiea/ion of the same (1822). See
his Life, by F. C. llusenbeth (Dublin, 1862).
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Millies, liiniAKU JIoxrKTON : See HutGnTON, Baron.
Mi'lo [(tr. MriKos. whence Lat. Me tog] : a Greek island ;
the most soiithweslcrly of the t'yclades; 14 miles long from
Vj. to \V. and 8 miles from N. to .S. ; (i'.i miles K. from Pelo-
ponnesus. Kntircly volcanic, it is crescent-shaped, the vjist
crater forming an excellent harbor. It is rich in sulphur.
vitriol, and alum. Exceedingly fertile and prosperous 150
vears ago, it has bei^n rendered sterile and almost depopu-
lated by volcanic action and poisonous exhalations. 'I'he
former populatit)n of 20.000 has shrunk to about 2.000,
many of whom are sickly and deformed. Antiipiities
aliound. The celebrateil statue called T/ie Vinux iif Milo,
now in the Museum of the Louvre, was dug up here by a
peasant in 1820, and was accjuired for 6,000 francs liy the
French (Jovernment. E. A. (jrosve.nor.
Mllo (in lir. MiAaii/): athlete of Croton, in Southern Italy;
son of Diotimus. He was one of the most noted athletes
o( antifiuity, having won the prize as wrestler in six Olym-
pian, seven I'ythian, ten Istlnnian. and nine Nemcan games,
lie wiLs distinguished for his appetite also; at Ulympia he
lifted anil carried on his shoulders a four-year-old ox across
the race-course, then slew and ate it on the same day. He
nourished about 510 n. c. He found his death l)y trying to
split with his hands a log that had been opened by wedges.
The wedges fell out. his hands were caught in the log, and
he was torn to pieces by aiumals. J. K. S. Stkrrett.
Milo, Titus Axxirs Papinia-nvs ; Roman politician; b.
early in the first century B. c. Littio is known of his life
till he became tribune of the people in 57 B. c, when, as a
partisan of Pompey and friend of the exiled Ci<'ero, he
incurred the enmity of Clodius. Tlie followers of Milo and
Clodiiis fought daily in the streets of Rome, an<l after
CiciTo returned from exile the contest became even more
emiiittered. In .Ian., 52 n. r., the rival parties met at
Bovilhi'. and Cloilius was ninrderecl by one of Milo's body-
guanl. I'icero tlefended his partisan, but was deterred by
intimidation from delivering his oration, Pro Mi/one, and
was unable to prevent the conviction of the accused. He
was ('ondemned to exile and went to Massilia. Ueturning
to Italy in 48 b. c. to take part in the rebellion incited by
Marcus Cadius, he was killed near Thurii. F. M. Colby.
Milroa', or Milree' [from Portug. milreis, a thousand
reals: mil, thousand -I- rris, plur. of real, a real < Lat.
r('(/(i lis, royal]: called also eorilo or crown; a Portuguese
and Hrazilian coin and money of account. The Portuguese
niilrea is worth about one U. S. dollar; the Brazilian is 51i
cents of the money of the U. S.
MHti'udcs (in Gr. MiAtii£Si)s) : general: b. at Athens;
was the s.iu of Cimon, a citizen of that place; succeeded
his brother .Stesagoras as tyrant of Chersonesus, and joined
Darius llystiuspis in his campaign against the S<ythians.
Together with the other Gn'eks he wjus left in charge of the
bridge over the Danulu', and when Darius did not return at
the appointed time he recommeiide<l the distruetion of the
bridge, while the lonians, on the advice of llislia'us. insisted
on its preservation. Afterward he conouered Lemnos,
which was a Persian possession, and when tliu Persian lleet,
after the capture of Miletus, approached Chersonesus, lie
fled and repaired to Athens. Here he was chosen com-
mander against the Persian force, which, umler Datis and
Artaphernes lhreatene<l Athens, and defeated it in the
memorable battle of Marathon (4!I0 B.C.). A new arma-
ment which the Athenians placed iindiT his eonnnand he
useil for an ex|iedition against Paros for merely private
purp<ises. He was arraigned, and comlemned to defray the
whole cost of the armament, and as he could not pay this
enormous fine, he was thrown into prison, where lie died
from a wound he had received during the campaign. His
son Ciiiion afterward paid the fine, and u nionumcnl was
raised in honor of him on the plain of Marathon.
Revised by J. R. S. Stkrrett.
Miltnii ; city ; capital of Santa Rosa co., Fla. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Florida, ref. 2-C) ; on the lilack-
water river, ami the Louis, and Xash. Kailroad ; 20 miles
X. E. of Pensacola. It is in a cotton, fruit, wool-growing,
and lumliering region, and has iron-foundries, drv dock,
ship-yards, interior ami coasting trade, and a weeklv news-
paper. Pop. (IssO) 1.058; (1H!H)) 1.405; (18'.l5) 1.800.'
Miltoii: town (settled in 1640, incorporated in 1062);
Xorfolk CO., Mass. (for location of county, see map of Massa-
chusetts, ref. .5-1); on the Ncponwt river at tiic head of
navigation, and the Old Colony Railroad; 7 miles S. of Bos-
ton, with which it also has street-railway connection. It is
the seat of Milton Academy (non-sectarian, chartered 17i>8);
contains the Blue Hills which gave their Imlian name to the
State, ;!o public schools, puljlic library (foundeil 1871) wilh
over 10,000 volumes, 4 churches, a national bank with capi-
tal of ^2(KI,0(JO, and a weekly newspaper; is engaged in
market -gardening, building-stone quarrying, ice-harvesting,
and the manufacture of paper, chocolate, and water-crackers.
The town contains the residences of many Boston business
men. Pop. (1880) 3,206 ; (ISaO) 4,278 ; (1895) 5,518.
EUITOK OF " XeWS."
Milton: borough (founded in 1797, incorporated in 1817);
Xorlhuniberlaml co.. Pa. (for location of county, see map of
Pennsylvania, ref. 4-G); on the ,Susi|uehanna river, the
Pennsylvania Canal, and the Pliila. and Read, and the
Penn. railways; 62 miles X. of Harrisliurg. It contains 9
churches, 22 graded schools, library (High School), 2 na-
tional banks with combined capital of :s;2(XI,000, a trust and
safe-deposit company with capital of $12.5,000. and 3
weekly and 2 otlier peri(Klieals. There are railway-car
works, rolling-mills, axle-forge, bolt and nut svorks. nail-
factories, washer-works, large steam tannery, agricultural-
implement works. 4 machine-shops, 2 i)laning-ndlls, 2 iron-
foundries, sawmills, and flv-net lactorv. The borough was
destroyed by fire in 1882." Pop. (1880) 2,102; (1890)5,317;
(1892) 'estimated with suburbs, 7.000.
Editor of " MrLTONiAN."
Milton, John : poet ; b. in Bread Street. Chcapside. Lon-
don, Dec. 9, 1608 ; received a very careful education, first
under a private tutor, then at Christ's College, Cambriilge,
which he entered Feb. 12. 102.5. He was originally destined
for the Church, but. reared in a family of Puritan cast, and
consequently opposed in many iioints to the English Church
of that time, he gave up this plan, and when in 16H2 he left
Cambridge he returned to his father's hou.se in Horton. a vil-
lage in Buckinghamshire, whither the family had retired on
an independency. Here he studieil classical literature and
philosophy with great energy, being by nature a studious
and industrious man; cultivated music, in which both he
anil his father were quite proficient; and composed the
.Sonnet to the ^'ir/litini/ale, L Alleffro, and Jl Penmruno. the
elegy Lycidiix, and the two masques C'omtis and Arcades;
the first collected edition of his poems was not published,
however, until 1645. After his mother's death in 10;17 lie
went aiiroad. visited Leyden, Paris, and Rome, and made
the acquaintance, among others, of (irotius and (ialileo.
His Latin vei-ses and other scholarly attainments, his per-
sonal beauty and noble iiis|M)sition, introduced him to
h'arned and elegant society, and made him friends. On his
return home after an absence of fifteen months, he settled
in London, the household at Horton having been broken up
in the meantime, and took a few pupils, sons of ndativ(.s
and friends, under his tuition ; but soon he lH>came deeply
entangled in the turbulent controversies, reliudous and po-
litical, which filled that period of English literature, and
for twenty years the |HH"t of L'Atlnjro hui\ ( 'ohikh was en-
gaged ILS a most violent and intolerant, though candid and
eloquent, controversialist. His first |Hdemicul on.sot was an
attack on the Established Church (1641-42). Five treatises
belong to this contest — namely. (>/ lirformation. Of J're-
latical Epigcopncif, Tlie lieafon of t'hiirrh Uoverttmrnt.
Aniinadvimionn. ami Amlni/i/ for .Smrrli/ninuus. In 104;?
he married Mary Powell, but she left him after one month
on account of tlie "spare diet and liani study "she found
in his house. Four tracts on divorce followeil (1644-45)^
namely. Tfir Doctrine and IU»riptine of hirnrre, Tlie Jiid^
ment of Martin tiucer, Trtrarhordon. and ( 'olaxterion, in
which he maintained that mural incompiitibilities justify
r74
MILTON COLLEGE
MILWAUKEE
divorce. The fou|ile became reconciled afterward, and
lived tofjctlier until the death of the wife in l(wl3 ; she bore
him three daujjhters. In 1G44 he also published two oilier
essays, On Education and Areopagitica, a Speech for the
Liberty of L'nlicensed Printing, which latter treatise is liis
most eloquent piece of prose writing. After the execution
of Charles I. {.Ian. 30. 1649) he wrote three powerful pam-
phlets (1649-50) in order to defend the acts of the English
pi>o|ile in its struggle with its king — namely. The Tenure of
Kinijs and Magistrates, Eikonodastes, and Pro Populo
Anglicano Defe.nsio contra Salmasii Ucfensionem Regiam ;
ami to this group of writings belongs also his controversy
with Dumoulin (16r)4-55), comprising three pamphlets,
among which was Defensio Secunda. The attack on Sal-
nui-sius made a great sensation in Europe. It was written
at the demand of Parliament, as in 1649 Milton had been
appointed secretary in the ministry of Foreign Atfairs by
Cromwell. This position he held till the Restoration in
1660, though he became entirely blind in 1654, and could
work only by the aid of a reader and a scribe. After the
Restoration he was compelled to keep himself concealed for
some time, and even after the Act of Oblivion he continued
to live very secluded. On Nov. 13, 16.56, he married Catha-
rine Woodcock, but she died fifteen months after in child-
bed. In 1663 he married his third wife, Elizalu'th MinsliuU,
but his home was not a happy one. A severe regularity and
haughty solitude characterized his life ; studies and literary
compositions occupied his time. Paradise Lost was pub-
lished in 1667 ; History of Britain in 1670 ; Paradise Re-
gained and Samson Agonistes in 1671 ; Of True Religion
in 1673. A Latin manuscript, De Doctrina Christiana,
which shows his very heterodox conceptions of different
points of Christianity, was not published till 1825. He died
Nov. 8, 1674, and was buried in the Church of St. Giles,
Cripplegate, beside his father. At its first appearance Para-
dise Lost made no great impression. The author received
£5 for the first 1,300 copies ; the second edition was not
published until 1673. The widow of Milton sold in 1681
her interest in the work for £8. Among others, see Mas-
son's Life of Milton. 6 vols., 1858-80. The most complete
edition of Milton's prose works is that in Bohn's library
(1848-53, 5 vols.). The best edition of the poetical works is
that by Mitford (London, 1851, 8 vols.). See English Lit-
erature. Revised by H. A. Beers.
Jlllton f!ollegre : a coeducational institution at Milton,
Wis., connected with the Seventh-day Baptist denomination.
It was openea in 1844 as an academy, and in 1867 was char-
tered and opened as a college. It furnishes both prepara-
tory and collegiate instruction in three courses of study —
classical, scientific, and English. There is a department of
music. The endowment fund amounts to about .$83,000 ;
the buildings, apparatus, and libraries have cost more than
$40,000. The college has a faculty of nine. Rev. W. C.
'^Vhitford, D. D., is president. W. C. Whitfobd.
Milwaukee : city : capital of Milwaukee co.. Wis. (for
location, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 7-F) ; on 'Lake Michi-
gan, and the Chi. and N. W., the Chi., Mil. and St. P., the
Mil. and Superior, and the Wis. Cent, railways ; 80 miles N.
of Chicago ; area, 21 sq. miles.
It is located on a beautiful bay running inland about 3
miles, stretching 6 miles from headland to lioadlatid, [lart
of which is being converted by the U. S. Government into a
harbor of refuge for the Great Lakes. The Milwaukee
river flows through the main portion of the city almost due
S. till it ueiirs the hdie, when it tm'ns abruptly S. E.
About half a mile from its mouth it is ji>ined by the Menom-
onee from the W., and still nearer the lake by tlu^ Kin-
niekinnic from the S. W. The spacious harbor and miles
of dockage have been utilized by numerous steamboat lines,
and the most intimate comiection is kept up betwcien Mil-
waukee and all tlie important cities of the Great Lakes.
The lake also furnishes Milwaukee with the cheapest kind
of transportation for the iron, copper, and lumber of North-
ern JMicliigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and for the great
coal mines of the Middle States. Part of the city between
the river and lake lies 80 feet above the bay ; and oil the west
side of the Milwaukee river the ground rises 125 feet above
the lake, furnishing most admiraljle locations for residences.
It is a city t)f wide streets and commanding views, while in
its resident* part it is remarkable for its fine shade-trees
and spacious lawns, and the absence of fences gives it the
appearance of one large park. There are seven public parks
aggregating 456 acres on the lake shore, Milwaukee river.
and other portions of the city and suburbs. At the Soldiers'
National IIonie,2 miles W. ot'lhe city, there are large and es-
jiensive buililings, where 2,000 disabled veterans are cared
for, and surrounding which there are 400 acres of land
which are thrown oi)eii and used as a ]iark. The county court-
house is a large and elegant structure built of Lake Supe-
rior sandstone at a cost of over $ lOD.OOO. A new custom-
house and iiost-oflice to cost S;l,500,000, a new city-hall to
cost $750,000, and a new library and museum to cost $500,-
000 are being erected ; also a large and well-ei|uipped Emer-
gency Hospital belonging to the city. The Industrial Expo-
sition Building, where an ar.nual exhiljit is held, cost over
$.300,000. The Layton Art Gallery, an elegant Iniihling,
contains a fine collection of paintings. The Union Railway
Station and that of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway
Company are tasteful and sulistantial structures. Among
the church edifices worthy of special mention are St. Paul's
Episcopal, Norman architecture: Immanuel I'n-sbyterian,
Gothic: St. James's Episcojial, Gothic ; and the Church of
Gesu, Gothic — the last, built by the Jesuits, is the largest
and most expensive church in Wisconsin, and has two
spires, one 250 and the other 200 feet high. There are 125
churches, including 30 Lutheran, 26 Roman Catholic, 16
Jlethodist Episcopal, 9 Congregational, 8 Presbyterian, and
7 Protestant Episcopal. Jlilwaukee is the seat of a Roman
Catholic archbishopric and of a Protestant Episcopal bish-
opric. There is a good public-school system with 43 public
schools and an enrollment of 29,263 pui)ils. The annual
cost of the schools is S.507,239.66. The Roman Catholic
and Lutheran Churches have a large number of parochial
schools, which, with a few other academies, have an enroll-
ment of 18,562. 'J'here is a normal school under the regents
of the Stale, and 2 high schools under the city school board.
Milwaukee College for women was established in 1849.
The Roman Catholics and Lutherans have large colleges in
the city and suburbs. The Convent de Notre Dame, the
mother-house in the U. S.. owns and occupies an entire
square near the center of the city. The Woman's Club of
Milwaukee owns a valuable property called the Athenaeum,
wliich is used as a headquarters tor tlie club's social, literary,
and benevolent meetings. There is a large number of chari-
table and benevolent institutions, among which are an ex-
cellent training-school for nurses, 12 homes for the aged,
and orphan asylums, 10 hospitals, 15 relief and aid associa-
tions, 50 benevolent societies of various kinds, and 2 indus-
trial schools. There are over 100 social, literary, national,
and athletic clubs, such as the Milwaukee Club, the Calumet
Club, Recreation Club, St. Andrew's Society. Chess Club,
Whist Club, Bon Ami Club, Old Settlers' Club, Pha-nix
Club, Curling Club, etc., some of which occupy costly build-
ings of their own. The Turner societies are strong and
wealthy, and have done much to promote physical culture.
Milwaukee has long been famous as a musical center, and
its Musical Society, Arion Club, and Cecilian Choir have
done much to raise the musical standard. Including those
connected with churches, there are in Milwaukee about 50
musical societies. The valuation of the real and personal
propertv of the citv, as assessed for taxation, is .$135,746,-
275, while the tax "levy for city i)urposes is $2,061,820.02.
The bonded debt of "the city is $5,269,000, more than
half of which is for the water-w'orks, which the city owns
and from which it derives a handsome revenue. There are
5 national banks with combined capital of $2,350,000, 4
State banks with capital of .$750,000, a branch bank, 12 in-
^TStment and loan companies, and 11 daily. 5 semi-weekly,
36 weekly, 5 semi-montlily, and 15 monthly periodicals.
'I'here are 2.988 manul'acturing establishments, employing
$98,833,155 capital and 50,562 jiersons, paving annually
.$33,335,349 for wages, and receiving $119,624,656 for prod'-
ucts. The greatest number of hands employed is in the
manufacture of clothing, then follow machinery, breweries,
knit goods, tanneries, stoves, tinware, and furnaces, car-
building, iron and steel, furniture, malleable iron, brick,
and meat-packing. The annual values of the chief pro-
ductions are : Beer, $15,095,805; pork-packing, $8,125,500 ;
flour, $6,341,000; railway cars, $5,500,000; maehinerv, $5,-
490,000; leather, $5,122,000; iron and stc^el, $4,438,000;
clothing, $4,197,000 ; stoves and tinware, $3,732,000 ; licpiors,
$2,550,000: fur garments, $3,484,500 ; and knit goods, $1,-
732,000. The healthfulness of the city has improved every
year, and now the annual deaths number but a fraction
over 17 per 1,000. The sewers emptying into the Milwaukee
river at one time were sources of disease, but a lunni'l has
been constructed from the lake to the river above the city,
JllMAN'SA
MIMICRY
r75
imd now tlio water of the river is kept qiiitp pure 1)V lieing
tliisheil coritinuiillv from the lake. Pop. (IHSO) 115,378'; (1M90)
•.;04,408 ; (18a5) 24y,2«0. John Jounsto.n.
MTinaiisia : a Sanskrit word siKnifylnp " illscussion " ;
it.s conUMon use is to designate the lliuilii philosophical
system of .laiiiiini. an<l in this sense it is an abbreviation
fiir I'hrva- or h'nniiii-iii'imdi'im. " Prior (lis<'ussion " or " Dis-
cussion coneerninf; religious observances," as distinpuishcU
from the Veiianta system, which is otherwise known as
the " Later discussion " or " Discussion concerning Urah-
nian," the Uttnra- or Brnhmn-m'imnfim. In both systems
the subjects of the ancient Hrahniunical s|)eculations are
methodically elaboraleil, and the two thus lorm a coherent
whole in so far as the first is practical and the second theo-
logical: the first, a svsteiu of ritualistic precepts; the sec-
ond, in connection with the idealistic montsm of the older
I'iMinishads, a doctrine of salvation by knowledge. The two
systems refer each to the other, and are accordingly doubt-
less of synchronous origin. That the Mimi'u'isi is reckoned
as one of the six Indie philosophical systems is due chicfiy
to this connection with the Vedilnta, and, secondarily, also
to the form of its discussions (see below).
The aphorisms of Jaimini, called the Minmusil-sutras,
form the oldest and most important work of this school.
Like the sutra.s or aphorisms of the other systems, they are
so brief and obscure as to be quite unintelligil)le without a
comment. Their most famous commentator was (,'abara-
svamin, who wrote not long after the birth of Christ (Biih-
ler's Maun, p. cxii.). The composition of our sutras — and
accordingly also of the Vediinta-sutras — nuiy be referred to
the beginning of our era or to a date a little earlier.
The purpose of the Mimiiiisa is to give the rules for the
interpretation of the Vedic te.xts that concern themselves
with the Hrahmanic ritual; but these texts do not set forth
the ceremonies completely and clearly, and they are every-
where mingled with discussions of the mystic significance
of this or thai sacrificial act or utensil ; and the Urahmanic-
al sacrificer was taught to expect the most dreadful conse-
quences from the smallest mistake in the performance of his
ceremonies; he therefore had a real need for such a com-
pendium as the Miuulnsa-sutras; for these attempt tore-
solve all doubts respecting the details of the sacrifice, and
to reconcile the contradictions of the Vedic texts — contra-
dictions which really exist, but which are, according to the
Mimansists, only apparent. Moreover, as this system treats
• ■f the rewards held out for the correct performance of the
sacrifices, it has become an epitome of the lore of the IJrah-
luanieal scriptures.
The existence of God is not recognized by the Mimansa ;
iiut this fact does not interfere in the least with the belief
in the deities of the Indie popular religion ; in all the Indie
systems, in fact, the gods are merely beings who, by merit
won in pievious existences, have raised themselves in the
■^cale of being to a divine rank in which they are loftier and
iiiippier than men ; but they are not immortal ; the after-
• llect of their merit once exhausted, thev are liable to shift
lo other and lower forms of existence, ff, in the absence of
a divine source of revelation, accordingly, we ask upon
what authority the doctrine concerning sacrifices and their
results may rest, the Mimiinsists reply: " Upon the Veda;
and the Veda needs no ulterior authority, being itself eter-
nal and uncreated ; and treats only of things that have ex-
isted from all eternity, and that carry their own proofs with
them,"
The Mimtinsa is not of a properly philosophic character ;
its inclusion among the six philosophical systems, Vedanta,
.Sankhya, Yoga, N'yaya, Vaii.eshika. is due in part to the
form of its exposition. The contents of the Vedn. e.g.
are chi-ssifiecl in certain definite categories: (1) Positive (ire-
cepts; (2) texts ami formulas; (3) names of ceremonies; (4)
prohil)itions; (."i) explanatory statements of acts enjoine(l or
forbidden. Further, the discussions proceed in a manner
that presuimose^ an advanced state of the study of logic.
The establislied scheme contains five members : (1) Proposi-
tion ; (2) doubt of its correctness : (H) false view of the sub-
ject; (4) refutation of the same by the corre<-t argument ;
(5) result i>f the discussion. Moreover, for the establish-
ment of Mimai'isjl doctrines, really iihilosophical questions
are sometimes iliscussed. Most notable is the iliscussion of
the eternity of sound, and of the question whether the con-
nection of sound and sense is natural (*w<r«i)or conventional
(W«i). (See IJallaulyue. ChriMianitii rimtruslrd with Ifindii
Philosophij, London, 1854, pp. 170-195.) The doctrine of
the sources of knowledge is so treated in the Mimansa that
a greater numljer is recognized than in the other five sys-
tems— namely, perception, inference, authoritative tradition,
analogy, self-evidence, and several others.
Dr. Kilzedwanl Hall, in his Contribnlion toward an Index
to the Jiilitiixjrapliy of the Indian I'hilosi,//hical Systems
(Calcutta, 185!)), enumerates eighty-five .Sanskrit works on
.Mimansa. In India, next to Jaimini and Cabara-svaniin,
the most esteemed authority upon .MiniansJi was Kumarila-
Evamin, who wrote his glossary lo (,'abara-sviiinin"s com-
ment at the beginning of the eighth century. The Mimaii-
sa-sutras were published with the commentary in the Bib-
liiitheea Indica (2 vols.. Calcutta, 1873-85) ; a good modem
compendium, the Juimin'nja-nyaya-niala-vintara, was ed-
ited by Th. Goldsltlcker (London, 1805i, and by I'andit
Civadatta in the Anand5<,rama .Sanskrit Series (Poona,
1892).
Although the MImtinsa doctrines have been of great im-
portance for the intellectual and religious life of India, the
system has never been an attractive one for Occidental
students. In 1820 II. T. Colebr(K)ke published his essay on
the Mimausii (reiirinted in his Miscelluuenus Exmys. Lon-
don, 187;!); and this was the only treatise of the subject
published in a modern European language and worth men-
tioning until the appearance of G. Thibaud's edition and
English tian.slation of the Arlha-sarhyraha (Benares .San-
skrit .Series, 1882). This translation and the introduction
thereto constitute the best English account of the |)rincipal
contents of the system. R. Garbe.
Mime [^from Lat. ni! nii/fi = Gr. /ujuoi: cf. /u/wia^u, imi-
tate, mimic]: a developiiuul of the .Sicilian farce. The
word is still used as a synonym for an actor on the mimic
stage. In its special ap|ilicalion the mime represents the
imitation of a definite situation or a typical character, and
<iiirers from the antique comedy of the early |ieri<Hl by the
lack of a chorus and the lack of an elaborate plot. The
(credit of introducing the mime into literature is ascribed to
Sophron, who flourished in Syracuse about the middle of
the fifth century n. c, and whose infiuence on the form of
Plato's dialogues is a matter of literary tradition. The dra-
matic idyls of Theocritus doubtless owe much to Sophron's
pattern, and .some of the dialogues of Liician may be called
mimes, but the whole department has been brought nearer
to us by the recent discovery of the mimiambi of IIerondas
(q. v.). In Rome the mime was early popular. It was intro-
duced from Sicily by way of Magna Gra^cia, and developed
from a rude ballet in character until it ceased to be a mere
intermezzo, absorbed the comic elements of the fabiila Atel-
lariiF, and became a regular afteriuece. The height of the
mime was reached in the time of Ca'.sar. and Decimus Labe-
rius and Publilius Syrus are its most distinguished repre-
sentatives. For an interesting descri|)tion of the Roman
mime, see Ribbeck, Geschichte der romiKclien Dichtuny, vol.
i., p. 220 foil. U. L. GiLUERSLEEVE.
Mimicry : the general fact of imitation. The word is
used in several more technical senses.
Mimicry in liiology. — Biologists recognize under this
phrase a great class of cases of close resemblance in form,
color, or habits, between insects or animals, and even be-
tween these ami inanimate objects, which serve to render
these creatures indi.sliiiguishable by friend or foe. In their
coloration, insects — butterflies are a notable example — take
on the colors of various flowers, leaves, mosses, etc., and thus
avoid detection ; or the colors of [xiisonous insects, and so
share their Immunity ; or the sha|)e of harmless knots,
twigs, etc., and so escape attention; or the colors of con-
si)icuous things, and so attract their mates and victims.
The phenomena, of which these instances are only examples,
fall thus into two cla.s,ses — protective mimicry, the animal
escaping his enemies by these deep-going organic subter-
fuges, and ayyresxire mimicry, thi' animal deceiving others
thus to support hims«'lf and t<p destroy his enemies Taken
together the fads furnish a convincing prtnif of the evolu-
tiim priH-ess ; for no explanation is adeijtiate except that af-
forded by the law of natural .selection. See EvoLiTlox.
Mimicry in I'xycholtigy. — In psychologji' the term is ap-
plied to all cases of imitaliiui of one liei'ng by another in
which the mental slate of the imitator is in a measure in-
volved. There is (1) exprexfive mimicry, referring lo all the
facts of organic ]iantomime by which one creature expresses
himself by gestures, movements, etc., which another under-
stanils and responds to. It is pro)ial>le that the imitations
of monkeys, ]>arrots, etc., hail their origin in such a common
7TG
MlMOt^A
MINAS GERAES
tendency to become gregarious l)y getting ruitinicntnry
forms of expression, the origiiml niovemonts being useful
either to the individual or to the flock. Men show the same
tendency to pantomime, as is seen clearly in idiots, imbeciles,
and diseased pei'sons. The loss of this gesture imitation is
called amimia by the pathologists. Looked at tlieoretically
as a kind of imitation, it is nearest the biological type. (2)
Conscious mimicry, ordinarily called " conscious imitation."
It applies to the fact of an inn.'ite tendency to imitate move-
ments, actions, etc.. seen early in infants. (3) Socinl mivi-
icry, the tendency so universal and so liinding upon us all
to act, believe, think, dress, etc.. as custom, habit, and so-
cial life dictate. These influences are summarized under
the phrase " social suggestion."' (See Imitation and SfooES-
Tiox.) On biological mimicry, see Poulton, Tlif Voloum of
Animals (London, 1893). and on psychological mimicry,
Tarde, Lea Lois da Vlmitation (Paris, 1892).
J. Mark Baldwin.
Mimo'sa [Mod. Ijat.. from Gr. ;tu>os. imitator, mimic. So
called from its imitating animal sensibility]: name of a
genus of leguminous trees, shrubs, and herbs which gives
name to the gri'at sub-family Mimosets, distinguislied by
having regular flowers. Tlie genus includes at least ten
species wliich have decidedly sensitive leaves. (See Sensi-
tive Plant.) Of these, the Mimosa ptidica is the most re-
markable, and the only one familiar in cultivation. Most
of the numerous species are tropical, many are African,
many American, of which no less than fifteen occur in the
southern and southwestern parts of the U. S.
Min: an Egyptian deity, worshiped principally at Kop-
tos as the |iatron of travelers through the Ihiiuniaiiuit val-
ley to t he Red Sea. and guardian of the Hammamat quar-
ries. He was primarily regarded as the god of the desert,
but the Greeks identified him with Pan. C. R. G.
Mi'na [= Lat., from Gr. fiva, a measure of weight (origi-
nally Assyrian), a weight of silver, a sum of money ; cf. Ileb.
mdneh, a weight, mina, deriv. of mdnCih, tlivide, measure
out] : in Greek money and weights, a standard equivalent to
100 drachma? and forming the sixtieth part of a talent. The
value varied according to the talent used. (See Talent.)
The Attic mina is generally stated to have been worth
$17.61 U. S. money ; it was a money of account, and was not
coined. Revised by J. R. S. .Sterrett.
Mina, mee'na^, Francisco Espoz y : soldier and revolu-
tionist ; b. at Ydocin, near Pamplona, Spain, July 17, 1782 ;
joined his nephew (see Mina, Francisco Javier) in 1809 in
organizing the mountaineers into guerrilla bands to oppose
the French invasion. In the following year he succeeded to
the command, and soon became the most efficient of the
numerous partisan leaders of Xorthern Spain. In 1813 he
received a commission as general, and was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of Aragon ; became "political chief" of
Xavarre 1818; contributed to the victories of Salamanca
and Victoria: blockaded Pamplona 1812-13. and retired to
private life on the restoration of Ferdinand VII. The des-
potic measures of that king, however, induced the two Jlinas
to head an insurrection, but, having failed in an attack upon
the citadel of Pamjilona, Sept. 25, 1814, he sought refuge
in France. In 1820 lie took part in the constitutional
revolution of Riego, becoming captain-general of Xavarre ;
suppressed the royalist insurrection in Catalonia 1822; be-
came captain-general of Catalonia Jan., 1823; capitulateil to
the French at Barcelona Nov. 1, 1823, and proceeded to F>ng-
land. In 1830 he was again engaged in an unsuccessful re-
volt against Ferdiiian<i VII. in Xavarre, and again escaped
to England. In 1834 he was recalled to Spain to defenil the
liberal government established in the name of the young
Queen Isabella ag.ainst the Carlists, and took command of
an array corps, but witli inditTcrent success. Resigning in
1835, he died at Barcelona, Dcx-. 24, 1836.
Mina, Franci.sco Javier, nephew of Francisco ]\Iina:
soldier; b. at Otan, near Jlonreal, Navarre, Dec. 3. 1789.
He studied for the priesthood, but in 1808 headed a band of
guerrillas against the French ; was captured by the latter in
1810 and remained a prisoner until 1814, when he joined
his uncle against Ferdinand VII. and was driven with him
over the border into France. Thence lie went to England
and tlie U. S. to obtain suliscrijitions and recruits lor an
expedition in aid of the patriots in Mexico. With 200 men
he landed at Galveston. Te.x.. in Nov., 1816, but was soon
forced to retire. At New Orleans he organize<l a fresh
force; landed in Tamaulipas, AjjI'., 1817, and at the head
of less than 500 men fought his way into the center of 5Iex-
ico. lie showed great courage and generalship, and repeat-
edly defeated the Spanish forces; his generous policy won
him many adherents, and his force increased to nearly 2.000
men. The movement was badly limed, however; the Mexican
patriots were dislieartened at this period by the crushing re-
verses which they had undergone; the support which they
might have given to Mina was witliheld, and his recruits
gradually fell away. After sustaining himself for some
months in Guanajuato, Jlina was captured by surprise, and
was tried and sliot before the fort of Los Reniedios, where
some of his udlierents still iield out, Oct. 27, 1817. The fort
was taken by the Spaniards in Jan., 1818, closing this e|)i-
sode of the Jlexican revolution. See Rancroft. iJist. uf the
Pacific States (Mexico, vol. iv., p. 659); Robinson, Memoirs
of tlie Mexican lievoluiion (1820). Uekbeht II. Smith.
Mi'na Bird [also mina, fnjui Hind, maind. starling,
mino] : a inemljer of the starling family (Stiirnida>) com-
mon in Southern India; its scientific name is Gracula religi-
osa. It is about 10 inches long, of a glossy purplish black,
with a white patch on the primaries. A curious wattle on
each side of the head, back of the eye, is orange colored ; the
bill and feet are yellow. It is very lively and intelligent,
and when trained is considered the best talker among the
birds, far surpassing any parrot. It is also a good singer.
Allied .species occur in Ceylon, Burma, and some parts of
the Malay Archipelago. F. A. Llxas.
Minaev, mee-naa'ycf, DmitriI Pmitrievich : poet, son of
Dmitrii Ivanovich Minaev (1808-76). likewise a jioet, though
of little importance ; b. in Simbirsk, Russia, Oct. 21. 1835. m
For a numlicr of years he contributed to dilferent ]iapers fl
and reviews humorous or satirical jiieces, attacking the ^
abuses of society with all the vivacity that characterized the
Russian writers of the great reform period (from 1860 to
1870). He will, however, rather be remembered for his nu-
merous translations from foreign authors, among others the
liny Bhts and Jhrnani of Victor Hugo; Marlowe's Faust;
Byron's Childe Ilarolit. Don Juan, and Manfred: Shelley's
Prometheus Unbound, etc. A. C. Cooliuoe.'
Minard, Charles Joseph: engineer; b. at Dijon in 1781;
was educated at the Ecole Polytechniqiie, and entered the
administration of Ponts et Chaus.sees in 1800. He became
division inspector in 1839, inspector-general in 1846, and
retired in 1857. Among his numerous works were Cours
de construction dcs ourrayes qui etablissent la naHgation
des ririi;res et des canuux (1841); JS'otions elemenfaires
d'economie politique appiiquees aux travaiix publics (1850);
and Des rmboiirhures des ririi'res nariyables (1855). He
also published numerous pamphlets on technical (piestions
relative to transportation. D. at Bordeaux, Oct. 24. 1870.
Minaret [from Span, minnrete, from Arab, mandrat, lan-
tern, lighthouse, turret, deriv. of mitidr, candlestick, lamp,
lighthouse; cf. tidr. fire, and naicirir. illumine]: the slender,
lancelike shaft of brick or stone whicli rises from close out-
side one of the corners of a Mussulman mo.sque. It termi-
nates far above the roof in a tapering cone, and is ascended
from inside liy a very mirrow spiral staircase. At varying
heights it is surrounded by one or more projecting galleries,
whence the Muezzin (ij. v.). protected by a parapet or rail-
ing, ciills to prayer. Many minarets are most graceful,
ethereal structures, and tlu^ conception — considering the
fact that they arc used especially in countries often convulsed
by earthquake — is one of the most daring in architecture.
E. A. Grosvenor.
Minas. mee'na'as : an iidand department in the southern
part of Uruguay, surrounded by Treinta Tres, Roeha,
Maldonado, Canelones, and Florida. Area, 4,230 sq. miles ;
SDp. (1891) 23,46(i. The surface is much broken, and, in the
., mountainous. The name (meaning mines) refers to its
supposed mineral wealth, but no mines have been success-
fully worked : cattle-raising and, to a small extent, the
cultivation of grains are the onlv industries. The popula-
tion is said to be very lawless. Minas. the capitid and chief
town, was founded in 1783, and has a population of about
5,000. II. H. Smith.
Minas Geraes, mce'niias-zha-raa'us : a state of Brazil;
lying inlanil from the southeastern coast ; surroundeil by
Bahia, Espirito .Santo, Rio de Janeiro, .Siio Paulo, Matio
Grossd, and (ioyaz. Area, by the best attainable estimates,
211.917 sq. miles. The i)rinci])al mountain ranges are the
Serra do .Mar. on the eastern boundarv ; the Serra da Man-
ticjueira, running nurlhward through tlie mid<lle of the
Mixno
MIXD
777
state ; tho Serra da ( 'aniistra, on the W. ; ami a cross
ranfje.thc Serru das Vciicntes, joitiitif; llie Muiiti(|iicira and
Canastracliainsand sc|iaratin;; the Iliad waters i)f llii- rivers
8Jo Francisco and i'arana. Ilatiaia, the hiKlicst peak in
Brazil (H.!M>0 feet), lies at llie eitrenn- sonlliern anfjlo ; and
there are several other points over 5,500 feel liifih. IJetwecn
the mountains, esneciuUy in the western part, there are
lower, rollint; or hilly lands, properly extensions of the Bra-
zilian plateau. The ri^gioii U'tweeii the L'ana-stra ami >Ian-
tiqueira rani;es is drained liy the upper part of the river Silo
Francisco, wliich rises in this stati' ; it consists mainly of
open lands suilatde for };razin^, which is the principal in-
dustry, is thinly populated, and is still one of the most
neKlcetcd parts of Brazil ; l)ul it has ^rreat natural capabili-
ties, and since the opening of navi^fation on the upper SSo
P'rancisco it has {,'iven promise of rapid ilevelopment. (See
•SIo Francisco.) The mountainous northeastern region
contains large areas of unt<>uclied forest lands, rich in valu-
ahle woods, but tis yet almost unknown except to roving
Indian tribes. The principal rivers are the .leipiitinlionlia
and Doce. By far the gri'ater part of the population is
gathered in the southern (lart, where, among the mountains,
there are many fertile valleys and slopes, well adapted for
coffee-culture ; this is now one of tlie great coffee-protluc-
ing states. Southern Minas Geraes has a good svstem of
railroads, connecting with those of .Sao Paulo and Kio de
Janeiro. Coarse cotton cloths, beer, saddlery, etc., arc
manufactured on a considerable scale. The captaincy of
Minas Gerat-'S was separated from l{io de .Janeiro in 1709.
As the name indicates, it was long noted for its mines, es-
pecially its gold and diamond wsishings. It is still the prin-
cipal mining state in Brazil, but only a few of the gold de-
posits are profitably worked, and diamond-mining is nearly
abandoneif. The quartz crystjds called Brazilian jjebbles,
largelv used in the manufacture of spectiudes, etc., are ob-
taine([ from this state ; sjipphires ami rubies are fouiul in
conjunction with the diamonds, and many other valuable
minerals have bcjjn discovered, but not extracted on a
large scale. Pop. (estinuvted, 1894) 3,604,622. Capital,
Ouro Preto. See Saint-Ililaire, Vnyage dans les provinces
de Riu de, Janeiro el de Min(is Geraes (ISiO) ; Gerber, iVo-
(•oes geoyraphicax e ndininislriilirns da pruvincia de Minas
Geraes (1H6IJ); liiirlo\i, Bxploral ions of the Iliijhlands of
the lirazil (1869). Heriikkt li. -Smitu.
Miucio, raincho: a river of Northern Italy which issues
from the southern extremity of Lake Garda, passes by Man-
tua, and joins the Po H miles below this city after a course
of 50 miles. It is navigable for barges from its union with
the Po to Manlua. Its waters are much used for irrigation.
MillfkHitz, JonA.vNKs: poet and philologist ; b. at Liick-
ersdorf, Lusatia, .Ian. 21. 1H12; studied at Leipzig; became
professor extraordinar)- in the University of Leipzig in 1861.
lie published Lehrliitrh der deiilschen \'ersk-iinst {lHi4: 6th
cd. 1878); GedichleOHi"!); Taschenieorterhiich der Mijlholo-
gie alter Votlcer (\mi: 6th ed. 18.m:{); Lehrliiirh der rhijth-
mischen Materei der deutschen Spraclw (1855); Der iiliis-
trierte neuhoclidentsche I'arnass (1860) ; Der Kunslti-r ( 1 862) ;
Vorsehnle zum //omer (186:i); Die W'eisen des Mori/enlands
(2d ed. 1865); Dem neue,n Kaiser (1871). I), in Heidelberg,
Dec. 29, l.S.S.5.
Mind (O. Eng. nnjnd, qemynd:C\. II. Germ, minna. mem-
ory, love:(ioth. gamiintts. memory; cf. Lat. mens, mentis,
mind, Gr. itivot. mind, strength of spirit, Sanskr. man,
think! ; as contradistinguished from maZ/cr, free, si'lf-<leter-
miTieil being; hence it exists in the form of atomic indi-
viduals, an(l not, as is the i-ase with matter, in that of mere
mechanical or quantitative aggregates. Wherever we ob-
serve activity which is in conformity to an end or purpose,
we attribute it to minil. Mind contemplates its |Kitenliality
or lack or need in the form of an idea, and uses means to
realize it, while material things, although having |Hilentiali-
ties, do not act with conscious ]>urposi.. Taken generally,
material things are limited or constraiiu-d from without —
conditioned throuu'h otiiers — while spiritual beings are al-
ways free and self-conditiomMl. at least fornudly, originating
their own limitations, first ils iileas or purposes theoretically,
and then realizing them by practical activity or will. Pure
matter, devoid of all self-determimition, is (KThaiis mere
I'lnpty .space — pure chiwis; pure miiul or absolute s<'lf-deter-
mine<l lieing is Ciod. Betwi'en these ullimales lie the world
of nature and that of man, the former containing nuiterial
beings that manifest various degrees of s<'lf-d<'terminBlion —
from the crystal through the plant up to the animal; the
latter containing the world of man or human histor)-, which
is the revilation of selfHielermiiiation or mind in'its pnv
gressive emancipation from matter; the humblest human
soul being immortal and potentially free, though involved
in manifold external complications with circumstance.
Historically, it was Anaxagoras who first announced njind
(i-oSi = reason) as the simple .si-lf-existent essence of things,
that whiili sways matter. Besides this general significaticm
of the term mind, in which it is a synonym of spirit, and
corres|)onds to the (ierman term ^/eiW, including the s«'veral
activities of feeling, vidition, and thought, the word mind is
useil in a narrower sense to imply only the theoretical activ-
ity or the Intellect — the activity of cogaiition. Aristotle's
yfivxli is identical with mind in the first-mentioneil Si-nse, if
we interpret it as including the yoCs vonrrucit. In the si-coiid
book of the De Anima in his careful manner he defines soul
(^vx-h) to be "the first entelechy of a physical orgaiuc Ijodv
having life potentially." By "'first entelechy" he means ii
self-determining or free being in its undeveloped first stages,
when it has not luifoliled, but may unfold, its cafiacities —
hence a formally fiie being; the "seconil entelechv" is the
actually self-developed free being. According to this defini-
tion, soul would si'em to be correlative of body. But he
proceeds in the third l)Ook to describe the creative reason
(mis ToiTrrifcdj) as |)0.ssessing independent and eternal exi.st-
enee apart from body, thus ajiparently making the term soul
apply to God us well as to mixed earthly natures. In o|i|io-
sition to the theory of the siieculative philo.sophers and
theologians, represented by such names as Plato, Aristotle,
Leibnitz, Hegel, ,Sl. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Duns
Scotus, and Meister Eckhart, the materialists repudiate the
co-ordination of mind with matter, or the subordination of
matter to mind, and explain mind as a function of matter.
Psychology with them, accordingly, falls into a department
of physiology. From Democritus and Empc<locles. and
their gifted expounder Lucretius, down to Hartley and
Bain, this unpopular doctrine has found in every age its
hardy advocates. Physiological investigations into the con-
ditions under which mind is active in its various phases
have doubtless been of great benefit to psycliology. and
more is to be expected from this source in the future. Xota-
bly, in certain practical spheres — for instance, in the me<li-
cal treatment of the insane — we have profited by adopting
the physiological theory. John Stuart Mill, holding the
doctrine of si'iisat ion as the original form of mental activ-
ity, defines matter to be "the permanent possibility of sen-
sation," and likewise mind to be "a series of feelings with a
background of possibilities of feeling" — definitions which
point toward Berkeley's theory of immalerialism. Another
class of thinkers are found in open hostility to the theolog-
ical and speculative view first mentioned, although they
do not adopt the physiological view of mind. The early
commentators of Aristotle were divided — some, like Themis-
tiiis, holding that individual men are immortal ; others, like
Alexander Aphrodisia.*, hoUling that only God is immor-
tal: the lower faculties of the soul, memory, Xeeling, the dis-
cursive intellect, etc.. called by Aristotle the passive reason
(voSi xaSiTTiKifj), are mere dispositions connected with the
animal fa<ulties, and therefore perishable with the Ixnly.
The creative reas<m (i/oi/j iroi»(Tiic<!s) was conceded to be im-
mortal and indeoendenl of matter, Ijut only as One, the
deity or the worUl-soul. while men, who participate in this
pure activity, lose their individuality at death witli the lapse
of sense-perception, memory, reflection, fancy, etc., which
furnished the individual attributes. The adoption by Aver-
roi'S of this doctrine, subversive of all claims on the |>art of
man as man to essential participation in the divine life,
made an e|K)ch ill the history of thought. The dangerous
preiliiameiit of the Cliureh upon the revival of learning, and
the study of Aristotle through Arabian commentary and
translation, arouseil the mightiest thinkers of the period of
scholasticism, and Christian theology at length si'ttled it5
ilogmas u|H>n a firm foundation beyond the power of the
siilitle metaphysics of the .\nibiaiis. The great question tv-
ganlim; miml was this of the relation of tho particular indi-
vidual to the universal s<iul ; and there is no second problem
of ei|ual im|Mirtaiice to man.
The philosophy of miml must verify its theories by their
application to the interpretation of human institutions. The
nature and destiny of mind is revealed in those gignntic
products of the unit<il endeavor of entire |>eoples — the work
of the will rather than of the intellect, emiiodietl in tho
stale, the Cliureh, civil society — with unmistakable tracings,
while the scientific theories, l>om of individuals, are the field
778
MINDANAO
MINDEN
of interminable disputes. Psypliology as a science has been
taken by some to iiiclmle tlie entire realm of the pliilosopliy
of mint!; by others it has been understood to include only
the subjective manifestation of mind. or. still more liniite(l,
the self-conscious phase of it. (See Psvcholooy.) An out-
line of the entire philosophy of mind as treated by one of
the most comprehensive ami profound of modern tliinkers
includes the following deimrlnieiits; A. Subjective Mind
falls under tlireo heads — I. Aiithropolosry, or tlie science of
those phases of mind bcf^inninj; with its enthralment in na-
ture and its struggle for individuality ; these are («) the pe-
culiar qualities and processes arising from race, climate, age,
sex, sleep, sensation, passions, etc. : (/>) feeling, the interaction
between consciousness and the unconscious life of instinct,
ideas for the most part remaiiung obscure and in the form
of mere impulses; (c) symbolism and language, the mind
creating for itself a conventional medium in which it fixes
the products of its thinking activity for the sake of coiimm-
nication. combination of tlie individual with the race, and
self-contemplation. The human mind thus frees itself from
animal impulse and elevates itself to consciousness. II.
Phenomenology of mind is the science of the process by
which mind comes to recognize free self-determining intelli-
gence as the presupposition and logical explanation of the
objective world. It Ijcgins («) with the consideration of im-
mediate consciousness of objects, and traces the history of
its (b) discovery of their relativity and the origin of their
properties and attributes in their mutual relations, until (c)
it arrives at the conviction that the objects of sense-percep-
tion are mere phases or manifestations of forces which are
in a state of perpetual transition into each other, originating
and annulling individual tilings, leaving no permanent ma-
terial beings, but only an abstract internal power, of which
the phenomenal world is a manifestation. The tliought of
a genesis of difference and distinctions, from an abstract
force in which all concrete distinctions have vanished is the
thought of a self-determining or self-duplicating entity, a
manifestation by means of self-opposition : and this radical
idea that underlies the thought of force is the idea of a uni-
versal that exists as a particularizing process. Here may be
recognized the thought or concept of the personal Ego or of
mind. Hence all distinctions among objects in the outer
world are traced ultimately to mind as their Creator, and
this investigation has found the substance underlying ob-
jects and identified it with the Ego or a thinking subject.
III. Psychology, considered as a special department, is the
science of mind as subject : it considers the subjective fac-
tor of knowledge and investigates its forms. It treats {a) of
theoretical mind as sense-perception, representation and
pure thought ; (b) of the emotional activity of mind ; (c) of
the practical activity, or the will. B. Objective Mind in-
cludes the world of human history and the organized insti-
tutions of man — (a) the family, (i) civil society, (c) the state.
C Absolute Jlind (mvf •7roir)TiK((s) includes («) the phase of
manifestation of the divine mind to sense-perception in the
form of the beautiful in art; (b) the revelation of the divine
to the will in the form of the good as set forth in religion ;
(c) the systematic exjiosition of the divine mind as the ulti-
mate truth in the form of science, culminating in theology
or philosophy. William T. Harris.
Mindanao, min-diia-naa'o : the southeasternmost of the
Philippine islands, the largest next to Luzon, and the least
known; between 5' and 10° N. lat. and 122' and 126" E.
Ion. It is shaped like a calabash, with the handle to the
W. and the mouth to the N. It is a part of the Spanish
colony of the Philippines. Area, 37,500 sij. miles. The cen-
sus of the population submitted to Spam gave in 1HW7 a
count of 209,086. The inilependent population is much
larger, and is estimated at -lOtWOO, giving a total of aliout
600.0(K), or 160 per sii. mile. It is t lie most densely popu-
lated of the group. The surface is very mountainous; the
highest known mountain is Apo, near the Gulf of Davao,
on the south coast ; height, 10,30() feet. The very numerous
volcanoes, though essentially modern, as shown by tlie lavas,
are now inactive. Earthquakes are very frequent, but gen-
erally slight, though very destructive ones sometimes occur.
The islanti is rising along the western coast. Streams and
lakes are numerous, but generally small. The Palangui
or Grande carries 2 fathoms for 80 miles from its mouth.
There is a dry and wet season each year, but their occur-
rence depends on the to])ogra])liy. The southwestern slopes
are wet and the northeastern dry during the southwest
monsoon, and the reverse fur the northeast monsoon. Dur-
ing the wet season local storms arc frequent, and tvjilioons
occasionally, though rarely, pass over the island, 'l lie soil
is extremely fertile. The surface is closely covered with
line forests abounding in useful woods, resins, and gums.
The fauna is tropical and rich. A rare and little-known
species of wild cattle exist in swamps in the interior which
have the same appearance for cattle that the turnspit has
among dogs. The inhabitants are negritos, the al>origines,
few ill number, generally vagabonds, sometimes slaves; In-
fedcls, under which the Spaniards include the independent
interior tribes, Indonesian, resembling the Dyaks and Bat-
tas, wild, man-hunters, but scrupulously honest, numbering
about 300.000; Malays, along the coast, esjiecially on the
S. E., N. W., on the interior lakes, and in I lie valley of the
Grande ; Mohammedans, predatory, resembling the inhabit-
ants of the Sulu islands, submissive along the coast, but in-
dependent inland, numbering about 100,000; Visayas, who
are submissive. Catholics, the descendants of native colonies
from the Visaya islands, numbering 120.000; and the Chi-
nese, who are increasing rapidly in number, are scattered
along the coasts and in the towns, and are devoted to agri-
culture and trade. The Spaniards are few in number,
mostly at Zamboanga, a fortress and the end of the handle.
This island was the first of the Philippines .seen by Ma-
gellan (1521), and since that date the Spanish conquest has
been under way with varying success. It is hardly so far
advanced now as in the middle of the seventeenth century.
The most difficult peoples to deal with are the Malays.
Mark W. Harrington.
Mind-ciire: the cure of bodily ailments through mental
influences without use of medicines or other treatment.
The iiifiuence of mind on body is now recognized to a de-
gree in therapeutics: but no systematic or scientific formu-
lation is yet possible. The therapeutic uses of Hypnotism
((/. V.) show that the dwelling of the attention upon certain
ideas tends to bring about the usual physical effects. This
is now known as Suggestion (g. v.). and extends to all men-
tal conditions to some degree. It is only an aspect of this
general fact that strong belief in certain physical effects,
predicted and strongly suggested by another, should have
some influence in producing them, especially in iiiinor func-
tional and nervous troubles. It should be distinctly under-
stood, however, that reputable jihysicians will have nothing
to do with any mind-cure which is based on ajipeals to
credulity or professes to go beyond the slight moral influ-
ences auxiliary to regular medical treatment. The various
forms of mind-cure exploited under the names of "Chris-
tian science," "personal magnetism." "cure by will power,"
etc., are, apart from the slight suggestive influence men-
tioned, nothing short of frauds: and the ca.se is made worse
when it is remembered tliat the professors of such power
are usually cither schemers, wlio make money by preying
upon tlie credulity of others, or enthusiasts of too little
medical information to know one disease from another.
J. Mark Baldwin.
Mintleleff, Cosmos: archa>ologist: b. in 1863 of Russian
parents, who settled in the U. S. in 1861. His father, Dimi-
try Mindeleff, had more than a national reputation as a
cliemi.st and inventor. The son graduated at a jirivato
school at the age of fifteen, and at once engaged in busi-
ness. In 1882 he became connected with the bureau of
ethnology, and since that time has been engaged in the
study of the aboriginal architecture of the pueblo region.
In 1886 he published the first description of the snake-
dance of the Tusayan (Jloki) Indians that apfieared in a
scientific publication. In collaboration with his brother
Victor he took part in the preparation of a report on jnieblo
architecture, which was the first comprehensive and scien-
tific treatment of that subject. This appeared under the
title A Stiidi/ of Pueblo Arrhitecture : Tusayan and Ci-
bola. In 1891 he prepared plans for the rejiair and preser-
vation of the famous Casa Grande ruin in Arizona. He
iiublished the first report on aboriginal remains in the val-
ley of the Rio Verde, Arizona. He is perhaps best known
as a modeler of arclueologic and topograjihic' subjects.
J. \V. Powkll.
Mind(>n : town; in the province of Westphalia, Prussia;
on the Wcser; 40 miles W. of Hanover (see map of Ger-
man Knipire, ref. 3-E). It is an old town, closely built,
with few open places or interesting buildings. The Roman
Catholic church, however, has a tower which dates back to
the eleventh century, and illustrates the first stage in the
development of the 'Gothic spire. The town was formerly
I
i
MINDEN
MIXERALOGY
779
strongly fortified, and has been the scene of some hard
fighting; now tlie pliice of its fortificutiims is occupied by
manufacturing suburbs. It has manufactures of soap,
ehcniicals, glass, tobacco, beer, brandy, and hosiery. Pop.
(181)1) 2():i-iS.
Mindeii : city (founded in 1876) ; capital of Kearney cc,
Nell, (for location of county, see map of Nebraska, ref.
11-K); on the Hurlington lloiilc and the .Si. .Jus. and (jr.
Is. railways; V2H miles W. of Lincoln. It is in an agricul-
tural region, and contains 8 churches, 2 public-school build-
ings, wagon and milling works, and D weekly newspapers.
Pop. (1880) 98; (1890) 1,380; (1893) estiniatedi 2.000.
Editor of -Gazette."
Mindo'ro: one of the larger of the Philippine islands;
.S. and \V. of Luzon ; on the China Sea; in lat. Vi' N., Ion.
121 \V. ; area, :i,800 s([. miles; pop. estimated at 40 per. sfj.
mile, or l.W.OOO. The Spanish domination is limited to a
narrow strip of coast, and the interior is perhaps the least
known of the group. It has suffered much from the dep-
redations of the Sulu pirates. M. W. U.
Mind-reading: See Muscle-keadi.vo and Hypnotism.
Mineola : town ; Wood co., Tex. (for location of county,
see map of Tc.Mus, ref. 2—1); on the Int. ami Gt. N., the Mo.,
Kan. and Tex., and the Tex. and I'uc. railways; 77 miles E.
of Dallas, 110 miles \V. of Shreyeport, La. It is in a cotton-
growing region, is an important commercial distributing
point, and has a high school, priyate bank, and two weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,175; (1890) i;W3.
Mineralogy [Lat. mineralh'<. pertaining to a mine, min-
eral (deriy. of mi nera, ininc) + Gr. \iyoi, discourse, reason]:
the science which treats of the chemical and physical prop-
erties, relations, occurrence, and classification of minerals;
the word mineral denoting any homogeneous, inorganic,
natural product, not gsiseous, and not the immediate result
of organic imx-esses. A mineral may be the indirect and
altered proiluct of organic life, like coal, which results from
the alteration of the once organic \yood, or amber, which is
an altered vegetable resin; but fossil bones, shells, etc., are
not to be classed as minerals. .Minerals are distinguished
by their chemical properties, their form, structure, luster,
color, hardness, siiecific gravity, etc.
Cheinixfri/. — The exact composition of a mineral is as-
certained by quantitatiye analysis; the nature of its con-
stituents by ipialitatiye analysis, the blowpipe reactions be-
ing especially useful in determining minerals, from their
siniolicity and certainty. Every one of the elements occurs
in the mineral kingdom, and a mineral may consist of one
clement or of a cond)ination so complex that no present
sy.stem of chemical notation will give a satisfactory repre-
sentation of its composition. Like any other eliemical
compounds, minerals are to be regarded as combinations of
atoms and molecules, and in writing the formulas for these
the ratios of the elements orcsent are calculated in three
ways. The atomic ratio is tlie ratio lietween the number of
atoms; thus for the aluminium, silicon, and oxygen in
AliOi,Si()j it is 2 : 1 : ij. The oxygen ratio is the ratio be-
tween the number of atoms of oxygen in the different oxy-
gen compounds present. In AljOj.SiOj the O ratio of the
AliOj and SiOj is 3 : 2. The nfrcmtage ratio is the num-
ber of parts in 1(X), and is deduced from the ratio between
the atomic weight of the compound and that of each con-
stituent. The atomic weight of AljOi is 51".5 (old system):
of O, it is 24: hence iiVa : 1(H) : : 24 : 4ti0, the percentage
of oxygen. For Al, (at. wt. = 27'5) we have 51'5 : 100 : :
27'.") : 5:j'4, the percentage of aluminium. The at. wt. of
Al,0,.SiO, is 8iri, and that of Sit), is 30; hence 81-5 : 30
: : IIXJ : 308. the percentage of SiO, in the cominiund. The
atomic ratio of the constituents may be calculated from
their percentage ratio by divi<iing the latter by the atomic
weight of each constituent. In AU<>> the percentage ratio
of Al and O is .53-4 : 4(>-6 ; hence .53-4 -i- 13-75 — 3!»3, and
46-6 -H 8 = 5-82. from which we obtain the ratio 3-93 : 5-82,
or nearly 2 : 3, the atomic ratio of the aluminium to the
oxygen. ' The ratio of any constituents in a compound may
also be obtained by comparing the amounts of oxygen in
the i)ercent«ges of the constituents. Thus in Al,o,.Si(>,
the percentage of .SiO, = :t6-8, of A1,0, = 632. In 100 of
SiO, there are 5333 of oxvgen : hence 36-8 x •5:«3 = 19-62."> ;
100 of Al,0, contain 46-6 O : hence 46-6 x •6:{2 = 29-45 ;
then lfl-(>->5 : '29-45 : ; 2 : 3, ami since SiO, contains 20 and
.\1,0, 30, the result shows that the comjKiund contains one
of silica and one of alumina, or has the formula Al,0,,SiO,.
The atomic ratio is therefore of use in obtaining the for-
mulas of minerals.
Compounds containing two kinds of elements are called
liinary, and one clement is regarded as negative to the
other. A ternary com|)Ound contains three kinds of ele-
ments, which are so combined as to form a ba.se and an
acid. Thus MgO,Si(J, contains the ba.se of MgO and the
acid SiO,, or the banic element Mg, the acidic Si, and the
acidific O.' The replacing power of the elements is in pro-
portion to their combining power, reckoned in numl>erof
atoms of the acidific element, oxygen, sulphur, or whatever
it may be. In acconlancc with this |)rinciple, if K repre-
sent any basic element, HfO may be written for HjO,, and
may then replace KO in a compound.
According to the new system of chemistry, in tlie formu-
las of ternary compounds the acid and base are not written
separately, as 2MgO,SiO,. but the syndjol of each element
is written by itself — Mg,SiO,. Regarding certain elements
as negative to the others, it is held that each element has*
power to fix a certain number of atoms of a more negative
element. The elements are divided into two cla.ssc.s — peris-
sads {ir(pt(Ta6s. odd), which condiinc with one another in
the ratios 1 : 1, 1 : 3, 1 : .5, taking hydrogen as the unit ; and
artiads i&prtot, even), with combining ratios 2:2, 2:4,
3 : 6, taking the same unit.
In some classes of compounds it is held that only a part
of the oxygen present serves to unite the acidic element to
the base. For example, in the formula MgO,.SiO, we have
Si combining with 20. ci|uiyalent to 411. and Mg with lO,
equivalent to 211. TUq tetrad Si has then four bonds of
attraction, and the dyad Mg two; O is likewise a di/ad.
Hence we may represent the combination of Si, Mg, and 30
by the graphic formula O = Si <q)> Mg, the dashes repre-
senting so many bonds of attraction, and indicating that
only 20 unite the Mg and Si. one O being combined with Si
alone. Dana writes this formula SiO | O, | Mg. The
formula 2MgO,.SiOa may be represented similarly by Mg
<0> ^' <0^ ^^^ ' ^^' ^^" = 0, = Si = O, = 5Ig ; or, as Dana
writes it. Si j 0» 1 Mg,. The.se formulius are w-ritten on the
princijile that the number of atoms of uniting oxygen is
equal to the number of bonds of attraction of the basic or
acidic element, according as the former or latter has the
smaller number. The formulas are similar for sulphur, tel-
lurium, and selenium compounds, and for ternary tluorides.
Form and Structure. — Some minerals occur only in an
amoridious state, never shon-ing any signs of crystallization,
but the majority arc at times well crystallized or distinctly
crystalline. Any crystal can l)e referred to one of seven
systems, in whicli the crystal faces are determined t)y their,
position in regard to a set of assumed axes intersecting
within the crystal. In six of these systems there are tliree
axes, and in one of them four. See Crvstalloorafhy.
The crystalline form is very u.seful in distinguishing
minerals, because it is an established fact that the angle be-
tween any two faces of a crystal will, under similar condi-
tions, ahvays be the sjime for the same minerals, subject to
slight variations corresponding to changes in the comjiosi-
tion of the varieties of the mineral. The similar faces may
vary greatly in size, so that one or more faces may almost or
entirely disappear, but the angles between the similar faces
will remain the same.
Immorphinm. or the pro[)erty of similar substances to
ery.stallize in very similar forms, admits of their mutual
rej)lacement in crystallized minerals, this replacement be-
ing often accompanied by a slight change in the angles of
the crystals. Thus lime, magnesia, the |>rotoxides of iron
and manganese, ami oxide of zinc, are isomorphous bases,
an<l yield verv similar crystals w\w\\ combined with the
same acid, llence the close relation between the forms
of calcite, dolomite, and the related minerals. IHmoridiixm
is the property of the same substance to crystallize in two
different systems, or two different tyjies of the same sys-
tem: thus carbonate of lime ap|x>ars in the hexagonal sys-
tem as rhombohedral ealiite. and in the orthoHuunbic as
aragonite. Triniorphisin a\\i\ piilymurphism refer to crys-
tallization in more than two forms. IWudnmurphiitm is
tlie assumption liy one mineral of the peculiar form of an-
other, but the second minertd always retains its own in-
ternal structure and physical characteristics. Psoudo-
morphs may result from the deiH>silion of one mineral upon
ant>ther. followed liy the n'lnoval of the first mineral by so-
lution, and subse<|uent filling up of the mold thus formed
rso
MINERALOGY
with the material of theseeond mineral ; by fillinsf up of tlie
cavity left by previous removal, throiif;h solution or other-
wise,"of the iirst mineral froui its matrix : by alteration of
the original crystal through removal or addition of soiue
components; or, lastly, by simple molecular change within
the mineral, which is possible only in ease of dimorphous
substances, as in the alteration of andalusite into cysinite.
A distinction is made between crystallized and crystal-
line minerals, the latter not showing free or partially in-
dividual crystals. If a crystalline mineral does not even
show recognizable iudividuals, it is calleii cryptocrystal-
line. Crystalline minerals are classified, according to their
structure, into granular, lamellar, scaly, radiated, and
fibrous.
Lamellar structure is described as parallel, divergent, etc.
In anior])hous minerals there is no trace of crystalline
form or special characteristic of structure due to individual
crystals, although an intermittent dei>osition of the mass
composing tlie mineral may have occasioned differences of
color, hardness, and texture. The majority of the solid
amorjihous minerals are the result of a gradual change
from a gelatinous slate, or of rapid cooling from a melted
condition, but many of them are the result of the alteration
of pre-existing nnnerals.
Cleavage, or the tendency to split in certain directions, is
characteristic of most erystallizable minerals, and is of
great use in determining minerals, the cleavage planes
being always the same for the same mineral, no matter
what the modifications of the crystal. Thus calcite. whether
occurring as a rhombohedron or a hexagonal prism, will
cleave always parallel to the faces of the type rhombohedron
of caleyte ; ftuorite, whether occurring in cubes, octahedrons,
or any other form of the isometric system, will always cleave
parallel to the faces of the octahedron. Cleavage takes
place parallel to certain planes, but there may be two or
more sets of cleavage-planes in the same crystal, and in this
ease the cleavage will be easier parallel to one set of planes
than to another, but will always be easiest parallel to the
same planes. Thus orthoclase, in the monoclinic system,
has a very perfect cleavage parallel to the base of the
prism, a less distinct cleavage parallel to the clino-pina-
coid, faint parallel to the ortho-pinacoid. and only in traces
parallel to one face of the prism. Some minerals are de-
void of cU^ivage, especially the amorphous minerals and
native malleable metals, while the cleavage of some min-
erals, like mica and gypsum, is so perfect that they can be
easily split into very fine laminiP. Other minerals have a
distinct cleavage, which may be very hard to obtain, as in
quartz, while some, like argentite, show scarcely any traces
of cleavage.
Fracture differs from cleavage in not being parallel to
fixed planes. It is classified as conchoidal, even, and un-
even, according to the shape, and smooth, splintery, earthy,
and haekley (like broken copper), according to the nature of
the resulting surface.
Hardness. — Minerals vary in hardness, from the liquid
hydrocarbons and water to the diamond. Hardiu'ss does
not usually vary much for the same mineral, and is there-
fore a valual)le aid in determining minerals. Its degree is
ascertained by reference to the follcjwing scale, beginning
with the softest: 1, talc; 2, gypsum ; 8, calcite ; 4, fiuorite ;
5, apatite; 6. orthoclase; 7, quartz; 8, corundum; 9, dia-
mond. A mineral scratched easily by apatite, and easily
scratching fiuorite, woulil be fixed at 4'5.
According to their tenacitij, or resistance to blows and
cutting edges, minerals are classified as brittle, sectite. mal-
leahle. and flexible, the latter being elastic or nu7i-elastic.
It has been shown that the degrees of tenacity depend prop-
erly upon the elasticity of minerals.
Specific gravity is confined to narrow limits in its varia-
tions for the same minerals, and is of importance in dis-
tinguishing them.
Magnet ism. nvWic power of affecting the magnetic needle,
IS possessed by a few minerals containing the magnetic
oxide or sulphide of iron, and magnetite sometimes pos-
sesses polarity.
Electricity is developed in all minerals by friction ; cer-
tain minerals become electric by pressure, cleavage crystals
of calcite showing positive electricity when pressed between
the fingers; others show electrical disturbance on warm-
ing, ami are called thermo-electric. When opposite kinds
of electricity are simultaneously developed at opposite parts
of such crystals, they are said to possess polar thermo-
electricity, and certain of these crystals are hemimurphic,
or have different faces at tlieir opposite ends. Tourmaline
affords a very striking example of polar thermo-electricity.
Optical Properties. — All ti'ansparent crystals not belong-
ing to the isometric system (anisometric) possess double
refraction, or divide into two rays a ray of light passing
through them. (See Rekbactio.n, Double.) A ray of light
|)assing through a doubly refracting crystal may escape
double refraction if it passes through in certain directions,
according to the crystalline system. These directions are
called the optical axes. In crystals belonging to the
tetragonal and hexagonal systems there is one optical
axis, parallel to the vertical axis, ami such crystals are
called uniaxial. The other systems are biaxial, and the
optical axes lie in one of the three planes passing through
any two of the crystallographic axes, and are usually sym-
metrically situated with reference to the crystallographic
axes in the same plane. The angle between tlie optical
axes is called the ojitie-axial angle. A line bisecting the
acute optic-axial angle is called the actite bisectrix, or sim-
ply bisectrix, and one bisecting the obtuse angle and which
is at right angles to the acute, is the obtu.te or conjugate bi-
sectrix. The optic-axial angle may vary widely for <lifferent
varieties of the same mineral, but the position of the bisec-
trix is nearly constant.
The emerging doubly refracted rays are polarized, but
this phenomenon disapjiears when the light passes in the
direction of an optical axis, and in the case of easily cleav-
able minerals we can readily determine whether tiiey are
uniaxial or biaxial by examining thin lamime between two
crossed Nicol's prisms or other suital)le apparatus, because
uniaxial crystals cleave best parallel to the base, and hence
normal to the optical axes, while very cleavable biaxial crys-
tals cleave best parallel to the base or one of the pinacoids,
and would have neither of the optical axes normal to the
laminaj. See Polariz.\tion.
Sections of doubly refracting crystals of proper dimen-
sions exhibit colored rings when examined by convergent
polarized light, owing to the interference of the rays. Uni-
axial crystals show one set of rings, intersected by a dark
cross : biaxial crystals, one or two systems of elliptical
rings, crossed by a dark band. A section of a quartz crystal
vertical to the optical axis exerts double refraction in a
[leculiar way, the rays progressing not in direct oscillations,
but with varying velocity in circular oscillations, producing
what is called circular polarization.
Certain crystals sometimes show double refraction, espe-
cially senarmontite, diamorul, boracile. analcite, and alum.
This is owing sometimes to incipient alteration ; sometimes
perhaps to pressure exerted by gases within the crystal;
sometimes to interposed layers of some donlily refracting
mineral ; and sometimes perhaps to a lamellar structure of
the mineral it.self, which produces the same results as a sys-
tem of glass plates, and has given the name of lamellar
polarization to the phenomenon.
Some crystals transmit light of different colors and in-
tensity in different directions. This property is called
pleochroism, and belongs more or less to all crystals with
unequal axes. Colorless crystals cause only variation in the
intensity of the liglit — colored cry.stals in the color also.
Uniaxial crystals are diclrroic. and biaxial cryaitils t rich roic.
The phenomenon is closely connected with donlile refraction,
as the two rays suffer different absorption, and in general
the more refracted ray also sulVers the greater absorption.
The phenomenon is oliserved bv moans of the dichroscope,
Labradorite. chrysoberyl, and other minerals show a pe-
culiar change of color in relleeted liglit, attributed partly to
the presence of microscopic lamella' and scales of foreign
minerals, partly to very minute fissures in the mass of the
mineral. Asterism, sometimes resulting in the appearance
of a star, as in certain sapphire crystals, sometimes as a
changeable streak of light across t he fibers of certain varieties
of gypsum, etc., is allied to the above phenomenon.
Ijiister, Color, and Translucency. — Minerals are divided
according to their luster, or ai>pearance in relleeted light,
into two grand classes, mrtallic and non-metallic, and the
non-metallic again into adamantine, vitreous, greasy, pearly,
silky, and lusterless or earthy. Color is always the same,
and characteristic in the case of some minerals, as metals,
pyrites, the sulphides, certain metallic oxides, and salts;
others are white or colorless and transparent, like ice. quartz,
many silicates, etc., but these may be colored by mechanical
admixture or isomorphous combination of colored constitu-
ents. The colors of minerals vary greatly, and so does
their translucency, the native metals and minerals witli me-
MINERAL OIL
MINERAL WATERS
781
tnllic luster being generally quite opaque, even in very thin
lilius.
Phospliorescenre is induced in some niincriils, as diamond
and cali'incd liuriti-, liy I'Xiiosure to (layli;;lil ; in otiiors, to-
naz anil IliKirito, l)y warruinj;, by electricity, nr by rneclian-
ical ilisturbance, as pressure, cleaving, etc. The tiiMe. xmttl,
and feet of minerals are additional means of distinguishing
them.
Classification. — For a long time mineralogy as a system-
atized science was in a very confused stale, minerals and
rocks (often only aggregates of dilTerent minerals) were con-
founiled together, and widely dilTerent minerals were placed
in the same classes. Cronsledt, about M'yH, nointeil out the
dilTcrence between a rock and a mineral : dc Lisle soon after
appliiMl crystallography to the study of mini nils, and tinally
Mohs jiroiiuceil a rial ural system, founded chiefly on external
characteristics. In the early part of the nineteenth century
Berzelius introduced chemistry in classifying numerals, and
at the present day chemistry, combined with crystallography,
forms the basis of the generally accepted systems of miner-
alogy. Dana's system of mineralogy, as given in the fifth
edition of his work on the subject, an unexcelleil example
of research ami judgment, may be cited in illustration of
the chemical grouping of minerals combined with crystal-
lography. Ill' first arranges the elements into three series,
beginning with the more basic, then the more negative, and
finally the eminently negative: Series I. (fold yroiip, gold,
silver; iron (/roup, platinum and allied nu>tals, mercurv,.
amalgams, copper, iron, zinc, lead ; tin ijrimp. tin. Series tl.
Arsenic group, nmeinc, antimony, bismuth: sitlpliiir group,
tellurium, sulphur, si'lensulpluir ; carbon-silicon group, dia-
mond, graphite. .Series III. (.'hlorine, bromine, iodine, flu-
orine, oxygen. The gold group also includes hydrogen and
the alkali metals ; the arsenic group, pliosjihorus, nitrogen,
and proliably boron; the iron group, calcmm, magnesium,
aluminium, cobalt, nickel, zinc (chromium, manganese, lead,
in part, etc.); the tin group, titanium and zirconium. The
general subdivisions are then as follows : I. native elements ;
II. compounds, the more negative elcMuerit an element of
Series 11. (1) Miuary — sulphides, tellurides of metals of the
sulphur and arsenic groups; Ci) binary — sulpliides.tellurides,
sclenides, arsenides, etc.. of metals of the gdd. iron, and tin
groups; (3) ternary — sulpharsenites, sulphantimonites, sul-
(ihobismuthites. III. Compounds, the more negative ele-
ment belonging to Series III., Group I.: chlorides, etc. I\'.
<'ompounds. the more negative clement of Series III., Group
II.: fluorides. V. Compoumls, the more negative element
of Scries III., Group III. Oxygen compounds: (1) Binar)- —
oxides; (2) ternary, the basic element of .Series I., the acidic
of Scries 11., the acidific of Series III. (1) Silicates; (2) col-
umbates, etc.; (3) phosphates, etc.; (4) borates; (5) tung-
states, etc. ; (6) sulphates, etc. ; (7) carbonates ; (8) oxalates.
VI. Hydrocarbon eomf>ounds. The silicates may serve as
an example of the further arrangement into groups and
species. First, they are divided into anhydrous and hydrous
-ilicates, and efich of the.se into bisilicates, nnisilicates, and
>ubsilicates. In the anhydrous silicates the oxygen ratio
for bases and silica is for the bisilicates 1:2; nnisilicates,
1:1; subsilicates, 1 : less than 1, The bisilicates are arranged
into groups: amphibole group, crystallization orthorhomliie
or clinohedral ; angle of prism not 120 : beryl group, hexag-
onal ; poUueitc group, isometric. The amphibole group has
sub-groups: mroxene snb-groiip, angle of prism, ^6-88 ;
composition. RU.SiO, or (3K0,R,0,);iSi(),, and when both
RO ami R,0, are present, ratio of 3R<):R,( ), = 3 : 1 to 1 : 2.
a. (>rthorhombic;6. monodinic; c, trielinic. .Spodumene sub-
group, angle of prism, 86-88 ' ; composit ion (3 1{( ), RiO,):5Si( ),,
and 3R(> : RqO, = 1:4. Amphibole sub-group, angle of prism,
123 -12.J ■. a. orthorhombic ; b. monoclinic.
The sulphides, etc., of the gold, iron, and tin groups may
serve for further illustration. There are three divisions: (1)
Jiasir, liiiimic ratio between the sulphur, arsenic, etc.. and
the basic metal is less than one to one; (2) I'rolo. with the
ratio 1:1; (3) Deuto, ratio 2 : 1. The Proln division has
four groups: (1) Oalena group, isometric, holoheilral; (2)
fllende group, isometric, hemihedral ; (3) Chalcocile group,
irthorhombic; (4) Pi/rrholile group. he\n>;oim\. The Diuto
division has two groups: (\) Pyrile group, isometric; (2)
Marcnsite group, orthorhombic.
Revised by Charles Kirchuoff.
Mineral Oil : See Petroleum.
Mineral Point: city; Iowa co.. Wis. (for location of
county, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 7-1)); on the Chi., Mil.
and St. P. Railway ; 30 miles N. E. of Dubuque, la., 45 miles
W. S. W. of Madison. It is in a farming, stock-raising, and
lead-mining region, and has lead and zinc furnaces, iron-
foundries, planing and grist mills, oxiile-of-zinc works, na-
tional liank (capital :fIO(J,000), private bunk, and twn weekly
newspapers. Pop. (18^0) 2,910; (18»0) 2.(ilt4 ; (189.5) 3.136.
Mineral Springs: See Spri.sus, Mineral Waters, and
Water.
Mineral Waters: waters such as contain unusual quan-
tities of various .salts in solution, or sometimes simply very
pure water. In the latterca.se they are not properly called
mineral waters. Sjirings that are found in IfK'alilies where
soluble substances occur in the earth are likely to contain
some of these substances in solution. .Such natural solu-
tions have long attracted the attention of mankind, and are
used medicinally to an enormous extent, under the impres-
sion that they have curative powers that are not jMissessed
by solutions of the same kind made artificially. In some
cases a water owes its reputation to its temperature ahmc ;
in other eases to the presence of substances that unques-
tionably produce effects upon the system ; in others still to
the presence of minute quantities of rare substances, the
names of which i)roduce a psychological effect, thus influ-
encing the body indirectly.
Mineral waters are classified into (1) thermal tenters; (2)
common salt or muriated saline iraters; (3) alkaline
wafers ; (4) sulphafed saline waters ; (5) iron or chalybeate
wafers ; (6) siilphtir waters ; (7) earthy and calcareous
waters ; (8) alum waters.
(1) Thermal waters are valued for their high temperature,
from 27 -65 C. Examples of springs of this kiml are the
Hot Springs of Arkansas and \ irginia. in the U. S., and
those of Bormio. (Jastein. Pfiiflers, and Ragatz, in Eurojie.
(2) Common salt or muriated saline wafers i-ontain com-
mon salt or sodium chloride as the principal constituent.
.Such waters are very common. The Saratoga waters con-
tain common salt together with a number of other sul)-
stances. In the table are given the results of analyses of
some of these waters. The analvses were made by Prof.
Charles F. Chandler, of New York. Other well-known
springs belonging to this cla.ss are those of Middlewich,
Ilarrogate, Leamington, and Cheltenham, in England ; Kis-
singen, Ilomburg, Pyrmont, Kreuznach, Wiesbaden, and
Baden-Baden, in Germany.
(3) Alkaline wfi/ers contain sodium carbonate with more
or less free carlx)nicacid and sometimes with a large quantity
of .sodium chloride. Some of the Saratoga waters belong to
this class, as is shown by the table (on next page) of ana-
lytical results. Other celebrated waters of tnis class are
Vichy, Apollinaris. Salzbrunn, Vals, Ems, Selters.
(4) Sulphafed waters, as the name implies, contain sul-
phates, and these are either sodium or magnesium sulphate,
or both. In some cases so<lium carbonate and chloride are
also present. They are often called " bitter waters." Prom-
inent among such waters are Ilnnvadi .lanos. Epsom, Frietl-
riehshall. Scarborough, Carlsbad, ^Ia^iellbad, etc.
(5) Iron or chalybeate wafers contain iron in some soluble
form. The waters of Schwalbach. Spa. Tunbriilge Wells,
and Alexisl)ad are examples of comparatively pure chalyb-
eates, that is to say, of waters that contain .some salt of
iron but are otherwise comimratively pure. .Several of the
Saratoga waters contain iron in addition to the other con-
stituents, and the s4ime is true of the waters of Pyrmont,
Petersthal, and St. Moritz.
(6) Sulphur waters contain either sulphuretted hydrogen,
HjS, or the sulphides of soilium, pota>siiim, calcium, or
magnesium. Those of Harrogate ami Aix-la-Cha[>elle are
renowneil in Eiimpe. while in the V. S. there are numerous
examples, among which are the White. Red. and Salt Siil|ihur
Springs of Virginia, the White Sulphur Springs of Ohio, ami
the Richfield. Sharon. Chitlenango. and Florida ."springs of
New York State. The siilphun-lted liydroeren gives these
waters a sweetish taste and a very peculiar odor, which some
consi<ler offensive. These waters have the pnifierty of
blackening silver.
(7) Earthy and calcareous waters contain large propor-
tions of till' earlionate and sulphate of lime. Sane of the
most important of these abroad are found at Wiliiungcn,
Weissenbnrg, St. Arnaiid, and Couran. Apiin it is to lie
noted that several of the Saratoga waters are rich in car-
bonate of lime.
(S) Alum M'alers. — In several localities waters oeenr
charged to a greater or less extent with alum. These waters
782
MINERAL WAX
MINERVA
frequently contain free sulphuric aciil. The Rockbrifl<re
Alum Spring and the Church Hill Alum Spring, in Vir-
ginia, are examples of this class.
free from the obnoxious element and are of the proper com-
position to form a cinder of a specific character. By mixing
together four parts of orthoclase feldspar and six parts of
ANALYSES OF SOME OP THE SPRINGS AND ARTESIAN WELLS OF SARATOGA CO., N. Y.
COitPOUVnS AS THEY EXIST IN
SOLUTION IN THE WATERS.
Chloride of sodium
Chloride of potassium
Bromide of sodium
Iodide of sodium
Fhioride of calcium
Bicarbonate of lithia
Bicarbonnle of soda
Biearboriate of magnesia
Bicarbonate of lime
Bicarbonate of strontia
BicJirbonate of baryta
Bicarbonate of iron
Sulphate of potassa
Phosphate of soda
Biborate of soda
Alumina
•Silica
Organic matter
Total per U. S. gal., 231 cub. in.
Carbonic acid gas
Density
Temperature
IS
SARATOGA.
I^
BALLSTON.
Slar
Spring.
HlRh
Rock
Spring.
Stllur
Spring.
PnTllton
Spring.
United
Sut>i
Spring.
Hathom
Spring.
OryiUJ
Spring.
Congreta
Spring.
Empire
Spring.
Ge>-««r
•pouting
W.1I.
OlBCiet
■pouting
will.
BalUton
wtwIaD
lichl.
well.
Franklin
wall.
Conde-
Danlonian
waU.
398-381
390-127
134-291
459-903
141-872 509-968J328-468
400-444
506-630
562-080
702-239
750-030
659-344
645-481
9-695
8-974
1-335
7-6B0
8-624! 9.597
8-327
8 049
4-292i -24-634
40-446
33276
33-930
9 2:«
0 571
0-731
0-630
0-987
0-844' 1-534
0-414
8 559
0-266 2-212
3-579
3 643
4-665
3-368
0-126
0-086
0-031
0-071
0047 0198
0-066
0-i:i8
0-606
0-218
0-234
0 124
0-235
0-2-25
trace.
trace.
trace.' trace.
trace, trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
I-dSC)
1 -967
0-899 9-486
4-847 11-447
4-3-J6
4-761
2-080
7004
6-247
7-750
6-777
10-514
12-66-J
34-888
29-428 3-764
4-666' 4--iS8
10-064
10 775
9-022
71-232
17-624
11-928
94-604
;m-4O0
61-012
64-924
40-339 76-267 72-883 176 46:i
75-161
121-757
42-9.53: 149-343
193-972
iai-602
177-868
158-S48
124-459
131-739
89-869 1-20-169
93 119 1711 646
101-881
143-399
109-6561170-392
227 070
338 156
202 332
178-4W
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
0018: trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.' 0-4'25
0-082
0 867
0-002
0 189
0-096
0 494
trace.
0-875
0 909
1-737
0-726
0-928
0070| 2-014
2-083
3-881
3231
4 739
1-213
1-478
1-703
2-570
0-714
1-128
2-0.38
0-340
0-793
0-979
0-647
1-581
1-609
3-296
5-400
1-608
0-557
2-032
trace.
trace.
a- 158
0-889
2-769
0-318
0-252
0-5-20
0-762
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
0-007
0-016
0-006
0-009
0-016
0-023
trace.
0-010
0-050
0-011
0 003
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
1-22.-J
0-374
0-329
0-094
0-131
0-305
trace.
0-418
trace.
0-458
0077
0-268
0 395
1-283
2-260
2-561
3-155
3-1&4
1-260
3-213
0-840
1-456
0-665
0-699
0-761
0-735
10-26
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
trace.
617-367 &)0-.')00
:J02-017,687-275
331-837
888-403
537-155
700-895
680-436'991 -546
1,195-582
1,233-846
1,184-368' 1,047-700
407-650 409-458
.324-080 3.32-458
245-734
375-747
317-452
392-289
344-669 454-082
465-458
426114
460-066
3,58 .345
1-0091 1-0092
.52° F. .52° F.
1-00341 1-0095
1-0035
1-0115
1-0060
50° F.
1-096
52° F.
1 1-0I2C
10159
52° F.
1-0135
53° F.
10125
50° F.
46° F.
49° F.
Among -waters that can not properly be classed under any
of the above heads may be mentioned Buffalo lithia water
and strontia water.
In 1893 there were 283 commercial mineral springs in the
U. S. The total product was 21,876,604 gal., at a valuation
of $4,905,970. Ira Remsex.
Mineral Wax : See Paraffin-.
Mineral Wool, or Silicate Cotton: thread-like filaments
which have the appcitranr-e of wool or cotton when massed
together; produced by the action of steam or air under
pressure upon vitreous or scoriaceous substances when in
the molten state. As an article of commercial value the
material first came into use in 1871, it having been pro-
duced in that year at Osnabruck, Germany. The produc-
tion of it in the U. S. began about four years later, and sub-
sequently in England. In the various processes of smelting
ores of metals the compressed air necessary to accelerate
combustion sometimes escapes from the furnaces through
the tajiping-hole or tuyeres in such a way as to separate the
cinder into shot-like particles, which in tearing themselves
from the fluid stream draw out threads of various length
and fineness. Most furnacemen are familiar with such
freaks of the blast, so that the material in this sense has
but little novelty, and it is to be noticed that as a result of
this occurrence the only patent which seeks to protect the
article at all does not claim the product as such, but the
method of manufitctiire. John Player, of Norton, near
Stockton-on-Tees, England, was the inventor of the process as
prac^ticed at the present time.
The slag of blast-furnaces is the cheapest and most abun-
dant substance which can be utilized for the manufacture
of the article. This, however, is only a coincidence, and
furnace-slags in every case can not be utilized, for some
of them contain too large a proportion of silica to make
fine and pliable fibers, while others are so basic, owing to
the higli percentage of lime, that they will not draw out
satisfactorily. Hcsides, when there is an excess of lime,
the tendency is for the fibers to become caked or .solidifieil,
there not being sullicient acid present to give stability and
permanence to them. An objection to the u.«e of mineral
wool made from slag is that it generally contains siilphiilcs
of calcium, potassium, and sodium wliicli are soluble in
weak acids and in water containing alkalies, and to some
extent also in warm water. When siu-h a sulphur-bcariiig
material is used on pipes or boilers there is a lianger of its
becoming wet from leaks or from external moisture, and
the sulphur thus lirought into solution to attack the iron.
Cases of corrosion from this cause are, however, very rare,
and it is contended that so long as the heat is kept on the
Sipe no dampne.<s will reach its surface. In tirder to pro-
uce a non-sulphur-bearing mineral wool a plant has been
put in operation to melt down such rock-mixtures as are
dolomitic limestone a cinder is obtained which runs fluid
and is susceptible of conversion almo.st entirely into fibers
of a stable nature. In treating slag 2 lb. of shot are made
to every pound of fiber, while in the case of cinder prepared
from minerals the proportion is about 2-^ lb. of fiber to 1 lb.
of shot. These different products are named " slag-wool "
and "rock-wool," the chief distinction between them being
the presence of sulphides in the former, while the latter is
free from them. As a general thing, the color of mineral
wool is white. The fibers of mineral wool act as a medium
to prevent the circulation of the air ; which being accom-
plished, the passage of heat is retarded. By rca-^on of its
]iorosity the material also forms a most efToctive barrier to
the transmission of sound. The indestructible character of
the fibers makes mineral wool available for all purposes of
insulation. Insects or vermin find in it nothing wholesome
to eat, while its glassy nature forbids their making homes
in it.
Miner's Incli: a unit for measuring water fi-equently
emjiloyed in raining regions. It may be rouglily defined to
be the quantity of water which flows from a vertical stand-
ard orifice an inch square when the head on the top edge of
the orifice is 6 inches. The mean discharge from such an
orifice is 14 cubic feet per minute. The actual value of the
miner's inch varies, however, in different localities. In Cali-
fornia it ranges from 1-20 to 1-76 cubic feet per minute, ac-
cording to the arbitrary definitions adopted. For example,
at Smartsville an orifice 4 inches deeji aii<i 2r)0 inches long,
with a heail of 7 inches above the top edge, is .said to fur-
nish 1,000 miner's inches. In Montana a vertical rectangle
an inch deep is generiUly used, with a head of 4 inches, and
the number of miner's inches is said to be the same as the
number of linear inches in the rectangle. An orifice
through which a given number of miner's inches of water is
furnished is called a module. The important feature to be
oliserved is that the head shoulil be kept nearly constant
over the moilule, and in onler to insure this many auto-
matic appliances have been devised. For the sake of uni-
formity it is much to be desired that water shoulil tie sold
by a constant unit, such as per cubic foot per hour, instead
of l)y the miner's inch. Maxsfikld Mebriman.
Minersville : borough; Schuylkill co.. Pa. (for location
of county, see map of Pennsylvania, rcf. 5-11); on the
Schuylkill river, and the Phila. and Head., the People's, and
the Schuyl. and Lehigh Val. railw-ays ; 4 miles W. of Potts-
ville, the county-seat. It is principally engaged in coal-min-
ing, and h.-is improved w-ater-works, iron-foundries, electric
lights, public lilirarv, and two wix-klv newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 3,241t ; (1890) 3,504. Editor 'of " Free Press."
Miiier'vn [= Lat. < 0. Lat. Jfenerva, appar. for *Mc-
nesvo, deriv. of *menes-; Gr. lituos. mind, strength of spirit :
Sanskr. manas-, strength, minil. See Mind] : in the Roman
MINES AND MIXING
783
mytliolof:y. the goddess of reason, aii<l so of all invention, of
the arts, and of science. With this original conception of
the goddess were blended at a later time certain warlike
attributes, arising from the identification of Minerva with
the Athk.na ((/. ('.) of the Greeks. The oldest saneluaries of
the goddess were situated on the Capitol, the Avcntine, and
the t'a'liiin Mons. On the Capitol she possessed u cella in
the triple temple of .Juj)iter Capitolinus, to the right of the
god. rile temple uf Minerva on the Aventinu was llie head-
quarters of the earliest jussociat ion of artists in Koine, the
scribce and hinlriones (poets and actors), whose organization
dated from the time of Livius Androiiicus, The principal
festivals in honor of the goddess took place im the tilth of
March and .lune. i. o. the fifth day after the ides, (^uiiiyutt-
lru.1, and while the name indiiiites that the celcliiatioii was
originally only on that day, it was eventually extended to
five days (descrilied by Ovid, Fcisli, iii., 80i)-4H), It was the
first day's celebration which gave to this festival, its char-
acteristic tone, and it was shared in by school children and
teachers, as being umler the special guardianship of Miner-
va; by women and girls, who worshiped her as the patron
of all the domestic arts, such as siiinning, weaving, etc. ; by
artisans of various kinds, notably fullers and cobblers, and
liy all those whose occupalions were distinclivelv literary or
artistic, such as poets, iminters, sculptors, etc. '1 he fact that
this festival touched so manv spheres of life made it a popu-
lar one even down to late imperial times. The remaining
days of the feast, from the end of the republic on. were de-
voted to the worship of Minerva as the warlike daughter of
Jupiter (a character which was given to her from identifica-
tion with the (ireek Athena), and they were occupied chiefiy
with gladiatorial exhiliitioiis. The lesser (Jiiinqiintrus, on
June lit, was a festival of pipers (tibicines), and was ot)serveil
with much riotous celebration. In the course of time more
characteristics of the (ireek Athena were iiitroduccil into the
worship of Minerva. Thus the founding of a temple to her
by I'ompey from the spoils of his Kaslcrn coiKjuests .seems
to have been due to the analogy of the Greek Athena Nike,
and the later identification of Jlinerva with the senate
house is apparently due to the Athena SovKala at .Mliens.
The Kmperor Doinitian claimed to be under the special guanl-
ianship of Jlinerva, and to her he dedicated two temples,
slight remains of one of which, in the Forum of Xerva, still
survive. Besides the artistic representations of Minerva,
which did not differ from those of Athena, there was an an-
cient ami very sacred image of the goddess called the Palla-
dium which had been brought to Koine from Troy after the
destruction of the latter city, and was preserved with great
care in the temple of Vesta. See Preller, liom. Mi/l/iologie
(i., p. 2>i'J ff. Cf. index in vol. ii.). G. L. IIexurickson.
Minoa and Mining: Mining in its widest sense is the
winning of useful inineral.s or metals, when the latter are
found native. Among the useful minerals are included, by
statisticians, mineral oils, natural-gas, mineral springs, and
buililing-stones, which are included l)y the I'. S. Geological
Survey in its reports of the product of the mineral industry
of the I'. .S. Mining engineering eml)races the study of de-
posits (see Ore Deposits) of useful minerals, the search for
workable deposits, and the final preparation of the material
extracted by mechanical means prior to its treatment by
metallurgical processes for the extraction of the marketalile
product. The act of excavation may be termed mining in
Its narrower sense. The aim is extract with the maximum
profit at the minimum of risk to life anil property.
The search for deposits of useful minerals is conducted by
methods varying with their.character. The simplest means
is to dig a series of trenches at right angles to the supposed
course of the deposit, or if the covering be too heavy to sink
a number of test pits. When the mineral is inbedded de-
posits, shafts or boreholes are sunk or tunnels are driven. In
the case of depfisits of magnetic-iron ore. the dipping-needle
is employed. For salt, oil and natural-gas boreholes are
usually sunk, occasionally to great depth.
The methods of mining pursued depcml upon the location
of the deposit, the character of the mineral, its value, the
natureof the riK'k in which it is imbedded, and the extent
anii pivsition of the deposit. When tin' mineral is exposed
at the surface, or is covered only by a shallow layer of soil,
quarrying is resorted to. Minlern imuhinery for the re-
moval of earth has been so much improved that stripping of
the ore deposit or bed can be carried to considerable depth.
Open-air work is carried on in this manner in a number of
iron mines in Xew York, New Jersey, and ^linnesola, and
in the anthracite-coal regions of Pennsyh-ania. It has Itcen
employeil in a conspicuous manner in the diamond mines of
South Africa and IJra/.il, and in the great pyrites deposits of
.Spain and Portugal. This mcthiMl posses,ses the advantage
of perinittint.' of very cheap extraction, but is hampered with
growing dilliculties with increasing depth. Surface mining
plays a very important part, however, in the working of al-
luvial deposits. A very large [larl of the gold produceil in
the wcjrlil and the greater part of the tin ore mined is ob-
tained through surface mining. It has led in the V. S. to
the development and application on a grand scale of what
is called Injdrnulic mining to the recovery of gold from al-
luvial deposits. See GoM).
Mining, as usually understood, deals, however, with the
extraction of the useful mineral by underground operations.
A inultiplicitv of conditions must <letermine how they must
be contiucteil to produce the best results. Conspicuous
among these is the character and the position of the deposit
itself. First of all means of ingress ami egress must Ik- pro-
vided. The.se serve at the same time for the removal of the
mineral and of accumulated water, for ventilation, and for
the delivery into the mines of timber, filling material, and
supiilies.
Whenever it is possible the deposit is attacked by a tun-
nel, since it saves hoisting and pumping and in many in-
stances greatly facilitates ventilation. IJelow the superficial
drainage a vein or bed must be reached by a shaft or a
slope, with a series of horizontal adits, spaced conveniently
apart, which lead to the mineral mass at different levels.
If we imagine an inclined tabular deposit, such as a me-
tallic vein usually is, and as a coal-bed may be. it would
seem cheapest to run down in it by means of a slope dug
in the material itself. That process, in fact, turns out the
valuable matter at once, am! might more or less pay for
itself while in operation; but as a shaft or slope is the
most important of all the preparatory works, usually being
intended to endure, and requiring substantiality for the in-
cessant needs of hoisting and jiumping, it is necessary to
make such a construction solid, and therefore a slope in a
vein must be supported by flanking masses devoted to that
oV)jcct alone. In a coal mine this sacrifice is not of much
importance, but in a metallic one it might be a greater loss
than the slight advantage of a slope would compensate for.
Moreover, a slope to a given level is longer and more irregu-
lar than a shaft sunk vertically in the country-rock ; the
development of hoisting-ways, cables, pump-fods, pijjes,
etc., is therefore greater and the service more inconvenient.
The usual method, particularly when some capital' is at
command, is to sink a vertical shaft so as to strike the de-
posit in depth.
Supposing, then, that a vertical shaft for the attack of a
vein has been sunk, and as deep down at once as various
reasons will allow, it is next put into connection with the
deposit by means of the cro.<s-cuts, which are galleries slop-
ing a little toward the shaft for drainage and rolling.
These, like the shaft, should be ample for the circulation
expected, and sjiaced apart vertically, say 1(X) feet. The
cross-.section of a shaft adapted to hoisting, pumping, and
ladders, or a mlin-eiigine, all together, may be 20 by 30 or
more, and the section of galleries for single track about 6 by
6 feet. From where the cross-cuts pierce the vein next are
run gangways to right and left in the vein itself. These
make the different levels; and as they are permanent ways
for rolling, they have the same dimension as the cross-cuts,
and like them and the shaft are strongly timbereil. Finally,
these levels being put into communication by slopes in the
vein — 2(K) feet apart, for example — the ininend mass is seen
to be subilivided into n set of parallelopilK'ds 100 by 200, and
presenting each four disengaged angles on which they may
be easily attacked for the prosecution of exploitation. This
finishes' the preparatory work, ami it riMiiains to be said
that such interi(ir preparatiim should always t)e kept up
and urged in advance of the exploitation proper, so as to
cxrilore the vein for at least a year's work in prLis|K'ct.
Kxploitalion is the taking out of the parallelopipeds so
prepared ancl expo.se<l. If such a panillelopiped be at-
tacked on an upper corner by miners, wlio with piik. drill-
bar, and shovel delve into ami bn'ak away the ma.-s U'lieath
them, such is calleil underhand sloping, which is iimw rarely
practiced. Overhand sloping is where the workmen at-
tack one of the lower angles of a parallelopi|HMl. In this
case the miners, all of them, are. as it were, undermining
the whole parallelopiped ; the one in advance is directly
on the limbering of the gangway Ix-neath him; the refuse
781
MINES AND MINING
is piled up behind on this timbering, and the other miners
follow standing on that or on trestles, so that the profile of
attack beeonies and shows like a stairway upside down.
When the vein matter itself does not furnish enough ref-
use, it is usual, in the case of minerals of coiisideralile
Talue, to send waste rook down into the mine from the sur-
face, or procure it by excavations outside of the vein. When
the vein lies flat it is evident that the same profile of steps
may be laid out for the attack ; but then, also, a larger style
may be adopted with advantage, and particularly in coal-
beds, where it is always an object to get out the material in
ample dimensions. In this case either longer steps are de-
signed, with several miners on each face, or the long-wall
method is applied. This, which is common now even in
beds of coal 9 to 10 feet thick, where strong propping is at-
tainable, consists in attacking a long, straight line of face
with all the miners abreast. They prop beliind them, and
if there is refuse sullicient to fill up in rear, they do so, re-
serving open rolling ways to the shaft. This method is con-
venient for every element of interior economy, such as roll-
ing, ventilating, lighting, overseeing, etc. If tilling can not
be procured adequate to replenish the vacancy, then what
little there may be is built into pillars or walls, and the
f round is allowed to sink upon these, or even completely
own if the rolling-ways can be kept open by hacking into
the roof.
The exploitation of thick veins is effected by different
dispositions. For example, when there is abundant fiUing
they may be attackeil from below upward, taking out hori-
zontal slices, which are successively filled; or, again, where
caving is allowable, they may be taken from above down-
ward, each slice being treated like a horizontal bed, without
filling. Finally the method by pillars and galleries is appli-
cable anywhere. That title ordinarily refers to an exploita-
tion in which the pillars of the mineral are used for support
alone, and are supposed to be left and abandoned utterly.
This relinquishes one-third to one-half the material in the
earth, and is the worst possible almost, though in thick
veins of cheap ore or coal sometimes the only one possible.
It is combined often, however, with a subsequent robbing
of the pillars, whereby it becomes more economical and ra-
tional. The robbing involves caving, of course, and when
the creep of the caving can be commanded nicely the
method is as exhaustive as any.
All the foregoing, except underhand sloping, applies to
coal-mining, but this last is at the same time a larger and
yet a more delicate kind of raining than metallic. Coal-
mining differs from other mining principally because the
fronts ought to be larger, because there is comparatively
little refuse in ordinary coal-beds, and because the genera-
tion and ignition of fire-damp in fiery mines exact pe-
culiar lighting, particular ventilation, and besides a disposi-
tion of works which admits of handling large quantities
economically. This consideration leads to disposing the
main plan in boundaries, with walls of coal left between,
and also to the well-known style of pillar-and-stall exploita-
tion. In this the pillars are long strips left between the
stalls, which are headings run into the coal, directed so as
to take an easy grade, and out of which the coal is entirely
won. The pillars are intended to be subsequently cut
through and roblx^d out; in the meantime there is in each
front or breast quite a seclusion from outside damage. The
perfection of an exploitation is to get out all l\v: valuable
material, and nothing else, with rapidity and with safety
and comfort to the miners.
With softer materials the actual work of extraction by the
miner consists in cuttinga deep groove under the mineral to
be won, sometimes suppleinenteil by vertical cuts and pry-
ing off the body thus loosened. In harder material blasting
is resorted to. Sec Blasting.
Interior Transportation. — From the fronts down to the
gangways the matters are sent in barrows, sledges, shutes,
or cars. In the main ways there are always railways; the
tracks are narrow and the rails light, but. laid best on sleep-
ers, as above-ground. The rai's may lie iron or wood; they
must have a low center of gravity; wlie(>ls close together,
for the curves are short, and encutnber with the least possi-
ble dead weight. The motors are men and boys, mides, small
horses, stationary engines with endless chains to take trains,
locomotives, or electric motors. Kxamples of great <lrains
used as canals for subterranean transportation are also
familiar.
/foisting. — At the mouth of the shaft is planted a great
derrick, usually made with four uprights, on top of which
are two large sheaves or pulleys to bend the cables from the
shaft to the winding-drums or reels. The cables are hemp,
aloes, iron or steel wire, and either round or fiat ; they are
terminated with an end of chain, which is hooked to the
buckets, skips, or cages. The cages, now so prevalently
used, are simple elevators, which carry one or more cars';
they are guided by vertical strips of timber fixed to the
sides of the hoisting-way for that purpose, and these also
serve in connection with the safety-catches, which are at-
tached to all cages, particularly if miners are hoisted in
them. Safety-catches are of various patterns; the best are
probably those with toothed eccentric wheels, which, when
the cable breaks, encrust themselves into both lateral flanks
of each guide. The best winding ap|iaratns is for round
cables conical drums, and reels for flat. The ofieration of
hoisting is for many reas<ms delicate, and the engines ought
to be sensitive. The best hoisting system of these is com-
posed of iwo horizontal cylinders, without any fly-wheel if
possible.
Pumping. — In the Cornish type the pumps of a deep
mine are composed of a series of lifts, each more than 100
feet high. All the jiumps arc force-pumps with i>lungers,
except the lowest, which is a lift-pump, moi-e convenient for
following the sinking of the shaft or being moved about.
One main rod of wood and iron stretches from top to bottom
of the shaft, and to this are fixed by spurs or shoulders the
rods of the force-pumps. The weight of the main rod is
almost always greater than that of the column to lift;
therefore the work of the engine is limited to lifting that
rod, which when released sinks and moves the plungers.
In the U. S. practice favors the use of direct acting pumps.
Ventitnlion is either natural or artificial. JIany circum-
stances may cause a natural tlraught between two orifices,
such as diilerence of level, difference of section, variety of
exposure, and prevailing winds. Artificial ventilation is
produced by pneumatic machines, the cheapest of which is
the old Hartz blower ; by fans, such as GuibaVs and Fabry's;
by furnaces, a common and chea[i method, but dangerous in
fiery mines; and by Jets of steam. The use of compressed
air in the drills of mines assists ventilation, but not so much
as might be imagined. On the whole, it is found preferable
to ventilate by drawing out the air, rather than by forcing
it in ; and this course is particularly atlvantageous in coal
mines, because by rarefying the air, instead of condensing
it, the fire-damp is more freely liberated to be wafted away.
As for the distribution of the air, a general principle is to
carry the current low down at first, directing it afterward
through the works upward, and split it into numerous un-
tainted streams, until it reaches the upcast. The directing
and modifying of the currents is effected by doors and air-
shutes in the mine-ways. Most miners who ])erish by ex-
plosion in coal mines are victims not of the flre-ilamp, but
of the choke-damp, or carbonic acid, after the catastrophe,
particularly if the doors and vent ilating-flues are disabled ;
therefore, in these dangerous mines the means and poten-
tiality of ventilation are vitally important.
Milling at coal mines consists only in breaking, picking,
screening, and washing the coal. The breakers are toothed
cylinders; the screens are revolving screens, with ditTerent-
sized apertures for sorting the lunqis as they pass through;
the washing is done in large jigs or cisterns, where the coal,
like metallic ore in smaller apparatus of the siirae kind, is
subjected both to a current of water and to a movement of
vertical oscillation of the same impelled by pistons. Masses
of metallic ore when first extracted and dumped are first
broken by hammers or sledge-work in a pile-driver frame ;
thi'U treated by jaw-crushers and cylin<ler rolls, sometimes
toothed, then transmitted to the stamjis, which are of vari-
ous patterns, the most powerful being regular steam -pestles
working direct from the steam-cylinder. The metallic mud
thus obtained is concentrated further by washing in jigs,
shaking-tables, cloth-rollers, and the slimes are finished off
in sluices and long tailing labyrinths. It is advantageous,
even in the cheaper metals, to carry slime-washing far, and
in the preparation of coal, washing tends to come more and
more in vogue.
Mining Siirrei/ing. — No engineer ought to be content
without accurate and adequate maps of his underground
works. The main ways are surveyed with a transit, the
narrower ones and the fronts of work with a compass and
half circle suspended from a c^ord stretched at convenient
points. The vertical and horizontal angles and linear
measurements being referred to three co-ordinate planes,
it is easy therefrom to make maps, sections, and elevations,
MINGIIETTI
MINIATURE
785
or to solve any prolileiii (.f iiiukTtfroiind projortion, by the
ordinary uiethuds ui desc-riptive jjeometry or triitunuinelry.
Uc'viscd by CiiAKLEii Kikchiiufk.
MinirlK'ttI, min-geftee, Marco: statesman ; b. in ISo-
logna, Italy. Sept. y, 1H18; studied jiliysieal and soeial wi-
onuc, and as scmn as lie was of a;,'e travelecl extensively in
Italy, Franee. and Germany. In is4ti he pronipiinceil a'dis-
cipurse at UDln-j^iia on the corn-law reform in Knffland, de-
claring hims<>lf in favor of free trade. His next work was
a IHalixjue un the. I'liitoKOjihy of JJivlary. In \H'y\ he piilj-
lislied an essay on the Ihidij of the Fine Artu and a enloffv
on Gastano Uecchi ; in 1«.")!) a treatise entitled Llella Kcunii-
miii pii/jlirn, delle utie tittinenze con la inmiile t cut diritlo,
whieh is the most remurkalile of his works. Meanwhile,
MinRJietti had I'stablished in 1H4C a jonnial, // I'el.Hiiieo.
whieh pave him preat consideration at Holopna. In lM-47
he was invited to Rome as member of the Consiilta della
Finanze. In 1848 he was named by I'ius 1\. Minister of
Public Works, but on the defection of the pope from the
liberal cause .Min^hetti left the ministry and ha-stenerl to the
Lombard camp, where he was appointed captain on the
Stilffof Charles .\lbert. After the battle of tioito he was
created major, and after that of Custozza (18-l.S) he was dec-
orated by the hand of the kinj; hiinself. Kiissi inviieil him
to form a part of his constitutional ministry. Minglietli
arrived in Rome on the very day of the assassination of his
friend, and at once published an indifj^nant protest against
the infamous crime. I'ius IX.. desired Minghetti to take
the place of the murdered minister, but he refused, and re-
turned to the Piedmontese army. After the battle of Xovara
the gave himself up to his private studies, taking part in
politics only when it was necessary to sustain the policy of
Cavour. In 1858 he went to Egypt and Sinai ; in 18.5!) he
was appointed by Cavour secretary-general of foreign affairs,
and contributed powerfully to secure the annexation of the
duchies and of the Roniagna. "After the peace of Villa-
franca he became a member of the assembly of the Roniag-
na, and upon the annexation he was elected memlier of Par-
liament from Bologna, In 18t)<) Minghetti was nanieil Min-
ister of the Interior; in 1862 Minister of Finatice, and at
the same time presi<lent of the council; in 1864 he effected
a loan of TtXVXJO.OiK) francs, and with the concurrence and
aid of PcTuzzi brought alwut the famous .September con-
vention which transferred the capital of the kingdom of
Italy to Florence, In the Menabrea ministry Jlinghetti
was at the head of the agricultural and commercial depart-
ment, and from I87;i to IsTii he was at the head of the cabi-
net— first as .Minister of Finances, afterward as Minister of
Foreign Affairs. He published Opuseiili Leiterari eti Ecuno-
mici (1872) : Le Dunne Ituliane nelle Belle arti al Sicolo
XV. e XVI. (1877); La Chiem e lo Stalo (1878). 1). in
Rome, Dec, 1886. Jliei Iiicurdi(3 vols.) appeared after his
death.
Min^rolia: down to 1804 an independent principality of
Transcaucasia ;, in that year became subject to Russia." It
corresponds to the ancient r«;/c/M'«, and its capital, Izgaur
or Iskuriah, situated on the Ulack .Sea, is idcntilied with the
ancient Dioieurirts. a colony of Miletus. The Mingrelians,
numbering (18"J0) about 214,000, arc closely related to their
Miigiibors the Georgians.
Miiilio, meen yo [ Portug. : Span, Millo]. or F.ntro Doiiro e
Miiilio, en trd-doo ro-n-meen yo (between the Douro and
the Miidio, rivers which bound it on the S. and X. res|)ec-
tivelv): a former province of Portugal; boundeij N. liy
Spain, E. by Tra/. os Monies, S, by Peira, and W. by the
Atlantic. Area. 2.807 sq. miles. It is the most nopu'lous,
the richest, and the In'st cultivated province of the kingdom.
Everywhere are fertile valleys, rich nieailows, fields, aiicl
vineyards. The products are fruit, wine, oil, figs, oranges,
barley, rye, ami wheat. Chief town, Uporto. Pop, (1881,
official e^liiiiale) 1,014.768.
Miniature [from Fr. miniature, from Ital. miniatura,
deriv. of minia re, to paint with minium or red-lead < Lat.
minia re, deriv. of mi nium. red-lead. The moilern change
of meaning to incdude the iilea of sniallness may be by con-
fusion with Ijit. mi hi III lift, Ilal. niiniiiio. etc.): a verv small
picture of any kiml. Some writers have includedin the
term small sculptures, medallions, wax models, anil the like,
but this is unusual. .Miniatures in the usual sense, i. c. of
small pictures, belong generally to one of two clas,si.s, viz.:
(1) The paintingsjn manusi-ripts. (2) The paintings, usu-
ally portraits, on pa[)er, cardboard, ivory or vellum, or in
vitrifiable colors, on porcelain or enameled metal plates,
27fi
which were intrinluced in the sixteenth century, I>ccame
fashionable in the seventeenth, and went out of common
use when i>liotographic portraits became conimou, about
the midtlle of the nineteenth century,
A collection of fifty-eight illustrat'ions of the Iliad, exhib-
ited in the nuinuscript room of the Ambrosian Library at
Milan, is of peculiar value because the writing on the back
of. the pictures, by its character, fixes the date verv nearlv.
This approximate date is 400 A. D., a time when dii-vsic art
was in a state of degeneracy. It is suspecteij. however, that
the miniatures have been copied from much earlier works.
The \'atican \'ergil of about the same date is state<l to con-
lain fifty pictures. A few Greek nianuscripts of about the
same epoch are known in whieh are miniatures of great
beauty. .Several of th.se have been copied in color and
with great care in Utbarte's Iligloire deg Arts IndunlrieU;
the manuscripts themselves are accessible to students in the
great libraries of Vienna. Paris, and the IJritish Jluseum.
(.See Illljii.\atei> Ma.ni-.s< kiits.) (ireek manuscripts of the
tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, such as are generally
called Byzantine, give us also some idea of the pictures
which earlier books nnist have contained. It is rpiite evi-
dent that many of these pictures are copied from those of
the great times. Others seem to be rather original concep-
tions of the time when they were painted. Byzantine jiaint-
ing is known to us chiefiy by means of these liiiniatures, and
by the mosaics which remain in churches. See Mosaic.
In Ireland in the sixth and seventh centuries there was a
very remarkable development of decorative and representa-
tive art. The manuscripts of this time contain verv decora-
tive miniatures, st>me of which, however, are extremely bar-
barous in exjpression of faces and in drawing. Another
surprising development of art at an early epoch is that of
the time of Charles the Great (Charlemagne). The manu-
scripts of his reign contain some splendid pictures, worthy
of comparison w ith work of a much later and more generally
artistical cp<Kh. Both the Irish and the Carolingian minia-
tures, as well as the early English ones of a period not much
later, are more generally conventional portraits of Chri.st or
of some one of the evangelists; but there are occasional
oietures of inciilent, like the very spirited picture given by
vVestwood in the I'aUpiMjraphia'Snrra I'icturia.&uA taken
from a splendid ninth-century Bible in the National l.ii-
brary in Paris, This represents St. Jerome about to take
ship; behind him is Rome, a fortified city, with a draped
figure armed w ith spear and shield— perhaps a reniinis<ence
of some ancient statue of the goddess Roma; the saint him-
self is in his bishop's robe ; the ship is of classic type. Much
of this is an echo of some much older painting, but the pic-
ture is full of vigor and interest.
Miniatures of the later Middle Ages are to be found in
Gospels, Psalters, and church-service books, and their num-
ber and character are fixed by tradition. Thus opposite
the page devoted to St. Barbara ajipears a picture of the
saint with her tower in a jileasjint laiidscajie ; in corresjiond-
ing place is St. Christopder bearing the iiifaiit Christ; or
St. George killing the dragon while the sullati's daughter in
an old Eastern costume kneels in the distance, and beyond
is a towered citv, A Crucifixion, a figure of the Saviour in
the act of l)encdiction, a grouji of the Virgin and Child and
St. Anne, the mother of the \ irgin. have each its ap|Hiinted
place in these elaborate service-books. These are full-i>age
pictures, but the bfioks are generally small. Miniature-
painting in books reached its greatest elaboration in the
work of Jean Foufjnet. who died about 1480. and of gtich
Flemish painters a< decorated the Grimani Breviary in the
Venice Lihniry. These artists have left elaborate pictures,
with landscape, many figures, free and viportms action.
The well-known and generally respected trailitions of the
art. that no shadows shall be cast, but everything nifKlelwI
in pure color, are now. at li'ast, ilisregarded, as ;u the lior-
dors of many late miniatures, and in some of the jiictures
of the Brevariii flrimnni. ,MeiIiirval miniHture-|uiinling
went through its last stage in the brilliantly colored pic-
tures which the iiracticwl illuminators kn.w how to make
out of early WfMid-cuts in .outline. S ' ' • -.. are richly
painted in viviil colors ami touclu ■'. so that the
frontispiece of a printed biM)k of the .-. m. • ntury would
not be known for a wikmI-cuI but that other copies of the
same liook exist with the same print uiicolored.
Portrait niiniatun\s U-gan to be fiusjijonable almost ex-
actly as pictures in manuscripts ceased to lie wiinted in the
sixteenth century. I'nder Henry VlII. in England rerr
small circular portraits painted in water-color and in oil.
786
MINICOY
MINNKAPOLIS
tliieflv on cardboard and on pai^cr, wore very common, and
the painters were well paid. Some of these miniature por-
traits liave even been ascribed to the great Holbein, but
without sullicient evidence. A litUe later, under Elizabeth,
Nicholas llilliard was the favorite miniature-painter, and he
was succeedeil by Isaac Oliver. Tliese were the most famous
artists in this line about the English court, but other por-
trait-painters worked in small as well as in life-size, and a
great number of round and oval portraits, from 3 to 3 inches
in diameter, were produced, numy of which are preserved.
The fashion was a little less prevalent on the t'oiilinenl dur-
ing the sixteenth century, but in the seventeenth this was
reversed, and the si)lendid court of Louis XIV. led all Eu-
rope into a custom of having portrait and other miniatures
set in lockets, mounted in the tops of sweetmeat-boxes and
snuff-boxes, or richly framed for hanging up. The intro-
duction of enamel-painting gave great impetus to the cus-
tom, for enamel-painting is of all processes the most fit for
sucli a |nn'pose, because'of its brilliancy of color, the ease
with which gold can be introduced into it, and its perfect
durability. Of the enamelers the most famous was Jean
Petitot, who worked in England under Charles 1., but soon
returned to Prance, where he lived till nearly the close of
Louis XIV.'s reign. It is probable tliat many existing en-
amel miniatures are improperly ascribed to Petitot, but it
is quite certain that many are his. and his work, continued
through a long life, set up the standard for such painting,
for its quality has never been surpassed. Under the reigns
of Louis XV.', Louis XVI., and Napoleon, it still remained a
fixed custom to present costly snuff-boxes with the portrait
of the sovereign set in the lid to ambassadors and other per-
sons to whom honor was to be done. A common way to
make a money gift to any one thought to need such help was
to present to" him a miniature porti:iit of the giver and a
rouleau of gold " to pay for having it mounted." ^ There is
constant mention of that proceeding in the memoirs of the
time. Besides portraits, [jictures of incident, sometimes very
free in subject, were set in snuff-boxes, patch-boxes, and the
like. Jloreover, porcelain boxes were made, the hinge and
rim of the cover being of gold or silver-gilt, and the porcelain
' of these boxes jiainted with delicate landscape and figure
subjects. Tlie little round portraits painted on ivory, even
as late as 1840, and in a few eases still luore recently, pre-
serve a faint tradition of what was once a marvelous ex-
travagance of demand and supply in one department of fine
art.
BrBUOORAPHY. — For miniatures in manuscripts, see the
bibliograpliv under JIanuscbipts ; for the miniatures of the
sixteenth century and Uiter, see Umdlcy. Die fiiman/ of 3Iin-
iaturi.it.i {-i vols., 1888-89), and J. L. Propert, History of
3Iiniatur<'. Art (1887). Russell Sturgis.
Minieoy, Miniicoy, or Minnkai : a small island between
the Laccadives and JIaldives, separating the eighth parallel
channel of tlie navigators from that of the ninth parallel,
politically belonging to the former grouji, and hence to
Kananur"of the Malabar coast, but ethnograjihically to the
latter. It is a coral formation, crescent shaped ; about 5
miles long, with a total area of 2i miles. The population in
1881 was 3,91.5, giving the enormous density of 1,366 per
square mile, m- that of a continuous village. The inhab-
itants are Mohammedans. Mark W. Harrington.
Millie, m("eni-a', Claude Etiennk : soldier and inventor ;
b. in Paris in 1814; early enteri'd the army as a volunteer:
fought in Algeria: was made a captain in 184!); became a
teacher in gunnery at the school of Vincennes in 1853, and
went in 1808 to Egypt as superintendent of a factory of
firearms and director of a musketry s(-hool at Cairo on the
invitation of the viceroy, who gave him tlie title of general.
In 184'J lie brought out his invention of the riile-ball that
bears his name. It is cylindrical, conical in tlie front, hol-
low in tlie' rear, and provided with a ridge of thin iron,
which by being pressed into the grooves of the barrel when
the ball is forced through, gives to this a much higher pre-
cision and range. His invention was the first application
of the principle of expansion in the construction of fire-
arms. D. Dee. 14. 18T1I.
Mln'ims, or Miu'imi, Ordkr ok tuf. [minims— 'IaxX.
minimi, plur. of mi nimus, least] : a monastic order founded
by St. Francis de Paul in Calabria in 14;!6, confirmed by
Sixtus IV. in 1474, and given its present name by Alexander
VI. in 145)3. Its fountler called them Ww Hermits of St.
Francis of Assisi. In Paris they were called Kons Honimes;
in Spain, Fathei-s of Victory, because Ferdinand the Cath-
olic ascribed to their prayers his victory at Malaga over the
Moors : in tierman, Pauli'ner. The name Minim (least) is de-
rived from the humility of their bearing— this being one of
their cliaract eristics. They were forbidden to eat flesh, like-
wise eggs, butler, cheese, and milk ; bread, water, and oil
alone formed their solo dietary, and fasts were numerous
ami severe. Besides monks there were nuns and tertiaries.
At first the order spread rapidly, but now it has only a few
monasteries in Italy, and still fewer nunneries. See Louis
Dony d'Attichv, Il'istoire yinirak de I'ordre mere de Mi-
nims (3 vols., P"aris, 1824). S. M. Jackson.
Miuin^; See Mines and Mining.
Ministers: See Diplomatic Agents.
Minium : See Lead.
Miniver; See Ermine.
Mink [of uncertain etymology]: a name given to certain
animals belonging to theweaserfamily (Mustelidce) and the
genus Putorius, especially P. Iiitreota'of Europe and North
Asia, and P. i-ison of North America. The former is a
smaller animal, with a much finer fur than the American
mink. Still the mink of North America, especially north-
d
ward, vields fine and high-priced furs. The mink is 1.5 to
18 inches long, of a rich glossy brown with a white patch on
the chin, or scmietimes a white line down the throat. Minks
frequent small streams and forests and mountains, swim well,
and catch fish, frogs, mice, and birds. They are easily bred
in a half-domesticated state. They are easily trapped, being
neitlier suspicious nor cunning. They are very destructive
in poultrv-vards, often taking up their aliode near them.
Revised by F. A. LucAS.
Minneapolis: city: capital of Ottawa co., Kan. (for lo-
cation of countv, see"map of Kansas, ref. 5-G) : on the Solo-
mon river, and the Atcli..Top.and S. Fe and the I'nu.n Pac.
railways ; 33 miles N. W. of Solomon City. It is in an agri-
cultural and stock-raising region, and has grist and saw
mills, foundrv and machine-shop, carriage and other facto-
ries, and 4 weeklv and 3 monthly periodicals. Pop. (1880)
1,084; (ISIIO) 1.7.56 ; (189.5) 1..559.
Minneapolis [Dakota minne, water -I- Gr. irciAis, city]:
citv (settled in 1849. incorporated in 1867, enlarged by an-
nexation of the citv of St. Anthony in 1873); capital of
Hennepin co., Minn, (for location of county, sec map of
Minnesota, ref. 9-E); on both sides of the Mississippi river,
at the Falls of St. Anthonv. and on the Buri. Route, the
Chi and N. \V.. the Chi. C.reat W., the Chi.. Mil. and St. P..
the Chi. St. P., Minn, and Om.. the C.reat N.. the Mmn. and
St. L.. the :\Iinn..St. I', and St. Ste. JL.the N. Pac. the St. P.
and Diilutli, and the Wis. Cent, railways; 10 miles N. W of
St. Paul. It is on a broad esplanade, which commands a
fine view of the falls; has an area of 55j sq. miles; is regu-
lariy laid out, with straight avenues averaging 80 feet in
width: and has several beautiful lakes, including tlie fa-
mous Miiinetonka. and the celebrated Falls of Minnehaha,
within easy access. The lake region, affording excellent
boating, bathing, hunting, and fishing, is bi'coming a l>op-
ular summer an<i autumn resort. The city is the seat ol the
State Universitv (chartered in 18.51) and of the Augsbuig
Theological .Scminarv (Lutheran, opened in 1809), and con-
tains 167 churches, 46 public-school buildings, an academy,
^
r
MIXNEDOSA
MINNESOTA
r87
3 female seniiimries, a meilical college, a conservatory of
music, a five imljlic library (buiKiiiif; cost $;jriU,()(X)) with
over 'M.tHM vi)iiimes, 4 opera-houses, 18 miles of boulevard
drives, 1,1',(4 airesof land devoted to public parks, and 3 large
cemeteries. Among notalile buildings are the citv and coun-
ty building (cost ;j!4,()0().00()) : Norllivvestern Guarantee Loan
(cost *l,350,()OO); New York Lite Insurance (cost !ji80U,00U) ;
and the Miusonic Temple (cost .^400,000). The census re-
turns of 18!(0 showed that 2.(i4!) manufacturing establish-
ments (reiiresenting 162 industries) reported. These had a
ccimbined capital of 1^40,703,718; employed 2fi,4);J persons;
paid $14,4:i!».()(t5 for wages and ^otj. 1 Hi'.:jG2 for materials;
and had [)rodu(ts valued at ^77,14(i,451. The principal
industry, according to the amount of capital employe<l, was
the maiMifai'tureof Hour and grist mill products, which had
18 establishments, and ;ji9,!mO,UU7 ca]jital, paid !f!»46,'.t.J8 for
wages and ^24.703,71)3 fcjr materials, and had products
value<l at ^27,758.7'.)0. Next was sawed lundier, with 17
establishments and *8.r)77.304 capital, which paid ^1.002,-
949 for wages and :*4.s94,2.")7 for nuiterials, and had ]irod-
ucts valued at $7.21").2!l3. Then followed agricultural im-
plements. 7 establishments, ;s;2,3s2,318 capital. ^173.370
wage and ^205,.")73 materials [)ayments, and .i;848.4()() value
of products; planing-mill products, 23 establishments, $2,-
188,093 capital, *803,243 wage and $1,231,398 nuiterials
payments, and $2,411,682 value of products; and foundry
and machine-shop products, 36 establishments, $1,374,924
capital, .i;.')()9.2H0 wage and $413.78.") materials payments,
and $1,411,721 value of ]iroducls. The taxable valuation of
the citv in 1893 was $141).(i24.490. the lax lew amounted to
|2.995,'301, and the citv owned propertv valuerl at $18,513,-
330. The net debt .Jan. 1, 1894. was $6,637,373. including
u water debt of $1,230,000. There were 7 national banks,
combined capital $."i, 4.50,0(10, ]') State banks, of which 13 re-
ported cond)ined capital $2.6.'Jo.OOO. and 2 other banks, and
6 (lailv, 43 weeklv, 6 semi-montldv. 27 monthly, and 2 (juar-
terly periodicals.' Pop. (ISSO) 46.887; (1890) 164.738; (1895)
192.833. Editor ok " Northwe.steux -Miller."
Minnorto'sa: a town of JIanitoba, on the Little Saskatch-
ewan, an alilucnt of the Assiniboine: 135 miles \V. N. W.
of Winnipeg, on the Jlanitoba and Northwestern Railway
(^ec map of Camida, ref. 9-11). It is a nourishing business
pl.ice in a region of excellent fanning land which is rap-
idly tilling lip with colonists. Pop. l.,500. .M. W. H.
Miiinclia'iin [Dakota, liter., laughing water]: a water-
fall in Hennepin co.. Minn., celebrated for its beauty. Here
the small river Minnehaha leaps 60 feet down a limestone
precipice. It is half a mile from the Mississippi and near
Minneapolis. The interoting legend of an Indian maiden
leaping this fall when thwarted in her love tor an Indian
brave has been finely treated by Longfellow in The Song of
Jliawatha.
Minncsiiig'ors [from Germ, niiiuienitir/er, mintie. love
(<<>. II. Girm. itiiitni) + sinijen, sing]: the name of that
class of German poets, belonging chiefly to the nobility,
who, from the latter part of the twelfth to the close of
the thirteenth century, cultivated lyric poetry as an art.
Although this name was applied to this class of pods by
Hartmann von der Aue. and used during the later .Middle
High (ierman period, it was lost during the subsc(|uent
eenluries, and finally was reintrodueiil by lloilmer. who re-
\ived the interest in the study of these poets by the pub-
lication of a collection of their poems (1758). The origin
and growth of the miiniesong coincides with the develop-
ment of the German chivalry during the twelfth century,
though it is incorrect to regard the niinnesong a product of
the French inllueiue which at that time made itself felt in
the social life of the German courts and castles. The oldest
specimens of the niinnesong which originated in .\ustria do
not indicate the leiLst trace of such foreign iiitluence. Their
rcsiMublance in contents and language to the popular song
recorded in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries makes
it, on the contrary, (juite evident that the oldest niinnesong
developed from the popular German love-song, of which we
possess unfortunately no liociiments |irevious to the middle
of the twelfth century. While we have thus in Austria a
German niinnesong of purely native origin (Kiirenlierg,
Hurggraf von Hegenslnirg. etc.), we can observe in \\\k west-
ern part of (Jermaiiy the rise of a more artistic niinnesong,
which is due to the influence of Proven(,'al and French
models. The imperfect rhymes prevailing in the old Aus-
trian songs arc now gradually being replaced by perfect
ones; the structure of vei'se and strophe is regulated by ar-
ti.stic principles, and instead of the old raonostrophic song
we now find the poets combine u number of strophes into
one |Kiem. Hesides, we may notice how the views of the
fashionable court society, the strict rules of chivalrous eti-
cpiette which form the basis (jf the troubadour poet rv, also
became the conditions upon which the artistic minnesoiig
rest.s. Now the (ierman knight, like his French model,
addresses his lamentations to some married noble ladv,
whose servant he becomes, whose name lie dare not lietray,
and whose favor, if ever attained, ho had to enjoy secretly,
amid great dangers, as she was being watched very close-
ly. Under these conditions there was little room left for
the descriptive element of poetry, since the fxjct was re-
stricted to the depiction of a very few situations. With the
exception of the Taijelieder, in which the fiarting of the
lovei-s in the morning after a clandestine meeting is niore or
less dramatically described, there is to be found a great
monotony in the minncsongs of this kind. We are compen-
sated, however, for this defect and the consequent introsjx'C-
tiveness of most miniiesongs by the graceful expression of
tender and dee|i sentiments, and by concejitions concerning
womanhood and love, which in their sublime idealism are
distinctly German and far surpass the frequently frivolous
tone of the troubadour .songs.
The earliest representatives of this artistic niinnesong
are Ileinrich von \ eldekeandFriedrich von Hansen. They
have numerous followers, the most iirominent of whom are
Ileinrich von Morungen and Heinmar der Alte. In the
latter poet, who lived at the .Austrian court, we may prob-
ably see the moilel, if not the teacher, of Walther von dor
Vogclweide, whose earliest miniiesongs show in thought and
style a great similarity to those of Heinmar. Walther, who
was the greatest lyric poet of the Middle Ages, soon felt the
burdensome narrowness and monotony of the niinnesong, as
well as the apparent immorality of the whole minnedienst,
and we can follow him in his poems opposing the unnatural
artificiality of the niinnesong and claiming the right of
healthy nature. In his best songs Walther again ap-
proaches the simplicity of the popular love-song, which he
ennobles by the means of his ex(|uisite art. The decline of
the ininne.=ong sets in with Wallher"s death. While some of
the minnesingers, like I'lrich von Lichtenstein, carry the old
traditions to a ridiculous extreme, a number of |>oets. like
Tannhiiuscr, Steimnar, Neifen, and others, continue the op-
position inaugurated by Walther. ridiculing the sentimen-
tality of the minne<lienst. and finally dissolving the whole
fabric of minneiioetry. The songs of Neidhart von Heiien-
tlial who, assuming the air of a minnesinger, sings the praise
of peasant girls and makes the villages near Vienna the
scene of his love adventures, must also be claswed among the
oj)position to the artificial minnepoetry of Heinmar and t'l-
rich von Lichten.stein. With the close of the thirteenth
century the minnesimg has practically died out or become
iictrified among the mastersingers. tin' inheritors of the
highly developed metrical form and other artificialities of
the last minnesingers.
Bini.ioGRAPHV. — The poems of the minnesingers have
been handed down to us in a number of gootl manuscripts,
among which the so-called Miiimexsische, now in Heidel-
berg, is the costliest and most famous. It has been reprint-
ed in the large edition of the minnesingers by F. von der
Hagen. The minnesingers previous to Walther may be
found in the classical edition Des Mitinesangs Fruhling. by
Lachniann and Ilaiipt. .See also riiland, Schrifteu (vol. v.,
pp. 111-182); Hecker. Drr attheimixrhe Jliiinesang; W.
Scherer. Detilxrhf Slndien; Julius Goebel. in The Amfri-
cnn Journal of Philolngg (vol. viii.); K. Hurdach. Ix'einmar
d. Alli; unit Wnlthir i: d. Vogplireide (IK'^O); Wilmanns,
Lehfu und Dichfen Wat/hem r. d. \'ngflu'*'idt {\HH2) ; .Sclion-
baeh. M'alfher v.d. Vngeliriidf ilH'M)): Hoetlie. /iViHmrtr r«»»'
.^M'»'/<'r(1888); Biel.schowsky. Chsrhirhle der deiitsrhen Dorf-
poesCe im 13 Jahr. (1891). See also German Literatire.
JfLirs Goebel.
Miiino.<iota [nanie<l from Minnesota river]: one of the
IT. S. of North America (North Central group); the nine-
teenth .Slate admitti'd into the I'nion.
Locution and Area. — It is liouiided N. by the r>ominion
of Canada. E. by Lake Superior and Wis<>oiisin, S. by lown,
and W. by North Hakota and .South I>akola. The west
part of the north boundary is the parallel of 49 N. Int.;
the Iowa line is the parallel of 43 HO N. lat. The extH'ino
longitudes are the meriilians of SO :19 and 97' 5 W. The
area of the .State, including all marginal waters except those
788
MINNESOTA
Seal of Minnesota.
of Lake Superior, is 84,286-.'55 sq. miles (53.943,379 acres).
The geoiinipliic position of Wiinu'sota is almost central in
the continent of North America, anil her drainage reaches
the Atlantic by
wav of Hudson
Bay, the (iulf of
St. Lawrence, and
tlio Gulf of Mex-
ico.
Pltysical Fea-
tures. — In the
north central jiart
'if the .Stale is a
]ilateau, the high-
est points of wliose
surface are 1,750
feet above sea-
level. From this
height the gener-
al surface slopes
gradually in all
directions toward
the boundaries,
but curving up-
ward in both the northeastern and southwestern corners, so
as to give still highiT elevations. The granite pinnacles of
the Giant Mountains N. of Lake Superior reach a height of
2,200 feet, while the Coteau des Prairies gives to several
southwestern counties an elevation of some 1,800 feet. The
slopes, of very miequal area, are each quite uniform in de-
clivity. The average elevation of the whole State is 1,375
feet above sea-level. The feature which most conspicuously
breaks the general uniformity of surface is the great trough
formed by the valley of the Mississippi in the S. E., the val-
ley of the Red Kiver of the North, and, intermediate and
continuous with them the broad valley of the ^Minnesota
river, making a big V with its salient> thrust well into the
southern part of the State. The highest point in this trough
is 975 feet.
The Itascan plateau contains the sources of four river
systems, each di-aining one of the great slopes. The Red
River of the North, receiving the waters flowing from the
western slope, discharges tliem into Lake Winnepeg and ulti-
mately into Hudson Bay. The area thus drained is 15,107
sq. miles. The northern slope is less extensive, occupying
an area of 10,330 sq. miles, traversed by numerous short
streams emptying into tlie Rainy river or into the chain of
lakes forming a considerable part of the northern bound.-iry
of the State. The ultimate outlet is into Hudson Bay. The
eastern slope is smallest in area, covering only 8,553 »i{.
miles, and nas the greatest angle of declivity, the lowest
land in the State being found near Fond du Lao, where the
St. Louis empties into Lake Superior. This system is un-
derstood to embrace a number of streams flowing S. E. di-
rectly into Lake Superior. The head waters of the Missis-
sippi river spring from the lieart of the Itascan plateau, in
the lake named by Schoolcraft " Itasca." They flow first
northerly, then curve eastward through a great chain of
lakes, ami describe more than a half circle l)efore striking
out in a main southerly course for the Gulf of Mexico.
After receiving the St. Croix 20 miles below St. Paul, the
Mississippi forms the ea.stern boundary of the State, and
leaves it at an elevation of 630 feet above sea-level. The
flow of the Mississipf)i, like that of most of the rivers of the
State, is on the drift till its descent of the Falls of St. An-
thony, whence it follows a deeply eroded preglacial channel.
Of numerous t ributaries the Minnesota is by far the most
important. The area draine(l by the Mississippi is 45.5(16
sq. miles, more than half of the State. The Mississippi, the
Minnesota, and the Red are the only rivers that are navi-
gable, and navigation has almost ceased on the last two.
In the extreme southern [lart of the State are found the
head waters of the Cedar an<l the Des -Moines, which, flowing
southerly, at length reach the Mississippi. The Rock river
empties into the Missouri. The total area drained by these
streams is 4,731 sq. miles.
It is estimated that the surveys of the State when com-
pleted will enumerate 10,000 lakes. They are of all sizes,
from Red Lake, with an area of 340 sq. miles, down to in-
considerable ponds. At least three-fourths of the lakes are
found in the " morainic tiU"whi(^h forms the surface of
the greater part of the Slate. A smaller number, generally
shallow, but often extensive, lie in the " modified drift." A
very few, like Lakes Traverse and Big Stone, in the Minne-
sota trough, and Lake Pepin, in the Mississippi valley, are
mere enlargements of river beds. The remainder are the
rock lakes, lying along tlie northern boundary and in the
triangle, where they display bold and tortuous shores.
(Jtulnyy. — From the reports of the State Geological Sur-
vey, which has been prosecuted since 1872 under the au-
spices of the University of Minnesota, the following .state-
ment, in which the local terminoliigy is employed, has been
gathered : An rncient Archsean axis traverses the State cen-
trally from N. E. to S. W. On the opposite flanks of this
axis the later rocks are laid in belts approximately parallel,
though they are much more extensive on the southeastern
flank. These bells in order arc — (1) The Tiiconie, embrac-
ing two systems. («) the Ainmikie, which has at its base the
quartzite seen at Pakegama Falls, New Ulm, and in I'ipe-
stone C'ou!ity, and (ti) the Keeweenawan or copper-beaiing
traps of the Lake Superior region ; (2) the St. Croix series,
dis|ilayed extensively in the bluffs of the St. Croix and
Mississippi rivers, being of Cambrian age ; (3) the Lower Si-
lurian, extending from the St. Peter sandstone upward to
the Hudson river formation, seen in the interior of the
State ; (4) a feeble representation of the Upper Silurian ;
and, (5) nonconformable upon the last, the lowermost mem-
bers of the Devonian, viz., the Corniferous, and doubtfully
some traces of the Hamilton. All these systems and for-
mations are clearly made otit in the S. and E.. but in the
N. W. they lie deep under the drift. Later than all the
foregoing, Cretaceous strata were deposited with discordant
stratification on their outcropping edges. The State as a
whole lies under a heavy mantle of drift, which is deci)est
in the western half and thins out gradually, to disappear in
the triangle N. of Lake Superior and in the ancient rocky
valley of the St. Croix and the Mississippi. The princijial
rock exposm-es are found in these denuded areas. In the
western half of the State expostires are few and widely sepa-
rated, the principal being those of the upper 3Iinnesota val-
ley and the quartzites of the extreme southwestern counties.
As a general fact, the great drift sheet consists of that con-
fused mixture of sand, gravel, and clay known as till, and
believed to be the immediate product of glacial action.
Along the river valleys, however, are found extensive areas
of stratified sand and gravel, evidently deposited in water
on a foundation of till. In some cases these deposits form
narrow terraces, in others they widen out into plains. Ex-
tensive beds of stratified sand and gravel are also found
outside of river gorges, and they constitute a large portion
of the surface drift in tlie Leaf Hills, the Jlesabi Range, and
in the Coteau des Prairies. These drift materials are the
subsoil of the State, and mingle with other elements to
form also the surface soil. There is very little stony ground.
The top covering of the soil, commonly known as '• black
dirt," varies in depth from a few inches to several feet. The
color and richness of this coating are due to the residuum
of immemorial prairie-flres, or, in the forest regions, to the
accumidations of decayed vegetation.
The stratified clays of the drift are wrought into bricks of
many degrees of color and hardness. Excellent pottery is
made from the finer clays, and kaolin and other materials
for crockery are found on the Cretaceous area.
Clean, sliarp sand for building pnrjioses is generally abun-
dant, and the ]iure white sands from the St. Peter forma-
tion are pronounced unsurpassed for glass-making. Build-
ing-stones are found in great variety, and may be classified
as follows: (1) Crystalline, as in the granites at St. Cloud;
(3) quartzite, as in the red jasper of the southwestern coun-
ties; (3) dolomites, as in the beds at Frontenac; (4) dolo-
mitic limestone, as quarried at Red Wing and Kasota; (5)
limestone, as in the Trenton beds about i\Iinnea[H)lis ; and
(6) sandstones, as found at Hinckley, Dresbach, and .Jordan.
The Archa-an formations of the State contain iron miiu'S
of phenomenal richness and accessibility. The region knt)wn
as the Vermilion Iron Range extends both E. and W. from
Tower. The only other important mining center in this
range is Ely, about 30 miles to the S. E. From this range
in 1893 were pnxiuced l,lfi7.6.50 tons of high-grade ore,
mostly suitable for Bessemer steel. Another range of iron-
bearing rock has been discovered at the base of the Paheo-
zoic in the Taconic formation, known as the Mesabi Hange.
This region extends from the Pokegama Falls of the Missis-
sippi river easterly 145 miles. The ore is soft hemalile, very
free from impurities. Extensive mining is carried on by
means of steam shovels, which lift the ore directly from the
bed to the railway cars. The total shipnu^its of iron ore
from Minnesota mines in 1882-94 were 5,393,250 tons.
MINNESOTA
789
Productions. — Tlie Rrcnt goofirapliifi oxtont of the State,
the ricliiies.s of soil, and I he ahiiiidaiKe of wiitiT give rise to
a varicil aiui abounding tli>ra. The valley of the jlinnesota,
occupying less tlian one-fifth of the area, contains 1,174
flowering plant.s. Contrary to a ooninion belief, Minnesota
is a country of forest rather than of prairie. About .'52.000
sq. miles are, or have been, wooded, the rt'inaining 32,000 sq.
miles being prairie.
The timber of the «oo<ls of the Coteuu de.s Bois region
consists chielly of oak, elm, bass, and maple. In the north
half of the .State are fouml white and yellow pine, white
ee<lar, spruce, tanuirack, and birch. The winter climate is
t<K> rigorous for the peach and the cherry, but the hardier
varieties of the apple are grown, and many varieties of the
native plum are being propagated. Small fruil.s, including
llie grape, flourish in great alnindance and excellence. Xo-
where are the usual garden vegel^ibles gnjwn in greater per-
fection than in the black soil of this State.
The butTalo and antelope, which were once plentiful, have
disappeared, but in the great forest to the N. are elk, moose,
l)ear, deer, and rarely the beaver, (irouse, partridge, and
(|uail still survive the war of the pot-hunter. There are
few waters that arc not well stockeil with valuable species
of fish. The State has an eOicient game law, and a State
fish commission is engaged in restocking lakes and streams.
The following summary from the census reports of 1880
and 1800 shows the extent of farm operations in the State :
FARMS, ETC,
Total number of farms
Tntal H'Tcafje of farms
Valut' of farms, including buildings
and fences
1880.
92.380
13,403,019
$193,734,260
1890. ! Pmoml.
110.851 -I-S6-5
18,663,645 +39 2
$340,059,470! -I-75-5
The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of
the principal crops in the calendar year 1893 :
CROPS.
Acnage.
Ylald.
Valae.
Corn
887.052
3,1»7,3«.J
1,075,895
07,031
419,367
23,206
114.167
1,723.273
25.103.572 bush,
30,694.6S5 "
41 ,.562. 196 "
l,025,9-.>6 "
9,268.011 ■'
352.731 "
7,5:«.022 "
2,791,702 tons
8R..5.35.214
15.6.^4.289
10,806.171
420,(30
3.:M6, 184
186 ^7
Wheat
Oats
Rye
Barlev
Buckwheat
Potatoes
8.406.110
12.758.078
Hay
Totals
8,108.377
855,103.983
On Jan. 1, l.S!)4, the f.irm animals eoniiirised 498,772
horses, value $29,(>40,.542 ; 9,2(>9 mules, value ^6.")6.a70 ; 577,-
196 milch-cows, value ^11,209,140; 778,038 o.xcn and other
cattle, value .$10,687,36.5; 514,939 sheep, value ii;l,12.«l,129 ;
and .566,967 swine, value :^4,184.216 : total value, .t!57,.5O5.708.
Climate. — The climate of the mid-temperate zone is in
Minnesota modified and ameliorated by local conditions. It
is rare that an abundant rainfall in tiio growing sejison is
not followed by dry weather favorable to harvesting. The
wintci-s are dry, with moderate snowfall. The high latitu<le
gives a long day in the growing season. Fair weather is the
rule for the whole year, so that .Miiuiesota has been a favor-
ite resort for invalids needing to live out of doors. Malarial
diseases are unknown.
The average temperature for the year of the central part
of the State is 446 , for the .summer 70-5% ami for the win-
ter 16 r. The average precipitation for the year is 2.S-75
inches; the mean lieiglitof barometer, :!000 ; and the lowest
winter temperature in 1893 was —26 V.
The record of observations made at Minneapolis (lat. 45'
N., Ion. 93 14 \V.) by William Cheney, voluntary observer,
U.S. Weather Bureau. Department of .\griculture, shows
the average temperature and precipitation by months from
1805 to 1893 inclusive :
MONTHS.
Trmpcratnn,
ATcn^ for M }mn.
RalDbll In Inclin.
ftTtra^ for Ss jtan.
Jnnuurv
8-720
14 23
34 76
43 05
57 ■«
67in
7\ ax.
OS •>•
5879
4,')- 76
ail- 16
15 70
1218
raw
r4Ki
2-419
8-516
4-282
8 304
8-776
3-413
1-858
1-307
1249
Kehruary
March
April
May ;;!'.;.;;;;;!;;!;."!
Juiie
July
Aupust
Septi.mber
OetolpiT
NovtMiiber
December
—
The average temperature of the year at this station is
42-05 ' (twenty-nine years) ; the average summer temperature,
68-88° ; theaverage winter temperature, 1288 ; and the av-
erage rainfall per year, 29-032 inches (twenty-eight years).
Dicinionn. — For administrative jiurposes Minnesota is
divided into eighty-onef counties, as follows:
COUNTIES AND COr.VTV-TOWXS, WITH POPfLATIO.V.
Aitkin
Anoka
Becker,
Beltrami
Bentou
Bi« Stone
Blue Earth
Brown.. . .■
Carlton
Carver
Cass
Chipp«*wa
Chisago
Clay
Couk
Cott4>nwood
Crow Wing
Dakota
Do^ltfe
Donelas
Faribault
KiUmore
Freeb<)rn
Goodhue
Grant
Hennepin
Houston
Hubbard . ,
Isanti
Itasca
Jack.son
KanalH'C
Kandi.vohi
Kitlsoii
LacKiui-Parle
I,.ake
Le Sueur
Lincoln
Lyon
MeLeod
Marshall
Martin
Meeker
Mille Liics
Morrison
Slower
Murra.v
Nicollet
Noblt^s
Norman
Olmsteti
Otter Tail
Pine
Pi()estone
Pulk
Pope
Ramse.v
Redwoiid .-
ItenvUle
Rice
Rock
St. Louis
Scolt
Sherburne
Sibley
Stearns
Steele
Stevens
Swift
Todd
Traverse
Wabasha
Wadena
Waseca, - ,
Washington
Watonwan
Wilkin
Winona
WriKht
Yellow Medicine.
8-E
9-F
5-B
8-C
8-D
»-A
11-D
10-D
6-F
9-E
5-D
9-B
9-F
5-A
8-H
11-C
6-D
10-F
n-F
7-B
11-E
11-G
11-E
10-F
7-B
9-E
11-H
5-C
9-F
8-E
11-C
7-E
9-C
2-A
9-A
*-H
10-E
10-A
10-B
9-D
2-.A.
ll-D
9-D
7-E
7-D
ll-K
n-B
lO-D
11-B
4-A
U-G
6-B
7-F
11-A
S-A
8-B
9-F
10-C
10-C
10-F
11-A
4-F
10-E
8-E
10-D
»-C
U-F
8-B
9-B
7-C
7-A
lO-O
6-C
11-E
»-F
ll-D
6-A
11-H
»-E
lO-B
Pop.
IfM.
2.402
9.884
9,401
312
6,281
5.722
29.210
15.817
5,272
l6.,-i32
1,247
8,5.55
10.:i59
11.517
98
7.412
8,852
ao.-,'4o
10.8(M
14,606
18.708
25,966
17.962
28,806
6.875
185,294
14,653
1,412
7,607
743
8.924
1.579
18,997
5..387
10.."t82
1.299
19.057
5.091
»,.'■)« I
17.(VJ8
9.i:«y
9.403
15.456
2,815
I3..'«5
18.019
6.61W
13.:i82
7,'.ii-)8
10.618
19.800
a4,2:j2
4,052
5,132
30,192
10.032
139.796
9.3S6
17.099
23.968
6.817
44,862
18,831
5,908
15.199
34.844
13.232
5.251
10.161
12.9.30
4.516
16.9«
4.053
13.313
25.992
7,74«
4.346
83.797
%i.\M
9.8M
Pop.
■ML
5,2»l
11.181
18.725
i.;««
7.7y;i
7.477
a2.-J95
18.431
7.458
17.667
3.425
10.805
13,118
"15,151
4-r
10,187
ll..->61
21.»15
12.753
16.942
20.139
28.599
21.138
32.208
7.987
217,798
15,556
2,447
10. H«
3,903
I-2.3-.'4
2.714
10,:J22
6.289
12.087
2.211
30.915
7.196
12.4-25
19,i:«
12,072
13.981
17,389
5.1-29
19,10;j
21„>46
9,:J22
14.--'99
11.905
1.3.470
22.310
39.453
8.031
7.115
89,-2ll9
11.607
147.5:J7
13,533
21,818
36,837
8.597
78.575
15,035
7,1.37
16.4;M1
89.9-25
15.7U(j
0,54.1
11.8)6
17.674
6.0<->4
18.587
6.(C8
14.713
27.417
10.-2I>2
6.200
37.1*1
27.653
12.581
COUNTY -TOWNS.
P»p.
im.
Aitkin.
1,670
Anoka
8,812
1,801
Sauk Rapfcis
Ortonville
I..313
I.IM)
Mankato
10.173
NVwUlin
4,TW)
503
Chaska
2.443
Montevideo
1,800
CVntrr City
Moorhead
3,290
Grant! Marais.. .
Winilom
1..523
Brainerd
7,0:il
Hastiujrs
3.818
Mantorville
.V.l
Alexandria
2,ai,5
Blue KarthCitv.
2,432
Preston
1.310
Alliert I^a
4.1,'>8
Re«l Wing
7,085
Elbow I.^ke —
407
Minneapulis
192.83;j
Caledonia
1.045
Park Kapids ....
820
Cambridge
391
Grand Kapids...
1..548
1.356
Mora
438
2.511
Hollock
549
Madi.st>n
Two Harbors . , ,
Le Suf ur C^^nter,
Ltake Benton
Marshall
Glencoe
Warren
Fairmont
Litchfield
Princeton
Little FalLs
Austin
Slayton
St. Peter
Worthing:ton
.\da
Rochester
Ferpus Falls
Pine City
Pipestone
Crookston
Glenwood
St, Paul
Redw.K>d Falls, ,
Beavt?r Falls
Fahl)ault
Luverue
Dululh
Shakopee
Elk River
Henderson
.St. Cloud
Owatonna
Morris
Ben.s<in
I»ng Prairie
Whealon
Waltasha
Wadena
Wa..ieca
Stillwater
St, Janit^
Breekenridge . . ,
Winona
Buffalo
Urauile Falls . . .
915
1.9U
319
607
1.7+4
2,0-22
975
2,204
2.W4
1.087
5.116
5.0K7
o.-«
4.2.-.1
1.918
8)5
6.429
4,497
793
l.«J8
3,970
892
140.292
1.589
145
7,61«
1,890
59,890
1.966
795
1,00«
9.178
4,891
1,417
1,121
1,079
589
2.5)5
12.l«M
1.874
8C>»
30.049
8S9
1,189
Totals 1.801,826 1.574,619
* Reference for location of c<tunties. see map of Jlinnesota.
t In 1895 Roseau ^ref. 2-B) was formed.
Prinripnl Cilien ami Toini-i. icith Pnputnlion in JS!>,'>. —
Minncaiwlis. 192,8:«; .St. Paul, 140,-292 ; Duluth, 59.396;
Winona, 20.649; Stillwater. 12.004; Mank.ito. 10.173; St.
Clou<i,9,178: Hcd Wing, 7.6x5; Faribault. 7.016; Brainerd,
7.0;ll; Koche.sler, 6.429; Little Falls, .5.116 ; Austin, !j,O.S7 ;
Owatonna. 4,X91 ; New L'Im. 4.7!»0; Fergus Falls, 4,497;
Hastings. 3.848; and .\noka. 3.812.
J\}pHialion and Jiates.— In 1850, 6,077; 1860, 170,023;
790
MINNESOTA
1870, 439,706; 1S80, 780,733; 1890, 1,301,820 (native. 834,-
470; foreijrn, 467,350; males, 095,321; fcinalLS, 600.505;
white, 1,296.159; colored, 5,667, of wlioiii 3,683 were person's
of African descent, 04 Chinese, 2 Japanese, and 1,8^8 civi-
lized Indians).
Jiidiistries and Business Interests. — The census returns of
1890 showed that 7,505 niaiiufactiiring establishments re-
ported. These had a combined capital of ^127,680,618, em-
ploved 79,629 persons, paid §38,189,239 for wtiges ami $118,-
48l',941 for materials, and had products valued at §102,033,-
478. The leading manufacture is that of spring wheat-flour,
and its chief seat is in Minneapolis, where the immense water-
power of the Falls of ,St. Anthony is mostly thus utilized.
The daily capacitv of its mills is 46,800 barrels, and the out-
put of the year 1892 was 9,750,470 liarrels, of which 3,337,-
205 barrels were exported directly from the mills to foreign
markets. A considerable manufacture of flour is growing
up in Dulutli, attracted by the convenience of shipment di-
rectly by water. Lumber, chiefly |iine, holds the next place
to flour. The total cut of pine in 1892 was reported as 1,091,-
917,003 feet. The greater part of this was manufactured
into luml)er in the State, Minneapolis holding the leading
place, witli Duluth as second. Next in importance and of
consideral)le magnitude are foundries and nuichine-shops,
builders' supplies, nieat-paekiiig. agricultural implements,
furniture, printing, car-building, boots and shoes, and paper.
Bankiny. — On Dee. 19, 1893, there were 77 national
banks with combined capital of §15,345,000, individual de-
posits of §28,410,398, and surplus and profits of §5,687,143 ;
and 142 State banks with comljined capital of §9,499,500,
individual deposits of §19,892,980, and surplus and profits
of §3,239,709. The savings-lianks, according to reports of
Dec, 1892, numbered 15, and ha<l 42,212 depositors, §10,-
658,564 in deposits, and §314,173 in surplus and profits.
Commerce. — Minnesota has two U. S. customs districts
and ports of entry — Duluth, on Lake Superior, and Minne-
sota City, with the chief office at St. Paul, on the Mississippi
river. During the calendar year 1893 the imports of mer-
chandise at Duluth aggregated §825,242 in value, and the
exports §1,421,590; and the imports at Minnesota City
§1,141,799, and exports §239.825 ; total imports, §1,967,-
041; exports, §1,661,415; total foreign merchandise trade,
§3,628,456.
Finance. — The assessed valuations in 1892 were : Real
property, §.540.229.875; personal, §1 14,356,870 : total, §654,-
586,751 ; State tax rate, §2.70 per §1,000. In the year end-
ing Julv 31, 1893, the receipts of the State aggregated
§5,083,608, and the expenditures §4,352,904, leaving bal-
ance of §730,643. The total debt, all funded, on Jan. 1.
1894, was §1.959,000, and the sinking funds held §100,000.
Means of Commnnicaiion. — With some exceptions the
railways may be considered as radiating from a center in
the "twin cities," St. Paul and Minneapolis. Their aggre-
gate mileage on June 30, 1893, was 5,863-69, of which 248
miles had been built in the year then ended. The cost of
railways and eipiijiments was .§232,90.5,.592. The 3 per cent,
tax on gross earninirs, in lieu of all other taxes, amounted
to §1,036,262. Minnesota has no canals. The rivere fur-
nish over 2,500 miles of navigation, and Lake Superior,
penetrating to the heart of the State, gives w'ater communi-
cation eastward to the seaboard.
Churches. — The census of 1890 gave the following statis-
tics of the principal religious bodies having a membership
of 5,000 and upward each in the State :
DENOMINATIONS.
Roman Catliolfc
Lutheran, Uniteti Norwegian. . .
Methodist iCpi.scopal
Lutheran .Synodieal Conference
liUtheran, General Council
Lutheran, Norwegian Kvau
Baptist
Presb. in the U. S. of America..
Congregational
Protestant Kpiscopnl
Lutheran, Hauge Synod
Evangelical .-Vssociation
Oernnm Kvan. Synod of N. A..
Orgxiiiza-
tioaa.
Churches
and balls.
Member..
465
445
271,319
405
,388
4H..5-I1
.534
,532
30,S.37
217
178
30,3il8
aao
22,3
87,609
I(S4
147
21.Ki2
194
1(14
14,6SI8
167
173
13.7.32
175
177
i;j.634
171
173
11,143
.-..5
65
6,534
VM
134
6.181
.53
.53
5,.5fi7
Value of
cburob
property.
S3,514..325
608.200
1,725.843
443,700
616,720
2«7,'l,50
1,107,839
1,292,670
1,114,800
931.100
'J9,:M5
170,.5.50
97,900
Schools. — The system of public instruction consists of (1)
the common scliools and the normal schools for supplying
them with teachers; (2) the graded schools, including the
high schools; and the .State University. These institutions
are organically affiliated and are uni(iue in presenting a
complete system of secularized school instruction, in wliiih
tuilion is absolutely free of charges, from A li C to the doc-
torate of philosophy.
The State superintendent is at the head of the system.
County superintendents have immediate supervision of the
common schools. The gradeil schools are supervised by
local superintendents. Most of the high schools are suli-
ject to tile visit at ion of the State high school board, which
controls the distribution of a Slate fund to such approved
schools as undertake to prepare students for the nniversity.
In 1892 there were 5,705 common schools, 1.53 graded
schools, and 69 high schools, with a total enrollment of
233,224 pupils, and 4 normal schools with 1,864 students.
The value of school houses and sites \vas §10,270,777, of
school ajiparatus .§318,712, and of school libraries §139.144.
The permanent school fund derived from the sales of [Pub-
lic lands granted by the general Government amounted in
1892 to §10.132,867. The income from this fund at aboui
4 percent, was re-enforced by the State tax of §1.009.09(1,
and by local taxation at the rate of 8A mills on the doll;ir.
Under a "local-option" law text-books are generally suji-
plied to pupils of common and graded schools at public ex-
pense.
Libraries. — According to a V. S. Government report on
public libraries of 1,000 voUiines and u])waril each in ]K!I1,
Minnesota had 56 libraries which contained 304,668 bound
volumes and 35,690 pamphlets. The libraries were cla,ssi-
fied as follows: General, 12; sidiool, 19; college, 9; law, 2;
theological, 2 ; medical, 1 ; public institution, 2 ; Y. M. C. A..
1 ; social, 5; scientific, 2; and historical, 1,
Post-offices and Periodicals. — In Jan., 1894, there were
1,335 post-offices, of which 86 were presidential (3 lirsl-elass.
11 second-class, 72 third-class) and 1.249 fourth-class. Tlu-re
were 442 money-order offices, 10 money-order stations, and
21 postal-note offices. The newspapers and periodicals com-
prised 37 daily, 3 semi-weekly, 438 weekly, 3 bi-weekly, 11
serai-monthly, 54 monthly, 2 bi-monthly, and 1 quaiierly
publications ; total, 549.
Charitable, Reformatory, and Penal Institutions. — A
legislative act of 1883 established a State Board of Correc-
tions and Charities, and formed all of these institutions into
an aggregate, the board having charge of the whole system.
Each institution is under the immediate supervision of a
board of trustees or managers, excepting the schools for the
deaf, dumb, and blind, which are grou|ied into an Institiili'
for Defectives. The whole number of inmates in 1892 was
3,836, and the total expenditure was §2,166.600. The hos-
pitals for the insane are at St. Peler, at Koehester, and
at Fergus Palls. The Institute for Defectives is at Fari-
b.ault, and the School for Dependent and Neglected Children
at Owatonna. The Soldiers' Home occupies a beautiful site
on the Mississippi river in Minneapolis. The reformatory
institutions are the State Prison at Stillwater, the .State
Reformatory at East St. Cloud, and the Reform School at
Red Wing.
Political Organization. — The constitution comprises a
bill of rights, a frame of government with the usual tripar-
tite division of functions, and separate articles on elective
franchi.se, finances, and education. The executive depart-
ment comprises a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secre-
tary of State, auditor, treasurer, attorney-general, land com-
missioner (the auditor), eoinmis.sioner of statistics (the as-
sistant secretary of State), superintendent of public instruc-
tion, public examiner. State lihnirian, commi.ssioner of labor
.statistics, insurance commissioner, inspector of illuminating
oils, seven inspectors of logs iind lumlier, five inspcctoi-s of
-Steam-boilers, and about 7,II00 notaries public, liesides the
regents of the State University, the Governor appoints the
members of seventeen boards and commi.ssions. The Leg-
islature meets biennially, and remains in session for 90 legis-
lative days. The 80 counties are divided into 54 di.stricts,
each of which elects one Senator and one or more Represen-
tatives, of whom the whole number in 1894 was 114; Scna-
tcn's are elected for four years, lJei>resentatives for two. The
Legislature is prohibited from passing .special acts when a
general law can be made applicable, and no bills can be in-
troduced in the last twenty days of a session exce[)ting by
a special message from the Governor. The Governor may
veto any item or items of an appropriation lull while ap-
proving the remainder. The jmliciary has the usual gra-
dation of courts. All judges and clerks of courts of record
are elected, judges for six years, clerks for four years. Min-
nesota being a " code State," the distinction between actions
at law and suits in equity is abolished, and there is but one
MINNESOTA
MINNKTAREES
791
form (if ac-ticm, callcil "a fivil notion." Tlie friincliise is ox-
leiiili'il lo riiiili's Iwenty-oiiL' viars old and iipwunl who have
resided in tlie L'. S. for one year, in the Stale for four months,
and in tlie election district for ten days, providinjr they are
citizens of the U. S., foreigners who have declared their in-
tentions of beooniinf; citizens, civilized half-bnied Indians,
and civilized Indians examined in aiiv <listrict court and
pronounced capalile. Women of lejral as;e may vote for
school ollicers and nu'asures, and may hold school ollices.
All voters must have liecn reirislered previously. A modi-
fication of the Australian liallot system is in use. Elec-
tions are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in
November in alternate even-numbere<l years. The legal rate
of interest is 7 per cent. ; the rate allowed by contract, 10 per
cent.
Jlislori/. — The most conspicuous of the early mission-
aries and fur-trailers who penetrated the territory was Fa-
ther Hennepin, who in 1080 discovered llu> falls, to wliich
he gave tlie iwune of his patron saint, Anthony of I'adini,
Deserving of miMition also was Capt. Joiuithan Carver, who
set out in ITtJti to exjilore the new lands which under the
treaty of ITO^i hail passed from France to England. The
part of Minnesota K. of the Mississippi became U. .S. terri-
tory by the treaty of ITS:!, ami was iucluiled in the " North-
west Territory," organized under the urdiuaiice of 1787. It
was later part of Indiana, .Michigan, and Wisconsin terri-
tories successively.
The lands W. of the Mississippi came into possession of
the U. S. I)y the I,ouisiana purchase, and were included suc-
cessively in the territories of Upper Louisiana, Arkansas,
Missouri, and low.n. The expedition of Lieut, (later Gen.)
Zebulon I'ike in ISO.") furnished to the (iovernnient .'Uid to
the people the llrsl deliiute and authentic information of
the clinuite, soil, and natural resources of llic^ region. Later
nnlitary explorations enlarged and confirmed I'ike's reports.
In 181!t the (rovernment took measures which resulted in
the completion of a military post, later known as Fort .Snell-
ing, at the junction of the .Alinnesota and Mississippi rivers.
For the use of the garrison a sawmill was liuilt at the Falls
of St. Anthony, 7 miles above, in which in Wi'i machinery
for flouring was set up.
In IS'27 a boily of Swiss refugees from Lord Selkirk's col-
ony at Pembina, on the IJed Kiver of the North, appeared at
Fort .Snelling, and were allowed to cultivate lamls belong-
ing to the post. These were the first white settlers. In
the decade 18;iO-40 a post of the America Fur Company
was established at .Memlota, near Port Snelling, by Henry
Hastings Sildey, later first Governor of the State." In the
same pcrioil the scieulilic explorations of Feathcrstonc-
haugh, Mather, Nicollet, Fremont, Cass, and others were
prosecutc'il. and such missionaries as the Ponds, Higgs, Will-
iamson, and HoutcUe began their labors. By them the Da-
kota language was reduced to writing. In 18:i7 the Chip-
pewa title to the lands E, of the Jlississippi w.ns extin-
guished, and thereupon pioneers swarmed in to take up
farms and cut pine lumber on the St, Croix, In 1841 the
Catholic inis>ionary Father (ialtier erected a small log
chap(d on the sili^ of the city, which took its name, St.
Paul, from that given to the edifice.
Congress pjissed an act creating the Territory of Minne-
sota on .Mar. :i, ISIll. In 1851 21.000.000 acres of land were
acquired of the Dakotas by the treaty of Tnivei-se <le Sioux.
The infiux of settlers was immediate and rapid, and indus-
try anil trade increased at a prodigious rate, wliich later
was but slightly checkeil l)y the disasters of the panic year
of 1857. In IS.IS .Miunesoia was admitted to the I'nioii as
a State, with an area much reduced, under a constitution
closely modeleil on those of States previously created out
of the Northwest Territory,
The Dakotas in selling their lanils in 1851 reserved a
considerable territory on the I'pper Miiinesotu, toward the
southwestern coriun- of the State, Kxasperateil by the en-
croachmeiils of si'lllers, the extortions of traders, ami the
niismanagi'iiient of (iovernnient agents, the Sioux in Aug.,
iXiVi, raideil the ailjacent settlements. In the course of
thirtv-six hours, as stated by Neill, some 800 whites were
murdered, .\s soon as iiossible a military force was organ-
ized under Gen. H. H. Sibley, which after a .series of atTaii-s
and two considerable battles at Birch Coolie anil Wood Lake,
captured or dispersed the savages. Of the leaders, thirty-eight
were executed on one scaffold at Mankato Dec, 20, 1802.
In the course of the civil war ."Minnesota furnislu'd 11
regiments of infantry, a regiment of heavy artillery, 8 bat-
teries of field-artillery, 4 regiments or battalions of cavalry.
and 2 companies of sharpshooters, in all 25,052 men, equal
to one-seventh of her population.
GOVEK.S-ORS OF Ml.N.NESOTA.
I Cushman K. Davig . .
r^ ' John S. Pill>l(ary...
Territorial.
Alexander KaiiiRey IftlS;... , - ,
Willis A. (iorrrian IKVi-.'.r , Lucius 1- Iluljl>an).
Samuel .Mi-dary Ifisr-M iVHr""' R '1'^'*"," • • •
■ William R. .Merrlam..
t,, . 1 Kuute Nelson.
State. '
David M. dough .
lS74-7«
IHKi-KT
1HH7-W
lMlW-95
189i>-
Henrv H. Sibley lR.W-60
Alexander Kaiiisey IKIKMM
Stephen MilliT lKS4-fi(J
William li. Marshall lsti«i-70
Horace Austin 1^0-74
AfTnoRlTllvS. — Exerulive Dnnimenlsof the SIntf of Min-
nemfa: Ler/).iltitire Mamials iif the SInle of llinuesoln;
Minnesotti in the Citil and Indian Wars. lStJl-lSi:.'>: Col-
lections of the Minnesota Historical Sociiti/ {vi>\. iii. con-
tains a bibliography of the State by J. F. Williams); Pub-
lications of the Geological and \aturaf Ifistori/ Surrey of
Minnesota (in progress, I8!)4); Neill, I/istori/ of Minnesota;
Neill, Concise Jfiston/ of the State of Minne.'tota (Minne-
apolis, 18>'7); J. F. Williams. Ilistonfof St. I'aul(St. Paul,
1870); West, fyife of J/enri/ Hastings Sihlry (St. Paul,
188!)); John \l. Sieveni^. Per.ii»ial It'erolleclions (Minneapo-
lis, 1890); Hear<l, Ilisturij of the Sioux War (New York,
186ii). ■ William W. Folwell.
Minnesota Kiver [Minnesota is from Dakota minne,
water -I- .s»/rt, muddv] : a stream which rises in Big Stone
Lake, on the boundary between Minnesota and South Da-
kota, traverses the State of Jlinnesota, flowing first S, E.
and then N, E„ reaching the Mississippi 5 miles above St.
Paul. It flows through the Coteau des Bois. or Big Woods,
a great forest of deciduous trees, and is navigable 300 miles
in high and 45 in low water. Total length, 470 miles,
Minnesota, Tito University of: a public institution for
superior education in .Minneapolis, Hennepin County, estab-
li.slicd by territorial statute l.s51, confirmed by the State
constitution adopted in 1857, The [uesent charter dates
from 1808, and the first collegiate work was liegun in 1809,
The government is vested in a board of regents consisting
(1) of nine members appointed for six years and (2) of three
members ex officiis — the Governor of the State, the State
superintendent of pulilic instruction, and the president of
the university. Tuition is free in the non-professional de-
partments. Both sexes are admitted. There is no dormitory
system. No honorary degrees have been orcan be conferred.
The libraries contain over :i.5.<l()0 volumes. The laboratories
are extensive and well e(|uipped. The geological survey of
the State was intrusted to the university in 1873 and has
sini'e been in successful progress. The first volume of the
final report was imblisheil in 1884. the second in 1888.
The endowment consists of 202.08;! acres of lands granted
by the naticuial (ioveriiiiieul. or the i>roceeds of the sales
thereof. Over half of the lands have been sold and the
amount of the permanent fund wa.s, in 1894, $1,040,000.
The current-expense fund is hereafter to come mainly from
a share — three-twentieths of one mill — of the general State
school tax.
In the early years the university was obliged to maintain
a "preparatory ' department. The plan of organization
adopteil in 1S70 provideil for the gradual elimination not
only of the ]ireparatory department, but also of the first
two years of the usual college Work, thus relegating all sec-
ondary instruction to thealliliated high schools of the Stale.
The last preparati>ry class was dropped in 1H87. but a con-
siderable time must elapse before the university may syifely
throw more work on those schools. By the mediation of a
State high school board, charged with the management
and distribution of a Stale fund to such high schools as will
undertake to prepare students of lioth sexes free of charges
for tuition for the university, eighty high schools are
brought into close filial iim with the university, and the sys-
tem of public instruction unified and coni]>leted.
The following colleges or department shave lieen organizo<l
and are in operation: The College of Science, Literature,
and the Arts: the College of Agriculture; the College of
Engineering, Metallurgy, and the .Mechanic .Arts; the Col-
lege of Law ; theColleges of .Medicine. Dentistry, and Phar-
macy. The number of students in all departments in Jan,,
1894, was 1,735, and the total personnel 1, 895.
WiLLiA-M W. Folwell.
Minnetnrees: See Sioi'an Indians.
792
MINXEWAUKOK
MINSTRELS
Miiineivaiikoii, or DevirsLakc: a body of water in tlie
norlluu'ii pari of Xortli Dakota, on tho 4s'tli parallel of N.
lat. It is about 40 miles loiig, and 12 miles wide in its
broadest part. Its water is of a deeper tint than that of the
surrounding fresh-water lakes, and is so brackish as to be
unfit to drink.
Minnow [M. Eng. menow < 0. Enjr. myne (cf. dial.
Moil. Eng. miiiiiy, minnow)] : a name applied to many small
fresh-water fislies of the family Cyprinidie. The I'lnj;-
lish minnow is Lcuciscus plioriniix, a very common little
fish of the brooks, with blunt liead. small scales, and the
males brightly colored in" spring. In the U. S. the nami! is
extended to some 200 small fishes, species of Hybugnalhus,
Notropis. LeuciscHs, Jiliinicli/liy.s, etc. They are used !us live
bait in pike and pickerel fishing, and are important as af-
fording food to larger and better fishes.
Revised by D. S. Jordan.
Miuo da Fipsole. mee'no-daa-fc"e-cs'5-ld: sculptor; b. in
Italy about 14;i(). lie went to Rome at an early age, but he
had already attaincil a prominent position in his art, for he
was commissioned to adorn with bas-reliefs the marble altar
of St. .Jerome for Sta. Maria Jlaggiore. The monument of
Paul II. was intrusted to him, and was considered at the
time the most beautifully ornamentc<i of any of the papal
tombs. He then made a tabernacle to contain the holy oil
for St. Maria in Trastevcre, and in Sta. JIaria sopra Minerva,
the tomb of Francesco Tornabuoni, the marble statue on
which was much a<lmired. After this he returned to Fie-
sole and settled there, producing innumerable works for the
convents and churches of Florence, and monuments, of
which the one to tlu; Markgraf Hubert of Magdeburg is one
of the fitu'st. Prato, Perugia,, and Volterra also possess ex-
amples of his art. I), in 148G. W. J. Stillman.
Milionk : city ; Woodford eo.. 111. (for location of Qounty,
see map of Illinois, ref. 4-E) ; on the Atch.. Top. and S. Fe
and the 111. Cent. I'ailways ; 29 miles N. of Blooraington, 53
miles N. E. of Peoria. It is in an agricultural and coal-
mining region, and has valuable coal mines, brick-yards,
tile-works, steam flour-mills, several grain elevators,2 private
banks, and 3 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,913 ; (1890)
2,3 Hi.
Minor: See Infant.
Minor'ca [Span. Menorcn; from Lat. mi' nor, less, the less-
er. Ct. .Ma.7oui'a| : tlie second largest anil easternmost of the
Balearic islands; .situated in the Mediterranean, 27 miles
E. N. E. of Majorca, and belonging to Spain : is about 35
miles in length and 17 broad. Area, 301 .sq. miles. Pop.
35,000. It is mountainous, its highest point, Mt. Toro,
rising 1,148 feet. It produces oil, wine, hemp, and fruits.
The Hedysarum coronnrium, or zulla, is extensively culti-
vated for fodder. Sweet potatoes are also raised here and
exported to Algeria. The caper plant is abundant. The
island has manufactures of wool, hemi>, llax, etc. Among
tlie principal exports are wheal and cattle. The island is
less fertile tlian .Majorca; lead, copper, and iron are found,
but the scarcity of fuel prevents extensive working of them.
Superior marbles and porphyries are found here, also lime
and slate. The coast (■onbiins numerous creeks and bays,
especially on the north side. The chief town. Port Mahon,
the capital, situateil on the southern coast of the island, has
a spacious, safe, and strongly fortified harbor capable of ac-
commodating a whole fleet of men-of-war. Minorca has
also the ports of Addaya, Pornells, Nitja, and (Mudadela,
wliich was formerly the cafiilal, and has a cathedral and
several convents, also woolen maiuifactures. 'Die island
has been declining in business and jKipulation since it iiassed
from English into .Spanish hands (1803). A considiM-able
emigration is taking place to Algeria, where tlie Minorcans
are (failed Mahonais. Revised by M. W. Harrington.
Mi'norites [from Lat. minnr, lesser. Cf. Lat. name Fra'-
tres Mimires, lesser brothers] ; the name given by St. I<''ran-
cis of Assisi to his original order. (See Franciscans.) The
name is still borne by some congregations of that great order
or group of orders.
Minority Reprosontation : See Kei'kksextation.
Minor Mode. Minor Scale: See Mode and Scale.
Mi'nos (in Gr. Wvas) : a King of Crete, to whom the Cre-
tans traced their laws and political institutions; said by
Homer and llesiod to have been a son of Zeus and Europa,
a brother of Uliadainanthu.s, father of Deucalion and Ari-
adne. He was on familiar tiTnis with his father Zeus, in
whose sacred grotto he lived for nine years, being instructed
by his father in the science of laws. His laws were there-
fore jiromulgateil in the name of tlie god. Minos died and
was buried in Sicily, whither he had gone in pursuit of
D.12DALUS (q.i:). After his death he became one of the
judges in Hades. Later poets and mythologists s|ieak of
two Kings of Crete of the name of Minos, probably in order
to establish harmony between the many contra<lictory myths
which clustered around the name. See PAsii-iiAii and Mino-
taur. J. R. S. Sterrett.
Minot, George : jurist ; b. at Haverhill, Mass.. Jan. 5, 1817 ;
graduatc'd at Harvard in 1836 and at Harvard Law School in
1838; finished his law studies under Rufus Choate; was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1839. and became distinguished in his
iirofession. He was associate report er of the decisions of
udge Woodbury of the first circuit court ; published in 1844
his JJigest of (he Decisions of the Supreme Court of Jlofsa-
chusse'tls (45 vols., with Supplement. 18.52); edited the Eng-
lish Admiralty Rejmrts (9 vols., 1853-54); aided Richard
Peters, Jr., in editing the first 8 vols, of the United States
Statutes at Large (1848), for which he prepared the Index,
and was the editor of that important publication for the (en
vears preceding his death, which occurred at Reading, Jlass.,
Apr. 10, 1858.
Min'otanr [from Lat. 3Iinotau'nis = Gr. yiivdravpos :
M/vais, husband of Pasiphae -I- Toupos, bull] : in Grecian my-
thology, a monster with the body of a man and the head of
a bull, t he oflspriiig of Pasiphue, the wife of Minos, and Po-
seidon's bull. Jlinos shut the monster U[i in the Cnossian
labyrinth, whore it was fed on criminals and on the youths
ami maidens paid as a tribute by Athens, until it was killed
by Theseus, with the help of Ariadne. The monster has been
frequently rc])resented by Greek artists in its early adven-
tures, inclosed in the labyrinth, and fighting with or sub-
dued by Theseus. The Minotaur was identical with the
Moloch of the Pho'iiicians in form and in the fact that
human sacrifice was offered to it. The slaying of the mon-
ster by Theseus means that Greek civilization (Theseus) put
an end to human sacrifice. Revised by J. R. S. Sterrett.
Minot's Lodge, or Jlinofs Roflis: a portion of the ex-
tensive reefs called C'ohasset Rocks, lying oil Cohasset, Mass.,
the southeastern promontory of the coast of Boston Bay,
E. S. E., and 14 nautical miles from the city. A granite
lighthouse with fog-bell is situated on the outer rock. See
Lighthouse.
Minsk : government of Russia, on the iipjier part of the
Dnieper. Area, 35,293 sq. miles. The watershed between
the basin of the Niemen, flowing to the Baltic, and the
basin of the Diiie)>er, flowing to the Black Sea. is formed
by a narrow plateau and a range of low hills seldom reach-
ing the height of 1.000 feet. Otherwise, the ground is low
and level ; the soil often sandy, often marshy; the climate
in winter verv severe. Extensive forests cover much of the
land. Rye, flax, and hemj) are raised, sheep and horses are
reared, and tar, timber, and potash are produced. Pop.
(1887) 1,680,615.
Minsk: town of Russia: capital of the government of
Jliiisk, on the Svislocz, a tributary of the Beresina ; 436 miles
by niil W. .S. W. of Moscow (see map of Russia, ref. 7-C). It
has many good educational instil u I ions and is the seat of the
provincial government, but its trade and manufactures are
unimportant, it is mostly built of w'ood. Pop. (1888) 70,765,
iiKduding about 20,000 Jews.
Minstrels [from 0. Fr. meneslrel, by analogy of dimins. in
-el, from JMedia>v. Lat. ministralis, servant, retainer, jester,
singer, deriv. of Lat. minister, servant, liter., inferior, tleriv.
of ;«!»«. s, less] : the name applied during the Middle Ages
in England. Scotland, France, and Normandy to strolling
musi(fians who sang to th(! harp verses composed by them-
selves or others, and usually accompanied their songs with
dancing, mimicry, and other devices to minister to th6
amusement of royal or noble patrons. There can \ie little
doubt that they were the direct successors of the skalds and
gleemen of earlier Scandinavian and Teutonic antiquity, and
connected, though more remotely, with the "bards" who
figured so largely among the Celtic and Gothic trilies. They
were, however, no longi'r the custodians of t he nat ioiial epics,
like the Minnesingers {q. r.). nor even permanently attached
to the noble families as genealogists, but had begun to de-
generate into jester.s. The last representative of the earlier
type of warrior-min.strels was probably Taillet'er, who at the
battle of Hastings rode before Duke William, tossing up and
I
MINT
MINTS AND MINTING
793
catchinp liis sword, and sinffiiifj the song of Roland. By the
time of Edward IV'. the Mc»i]|er oecupuliuMs of the ininstrehi
had given pluce to luusquerading and playing at mysteries,
and in the thirl y-ninth year of Klizaheth a statute was |passed
classing minstrels and "jugglers, liearwurds, feiieers, eom-
ninn players of interludes, tinkers; and peddlers " as "rogues,
vagabonds, and sturdy beggai-s." and to be punished accord-
ingly. From that period nothing more is heard of nun-
stielsy as a profession. In modern times the name has been
employed in a iloulile sense. The comic singers of Negro
and other melodies are known as "minstrels." while the
same term is often employed in a complimentary sense nearly
as the e(|nivalent of " poet." Of the latter conception Scott's
Lay of the LuM Minstrel is u good example.
Mint [0. Kng. minle, from Lat. menta. from Or. iilv6ri.
mini]: a name applied to various fragrant laldale jilants,
but especially to those of the genus Mmlha. Uf these the
Pkiu'ERMint and Si-kakmint (77. c.) are the most imiiortanl.
The whole genus, with many other plants of the onler, pos-
sesses aromatic qnalitiis. The Kumjiean iieniiyrovul (M.
Jill/' i/iiim), bergamot ndnt (,1/. cilrnta). and others have con-
siderable use in domestic medicine, and some are employed
in eo<jkery.
Mint Family: a large and well-defined group (Labiatte)
of dicotyledonous mostly herbaceous plants, with opposite
leaves, and with gamopetalous, mostly two-lipped flowers,
four or two stamens, and superior fi>ur-lobed ovary. They
are distributed throughout all parts of the earth, and num-
ber 2,700 species, of which about l.jO are natives of the U. S.
Many are grown in gardens and greenhouses, e. g. species
of Sail in, Culexs, Pnilln, ^L'lilanllius, etc. JIany domestic
medicines are obtained from species of this family, as pep-
permint, horchound, hyssop, lavender, rosemary, sage, thyme,
pennyroyal, catnip, balm, etc. Charles E. Bessey,
Minis and Minting [mitU is from O. Eng. nii/iiel, coin:
O. II. Germ, muniza > Mod. Germ, miime, mint, coin, from
Lat. mone III, mint, coined money (deriv. of Jlinieta, sur-
name of .luno, in whose temple money was coined) > (). Fr.
moneie, whence Eng. mone;/] : A mint is a factory of coin
conducte<l under the sanction of public authority. The
use of the precious metals, as measures of value and mcili-
ums for effecting the exchange of corniiiodilies, dates from
the earliest period in the history of the human race of which
any record exists. Originally, gold and silver passed by
weii,'ht in the form of lumps, buttons, wedges, and spikes.
With the progress of civilization, increase of barter, and
the extension of c.nnmerci' came the necessity for individ-
ual pieces of metal of uniform fineness, weiglit. and value,
in form for convenient use, and bearing in effect the cer-
tificate of the supreme authority as to such fineness, weight,
and value, and to pass by tale or count. The best authori-
ties are generally agreeil in according the invention of
coins to the Lydians, and the period of their first use to
about the seventh century n. r. Their introduction enabled
the weighing of Imllion in onlinary business transactions to
be dispensed with, ami placed the unskilled multitude npon
an eipi.ilily in the use of money with the skilleil few. The
use of coins rapidly spread, aiding materially in the ex-
change of commodities, and powerfully promoting inter-
course between the different countries of the world.
In describing the processes of minting those in use in the
mints of the V. S. may be taken us typical of all others.
The mints and assay-offices are under the supervision of
a director, whose headipiarters are in the Treasury Depart-
ment at Wa>hington, and who is suliject to the general
<lirection of the Secnlary of the Treasury. The former are
located at Philadelphia, San Francisco, Carson City, and
New Orleans; and the latter at New York, .St. Louis, Den-
ver. Col., Boise City. Ida., and Charlotte, N. C.
The various operations and processes to which bullion is
subjected may be summarized as follows :
(1) T/te prrpnrnlnrii meltinq, uaxmWy with protective or
refilling fluxes, as the case maybe; (2) the nAwi/, which
determines the precise pronortion of fine gold or fiiu' silver
in each case, and also whetlier both metals are present and
reipiire parting; (:i) the parting prncexH. often calle(i retin-
ini/. since it takes the silver out, and leaves [)ure gold and
pure silver as t he separate products ; (4) the allni/inr/ of the
meliil, so as to make ingots or thin bars of staiKlanl fine-
ness,anil the castin;; of such ingots; (.5) the iisKni/ nf ini/ntu,
to determine whether they are of the legal or stamlard fine-
ness for coinage; (G) the various manipulations by which
such standard ingots are converted into coin.
CONVERSIOS OP Bl'llio.v tXTo Sta.ndaku I.voots. — As a
general rule, all bullion when received is subjected to a
preparatory or "de|K>sil" melting, for the purpos*; of free-
nig it from all earthy matter and adhering substances, a.s
well as to render the mass homogeneous preparatory to
assay. Samples for assay are taken for gold from the cast
bar, and from silver while the bullion is in a fused condi-
tion. The weight of the bullion after dei«jsil-meltiiig is
that with which the depositor is credited and the nielter
and refiner charged. 'J'he bullion, if not i>f sufilcient fine-
ness and otherwise in condition to admit of being brought
to the legal standard for coinage — nine parts pure metal
and one of copper — is subjected to purification by melting
and the use of protective and refining fluxes. If gold bul-
lion contains silver, or silver bullion contains gold, in (jiiun-
lilies suQicient to defray the expense of s<'paratiiig the two
metals, it is subjected to the parting operation, which is
based on the fact that silver is soluble in both nitric and
sulphuric acid, while gold is not affected by either. If the
metal to be parted is not present in quantity sufficient to
equal the expense of the operation, it passes off in the coins,
but without valuation. In the gold coins the law permits
one-tenth of the alloying metal to be composecl of silver.
Tests made by the assay commission show that the silver in
gold coins is almost iiiap[irecialjle, amounting to but a
trace, while out of five examinations made for gold con-
tained in silver coins the highest limit was 1 part in 5,000.
The most economical proportion of the two metals for the
parting operation is 2 oz. of silver to 1 oz. of gold.
The bullion, having been freed from all foreign sub-
stances and base metals, or separated where gold and silver
are jissociated in the same bullion, is alloyed with copper
and brought to the legal standanl lor coinage. It is then
cast into ingots and assayed, and if fouiiil to be sufliciently
within the deviation from standard or "tolerance" allowed
by law, is transferred to the coiner, who by a series of op-
erations converts it into coin.
The Conversion of I.ngots into Coin. — The principal op-
erations and processes to which ingots of standard fineness
are subjected in their manufacture into coin may be classi-
fied as follows :
(1) The riiUing, which reduces the ingots to strips or
fillets of a thickness proper for the denominated coins. (2)
Tlie annealing, which is rendered necessary to preserve the
ductility of the metal during the rolling operation. (3) The
drawing, whereby any want of nniformily in the thickness
of the strips is corrected. (4) Tlie cutting, or forcing from
the strips " planchets " or blanks of the size and shape of
the coin. (■">) The arljiinting. or weighing separately of each
blank, and bringing those above standard within the work-
ing limit of deviation by filing. (6) I'he milling, which
jiresses up the edge of the l>lank in order to protect the
surface of the coin. (7) 77ie cleaning, whereby all oxida-
tion is removed from the face of the blank. (8) The coin-
ing, or impressing upon the blanks the devices and inscrip-
tions prescribed by hiw.
When ingots are received by the coiner from the melter
and refiner, and the weight noted, they are taken to the
rolling-room, and passed through heavy iron or steel rolls,
each melt being kept and pas-ed through separatelv. At
each successive rolling the rolls are brought together bv
means of a screw, their adjustment or proximity to each
other being indicated npon a dial which is regulated by the
workman in charge. .Successive rolling hardens or renders
brittle the strips, and necessitates annealing in onler to pre-
serve their iluctility. The length of lime required to an-
neal gold is from one to one and a half hours, and for silver
about twenty minutes. The first annealing having been
completed, the strips are passed a few tiines through the
finisning-roUs, and after a second annealing are ready for
the draw-bench. The pointed end of the stri|«s are inserted
between the drawplates. and drawn through a snudl pair of
perpendicular steel rolls by means of a treadle and an end-
less chain. Two drawings are necessary for each strip. In
the first a slight reduction is made, and in the last the
ilrawplates are cafefnlly adjusted to the thickness of the
coin. A few strips are then iia.ssed through, from both ends
of which blanks are cut and weiched, ami if the weight is
found to conform to the working tolerance, the drawing of
the entire lot is proceeded with.
The strips are then taken to the cutting-press and plan-
chets cut tlierefrom. This operation consists in passing the
strip across a conical steel be<l, while a ininch just fitting the
bed operates on the upper side of the fillet and forces a piece
794
MINTS AXD MIXTIXG
of the exact size and shape of the punch throuj^h the sliarp
bed beneath. The puncli, operated by steam, moves with
great rapiility. and cuts I'roiu loO to :i80 pieces a minute.
The number of pieces that can be cut from ingots is as fol-
lows :
GOLD.
From one double-eagle ingot 40 pieces.
" eagle " 00 "
" half-eagle " 75 "
" " three-dollar " 13ti
" " quarter-eagle " 100
" " dollar " 63* "
SILVER.
From one standard-dollar ingot 33 pieces.
■• half-dollar •• «0 "
" '• quarter-dollar* " ;0 "
" dime '* . ■ " 354
The perforated strips, denominated " clippings,'" and the
blanks, are sent to the cleaning-room for the purpose of re-
moving all dirt and grease adhering to them from previous
operations. The clippings are returned to the melter and
refiner and reraelted, and the planchets or blanks delivered
to the adjusters.
A blank, or counterweight, adjusted to a small fraction
exceeding the legal weight of the coin is furnished to each
adju3ter,''with which the weight of all the blanks is tested,
those heavier than the counterweight being carefully filed
upon the edge until they are adjusted to a perfect counter-
poise. The adjusted planchets are then returned to the
forewoman, and under her supervision five of the most ex-
perienced adjusters prove the work, and if any planchet
is found outside of the prescribed limit it is readjusted.
Those of less weight tlian the counterweight are kept in
separate pans and tested by a second counterweight, which
is a slight traction below the standard weight of tlie coin.
In thecase of gold coins, which are the stanchird of value
and unlimited legal tender, each blank is adjusted by hand
before being milled and stamped. The blanks for the dol-
lar, which is a legal-tender coin, are also adjusted by hand,
while those for the subsidiary or over-valued silver coin,
the half dollar, quarter dollar, and dime, are not so adjusted,
the drawbench being relied on to insure the necessai-y uni-
formity as to thickness and correspondence of the blanks to
their respective legal weights. The law allows on all coins a
View oj: coiuiug-press in position tor work.
"certain deviation from standard weiglit. (See Tolerance.
below.) This deviation, however, is seldom reached, the
coiner fixing a limit within the legal deviation, which is
known as the " working tolerance." All pieces found below
the " working tolerance " are designated " condemned
liglits," anil returned to the melter and refiner. The re-
mainder, known as " heavies," " lights," and " standards,"
• The qnarter-dollar ingot is now made to yield a double row of
blanks, or 140 pieces to the ingot.
are kept separate until they reach the weigh-room as coin,
when tliey are united in proper proportions, and made up
into drafts for delivery by the coiner to the superintendent,
who is acting treasurer. The subsidiary silver coins, half
dollar, quarter dollar, and dime, are weighed separately,
and all above or below the legal tolerance rejected.
The adjusted blanks are now ready for the milling oper-
ation, which is done by a macliine containing a circular
[ilate, the outer edge being of steel; the plate revolves
within a strong band of the same material. 'I'he revolution
of the inner disk carries the blank through the intermediate
space between the working disk and fixed band, and this,
being somewhat less than the diameter of the piece, presses
up the edge of the planchet as it revolves. One revolution
carries the piece through the mill and completes the oper-
ation. The milled plancliets, more or less oxidized, before
being brought to the proper condition for blanching, must
be entirely coated witli oxide of copper. To insure this,
they ai-e annealed to a cherry-red heat, and when removed
from the furnaces are placed in a colander, dii)ped for a
few moments into a diluted solution of sul|ihuric acid, and
thence into pure water, in order to rinse off the acid. This
leaves the blanks tli(U'(jughly cleaned, and after being dried
by shaking in a large iron sieve or revolving riddle filled
with sawdust, they are ready for the stamping operation.
This last and most important operation is performed by
the coining-press. As each blank descends to the bottom
of the tube a pair of steel fingers seize it and carry it for-
ward between the dies. While the dies are closing upon it
and stamping both the obverse and reverse inscriptions si-
midtaneously, the steel fingers return for another planchet,
and, convoying it to the dies, push the coined piece into a
box beneath the press. The coined pieces are collected
from the presses and taken to the weigh-room, where they
are nuule up in drafts for delivery to the superintendent.
The speed of the coining-pres.ses is estimated at from 75 to
120 pieces a minute, and the pressure exerted in stamping
the coins ranges, according to their denomination, from 45
to 280 tons.
Tolerance. — The law allows a tolerance or deviation from
the standard fineness of ■nrtn;"' '■' f'C gold coinage and
-nSfxrths in the silver. But in practice the assayer does not
avail himself of even one-half the tolerance, as the aim is to
have the coinage as near the exact standard as possible,
which is not the practice followed by some foreign mints.
The margin of fineness of gold coin in the British mint is
placed at 2 parts in 1.000, though but a small part of this
margin is actiuiUy used.
The following statement exhibits the standard weight
of the gold and silver coins of the U. 8., and the legal tol-
erance or deviation allowed on single pieces:
DENOMINATION.
Double eagle..
Eagle
Half eagle
Three dollar*.
Quarter eagle.
Dollar*
Gold.
Silver.
Half dollar
Quarter dollar
Twenty-cent piece*
Dime
Standard weiglit,
gralni.
516
258
139
77-4
645
25-8
192-9
96-45
7716
38-58
Legal devfaUon,
gralni.
H
U
U
* These coins have been abolished by act of Congress.
These deviations are intended for the protection of the
mint officers, and are not taken advantage of in the [U'cp-
aration of the coins, which arc made as close to the stand-
ard weight as ))r.'ictical>li'. In weighing a number of
pieces together, when delivered by the coiner to the super-
intendent, and by the superintendent to the dcpositiir, the
law provides that the deviation from the standard weight
shall not exceed in the case of gold coins -ri-jyth of an ounce
in $5,000 in doulile eagles, eagles, half eagles, or quarter
eagles; while on silver the deviation is ySTrths of an ounce
in 1.000 standard dollars, half dollars, or quarter dollars, and
r^ijth of an ounce in l.t'OO dimes. The uniform practice at
the mints is that each delivery of coin made by the coiner
to tlie siiperintcndent shall conform to the standard weight,
no advantage being taken of the limit or tolerance allowed
in weighing a large number of pieces together.
From each delivery of coins by the coiner to the supcrin-
MINTS AXI) MINTING
MIQUEL
7'J5
tendent a certain number of pieces are indiscriininntely
tuken, seuled up, iiinl pliiced in tlie pyx. for the uiinual
trial or test of llie cuiiuige, wliii-li is niatle in 1-Vljruury of
each year by a commission constituted l>y law for that pur-
pose ; and if it appeal's hy such examination and lest that
the reserved coins do not differ from the standard fineness
and weight by a greater (|uantity than is allowed by law,
the trial is considered and reported as satisfactory ; but if
any greater deviation from the legal standard or weight
appears, the fact is certilied to the ['resident of the L'. S.,
ami if on a view of the circumstance he shall so decide, the
otlicer or ollieers implicated in the error are thenceforward
dis(iualified from holding their resi)ective ollices.
W(i.il(iye. — In the various j)rocesses to which bullion is
subjected at the mints more or less loss occui's, particularly
by volatilization in melting and relining. and is accounted
for under the term " wastage." The operative ollieers are
charged and creililed with all bullion delivered to and re-
turned by them, and are allowed a credit for actual "wast-
age " incurred, provided it does not exceed the legal allow-
ance, which in the case of the inciter and reliner is lo'ojth
of the wholeamount of gold, and one and a half thousandths
of the whole amount of silver delivered to him since the last
annual settlement; and inthe case of the coiner, one-half of
in'aath of the whole amount of gold and ■rn'ijol'' of the whole
amount of silver delivered to him by the superintendent.
The actual wastage is, on the average, inucil within the
limit fixed by law.
Great care is taken to recover from time to time all the
minute particles of bullion renmining in the residuum
Muxes, (lues, etc. These are mostly recovered in the form of
*' sweeps." which are sold to bullion-smelters at about 00 per
tent, of the value of the bullion contained.
Jlinf VdhiHu. — Gold is valued in the coinage at the rate
of 25T''a"is grains troy, nine-tenths fine, or 23rtft)ths grains of
pure metal to the dollar. For silver the valuation in the
standard dollar is at the rate of 412^ grains troy, nine-tenths
fine, or ;571 -25 grains of pure metal to the dollar. In the
subsidiary silver coins it is valued at the rate of 38.5,^ths
grains trov. nine-tenths fine, or 347i*iivrt lis grains pure metal
to the dollar.
C/iiin/i'/i. — Charges which are estimated to equal but not
exceed the average expense of each operation required to
bring gold and silver bullion into a condition for coinage
are fixed from time to time by the director of the mint
with the apjiroval of the Secretary of the Treasury. The
subjects of charge are deposit melting, parting, toughening,
refilling, copper alloy, bar charge. In the charge for deposit
melting exceptions are made for standard gold bullion, fine
gold bars. V. S. gold coin of less than legal weight, foreign
coin of U. S. standard or above to bo converted into coin,
fine silver bars over 'M'i fine, unless they contain gold, and
mint or V. S. assjiy-ollice bars redcposited. Gold bullion, in-
clu<ling foreign g<ild coin, is received at the mints at Phila-
delphia, San Francisco, and Carson City, and the assay-
ollice. New York, for coin or bars. .Silver bullion is re-
ceived only for bars or by purchiusc for (ioveriiment ac-
count, ami all coinage of silver is for Government account.
At the mint in Denver, operated as an assjiy-ollice, and the
assay-olliccs at Boise City and Charlotte, the iilentical bnll-
ioii is returned to the depositor in the form of unparted
bars bearing upon them the U. S. stamp of fineness, weight,
and value.
Siili-sidiary Coins. — The subsidiary silver, as well as the
minor or token coins (bronze one-cent and copper-nickel
three and five cent pieces), are manufacliire<l on (iovern-
luent account only, the imblic treasury purchasing the bull-
ion and metals ri'ipiireil therefor, defraying the expense of
manufacture, wiustage. and transfer to the various treasnry-
ofiices. anil realizing the seigniorage or gain on such coin-
age. Gold coins are receivable at the Treasury of the V. S.
at their denominar4onal value, when not reduced in weight
by natural abrasion after a circulation of twenty years as
shown by the date of coinage, more than one-half of 1 i>er
centum, and at a ratable proi)ortion for any perioil less than
twenty yeai-s. For the silver coins no legal limit of abra-
sion or wear is provided, but when mutilated or defaceil,
such coins are purchased at the mints at their bullion value
when presenteil in sums of $3 and upward.
Under the title of "bullion fiin<r'a part of the public
moneys are placed at the different coinage mints and at the
iLssay-ollice, New York, ont of which depositors are paid for
their bullion, in coin or bars, as soon as the value thereof
has been ascertained by assay (generally three days there-
after), and on payment being made the bullion so dcijosited
becomes the projierly of the L'. S.
Uevised by 0. C. Bosbvshkll.
Minu'cius Felix : See Feux, Mabcls .Mi.\icii-s.
Min'iiet [from Fr. menuet, so called from the short steps
taken in it, deriv. of meniiel. smallish, pretty, iliniin. of menu,
small > Lat. /« in u /m.i. whence Kng. miinili:]: in music, a
species of dance-tune formerly in common use. Its move-
ment was nit her slow, graceful, and stalely. The minuet
was written in triple measure, and always began with a full
bar. It consisted of two ilivisions or parts, each containing
eight bars, and both divisions were repealed. Minuets also,
not intended for dancing, and of consiilerable rapidity of
movement, are now often fouml as constituent parts of over-
tures, symphonies, sonatas, and other formal pieces. In
such cases the minuet generally comprises two strains of
sixteen bars each, with reiietitions. Another strain, called
the "trio." follows diiectly, and after the trio the former
part of the minuet is repealed.
Min'nit. or Miunewit. Petkr: founder of New York; b.
in Wesel. Kheiiish Prussia, about 15S0, belonged to a dis-
tinguished family, and had been deacon in the Walloon
church at Wesel. but had resided some years in Holland
when, Dec. ISJ, lUio, he was appointed by the Dutch West
India Company first governor and director-general of .New
Netherlands, lie landed on Manhattan Island .May 4. 1026;
purchased the islaml from the Indians for sixty guilders;
built Fort Amsterdam, and governed the colony with energy
and success until Aug.. 1631. when he was recalled. Having
put into the port of Plymouth, England, Ihrcmgh stress of
weather, on his homewanl voyage, Apr., 1632, his ship was
attached at the suit of the New Kngland Council on an ac-
cusation of illegal trading, but wius released in JIay. .Miiiuit
had lost favor with the West India Company, through a
charge of having countenanced land monopoly, and after
unsuccessful efforts to regain his position offered his services
to the Swedish Government to found a colony in North
America. The great chancellor Oxensliern having patron-
ized the project, a Swedish West India Company was formed,
and Minuit sailed from Gothenburg. Sweden, in 1(!3T, with
a body of .Swedes and Finns; ascended Chesapeake IJay, and
in Mar., 1038, began to build Fort (.'hrisliana, 2 miles from
the confluence id' Minqua's Kill with the South river, near
the present city of Wilmington, and called the country New
Sweden. This was the first permanent European settlement
on the Delaware, and the colony remained in the hands of
Sweden until captured by the Dutch in 105.J, D. at Fort
Christiana in 1041.
MIn'yas (in ("ir. Mivia!) : a rich mythical King of Orc'ho-
raenos, in Bceotia, and the founder of the Minyan race. His
genealogy is variously given. He was the first to build a
beehive ti-easure-house. the ruins of which were excavated
by Schliemann in lSSO-81-*iO. The daughters of Minyas
refused to take part in the worship of Dionysus when first it
was being introduced into Hivotia. and they were finallv pun-
ished by being changed into bats and owls. See Miiller,
Orchom'enos iind die Minyer (Hreslau, 1844). J. K. S. S.
Miocene Period [Miocene is from Gr. fjf f»i', less + Kotvis,
recent] : the division of geologic time following the Eocene
period and preceding the Pliocene. In the chronologic
system adopted by the I'. S. Geological Survey for the geo-
logic atlas of the U. S., the Miocene and Pliocene |)criiKls of
earlier classifications are included in the Neoce.ne Period
.Hirfiiel, mA> kel, .Tohaxx; statesman: b. at Neuenhans,
Hanover, Feb. 21. 1828; studied law at Heidelberg ami
Gottingen 1846-49. and settled at (iottingen as an ailviK'alc.
Enthusiiustic for the unity of Germanv. he worked with great
energyfor the national idea, but thereliy.and bystune pa|K'rs
on the financial condition of Hanover, incurietl the enmity
of the Government. He gained the confidence of the i)eo-
ple. however. In 1864 he was elected a deputy fnun three
dilferent places, and in the second chamber of the Han-
overian Diet he occupied an influential position. He es-
poused the policy of Hennigsen. In 186.'i the city of Os-
iinbrilck elected "him burgomaster, .\ftcr the annexation
of Hanover to Prussia iii 186(i. he exerted himstdf zealously
in order to strengthen the newly estaldislied ciinneetion,
and it was in no slight degree due to his influence as a
member of the North (ierman Diet ami the Prussian House
of Deputies that the policy became liln-ral and the South
German states entered into intimate relations with the
796
MIQUELOX
MlUACLE-rLAYS
North German Confederation. His ofTice of biirjroniaster lie
resigned in 1870, to aecept that of director of the Diskonto-
gesellschaft of Berlin : in 1876 he ajcain became burjroniasler
of Osnal)riicl< ; in 1880 burgomaster of Fi'ankfort-on-llie-
Main and a member of the Ilouse of Peers; in 1887 he en-
tered the Reichstag; and in 1890 became Prussian Finance
Minister.
Mlfinelon : an island S. of Newfoundland, belonging to
France. See Si-.-Pikkke.
Mirabean'. IIoxore G.tnmici, Rhjuetti, Count : revolu-
tionisi : b. at Biijiion, near Nemours, in Provence, France,
Mar. 9, 17-19. Uis father (b. Oct. .'i, 1715; d. July 1:5. 1789)
was one of the theoretical philanthropists of the eighteenth
century, a propajandist of the [jhysiocratic system, and the
aiithor of L'Ami de.i Jlomine-f (1755), and of La Pliiluao-
pJiie rnrale (1763). He was hot-headed and tyrannical, and
is said to have used fifty-four Ictlres de cachet in order to
maintain peace in his family. Young Honore, with his lier-
culean body, ugly face, violent passions, and turbulent man-
ners, was a special object of dislike to the father, in spite of
the eminent power of intellect which he showed very early.
He received a military education at Paris, and was a lieu-
tenant of cavalry in his seventeenth year; but, although he
Eursued his military and mathematical studies with energy,
is life was so wild that in 1768 his father bad him shut up
in the island of Re for six months. After serving for some
time in Corsica, he settled on one of the family estates in
Limousin, wliere (.lune 22, 1772) he married the young Marie,
Emilie de Covet. He did not live happily with jiis wife, and
after a period of semi-exile in the country, where he wrote
his earliest extant work — the Essai siir le Despotisme — he
was again imprisoned by his father (Sept., 1774), this time
in the Chateau d'If. in the Bay of Marseilles, whence he was
removed some time after to Fort Joux, near Pontarlier, in
the Jura Mountains. From this place he eloped with the
young Manpiise Sophie de Monnier, the wife of a friend
whose trust he betrayed. He fled first to Switzerland, then
to Amsterdam, where he earned, a living by doing hack-work
for the booksellers. In May, 1777, he was arrested and cim-
fined in the dungeon of Vmcennes till Dec. 13, 1780. While
there he wrote JSKn/ii sur leji Lcllres de Cachet (Hamburg,
1783), a number of other works, and a multitude of passion-
ate letters to Sophie, imblished at Paris in 1793. Neverthe-
less, as soon as he was liljerated he quarreled with her, and
he now tried by a law-suit to compel his wife to return to
him. He pleaded his case himself, and, although he lost it.
he made a <ieep impression by his powerful eloquence. Dur-
ing a residence in London he wrote in 178.5 Consideratirtns
sur I'Ordrede Cincinnalus. On his return to France he at-
tacked the financial system of Calonne. In 1786 he was sent
on a secret raissicm to Berlin, the fruits of which were De
la Monarehie Pnissienns .sous Frederic le Grand and His-
toire Secrete de la Cour de Berlin, but he proved himself
unfit for the career of a dijjlomatist. As he failed to olitain
any further diplomatic appointnu>nt he continued his at-
tacks on the (jovernment liy his Denonciation de I'Afjiotai/e
(1787) and Suite de la Denonciation (1788), which by their
violence prevented his election to an office he was seeking,
and forced him to live for a time in retirement at Tongres.
On the convocation of the States-General he first tried to
be elected by the nobility, but was rejected, and afterwai'd
entered the Assembly as a nu^mber of the third estate.
From this moment and up to his death he was the heading
statesman of France. It was he who estalilished the third
estate as the dominant power in tlie States-General, and it
was he who established the States-General as the dominant
power in the government of Fi-ance. Thus he started the
Revolution, and when it became too violent he turned around
and tried to stem its course, defending the royal preroga-
tives and the tnoimrchical i)riiu^iple, but upholding, on the
other hand, civil liberty anil eonstitutioual governiiu'iit. He
was opposed alike by the oljstinacy and timidity of tin' court
and the fanaticism of the radicals. He wished to l)ecome
minister, but was prevented by an act of the Assembly de-
creeing that no member of that body could enter the niinis-
try. From May, 1790, he entered iiito close relations with
the court, which paid his debts in reward for his services.
His popularity waned, lait he still swayed the Assembly by
his eloquence. The activity which ho developed as leader
of the Assembly and president of the Jacobin Club was
enormous, but the exertion, in connection with his reckless
life, suddenly broke his strength. On Mar. 27. 1791. he
spoke in the Assembly for the last time; on Apr. 2 he died.
He was buried in St. Genevieve, the Pantheon, whence his
corpse afterward was removed to his family estate, in order
to give room for that of Marat. The most complete acccpunt
of his life is found in Memoires bioffraphiques, liltiraires
et politiques de Mirabeau (8 vols., 1834). published by his
natural son, Lucas de Montigny. The best edition of his
works is that by Blanchard (1822, 10 vols.), but it does not
contain his Monarehie Frussienne.
Revised by F. M. Colby.
Miracle-pLiys, Mysteries, and Moralities : three forms
of dramatized story that preceded the rise of the modern
drama. The sources of the drama lie deep in the C^hm-ch
services of the Middle Ages. The liturgy of the early
Christian Church was a symbolic drama, w hich laid especial
emphasis upon the incidents of highest tragic value in the
Christian story. When the doctrine of transubstantiation
was accepted in the ninth century, the syniliolic tragedy be-
came a genuine tragedy, since Christ was believed to dwell
as a real presence in the host, and the death of Christ be-
came a tragic motive of the first importance.
The tragedy of the liturgy became the germ of the mod-
ern drama. Zealous priests sought by a concrete presenta-
tion of the crucifixion, burial, and resurrection to bring the
story home to the multitude. Very soon, as introductory
to the crucifixion, plays of the arrest and trial were acted
on the days prececling Good Friday. Tlius arose, within
the services and in intimate connection with the liturgy
itself, a minor cycle of mysteries — i. e. plays pertaining to
the mystery of redemption.
The Christmas Cycle. — There soon appeared another cycle
dependent upon the many festival days that follow Dec. 25.
Christmas, established about 350 a. d.. drew to itself many
heathen customs of Rome and of the Germanic tribes;
these customs entered largely into the Christnuis plays.
The proximity of Christmas and Epiphany (Jan. 6) gave rise
to two weeks of sacred holiday, and made possible another
minor cycle of plays, TJte Salntation by the Shepherds, The
Adoration by the Magi, The Sldiighter of the Innocents.
The Creation Cycle. — These minor cycles readily formed
a major cycle through the insertion of plays rei>resentiiig
incidents of Christ's life. The play of Tlie Judyment was
added as an epilogue. A sermon attributed to St. Angus-
tine was dramatized as the play of 2^he Prophets, and be-
came a fitting prologue. When this play of The Prophets
was (lis|ilaced by scenes from the Old Testament, beginning
with the creation, the creation cycle was complete.
The earliest plays — of about the tenth century — were
formed from tlie liiblical dialogue as given in the Vulgate;
tliey departed but slightly from the liturgy, and were prac-
tically the same in all countries of Roman Catholic faith.
Artistic development was more rapid in the Latin nations.
In Germany the Christmas plays developed late, and were
curiously affected by Northern superstitions. In France
they began early, but later, through fusion with the low
comedy inherited from the Romans, gave rise to grave scan-
dals; thus The Feast of the .4.s.s- sprang from the part jilayed
by Balaam in the play of The Prophets of Christ.
'The Continuous Play. — As these plays were the favorite
medium of literary expression, expansion followed, and the
desire arose to combine the plays of several days into a con-
tinuous play ; but such representation withdrew the jilays
from their dependence upon the liturgy, and established
them as an independent clrama. Extant plays of this in-
termediate kind date from the tenth to the fourteenth cen-
tury. Together with the fusion of liturgical plays into a
continuous drama came many other changes tending toward
the secularization of the mystery. Slowly the vernacular
superseded the Latin ; firet for the parts of the common
people, then throughout the play. The continued play
wearied the audience; diversion was supplied by devil-
play and jest ; thus, in the English cycles. Noah and his wife
have a conjugal quarrel, and the shepherds jest about the
singing of the angels. Each step of development carried
the cyclic play further from the simple biblical dialogue of
the liturgical play, and made its presence in the Church
more objectionable.
7'he Stage. — The stage necessities of the play hastened
its departure from the Church. At first no special jilat form
was used. The cross with Christ was lifted up. Mary
made her lamentations, of which many fcu'uis are still ex-
tant in German, and tlie priest explained the signiticance of
the scene. Christ was placed in the sepulcher (which still
exists in many old English churches) there to lie until
MIRACLE-PLAYS
Eiister nioniins;. Wlion the play grew in iin|Mirliuice a
]>liitforiii was built in the nave. As s<'enes niiilli|ilje(l the
|>latfuiin lenf;;tlieni'<l. that each scene might have un inde-
pendent station, until, in the minor cvele, hell was near the
door, heaven in the sanctuary, and liie nave was occupied
by the incidents of earthly life, t'lenrly the [iluy must
move to the nuirket -place for further expansion.
In fact many causes contriliulcd to expel the cyclic play
from the Church. 'I'he play had admitted iminy comic cle-
nuMits and jiopular superstitions; tlie.-H; called forth stern
priiliibilions in lilO from I'ope Innocent III., in Vi'l'i from
tlie Council of Treves, in Vio'i from .Vlfonso .\. of Anigon.
Then also the audiences, as well as the .-itage, had outgrown
the cathedral. The cyclic play moved to the market-place,
but the simple liturgical play retained its place in the
Church services until the time of the Hefornuition.
The sSeciihir Mi/nten/. — With the secularization of the
mystery its national history begins. In Italy it became the
care of the monasteries, which vied with each other in costly
representations. In Spain it united with the i)a.storal
drama, departing widely from the liturgical form and con-
tent. In Germany the mast iTsi tigers' guild wrote compli-
cated plays for the artisan guilds. In Krance the mysteries
I)ass<^'d to the care of the I'uy. a species of literary society
that spread throughout the north and west of KraiK'e. The
plays were patronized by the nobility, and finally became
the property of the Confrcrie de la I'assion, which estab-
lished the first theater in Paris in 140'2 and played sacred
dramas until forbidilen in \'>4S. In all continental coun-
tries the immense stage, divided into many stations, was a
common feature. Enormous crowds assembled — in Heims
in 14!»0 16.0IK) persons — and the i)lays c<intinued either three
or eight days. The expense was great, ami was met by dt)-
nations, city appropriations, and sometimes by an admission
fee.
In England the development of the cycle was unique,
and greatly influenced by the royal entry and the Corpus
Cliristi procession. As early as l.'ii;i cities greeted a visit-
ing monarch with stationary tableaux, representing inci-
dents in the life of Christ. Similar tableaux, placed on
floats, were carried by the representatives of the guilds in
the Cortius Christi procession from its institution liy Pope
Urban IV. in 1264. In England the tableaux of the mute
mystery were displaced by the spoken play. Each pageant
wagon halted at designated stations, where the populace,
seated in .separated audiences, heard in succession each play
of the cycle.
77ie Craft-guild Cycles. — Of the craft-guild cycles of Eng-
lish plays there are still extant the York cycle of forty-eight
plays; the Woodkirk. of thirty-two plays; the Chester, of
twenty-five plays; and two |>lays of the Coventry. The
Beverley cycle is lost, as are probably a few others, of which,
however, very little is known. A cycle of forty-eight plays,
know^n as the Coventry, but probably the property of some
company, has also been preserved, togetlnr with several
single plays which proliably were written for holiday occa-
siims. The interrelati<ms among the cycles have not been
fully maile out. but it wouhl seem that there was an early
York cycle an<l that this became the type which other cities
followed, obtaining their jilays s<mietimes from York, some-
times from neighlioring cathedrals, or from independent
sources. Later adilitir>ns brought tliis early York cycle up
to forty-eight plays.
The ex|>ense of the guild plays was borne by the guilds,
cn<,'h setting forth its play at its own expense, onus rollahora-
tor with one or more of the weaker guilds. If a giiihl were
reluctant to incur expense, the city often com|)elled it to
contribute, since the jilay was to the honor and pMit of the
city. The pageant wagon was a pirmanent structure, and
often figured with its belongings as a considenible asset of
the guild. It consisteil of a platform on wheels, ilraped to
the grounil, and surmounted by a canopy. Possilily the
platform was of two stories when both heaven and earth
were represented. Ilell-mouth leil to the space beneath the
platform, where the devils dwelt hanl by the neeessjiry stage
machinery. .Sometimes theaction abamloned the wagon fi>r
the street. There are scanty evidences of scene-shifting in
the plays, but the stage appliances were of the most nidi-
mentary char.icter.
The life of the craft mysteries of England extends, rough-
ly speaking, from the laiter part of the thirteenth to the
niidiUe of the sixteenth century. The Pn'testant Keforma-
tion condemned the mystery. In England the cyclic plays
were easily put down, but stern laws were necessary to force
the abatidonment of Church plays. In Roman Cuth.ilic
countries the mystery lingered in rural districts, thcugli
shorn of its former glory. Inileed, it still survives at UUr-
ammergau, in the Bavarian highlands.
Tlie J/imcle-pliii/. — -Miracle-plays drew their material
from the lives and legends of saints. They never formed
true cycles, since they were independent of the lilurgv, and
possessed no continuity among themselves. The niiraclc-
jilay was short — the French plays of about l.."i(»(t lines —
complete in it-self, and was usually played by some lav ass<i-
ciation,schofd, or guild, in honor of its patron saint. I'n (ic-r-
inany the miracle-plays of the fourteenth century led to the
German historical drama. In France the miracle-i)lav. to-
gether with the mystery, was cultivated by si'cidar liil-rarv
associations, whose [iroiluctions were called, without nincli
distinction, mysteries or miracles; thus the iliraclet de
yiitre iJaiiie, forty in number.
In England the mysteries were known as miracle-plays.
There are no true miracle-plays extant in English. .Men-
tion is made of a playof St. Catherine as early as the twelfth
century; others mentioned are Fabian, Crispin and Cris-
[lian, St. George, etc., but tableaux ami plays are often called
indiscriminately pageants, so that it is not easv to deter-
mine what were sjioken plavs. The play of i'/ie Lord's
I'rniier (York), the play of The Sncrtiiiinil (Croxton) — both
of the fourteenth century — and T/ie Creed play (York) of
the first half of the fifteenth centurj', may be classed as
plavs akin to miracles.
The miracle-play fell, with the mystery, under the ban of
tlie Reformation, but is still occasionally acted in Catholic
lands.
'J'/ie Morality. — The morality arose from the desire to ex-
press abstract concept i(pns dramatically for purposes of
moral instruction. Ihe morality was the outcome of an
attempt to use the dranm as a vehicle of allegory. In what
country moralities were first written is unknown. In France
they abounded in the ftftecnth century, and lent themselves
easilyto the satire of .society, even touching occiusionally the
foibles of Church and state. Their usual length was about
l.oOO lines, but one, 37ie Just JIuit and the Worldling, con-
tained ;!6.0()0 lines.
Early Engli.th Moralities. — The earliest English morali-
ties. The Ca.slell of Perseverence. of about :i,.50O lines. Mind,
Will, and L'nder,sianJing,iiU(\ Mankind, an- of the first half
of the fifteenth century. The general structure of the.se
earliest moralities is the same. They trace the life of man
from birth to death. Asa youth he follows evil counselors;
as an old man he sorrows for the sins of his youth, and
through confession is reconciled to God.
Other types of the morality and of the allegorical play
existed. The so-calleil Coventry cycle of mysteries intro-
duced as personages Pity. Justice, and Peace. In the fif-
teenth century the interludes were composed on mystery
themes, but in the sixteenth century became moralities.
These later moralities often contained comic eleinent.s. The
" Vice " was introduced as a com])anion to the devil. From
the popular Vice the Elizabethan clr>wns have, it is sup-
posed, tlii-ir origin. Amaher variety of the morality might
be called the didactic morality: of such are the Jnlirlnile
of the Four Elements, and the interlude in jiraise of learn-
ing called Wyt and Science.
Summary for England. — The progress of dramatic de-
velopment in England can be summed up as follows: First,
the lituri-'ical mystery, with the development (.f the cyclic
play within a century after the estalilishment of the Cor-
pus Christi pnx-ession. t'o-ordinate with the mystery is the
rise of the iH'ciLsional miracle-play. Second, allegory, which
had been dominant in poetry since the thirteenth ci'iitury,
fa-shioned the morality in the fifteenth century. Third, the
court introduced the pastoral and farce of France, and su[>-
porteil companies of professional players. The uiiivei>ilies
ami inns of court pnxluied plays of Latin models. \\ ith
the sup\iression of the mystery by law the nlay-loving ["'pu-
lace sought [lermissible niaterial for juays from other
sources. The morality llourisheil apace. The chniiiicle his-
tory arose. Traveling companii's, under the patronage of
noble lords, cultivated sedulously every spi'<Mes of dnimn
timt met the popular ta.ste. Such a com[Miny built the first
theater in London Ix'fori' l-'iTfi. The subject is i - ' v
discussed in the writer's Sliidit:i in Ihe Engli-
/•/ny* (Yale doctoral thesis, IsyS). The most imp
lections of plays are:
English. — Chester Mysteries (2 vols.. Shakspeare Socielv.
1843-47); Ziidiia t'omi/n* (Slmks. Soo., 1841): The Towne-
798
MIRACLES
ley Mysteries (Surtees Society, 1836) ; York Plays (Oxford,
1885): Digby Mysteries (New Sliaks. Sol-.. 1S8','); Mai-riott,
A Collection of Enylisk Miracle-plays and Mysteries (]ii\nA.
1838) ; Sharp. A Dissertation on the Payeants or Dramatic
Mysteries anciently performed at Coventry (Coventry, 1825);
The Presentation in the 7'emple (Abbotsf(>rd Club, 1830);
Smith. The Book of Brome (Norwicli, 1886) ; Hawkins's
English Drama (3 vols., Oxford. 1773); Bale, Scriptornm
lUustriiim Maioris Bri/tanni(B Catalogus (Basel, Iu57-5U);
Pollard. English Miracle-jjlays (Oxford, 1890).
Prench. — Miracles de J^otre Dame (6 vols., Societe dcs An-
ciensTextes FraiK;ais) ; Le Misfire du Viet Testament (Soe.
des Anciens Textes Fraii<;ais) ; Jiibiiial, Mysleres inedits du
XV' siecle (3 vols., Paris, 1837); Gaston I'aris and Oastcm
Raynaud, Le Mysfire de la Passion d'Arnoul Greban (Paris,
1878); Monraerque. and Michel, Theatre fran<;ais au moyen
age (Paris, 1839); Luzareh, Adatn, drame anylo-normand
du XII' siecle ('I'ours. 1854); Arnoul and Simou Greban,
Les Actes des Apotres (3 vols., Paris, 1541).
(re)v«aH.— HolTman von Fallersleben, Fundgruben fur
Oeschichte deutsrher S/)rttrhe und Literatur (Breslau, 1837);
Jlonc, .S'(7i"».s7;)V/c drs .yil/i'/allers{Ca,r]sr\\he, 1840); Grein,
Alsftldir Paxsioiispii'/ (Ca?sel, 1874) ; Oherammergauer I'as-
sionspiel (Leipzig, 1880); Weinhold, Weihnachlsspiele, und
Lieder aus SUddeutschland und Schlesien (Gratz, 1853).
Liturgical. — Merit, Origines latines du theatre moderne
(Paris, 1849) ; Jlilchsack, Die Osier- und Passionspiele
(Wolfeiibiittel. 1880) : Wright, Early M'jsleries and Latin
Poems of the' Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (London,
1838); Sepet, Les' Prophites da Christ (Bibliotheque de
rfecole des Charles); HalliwcU, ReliquicB Antiqum (2 vols.,
1843) ; Cousseniaker, Drames lituryiques du moyen age
(Paris. 1801) ; Sepet, Le Drame Chretien au moyen age
(Paris, 1878).
Miscellaneous. — A. d'Aneona, Sacre rappresentazione dei
secoli 24-16 (3 vols., Floreni'e. 1872) ; Autos sacramentales
desde su origen hasta fines del siglo XVIL (Madrid, 1884,
8vo) in Biblwteca de Autores espa/ioles (vol. Iviii.).
CuARLEs Davidson.
Miracles [viii 0. Fr. from Lat. mira'cttlum, wonderful
work, miracle, neut. dimin. of mi rus, wonderful. Cf. mi-
ra'ri, wonder at] ; the general designation for the "signs,"
" wonders," and " mighty deeds" recorded in the Scriptures
of the Old and New Testaments as wrouglit by God in con-
nection with the reveijition of his will and "the establish-
ment of Christianity. Their nature and relations to Chris-
tianity have fornmd" a subject of profound interest and much
discussion, especially in modern theology.
1. Definition. — A miracle may, in general, be said to be
an unusual event in physical nature wrought by direct
action of God working for a moral end. ;\Iore accurately,
it is defined as •' an event in the physical world wrought by
God independently of the sequences through which he ordi-
narily works." It is the production, by the exercise of
(Jod's power, of a definite effect which could not otherwise
have taken place. This definition assumes the reality of the
distinction between nature and the supernatural. It is
based in the theistic conception of the world. While it
views the universe as the work of God, it does not conceive
of his power and efficiency as all transferred to tlie forces
and laws of nature or as restricted to its established uni-
formities. Tlnn'e must be neither a pantheistic confound-
ing of God with nature nor a deistic separation of him from
it. It does not move on as an independent and inflexil)le
mechanism. While God is above nature as its Creator, lie is
also immanent in its forces and order, which rest in and on
his abiding and omnific will. God and n.-iture do not stand
to each other in nun-ely external relation, liut ho is in ever-
living communication with it. "lie upholds all things by
the word of his power." " lie is abovc^ all and through all
and in all." " In him we live and move and have our be-
ing." Physical nature can be rationally viewed only as
subordinate to the life and moral welfare of man, whose
creation in the image of God and with given_ dominion
alone explains and justifies the ntaterial system. The physic-
al worl<l is not for'itsolf, 1ml for the higher designs of the
divine administration. This is the con(u>ption which the
Scriptures themselves give of GoiVs relation to the world
and the interests for which he has adjusted its system and
guides its history. The miracle can be fairly defined and
interpreted only under this concejition.
Miracles-are iiot to be tliought of, as often represented in
older statements, as " violations or suspensions of the laws
of nature." Hume and others have under this view sought
to discredit their possiljility and jjlace them beyond proof.
They are in no such antagonism to nature, and do not clash
with its jiroper order. They are due to a special and direct
exertion of the divine will-power, without animlling any
natural force or its sequences of cause and effect. God in-
serts his direct power for its own effect. The reality may
be fairly illustrated in the operation of human will-power.
When this, through science and skill, inserts its directive
touch in nature's ongoings and turns water or electricity
into driving forces for industry or commerce, or shapes the
trans])arenl glass into lenses for bringing the distant stars
into view, no law of nature is violated. The new result is
accomplished by special free causation. When this free
power lifts a hand or casts a stone into the air, the law of
gravitation is not infringed or sns|iended — every particle of
matter in hand or stone still gravitating as before. When
the sons of the prophets cut down a stic^k and cast it into
the water and the ax-head swam (3 Kings vi. 6). neither the
specific gravities of the water or iron were altered, nor was
the law of gravitation annulled.
3. I'he Place of 31iracles. — This can be rightly seen only
in the light of the telcological principle. God has a purpose
in the world, and miracles manifestly have their place with
respect to this in connection with the moral good of man-
kind, and es[iecially in connection with the redemptive econ-
omy with which the Scriptures associate them. They are
no part of the natural system with which science deals, and
belong not to any necessity for the order or completion of
the physical cosmos; hence no objection can be raised
against them as derogatory to God in implying such a fail-
ure in his creative wisdom and power as to require the help
or correction of after-intervention. It is only when we re-
call the great truth that through the aggregate natural
worhl tiod is aiming at a moral product in the free life- of
man, and, further, that there is such a thing as sin which
has disturl)e(l tlie true life, order, and happiness of human-
ity and created a need of (Sod's coming forth for relief and
help, that we see the true position and import of miracu-
lous action. It is part of tne supernatural administration
in a redemptive economy and in conducting the world on
to its true design. It centers in Christ, marking and mani-
festing his work. All the miracles of the tUd Testament
stood in this relation, belonging to the preparatory media-
torial history which opened the way for the advent of the
Messiah. Those of Christ himself were the a|)proi)riate
manifestations of his supernatural person. Those of the
apostles were from the same source. Special periods in this
unfolding redemption were particularly marked with them.
In tlie Mosaic period, when the authority and supremacy of
Jehovah needed assertion and display, and again in the
days of Elijah and Elisha, when the truth of monotlieism
required vindication against the encroachment of idolatry,
they ajipear in striking prominence. Around "the person
and" ministry of Jesus Christ, the eternal Word made flesh
as the Saviour of men, the full presence and action of mi-
raculous power culminated and accomplislied its work.
Wlien tlie full provisions of redemption were wrought out
and the new kingdom of grace was certified by miraculous
activities, the miracle as a special extraordinary event
ceased and disappeared in the regularly constituted super-
natural action of established grace through the Word of the
Gospel under the power of the Holy Spirit. The miracle is
never to be considered as something isolated, apart from the
supreme divine purpose witli respect to humanity. It can
be understood only as associated with the work of God as
Redeemer.
3. Their Credibility. — The same degree of credibility
must attach to miracles as attaches to the idea of the supe-
riority of moral order and spiritual good over the mere
mechanism of nature. If there is no invincible improba-
bility that God as Holy Love should give to man informa-
tion as to his duties and the conditions of his welfare be-
yon<l that which may be gathered by reason, and. further,
should make known a way of forgiveness of sin and redemii-
tion from its bondage and misery, concerning which nature
is silent, there can surely be no insuperable improbability
of siqiernatural revelation. Such revelation is itself in-
trinsically miraculous. As history and ethnology unqucs-
lionaiily show that men, outside the circle of special revela-
tion, have striven for more light as to human duty and
destiny and salvation from the woe of moral evil, there is
plainly no antecedent incredibility that such instruction
aiui help shoidd be given by an alniighty and loving Crea-
MIRACLES
MIKA DE MESCfA
799
tor. Whether iiiiracu!ous revelation has been piven is a
question of fact. As sueh its proper proof is simply aile-
tpiato testimony. Uuiue's claim, so often rcfuteil, that no
aniuunt of testimony can prove a miracle, is sophistical and
uurea.sonalile.
4. The I'u.isibilili/ of a Miracle. — Evidently the writers
of the Old anil Xew Testaments felt no trouble on this
point. Their reason and nicty never doubted that if Ciod,
acting in his eternal freeilom, love, and sovereignty in his
own world, wished to teach or help his servants, bringing;
them salvation in emergencies, he could do it. This was
the dei'p innirnicist faith of their souls, and their whole
view of the world was in harmony with this. Of an order
of nature obstnuting God's will or power they never
dreamed; but in modern and recent times much objection
on this jfronnd has been made to the possibility of a mira-
cle. Thou};h the objection is variously shaped, all its forms
amount to this one contention, that the uniformity of na-
ture's system is so fixed and inflexible under the ieij;n of
physical force and law as to allow no room for such an oc-
currence; but nature is utterly misrepresented when its on-
going of cause and effect is said to exclude free-will causa-
tion for divine miracles. Undoubtedly there is law in
nature, but such law as opens nature to the easy entrance
of will-power into its movements. It is not a system of un-
yielding' nu'chanism in unbending rigidity, foreclosed for-
ever against all the power of freedom, both human and di-
vine, but one, in fact, infinitely elastic and plastic to the
touch and handling of will-force for effects which the sys-
tem, if left alone, could never produce. Such the worhl
must be, in order to be man's tit dwelling-place and to serve
the interests of his life. It is |)laced under his dominion
and submitted to his use ; and there is not an hour in which
the human will is not turning nature into new forms and
events which millenniums of ages of untouched nature could
never produce. Nowhere is this better known than under
the full light of science, in whose name this objection is so
often falsely made. Human free will is changing the face
of the earth. .Steam vessels and railways and telegraphs and
telephones and phonographs, in which the mightiest as well
as the most subtle forces are used as servants, are some of
the " physical miracles" of the /iKwrfH will — wrought, too,
up(m the ba.tis of the very uniformities and laws which are,
in the objection, sjiid to bar off the will-power of God from
miraculous action.
5. The Proof of Miracles. — If proved at all, they must be
proved, like other facts, by the testimony of proper witnesses.
The accounts of these " signs," " wonders," and " mighty
deeds "are woven in with the very warp and woof of the
history of the Christian redemption. They are of a piece
with the revelation idea which runs in transparent clearness
through it all. The biblical history is found, in fact, to
yield to no history in the world in the clearness and accuracy
of its statements. No historico-critical investigation has
ever been able to impeach the credibility of the testimonies
to the miracles without discrediting the entire history in
which they form an integral part. They were given wiih a
calmness and veracity that remained unshaken in the face of
danger, persecution, and death. If such testimony is worth
nothing, no testimony on earth is of valid force. an<l may be
arbitrarily set aside; but objection is made that the wit-
nesses were uncritical and disposed toward the marvelous,
or that, at best, though they reported honestly the external
events as they appeared, they could not, as spectators, see be-
hind the phenomena and trace them up to the direct hand
of God. As to the first part of the objection, it is in point
to say that they were ready to accent miracles only as they
were to accept the reasonable truth that (iod is present in
supreme power in the world, and at hand with the help for
his people which great moral emergeiuies reipiireil. As to
the second, if mere spectators could give only their opinion
as to the cause of the wonder, the suggestion is inapplicable
to the testimony which Christ gave to the miracles which he
himself wrought, whose knowledge couhl connect them in-
fallibly with the divine [lower. Moreover, is it possible to
repudiate the miracles as false perceptions or misinterpreted
phenomena, or legends or myths of the religious temper of
those far-away limes, and still hold to the generic suner-
naturalism of the whole redemptive idea, the divine call of
Israel, the inspiration of prophecy, the incarnation of the Son
of tJoil, the aggregate " wonder " of his life and teaching,
or the crowning miracle of the resurrection aiul the living
Christ of history since* The subordinate superinituralism
of the miracle-records is so integral a part of the whole re-
demptory revelation that they inevitably stand or fall to-
gether. To repudiate the possibility or reality of the inci-
dental phenomena lugically carries with it a repudiation of
the entire supeniatuniiiMii of Christianity, as is constantly
illustrated in the ca-se nf deiiiers of the (iuspel miracles: but
as long as Bible Chri-tianity stands, belief in miracles must
form a part of Christian faith.
\i. The L'riJenliul Value of Miraclex. — This has In-en
differently estimated at different limes. In the early Church,
.Middle Ages, and early Protestant theology, apologetics
made large use of them as prwif of the divine authority of
Christianitv; but since the rise of modern pantheistic anil
ileistic ]ihilos.ipliies, and the recent development of phys-
ical science with its emphusis on the conservation of foice
and the reign of law in nature, energetic and persistent
assault has l)ecn made upon the biblical niiracles, and the
appeal to them has been less used — not because not valid
but as less available. Opponents of Christianity have rep-
resented them as not the triumphant proof of its truth, but
the greatest iiiipediinents to its reception. Hence apologetics
have tended to rest the proof more on other forms of evi-
dence. They are thus often thrown into the background, as
tenable indeed hy faith, but not its supjiort or warrant;
but this persistent and many-sided a.ssault and depreciation
have stimulated Christian thought to deeper study and led
to profounder views of the real import and significance of
miracles and of their position in the redemiitory economy.
The change not only corrects the false forms of statemei'it
which long allowed them to be thrust into untrue antago-
nism to nature, but holds them in closer and more living re-
lation to the whole divine activity for the spiritual regenera-
tion of man, and especially emphasizes their indissoluble
union with the very life and work of the Mediator as God
manifest in the flesh. In evidential value they are thus en-
tirely Separated from the useless prodigies of pagan super-
stitions which presented no moral or divine reason for their
occurrence, and they stand out clearly as called for by the
grandest necessities and interests of humanity. The mira-
cles of Christ — and all the Christian miracles are parts of
the redemptive activity of which he was the center — are not
simply credentials externally attached to his ministry for
authentication of his mission and the truth of his teaching,
but are the normal or natural manifestations of his su|>er-
nalural person, the incarnate Son of (iml acting in the pres-
ence of men. They are distinctively redemptive in relation
and chaiailer. They exhibit him al his redeeming work,
testifying to him in the relation in which he presents him-
self as the Saviour of men, the Light and Life of the world.
They are i)arables of his pei-soii. types of his work. They
are thus the true " signs " of a Saviour, and the fitting wit-
nesses to the divine character of Christianitv. While these
may not convince those who do not believe in the supernat-
ural, they are yet just the crowning evidences for the con-
fidence of those who do believe. While men may stumble at
these miracles, no one could be satisfied to accept a .Saviour
who docs not have these very tokens of supernatural power
and office about him.
Bim.ioiiRAPHV. — Hume, Esisai/x (vol. ii., sec. x.): Camp-
bell, i>('««er/o/i'o)i oh Jfirarles (iMtuhm, 1846); Kalph Ward-
law On J/i>«r/»-,s (New York. lS."i:t); IJrooke Foss Westcolt,
Characlerixiirs of the (iospel Jlij'acles (Cambridge, IS.V.t);
Baden Powell, The Order of Kalure Considereil with Jiefer-
eiice to the Ctainix of Hevelation (Loudon. IMS'I; Trench.
Miracles of our Lord (Sew York, 1><6S); Bushnell. yaturr
and the Supernatural {Scvr York. ItKJM): ^liy/lev, Baniiilon
Lectures of lSi;.5 {Mh ed. New York, INSII) ; U'avne, Texli-
mony of ("'hri-tt to Christianity (Boston. 1H6'.>) ; MeCosh. 7'he
.Supernal iirat in Jiilatinn to the y'ntural (London, If^tVJ) ;
J. lI. Xewman, Two Essay.'i on Jiililiral and Jvcclesia-'^firat
Miracles (:id ed. London. 1(S7;3): Belcher. (>»r Lord's Mira-
cles of Heating < 'onsidered ; Int. bv Archbishop Trench
(London, lS7-.>) : W. M. Taylor. The (impel Miracles in their
/{elation to Christ and Cliristianity (New York, ISHO) ; the
Duke of Argvll. J'he Jieign of Lair lIx)ndon. IbfiS); Stein-
mever. The Miracles of our Lord in lielation to Modern
Criticism (Eug. trans. Edinburgh, lsT.1i; .Iiilius Ki'istlin,
De miraculoriim. qiitp Christiis et prime ejus discipnli fere-
runt, nalura et m/ioHc (Breslau, IStlOl ; (i. P. Kisher. Orounds
of Theistic and Christian Belief {i'h. iv.. New York. IfWt);
li. McCleyne Edgar, The Gospel of a Itistn Sariour {ch. viii..
Edinburg'h, 1»'J2). M. Vai.exti.ne.
Mira dc Jlesriin. mee ra'ii-dit-mas kwiiti, or Amesrna.
A.NTOXio : poet and playwright ; b. at Guadix, S[iain, at>out
800
MIRAFLOKES
MIRAGE
1570. He became nrohdeacon of the Church in Guadix, but
subsequently was patronized by tlie famous C'onde dc Ijiimus,
who as viceroy in Xa))les (1010) had Mira de Mcscua and
other nolaltle writers with liim, to give distinction to his
court. Returning to Sj^ain. the poet became a court chap-
lain at Granada, and subsequently chaplain-of-honor to
Philip I\'. in Madrid. D. in iladrid" in 1635. He was much
admired by his contemporaries both for his lyrics ami his
plays, and he obtained the somewhat peculiar honor of hav-
ing his Works largely pillaged by more famous writers.
Among these were Calderon and the French ('(U-noille, the
latter of whom in the Ili'raelius used our author's liucda de
lafortuna, and in the Don Sanrhe d'Aragon his I'alncio
Confuso, attributing it wrongly, however, to Lope de Vega.
The works of Mira de Mescua have never been collected and
are hard to get at. A few of his lyrics are printed in vol.
xlii. of Rivadeneyra's Biblioteca de Autores J-J.yMirloles {'Ma-
drid, 1857), and live of his plays-are to be found in vol. xlv.
of the same collection. Eighteen of his plays are printed in
the now verv rare Comedias escogidas de lus mejures in-
genios (1653-1704). A. R. Marsh.
Miraflores, mee-raa-floraz : a village of Peru, near the
seashore ; 6 miles S. of Lima, between that city and Chorril-
Los (q. v.). Previous to the Chilian invasion "it was the resi-
dence of many wealthy Peruvians. After their defeat at
Chorrillos (.Jan. 13, 1881) the Peruvians formed a second line
of defense at Mirallores; it was attacked by 13,000 Chilians,
Jan. 15. and carried after a bloody battle, thus opening the
way to Lima. It was burned by the Chilians. H. H. S.
Mjraflo'res, Maxuel de Paxdo, Marquis of, and Count
of Villapatcrtia: statesman; b. in Madrid, Spain, Dec. 24,
1793; was educated for the public service, in which he
spent move than liftv years; was ambassador at London
1834, at Paris 1838-40,' and at Vienna 1860; seven times
president of the senate, often a cabinet minister, and Pre-
mier in 1846 and 1863. In 1868 retired to private life. D.
in ."\Iadrid, Mar. 17, 1873. The marquis was decorated with
nearly all the grand orders of merit in Eurojie, and was an
active member of the Spanish Academy of History. He
wrote several treatises in favor of Isabi-lla's right of suc-
cession to the throne, a biography of Louis Philippe (1851), .
valuable Jlemoirs of his own lil'i5, and a Ilis/nnj of the First
Seven Years of the Reign of Isabella II. (3 vols., 1843-44),
and published numerous speeches and fugitive writings.
Mlrag'e, mee-raa^h' [Fr., deriv. of mirer, look at (in the re-
flexive form), se mirer, look at one's self in a glass, be re-
flected, reflect <: Mod. Lat. mira're, look at] : a terra in-
eluding those aerial and marine reflections generallv known
as mirage, looming, and Fata Morgana. These are all analo-
gous phenomena, due to the refraction of light, to its total
reflection, or to a combination of both. These are — (1) mi-
rage of the desert; (3) mirage at sea; (3) looming; (4) a
combination of ordinary mirage at sea and looming; (5)
Fata Morgana. The first, mirage of the desert, presents
the apjiearance of reflection in a smooth surface of water,
the inverted image of trees, etc., being seen beneath the
real objects. It is due to the refraction', and finally to tlie
total reflection, of the rays of irregularly reflected light,
sent back to the eye from the oliject. The heated sand of
the desert rarefies the lower strata of .air, while the upper
strata are condensed by the chilling due to the radiation of
its heat. The strata of diderent densities mingle slowly in
consequence of the stillness ot the air. Fig. 1, a b c d e f
Fig. 1.— Mirace of desert '.abed ef, reflecting surfaces where strata
of air touch : g. ancrle ot total reflection ; B, eve of ol)Server ;
h i, pencils of rays from object ; h' i', points where pencils focus
in reflection.
g, represents the boundaries of strata of air, which decrease
in density from above downward. Every point of the tree
sends out divergent rays of irregularly" reflected light, by
means of which it is visible. 'J'lie direct"rays from tlic t ree t"o
B make it visible to the eye at P.. The ray //, which under
ordinary circumstances would never reach tlie point U, meets
in its downward course strata of continually decreasing
density, and becomes less and less inclined to the paral-
lel layers of air, till at g the angle of total reflection is
reached and the rays are bent upward (see Rkklection
OF Lmnr), and enter the eye in the direction of AH ; anil
so with i and all other rays. An object is always seen in
tlie direction by which the'rays sent from it enter t"he eye ; an
inverted image is therefore formed l)y the portion of eacli
pencil of rays proceeding from the tree, which is bent back
to the eye as by a mirror. Second, mirage at sea is ex-
plained in exactly the same way, except that the conditions
are reversed. The lower strata of air are chilled by the
waters of the ocean, and increase in density from above
downward ; the rays which produce the image curve con-
vexly, or in the opposite direction. (Fig. 2.) Third, loom-
FlG.
-Mirage at sea ; object h below horizon at B; C, curved sur-
face of the earth.
ing is due to refraction alone ; a portion of the pencil of
rays which proceed from the point A (Fig. 3) reaches the
Fig. 3.
eye direct, and produces the image of the real object,
while another portion is refracted, and produces an erect
image above the real one. Fourth, a real, inverted, and
erect picture of the same object is sometimes projected
upon the retina of the eye at the same time a portion of
each pencil of rays proceeding from the body reaches the
eye direct, producing the image of the real object ; another
portion is simply refracted, as in Fig. 3. producing an erect
image ; while a third portion is first refracted and then
totally reflected, forming an inverted image. In 1832 Capt.
Scoresby recognized the ship Fame by her inverted image
in the air, though she was 17' below the horizon. The whole
of Dover Castle has been seen as it lifted over an interven-
ing hill by the refraction of the rays of light from its sur-
face, and in this case the image from the looming was so
vivid as to obscure the hill which really lay Ijclwecn the
castle and the observer's eye. Lateral images are sometimes
formed by reflection of the rays from vertical columns of
air having different densities. Two boats, one real, the
other a reflection, have been seen side by side ujion the Lake
of Geneva at the same moment. Mirage is most common
when there is a marked dift'erence between the temperature
of air and water; it is most frecjuent in the nicu-iiing or in
summer and autumn, when the air is laden with mist. It is
seen oftener by an eye placed close to the sui-face of the
water, less perfectly at a height of 6 w 8 feet, and almost
never at 24 feet or more above the level of the sea. Dr.
Wollaston obtained three images of an object seen through
a S(|uare glass vessel containing successive layers of sirup,
water, and sjiirit. Fifth, the phenomenon called Fata Mor-
gana, or castles of the fairy Jlorgana, is occasionally seen
upon the Cjilnbrian coast while looking westward toward
the Straits of Jlessina. (Se* Fata Morgana.) On still
mornings, when the sun, rising behind the Calabrian Moun-
tains, strikes upon the sea at a.n angle of 45', the air is rap-
idly heated; the strata slowly intermingle, and present a
series of reflecting surfaces which multiply images on the
o])posite Sicilian shore. The water is suj>posed at the same
time, by the action of the tides, to [josscss a slight convex-
ity. There are three forms of this minige — the marine Mor-
gana, where each object is reflected again and again in an
inverted position and at dilferent angles on the surface of
the water ; tlie aiirial Jlorgana, when they are thus reflected
in the air ; and a third form, in which the ai-rial images are
fringed with prismatic hues. Gigantic refleclions of men
and animals are sometimes observed to flit over the scene.
The Calabrians hail the appearance of this beautiful but
short-lived spectacle witli delighted cries of "Morgana!
MIKAMICIII
MIKKIIOND
8(»1
MurKiiim!" This pliciiomfnon is not oonfinod to tlio C'alii-
hriuii const, thoiifjli 'lie iiKlroiologicHl conclilioris, llir l<>-
|M)j;iii|iliv of tlie Krouiul, aiul the conformation of the coast
III this placo render its appearance more freqiient ami more
heautiful than elsewhere. In all these rellections there is
apt to lie a wavering in the defining lines, anil sometimes
the whole image is tremulous like an object seen through a
current of heated air.
Mirauiiflii, mir-a-m«-shcc'. River: a large river of New
Brunswick, (lisdiarging its waters by a deep estuary into
Mirainichi Hay, an arm of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 'I'lie
river is navigable to N'ewcastle bv large ships, and higher
up by siimller vessels. .Salmon and many other valuable tish
ari' taken here in great quantities.
.Mi nun ions: See GE.vEvifcvE, Dauohters of St.
MIranioil', Miguel: soldier; b. in Mexico city, Sent. 29.
]K'.K. He was the .son of a distinguished oiricer of I-reiich
ilescent ; entered the military school of (_'liapultc]iec in 1N40 ;
served as a volunteer agair.sf Scott, and was taken prisoner;
was commissioned in the army IKri. and lus captain and
c-olonel fought against Alvarez IHo-t-.")"!, until the Iriumph
of the latter. He served for a time under Alvarez and Co-
monfort, but his symjiathies were with the reactionists. In
Dee., 18.W, he deserted with liis regiment, and took a leading
part in the revolt at Piiebla .Jan.-Mar., 1H56. When Co-
inonfort captured the city, Miramon was degraded to the
ranks. In October of that year he headed another revolt at
I'uebla, anil with a few hundred men defended the city dur-
ing a siege of forty-three days against 4,000 troops, linally
escaping Ijefore the surrender. Subsei|Uently he took Cucr-
navaca. and in .Ian.. IS.jS, joined Zuloaga. who had revolted
at Mexico, and assisted in driving Comonfoit from the city.
For this he was made brigadier-general. The reactionists
were now in the a-sccndency. but Juarez maintained a con-
stitutional government at Vera Cruz. Miramon, at tlie head
of Zuloaga"s forces, gained several victories in the central
stales, oeeupied .San Luis Potosi, and wa.s promoted to the
rank of major-general (18.58). The electoral junta chose
him for president in the place of Zuloaga .Ian. 3, 18.59.
He declined at tirst. but Zuloaga eventually resigned after
appointing him .successor ad inlfriin (Feb. 2). The new
president made an unsuccessful attempt against Vera Cruz,
which was still occupied by Juarez. During his absence
Degollado, at the head of a const it utioiuilist force, attacked
Mexico, but was defeated at Taculiaya liy .Marquez (.Vpr. 11.
18.5!)). Miramon. who had returned to the capital on the
same day, issued a written order to shoot all the prisoners of
the rank of olBeers, a command which was executed by ."Mar-
quez. This •' massacre of Tacubava "' horrified the nation and
greatly weakened Miranion's influence. Juarez gained cor-
respondingly, and in April his government was recognized
by the L'. S. During 185!) the reactionists were generally
successful in the central and northern states, and in Feb.,
1800, Miramon again laid siege to Vera Cruz, but aliandoncd
it Mar. 21. In >Iay he defeated Uraga at Guadalajara; but
thereafter the Juarists gained ground. ;\Iiiamon was de-
feated in (fuanajuato in August, shut in at Mexico, and
finally routed by Ortega at the battle of Coljiulalpain Dec.
22, 1860. Two days after he abandoned the capital, which
soon surrendered, reached the coast after several narrow
. -capes, and took refuge on a French ship. He proceeded
to Europe, wliere he had an interview with Xapoleon III.,
and iinilialily entered into his plans for a Fivin-h invasion
of Mexico. Karly iu 18(i2 he appeared at Vera Cruz, which
was tlu'n held by the forces of the Triple .Alliance: liut the
Hritish admiral refused to let him land. Later he adhered
to Maximilian, who gave him the rank of grand -nnirshal
and made him minister to Berlin. In IstiG. after the French
had withdrawn, he returned and was given high command,
and with .Maximilian hiinscdf undertook the defense of (Jue-
retaro. At the fall of that citv he was captured, and was
shot with the ex-emperor June 19, 1867. II. H. S.Mim.
Miranda, or (iiizinan Blanco: a state of Venezuela;
bounded .V. bv tlie Cariblk'an .Sea. K. by Bernuidez. S. by
Bolivar, and \V. bv Zamora and Carabobo ; area, 72.4!l!l s<|.
miles ; pop. ( ISIM )"52t).6:53. The northern Ihinl is mountain-
ous, and contains many fertile valleys, the richest agricul-
tural regions of the republic. The remainder lies in the
FjLaxos (7. r.). and supports immense herds of cattle. The
Orinoco and its branch, the .\pure. form the southern boun-
dary, and are tlie principal outlets of the ]iastoral zone.
Miranda is the richest and most populous slate of Venezue-
la, and contains the oldest settlements. The ini>st important
277
exports are hides, tallow, live cattle, codec.' tobacco, cacao,
and goatskins. Capital and largest town, Ciudad de Cura.
The island of Makuarita (j. t'.), with the neighboring islets,
is incluiled in this state. IIeriiert 11. Smith.
Miranda, nu'e-raan dmi, Francisco Antonio Gabriel:
revolutionist; b. at Caracas, Venezuela, June it, 17.5(i. He
served as cajHain and lieutenant-colonel in the Siianish
army in .Spam, (iuateimila. Florida, and the West Indies,
and about 1782 was expelled for alleged contraband trading.
Sub.sequently he fought with the French au.xiliaries against
the Knglisli in North America, and after 178.5 was in St.
Petersburg, where the favors which he received from Catha-
rine II. gave rise to scandalous but unproved stories. In
17!)0 he joined the Flench republican army, was general of
division and held high commands on the Rhine and in Ger-
iiianv. About this time he began to scheme for the inde-
pendence of Spanish South America. To this end he
founded in London a secret society, the Gran Reunion
Americana, all the members of which weri' pledged to work
for the independence of Spanish America. Bolivar. !^an
Martin, the Carreras, Caio, Madarriaga, O'lliggins, and
others, who were afterward prominent in the .South Amer-
ican revolution, were initiated, and the effects of the organ-
ization were very great and far-reaching. Aided by funds
from private sources, he went to Xew York, where he organ-
ized a small expedition, and made a descent on the Venezue-
lan coast in Aug.. 1800: but few Venezuelans joined him,
and after part of his men had been captured he was driven
to take refuge in Trinidad, whence he returned to England.
After the breaking out of the Venezuelan revolution lie re-
turned to that couiitr)' with Bolivar (Dec, 1810), was re-
ceived with enthusiasm, and soon after was given command
of the patriot army. His operations were generally success-
ful, and at the beginning of 1812 the revolution in Venezue-
la seemed assured. Serious reverses, however, followed the
di.sastruus earthquakes of 3lar. 2l)-May 1. and Miranda was
made dictator. For a time he held the royalist leader. Mon-
teveide. in check, but tlie fall of Puerto Cabello convinced
him that further resistance was liopele.ss, and on July 25 he
signed a capitulation. Miranda himself fled to La Guayra
with the intention of leaving the country, but on July 31 he
was arrested there by Bolivar and others and — treacherously
as some charge, unavoidably as others claim — was delivered
over to the Spaniards. In violation of the treaty they sent
him a jirisoiier to Sjiaiii, where he died in captivitv at Cadiz,
Julv 14, 1810. See Briggs, Jlintury of Don F. Jliramla's
Al/enipl (180!)); Baralt.yy/s/om/ de T'eHC-'i/c/a. vol. ii. (1841);
Jlitrc, Tlie Emuncijjation of South America (translation of
Pilling, 1893). II. U. Smith.
Mirditps: a peculiar and primitive people of Albania;
a sort of militarv aristocracy, occupying a tract aliout 40
miles square, included between 40 — 11 JC. lat. and 17-18'
E. Ion., nearly surrounded by the Drin. Oroseh. a moun-
tain fa.stness. is the residence of their prince. They never
intermarry, but capture their wives from their Mussulman
neighbors and give their own daughters to other Christian
tribes. They number about 20.(X)0. are nominally Koiiian
Catholics, and are brave, faithful, and hospitable. See
Tozer's JIi(//il(ni(h of Turkey, vol. i. E. A. Grosvenor.
Mir'liim [from Ileb. Mirydw, liter., rebellion, whence
Gr. iviapio^. Mopfo, wlience Eiig. M(iry\: the sister of Moses,
according to Josenhus, the wife of Hur and Hie grandmother
of Bezaleel, who built the tabernacle. She led the chorus
of women triumphing over the Egyptian discomfiture (Ex.
XV. 20, 21); joined her brother .\aioii in murmuring against
the divine exaltation of Moses, and showed her jealousy and
dislike of Mo.ses's Ethiopian wife, for which conduct she was
punished with tcmporarv leprosy (Xuin. xii.). She died at
Kadesh (Num. xx. 1). lii the Arabic traditions she is often
confounded with the Virgin JIary.
Keviscd by S. >[. Jackson.
Miri Lake: Sec Laooa dos Patos.
Mlrkliond'. or. more fully. Mnlianinind bin Kliarand-
sliali Itin .Malinifid: historian: b. at Nishapur. l'er>ia, in
1433; d. at Herat in July, 149S. His great work, the
jRniizal-UKmrn. or The (riirilen of Purity, containing the
Hmtoriex of Priiplietit, h'inys. nnti A'lialif/ilna it is fantastic-
allv entitled, was begun about the year 1474. It gives the
history of the world from the creation nearly to his own
times, and comprises seven volumes. Many nianus<'ripts of
this work are found in the libraries of London. I'aris. Ber-
lin, and Vienna. Portions of it liave been edited by Jaul»ert,
802
MI K ROUS
MISKKI'KKSKNTATION
Jenisch, Mitschorlicli, Wilkpii, and VnUors ; if was trans-
luted into Frcni'li l)y Silvcstrc ile Sacy. .loiiniain, Lan^les,
and Di'fivniorv : into Latin and German by numerous au-
thors : and into Englisli l)v David Shea (18;i2), W. H. Mor-
ley (1848), Kehatsek ami Arl)uthnot pH!l2. etc.).
Revised by A. V. Williams Jackson.
Mirrors [>r. Eng. mirnur, from O. Fr. mireor > Fr.
mtroir, deriv. of se mirer. be reflected. See Mirage] : solids,
usually in the form of plates having a smooth surface, capa-
ble of rcHectiug light, 'i'hey have been a part of the furni-
ture of the toilet from a period of very high antiquity. The
earliest mirrors were formed of polished mineral substances
or of metals, but alter the invention of glass that substance
naturally superseded most others in the construetiou of mir-
rors. The backs of glass mirroi-s were sometimes coated
with lead, but about three centuries ago the process of cov-
ering gla-ss with an amalgam of mercury and tin came into
use in Venice, and has been since employed. The process,
substantially the same now as when first introduced, consists
in sproaiiing out upon a solid horizontal table a sheet of tin-
foil, which is first rublied and afterward covered to a sensi-
ble depth with mercury, so that the superior surface may
remain liquid. The mercury is prevented from flowing by
means of slight ledges placed around the sheet. After hav-
ing been scrupulously cleaned on its lower surface the glass
to t)e coated is advanced horizontally along the layer of
mercury, its lower edge being depressed below the surface,
so as to exclude air and to remove impurities. When in
proper position it is left resting on the mercury, and by tilt-
ing the table the superfluous fluid is allowed to flow off,
being caught in a trough provided for the purpose at the
margin of the table. A uniform pressure is then applied to
the glass, and it is allowed to remain for some time in this
condition, after which it is carefully lifted, the amalgam
adhering to it, and is placed with the amalgamated surface
uppermost. Some weeks' rest is required to allow the
amalgam to harden, and sometimes a mirror will not "dry "
for montlis.
The preparation of mirrors by quicksilver is objection-
able on many accounts, the principal of which is the inju-
rious effect of the vapors on tlie health of the workmen.
Quicksilvered mirrors are also liable to various faults, such
as a flowing of the mercury in drops, carrying the amalgam
with it, forming streaks (known as worms) ; also a crystal-
lizing of the amalgam when exposed to light (called blind-
ness). These disadvantages of the quicksilvering process
have turned the attention of manufacturers to the use of
pure silver for backing mirrors. Von Liebig in 1836 was
the first to notice that aldehyde would reduce silver from
aramoniacal solutions, depositing it upon glass or porcelain in
a continuous film. SubseipuMitly, other chemists proposed
other reducing agents. The first ap|jlication of the process
on a large scale was m.aile by Drayton, who patented it at
Brighton, Kugland, Nov. ih, b84:l He used different essen-
tial oils as reilucing agents, but his glasses were used only
for a short time ; they soon became spotte<l. The next at-
tempt was made by Petitjean, who obtained a patent in
18.55 : and this seems to have been more successful, his [jnjc-
ess, with slight raodifieatious, being still in use. The ma-
terials and projiortions required by one of the various nuidi-
fications of Petitjean's process, used on larg(! plates, are as
follows: (1) 1 lb. crystallized nitrate of silver to be treateil,
while stirring, with 13 liquid ounces of ammonia 26" H.
Alter cooling and crystallization. 6i pints distilled water are
to be added, and the solution filtered. This solution will keep
for any length of time. (2) The reducing solution is to con-
sist of pure crystallized tartaric acid dissolved in four parts
of water; and this is said to improve with age.
The advantages claimed for the silver over the quicksilver
process are : (1) Ilarrnlessness to the workmen ; (2) facility
and expedition, the whole operation being completed in a
few hours; (3) possibility of repairing damaged parts; and
(4) superior power of reflection. A silver mirror reflects
about 20 |)er cent, more light than one of quicksilver, and
reflects objects more truly in their natural colors. Tlie
durability of silver mirrors is still an open question. They
are all lial)le, aftcu' a time, to become s])olled, and unless this
dilticulty be overcome it is hardly probable that the silver
process will ever completely supersede the quic'ksilver. For
the optical properties of mirrors, see the article Kkflection
OK LuillT.
Mirut ; city and division of Northwest Provinces, British
India. See Mkhkut.
Mirziipiir' : to\\n ; Benares division. Northwest Prov-
inces of British India; tin' capital of a district of ihe same
name, on the right bank of the (ianges (see map of North
India, ref. 7-G). The district of Mirzapur. coiniirising an
area of .5,224 sq. miles, extends along the (ianges and the
Sone between hits. 23° 50 and 25 30' N., and between Ions.
82° ir and 83° 39' E. The city of Mirzapur is a very busy
and lively place, the most important cotton-nuirket of India,
with an extensive ind\istry in cottons, woolens, and silks.
From the rivi'r it looks very imignificent with its flights ot
marble steps leading from the temples down to the waters,
but the interior consists mostly of niud huts. There are,
however, many fine European residences. About 4,000 per-
sons are employed in the manufacture of shell-lac. Brass-
ware and carpets of a verv fine description are also made.
Pop. (1891) 84,l;i0. fievised by M. W. llAUiUNttio.N.
Misdeiuoaiior : See C'rimk, Fkloxv, ami Intamois
Crimes.
Misliawaka : town ; St. .Joseph co.. Ind. (for location of
county, see map of Indiana, ref. 1-E) ; on the St. Joseph
river, and tlie Chi. and (ir. Trunk, the Klkliart and West.,
and the Lake Sh. and Mich. S. railways : 4 miles E. of South
Bend, 90 miles E. by S. of Chicago. It is one of the oldest
towns in Northern Indiana, the first dam on the St. Joseph
river and the fii'st iron-furnaces being erected here ; has ex-
cellent water-power, water-works, electric lights, electric
street-railway, and a monthly and two weekly newspajiers;
and is noted as a manufacturing point, csjiecially tor the
production of windmills, wagons, plows, and other farm
implements, furniture, pulleys, transmission systems, wool
and felt boots, horse-collars, church organs, church altars
and carvincs, paper, wood-pulp, flour, beer, etc. Pop.
(1880) 2,640'; (1890) 3,371 ; (1894) estimated, 4.300.
Editor ok " Enterprise."
Mishiia : See Talmud.
Mlsioiies. meV-si-o'nas : a territory forming the extreme
northeastern portion of the Argentine Republic; bounded
N. E. and S. E. by Brazil, S. W. by the province of Corri-
entes, and N. W. by Paraguay. The area actually held liy
Argentina is about 22.0fJ0 sq. miles. In addition to this
the Argentine Government claims an easterly extension of
the same region, comprising about 15.500 sq. miles, now
held by Brazil (state of Santa Catharina), and known as
Upper "or Brazilian Misiones. The disputed regicm is (1894)
the subject of arbitration by tlie President of the U. S.
Misiones lies between the upper Parauil. with its tributary,
the Yguassu, and the upper Uruguay. The surface is much
varied, but without high mountains; there are large tracts
of forest and others of o]ien lands adapleil for pasturage.
Cattle-raising, the gathering of mate or Paraguay tea. and
tindjer-cutting are the principal industries. Misiones was
included in the region formerly called Guaynl. From 1633
to 1767 it was the'site of large" and flourishing Jesuit mis-
sions, said to have contained a population of 130,000 in
1735. After the expulsion of the nnssionaries they fell to
decay ; in 1817 the villages wi're ravaged and burned by
the Portuguese, ami the country was almost depopulated.
Ruins of the Jesuit buildings still exist, half covered with
forest. Pop. of the Argentine portion, 11,000; of the dis-
putiHl territory, 5,000. Chief town, Posadas. II. II. .Smith.
Jlisisagas: See ALooxyriAN Indians.
Misr('l)r('s<Mitati()ii : in law, an untruth, by statement
or conduct, which induces the formation of a ciintract.
Fraudulent misrepresentation having been dealt with un-
der the head of Fraud (q. v.), the present article will be
confined to innocent misrepresentation. This sort of inis-
statcuneut can never be made actionable as a tort, and it
is the general policy of English common law to exclude
it from afTecting a "contract with which it is coiniected,
unless the parties have made it a term thereof. Special
classes b( contracts, like those of Insurance (q. v.), are ex-
ceptions to this rule. Any material representation, however
innocent, renders them voidable.
In the sale of chattels, however, a nnsrepresentation
which is not a term must strike at tlie very root of the con-
tract in order to avoid it at law — that is. there must be «
comjilcte difference in substance between the subject-matter
of the contract as it was representeil and as it was. For
instance, if the purchase of a horse is induced by an honest
misrepresentation as to its soundness, the buyer will have
no relief, though both vendor and purchaser erroneously
thought Ihev were dealing aliout a sound horse, unless the
MIS-SAL
MISSIONS
803
representation wr^ a warranty. Accordinfjly, a person wlio
lii'gan examining a horse which was to lie siilil at auction
the next day without warranty, and ii|Kin licinj; told by the
owner, " Vou have nolhihf; to look for; 1 assure vou he is
perfectly sound in every respect," desisted from the exam-
ination, sayiiiK ■■ If you say so, 1 am satisfied," and later hiil
off the horse at auction, was held bound to take and pay for
him, although he was in fact unsound, no bad faith on the
part of the vendor beinj; clmrffed. (lliipkinx vs. Tuniiurruij,
15 (_'oninion IJench l{e|M)rl3 lUO.) For tliV effect of a niis-
represeiilation which amounts to a Warraxtv, see the article
under that head. An innocent misrepresenlalion nniy be
introduced into the contract as a condition, in whichca.se
its untruth will entitle the party to wlmm it is made to a
(liseharf;c! from the a^'reeinent. The followinj; is an ex-
ample : The owner of a ship agreed with the owner of coal
that she was then in the port of Amsterdam, and would
proceed to Xewport and load, and carry u curt,'o of the coal
to lIon^kon<r. It turned out that the ship was not then in
Amsterdam, and this innocent misstatement, being a condi-
tion of the contract, cnlilled the owner of the coal to be
discharged from all lialjility thereon. Be/in vs. liurnem, 3
Hest and .Smith 7.50.
In equity, however, a contract obtained by a material
fal.se representation can be set aside at the instance of the
party to whom it was made, although it was made inno-
cently, or he can successfully resist an action for the spe-
cilic performance of such a contract, on the ground that no
man ought to take advantage of his own false statements.
Pollock On Contracts, chs. ix. and x.
Francis M. Burdk-k.
Mis'sal [from Late Lat. missale (also li'hfr miAia lix,
mass-book), liter., neut. of missii li/i, pertaining to the Mass,
deriv. of mia mi, mass. See .Mass] : the service-book of tho
Koman Catholic Church, a volume containing the prayers,
hymns, etc., used in the performance of the Mass. There
are several niis.sals in use. Each of the Kasteru rites has
one or more peculiar liturgical .services, and in the Latin
rite, up to the time of the Council of Trent, there were
many variations in the (udebration of the Ma-ss ; but the
council fixed the present Uonian missal as the .standard lit-
urgy, permitting, however, a few local liturgies to be re-
taineil, but at present the Koman missal is almost univer-
sally employed. The earliest sfiecimens of this kind of
books were the socalled Littri Sncratnentorum , or Sacra-
mentaria, which date back to the time of Gelasius I. Tho
missal, such as it was finally fi.xed for the Koman Catholic
Church by th>: Council of Trent, is nothing but a revision of
those Litjri .Sarnimenfnrum. Editions of the missal in the
original Latin have often been jirinted ; a-s, for instance, in
Paris, 17:ii>, an<l Hcrlin, 1841. See Liturihcs.
Mission Indians: See Suosiio.veax Indians; also Yu-
MAX IxrJIAXS.
Missions [from Lat. misxio. n sending, deriv. of mil tere,
send]: organized work for the propagation of ndigious doc-
trines, especially of the doctrines of Christianity. Islam and
Huddhism have both made u.se of missions for the propaga-
tion of their tenet.s. With the former, however, force luus
been so prominent a feature that tho essential element of
all true mission work — persuasion bv preaching and teach-
ing— has been largely lost sight of. Buddhist missions have
more nearly corresponded to Christian missions. Sec Bid-
uuisM and .Mouammeuaxism.
I. History OK CuRisTiAN Missions. — This may be diviiled
into thr»e periods: apostolic and early Chrislian, media'val,
and modern or post-Keformation. The incilianal mis,sions
are both Koman Catholic and Eastern; the modern are
Roman Catholic, Protestant, nnrl tireek Orthodox,
1. Apontulic and Earlij Cliristian .)fi'<,iinnn. — These cover
the period of the spread of Christianity from the time of
I'hrisl until about 500 a. d. This period belongs more dis-
tinctively to Church history, and covers a style of work es-
sentially different in character from that of tiie prcsimt day.
It was chielly the work of individuals, and was the develop-
ment of the type lirst given by the apostle Paul in his
journeys. During it the tiospel was spread throughout the
whole of Southern Europe, Great liritain, NorlhiTii .\frica
and Ethiopia, and as far oist as Persia, and perhaps even
China.
-. Mediirvnt Missions. — The.se cover the periiKl of about
I.IIOO years, from .500 A. I), until the Reformation. They ap-
proach more nearly to the modirn conception of missions,
in which the Church in ilvl'ITcrcnt branches undertakes the
work as a whole, employing indivirjuals. The chief place in
it belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, although this is the
period of the work carried on by the Nestorian Church, when
its missionaries carried the (iospel throughout Central Asia
to India, founding there the Syrian Church of Malabar.and
into China. The Roman Catfiolic Church missions of the
.Middle .\ges ti»jk their start from Ireland, and included in
their scope England, Scotland, and Northern EurojM'. Still
the effects of the early methods were .s«-cn in the predomi-
nating intlueiice of individual.s, a.s Columba of lona. Coluin-
ban, who established his monastery in .5U0 among the Vos-
ges Mountains in Ea-^ti-rn (iaul ; St. An.sgar, the aijoslle of
.Scandinavia ; St. Cyril and Si. Methodius among the Slavs;
and St. AdallHTt of Prague among the Magyars. Monte
Coryino penetrated to China, and Raymond Lull preached
in North Africa. The work of these I'lieii partook largely o?
the nature of a pro.selytizing crusade rather than of' an
organized work of missions, as the term is used now.
3. Modern or I'oxt-Uejurmatiun Jliiuiiong. — (a) lifrnian
Cat/iulic. — The iinmeiliate effect of the Protestant Kefor-
nmtioii Was to stimulate the activity of the Koman Catholic
Church, and the next century and a half witne.s,sed some of
the most romanticand adventurous mission enterprises ever
known. What the Church was losing in Europe she sought
to gain elsewhere: and the discovery of .\iiierica anil the
voyages of the Portuguese in the Ea.st offered a free field.
Mexico was entered in 1.522 liy the Franciscans, followed bv
the Dominicans anil .Jesuits. The West Indies were ckjcu pied,
and South America was secured by the conquest of Peru in
1.5;i;i. In 15H() came the famous .Jesuit mission to Paraguay,
when indefatigable workers sought first to reconvert the
Spaniards as a necessary means to reaching the Indians.
The first mission to Canada was started by the Jesuits in
1(308 at the mouth of the St. Croix. Then came the l{ecol-
lects or Reformed Franciscans, and until the French and
English wars resulted in the establishment of English power,
the w<irk extended chielly among the Abnakis (.Abenaquis)
and Ilurons, with many thrilling experiences of devoteti
self-.sacrifice. It was in the East, however, that the greal-
ist achievements of Roman Catholic missions appeared.
.\s early as 1510, following the lead of Vasco da Gama, mis-
sionaries penetrated to India, and the first bishopric was
established at Goa, In 1542 Francis Xavior began from
that place a series of journeys and missions whose story is
one of the most fa.scinating in the annals of missionary en-
terprise. Xavier was followed by Robert de Nobili, who
lackeil his predece.s.sor's Christian simplicity. aii<l filled with
zeal for baptisms countenanced accommodations to heathen
ideas and cusloins which proved disastrous. China's first
missionary of this periotl was Barrelo, who stopped at Can-
ton in 1.5.55 on his way to .Japan. The first baptism was in
1584. and the success of these .Jesuits, especially under the
lead of Ricci. was phenomenal, until in 1664 there were
nearly 270.000 Chrislian.s. Persecution followed, and bv
the middle of the eightienth century Christian life wius af-
most extinct, though Christian families remained. .Japan
showed more of success. As early as 1582 there were 2i>0.-
(XM) Christians and 250 churches. The seventeenth century
opened with persecution, in which was manifested the most
resolute heroism of martyrdom, closing with the massacre
of 37.0(X) at Simbani, the iloiint of Jlartyrs. and hei-e. as in
China, active life died, though many o^ncealed Christians
remained. The remaining field, maile notable by the work
of the Roman Catholics, was .\frica, where in the Portu-
guese posses.sions, es|iecially near the mouth of the Congo,
the converts were numbered by the ten thousands. I'nacr
the influence of the Portuguese rule, however, everything
was lost.
During the nineteenth century the Roman Catholic Church
has continued to extend its work, taking up in some in-
stances the lines that were broki'ii by |M>rs»'cution. Its mis-
sionaries have also labored with varying success among the
other Christian Churches of Wesl.'rn .\sia to bring them
back to allegiance to the pope. Work among distinctively
heathen peoples has Iteen pushed in .Africa, notably rgamla,
JIadagascar, ( jiina. .Japan, and the East Indies. In no one
of these sections have they nut with anything like the suc-
cess of the early Roman Catholic missionaries. Statistics
of their missions are vairue and unsatisfactory.
(A) (Ireek- Orlhodar fhurch «/ /I'f/.'wiii.— This is the only
branch of the Christian Church, aside from the lioman
Catholic anil I'rotestant, that has undertaken any aggressive
missionary Work, and this has confined its efforts to. Japan, lis
missionaries began operations in Northern .la|ian in 1870,
804:
MISSIONS
and have steadilv pushed their work until in 180:? tliey re-
ported 164 churclies, 19 native pastors and 15i( evangelists,
21,239 church members, and 1,182 baptisms during the
year.
(c) Profeslant Missions. — 'I'he Ueforination brought at
first little of interest in foreign work to the evangelical
churches. The previous influence of iluss and Wycliltehad
been for home rather tlian foreign development, and the
same principles were carried out by Luther and his succes-
sors. It is true that lOrasmus dwelt upon the necessity of
providing the Turks with the Scriptures, and Luther thought
that they ought to be prayed for, but beyond tliat there
seemed lio hope of successful work. Under the influence of
Calvin, Admiral Coligny, about the middle of the sixteenth
century, inaugurated a Keformation enterprise in Brazil, and
at about the sanu; time Gustavus Vasa sent a mission to the
Lapps of Kurope. None of these, however, amounted to
much. In the latter part of the seventeenth century Hans
Egede, a Norwegian pastor, opened up work in (Treenland,
and about the same time Ziegenbalg arul I'liitschaii went as
the first rrotestaid, missionaries to India uiuler the auspices
of what was known as the Danish-Halle Mission. At aljout
the same time tlie Unitas Fratrum, formed 200 years before
by the union of tlie followers of Huss, some Waldcnses, and^
Moravians, were led by Uw influenee of Count Zin/.endorf
to commence their great work, which has continuotl in the
van of mission enterprise. In 1732 Dober and Nitsehmann
set out for St. Thomas in the West Indies, and in 1749 David
Zeisberger became t he apostle of t he Delawares. Prior to
this the settlement of New England called the attention of
the English people to the needs of the Indians, and King
James, announcing that zeal for the extension of the Gospel
was a special motive for c lionizing, was followed by Crom-
■well in 1649 with the creation of the first missionary society,
the Corporation for tlie Propagation of the Gospel in New
England. The first missionary of this new work was John
Eliot, followed bv Mayhew and the Brainerds. The charter
of the East India Comi)any, granted by King William III.
in 1698, contained provisions for a missionary and educa-
tional as well as ecclesiastical establishment. In 1701 the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
was organized, but i-ather as a colonial than a foreign mis-
sionary society, though it did some work among the na-
tives of the va'rious English colonies. Thus the evangelical
churches were waking up to the demands upon them, and
it needed only the genius and consecration of some man to
start a general work. That man was Carey, a Baptist shoe-
maker and minister, wlio began his work by the publication
of an I)u/in'ri/ into the uiiligations of Christians to use
Means for the Conversion of the Heathens. In 1793 came
the begininng of the little Baptist Missionary Society, and
in November of that year Carey landed at Calcutta.
Modern Protestant' foreign missions may fairly be said
to have begun with the work of Carey. The influence of
his preaching and example was felt all over England, Scot-
land, and America, and extended to the continent of Europe.
One after another the dilTerent branches of the Church en-
tered upon the work, until before twenty-five years had
passed all the leading ones had missionaries in every quarter
of the globe.
The first field to attract attention was the islands of the
Pacific. The difficulty of I'eaching tlieni and the opening
up of India led Carey thither. The Lonchm Missionary
Society, however, carrieil out the idea, and the first mission
to those islands started in 1800. The progress botli of in-
terest in the Churches and of occupation of territory can, in
the space allowed, be best set forth in chronological tables.
1. The order of establishuu^nt of the most important so-
cieties, together with the fields occui>ied by them, also in
chronological order :
1649. New England Company (England) : Indians of North
America.
1691. Christian Faith Society (I<^,ngland) : Aid to Christian
workers, especially in India and Mauritius.
1698. Society for the Promotion of Christijjn Knowledge
(England) : Publication and colporteur work in
many lands.
1701. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (Kngland):
British colonies — India, Africa, East Indies, Ja|)an.
1721. Danish Missionary Society (the successor of the Dan-
ish-Halle Mission) : India, (ireenland. (Honu! mis-
sion to the Santals, Loventhal's, and Ifed Karen
missions, branches from this.)
1732. Unitas Fratrum. or ^Moravians (Germany): West Ind-
ies, Greenland, South America, Africa (South and
Central), Central America, Australia, Central Asia,
Labrador, Alaska.
1792. Baptist Missionary Society (England) : India, Africa,
Congo, China, Japan, Palestine.
1795. London Missionary Society (England. Congregation-
al): Soul h Sea islands. Tahiti, etc. : Afri<'a(Kast and
South), West Indies, Madagascar, China, New Guinea.
1797. Netherlands Missionary Society : East Indies.
1799. Church ^Missionary Society (Church of England):
Africa (East and West), India, New Zealand, Pales-
tine. China, Persia, Japan.
1799. Religions Tract Society (England) : Publication and
colporteur work all over the world.
1804. British and Foreign Bible Society: Publication and
distribution of Scriptures all over the world.
1809. London Society for Promoting Christianity among
tlie .lews: Europe, Asia, and Africa.
1810. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Jlis-
sions (U. S.): At first undenominational, now prac- ■
tically Congregational; India. Hawaiian islands, I
Turkey, (_'hiiia, Persia, Africa (I'^ast and West), '
Micronesia, Japan, Mexico, Spain, and Austria.
1814. American Baptist Missionary Union (U.S.): Burma,
India, Africa, Congo, China, Japan.
1814. Wesleyan Methodists (England): India, Africa (South),
West Indies, New Zealand, South Seas, China.
1815. Basel Missionary Society (Germany) : Africa (South),
India. China.
1816. American Bible Society : Pnlilic.ition and distrilnition
of Scriptures all over tlie world.
1816. General Baptists (England) : India.
1819. Methodist Episco])al Church (U. S.): AfiMca (West),
South America, India, China, Bulgaria, Europe and
Mexico, Jajjan, Korea, jMalaysia.
1819. Leipzig Missionary Society (Germany) : India.
1822. Paris Evangelical Missionary Societ /(France): Africa
(South and West). Polynesia.
1824. Methodist Church of Canada : Japan.
1824. Berlin Missionary Society (Germany): Africa (South),
China.
1826. American Tract Society: Publication and general
col[)orteur work in all lands.
1829. Established Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) : India,
Africa (Fast), (Ihiiia.
1829. Khciiish Missionary Society(Germany): Africa(Soutli),
Dutch East Indies, China.
1835. Swedish Missionary Societies (four in number): Af-
rica (.South). India, Russia, Alaska.
1835. Protestant Episcopal Church (U. S.) : Africa (West),
Greece, China. Japan, Haiti.
1836. North German Missionary Society (German v) : Africa
(West).
1836. Gossner Missionary Society (Germany): India.
1836. Reformed Church "(German, U. S.) : Japan.
1836. Free Baptists (U. S.) : India.
1836. Reformed Presbyterians. General Synod (I^. S.) : India.
1837. Presbyte'rian Church (U. S., at first connected with
■ American Hoard 1810): Syria, Persia, Africa (West),
India, Siam, Cliina, Japan, South America, Mexico,
Guatemala, Korea.
1839. liUlhcran Oeneral Synod (U.S.): India, Africa.
1840. Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society (Scotland):
Trains physicians for other boards, and employs
missionaries in Japan and Syria.
1840. Presbyterian Church of Ireland: India, China,
1840. St. Chrischona, Pilgrim Mission (Germany): Started a
mission in the Sialan, which was broken up ; now
educates men for other boarils.
1841. Welsh Calvinistic Methodists: India.
1842. Reformed Presbyterian Church (Scotland): Syria.
1842. A number of English and Scotch societies for work
among the Jews.
1842. Norwegian Missionary Society: Africa (South), .Mada-
gascar.
1843. Free Church of Scotland: India. Africa (East and
South), New Hebrides, Syria. Arabia.
1844. African IMethodist Episcopal Church (U. S.), Africa,
West Indies.
1844. Presbyterian Church of Canada : New Hebrides, Trini-
dad, China, India.
1844. South American Jlis.si(mary Society (England) : Terra
del Fuego and cities of belh coasts.
MISSION'S
805
1845. Metlmdist Kpiscopal Church South (U. S.) : China,
.Mi'xiio, Hrazil, Jupan. '
1845. Methodist I'roti'sUiiit Cliurch (U. S.) : .Japan.
1845. Southern Baptist Convention (C. S.): .Vfrica (West),
Cliina, South America, Mexico, Japan, Italy.
1845. Weslevan Methodists' Connection (V. S.)': Africa
(West).
1H46. Krtnelo Society (Holland): East Indies.
1H4T. Seventli-day IJaplists (U. S.) : China.
1847. I'reshylerian Church of Knjjland : China. India.
1847. United IVeshyterian Ciiurch of Scotland: West Ind-
ie.s, Africa (West ami South), India, China, .lapan.
1849. Foreign Cliristian .Missionary Society (I)isciplcs,
U. S.) : Turkey, Indiii, .Japan, China,
1840. .\Tnerican and Forci;;n (.'hristian Union (U.S.): Com-
menced work in Koman Catholic countries, which
was handed over to the .\mcrican Hoard, (iivcs aid.
1849. IlerrnianslmrK. Society: .\frica(Kast and South), India,
Australia, New Zealand.
IH4n. Mennoniles (Holland): East Imiies.
1850. Melanesian Mission (England): .Southern Pacific.
185:). United Brethren in Christ (U. S.): Africa (West).
1853. Hawaiian Evangelical Association : Micronesia.
1856. Java Coinilo (Holland): Java.
1858. Keformed Church (Dutch, U. S. ; at first connected
with -American Board): China. India, Japan.
18,")8. rnile<l Presliyterian Church (U. S.) : Egypt, India.
1858. United Methodist Free Churches (England): Austra-
I lia and New Zealand, Africa (East and West),
' China.
1858. Christian Literature Society (England) : India.
1858. Dutch Missionary S(x;iety (Holland) : Java.
1859. Reformed Presbyterian Church (U. S.) : Turkey.
18.59. Methodist New Connexion (England): China.
IHi}'^. Utrecht Missionary Society (Holland) : Java.
18.59. Dutch Keformed (Holland): Java.
1859. Finland Missioiniry Society: Africa (South).
1860. Universities Mission (England): Africa (East).
1861. Strict Baptists (England): Imlia.
1861. Woman's Union Missionary Society (U. S.) : India,
Japan.
1862. Presljyterian Church (.South, U. S.) : China, Brazil,
Mexico, (frcece, Japan, Africa, Congo.
1865. China Inland Mission (Kngland): China.
1867. Friends (England): India, Madagascar, China, Tur-
key.
186S. Woman's Board (U. S.), connected with American
Hoard. This wius the pioneer of the numerous
woman's hoards connected more or less closely \vith
almost all the general boards.
1869. Lutheran fuMicral Council (U.S.): India.
1870. Primitive Methoilist Church (England): Australia and
New Zealand. -Africa (West and South).
1871. United Original Swession Church (Scotland): India.
1874. Free Churches of French Switzerland : Africa (South).
1875. Associate Keformed Synod of the South (U. S.) : Mex-
ico.
1876. Cumberland Presbyterian Church (U. S.) : Japan,
.Mexico.
1878. Evangelical .Association (U. S.): Japan.
1880. .Salvali.m Army: India.
1881. Congregational Churches of Canada: -Africa (West).
1881. German Ba|itist Brethren (U.S.): Scandinavia, India.
1881. International Medical Missionary Society (U. S.):
Trains medical missionaries.
IHSl. North -Vfrica Mission (England): Barbary States of
North Africa.
1882. Breklum Missionary Society (Germany): India.
1864-86. .Several Baptist (colored) societies for work in
.Africa.
1885. Bible Christians (England): Australia and New Zea-
lan<l, China.
1886. American Christian Convention (U.S.): Japan.
1886. Baptist Churches of Canaila: India.
1889. Seventh-ilay Adventists (U. S) : -Africa, Pacific islands,
Europe.
1889. German Evangelical .Synod (U. S.) : India.
1890. Univcrsalist Convention (U.S.): Japan.
This list is by no means complete. It is, however, ."ufTi-
cicntly so to give a correct idea of the spread of missionary
interest in Christian countries. There are a large number
of other liodies, more or less fully organized, emph>ying
some missionaries. The Unitarian Association sy|i|>orts two
missionaries, and does some publishing in Japan, and has
some work in India. There are several individual enter-
prist's, like F. S, -Arnot's work in (iarenganzi in Central
Africa, anil I'. Z. Kaslon's work in Pei>ia. There are also
a number of aid societies, ami a large number of Bible so-
cieties and pul>licalioii societies.
'2. Turning to the o|K-iiing of foreign fiehls, the following
list gives the order in which the principal countries of the
world have been occupied :
1649. North America: The New Enghiml Company, organ-
ized by royal charier for wurk among the'lndians.
1705. India: The Dunish-Halle Mission of the Lutheran
State Church, later the Danish Mission Society.
Also the Baptist .Missionary Society of Enghtnd,
founded by Carey in 1792.
1721. Greenland: Danish Mission Society.
lT-i'4. West Indies: Moravians.
17;J5. South America: Moravians (north coast).
17:J7. Africa (South): Moravians.
1797. South Sea islands : London .Alissionarv Society.
1804. -Africa (West): Church .Missionary Society.
1807. China: Lon<lon Missionary Society.
1807. Burma: English Baptists.'
1811. Persia: II. nrv -Marlyn. 1834, American Board.
1812. Java: Netherlands .Missionary Society.
1812. tVyl.m: English Baptists.
1814. New Zealand : London Missionary Society.
1818. .Madagascar: London Missionary Society!
1819. Syria and the Levant : -Americaii Board!
1819. Egypt: Church Missionary Society.
1819. Hawaiian islands: .American Board.
1823. -Argentine: .American Board.
1824. New Hebrides: London .Missionary Society.
182.5. Australia: London Missionary Society.
1828. Siani : Netherlaniis Missionary Society and London
Missioeuiry Society.
1828. Greece: Protestant Episcopal Church (U. S.).
1830. Abyssinia: Church Missionary .Society.
1M34. Fiji, Samoa, etc.: Weslevan .Nlethodi'sts of England.
1836. Brazil: Methodist Episcopal Church (U. S.).
1836. -Assiini : American Bajitist Missionary Union.
1843. Palestine: Church Jlissicmary Society.
1844. Africa (East): Church .MissiiMiary .Society.
1852. Micronesia: American Boanl.
18.59. Jaiian: May. Protestant Episcopal Chnrch ; October,
Presbyterian; November, Keformed (Dutch) — all
U.S.
1861. Chili : American and Foreign Christian Union.
1872. Mexico: Presbyterian Cluirch (Northi. Work hail
been done by the American Bible Society and Mr.
Riley.
1877. Africa (Central, Tanganyika): London Missionary
Society.
1881. Africa (Barbary States): \orth Africa Minion (Eng-
land).
1884. Korea: Presbyterian Church (North) and .Methodist
Episcopal Church (U. S.).
1885. -Arabia : Church Missionary Society.
There have been numerous efforts to enter Tibet, Af-
ghanistan, and Nepal, in Central .Asia, and there are por-
tions of .Africa yet closed to missionaries. I)ut in lHt»4. with
these exceptions, there is no si'Ction of the world where
missionary enterpri.se has not peitet rated. These various
enterprises have met with very dilTerent success. In almost
every case the op[H>sitiim was intense. In the .South Seas
missionary after missionary lost his life. In India the hos-
tility of the people was strengthened by the opfiosition of
the Fast liiilia Company. In Burma imprisonment and suf-
fering attended the first efforts. -Africa seemeil to offer an
almost imiHiietrable barrier: for a long time little more was
accomplished than the establishment of a few chun'hes on
the coast, ami when an entrance was elTecteil the climate
proved ilcadlv. The Mohammedan lands of the East met
the first missionaries with all the force of Mi^slein bigotry.
There were, however, exceptions, as in the Hawaiian islands;
and in some of the Siuth .S'a islamls and in Burma the bit-
ter opposition at the beginning res\dted in wonilerful prog-
ress. So of later years, long continueil lal"ir has been fol-
lowed by special success among some of the lower castes of
India, es|iccially the Telugns and .Swee|M'rs.
II. Mktiiods ok .Missions. — The methiNid of missions from
the time of the apostles to the cIos<' of the eighteenth cen-
tury were very simple: The preaching of the Gospel, the
806
MISSIONS
gatherinj; of converts into churches, and tlic placing of
these cliurclies under the care of foreign educated preach-
ers. There was little or no effort to develop local Christian
life into self-direction. There was instruction, l)ut very
little education. With the entrance upon the work of the
KuLrlish and (ternum churches, especially the former, a new
idea was Ijrought in. They realized that it was utterly be-
yond their power to reach the countless millions of heathen-
dom themselves, and that they must look to the natives of
the different fields to do what they could not do. They
realized, too, that a Christian church to be strong must be
self-propagating, and in order to that it must tii^ indencnd-
ent. The resvdt was that oilier duties took rank almost
equally with preaching, viz., translation of the Scriptures,
education, medical work, wonuiu's work, and organization.
Trnnntaf inn of (he Scriptures. — It was the experience of
the early missionaries in every iield that the great mass of
the people were grossly ignorant. In the Pacific, in Africa,
and in parts of India many of the languages were not even
reduced to writing. Accordingly, the lirst thing to be done
after getting a colloquial use was to iind some way of ex-
pressing the sounds by signs. The achievements in this line
have liordered on the "marvelous. A brief summary may be
found in the article liiBi.K. Even when these languages al-
ready had a written form, or the form had been provided,
it was no easy task to perfect a translation. What word
should be used as the name of God, how indicate spirit,
grace, sin, salvation, to races who had never had any ade-
quate idea, or even any idea at all, of themf An illustra-
tion of the difficulty is fouiul in the fact that up to 1894 it
is not decided just what term to use for God in the Chinese
versions. In other cases translations already existed, but
in archaic and incomplete form. These must be put into
modern language.
Ed urn/ iun.— Wherever missions have gone schools liave
been estal>lished whose prime object was to enable converts
to read and understand the Bible. With the development
of Christian churches other needs have come in. Preachers
and tcacBers must be trained to do work that is beyond the
power of tlie missionary. For this a better, more thorough,
and complete education is necessary, and high schools and
theological seminaries were established. Community life
brought still other needs. Persecution cut off sonu> con-
verts from their employments. To support them was to
pauperize them. They "must be trained to some means of
gaining a living. In most lands life is very circumscribed,
labor is degrading, aiul, except in tlie most simple forms,
employment not easily found. Many of the trades do not
exist a't all, and what there are, are of the most primitive
sort. The entrance of Christian thought and life creates
not so much a distaste for existing methods of work and life
as a reaching out after something better. To fail to satisfy
this is to crush out hope and ambition, without which there
can be no genuine growth. Thus there has been developed
in the early history of every mission field, in greater or less
degree, a comi)lete" system of education, including primary,
intermediate, and high schools, colleges, and theological
seminaries. These have mostly been on the same general
plan as schools in the V. S. ami Europe, and there has been
a marked development in industrial education, especially in
Africa. This development of education has given rise to
the sharpest controversies in regard to mission methods.
Some have maintained that the original idea of limiting
missionary I'ducation to the most elementary topics, except
for the training of preachers and teachers, should be pre-
served; others, claiming that mission work contenqilates
Christian communities and social and civil life, as well as
the conversion of soids, liave advocated a much broader
plan.
Medical Work: — No one department probably has been
more aggressive or has opened more fields hitliorlo closed
than this. It developed into a distin<-l feature with tlie es-
tablishment of the Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society
in 1840. Since then Ihe advance has been rajiid, and in
1803 there was a largo force of medical missionaries in every
field. Their work lias been especially valuable in China,
Africa, Persia, and Turkey. In most cases they work in
connection with the regular societies, very few being em-
ployed by medical societies.
Woman's Work. — The conception of special work fur I lie
women of heathen lands lo be carried on by women pracli-
callv originated -with .Mrs. Doremus, of New York, the
founder of (he Woman's Union Jlissionary Society. In 1891
there were between sixty and seventy regularly organized
societies. A few work independently, but most work in con-
nection with some one of the general boards. They pay
special attention to education for girls and women, house to
house (zenana) work among the women, and medical work.
Organization. — (A) .4/ jlome.— The management of the
entire work is committed to boards or societies, chartered by
the State to hold |iroperty and, in general, conduct the finan-
cial affairs involved. These boards are of three kinds: (1)
directly c<mnected with some denomination or church, and
under its control ; (2) indirectly so connected and only mor-
ally bound to consult them: (:J) absolutely independent of
all ecclesiastical relations. The Presbyterian boards belong
to the first; the Church ^Missionary Society to the second;
the American Hoard and the (ierman societies to the third.
These boards sometimes act directly, sometimes tlirough
executive committees, and emjiloy a force of paid ollicials.
Their work includes the coUecticm of funds and their appor-
tionment to the foreign fields; the selection of missionaries;
the furnishing of information to the churches: the holding
of proi)erty, and the decision of questions of policy on the
field. They are composed of prominent men of the ditterent
professions and in business well qualified to conduct large
affairs. Their financial standing is of the highest.
(B) On the Field. — This is both missionary and native.
(a) Jlissionan/. — The missionaries in a given section of
country are generally formed into a mission. This tnission
meets periodically for the discussion of jilans of work, the
preparation of estimates, the apportionment of receipts from
the board, the assignment of missionaries, and any other
business that may come up. Tlie mission is again subdi-
vided into stations (large places where one or more mission-
aries reside) and out-stations or sub-stations (places of less
importance where mission work is carried on, generally
through native agents). With the' exception of the sum to-
tal of exjienditures in a single year, and the establishment
of general principles, the decision of tlie mission in its an-
nual meeting is generally final. It ordinarily decides the
location of a missionary. The salary he is to receive is
decided by the board on the basis of information from the
mission, and in accordance with the general principle that
he shall receive enough so as to live moderately, but com-
fortably, without expecting to lay by for future use.
(h) yatire. — As soon as a number of converts are gathered
in any place they are usually formed into a church or con-
gregation. Their ecclesiastical position is in most cases
regulated by that of the missionaries, though with many
there is considerable freedom allowed. As the community
grows there are organized Sunday-schools, general schools,
and the various forms of community life. As a rule, natives
are not members of the luission iprojicr, but are consulted
by the missions in the general conduct of the work. There
an; cases, chiefly in Ejiiscojial missions, where they are
members of the missions. In some sections circumstances
have arisen which necessitated the formation of civil
communities. This has been especially the case in Moslem
countries, owing to the [leculiar laws. In several com-
munities there have been formed native societies for tho
conduct of missitm work in remote .se<-tions — e.g. the Ha-
waiian Evangelical Society, IbiUic Jlissionary Societies in
Japan, etc. The question of the ecclesiastical relation of
native churches on mission fields to the churches su]i|iorling
the mission has been generally recognized as a very ilifficult
one. In many cases, notably Japan, tliere is a great desire
to break away from all organic connection with what are to
I hem foreign cliurches; The idea of national churches in
Japan. India. Cliina, and elsewliere has gained a strong hold
upon the communities. In Turkey the situation is peculiar.
The missionaries, debarred from work among the ^Moslems,
turned to the Armenians, seeking to reform the old Church.
The Armenian hierarchy sought to crush out the new ideas
liy persecutmn with the result of forming distinctively
Protestant civil communities according to Turkish law. As
the work has progressed the leaven of evangelical ideas has
entered the old or Gregorian Church, and many look for-
waril to a reunion of the two in the future.
With the development of the work and i(s fuller organiza-
tion, missionaries become less evangelists, more educators
and leaders in community and cliurch life.
III. Hksui.ts. — .\ny estimate of the results of foreign mis-
sions must iiudude many faclor.s. 1. Stati.stics of converts,
churches, native laborers, schools and scholars, copies of the
Bible and religious books dislributed. H. Olistacles over-
come to the acceptance of the Gospel. 3. The degree of
Christian life developed.
~1 MISSISSIPPI 1
MISSIONS
MISSISSIPPI
80?
1. SOilinlicM. — ('<)in|ilete statistics arc not at luirul. There
is no a;;reciiiciit aiiioiif; the societies a.s to how they shall lie
reported and a great diversity as to the coiiinleteiiess of the
reluriis from the iieUls. L'sintr, however, the Ix-st sources
availalile, T/ie Miasiuniinj Review of the W'urltl, tlie Aiiieri-
<'an Board Alin(tu<ir,ui>d the tables prepared by Dean Vahl,
of Deiiiiiurk, the followiii^; estimates may bo considered us
ai>proxiiiialrly correct for lK!):i:
Comimiiiieaiits, 1,250,000; adherents ([lersons identified
with Christian churches, though not cominunicniits), 2,500,-
000. exclusive of <hildren.
There are no returns of churches. The number of or-
panizeil coHKrcRations, based upon the number of stations
and out-stations, is perhaps 20.000.
Native preachers and teachers, oo.OfM).
.Schools (secular). I'.l.WJO ; scholars. 7!K).00O.
Sunday-schools. 25.()(K) ; scholars, 2,000.000.
Volumes of scriptures distributed in a single year,
.•i.lXJO.fKM).
2. Obstacles to the Acceptance of the Gospel Removed. —
Among these may be mentioned the opening up of China,
Japan, and Korea; the discoveries in Africa; the abolish-
ment of the death |)enalty in many countries ; the breaking
down of much of the power of caste in .Southern .Asia; the
heavy blows to the slave-trade. In all of these there have
been other influences as well, but missions have had a
prominent place, due to the |)ersonal character of the mi.s-
sionaries anil their influence with governments, to medical
■work, to relief rendered in times of famine and distress, as
well as to the ilirecl influence of preaching and teaching.
There ha.s been no appreciable effect upon Mohammedanism,
unless the rencweil activity of Islam be such. Confucianism
remains unmoved in general. Huddhism and Hinduism have
felt the results of missionary preaching most, tm in<licated
by the development of the Hrahmo .Somaj and similar move-
ments. The great apparent advance of missions has bi>en
among the more ignorant fetich and nature worshipers.
There is, however, evidently a very decided weakening of
the power of the great religions over thinking men, but
whether they are turning to Christianity or to infidelity is
as vet in most cases a problem. Often tiiey throw off all re-
ligion, although most admit intellectually the superiority of
Christianity.
:t. The Degree of Chrislinti Life Developed in the Xative
I ■•iiimuiiities. — This is after all the crucial test. Figures of
converts, etc.. amount to very little, excejit as thi'y may be
indicative of the character of the communities. A few points
may be noted : (1) The growth in self-sup|)ort. Wherever
missions have been successful the native churches are in-
creasing by assuming the entire expense of their church and
educational life. Peculiar circumstances have delayed at
time.s, but in general the progress in this particular has
lieen most markeil. (2) The position occupied among the
surrounding communities. This no figures can show, and
outside reports from travelers are very apt to be incorrect.
Native Christian communities are not as a rule prominently
locateil. We may, however, cite such travelers as Miss Hird
(now Mrs. Bishop) and such officials as the governor-generals
of India and the various .\merican ambiLsstulors and consuls,
who almost without exception have t)orne witness to the high
character of the Christian communities. Another indication
i- found in the demand for their memlK'rs fi>r places of re-
-I'wnsibility. (H) The very general effort, even at much self-
■!• iiial. to extend the work of giving the Gospel to otiiers.
l.iTKKATiiiK. — ^The bibliography of foreign mis.Mons is
■ ly large. By far the most complete attempt in this line
is the bililiograpliv preiiarecl by the Kev. Samuel Macauley
Jackson, and published as an apf>endix to the Kiiryclo-
pipdia (if MiKiions (New York, H'.t pp. H.o in solid non-
{lareil; it goes ilown to the dose of IS!>0). A supplementary
ist to it was prepared by the Kev. .lames .S. Dennis. D. D..
and pidilished in Foreign Mixjiiims after a ('entunj (New
York, ISlCtl. Of minor importance are Hook Deportment
the Student Volunteer Movement for foreign Misxiunx
liieago) ami A Select Catalogue (Presbyterian BoanI of
.blication. Philadelphia). The most important books of
iieral refiTence are The Ennjrlomrdia of MiKxions, with
maps, biblioitraphv, and statistical tables, edited bv Kev.
Kilwin Mnnscll Bliss (2 vols.. New York, ISlil); Manual of
V'lilern .Vix.iiiinx. ^. T. (iracey. D. D. (New Y.irk, IHiCt)';
'^'■irt Ilixtorg of t'hrixtian Mixxionx, (ieorge Smith. \Ai. D.
IMinburgh. 1H!»0); Outline of the Ilixtory of J'rotextanI
Mixgionx. Dr. (instav Warncck. tnmslateil from the (iernuili
(Gemmell, ICdinburgh, 1884); Report of the Centenary Con-
ference in London, Kev. Jami-s John.ston (New York, 1kkN|;
Oriental Religions anil Christianity, V. V. KlIinwixHl. D. 1).
(New York. 1M!»2) ; Medical Mixxioiix, their Place anil Pow-
er, John liowe (London, IHIK)). There are al.^o a large num-
lK>r of histories of special fields ami of ilu- different s^K'i-
eties, biographies of eminent missionaries, books on the dif-
erent religiuiLs, travels in mission lund.s, etc. E. M. Buss.
Mississippi [iiamed from Mississippi river]:
V. S. of Ni>rth .\merica (South Central group); t
one of the
group) ; the seventh
State admitted into the Union.
Location and Area. — It is bounded on the N. bv Tennes-
see, on the K. bv Alabama, on the S. by the Gulf' of Mexi-
co (including all
islands within 6
leagues of shore-
line) for 78 miles
Westward to the
mouth of Pearl
river, and from a
jioint about 75
miles above the
mouth of that
river by the Hist
parallel of N. Int..
and on the W. by
Louisiana and Ar-
kansas. Its ex-
tremes are be-
tween 30 25' and
;!5 N. hit., and
88 12 and ill 36
W. Ion. ; area, 46.-
810 sc). miles (29,- " -M^.s,|,pl.
958,400 acres), of which 470 square miles are water surface.
Physical Featurex. — The small streams which fall into the
Tennessee river in the northea.st corner of the State are bor-
dered by massive walls of limestone. W. of this the Cretace-
ous formations crop out. W. of these. Tertiary formations
prevail. The botlom-laruls of the Mississippi, Sunflower, and
Yazoo rivers, and the tributaries of the latter, as well as the
Gulf coast for about 30 nules l)ack, belong to the t^uaternarv,
or alluvial, era. To this era belongs the Orange sjind. tlie
most striking feature of the State's geology, for its presence
on the surface is so general as to ituike its absence excep-
tional. It is chiefly made up of rounded, siliceous sand,
colored, and more or less indurated, by the hydrated peroxide
of iron. On the Pontotoc ridge it is either of aglaringdecp
red, as in Itawamba County, or of a didl iron-rust color; in
the region of the long-leaf pine it is of a delicate rose tint,
and sometimes of a bright vellow, crimson, or purple ; else-
where it becomes white, and even bluish. With a large in-
crement of iron, in some places the tendency is to concrete
into a ferruginous saiulstone, occasionally in such ma.sses and
solidity as to afford good building material. These indura-
tions are generally found capping hills ami ridges, some of
which rise in steep i.solated hilLx-ks from the level surround-
ing country as high as 1.50 feet, forming curious landmarks
which indicate the fornu-r surface level. In some places
these conglomerates are tubular, of singular regularitv of
dimensions and mold, with the apiiearance of newly niado
iron castings, often 4 ti> 5 fei't in length, and with a liore
from a quarter of an inch to 4 inches in diameter. .Such hills
are further crowned, generally, with clumps of short-leaved
pine, not visible elsewhere in the sanu' vicinity. The aver-
age tliickiU'S.s of this Orange saiul stratum varies fmm 40 to
60 feet, but lt)0 is not at all infrequent, and it has born
found as thick as 2(K) feet. The useful materials of this
formation an' the ferruginous sandstone, much of which can
be us».-d in rough masonry, and large beds of iiiiie-clav of
great purity, and piitter's and <rucible clays, 'i he Tertiary
beds afford lignite, or brown coal, to some Useful extent, min-
eral fertilizers of value and convenience. iMilter's and fire- '
brick elav.s, and limestone (rotten), chiefly for Imrning. The
mineral deiK)sits of Mississippi are relatiM-ly of small con-
sideration, however, in the sum of its naturaradvantageji. In
nearly all se<lions of the .State artesian wells nuiy be found,
varying in depth from 600 to iXK) feet, and water? of decidc<l
mineral and meiljeinal cliariieter are of wide oi'cunfnce,
such iL-i alkaline and .s^iline chalylM<ates. containing iron, lime,
nmgnesia, and often Mxla. Among these medicinal waters,
those of Cooikt's Well.s, Gri'enwoiHl .Springs, and Castalian
Springs are of the highest repute.
The highest land in Mississippi lies in the northeast, and
808
MISSISSIPPI
from thence it slopes gradually to the Jlississippi river and
to the Gulf of Jlexieo. Kuiining N. and S. through the
center of the State is a broad low ridge, which divides the
tributaries of.the Mississippi river from those of the Pearl,
Tombigbee, and Pascagoula rivers. Tliis ridge terminates
near Vieksburg in a high bhitf. W. of this watersheil the
country is lirokcn up by several narrow ridges and valleys
of denudation which finally fall away into the Yazoo delta.
K. of tlie central ridge are vast prairies of exceeding fertility.
On the table-land constituting the ridge are immense forests
and much cultivated land. In the pine-woods region in the
southern portion of the State the land is rolling. Thus,
while in Jlississippi there are no high elevations, the land is
generally rolling and much broken, and in some places the
ridges rise to the height of fjOO feet. The State is mainly
drained by the Mississippi river and its tributaries, the IJig
Black, lloinocliitto, and the Yazoo with its affluents, the
Sunflower and the Tallahatchie. The Tombigbee flows
through the eastern portion of the Stale, while the Pearl with
its tributaries, and the Pascagoula, with the Chickasawha,
drain tlie southeast. In the extreme northeast the Tennessee
river separates the State from Alabama for lo miles. Por-
tions of the Yazoo delta are subject to overflow at times of
extreme high water.
The useful materials found in the different formations rep-
resented may be conveniently grouped in the natural order
in wliich they occur. In the Carboniferous rocks which
occupy the extreme northeastern portion of the State are
found limestones, botli common and hyilraulic. sandstones,
used for building purposes, and materials for glass. In the
Cretaceous system marls, limestones, and building-stones
occur. The Cenozoic occupies by far the greater portion of
the State, if we except the Orange sand formation which is
of almost universal occurrence, and in this formation are
found isolated beds of lignite and several kinds of clay, used
in tlie manufacture of pottery and fire-brick.
Suil and Priidiic/ioiis. — The State has a great variety of
soils, most of which in their virgin condition are very fertile,
and there are still large areas of the cultivated lands that pro-
duce good crops without the aid of fertilizers. The most
fertile land in the State is the Yazoo delta, an elliptical
body of land in the extreme western portion of the State,
extending north from Vieksburg. E. of this is a belt
running X. and S. known as the bkiff formation and brown-
loam table-lands, that is nearly as fertile as the Yazoo delta.
These are doubtless the most desirable lands in the State
for general agricultural purposes. The yellow-loam lands,
lying E. of tliese and N. of the central portion of the State,
are among the less pnxluctive lands, though portions of this
section are quite fertile. The northeastern prairie region,
with its ric^h, black, calcareous soil, has always been noted
for having numy of the best farming lands of the State, and
during the civil war was known as the " Egypt of the Con-
federacy." These lands are still rich in all the elements of
plant-food, and their fertility is easily maintained by the
growth of such leguminous crops as melilotiis, red clover, al-
falfa, Japan clover, and eow-pi^as. The lands in the extreme
northeastern portion of the State are similar to the yellow-
loam lands. Extending from Vieksburg across the State to
the Alabama line is a belt, from 18 to 4-5 miles wide, with
several kinds of soil, a lar;;e profiortion bi'ing prairie. Most
of the soils in this bell are fertile. The large body of land
S. of the central prairie belt, known as the pine-woods re-
gion, is either sandy loam with clay subsoil or sandy subsoil,
the former being the predominating soil in the northern and
the western [lortions of the belt. The southern portion of t his
belt is almost entirely covered by its virgin growth of pine,
while its nortlu^'U and western portions furnish conditions
favorable for cultivation and improvement; and on these
lauds are some of the finest truck-farms in the State. Ex-
cept the pine lands in the extreme southern portions of the
State and the yellow-loam lands in the north central portion,
the soils are unusually rich in plant-food and may easily be
kept in a liigh state of cultivation.
Mississippi has still a vast area covered by virgin forests.
Over the Androzoic and the Cenozoic formations the oak is
the most common deciduous tree. In the central and nortli-
ern portions of the State the red oak, the scarlet, the black,
.the willow, the chestnut, and the water-oak are common
on the lowlands. The rock-chestnut oak is found on tlic
higher lands in the delta. Black jack is found on all poor
lands in all portions of the Slate. Other deciduous trees are
walnut, butternut, dogwood, black gum, sweet gum, beech,
sycamore, Cottonwood, magnolia (three species), red maple,
ironwood, locust, black and white mulberry, alder, and hick-
ory (four species). Among the evergreens are the long and
short leaf pine, pitch pine, cypress, and live oak. Among
the more common fruits are the grape, apple, peach, pear,
plum, and apricot. Thousands of acres are used for the cul-
tivation of strawberries ami tumatoes along the line of the
Illinois Central Railway S. of Durant, and large quantities
of these fruits arc also grown on the line of the Mobile and
Ohio Railway between West Point and Booneville. In the
southern counties figs, oranges, olives, and other semi-tropic-
al fruits flourish. The land throughout the State is callable
of prodiu-ing almost every variety of farm crop. The \ azoo
delta is renowned as the best cotton land in the world, and
the State stands second in the Union in the production of
this slai)le. The northeastern portion is especially adapted
to the growing of cereals, grasses, clovers, and other forage
crops; and the farmers of this section are largely engaged
in stock-raising and dairying.
The animals of the chase now found in the State are the
de(!r, black bear, raccoon, gray and black wolves, gray and
red foxes, mink, weasel, muskrat, beaver, o]>ossum, squirrel
(seven kinds), and rabbit. Wild turkeys, quail, woodcocks,
wild pigeons, ducks, and geese are plentiful. Paroquets are
found as far IS', as Natchez, while mocking-birds and other
birds of song and beauty abound throughout the State.
Gulls, hawks, vultures, and turkey buzzards are common.
Alligators, lizards, and watei-snakcs inhabit the swamps and
marshes, and rattlesnakes arc found occasionally in the up-
lands. Fish arc abundant along the Gulf coast and in the
Mississippi river, the most important being the giant catfish,
pickerel, black bass, buffalo, redfish, pompano, sea-trout,
Spanish mackerel, and red snapper.
The following summary from the census reports of 1880
and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations in the State:
FARMS, ETC.
1880.
1890.
PerMot,
101,772
15,856,462
892,844,915
144,318
17,672,547
8127,423,157
+418
-HO-8
Total value of farms, iucludiug
buildings and fences
-f37-2
The following table shows the acreage, yield, and value of
the principal crops other than cotton in the calendar vear
1893 :
CROPS.
Acreage.
■yield.
Valne.
Corn
1,970,777
3.577
145,141
5,852
82,113
25,817.179 bush.
27,5« ••
a,249,(ls« "
474,012 "
135,486 tons
814,199,448
Wheat ...
23,412
Oats
1,057,352
39S ITO
Hay
1,&>2,020
On Jan. 1. 1894. the farm animals comprised 164.2.50
horses, value $8,654,912; 150.8()0 mules, value 110,109,598;
302,959 niilch-cows, value .!(3,911.201 ; 555,588 oxen and
other cattle, value i;4.268,363 ; 415.855 sheep, value |588,-
435; and 1,577,208 swine, value $5,478,907; total value
$33,011,410.
('fittoii Production and 3Ianufacture. — Cotton is the largest
and mo.'il valuable crop, the total area devoted to its cul-
tivation in 1889 being 2,883,499 acres, which produced 1,154,-
400 bales. The total value of this crop to the producers was
$51,484,053, an average of $44.60 per l)ale, or $17.86 per
acre. In 1890 nine establishments were engjiged in the
manufacture of cotton goods. They employed 1.184 per-
sons. 1,352 looms. 57.004 spindles and 'i>ed 17.366 bales of
cotton. The capital invested was $2,053,743, and the total
value of the production was $1.333,39S, During the cotton
year 1892-93 the receipts of cotton at \'icksburg, Columbus,
trrcenville. .Meridian, and Natchez aggregated 158,516 bales,
and the shipments 1.53.880 bales.
Climate. — The summer season is long and hot, but gener-
ally healthful, except in the Yazoo delta region in the west-
ern part of the .State. The temperature rarely reaches 98°, ;
the normal mean temperature fur the summer months being j
80'1°. The winters, comparatively short, are damp and J
somewhat colder than in the corresponding latitude on tho J
.•\tlantic coast. A minimum temperature of 9' is rare in the I
northern part of the Stale, while along the Gulf coast thel
temperature seldom falls below 28\ The average rainfslll
for the State at large is about 56 inches, with a fall of 631
inches near the .southern coast, and a little less than 54 j
inches in the northern portion. It is distributed through-
out the year in a most favorable manner for the agricultural
MISSISSIPPI
809
of tlic Stale. Till' fullowing table gives a summary of the
temperature and rainfall :
Juiiuary...,
Fcbnmry
March
April
May
June
July
August
Se|>u*uil)er .
October ....
November
December.
Mms
Mmii
Uau
mlolmiioi
tUil'
Hl«l-
fclDp.
Ua.^
ual^
mom.
amm.
45«»
70 ■7»
IQ-S"
7«°
9»
SO-5
73-4
25-2
78
15
5t!-i
700
2»-8
sa
19
W 7
85-8
39-2
88
ao
-2-3
904
47 2
91
40
79- 1
95-3
SOS
97
43
81-3
»4-4
(M«
99
60
800
938
594
95
56
74 4
000
51 2
93
43
Ki
854
3«-B
88
iM
!M 7
78-2
25-2
80
19
47-5
732
240
77
13
lUlohll,
la ladiM.
6-5
5-31
6' 15
6-43
415
4-25
3W
896
3 81
a- 82
4M
5- 13
Divisions. — For administrative purposes Mississippi is
divided into seventy-five counties, as follows :
Adams
Alcorn
Amite
Attala
Benton
Bolivar
Calhoun
Carroll
Chickasaw
Choctaw
Claiborne
Clarke
Clay
Coahoma
Copiah
CoviuKton
De Soto
Franklin
Greene
Orenaila
Hancock
Harrison
Hinds
Holmes
Issjiqiiena
Itawiiinba
Jairkson
Jasper
Jefferson
Jones
Kemper
I ji Fayette
Lauderdale
Lawrence
Leake
Lee
Le Flore
Lincoln
Lf>wii(ies
Madison
Marion
Marshall
Monroe
MontRomery
Neshoba
Newton
No.xubee
Oktibbeha
Panola
Pearl River t ....
Perry
Pike
Pontotoc
Prentiss
Quitman
Hankin
Scott
Sharkey
Simpson
Snuih
Sun Flower
Tallahatchie
Tate
Tippah
Tishomingo
Tunii'a
Union
Warren
Washington
Wayne
Webster
Wilkinson
Winston
Yalobusha
Yazoo
8-E
3-H
9-E
a-o
8-0
5-E
5-G
5-F
5-H
6-(»
8-E
7-H
5-H
4-F
8-F
8-0
»-F
8-E
9-H
5-0
10-0
9-H
7-F
6-F
6-E
4-H
9-H
7-H
8-E
8-0
6-H
4-0
7-H
8-F
6-0
4-H
5-F
8-F
5-H
0-F
9-0
8-0
5-H
5-0
6-H
7-0
6-H
5-H
4-F
9-0
0-H
9-F
4-0
3-H
4-F
7-F
7-0
6-E
8-0
7-0
5-F
5-F
.3-F
8-H
3-H
4-F
4-0
7-E
6-E
8-H
5-Q
9-E
6-H
5-0
6-F
Totals 1.131,597
Pop.
22.649
14,278
14.U0I
19,888
11.023
18,052
13.492
17.795
17,905
9.0.36
16.708
15.021
17,307
13,568
27,552
5.993
S2.92t
9.729
3,1»1
18.071
6.4-39
7,895
4.3.958
27.161
lO.OOl
10.063
7.607
12.126
17.314
3.828
15.719
21.671
21.501
9.420
13.146
20.470
10.246
13,547
28.-.M4
25.866
6,901
29,3.30
28.5,58
13.348
8.741
13.4.86
29.874
l.'i.978
28,352
' 8.427
16,688
13.8.18
12.158
1.4<r?
16.752
10.815
6.306
8.0C18
8.088
4.6fil
10.928
18.721
12,867
8.774
8,461
13,030
3I,»W
25.867
8,741
9,.V14
17.815
10,fl«7
15.649
33.815
Pop.
I8«0.
26.031
1.3.1 15
18,1'.]8
22,213
10,.'j85
29.980
14.B8S
18.773
19,8!>1
10.847
14,516
1.5.820
18.007
1S..842
30,233
8.299
a».is3
10.424
3.9<l«
14,974
8.318
12.481
3«,279
30.970
12.318
11.708
II. -251
14.785
18.917
8..3.M
17.901
20,.M3
29.«01
12.318
14,811,8
20,010
16.809
17.912
27.047
27,321
9..Vi2
26.043
.80.730
14.4.59
lI.UI'i
16.025
27.3:18
17.694
20.977
2.957
0.4!M
21.203
14.940
13,079
3.28li
17.922
11.740
8,.1.«2
10,i:is
lo.iii-,
9.:W4
U..8<il
19.2,->:t
12,ll-.l
9.:ui-.'
12.l.%'<
l.VliOl-.
33.UVI
40.41 1
ii.sir
I2.IKVI
17,.')'.i2
12,<^lt
10,029
S6,:19I
COUNTY-TOWNS.
Natchez
Corinth
Liberty
Kosciusko
Ashluu<l
Kosedale
Pittsboro
Carrollton
Houston
Chester
Port Gibson
Quitman
West Point
Friar's Point
Hozlehurst
Williamsburg. . ,
Hernando
Meadville
Leakesville
(ireuada
Bay St. Louis . . .
Mis-sissippi City.
Rjjymoud
Lexington
Mayersvijle
Fulton
Scranton
Paulding
Fa.vette
Eliisville
De Kalb
O.tford
Meridian
Monticello
Carthage
Tupelo
Greenwood
Brookhaven
Columbus
Canton
Cohmibia
Holly Springs. . .
.\berdeen
Winona
Philadelphia
Decatur
Macon
Siarkville
Sardis
Poplarville
Augusta
Magnolia
Pontotoc
Booneville
Belen
Brandon
Forest
Rolling Fork
\V,stville
Rjil.-igh
liulianola
I ( 'harleston
I Senatobia
I Ripley
1.289,600
uka
Tunica
Ni*w .-vlbany . . .
Viekshurg
ftrecnville
WftvneslK>rt»ugh
Walthall..
W.«.dville.
I.<tuisville.
Coffeeville
Y'azoo City
Pop.
mi).
10.101
2.111
1^394
1.88
370
".i«8
893
1.524
395
2.762
074
2.410
1.974
534
i',lJ75
1,353
961
240
1.540
10,024
"322
1.477
1,035
2.142
4,559
2,131
2.240
3,449
1,648
1.565
1,725
1,044
232
"0T6
748
184
835
547
249
412
1.077
.574
1,019
198
.548
13.;l73
4.\S
122
avi
4.>i|
4M
3,280
• Reference for location of counties, see map of Mississippi,
t Formed since census of 1880.
Principal Cifien nnil Tmrnx, with Popultition for IS'M. —
Viekshurj;, V.i.'ATA; Mericiian, 10.«,'4 : Natclie/. 10,101 ; Green-
ville, 6,(r)h); Jackson. .i.iCJO ; Colunil.us. 4..'J.VJ; Aberdeen,
:!,44y: Vazoo fitv, :«.2N(i: IJiloxi. ;i.-':{4 : Wessen. 3,16s ; Wa-
ter Vallev, 2,k:«'; West Point. 2,7«-' ; Crenada, 2,41(J; Mc-
Comb City, 2,:fS2 : and Hollv Spriii;,'s, 2.24H.
Populalion (iiul J{ace.s.—li\ IStHI, T!» !.*».") : ISTO, 827,022 ;
18S0. LISI..!!)?: 1H!»0, 1.28!»,000 (native, 1.281,648; foreifm.
T.'J.">2: males. <54!l.«87 : females. 6a!l.913: white, .')44.8.51 ; col-
ored, 744,7411. of whom 742..").)9 were persons of African de-
scent, 147 Chinese, 7 .Japanese, and 2.0:J(i civilized Indians).
Finiinei'. — The a.s.sesscd vulualion of taxable |iroperly in
18U:{ was $1S.-).;{!IS,S!»4. The total State debt on (let. 1, 1MU3.
was *3.244,."i22.12. of which $2,4;}8,!l.j!l.0(J is a permanent
debt, made uj> of the Chicka.saw school fund, seminary
fund, the agricultural land scrip fund, and the common-
school fuml. On this the Slate pays interest periodically.
The total State debt, less this amount, is !j;80.)..')6:).
liankiny. — On Dec. 1!). lK!i;i, there were 12 national lianks
with afjgrcfjatc capital of ^ 1. ().").").( I( Ml. dcpi^its of ?: 1 .HS!i.206,
and surplus and protits of if .lOO.liriO ; and on .July 12, 18'J3,
the Stale banks numbered 63. and ha<l af,'gres;ate capital of
$3.260.!)2r., dcimsits of $4,!)."jO,i)!l2, and surplus and profits of
*80!l,418.
Jleann of Commiinicaliun. — On .lune 30, 1893, there were
fifteen lines of railways. ajj:irref;aliii;r 2.466 miles. The cost
for coMstruclion and eipiipiiuiit was -*1 12.407.407, and the
net annual income was ^3.417.43.'i. Of these railways, the
Illinois Central, the Mobile anil Ohio, and the Yaziio and
Mississippi Vallev traverse the .Slate from N. to ,S. ; and the
Memphis and ChailJston, the Kansas City, Memphis and
Birmingham, the Alabama and Vicksburg. and the New
Orleans, Mobile and Texas cross it from K. to W. On the
western border of the State the Mississippi river, for a dis-
tance of more than .500 miles, affords facilities for an im-
mense shipping iiiU rest. In addition to this,.the State has
five or six small rivei-s, which aggregate more than 700 miles
of navigable walei's, that give facilities forshifiping in a lim-
ited way. Jlissi.ssippi also has about 100 miles of Gulf coa.st,
and at Ship island, opposite Hiloxi. there is the best and most
important deep-water harbor on the Gulf.
tViHrcAcs. — The census fif 1890 gave the following statis-
tics concerning the principal religious bixlies:
DENOMINATIONS.
Baptist, colored
Baptist South
Methodist F.piscopal South. .
Methodist K|iisc<»pol
African Metho<iist Episcopal
Colored Methodist Episcopal
Roman Catholic
PreshyteriHiis in the IT. S
.-Vfricaii Methodist Eltiscopal, Zion
Ciunherland Presbyterians .
Di.scipli's of Christ
Protestant ICpiseopal
Methodist Protestant
Oixwiba-
Uou.
Charcko
•od h>Ui.
Mabm-
1.385
1.391
1.86.647
1,135
1,126
a'.si.-,
903
8*4
74.T85
398
395
31.142 1
122
256
25.4.89 t
29.8
292
20.107
07
67
11.848
208
184
11.055
64
64
8.519
135
119
6.a>8
111
109
6,r29
68
63
S,.5«0
75
75
3.147
V>lge of
cbnrcfa
property.
$682,
089.
903.
345,
236,
2:tO.
321.
415,
22.
108,
55,
322,
16.
.541
451
.563
624
242
290
.525
315
975
650
422
960
175
Schools. — The report of the State superintendent of edu-
cation for 1893 showed : Number of children of school age
(five to tweiitv). .">16,1H3; enrolled in the public schools,
334.923. of whom 1.54,4.59 were white and l.'^l.464 colored ;
numl)er of public .schools. ,5.9S6 ; teachers, 7.497 : ex|H»nditure
for public schools. $1,192,844; value of public-schiHil prop-
erty, $1,400,490. The higher institutions of learning su[>-
porled by tlie .Stale are the Stale rniversity. Agricultural
and Jlechanical College. Industrial Institute and I'ollcire
(for while girls), .-Mcorn I'liiversity and Agricultural and
Jlechanical College (colored), and State Normal ScOiooI (col-
ored). The appropriations to these institutions added to
the cost of luiblic scIumiIs made a total expenditure by the
State for education of $1,321,012. A comparison of statis-
tics shows that Mississippi ranks first among the ."southeni
States aiul eighth in lhi> I . S. in the ainniint expended for
eilucation in pro|iortion to the valuation of property, and
second in the I'nion in the percent, of |><ipulation enrolled
in the public schools. In addition to the piililic si'hools,
there an' in the Slate 233 high s<'hiK>ls, academies, and col-
legi's under private or dcnominationid cimtnd, with 22,8.59
pupils. Tougal(M> and Rust rniversities for colored youth,
Slississippi College (liaptist). and Millsaps Col leire (Metho-
dist) are the principal denominational institutions in the
State. Whitworth College, organized in 1S59. has for many
810
JlISSISSII'l'I
years been the largest college for women in the State under
private or denominational control.
Libraries. — According to a U. S. Government report on
public libraries of 1,000 volumes and upward each in 181)1,
Mississippi had 31 libraries, which contained 130,314 bound
volumes and l(j,125 pamphlets. The libraries were clas.sified
as follows: General, 3 ; school, 7; college. 10 ; college soci-
ety, 3 : law, 1 ; public institution, 1 ; State, 1 ; scientific, 1 ;
society, 3 ; and not rc]iorted, 2.
Posl-offices and Ptrimlicals. — In Jan., 1894, there were
1,487 post-oflices, of which 3.') were presidcnti.il (5 second-
class, 30 third-class) and 1,4.52 fourth-class. There were 249
money-order offices and 10 postal-note offices. There were
9 daily, 2 tri-weekly, 150 weekly, 2 semi-monthly, and 7
monthly publications ; total, 170.
Charitable, Reformatory, and Penal Institutions. — The
following institutions are supported wholly or in part by the
State: Institute for the Instruction of the Blind, at Jack-
son, established in 1848. Literary studies, music, and in-
dustrial arts are taught. Among the latter are sewing,
knitting, and bead-work to tlie girls, and mattress, broom,
and chair making to the boys. Only white pupils admitted.
Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at
Jackson, established in 1853, for whites and colored. Pu-
pils are instructed by both the sign and the oral method.
Literary and industrial branches are taught. State Luna-
tic Asylum, at Jackson, established in 1853. East Missis-
sippi insane Asylum, at Meridian, established in 1882, for
whites. Two public hosjiitals, one at Vicksburg and the
other at Natchez, are supported jointly by the .State and bv
the county an<i city in which they are" respectively located.
The Protestant Orphan Asylum was founded in 1816. It
has since been managed by women, and is now under the
auspices of ladies of the Protestant and Hebrew congrega-
tions of Natchez. In this asylum about fifty children are
sheltered anil educated. Benevolent orders, schools, and
charitably disposed [lersons throughout the State contribute
to its sui)port. Each county has its jail and poorhouse, and
some have convic-t farms, to the owners of which the able-
bodied prisoners are leased and thus made to support them-
selves. The chief penal institution of the State is the peni-
tentiary at Jackson. In it a leasing system similar to that
adopted in tlie counties has prevailed for years, and has
caused the penitentiary to be a source of revenue instead of
expense to the State. By the constitution of 1890 this sys-
tem was abolished. About 125 convicts, unable to labor on
farms, railways, or levees, are confined within the walls and
kept at work manvifacturing furniture, wagons, clothing,
shoes, and other articles.
Political Oryanization. — The constitution of 1890 pro-
vides that the Governor shall be chosen in the following
maimer : On the first Tuesday after the first Monday of
Nov.. 1895, and on the first Tuesday after the first Jlonday
of November in every fourth year thereafter, an election
.shall be held in the several counties and districts created
for the election of memliers of the House of Representatives,
and the person receiving the highest number of votes cast
in any such district shall be holden to have received as many
electoral votes as the district is entitled to members in the
House of Representatives. The election commissicmers
transmit the retiirns of said election to the Secretary of
State who must deliver them to the Speaker of the House
within one day after he shall have been elected. The
Sr)eaker opens and pulJishes them in the presence of the
House of Kepi'esentatives, and said House ascertains and
counts the vote of cacli elect-oral district and decides any
contest that may bo made concerning the same. The per-
son found to have received a majority of all the electoral
votes and also a majority of the poi)ular vote is declared
elected. If no person shall receive such majorities, then the
House of Representatives shall choose the Governor from the
persons who shall have received the highest number of popu-
lar votes, the vote to be recorded in such a manner as to
show for whom each member voted. All other .State officers
are elected in a similar way. The Governor is ineligible as
his immediate successor in office, and the treasurer and audi-
tor of public accounts are ineligible to immediately succeed
themselves or each other. The House of Representatives is
composed of 133 members chosen every four years by the
qualified electors of the several counties and districts. The
Senate is made up of forty-live members cho.sen at the same
time and in the same manner as the Representatives. All
male inhabitants, except idiots, insane persons, ami Indians
not taxed, who are citizens of the U. .S., twenty-one years old
and upward, who have resided in the State two years and in
the election district or in the incorporated city or town, in
which he offers to vote, one year, and who have never been
convicted of bribery, burglary, theft, arson, obtaining money
or goods under false pretenses, perjury, forgery, embezzle-
ment, or bigamy, and who have paid on or before the first
day of February of the year in which they shall offer to vote
all taxes which may have been legally required of them, and
which they have had an opportunity of paying according to
law, for the two |ireceding years, are declared to be ijiuditied
electors. In addition to the foregoing qualifications, an
elector must be able to read any section of the constitution
of the State ; or be able to understand the same when read
to him, or give a reasonable interpretation thereof.
History. — Hernando De Soto, a daring Spanish adven-
turer and explorer, was the first European to enter the lim-
its of the present State. Crossing the eastern boundary
near the present city of Columbus, he proceeded in a north-
westerly direction to the Chickasaw Bluffs on which the
city of Memphis is built. There, in May, 1541, he reaped
the only lasting fruit of his wanderings in the fame which
he acquired as the discoverer of the Mississijipi river. A
year or so later his body was sunk to rest bctieath its wa-
ter.s. In honor of his memory the State has given his name
to the county and the county-seat in it nearest to the jioint
at which he made his great discovery. Marquette and Jo-
liet. French explorers, passed down the river to tlie mouth
of the Arkansas in 1673, and La Salle, another indomitable
French explorer, floated down the Mississippi to the Gulf
of Mexico, and claimed all the country drained by it and
its tributaries for the King of Prance under the name of
Louisiana (in 1682). The first colonv in the State was es-
tablished by M. d'Iberville in Feb., 1699, at Biloxi, and set-
tlements were soon made at several other point.s. Until
1712 the Louisiana colony was a royal province, with Bien-
ville, the brother of d'Iberville, as its governor. Crozat,
a wealthy French merchant, was then granted the pro-
prietorship, but gladly relinquished it to the West India
Company in 1717. which in turn relinquished it to the
crown in 1732. From that time till ceded to the Eng-
lish in 1763 it was again a royal jirovince. Among the
most important events of the period of French possession
were the massacre of the garrison at Fort Rosalie and the
consequent extermination of the Natchez tribe of Indians.
In two campaigns against the Chickasaws the French were
themselves signally defeated.
Negro slaves were first imported in 1720. Owing to mis-
rule, the thriftlessness of the settlers, and other causes, the
colony never prospered : and after si;tty-foiir years of French
rule there were but 500 settlers, white and black, in all the
province. Lender the English better government was estab-
lished, favorable treaties with, the Indians were made, and
liberal land grants were offered. Immigration of a better
class of settlers at once set in, and the colony, then called
British West Florida, flourished until 1780, when it was sub-
jugate<l by Galvcz, the Spanish Governor of Louisiana. By
the treaty of 1783 the independence of the U. S. was recog-
nize<l, and the 31st degree of north latitude was made its
southern boundary. West Florida was given to Spain, and
33 28' was claimed as its northern boundary until by siiecial
treaty in 1795 with the U. S. the 31st parallel was established
as the dividing line. LTnder Spanish rule the colony contin-
ued to jirosper w'ith Natchez as the capital. Tobacco, indigo,
and cotton were the exports. In 1798 the section of country
between 31° and 32" 28' from the Chattahoochee river to
the Mississi|)pi river was organized as the i\lissjssippi Ter-
ritory, with the capital at Natchez; but in 1802 the cajiital
was niovcd to Washington, 6 miles E. of Natchez. Georgia
still claimed all this territory, and for a while there was
much confusion in land titles; but in 1800 by act of Con-
gress the Georgia claim was adjusted, and Mississijipi raised
to the second grade of territorial government, entitled to a
representative in Congress. Its population llu-ii was about
10,000. In 1804 the boundary was moved northward to the
Tennessee line, and in 1812 the strip of coast S. of the
31st parallel, between the Pearl river and the Perdido river,
was added to the territory. Great excitement prevailed in
the territory during the Creek war and that of 1812, and
its developiiient was much retarded for a few year.s. as cotton
could not be exported on account of the 15ritish blockade.
On Dec. 10. 1817, Mi.ssissippi was admitted as a State, and
Alabama Territory was organized out of what was su]ino.sed
to be the eastern" half of the Mississippi territory. Four-
teen counties lying S. of the railway which now connects
MISSISSIPPI
MISSISSIPPI UIVKU
811
Meriiliaii mid Vicrksliurf; then coiiiprisfd llif State, for the
Chiictaws and Chickiusaws still owned all the land N. of
that line. Uy treaties with the Choi-laws in IK'^0 and 1830
they were induee<l to move to the Indian 'I'erritcjry, and in
lH;i'i a similar treaty was made with the L'hickasaws. The
site for the new capital, nurned Jackson, in honor of tien.
Andrew Jackson, was chosen in W2\. In 1H:)2 a new con-
st it ntiun wiLS adonted. The Slate had increased rapidly in
wealth and population from its admission. Kailways and
teleKrajili lines were introduced, and the cotton crop in
lKi4 netted iJiri.OOO.IKJO; l>ut the loose liankinjr system then
prevalent cuhiiinated there, as in other States, in the finan-
cial panic of lM;i7. From this heavy reverse the people of
the State rapidly recovered, and continued to prosper tdl
the outbreak of the civil war. Mississippi heartily favored
the annexation of Texas and the war witli Mexico; and no
troops won gret'tcr hon<ir in thai war than did the First
Mississippi Kcffiment under Col. JetTerson Davis. The or-
«linance of si'cession was adopted Jan. !t, ISGl, and one
month later Jetfei-son Davis, of Mississippi, was elected
president of the Southern Confederacv, established at Mont-
gomery, Ala. In the war which followed Mississippi con-
tributed her quota of men and means to uphold the Con-
federacy. In or on her bonlers were foufjht the fierce bat-
tles of Shiloh, luka, Corinth, Chicka.saw liayou. Port Gib-
son, Champion Hills, Vicksburj;, Ilarrisburg or Tupelo, and
Hrice's Cross Koads, and much of her best territory was
<li'vastated by the I'liion armies. On May 22, 1865, Gov.
Clarke was sent a prisoner to Fort Pulaski, and on June
Vi Judj^e W. Ij. Sharkey was appointed provisional f;ov-
ernor of the State. On Oct. 2 followinj; delegates to Con-
gress were elected, but were refused admission to that body,
Ijy the Ueconstruction Act of 18(57 Mississippi and Arkan-
sas were united in the fourth military district. In Jan.,
18t)8, a constitutional convention, composed of delegates
elected under the Federal Kegistration .\el, was assembled;
but the constitution nrepared was defeated at a general
election in June, and B. tj. Humphreys was re-elected Gov-
ernor. On June l.j he was expelled by military force from
his ollice, and Adelbert Ames appointed in his stead. On
Nov. 30, 1809, the constitution of 18(J,S, with the obnox-
ious clause disqualifying Confederate soldiers from hold-
ing ollice stricken out. was resubmitted to the people, and
almost unanimously adopted. Members to Congress from
the State were adniitted to their seats Feb. 24, 1870. The
election in 1873 of Adelbert Ames as Governor was very
objectionable to the white people of the State. Taxes hail
become exorbitant, while property had ruinously depre-
ciated. Under his adininislralion race conflicts also be-
came fre(pient. A conveiilion of taxpayers assembled in
Jackson in 1875 to institute measures of reform, but their
petitions to the Legislature were unheeded, and bills in-
troduced for the correction of evils were defeated by the
N'egro members. Gov. Ames intensified race prejudices
by attempting to organize a l>ody of Xegro militia to pre-
serve the peace. The November elections of 1875 resulted
in the return of a white majority to the Legislature; and
in Mar., 187G, articles of impeachment were drawn up
against Gov. .\mes. He resigned his otliee on condition
that the articles be willulrawn. A. K. Davis, Lieutenant-
Governor, and T. \V. Cordozo, .State superintendent of edu-
cation, both colored, were also impeached, but were permit-
ted to resign. John M. Stone became Governor, and the
State rapidly regained prosperity. In 18!K) a new consti-
tution was adopted.
OOVERXORS OF MISSISSIPPI.
Territorial.
Winthrop SarRent 1798-18ns
Will. V. V ClaitHirne lKi>a-(i.->
R<il>erl Williiims IHI'5 (HI
Diivid Holmes 1(HJ9-I7
State.
linvid IIcMnii-s 1817-19
UeorKe )N'iiulext«r IHiii-'Ji
'^Valter Liiike isv'l ;!'>
David tlolnies ls*iV.>7
Oerard C. BrandoD ls-.T-;iI
Abraham >l. Soott istl -.'ti
>Iirani (t. Runnels is.w-.'i.'i
Charles Lyiieli isiv,ir
Alexanderi). McXutt Is.C-41
TllKhman M. Tucker IH4I -13
Albert (). Br.mn IM.t-IS
Joseph \V. Jlatthews IK^IS-M
John A. Quitman 16S«>-&I
John J. Uuiuu ^acting) 1851
I James Whitlleld 1S.51-5S
Henrv S. Fix.Ie 1K)2-M
.John J. McRne 1H54-.'J*
William MeWillie IWMiO
John J. IVtlus IH60-8a
Jacob Tluimp80ii 18«S-ftl
Charles Clarke 1HW-65
W. L. Sharkev iprov'll . . . 18G&-6S
Benj. (i. iliimphreya ISiW-TO
James L. .\le..rn IKTO-Tl
Kidtley C. Powers. 1S7I-T4
AdellxTl Ames lS7-t-T«
Jidiii M Stone IH76-tS
Robert I^>wry It«i-90
John M. .Sl.ine ltt!IO-96
Auselm J. Mel^uriD 1890-
Al'THORiTiKs.— History : Gavarre, JJinloru of Louisiana;
Monette. Iliilori/ of the Valley of the j/iiu>iMi//pi ; Clai-
Iwrne, Mixnimi/ipi an a I'roviiicf. Territory, uiid State ;
Lowry and McCardle, Ilixtory of Mi«Kiiusii,i,i\ Duval, His-
tory of MisKiitxiii/ji. tieologv : \\'ailes"s Geoloyy of Jlixsis-
nippi; Hiir\KT'A (ieoloyy of Slissiiuii/j/ji; llilgard's tjeoloyy
of Mix«ia/iif>i>i. Uesources and productions: liulletins and
other publications of the Mississippi experiment station;
U. .S. census for 1890; the Tenth Censim Report of Cotton
Production in Jlissinsijjpi (vol. v.). Institutions of the
Slate: Reports of the institutions; Keport of the State
Superintendent of Ivlucation for 1803-93 ; (iovernor's Mes-
sage (Jan., 1894) ; and other oflicial State reporl.s.
S. D. Lee.
Mississi|>|>i River (Iiulian, Algonkin, Jlissi Sept. Great
River ; first spelled by the discoverers Mesasippi] : the
great river of North Anierica; popularly called tlie Father
of Waters. It was discovered by De'Soto in 1.541. It
drains a territory of 1.246,000 stj". miles, which is inhab-
ited bv a population of over 30,fX)0,000 (1890). The mean
annual rainfall over the whole basin is 30} inches. Taken
in connection with its princi^ial tributary, the Missouri
(which should have been considered the extension of the
parent stream), it is one of the longest rivers in the worl(l. the
distance from the headwaters of the Missouri to the mouth of
the Mississippi being 4,200 miles. The Mississippi has its
source in the numerous lakes in the northern part of the
.State of Minnesota, the stream having been traced to its
origin in Lake Iliusca in lat. 47 14 N. and Ion. 95 15 W.
Its length is 2,800 miles, although the direct line distance
from its source to its mouth is but about l.fiCO miles, where
it empties into the Gulf of .Mexico in lat. 29' N. and Ion. 89'
10 \V.
Slope. — The fall or slope of the river in the navigable por-
ti<m above the mouth of the Ohio is about 6 inches tier mile
except at the Des Moines and the R<X!k Island Rapicls. where
the total fall is 24 feet and 22 feet respectively. The Falls
of .St. Anthony, 78 feet (including the rapids atxive and be-
low), at Minneapolis marks the head of navigation. A
canal has been constructed for passing the Des Moines Rap-
ids, but boats are able to pa.ss the Rock Island Rapids, as
they extend over a distance of 14 miles of river. Below the
mouth of the Ohio river the high and low water slo[ies are as
follows :
SLOPE OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER, CAIRO TO NEW ORLEANS.
STRETCH,
Db-
lUCTlll
Fall al
FaUat
low
avavs n
niCHCS PER
HlUt.
mll«.
wMot.
wmtar.
Hl(k
walar.
Uw
walar.
Cairo to Memphis
830
76
238
57
166
192
Firt.
100
30
79
15J
8SJ
Fart.
88
*i
72
26
S»»
*i
4»
4
»l
3
21
latkak
St
5i
m
i
Helena to I^ke Providence
L.nke Providence to Vieksbur(r
Vicksburj: to nioutli of Rett river
Mouth of Red river lo New Orleans..
Width. — The width of the river is greatest in its middle
portion. Above the mouth of the Mi.sstiuri there are many
islands, and the total width of the Mississippi is about a
mile as high up as Lake Pepin. This is an expansion to the
width of 2 to 3 miles for a distance of about 20 miles, not
far below the heacl of navigation. Helow the mouth of the
Mis.souri the width rediiies to from half a mile to a mile.an
average rctaineil as far down as Red river; but occasionally
the river widens out as much as a mile and a half. From
Red river to the mouth the width averages but little over
half a mile, and is quite uniform.
Stability of Jiankn. — .\bove the mouth of the Ohio the
Mississippi river is similar to other inland streams. It fiows
in a tolerably stable bed; the variations in depth are not
extraordinary: the changes in width an- not excessive; and
the banks are fairly stable. Helow that point, however, the
de|M>sits which form its banks are com |>os,'il nf alternate lay-
ers of sand and mud or clay (the sand liaving liecn de|>osited
by running water, and the mud having K-en de|H>sited in
comparutively still water): and the sjind layers an" n'adily
washed out, thus causing I he hanks to cave off rapidly when-
ever the current s<ls against them. The sIoih' is also gn'nt
enough to create high velocities, and the n-sult is a very un-
stable chiuinel, constantly shifting laterally, and causing the
river to develop into a serpentine form, one bend following
812
MIS.SISSII'PI KIVKH
another continuously almost all the way from Cairo to New-
Orleans. Below the mouth of the lied river, however, the
slope is reilueed, and the banks beeome tolerably stable.
The banks eave otf along the outer sides of these great
curves or bends, causing them to develop more and more
until finally two adjacent bends meet and a "cut oil" is
made. This concentrates a tall which had been distributed
over some 15 miles upon a much shorter distance, ami thus
the river here is given an abnormal velocity and energy to-
gether with new directions of How, so that the old n'yime
of the river is disturbed for many miles above ami below.
The convex bank in a l>end is built up with sand deposits as
rapidly as the concave bank caves off, so that the river does
not usually be(H)me any wider in the bends on account of
the caving. The wide places in this part of the river are
generally on the stretches .intervening between the bends,
and are called crossings, because steand)oats must cross over
here from the deep water on one side of the river to the deep
•water upon the other in the next bend, the deepest water al-
ways being next to the concave or wasting bank.
Depth.— la those parts of the river where the bends are
fullv developed the variation in depth is enormous. If the
water could all be drawn off from the channel it would be
seen to be composed here of a series of crescent-shaped
trenches in the bends, with almost perpendicular sides at
the outer banks, but with very low slopes toward the inner
side. Tlieso successive horseshoe-sliaped depressions would
always be turned with the horns pointing toward each other,
alternately curved in opposite directions. Intervening be-
tween tliilse horns would be sand-ridges, some 50 feet or
more in height, which are the principal obstructions to navi-
gation, and which it is the object of the improvement of the
river to remove to some degree. Below the mouth of Red
river the depth is always sutiScient for navigation, but above
that point there is more or less trouble at low stages. As
the river narrows in the lower part of its course it becomes
correspondingly deeper, its depth being in many places over
100 feet at ordinary stages.
Sediment. — Below the mouth of the Missouri the river is
always very highly charged with sediment of a yellowish
appearance'. A large proportion by weight of this sediment
is very fine sand. Prom daily measurements of volume of
water and proportion of scilimentary matter passing New
Orleans in the year 1880 {Hi port Miss. Riv. Com. 1882), it
appears that for that year the total discharge of the river
was 18,400,000,000,000 cubic feet. The average proportion of
sediment by weight was yVsu- There was no high water dur-
ing this year, therefore it is probable that the mean annual
discharge of the river is about 31,000,000,000.000 of cubic feet,
or sufficient to cover the whole Mississippi basin to a depth
of 7+ inches; in other words, one-fourth of the rainfall over
the basin passes off to the Gulf at the mouth of the river.
If account is taken of what passes off through the Atchafa-
lava. 10 to 15 per cent, must be added to this. The average
annual amount of solid matter delivered into the Gulf is
therefore about 400,000.000 tons, or a volume a mile square
and 360 feet high. This is sjiread by the Gulf currents over
a very large area, ami accuinulates very slowly at the South
Pass,"which is the navigable outlet. A very nuu-h smaller
amount of sediment (not over 2 per cent.), composed of
coarser sand, is rolled or pushed along upon the bed of the
river. This material is moved intermittently in the form of
" sand-waves." These waves are si rongly develo|)ed, being
from 1 to 10 feet high and about 100 to ^00 feet from cn-st
to crest. The slope is very gentle on the up-stream side and
very steep on the down-stream side. A given particle of
sand is rolled or pushed up the low slope on the ujiper side
and falls over and assists in building up the lower side. In
this way these waves move gradually down stream at the
rate of from 10 to 50 feet a day. They are only developed
in the main channels where there is a decided current, but
are found in both shoal and deep water. The most signifi-
cant movement of sediment, however, is a discontinuous one
of particles of sand in suspension. On account of 1 he wide-
ly varying areas of cross-section the velocity of the wati'r
varies' greatly. Where the velocity is more raiiid, sand is
taken from the bed and banks, thus increasing the size of
this section, and deposited in the next enlarged section
below, where the current is slack, reducing its area.
There is no such condition of the water as was formerly
spoken of as " surcharged witli se<liment." The more rapid
the flow and the more violent the vertical movements in
the " boils " and " eddies " which result from the (low over
the sand-ridges at the bottom, the greater is the proportion
of sediment carried, the variable element being composed
almost wholly of sand.
Velucity. — Tlu' mean velocity of the flow is from 1 to C
miles per hour U>y dilferent stages and sections. Fur any
given stage, the same volume passing all sections, the moan
velocity must vary inversely as the areas of the cross-sec-
tions. At low stages the large areas are in the mirrow bends
where the water is deep, and the small sections are in the
wide crossings wdiere the water is very shallow. The great-
est velocity at low stages, therefore, is found on the sand-
bars, the slope also being concent rated at these points. The
river is now washing off the crests of these liars in its ef-
fort to attain to a uniform cross-secti(m and uniform velocity.
At high stages the direct reverse is the case, the river then
being engaged in cutting out the engorged sections in t he
bends and filling up the wide reaches where the .sandbars
lie. Evidently, if any given stage should continue long
enough, a channel of nearly uniform sectional area would
be created. To facilitate this desirable result the wide
reaches are artificially narrowed, so that the river may have
a tendency to exert a continual scouring action upon the
bottom.
7'he Alluvial Basin. — Above the mouth of the Ohio the
river flows through a chasm in limestone formations, from
1 tt) 10 miles wide, cut out by a monstrous glacial and \'ve-
glacial river, which drained all the northern [lart of the
continent. The limestone bluff's are from 2(tO to ;i00 feet
above the low-water stage, but the intervening bottom-lands
are largely subject to overflow. Those above overflows are
sandy plains formed as great sandbars by the once gigantic
stream. Those now subject to overflow have been formed
by the later alluvial deposits, and are verv fertile. Below
the mouth of the Ohio the river flows through a region
wholly formed by its own deposits. Numerous borings
made for this purpose have established the fact that the al-
luvial basin below Cairo was once an estuary, or arm of I lie
Gulf, and that it has been raised, along with the entire
southern portion of the continent, about 100 feet, and then
filled to its present height by the sediment carried down by
the river itself. This portion is shown on the acconi|iany-
ing map Jiy the shaded areas. The width of this alluvial
region varies from 20 to 70 miles. It is divided into three
great basins, called respectively the St. Francis Basin, on
the \V., the Vazoo Basin, on the E., and the Tensas Basin,
on the W. When not confined to the channel by levees, the
natural course of a great flood is to spread entirely over all
these basins. They then act as great reservoirs and storage
grounds, although there is a slow movement of the water
through them. They greatly delay the high-water stages
on the lower portion of the river and Icngtlien out the pe-
riod of the flood by fully four weeks at New Orleans. The
Yazoo and Tensas basins have been closed against the en-
trance of floods by levees; the St. Francis Basin is open
(1894), but is in process of being closed.
Orent Floods. — On the upper river (above the mouth of
the Ohio) the greatest floods come in April. May, or June.
On the lower river they come in February, JIarch, or April,
an<l come mostly from the Ohio river. The following table
gives tilt! more prominent flood data for different points on
the river :
LOCALITY.
muDi
rise ID
feet.
Low-wat«r
discharge in
cub. ft.
per secoud.
Ordinary hi},'li-
waler dUclierge
in cub, ft.
per second.
Extreme hfftb-
WBter discharge
In cub. ft.
per iccoud.
Raiio of
ordinary
hiizh to
Inw wntcr
dltclinrge.
St Lnuis
41
52
37
48
41
53
48
18
40,000
100,000
100,000
120,000
160,000
200,000
220,000
2,50,000
600.000
1,200,000
1,100.000
1,200,000
1,100.000
i.aoo.ooo
1.300,000
l,Ol»,000
iiiiiili
!,■>
12
11
10
Lalie Provitlence . ,
Vieksburjr
6
Minitli of Red river.
New Orleaus
6
4
Very important deductions can be made from the figures
in this table. It will be seen that the increase of stage at
high water is much less at Jlemphis and Lake Providence
than at points above and below. These localities are oppo-
site the great basins of the St. Francis and thi' Vazoo, re-
spectively. The St. Francis Basin always takes olT a large
portion of the water in time of flood and transports it
through the swamps, it not yet having been leveed out. The
Yazoo Basin is fully leveed'. and in 1,802 resisted a moderate
flood without an V breaks, for the first lime, although this
basin has been leveed for a quarter of a century. The flood
MISSISSIPPI RIVER
813
maile larjjc crevasses on the west siile, however, opposite this
liasiri, uiui thus obtained relief. When both of these ba-sins
iuhI also the Tensas Hasin have been eHieiently levecil, tlie
fliM)d stage along their fronts will apiinjxiniaie closely to
that at the junction |H)ints Cairo, Helena, and Vick>b'iirg,
1ml at these points the niaxiiniini stages given in the table
are not for a great flood, as no great flood has ever Iwen so
confined to tlie channel. Tlie lower enil of the river has
never carried in the channel more than 1,200,000 cubic feel
per second. In several recent Hoods about l.fiOO.OOO cubic
lect per second has pa-ssed the mouth of the Red river in
the cliannel. To enable it to escape down the river, crevasses
in the levees have always occurred. To enable this amount
of water to pass New Orleans in the river, a great enlarge-
ment of the channel must be effected. Temporarily, at
least, this increased area of cross-section must be provided
at the surface, which means levees very much higher on this
portion of the river than have ever yet been built. See
LKVKK.S.
Thi' Atehafalayn Problem. — The Atchafalaya river was
formerly the lower end of the Red river, and such it
has again come to be. The Mississi|ipi developed a bend
toward the W., the Red river became a tributary to the
Mississippi, its former chaniud silted up, finally becoming
choked with "rack-heaps." These were cleared out many
years ago to improve this stream for navigation, and it im-
mediately began to etdarge its cliannel. It may be seen
that the distance to sea-level is much shorter by lliis nmte,
and hence the slope is correspondingly greater. It has now
developed into a large river, carrying in time of flood in
1890 over 4.")0.00(l euliic feet per second. It is feared that
since there is still a high-water connection between the Ked-
Atchafalaya river and the Mississippi, their channel may en-
large sufliciently to carry the whole river. thus leaving Xew
Orleans on an arm of the sea. Another evil effect of this
enlargement has been to drown out the plantations in
Western Louisiana, which were the finest in the State, but
are now entirely abandoned. The further enlargement of
the Atchafalaya is now (1!^!)4) being provided against by
building artificial sills in its bed near the junction with the
Red river, and by means of a ilam to force Red river to find
its outlet again in the Mississijipi. This would make the
Red a tributary and the Atchafalaya an outlet of the Mis-
sissippi, as wa.s formerly the ease. At low stages the Red-
Atchafalaya river is now entirely severed from the Missis-
sippi, and it has been found practically impossible to main-
tain an open channel between thcra by artificial means at
extreme low water.
The Improvement rif the River. — This work divides itself
into three kinds: bank protection, levee building, and con-
traction works. The banks are protected from caving by
first grading them down by water-jets to a suitable slope,
and then covering these with mattresses composed of small
trees of willow and Cottonwood, woven together with wire.
These mattresses reach from near high water to the bottom
of the river, and often are supplemented with others in the
bottom extending out from the bank, all of them being
held in place by rock ballast and pdes. They immediately
fill up with silt, and are very eflicieiit in [ireventing further
caving.
The levees are built near the river banks because the land
here is higher, and the most valuable land for cultivation
is near the river. If they were placed farther back the
waste land in front of them would be s<ion covered with
coltonwood-trees and thick midergrowth, so that this area
would be worthless for discharging fiiiod waters ; but l)e-
cause the levees arc jdaced near the unprotected banks they
often cave off, and others are built a little farther back.
These levees are earthen embankments from 5 to 20 feet in
height and low sli>pes on each side. They are sure to l>e
washed away if the water runs over them, and this is the
common cause of failure. The levees have mostly been
built by a special levee-tax collected from the lands bene-
fiteil, by commissioners of certain " levee districts " orpin-
ized inider special State enactments. For several years, how-
ever. Congress has appropriated money for this purpose, and
this moiU'y has been allotti'd in such a way as to supplement
and encourage the local assessments, ."some ^T.TIMUKK) has
now (ISlll) been s|)ent by the I'.S. (tovernnient in this way.
Theron/nirtinn iri/rAv! consist of transverse spar and longi-
tudinal training dikes made of wooden piles anil porous
n|>ronsor watllingsof snnill willow-trees, so place<l as to check
the flow o( the water somewhat, without wholly deflecting the
current, thus causing the water to drop its heavier sediment
where fills are desired. In this way the river can be made
to build for itself new banks, and to narrow the wide reaches
in its channel with great certainty and at a ino<lerate ex-
pense. When so narrowetl the low-water depth becomes
suflicient fur navigation from natural scour. These dikes
do not reach to the high-water stagi', so that at high water
there is the original width for discharge. These artificially
filleil areiLS sooji grow up in timljer, however, and this effec-
tually slops nearly all flow. The piles are driven bv the aid
of a water-jet. and they are protected fnim washing out by
means of foot -mat tresses weighted down with stones, as de-
scribed for the bank protect i<in. This work has all lieen
done uniler the aus[iices of the Mississipiii River Commis-
sion, which was ajipointed under act of Congress in 1879.
It is comjiosed of three memlKTs of the Engineer Corps of
the U. S. army, one engineer from the L'. S. Coast and Cieo-
detic .Survey, two civil engineers, and one lawyer. The head-
quarters of the commission arc in St. I^uisi and their an-
nual reports are full of valuable detailed information of
every possible phase of the work under their charge, well
illustrated, and can be had on application. Xearlv $14,-
0(M).000 havi' (1894) been siient on contraction works and
bank jiroteetion. The results are very satisfactory and full
of promise.
The jellies at the mouth of the South Pass were con-
structed bv Capt. James H. Eads, under a special contract
with the XJ. .S. Government in 1874. They have proved a
perfect success in every way, and provide now a luivigable
channel about ISO feet dee|> at all seasons. The predicted
shoaling at their outlet has not occurre<l, most of the sedi-
ment brought <lown by the river Iwing carried off by Gulf
currents. .See Jkttiks.
Jieserroirs ami Equalization of Volume. — One of the
greatest causes of sandbar construction is the great varia-
tion of volume. The river in time of floml builds uj) the
wide reaches, since here the current is slackened at such
stages. To add more volume to the river at these times is
but to intensify the evil effects of such stages. It is very
desirable, therefore, to reduce flood volumes and to increase
low-water volumes. Reservoirs at the head-waters, which
will store up flood water and deliver it back to the river at
low stages, are therefore heliiful. Their effect is quite in-
appreciable in reducing the flood stage, but they materially
add to the dry-weather flow. The projiosed enlargement of
the Illinois and Michigan Canal, which will deliver a con-
tinuous flow from Lake Michigan, will alsi> help out the
scouring action of the low-water flow. The effect of reser-
voirs, several of which have now been built on the head-
waters in Minnesota, is loo small, however, to make their
construction as a means of river improvement economical.
Far more can be accomplished with the same money by
contraction works.
Effect of lierinlnrizaUon and Improvement. — The effect
of a perfected levee system would be lo bring under culti-
vation a very large area of country now considered worth-
less. The uncertainty as lo future flooil volumes and the
.stages consequent upon a confined channel are so great, how-
ever, that great devastation from crevasses caused by the
river overtopping the levees will continue for m an v years
to come. The banks will never be fully i>roleeled from
caving, and the channel will always be very unstable, and
will shift more or less in jMisition. The wiile sections will
be grailnally reduced in wiilth, and the intervening bars
lowered by natural .scour. The effect of the levees is to in-
crease the height of the bars so long as the very unequal
widths are uncorrecte<i. for a confined river means higher
flooil stages, anil the higher the stage llie higher the Uirs
art^ built up in the wide reaches. Therefore tlie regulation
of the width and the protection of the banks shoulil precede
the building of levees. The popular demand for levees,
hi>wever. has reversed this onler, and the levees have l>een
constructed far in advance of the other works.
The ultimate incn'a.s«> in low-water depths for navigation
is much smaller than geiierallv supposed. It is not prob-
able that, after the river is fully reguhiteil in ncconiance
with what now s<'ems the Ih'sI standard width (."t.OOO fwt),
the navigable depths at the lower stages will excee<l 12 feet
up lo Vi<-ksburg, 10 feet to Memphis, 8 feet to Cairo, 6 feet
to .St. Louis. ."> feel lo Keokuk, and !t feel to St. Paul; yet if
these moilenite depths could be assured at all s<'asons, the
commercial advantnges to the country would more than re-
pay for llie cost of the work. .See Rivkrs, Leveks. and
r l-oons ; also the Annual Jtrjmrlii of the Mifsissinpi Itivrr
Cummission, 1879 lo dale ; Iluniphri'y and Abbot s I'hysict
su
MISSISSIPPI SCHEME
5IISS0URI
and ITijdraiiUes of the, Mississippi Hirer; Cortlipll's His-
tory of the Mississippi River Jetties ; Great Floods un tlie
Lower Mississippi : and also Protection of the Lower Mis-
sissippi Valley from Overtlow.hs the autlior of this article,
in Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies,
vols. ii. and iii. respectively. J. 15. Johnson.
Mississippi SolieiiiP : a banking and commercial scheme
which endeif in a wild speculation and colla|ise. It was
started in Paris in 1717 by John Law (see Law, John) under
the patronage of the regent. Its jiriniary object was to re-
lieve the French finances from the burdensome del)t and
disorder consequent on the expensive wars of Louis XI\'.
Law established a private bank, and managed its affairs so
skilfully that its paper was soon accepted by the public with
perfect confidence, and in 1718 it was transformed into a
roval bank. Then a commercial company was chartered
entitled "The West India Company," of which also Law was
director-general. To this company the whole jirovince of
Louisiana, watered by the .Mississippi and its branches, was
granted. SuljseriuenHy it wa.s intrusted with the collection
of the taxes and of the king's revenues, and thus it had a
monopoly of almost the entire eommereial and financial
operations of the nation. Meantime the bank issued its
notes- freely till the paper currency amounted to 2,700,000,-
000 livres, but the.se notes were kept from depreciation by
accepting them at a premium over specie in payment for
the shares of the company. This increase of currency, with
a promise of large dividends, rapidly advanced the price of
shares, and the whole nation was possessed with a frenzy of
speculation. All classes, prince and peasant, clergy and
laity, men and women, were affected alike. The rush of
stock-jobbing business in the streets of Paris wfis enormous.
The speculations culminated av the close of the year 1719,
when the company's shares sold for thirty or forty times
their original value, and money was so abundant that the
bank loaned at 2 per cent. There was, however, a drain of
specie from the bank, as the shrewd ones attempted to put
their new-made fortunes into forms of fixed value. To
check this drain ineffectual edicts were passed to restrict
payments in coin, to limit the amount of specie which one
might hold, and to fix the value of the notes. The royal
bank was incorporated with the company in Mar., 1720, and
on May 21 a tioverument edict was issued reducing the
value of bank-notes and of company shares one-half. This
burst the bubble at once, and universal bankruptcy and dis-
tress ensued. This scheme stands a striking illustration of
the fallacies that a nation's delit can be paid or its prosper-
ity increased by a mere increase of its money circulation,
and that paper money can be made stable and safe on some
general security without respect to its convertibility. The
leaders of the scheme were probalily deluded with the rest.
Revised by C. K. Adams.
Mississippi, Universily of: a collegiate institution in
Lafayette co.. Miss.; chartered in 1844; opened Xov. 6.
1848. It was founded on a grant by Congress to the State
of one township of land in 1819, the proceeds of which
amounted to over $544,000, on which the State pays to the
university interest at 6 per cent. ; (Congress granted another
township of land in 1894. The institutioti possesses twelve
plain but comuuidious liric'k buildir.gs. In 189:S-04 there
were 12 instructors, 170 students, and 1,132 alumni. Courses
lead to the degrees of A. 15., 15. S., and Ph. B. The library
contains 14,000 volunu's. The iiresidents have been : George
F.Holmes 1848-49; .Aug. 15. fjOngstreet 1849-56: F. A. P.
Barnard 18.56-Cl ; John N. Waddel 186.5-74: Alexander P.
Stewart 1874-86; Edw. Maves 1886-91; Robert 15. Fulton
1892-. ■ K. B. Fulton.
Missoloii'Klii, or Mcsolonglii : the most important town
of Western Greece; in the governnu'iit of .iKtolia, on the
Gulf of Patras (see map of Greece, ref. 16-J). It is well for-
tified, aii<l famous for the valor with which it twice met the
besieging Turks during the war of independence, in 1822
and 1826. Lord Byron died here Apr. 19, 1824. Pop. 6.000.
Missoula: city; capital of Missoula Co.. Jlont. (for loca-
tion of county, see ma|) of .Montana, ref. 5-1)) ; on Clark's
fork of the Columbia river, and the X. Pac. Railroad ; 145
miles W.i of Helena, the State capital. It is in an agricul-
tural, lumbering, and fruit-growing region ; has extensive
mines and rich grazing land in the vicinity; and c<mtains a
(lour-mill, hospital, and 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers.
Pop. (1880) not in census; (1890) 3,426; (1892) estimated,
6,000. EunoB of " Missoulian."
Seal "i Missouri.
Missouri [named from Missouri river] : one of the V. .S. of
N.)rth America (North Central group); the eleventh State
admitted into the Union.
Location and Area. — It lies wholly W. of the 5Iis,sissippi
river.between lat.s. 36 and 40° 30 X. and Ions. 89' 2' and 95'
44' W. from Green-
wich ; is bouniled
N. by Iowa, E. by
Illinois, Kentucky,
and Tennessee, S.
by Arkansas, and
\V. by Indian Ter-
ri' ory, Kansas, and
Xebraska; extreme
breadth E. to \V..
318 miles ; average
breadth. 244 miles ;
area, 69.415 sq.
miles (44.425,600
acres), of which 680
sq. miles are water
surface.
Physical Fea-
tures.— The State
is divided into two
une(iual portions
by tlie Missouri river, which crosses it from W. to E., and
forms also its northwestern houndai-y. The portion S. of
the Missouri is of very varied surface, the southeastern
portion being low and partially swampy ; above this, on the
Mississippi, the highland bluffs begin and extend to the
mouth of the Missouri. In the southwestern portion of the
State the Ozark Mountains — or ratlier hills — render the
whole region exceedingly broken and hilly, the isolated
peaks sometimes rising from 500 to 1.000 feet above their
liases, and then sinking into very beautiful and sonu-times
fertile valleys. The numerous river-bottoms and valleys
formeil by the tributaries of the Osage and Missouri rivers
are moderately fertile, but they are generally subject to
overflow. Farther X.. in the basin of the Osage and above
it, the land is mostly rolling prairie, with occasional for-
ests; the immediate valley of the Missouri has a rich al-
luvial soil, and abounds in large forest trees. The principal
rivers are the Jlississippi. which bounds the Slate on the E.
and has a direct shore-line of 470 miles (with windings,
about 500 miles), and the Missouri, which forms the western
boundary of the State for nearly 200 miles, and, turning
eastward at the mouth of the Kansas river, flows in an
E. iS. E. direction across the State, then, flowing X^. E., en-
ters the Mississippi 20 miles X. of St. Louis. The Little ,
river, which crosses the southern boundary of the State be-
fore entering the Mississippi, and the Mennuec. are the oidy
considerable streams discharging their waters into the Jlis-
sissippi S. of the Missouri. N'. of tliat river Salt river is the
largest of these tributaries, but the Cuivre or Cop^ier river,
Perruque or Wig creek, Dardenne creek. Fabius, \\ yaconda.
and Little Fork rivers are streams of moderate size. The
Jlissouri receives numerous large affluents in the State ; on
the south side are Lamine river, Osage river, .nnd its trilm-
tary the Little Osage. Sac river. Grand river, Pomme de
Teri'e river. Big Xiangua, Auglaize, JIaries creek, and Gas-
conade; river; on the north side, the Xishnabalomi, Nod-
away, Platte, Grand, Chariton, Roche Perce, Cedar, anil
Loutre rivers, and Yellow creek.
Geology and Mineralogy.— The geology of .Missouri may
be briefly summed up as follows; Quatermiry dejiosits in
the S. E.", extending over a triangular tra<'t from the jioint
where tlu^ Current river crosses the simthern biumdary of
the State to the iMississippi river, and comprising the counties
along and near the river in the whole swamp region to a
point near Benton; the same formation extends through
the immediate valley or bottom lands of the Missouri to and
beyond the point where it leaves South Dakota. There are
no' Tertiary. Cretaceous, Triassic. or Jurassic rocks in the
State. Tlie next is the Carboniferous or coal-measures,
whieli either as Upper or Lower Carboniferous coyer
23,100 sq. miles of the surface of the State, occupying in
general the western, tiorthwestern. and noi-thern portions of
the .State. These include the four subdivisions of the Up-
per Carboniferous formation and six successive deposits of
the Lower Carboniferous, comprising an unclassifieil sand-
.stone, ami the St. Louis, Keokuk, and Chouteau gnuqis i)f
limestones and sandstones, most of them rich in fossils.
Adjoining these coal-measures are two considerable tracts
•
MISSOUKI
815
of Devonian rock, one in the southwest, the other in the
northesist, portion of the .State: u narrow hell of it also fol-
lows the eajitern edge of the C'nrhoniferoiis ch'posit.s in all
their devious lines, and extends S. K. to the iininedialo vi-
cinity of St. Louis. Tlje Ilanulton and the (tnoi;dai.'a groups,
both niainly limestones, are the only strielly Itevonian nn-ks
in the Slate. The L'pper aiul Kower Silurian formal ions
come ne.\t, ami oeeuiiy a tract ahnost :,'00 miles in width,
and exteiKling from the .Mis.souri river to the southern line
of the State, and also crop out in the immediate bottom-
lands of the Mississippi above the mouth of the Mis.souri.
Four groups of the Upper Silurian are fouml henr — viz.,
Oriskany sanilstone, Lower Heidelberg or Dellhyris shale,
Niagara group, and t'ape liirardeau liimstone. Of the
Lower Silurian formation there are three groups, belonging
to the Trenton period — viz., the Cineiniiali group, repre-
sented mainly by Hudson river shale ; th(i tialena group, re-
ceptaeiilito limestone; and the Trenton group, composed of
Trenton, lilaek river, and Hirdseye limestones. Tiiere are
also three groups of the magnesian limestone series, consist-
ing of magnesian limestones, saceharoidal and other sand-
stones, and IVilsdaui limestones, sandstones, and conglom-
erates, lielow these, and around the liead-waters of the
allluents of the St. Krancis and While rivei"s, there are fre-
quent outcrops of Eozoic or archaic rocks — greenstone, por-
phyry, and graidte. Much of the limestone of the coal-
measures, as well as some of the other formations, is cavern-
ous, and there are numerous caves of great extent and
beauty in the central and western portions of the State.
During the year ending .lune ^0, 1892, there were 1,144
mines of all kinds in operation, aii<l the output showed a
marked increa.se over that of the preceding year, but prices
were lower. The pnKluclion of lead and zinc was valued at
|5,0.5G,.504; of coal, if;3,83."i.828 ; mid of iron, $2:54,606. Jjis-
per County yielded tlie most zinc, 106,014 tons: St. Francois
County the most lead, 2;!.740 tons : ."\Iacon and Bates Coun-
ties the most coal. 68.'i.:J2.') and C.j!l.!t24 tons respectively;
and St. Fiaiu;ois County the most iron, TS,!)6!) tons. The
principal iron-producer was the Iron Mountain, in St. Fran-
5ois County, which was first operated in 1847, and had
yielded at the end of 1891 over 3.:{49,0()0 long tons. 'I'lie
coal-area was estimated at 26,700 sq. miles; of granite the
most extensive quarries were at ttraiiileville. Iron County,
and Granite Mend. Wavne Couiitv, and the product of the
State in 18!»1 was valued at ij;400,"000. The sandstone out-
{)Ut was valued at .flOO.OOO, and that of limestone used for
iiiildiiig, burning, and road w. irk at ^1.400.000. There are
rich deposits of refractory, potleis'. and sedimentary clays
in .St. Louis County, and valuable mineral springs in I'ikc,
Saline, Cedar, Lawrence, Kandolph, and Jlercer Counties.
Soil and Prodnrtianx. — The soil is divisible into live
classes: (1) The alluvial de|K)sits of the southeast part and
of the bottoms <if the Mis.souri river, which are exceedingly
fertile; (2) the black-soil prairii'S of llie northwest part; (li)
the part prairie and part rolling laml of the eastern part,
N. of the Missouri river, which contains the best tobacco
lands of the State; (4) a good frujt, wheat, and corn tract
in the southwest part; (.")) the extensive tract between the
southwest part and the swampy lands in the southeast,
which contains heavily timbered hills and some very rich
valleys. Most of North ami Northwestern Missouri is prairie,
though with belts of timlier along the streams. The Ixit-
toms are generally heavily timbered with cottonwood. hick-
ory, bhick walnut, hacklierry, burr, and red oak. W. of
Howard County the Missouri river counties have heavy
bodies of tine timlier. interspersed with prairies. K. of
Howard County there are belts of liarilwood timber from 10
to 20 miles wide, including ash, oak, walnut, sugar-ma|ile,
hickory, elm, etc. Along the Osage river, and in all the
southern counties are heavy tracts of good timber, cliietly
white, black, yellow, and post oak, black jai'k, black hickory,
sassafras, dogwood, cedar, etc., and nearer the Arkansas bor-
der extensive tracts of pine. Yellow poplar, sweet gum,
Cyprus, oak, catalpa, tupelo, black gum, an<l black walnut
are the principal forest trees of the southeast.
The following sumuiary of the census reports of 1880 and
\x'M) shows the extent of farm openilions in the State :
FAMIS, ETC.
1880.
1800.
P*rmil.
815,575
87,879,871)
$375,838,307
238,043
ao,7»o,a)«
$635,858,361
+ 10-4
+ 10 4
T-'ial value of forms,
' 'Uildings and fences . .
includlDR
+66-6
The following table shows the acreage, yielil, and value
of the princi]ial crops in the calendar year l'8U3:
CROPS.
AdiK*.
TUl.
Vtim.
6,670.169
1,009,816
1,*40,779
18,«S8
1.633
8,689
10,943
90,483
2,944,558
158.1(17.715 bush.
15.-.»C„»8 ••
£9.(Ct4.889 '■
8SM.541 ••
88,6<W ••
84,1.10 ••
8,940,4.11 Ml.
7,054.V.4 bush.
3,651,846 ions
$47,459,815
7,338,085
7,358,557
107.343
I.\0tt4
19,8117
079,473
4 0**1 096
Wheal
OalH
Rve
Uniiey
litiekwheat
Toliaeeii
IVitulues
Hay
Totals .
11.5I«,801
$08,001, 49e!
On June 1, 1890, there were reported 25,191,788 poultry of
all kinds, and the v^s product of the census year was '.'i3,-
147.418 dozen. The dairv |iro<luct in the same jierioil was:
butter, 4:i,108..-.21 lb.; cheese, 2.hh,(}20 lb.; and milk, 193.-
931,103 gal. The wool clip in 1890 was 4,040.084 lb..a little
more than half of the clip of 1880. The production of bees-
wax ill 1889-90 was 7.1.670 lb., and <if honey, 4,492,178 lb.,
the latter being an increase of 3.771.098 lb. over the crop of
1879-80.
The farm animals on Jan. 1, 1894, comprised 1.008.361
horses, value ^38..")69.008 ; 256.828 mules, value ij!ll,791.483;
784,841 milch-cows, \«ilue $13,868,140: 1 ,8.-i0. 1 7."i oxen and
other cattle, value $28,120,2.j9 ; l,(HXt,9.J3 sheep, value
$1,914,023; and 3,709..517 swine, value $18,035,671; total
head, 8,610,67.j ; total value, $112,298,.-)84.
Climate. — The climate is generally healthful, excepting
in the river-bottoms and the swampy districts of the south-
east, but it is subject to great extremes. The summers
are long and hot, and the winters very cold, with strong
and piercing winds. The following is a summary of rewirts
of observations, furnished by the I'. S. agricultural ex-
periment station at Columbia, showing the mean tempera-
ture and the average rainfall of the State during 1893 :
.January
Februarj' . .
March
April
May
June
July
Aiicnst
Septeinlier .
Oetolier
November..
Iiecenitier. .
Unn
> AT<ti(. nIaUl
1 In bcUt.
SS^'
0'45
879
1 98
40-5
«-88
539
7 84
61 8
5-89
786
461
77 3
4-91
78-8
880
69 9
398
50-7
0'99
40-9
1 59
35 8
1 0 95
The highest temperature of the year was 107°, at New Hart-
ford and llarrisonville on Sept.l4.aud the lowest was— 20",
at New liuston on Feb. it. The precipitation ranged from
18"30 inches, at Lexington in July, to nothing, at Louisiana
an<l West Flains in January, anil at Conception and Tin-
dall in October.
/Ji'ci'.«ioH.<. — For administrative purposes the State is di-
vided into 114 counties and one city (St. Louis) as follows:
COUNTIES AND COrXTY-TOWSS, WITH POPfLATIOX.
Adair
Andrew
.Mehlson
Audrain
Horry
Harton
Botes
Iteiiton
BollinKer
RiMine
UuchanAU
Butler
C'ohlwrll
Collawoy
Cnnideii
Cape (Jirardeau
Carroll
Carter
Cass
Cedar
Chariton
CbrLitian
Clark
Clay
ISMl
I8W.
I
CODNTY-TOWNS. I -^
I-O
8-D
I-C
8-H
8-E
6-D
5-E
5-F
6-J
4-0
8-I>
8-J
S-K
4-H
&-«
6-K
3-K
7-1
4-D I
6^K
8-F
7-F
1-H
8-D
15.190
17,417
Kirksville
8.510
16.318
in,0iio
Savannah
1.8m
14.556
l.-.-VW
K.K-k|>..rt
944
19.784
88,1 i:i
Mexico
4.789
14.405
•-»,',!> 1.1
CasKville
086
io..'«a
is.sm
i.m>
SS.,*!
38.883
Uuller
2,818
1S..'»6
1 1,973
Warsaw
n»
ll.!.*)
1.1.181
M.irl.].' Illll
857
85.488
8n,ei
,
4.000
49.798
7i>.ii>
58.394
6.011
li'.l'i
..IT...
8,1H7
18.616
l.M.'c:
Kitticst.'ii.
Vi
83.670
a:.,l3i
Fulloii
4.314
7.266
lo.imi
Linn (Y.-. k
80,998
88.flll<l
Jn.-i '
941
83.874
85.748
Cm:
S,!<^<
8.168
4,(VVJ
Van 1
88.431
S3..H11
llarn^auille ...
1,»4&
10,741
KVrrfit
.>iI.H-kt<.n
508
85,884
■jivri
KeVteKVillf
8I»
9,688
ok
490
l.MMl
■ ika
1,485
15,578
-riy
2.558
• Reference tor location of cuunties, live map of Mlatouri.
816
MISSOURI
COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWNS — CONTINUED.
Clinton
Cole
Cooper
Crawford
Dade
Dallas
Daviess
DeKalb
Dent
Douprlas
Dunklin
P'ranklin
Gasconade —
Gentry
Greene
Grundy
Harrison
Henry
Hickory
Holt
Howard
Howell
Iron
Jackson
Jasper
Jefferson
Johnson
Knox
Laclede
Lafayette
Lawrence
Lewis
Lincoln
Linn
Livingston —
McDonald —
Macon
Madison
Maries
Marion
Mercer
Miller
Mississippi
Moniteau
Monroe
Montgomery. .
I\Iorgan
New Madrid . .
Newton
Nodaway
Oregon
Ozark
Pemiscot
Perry
Pettis
Phelps
Pike
Platte
Polk
Pulaski
Putnam
Ralls
Randolph
Kay
Reynolds
Kipley
St. Charles
St. Clair
St. Fran(;ois
JSte. Genevieve. . ,
St. Louis (city)..,
St. Louis
Saline
Schuyler
Scotland
Scott
Shannon
Shelby
Stoddard
Stone
Sullivan
Taney
Texas
Vernon
AVarren
Washington
Wayne
Webster
Worth
Wright
Totals
8-D
5-G
4-G
5-H
6-E
6-F
2-E
2-D
6-1
7-G
8-J
5-1
.5-H
1-D
;-F
2-F
1-E
5-E
5-K
8-C
3-G
8-H
G-I
3-E
r-D
5-J
4-E
1-H
6-G
3-E
T-E
1-H
3-1
o_F
a-F
8-D
2-G
6-J
5-H
3-H
1-F
5-G
r-K
4-G
3-H
4-1
5-G
7-K
7-D
1-D
8-1
4-H
8-G
8-K
6-K
4-F
6-H
3-1
3-D
6-F
6-G
IF
3-H
.3-G
3-E
7-1
8-1
4-1
5-E
5-J
5-.r
4-J
4-J
3-F
l-O
I-H
7-K
7-1
3-H
8-K
8-F
1-P
8-F
7-H
5-E
4-1
5-1
7-J
7-G
I-D
7-Q
Pop.
16,073
15,515
21,596
10,756
12,557
9,a63
19,145
13,3:14
10,646
7,753
9.604
26,5:y
ii,i,w
17,176
28,801
1.5,185
20,304
23,906
7,387
1,5,509
18,428
8,814
8,183
82,,325
33,019
18,736
28,172
13,017
11,524
2,5,710
17„5&3
15,935
17,426
20.016
20,196
7,816
26,223
8,876
7,.301
24,8;W
14,673
9,805
9.270
14,:M6
19.071
16,349
10.132
7.B94
18,947
29.544
5.791
11,824
5.618
4.399
11,895
27,271
12,568
26,715
17,366
15,734
7,2,50
13,555
11,838
23,751
20,190
5,722
5..377
23.065
14,125
13,822
10.390
350.518
81,888
29,011
10,470
13..508
8,.587
3,411
14,024
13,131
4,404
16..569
5„599
12,206
19.369
10.806
12.896
9,096
12,175
8,203
9,712
2,168,.380
PoJ),
1890,
17,138
17,281
22,707
11,961
17,520
12,647
20,456
14,539
12.149
14,111
15.0.S5
28.056
11,706
19.018
48,616
17,876
21,033
28,235
9,463
15,469
17,371
18,618
9,119
160,510
50,600
23,484
28,133
13,501
14,701
30.184
20,328
15,935
1 8,-346
34,131
20,068
11.283
30,575
9,368
8,500
36,333
14.581
14,163
10,1.34
15.630
20.790
16,850
12,311
9,317
23,108
30,914
10,467
13,080
9,795
5,975
13,2.37
31,151
12,636
26,.321
16,248
20,3.39
9,387
15,305
12,294
24,893
24,215
6,803
8,512
22,977
16,747
17,347
9,883
451,770
15,642
33.762
11,249
12,674
11,238
8,898
15,642
17,327
7,090
19,1X10
7,973
19,406
31, .505
9,913
13,1.53
11,927
1.5,177
8,738
14,484
2,679,184
COUNTY-TOWNS,
Plattsburg
Jefferson City. .
Hoonville
Steelville
Greenfield
Buffalo
Gallatin
Maysville
Salem
Ava
Kennett
Union
Hermann
Albany
Springfield
Trenton
Bflliany
Clinton
Hermitage
Oregon
Fayette
West Plains
Ironton
Independence. .
Carthage
Hillsboro
W.'irrensburg . .
Edina
Lebanon
Le.Kington - . . . .
Mt. Vernon
Monticello
Troy
Linneus
Chillicothe
Pineville
Macon
Fredericktown.
Vienna
Palmyra
Pi-inceton
Tuscumbia
Charleston
California
Paris
Danville
Versailles
New Madrid . . .
Neosho
Maryville
Alton
Linn
Gainesville
Gayoso
Perry ville
Sedalia.
Rolla
Bowling Green.
Platte City
Bolivar
Waynesville . . .
Uni'onville
New London. . .
Hnntsvillft
Richmond
Centerville
Doniphan
St. Charles
Osceola ........
Farmington.. . .
Ste. Genevieve .
St. Louis
Cla.vton
Marshall
Lancaster
Memphis
Benton
Eminence
Shelbvville
BloomHeld
Galena
Milan
Forsyth
Houston
Nevada
Warrenton
Potosi
Greenville
Marshfield
Grant City
Hartville
Fop.
1,034
6,743
4,141
591
998
861
1,489
717
1,315
221
302
610
1,410
1,3.34
81,850
5,0.39
1,105
4,737
"948
2,247
2,091
965
6,380
7,981
204
4,706
1,456
2,318
4,.537
782
2.59
971
813
6,717
193
3,371
917
2,5i5
1,410
238
1,381
1,772
1,487
380
1.211
1,193
2,198
4,037
175
137
875
14,068
1,592
1,.504
706
1,4,85
683
1,836
2,895
009
0.161
995
1,394
1,.586
451,770
402
"sii
1,780
203
486
1,234
■ '3.5.5
7.362
064
599
' 'a.'Ifl
1,186
• Reference for location of counties, see map of Missouri.
Principal Cities and Towns, with Population in 1890. —
St. Louis, 4.51.770; Kansas City, 132,710 (including 18,048
which the Slate Supreme Court has since decided are out
of the city limits); St. Joseph, .'52,324; Springfield, 21,8.')0;
Sedalia, 14,008; Hannibal, 12,8.57; .loplin, 9,943; Mobeilv,
8,215- Carthage, 7,981; Nevada, 7,263; Jefferson City,
6,742; Independence, 6..'i80 ; St, Charles, 6,161 ; Chillicothe,
5,717; Louisiana, 5,090 ; Webb, .5,043 ; and Trenton, 5,039!
Population and Races.— In 1800, 1,182,012 ; 1870, 1,721 -
295; 1880, 2,108,380; 1890, 2,079,184 (natives, 2,444,315;
foreign, 234,809; males, 1,385,238 ; iVmalc.^, 1,293,940; whiles,
2,528,458; colored, 150,720; comprising 150,1S4 of African
descent, 409 Chinese, 6 Japanese, and 127 civilized Indians).
Industries and Business Interests. — The census returns
of 1890 showed that 14,045 manufacturing establishments
reported. These had a combined capital of if! 1 89,236,422 :
employed 142,924 persons; paid $70,327,907 for wages ; and
had products valued at $323,897,088. JIanufacturing wa.-;
principally carried on in Kan.sas City, St, Josi-ph, St. Louis,
ami Springfield, which cities together reported 8,0.80 estab-
lishments, employing $15y,.564,309 cajiital and 1 13,2.56 ]ier-
sons, paying $65,261,837 for wages and $147,403,005 for
materials, and receiving $274,367,602 for products. 'J'his
summary showed an increase since 1880 of 4,761 establish-
ments, $10.5,160;.529 capital, 67,625 persons employed, $45,-
200,820 (laid for wages an(l $65,149,242 paid for materials,
and $148,51)8,021 in value of products. In 1890 the prin-
cipal industries, according to the amount of cajiital cm-
jiloyed, were the manufacture of malt liquors, $16,293,974;
foundry and machine-shop products, $10,912,341 : clotliing,
$.5,701,009 ; saw and planing mill iiroducts, .$5,694,929 ; to-
bacco, $4,681,840 ; paints, $3,498,107 ; sLaughter-house prod-
ucts, $3,274,671 ; and Hour and grist mill products, $1,401,-
760. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893, the col-
lections of internal revenue in the State were: on the manu-
factuvo of distilled spirits, $3,207,4-44 ; tobacco, $3,556,943 ;
fermented liquors, $2,122,201 ; oleomargarine, $64,854; and
penalties, $23,146 : total, $8,974,595.
Commerce. — Missouri has three interior ports to whicli
foreign merchandise can be transported %vithout appraise-
ment at receiving ports, Kansas City, St. Jo.seph, and St,
Louis ; and during the year 1893 the aggregate value of for-
eign merchandise imported at these ports was $3,154,932,
Finance.- — On Feb. 1, 1894, the State bonded debt was
$6,420,000, Lender the constitution the State must pay at
least $250,000 of its debt annually. The actual valuation
of taxable property was $2,397,902,945, and the assessed
valuations were: real, $694,620,657; jicrsonal, $229,075,395 :
total, $924,396,052. The railway ami lelegrajih properly in
the State was assessed at $65,396,928.
Banking. — In Feb., 1894, there were 76 national banks
■with combined capital of $22,960,000; 457 State banks with
capital of $19,611,710; 93 private banks with capital of
$1,19.5,760; and 28 trust companies, with capital of $11,-
049,400. The national. State, and private banks held indi-
vidual deposits aggregating about .$100,000,000. ^
Meaiis of Communieation. — The fir.st railway in the State
was opened with 38 miles of track in 18.52, On Dec. 31,
1892, there was an a,ggregate of 6,403 miles of single track
and 7,970 miles of single, double, and siding tracks. Only
eleven counties were without railway facilities. The cost of
the roiul-beds and equipments was $288,180,000 ; the capi-
tal stock and funded debt amounted to $1,102,955,141 ; the
earnings were .$140,377,008; and the operating expen.*cs
$99,735,881, Six main lines enter St. Joseph, 13 enter Kan-
sas City, and 19 enter SI. Loui.s, besides many local lines.
The Missi.-isippi and Jli.ssouri rivers arc spanned by several
iron railway bridges, the former at Hannibal, La„ St, Louis
(2), and Cairo; the latter at St. Joseph, Atchison, Kansas
City, Glasgow, Boonville, St. Charles, and lielle Fontaine.
Churches. — The census of 1890 gave the following statis-
tics of the principal religious bodies:
DENOMINATIONS.
Roman Catholic
Hapti-st
Disciples of Christ
Methodist E|)iseopal South
Methodist Episcopal
Cierman Evan. S.^'nod of N. A. .
Cumberland Presbyterian
Lutheran Synoilical Conference
Baptist, colored
Presbvterian in the U. S. of A. .
I'rcsbyteri.ui in the U. S
.\frieiin .'\l.-ili.«lisi Episcopal...
I'mtesljuit Kpiscoiml
(Niiigregational
Bni>tist, General
Baptist, Free-will
United Brethren in Christ
OrfTfiDUa-
tlonB,
Chiirches
and Lalls.
Mem ben.
442
4.37
162.864
1,036
1.607
121.9a5
1,120
889
97,773
1,230
1,141
86,466
905
876
58.285
121
124
25,676
,393
,3-33
23,990
118
113
22,121
2.34
238
18,013
207
210
17,272
143
120
10,363
87
136
9.589
111
90
8.828
80
79
7.017
166
103
6,6.54
108
105
4,7,52
lOS
98
4,861
Vnluc of
church
propi-tty.
84.070.370
2,.3SI1.8»8
1.6,32,.531
2.040.389
1,835,840
.575..5liO
,57].:i62
613.940
4011.518
1,33S.7(K)
753,490
281,389
9.53.000
6r.0,;i44
33.675
59.825
47,826
MISSOfRI
817
Schooln. — In 1H((3 there were 916,5(X"i ehililren r.f sehnol age
(six to twenty viaisi in the Stule, of whom lil2.4.Vi were eii-
rolleil ill the |>iilili(.- schools, iind 4:iT,()U.'J were in iiveni're daily
iitteii'laliee. There Were ».<»•)() school Ijuihlinjis, Vi.'J.Ui svUixA
leiuhcrs, iinil siiiool i)ro]ierty'of all kinds valned at $11.-
STIMI'')- I'lx' pnlilic-si-hool fund ajr^'reiraled ^jl 1,7M(I.7T5.
the total expenditure of the year was $ti,l4'2.!llc^, and the
teachers' salaries amounted to if ;j.!»r)4.tj(i ;. In 1m!M( there
were 4 pulilie normal scliools, l;j <Mimmercial and liusiness
tollef^es, 04 enilowed acadetines, seminaries, and other pri-
vate secondary schools, Vi colleges for wnuieii, 27 nidversi-
ties and colleges, and l:! siIiimjIs of meilicine, 4 of theolouy,
2 of law, and 'i of pliarnuicy. The State L iiiversily at Co-
lumbia in< hides all a;;;ricullural colIe;;eand a school <if inine.'i.
The main lniildiiiK. constnicted in 1840—12, and containing
recil at ion-rooms, ciiapel. etc., and lilirary of 40.(M) volumes,
wa-s destroyeil liy lire Jan. 'J, 181(2, but lias been rebuilt and
much enlarged.
LiliniiieK. — .\cc(irding to a U. .S. Government re|>orl on
iiublic liiinuii's (if I.IKJO volumes and Mpwaril each in ISlll.
Missouri had lt)o libraries, eoiitainiiii; ■)til,!tlJo bounil volumes
and !tG.27S pamphlets. The libraries were cla-ssilied a.s fol-
lows : liiiicral, 10; school, :!4; college, 27: eollege societv,
1 ; law, 2; theological, 3, medical. 2; State, 1; \ . M. C. A.,
2 ; s<x-ial, 12 ; scientific, 3 ; historical, 3 : I. O. 0. F., 2 ; Ma-
sonic, 1 ; mercantile, 1 ; and not reported, 2.
Poxl-unicfx unit Perioiliciilx. — In Jan., 1894, thoro were
2,Go6 post-ollices, of which 120 were presidential ('i first-
class, 16 second-class, 107 third-idass), and 2,530 fourth-
class. There were 080 money-onler ollices, 20 money-order
stations, and 02 jjostal-iiote ollices. Of newsimpers and
periodicals there were 85 <laily, 2 tri-weekly, 1 bi-weekly, 8
siMui-weekly, 075 weekly. 17 semi-monthly, 107 monthly, 2
bi-iiioiithly, and 10 of i|uarterly publication : total, 907.
Cliiiritublf, lirfDnniitunj. niiil I'tnal Iii.tli/iiliitnu. — These
ciimprise the State lunatic asylums at Fulton, opened
1851, at St. Joseph, openeil 1874, and at Nevada, opened
1HS7; a county iiisiine asylum at St. Louis: a State peni-
tentiary at JetTerson City: State School for the Deaf and
Dumb at Fulton, opened 1851: State School for the lilind at
St. Louis, opened 1851 ; a day s<diool for the deaf at St.
Louis. opeiie<l 1879, and supported by the city: ami many
hospitals, orphanages, homo, ri'fuges, and other institutions
uiiiler the <'ontrol of various religious organizations.
Political Orijiiiiizdtion. — The elective franchise is given
to everv male citizen of the L'. S. and to every male i)erson
of foreign liirth who has dechiR-d his intention to become a
citizen of the U. S. not less than one year nor more than
live yeai"s before he otlers to vote, who is over the age of
twenty-one years, and has resided in the State for one year
and in the county, city, or town for at least sixty days iin-
medialely pic'ceding the idiclion at which he olTcrs to vote.
I'. S. soldiers and marines, paupers, criminals convicted once
until pardoned, felons, and violators of suffrage laws con-
victeil a second lime, are ex<'luded from voting. The (Jov-
ernor is elected for four years, and is ineligible for re-elec-
tion. Tlie Senate consisted in 181(4 of 34 members, chosen
for four years, and the House of Kepresentatives of 140
members, chosen for two years: the number of the latter
varies with the changes in population and the decennial ap-
portionments. All laws, excepting the general appropria-
tion act, unless an emergency clause is incorporali-d in it,
take effect ninety clays after final ailjournineiit. The Leg-
islature holils biennial sessions, limited to seventy days.
The judicial authority is vested in a Supreme Court, of five
judges, eliited by the people for ten years, oiii' being elected
every two years, and the oldest in commission being chief
justice; a circuit court with one juil'.xe in each judicial cir-
cuit: county and probate courts with one judge for each :
sjiecial circuit, criminal, anil criiniiial correction courts in
llie citv of St. Louis (which is coextensive with the county
of St. Jioiiis): and the usual minor courts and ollicers. The
constitution provides that the State lax. exclusive of that
necessary to pay the bonded debt, shall not exci-ed 20 cents
|jer ifSlltO of taxable proiK-rtv ; that wheiii'ver I he taxable
proiierty in the State shall aiiiount to ifiOlKMMW.OtH), the rate
shall not exceed 15 cents: that no county, city, town, or
other subdivision of the State shall liecoiiie indebtiMl to an
aiiiouiit exceeding in any one year the income provided for
such year, without the assent of twivthirds of the voters
thereof voting on the meivsure. nor in siii-li eases shall an
indelitediiess bo created to an amount, including existing
inilebtediu'ss, exceeding 5 per cent, of the taxable pro|>-
ty therein: and that there be set aside annually at least
27S
25 oer cent, of the Stale revenue, exclusive of the intcrost
ami sinking fund, for the support of the public schools.
JIiKtiiry. — The present .State of Missouri »i»* knr>wn as
I'pper Louisiana. I'nder this name its lead iiiiius U-gan
lobe known ii.s early as 1720, and settlements were made
not long after at St. Louis. Ca|)e Uinirdeau, and (|iriibably
alMiiit 1735) at Ste. Cieiievieve. In 17<J.'i it w ■- ...i..| to
Spain with the rest of the Louisiana or Mi vcr
coiinlrv. while all K. of the river came into i ion
of the Knglish. In 1775 St. Louis (whiih wils I..uii.U-.1 by
i^acleile. Feb. 15, 1704), had attained some reputation as a
fur-depot and trading-station, and had alK>iil 800 inhab-
itants, and Ste. (ieiievieve about half lus manv. New Mad-
rid had Ijeeii fonndeil some time before. In 1800 Spain
ceded her iirovinces on the Mississippi to France, and the
French (iovernment .soM them to the I'. S. in 1803. The
U.S. (ioveriimeiit divided the purchaseil region into the
Territory of Orleans and the district of Louisiana. the latter
including most of Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa. Minnesota, and
Dakota, and most of Kansas and Nebraska. <)|i Mar. 10,
1804, Capt. Amos Stoildanl, of the I'. S. army, succeeded
Dehussus, Spanish commandant at St. Louis, ami the author-
ity of the I . S. in Missouri dates from that day ; during the
same year this region was erected into the' Territory ol
Louisiaiirt, and St. Louis made the capital. In 1810' the
population of the territory was 20.845. of which all but 1,500
were in the [iresent limits of Missouri. In 1812. Louisiana
becoming a State, the name of the Territory was changed to
Missouri Territory. In 1817 the Territorial Legislature ap
plied to Congress for liberty to prejiare a State constitution
rireliininary to admission into the liiion. This application
le<l to a protracted struggle in Congress on the (|ne.stion of
the admission of Jlissouii as a slave State. It was finally
settled by the .MissoiKi Comphomise ((/. r.). A convention
met in St. Louis June 12. 1820. and agreed upon a constitu-
tion : the State was admitted to the I'nion by presidential
proclamation Aug. 10. 1821. Its subsequent progn-ss was
very rapid. The iieople ot the western [lortion of the .State,
in 1858-59. had taken sides in the Kansas troubles, and armed
iKxlies of men, known as Missouri "boriler nitlians." had
penetrated into Kansas and committed many outrages there.
A convention was called in Missouri on Feb! 28. 18<il, which
decided in favor of remaining in the I'nion. Another con-
stitutional convention met in St. Louis Jan. 0. 1.8<J5. and
adojited a new constitution, providing for emancipation and
the changes induced by it. This constitution wils further
modified in 1870, and a' new one adopted Oct. 30, 1875.
OOVERXORS OF MISSOfRI.
.Mexamier MeNair lKiH)-i4 .Insepli \V. MeCIurg 18GI>-71
Krederirk Bates l«ai-'J>i Beiij ( ;ralz Hmwn 1S7I-TS
Jolin Miller ISili :« Silus \V.~.<ls..n IKr»-75
Daiiirl liuiiklin IKK-Xi llnirli-s II. llurdin I(C5-~
Ijltiiini W. BoKBS IKllV-lO .Jollll S I'llelps 1S77-«<I
Thiimii-s Reviioiila IMii-11 I TIhiimrsT. I'riltemleu. . . . lKK|-«
.M. M. MariiiiicliikiMaetinf;! IHil i J.ihn S. .Mannailukt- INK&-N7
Jolin C. K.lwarUs IRll-ts ' A. I' Mc.r.'li..n4.- inetincp. |s>C-)«
Austin A King IHIK .VI Iiiiviil It Francis ISMii-ui
Sterling I'riee ISVl ,'.7 Willinni .) Sl.u,,- . . Is'.tt-SIT
Trusten I'tilk lHr.7 I Iajm V. St.-|ilifns ItVT-
llniu'iick Jneksnn ittclintt) 1^'|^
KolxTt .M. Siewnrt IK" r.l
Clnilnirne F. .Inekson |K»I |
llaniillon K (iainble ISAMVI |
Willanl !■. Hull 1S01-(B ;
TlMimas f. Flelelier IsiiS-Oi) ,
AfTHORiTlES. — Uescriplion : .Swallow, Jl/iVwoi/ri Grotng^
icat Siinri/ (18.57); I'arker, Mitioiiri Iliin' -''■'>);
Campbell, tiniellei-r nf Mi/i.simriilHl-i) ; ('aiii| of
Misjuiiiri (1876) ; Asher ami Adams. Mnp n of
Mimituri : Iron (>rf« of Mi.txiiuri iiml Mid is.,
1870). History : Uiddle. y/i'.s7«ry r./ //if /.>;,. /rr
//ic Commiinii of Lfirin and Clarke to the Soiirem nl the
Miniuinri Uii'rr (original ed. 2 vols., 1814; reviseil, with h<1-
ditions by McVickar. 18+J; new eil. by Hidille, 2 vols,,
1845-47; ed. reprinteil from the original one. with notes by
Cones. 4 Vols., 1893); I'arker, MiMioiii ' •■«',7
(1867); Kwiiig. I/ixlorinil .}/t inoirn ; I,. "H
in Mixtiiiiiri ; Uoberts, y/c/tor/ of a H>i . lite
MiHMDiiri /iirrr in IS?/ (1875) ; Switzler's y/iW./ri/ i<r ,l/t>-
miiri from l.',Jil In IS": Mavis and Uiirrie, I/iftori/ of Mts-
miirt to lS7ti (1870). Ijiw: Mi/uutiiri Snpn-me I'ourt He-
[Mirtu; MtMinuri Cnniititntinn. Annntntril (1875): Mctiary,
/'Irailini/ in Ciiil Arlionn; WhillleM'V. M ''iril
I'racliri-. Stali-lies: |{e|M.rts of thi' I'. S. cei ris
of the r.S. I>e|«artmenl of Agriculture; Mim: cet
of the United Statet. William F. Switzler.
818
MISSOUKl COMPROMISE
MISTAKE
Missouri River \ Missouri is fr(
" muddv water "'] : tlie principal ti
RivEa in. v.). 11 is formed in S
Missouri Compromise: a name given to a law of Con-
gress which mav bi^ regarded as one of the principal lantl-
marks of the history of the V. S. during the nineteenth
century. Upon the introduction into Congress, in the ses-
sion of 181S-19, of a bill providing for the admission of Jlis-
souri as a State, but prohibiting slavery therein, the opposi-
tion on the part of the Southern members becanu-. violent
and menacing, and after long and brilliant debates a com-
promise was "effected, cliielly by the influence of Henry
Clay. Missouri was admitted as a slave State, and at the
sanie time an ordinance was enacted (Pel). ~'H. 1«-,>1) tliat
from all the territory W. of Jlissouri and X. of the parallel
of 36' 30' (the southern boundary of the new State) slavery
should be forever excluded. This agreement sul)sisted until
virtually repealed bv the bills which established the Terri-
tories oif Kansas and Nebraska in 1854, when the tpiestion,
thus reopened, became the t-ause of civil war in Kansas be-
tween the partisans of liberty and slavery. This measure
deteriuined the formation of the Republican party (1804).
precipitated the anti-slavery issue, and leil to the civil war
of 1801-65, by which the wliole question was set at rest.
Missouri Iiidiaus: See Siouan Indians.
■ is from Indian words meaning
pal tributary of the >lississipi>[
RivEa iq. v.). It is fo'rmcd in Southwestern jMontana by
the union of the Jefferson, Jladison, and Gallatin rivers;
flows X. and E. through Jlontana: then in a southeasterly
direction traverses Nortli and South Dakota, and flows be-
tween Nebraska and Kansas on the W. and South Dakota,
Iowa, and Missouri on the N. E. and E. until it reaches
Kansas Citv, whence it flows E. through Missouri to its
iunction with the Mississippi. 20 miles above St. Louis, in
lat. 38° 50 55' N.. Ion. !)0 14' 45" W. Its length to the
source of the .Madison river, which rises in National Park,
is about 3,000 miles. It is a turbid and swift stream, navi-
gable in high water to Fort Benton, Montana, or even to
the Great Falls, and in low water to the mouth of the Yel-
lowstone, near the boundary between North Dakota and
Montana. The Great Falls 'are 40 miles above Fort Ben-
ton. They consist of four cataracts separated by rapids,
with a total fall of 357 feet in 16i miles. About 145 miles
above this point the river pass'es through the Gate of
the Rocky Mountains, a gorge with perpendicular walls
rising 1,200 feet directly from the edge of the stream, and
extending thus for a distance of nearly 6 miles. In its
lower course the river flows through a narrow alluvial val-
ley of great feililitv. Its chief tributaries are the Jlilk,
Dakota, Big Sioux, "Little Sioux, and Grand on the left,
and the "Tellowstone, Little Missouri, Cheyenne, White,
Niobrara, Platte, Kansas, and Osage on the right.
Missouri, Uuiversity of the State of: a non-sectarian
institution of learning founded at Columbia, near the center
of the State of Missouri, in 1839. Academic work began in
1841, a normal department was established in 1867, the Col-
lege of Agriculture and Jleehanic Arts and School of Jlines
and Metallurgy were added in 1870, the latter being located
at RoUa; the department of law was added in 1872, medi-
cine in 1873, engineering in 1877, and the experiment sta-
tion in 1887. The experiment farm and the horticultural
grounds are close to the campus.
The endowment bearing interest at 5 or 6 per cent, is
$1,200,000. The buildings, equipment, and grounds (includ-
ing farm and gardens) are worth $1,000,000. The Federal
Government contributes yearly to the Jlorrill and experi-
ment station funds. The'endowment is held by the State,
which pays interest and makes liberal a|]propriations. From
Feb., 18i)'l, to Mar., 1893, these amounted to :5;1,525.000, but
this sum includes interest for four years and .f 650.000 of
war tax refunded to Missouri an<l given by her as additional
endowment to the university. There are sixteen buildings.
All departments are open to women. The institution is the
head of the public-school system of Missouri, and aids in
helping forward the elementary and secoiulary schools. In
1893-94 the university had 55 professors and other teachers,
and 725 students. President. U. II. Jesse, LL. D.
K. II. Jesse.
Missouri Valley: town; Harrison co., la. (for location
of county, see map" of Iowa. ref. 5-1)) ; on the Chi. and N.
W., and the Sioux City and Pac. railways ; 6 miles K. of the
Missouri river, 20 miles N. of Council Bluffs. It contains 7
churches, 3 public schools, improved water-works, electric
lights, district fair-grounds, and 3 daily and 2 weekly news-
papers ; and has flour-mills, brick and tile works, machine-
shops, large railway repair-shops, carriage-factory, stove-
founilry, and wood-working plants. Pop. (1880) 1,154 ;
(1890) 2,797 ; (1895) 3,350. Editor of " News."
Mist : See Fogs.
MistnliO : in law, an unintentional act or omission hav-
ing legal consequences {mistake of fact), or an intended act
or omission having unintended legal consequences {mistake
of law). It is true in law as it is in the other concerns of
life that a person committing a mistake must generally bear
the consequences of his error. The law does not undertake
to rectify the mistakes of normal juristic persons (i. e. of
persons having legal capacity), nor to avert from them or
from others tlie consequences of their blundei-s. Thus one
who goes upon the land of another, believing it to be a part
of his own domain, is guilty of trespass equally with him
who maliciously intrudes upon his neighbor's premises ;
and, on the other hand, the man who innocently incloses a
part of his neighbor's land, believing it to be his own, ac-
quires by lapse of time, even without his knowledge and
against his own will, the same indefeasilile title which an
intentional wrongdoer would have gained by the same acts.
This is only another way of saying that the law does not
ordinarily look to the intention with which an act is done,
but only at the act and its consequences. It is only in that
limited class of cases in which the intent of the party or
parties is an essential part of the transaclion Ihat the law
will relieve from the consequences of a mistaken expression
of such intent. The principal, if not the only, cases in
which this occurs are those of contracts, of conveyancing,
of the making and revocation of wills, of money paid under
mistake, and of crimes.
Before entering upon a consideration of the topic of con-
sent as related to these several classes of cases, it will lie
necessary to refer briefly to the different treatment which
the law accords to mistakes of fact and of law respectively.
The rule, as generally stated, declares that relief will be
given against mistake" of fact, but not against mistake of
law. Neither branch of this statement is true without a
good deal of qualification. We have already seen that in
most transactions mistake, even of fact, is altogether with-
out effect. On the other hand, there are many cases in
which a mistake of law will have the effect attributed by
the rule only to mistakes of fact. This occurs, for exanqile,
where the niistake is due to ignorance of particular private
rights : or where two parties have made an agreement
and instructed a third to put it in legal form, and the lat-
ter, owing to ignorance of law, fails to express the real in-
tention of the former ; or where the niistake is as to foreign
law. It is true, however, that mistakes of law are gener-
ally remediless, and that it is only in exceptional cases that
the law will afford relief from their consequences. This
result is commonly attributed to the supposed existence of
a legal presumption that every one knows the law; but
this statement is as far from being an expression of a legal
fact as it is from being an actual fact. There is, indeed, a
rule of law that in certain cases ignorance of law excuses no
one, but there is no rule that every one must be taken to be
cognizant of the law. The nature <d' the distinction here
referred to between mistakes of law and of fact will more
clearly appear in connection with the several clas,ses of cases
in which mistake is a matter of legal recognition.
Contracts. — Mistake does not of itself nfivH the validity of
contracts at all. It is an almost universal rule that a man
is bound by an .igrecment to which he has expressed his as-
sent in uiiequivocal terms; but mislake may be such as to
prevent any real agreement from being formed, in which
case the agreement is void both at law and in equity. The
essence of contract is a mutual understanding and ap-ee-
ment as to the matters included in the transaction. Where
this element is lacking, or where the agreement is only ap-
parent and does not really exist, there is no contract.
Accordingly, it is only fundanu'ntal error, going to the
very root of the transaction, which will have the effect of
vitiating the agreement. Such error may be niistake (1) as
to the nature of the transaction, (2) as to the person of the
other party, or (3) as to the subject-matter of the agree-
ment. Th"e first of these kinds of mistake (which must be
of very unusual occurrence) may be illuslratcd by the case
of a person who, without negligence on his part, signs an
obligation or documi^nt of one kind believing it to be an
obligation or document of another kind. Tlie court will in
such cases allow the mistaken parly to avoid the obligation
unintentionally assumed by him. In the second place, every
MISTAKE
MISTELI
819
person liHS a rif;ht, coiistioiisly nnJ of his own tree will, to
clu)Ose I lie persons with whom he deuls. If A adilresscs an
order for goods to U, C ean not, by tiUinj; the order, thrust
himself into the position of a contraclinj; party with A.
Kven lhoiij;li A has a<,oeptpcl I he eoinls, under the mistaken
lielief that they were supplied l)y U, he iloes not become lia-
ble to (' upon the conlruct. The third case, of mistake as
til the subji'fl-mutler of the ajireement, is of more frefjuent
iicciirreiice. It happens where the parties af;ree for the pur-
chase ami sale of an article, and there is a mutual mistake
as to the article inlcmieil ; or where the person or property
to which the agreement relates is no longer in existence, but
both parties are ignorant of that fact. This branch of the
rule may be summed up in the statement that where both
parties to an agreement are under a mistake as to a matter
of fact essential to the agi'eement. the agreement is void.
In all easesin which mistake has the legal elTect of avoid-
ing the contract, the party seeking to escape the conse-
quences of the mistake may invoke the aid of both the legal
and the eipiilable tribunals. If the contract is still execu-
tory he may repudiate it, or if he have paid money under
it he may sue and recover it. In etpiity he may resist spe-
cific performance, or may sue for a decree declaring the
contract void.
There is another class of cases arising in contract, where
the mistake does not go to the very existence of an agree-
ment, as in the cases above considered, but where a genuine
agreement of the parties has been perverted by a mistake in
the form of expression adopteil by them. In such cases
there is no remedy at law. but where the mistake is mutual
the courts of equity will rectify it, cither negatively, by re-
fusing to compel the party injured by the mistake to per-
form the contract, or positively, by reforming the contract
so as to make it express the true intent of the parties. For
this purpose the court will, if necessary, take parol evidence
to guide it in arriving at this intent.
Diiih. etc. — Inileeil it is by the exercise of this equity
jurisdiction in the reformation of written instruments that
the consequences of mistake have most generally been
averted. '1 his jurisdiction is even more frequently exercised
in the case of deeds, mortgages, bonds, and sometimes even
to reform, or rectify, negotiable instruments. In all of these
cases equity will reform the careless or perverted expression
of the written instrument so as to make it conform to the
real intention at which the parties aimed but failed to ex-
press. In this class of cases, however, as in the case of the
rectification of a written contract, above referred to, the
mistake must be mutual in order to procure the reformation
deiiiandcd.
It should be added that the equity tribunals make far less
account of the distinction between mistakes of fact and of law
than do the law courts, and that a mutual fundamental
mistake of the parties as to the law will usually secure the
intervention of equity.
U'i//.i. — In the making and revocation of wills the ques-
tion of inteiilion is again, as in the case of contracts, fun-
damental. N'o writing can take effect as a testament un-
less the will of the alleged testator accompanies it. It is
this u-ill, or intention, which gives to the written instru-
ment all its force and validity. Consequently, if this in-
tention be wanting, as where a person executes the wrong
paper as a will, or goes through the form of executing a
will without intending that the paper so executed shall
have the ellecl of a will, the probate courts will give relief
by refusing to allow probate of the instrument. It will be
observed that in the cases above supposed the testamentary
«'i7/ is entirely lacking. Where, however, a will has actu-
ally been made, although it bears manifest improprieties and
errors in expression upon its face, there is ordinarily no di-
rect and certain remedy. Equity can not reform a will as it
reforms a deed or a c<intract. The si»me result is. however,
often attained by the application liy the court of the gener-
ous principles of interpretation and construction which pre-
vail in the case of wills. (See Interpretation.) So, on the
other haml. the courts will admit to probate a will which
hius been di'stroycd by the testator, where it is made to ap-
pear that it was destroyed by mistake, or without the inten-
tion In revoke.
Mditey piiid hi/ Mistake. — This is perhaps the most fre-
quent and familiar case of mistake against which the courts
alforil relief. They do this by permilling the party who
made the mistaken payment to bring an action against the
payee for the recovery of the money paid out. Though the
action is in form an action in contract, and is usually so de-
scribed, it isessentlally an equitable remedy administered on
e<|uitable gr<mnds by the courts of common law. (Sec Qi'i».si-
coNTRACT.) The theory on which a recovery is alloweil is that
it would be against conscience for the defendant to retain
the money paid to him by mistake ; but the mistake must
be of a material fact, and it must be an iinqualilied error.
Money paid with knowledge that the payee is not entitle<i
thereto can not be recovered. The law will not permit one
who knows or believes that a claim is not well founiled lo
make the voluntary payment thereof a reason for shifting
his position from that' of defendant to that of iilaintilT.
However, where the party making the payment had had
full knowleilge of the facts but hail forgotten them, he is
entitled to bring his action. On the other hand, where the
iiarly ir.aking the i>ayment received an equivalent, or. [wr-
naps. any considiration for the payment, even a genuine
mistake will not avoid the transaction.
It is the general rule in this class of cases that the remedy
will be affcuded even where the parties can no longer be put
in stiilit qua, but this rule ihies not apfily where the negli-
gence of I he plaintiff has rendered it impossible to restore
the payee to the position occiqiied by him before the pay-
ment was made.
It may be added that it is the rule in England, and gen-
erally, though not universally, in the U. S., that money paid
under a mistake of law can not be recovered. There seems
to be no reasonable ground for this discriminatjon. which is
probably based on the mistaken notion, above referred to,
of the existence of a rule that all persons are presumed to
know the law.
Crimes. — The rule which refuses to allow a person to es-
cape the consequences of his legal errors finds a reasonable
and proper application in the domain of criminal law.
Here it would be in the highest degree dangerous to allow a
wrongdoer to plead his ignorance of the law which he has
violated. Such ignorance, accordingly, is in no case an ex-
cuse for the offense committed, though it may. under cer-
tain circumstances, be relevant to the question of the
wrongdoer's intention or slate of mind. Ignorance or mis-
take of fact, however, will usually be taken into account,
and will relieve the wrongdoer from the con.sequences of his
mistake in all cases where ktioirleilge is of the essence of the
crime charged. Thus if .\, shooting at a person whom,
upon reasonable grounds, he supposes to be a burglar, kills
a person who is not a burglar, he is in the same situation as
if he had killed a burglar. On the other hand, there are
many statutory crimes where no provision is made for the
element of innocent intention due to ignorance of a funda-
mental fact. Thus if A abducts H. a girl under fifteen
years of age, from her father's house, iielieving in good
faith and on reasonable grounds that 1$ is eighteen years of
age, A commits the offense of abductiim, although if B had
been eighteen years of age she would not have been within
the statute.
For a fuller treatment of the whole subject, see Pollock
On Contracts: for the special topics, see Anson On Contracts,
Keener On Quasi-contracts, Storv Cm i'giiity Jurispru-
dence, Jarman On Wills, and Steplien's IHqest of Criminal
Law. Georoe \V. Kikchwey.
Mistnssini [Cree, Misla-ssini. or Great Ro<'kl : a lake of
Labrador, in lat. 51 N., Ion. ~i W'.. just X. of the " Height
of Land " or watershed and on the Hudson Bay versant. It
receives considerable drainage from the north, and emi>-
ties, through Rupert river, VM miles long, into James's Bay.
It is of very irregular form, with many long islands running
X. E. and S. W. Reports of its size vary'mueh. but an ex-
ploring expedition in IISS4 found it about UK) miles long
and only l;i or 14 broad, while at some points it had great
depth. '.\ smaller lake lies parallel to it and not far east-
ward. This region has a rigorous winter, but it is pictur-
e.<(iue, abounds in game and fish, and has a good s<ul with
some agricultural possibilities. See Hell, Information re-
gard iny Lake Jlislassini (Montreal, 1IS!S4). M. \V. H.
Mistoli. Franz .Ioskf. Ph. I). : philologist: b. at Solo-
thurn, in Switzerland, Mar. 11. IH41 : »il< educattni at the
Universities of Zurich and Bonn : was a leaiher in the gym-
nasiums of St. Galh'ii and Sololliurn. ami since 1ST4 has
lieen Professtir of Comnanilive Philology at Bax'l. He is a
inemlH-r of the Finnisli-rgrian Stxiety of Helsingfors and
of the Hungarian .Academy of Budapest ; is author of vari-
ous articles on subjects relating to eompamtive philoloiey
and si)eech-philos<iphy in the Steinthal-Lazarus /.eilsrhrifl
fur I ulkerpsycholugie; also of Vtber gritch. Belunung (ISn);
820
MISTLETOE
MITCHELL
Erlduterungen ziir allgemeinen T/ieorie der griech. Befon-
ung (1875) ; reviser of "the new edition of Stcinthal's Char-
akteristik der hauptsdchlichsten Tijpen dfs Spraclifxtues
(1860, 1893). Be.nj. Iue WnEiiLiiK.
Mistletoe [O. Eng. mifitellS>i, liter., mistletoe sprig ; mis-
tel, mistletoe + fan. twig]: a parasitic dieotyledonous shrub,
of the family Lor(int>ia<e<i', with opposite leaves, reduced
dia-cioiis flowers, and a sinjjle inferior one-celled ovary. The
mistletoe of the Old World is Visciim album, a e'onitnon
parasite upon apple-trees in Enjrfand, rarely upon oaks. The
yellowish-green foliage is in great demand for Christmas
decoration. The American mistletoe resemVjles the forego-
ing, but belongs to the genus Pfioradendron. One species
(P. jlavescens) is common from New Jersey to Southern Ind-
iana, Missouri, and southward, upon many trees, forming
pale-green clumps from 2 to 4 feet in dianieter. This spe-
cies is used for Christmas decorations in the U. S. Several
other species occur southwestward and in California.
Charles E. Bessey.
Mistral [Pr. ; Proveni;. mistraou; 1Ui\. maestro, i\\<i mas-
ter]: a norther or land wind on the southern shore of Prance,
cold, dry, gusty, and sometimes violent, injurious to vegeta-
tion, and hard to endure. It is most fre(pient and violent
in winter, and is felt along the coast from the mouth of the
Ebro to the head of the Gulf of (lenoa. but it extends inland
and becomes most violent in I'rovenee and Languedoc, es-
pecially over the delta of the Khone. In the lower Rhone
valley it occurs every two or three days, and at Marseilles
it blows on the average 175 days in the year. It is so vio-
lent as sometimes to overturn railway trains. It resembles
the Bora of Istria and the norther of 'J'exas. M. W. H.
Mistral, mees'tralir, Fredebi : poet; b. at Maillane,
Bouches-du-Rhone, France, Sept. 8, 1830. After studying
law at Avignon, he returned to his little native town, and set
himself to writing in t he dialect of Southern France, which
in the liands of Jasmin had begun to recover its former pres-
tige as a literary language. He speedily allied himself wii,h
other young men who were cherishing the same aims ; and
in 185-1 he was one of the seven founders of the famous so-
ciety of Felibrige. After immerous lesser efforts, he pub-
lished in 1859 a work in tlie revived tongue that at once
made him famous. This was the half-pastoral, half-mystic
narrative poem MirP.io — full of the color and the sentiment
of Provence. .So great rejiute did this work give Mistral
that in 1861 the French Acailemy decreed him its chief
poetic prize. Fame, however, did not change the course of
his life. lie remained at Maillane, writing much both in
verse atul prose for the Aioli, the Armaiia prouveH<;nu, and
other organs of the coterie. In 1867 he brought out a sec-
ond narrative in verse, CaJendau, which shows the results
of his stuilies in mediieviil Provencal literature. From this
time, indeed, his interests gradually became more scientific.
The founding of the Sociele des Langues Romanes at Mont-
pellier, in which he was actively interested, was a sign of
the same tendency among all the best of the group to which
he belonged. In 1876 he published a collection of his shorter
poems under the title Lis Inch d'or. For some time, how-
ever, he had been at work ujion a great philological task,
iiitended of course to advance the cause he was devoted to—
his Tresnr dim Felibrige. or dictionarv of the dialects of
Provence (2 vols., 1878-86). An interesting romance, Ner-
to (1884), dealing with media'val life in Southern France,
showed, however, that he had not wholly given up literature
for erudition. This has been followed I'ly a tragedy. La Rk-
■mo Jam) (1890), on the much-maligned .foannal. o"f Naples.
There have been many editions of Miriiii, an<l three trans-
lations into Knglish (C. 11. (irant, Avignon, 1867; H. Crich-
ton, London, 1868; Harriet W. Preston, Boston, Mass.,
1872). The origimd text was accompanied by a French ver-
.sion in prose, and one in French verse has fteen published
by E. Rigand (Paris, 1880). It has been rendered into sev-
eral other languages. A. R. JIarsh.
Mitchel, John: patriot; son of a Presbyterian Uiinister;
b. at Dungiven, County Uerry, Ireland, Nov. 3, 1815; gradu-
ated at Trinity C^oUege in 1836 ; studied law and jn-actieed
for .several years at Banbridge ; contributed to the local
newspapers and the Belfast Chronicle ; was editor of the
Dublin Nation for several years; wrote Ilugh 0'A'e(7 (1845),
which brought him to public notice; in 1848 started The
United Irishman in the interests of the advanced Young
Ireland party, and with the leaders was arrested, convicted
of Jelony, and transported for fourteen years, but escaped in
1853 ; went to New York city, where he started The Citizen,
advocating .slavery, but gave it up, and started The Soiitliern
Citizen at Knoxville, Tenn., which failed ; resided at Paris
till the war broke out; returned to Richmond, edited The
Enquirer in the interests of the South, and also lost two
sons in its forces; returned to New Y'ork and established
The Irish Citizen, which soon failed; went to Ireland in
1874, where, unmolested, he was elected and returned to
Parliauu-nt from Tipperary; being declared ineligible, he
was again returned to Parliament, but further action was
rendered unnecessary by his death, at Cork, JIar. 20, 1875.
He also wrote Jail Joiirnal (1854); The Last Conquest of
Ireland — Perhaps (1861) ; edited the poems of Thomas Davis
and James C. Mangan ; and wrote a continuation of Mc-
Geoghegan's lli.ttory of Ireland. See the Life bv \Villiani
Dillon (2 vols., 1888).
Mitoliel. Oioisiiv McKxHiHT, LL. D., F. R. A. S. : astrono-
mer and soldier; li. in Union eo., Ky., Aug. 28, 1810 ; gradu-
ated at West Point in 1S2'J. He was [iroinoted second lieuten-
ant of artillery, served as Assistant Professor of Mathematics
at West Point until 1831, and in garrison until 1832 ; resigned
Sept. 30, 1832; studied law. was admitted to the bar, and
practiced in Cincinnati until 1834, when he was elected Pro-
fessor of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, and Astronomy
at Cincinnati College. He held this p()sition until 1844.
Through his influence an observatory was erected on Mt.
Adams, within the city limits, and he procured for it in
Europe a telescope and other apparatus.. After his death
the observatory was rebuilt on Mt. Lookout, and was given
his name. He served as adjutant-general of Ohio 1847-
48. The great work of Prof. Jlitchel's life was the stim-
ulus given to astronomy by his popular lectures, which
were the direct cause of the establishment of observatories
at Albany, Clinton, and Allegheny City. He established in
July, 1846, a popular scientific journal entitled The Sidereal
Ilessenger; in it, and in a school edition of Burritt's Geog-
raph;/ of the Jleavens, which he jirepared in 1849, Prof.
Mitchel published liis observations upon double stars. In
1848, acting upon a suggestion of Prof. Sears C. Walker, he
invented a chronograph for automat icaUy measuring ami
recording right ascensions by elect ro-nuignetic mechanism,
nearly at the time a similar apparatus was constructed by
Mr. Ijocke. In 1849 he devised a declinometer, or apparatus
for the accurate measurement of large differences of declina-
tions. During the ensuing five years (1854-59) many zones
of faint stars were observed by its means, and lu^arly 50,000
observations were .accumulated. Among the other achieve-
ments of Prof. Mitchel may be mentioneil his discovery that
certain stars were double, notably Antares ; his numerous
unpublished oliscrvations of nelmhe, solar spots, double stars,
and comets (chiefly made in 1848-49); and the invention bf
an apparatus for finding the personal eipiation. In Aug.,
1859, he accepted the post of director of the Dudley Observa-
tory at Albany, N. Y.. which had been erected in accordance
with plans furnished by him five years before. In 1861 he
tendered his military services to liis country, was made
brigadier-geiu-ral of volunteers Aug. 9, and ordered to the
department of Ohio. He distinguished himself by a forced
marcli into Northern Alabanui, .seizing the railway between
Corinth and Chattanooga, was made major-general Apr. 11,
1862, and given tlic command of the department of the South
in Septeirdicr; but while making energetic preparations for
the coming campaign was seized with yellow fever, and died
at Beaufort, S. V., Oct. 30, 1862. His ]>rincipal ]iublieations
were T/ie Planetary and Stellar Worlds (1*^48) and TJie
Orbs of Heaven (1851). See the Life by his son (Boston,
1887). Revised by James Mercub.
MitclicU: city; capital of Davison co., S. D. (for location
of county, see map of South Dakota, ref. 7-F) ; on the Chi.,
Mil. and St. P. and the Chi., St. P., Jlinn. and Om. railways;
65 miles W. by N. of Sioux Falls. It is in an agricultural
region ; has nuvnu factories of chemicals and well-boring ma-
chinery, and a daily. 4 weekly, and 2 monthly periodicals;
and is the seat of Dakota Univcrsilv (.Methodist Episcopal,
opened 1885). Pop. (1880) 820; (1890) 2,217; (1895) 2,579.
Editor oi' " Repubi.icax."
Mitchell, Alexander Ferrier, D. D. : a professor and
author ; b. at Brechin. Forfarshire. Scotland. Sejit. 10. 1823;
was educated at the Cniversity of St. Andrews; has been
minister at Dunnichen 1847^8; professor in the College of
St. Mary and University of St. Andrews, of Hebrew, 1848-
68, and of Ecclesiastical History and Divinity since 1868;
was convener of the Church of ScotlamPs Jewish mission
1856-74; since 1860 has been convener of the Westmin.ster
MITCHELL
MITIIRIDATES
821
ininutos committee; since 1880 convener of the Pan-Pres-
hyti'iian coiiniil on Ijeniderala of I'resliytcrian history; is
MUMulter of Scottish text and history societies; honorary
nioinlier of the American Society of Church Ilistorv; a rep-
resentative to all the councils of the Uefornieil (inirches;
and moilerator of the General Asseinlily IKS.'i. He has jpub-
lish '(1 Thf W'cKlininnler Confi-Ksiou ril'F<iilli : <i Coiilribu-
lion to the Study of itx lltKtori) (IvlinlMii^'li, IHIiG ; 2(1 ed.
1807); The W'eililerlturns and their Woric (lK(i7); JliniitcH
of the (ienentl Axinnlili/, 11:44-4:1, with Introdiirtion (1874);
Introduction to lilnrK-lrtter Edition of Archliinliop Ilamil-
ton'.H Ciitechism (1882); The Wextminster Axxtmlily : its
llixlory and Standards (Uaird lectures for 1882 ; London,
lH8:i); Catecliismi of the Second Reformation (London.
1880); Reprint, with Introduction, of the First Protestant
Treatise in Scottish Dialect (Edinburgh. 1888); Register of
Knox's Congreyat ion in Oenevn ; Introduction to the Rec-
ords oft/ie General Assemblies in A'dinburyh, LS4(;-47; and
many historical articles in reviews and eyclopa'dias.
C. K. IIOYT.
Mitchell. DoN-Ai.D Graxt (Tk Marvel): author; li. at
Korwich, Conn., Apr. 12, 1822; graduated at Yule in 1811 ;
iiassed three years on a farm ; traveled in I-hirope ; studied
taw in 1840 in New York; pulilislied Fresh (lleaninys
(1847); Tlie Rattle Summer (184!)), a record of his observa-
tions in 1848 in Paris; The Lorgnette (1850); Reveries of a
liachelor(lH'}l)); Dream Life (1851); was U. S. consul at
Venice 18."):i-55; Fudge Doings vn\s published in 1854; in
1855 he settled upon a farm near New Haven, Conn. ; jiub-
lished (18li.i) ,>/^/''«;-;;i of Edge wood : Wet Days at Edge-
wood (1804); Seren Stories (i805); Doctor -lohns, a novel
(1807) ; liural Studies (1807) ; Pictures of Edgewood (1808) ;
About Old Story-tellers (1870) : Out of town Places (1884);
English Lands, Letters, and Kings (188!)-90).
Kevised by If. A. Bkeks.
Mitchell. Hinckley Gilbert. A. M., Ph. I)., I). II. : min-
ister and educator; b. at Lee. ()nei<la co., X. Y., Feb. 22,
1840. lie was e<hicated at Fallev Scniinarv, Weslevan L'ni-
versity (A. IJ. 187;J; A.M. 1870),' Boston L'niversily. Schocd
of 'I'heoloKV (U. 1>. 1870), and at Leipzig University (I'll. 1).
1M7!)). After serving ils iiastor of a Methoilist clinnh at
■•'ayette. .V. Y., 187!t-«0. he taught Latin and Hebrew at
U'esley.m University 1880-8;J; was instructor lS8;i-84. and
since 1884 has been professor of Hebrew and Old Testament
in Boston University. He has published Hebrew Lessons
( 1884) ; Amos : an Essay in Exegesis (I8!);i) ; Hints for Bible
Students; The Pentateuch (1808); a translation of Theol-
oi/i/ of the Old Testament, from the French of Ch. Piepen-
bring(18W). A. Osbor.v.
Mitchell, Margaret .Iuma : actress; b. in Xew York
city in 18:i2. Shu is best known as JIaggie Mitchell. She
began her stage career by playing child's parts in the Old
Uowery theater. In 1851 she appeared successfully as
.IiUia in The Soldier's Daughter at IJiirlon's Chambers
Street theater. New York. In 1854 slie playeil Constance
in The Lore Chase, at the Chestnut Street theater, Phila-
ilelphia. She produced Fanchon at the Olympic theater,
New York, in 1802, and acipiireil a great reputation by its
iierformance. Otiier successful parts on the sjime lines were
Mignon, Little Harefoot, and the Pearl of Savnv. She
married her manager, Henry Paddock, Oct. 15. 1808.
B. B. Vallentixe.
Mitchell. Maria, LL. D.: astronomer; b. at Nantucket.
Ma.ss., .Vug. 1. 1,S18, of (Quaker parentage; assisted her fa-
ther, William Mitchell, in his favorite astronomical studies;
pave special attention to study of nebuhc and of comets;
received in 1847 a gold medal from the King of Denmark
for the di.scovery of a comet; was afterward employed u|M)n
the Coiust Survey and The Nautical .4 /nidiinr ; removed
with her fainilv to Lynn, Mas.s. ; became in 1805 Professor
'<{ .\slroiiomy m Vassar College; ami was a member of va-
rious leariii'd societies. The (legree of LL. I), was conferred
upon her bv Hanover College in 1852. and bv Columbia Col-
lege ii\ 1887. 1). in Lynn, Jlass., .June 28. 1885*.
Mitchell. Sami'EL Weir. M. I). : ncMirologist, novelist,
and poit : 1). in Philadelphia, Feb. 1.5. 1821); son of John
Kearsley Mitchell, 1). D. ; wits educated at the University
of Pennsylvania ami at Jefferson Medical College, where he
graduated in 1850; was greatly interested in natural his-
tory, ami carried on a series of investigations ri^gBrding
snake poisons, publishing in the Smithsonian font ribiil ions
to Knowledge in 1800 his researches u|Kin the characteristics
of rattlesnake veno/11, uiid in later years various nionogmphs
on allied topics. He was appointed an aiL'ting a-v^islant sui-
geoii in the army in the hospitjd for injuries, etc., to the
nerves, in Philadelijhia in IStW; here he made the olecrf-a-
tions on injuries of the nerves and their conse<juences that
have givi'ii him a worhlwid.e reiiutaliciii. In 1871 he pub-
lished a little work. Wear and Tear, or Iliuta for the Orer-
worked (5tli ed. 1887). Injuries of the Xerves and their
t'onsei/uences appeareil in 1 87:j (Philadelphia and Ixindun);
Lectures on the yerrous Sgstem in 1881, 2d ed. 1885 (Phil-
a(l(dpliia and Lomlon); Fat and Rlood in 1885. He ha»
published several volumes of poetrv and fiction, including
Ilephziljah (ininness (Philadelphia, 1880); The Hill of
Stones, and other Poems (Boston. 1882): In War Time
(1884); Roland litake (Bost.m. 1H«0); A Mosi/ur and other
Poems (Boston. 1887) ; The Cup of youth (188U) ; and Char-
acteristics ( 18U3). S. T. Armstko.vo.
Mitchell. Sir Thomas Livincstoxe, D.C. L., F. K. S. :
explorer; b. in Stirlingshire, .Scotland, in 17S)2; entered the
British army in Portugal at the age of sixteen; was aide-
de-camp to the Diike of Wellington, anil afterwanl on the
staff of the fpiarlermasler-gcncral till the end of the Penin-
sular war; was sent back loSiiaiii as a membi'r of Sir Henry
Torrens's survey of the fields of battle; in 1827 was ap-
pointed depnly surveyor-general of New South Wales, and
ultimately Wame surveyor-general, filling that post until
his death. In that capacity he conducted ffnir daring ex-
peditions into the great deserts of Australia; discovered
Jit. Bvna, the vast region called Australia Felix, the Bed,
Peel, Nammoy. and Victoria rivers, explored the courses of
the Darling anil (ilenelg rivers, and imijiped out a pra<'ti-
cable route between the colonies of Victoria and Soutli .Aus-
tralia. He published in 1838 an account of his first three
cxpedition.s. and in 1848 his Journal of the heroic but un-
successful effort to reach the Gulf of Carpentaria from Syd-
ney. He also published several elementary geographical
and mililarv treatises, and an account of a " boomerang
propeller" invented bv him for steam ves.sels. He was
knighted in 18:3!) ; made a colonel in 1854. D. at Park Hall,
near Sydney, Oct. 5, 1855.
Mite : .Sec AcARrs.
Mitford, Mary Htssell: author; b. at Alresford, Hants,
England, Dec. 10. 1786 ; published in early life some volumes
of poems, and then became a successful and highly popular
prose- writer. The greater part of her life was spent near
Keading. Her principal works are Our Village, a st'ries of
pleasant sketches (5 vols.. 1824-82) : lielford Regis, Country
Stories, Recollections (18.52); Atherton anil other Tales
(1854) ; and a number of dramas, of « liicli Rienzi ( 182M) was
the most successful. I>. at Swallowfield. Jan. 10. 185.5. See
her Life and (.'orrespondenre. edited bv l!ev. A. (J. K. L'Es-
trange (8 vols., 1878), and his The iriendshi/>s of Mary
Russtll Mitford (1882). Uevised by II. A. IJkers.
Mitford, William: historian; b. in London, Feb. 10,
1744; was educated at t^ueeirs College. Oxford, where he
studied little but (ireek; retired to his Hampshin.' estate,
and often satin Parliament; iH'caine Professor of History
in the Uoval Academy; wrote -4n Inquiry into the Prin-
ciples of Ilnrmony in Languages (2J e<l. 1H(I4) and History
of Greece (5 vols., 1784-1815), once n-gardetl as a standani
work, but long since suporsiKKHl. It is written from the
aristocratic standixiint. The best edition (8 vols. 8vo. 1888)
has the notes of his brother. Lord Uedesdale. Mitford died
at Exbury, Feb. 8. 1827.
Mithras f:=Gr. WlBpat. Pers. Milhrn: cf. Sanskr. Milra,
name of a gml. liter., the friiiidlv one] : originally the Persian
god of light, who wa.s afterwanl identifieil with the sun-god.
As such he was the go«l of wi.stloin as well as of everything
good, and oveK-amo the demons of darkness and of evil.
By degrees he became the chief god of the Persians, though
in most ancient times he was not so reckoned. In Koinan
times his cult was iiitrixluced into Greece and Home, chiefly
through the pirates whom Pom|x"y conquered. Mysteries
were connected with the worship of .Mithras. The intrant
had to pass through eighty degrees of trial U'fore he coulil
be initiated into the mysteries. In numerous works of art
Mithras is represented as a young man in Asiatic co.stuiiio
kneeling upon the back of a prostrate bull, whoso hea<l liii
pulls back with his left hand, while with his right he plunges
a swonl into the bull's bnii-^t. J. R. S. Stkrrett.
Mithriila'tes (in Gr. MtdpiScIrtit) : a Persian name com-
mon throughout the Orient. It was the name borne by
822
MITLA
MITRE
most of the kings of Pontus.— Mituridates I. (337-302 B. c.)
submitted to Alexander the Groat, and was killed by Antig-
onus.— Mituridates II. (303-L>l)6 h. c.) withstood the suc-
cessors of Alexander, and increased the kingdom. — Mituri-
dates III. fought the Gauls. — Mituridates IV. coiuiueied
and annexed Sinope. — Mithridates V., Euergetes (156-121
B.C.), received a great part of Phrvgia from the Komans
for service rendered in u\c third Punic war. — Mithriuates
VI., surnamed Eupator, or more generally The Great (121-
63 B. c), b. at Sinope, the capital of the kingdom, in 134
B.C.; succeeded his father in 121 B.C.; conquered during
the first period of his reign the territories along the north-
ern coast of the Kuxiue as far as Chersonesus Tauriea; in-
corporated the kingdom of Bosporus farther to the \\'.;
turned then to the countries S. of the Euxine, attacked
Cappadocia and Bithynia, and met here with the Komans.
Three wars ensued, known in the history of Home as the
Mithridatic wars— namely (1) 88-85 n. c. : (2) 83-82 B.C.;
and (3) 74-66 B. c. They are fully described under Sulla,
LucuLLCs, and Pompev,' and ended with the complete de-
feat of JNIithridates, who retreated behind the Euxine, and
killed himself at Panticapaniin, where he was besieged by
his own son, Pharnaces, in 63 n. c. Nevertheless, the Ro-
mans considered him as the most formidable enemy the re-
public had ever had to contend with, and he was evidently
a highly gifted man, both as a general and a statesman.
Tie had'received a Greek education and spoke twenty-two
languages, and, although he was an Asiatic despot in all
his measures and in his whole character, he had a fine taste
for art and science. His collection of gems and his library
of medical books were celebrated. See Reinach. 3Iitliri-
date Eupatur (Paris, 1890). J. R. S. Sterrett.
Jlit'Ia, or Mictlaii' : See Mexican Axtiqcities.
Mito: an old town and clan of Northern Japan; in the
province of llit.ichi and prefecture of Ibaraki (see map of
Japan, ref. 6-E). The town lies 7 miles inland from the
Pacific, and is five hours distant by rail from Tokio. The
castle, a most picturesque spot, has not been dismantled,
but the inclosure is now devoted to educational purposes.
During the civil war of the restoration it was the scene of
severe fighting, traces of which remain. Mito was ruled by
a succession of able princes closely allied by blood to the
Tokugawa shoguns, to whom they supplied regents in the
case of a minority, and in some eases heirs, the last shogun,
Keiki, being a son of the lord of Mito. It was and is a cen-
ter of Confucianism and conservatism. A fine garden, con-
structed by Rekko, tlie most famous of its princes, is now
the public garden ; that formerly attached to the Mito resi-
dence in Tokio is the finest in the empire. Pop. 19,000.
There are manufactures of cloth and household utensils.
J. M. Dixox.
Mito'sis : a term introduced by Flemming for indirect cell-
division, called by Schleicher karyokinesis. In outline the
process is as follows : Each cell of animal or plant (see Cell)
consists of different kinds of protoplasm arranged in a sub-
central nucU'un and in extra-nuclear protoplasm or cyto-
plasm. Most characteristic of the nucleus is a peculiar
substance known as chromatin, from the readiness with
which it takes histological stains. This chromatin, in the
resting nucleus in the shape of a network, is sup])orted in a
secondary network of non-stainable material, the linin, and
the interstices of these networks are occupied by the nuclear
fluid. In the cytoplasm there exists likewise a network of
firmer material, in the meshes of which is more fluid ma-
terial. Besides the.se two long-known [jortions, recent in-
vestigations have shown the existence in the cytoplasm of a
distinct structure, the pole-hmlij or anicr. This consists of
a central ijortion or centriinorne surrounded by a clear space
or archopliitim. and outside tliis a denser mass of granules,
frequently arranged in a radiating manner around the cen-
trosome, the whole presenting a starlike appearance, justify-
ing the term aster.
In the ordinary or mitotic cell-division tlie aster appar-
ently takes the initiative. Lying as it does on one side of
the nucleus, it divides into two equal portions, eacli of which
moves a ciuarter way around the nucleus until liie new as-
ters come to lie at opposite poles. At the same time the
starlike ap[)earance is l)eiiig formed around each centrosome,
while on one side the rays from the two .stars intermingle,
giving rise eventually to a spindle-shaped figure between
the two. The appearance lias well been compared to the
" lines of force" exhibited l)y iron filings between the poles
of a horseshoe magnet. In the meantime the nuclear
structures are exhibiting clianges. The network of chro-
matin becomes converted into a long filament which is
coiled lik« a wreath. Then the filament becomes thickened,
and finally it breaks into V-shaped loops, the number vary-
ing with different species. While this is going on the nu-
clear wall, separating the nucleus from the cytoplasm,
breaks down, and at last the chromatin loops become ar-
Egg of Ascaris megalocephala divided into two cells. In the lower
the nuoleiis is in the resting stage and the chromatin is irregu-
larly distributed : the centrosome (c^) is beginning to divide. In
the ujiiit-r cf 11 the centrosome has divided, while the chromatin
iuups u'l) have formed, a, archoplasm ; c' c*, centrosonies ;
cl, chromatin loops ; n, nucleolus ; pff, polar globule.
ranged in a plane around the spindle. The next step is the
equal division of the loops. Each splits lengthwise, the
split beginning at the folded end. As it progresses one
half of each loop moves along the threads of the spindle
toward one centrosome, and the other half travels in a simi-
lar manner toward the other. When these loops have
reached their respective poles, the spindle threads break and
are wit lidrawn, while the loops unite again into a wreath, and
then liccoMie modified into the nuclear network of the new
nucleus. A new nuclear wall forms, and, after these steps
arc complete, a constriction appears in the cytoplasm which
results in its division into two cells.
Recent investigations have shown this division by mitosis
to be almost universal. The direct or amitotic division oc-
curs comparatively rarely. In this case all the strange steps
outlined above are lacking, the cell and its nucleus are sim-
ply drawn ajiart like so much plastic matter.
The meaning of mitosis has not yet been jilaced beyond a
doul)t. There is evidently some important function to be ful-
filled by such a comidieated process to bring about an equal
division of the chromatin, and upon these phenomena several
theories of Heredity (q. v.). notably that of Weismann, have
been based. It is noticeable that amitosis takes place only
in fully differentiated tissues. The literature of mitosis in
the last two decades has rejtched enormous proportions.
The most recent summary of our knowledge is to be found
in (). Ilertwig's Die Ze'lh und die Oeivehe (Jena, 1893),
where full references to the literature will be found.
J. S. KiNGSLEV.
Mitrailleuse : See Machine and Rapid-fire Guns.
Mitre, mee'tra, Bartolome: general, politician, .iournal-
ist, and author; b. at Buenos Ayres, Argentine Republic,
June 26, 1821. His fathei-. a schoolmaster, educated him
carefully, and before he was eighteen he began to make his
mark in literature. The persecutions of Rosas forced the
family to emigrate to .Monteviileo, where young Jlitre served
as an ollicer in the defense of the city during part of the " nine
vears" siege." The opposition to Argentine officers drove
him in 1846 to Bolivia, where he was chief of staff to Presi-
dent Ballivian and director of a military school. After
Ballivian's deposition (1847) he went to Peru, and thence to
Chili; here li(^ devoted himself to journalism. In 1851-52
he was lianislied to Peru for alleged comjilicity in revolts,
lie joined Urquiza in the campaign against Rosas, and
took a prominent part in the battle of Monte Caseros (Feb.
MITYLKNE
MOAHITE STON'E, THE
823
3, 1852). when the diolalor was overthrown, rrqiiiza, a.s
tlic leader of the feilerulists, became l>re?<ijeiit of the Ar-
gentine Confederation. Elected deputy. Mitre at once took
the lead of the "unitarian" party, which ainieil at the es-
tablishment of a stronff central Koveninient and a free press,
and throujih his influence Buenos .\yres set up a separate
government (Sept. 11. 1852). L'rquiza, at the head of the
other states, made vain efforts to reduce Buenos Ayres to
subniis.sion, and in 1M5!) appealed to arms. Mitre, then
Minister of War for Buenos Ayres, took the field aj;ainst
him, and was defeated at the battle of C'epeda Oct. 23. 1855) ;
Buenos Ayres was thus forced to re-enter the confedera-
tion. Mitri' was immediately elected f;overnor of the new
slate, and in this oflicc he continued to resist Uniuiza and
his successor, Derqui. War a;;ain broke out, and on Sept.
17, 1861, Mitre defeated the federalist army of L'rquiza at
the battle of I'avon. The result wjis the dissolution of the
old confederation. Elected president ad interim. Mitre
<'alled a constituent (i>ni;ress. which met at Buenos Ayres
May 25. 1802. and adopted the pn-sent constitution of'the
Arjienline l{epul)lic. Under it Mitre was duly elected
l>resi(lent for six years in Oct., 18(i2. With him began an
era of unparalleled prosperity. Paraguay having ileclarcd
war on the Argentine in 1865, Mitre joined with Brazil
and Uruguay in the triple alliance against that country,
and ntitil 1867 ho commanded the allied forces. He was
succeeded in the presidency (1868) by Sariniento, who ap-
IKjinted hitji special envoy to Brazil. In 1874 he was again
a presidential candichitc. and, failing of election, headed a
short-lived relielUon. Mitre was hardly less dislin''uished
in literature than in politics. Besides [Kicms. sketches. {k>-
liticnl writings, etc., he published two important historical
works — the Jlisloria de lieli/raiio (1857) and Ilistoria de
A'(i« Martiti (3 vols., 1869). 'flie latter, though in its incep-
tion a biography, is really a history of ihe war for inde-
pendence in South America, and shows great research; an
English abridged translation by Pilling bears the title The
Emaneipalion of South America (London, 1892). In 1853
Mitre established at Buenos Ayres a daily newspaper, La
yacidn, which continued under his control, and is now the
most important paper in South America. I), at Buenos
Ayres. Jan.. 1894. II. II. Smith.
Mityleiic: Sec Lesbos.
Miv'arl. St. (ieoroe. F. R. S. : anatomist and zoologist :
b. in London, Nov. 30. 1827; was educated at C'laphaui
(iraiiimar School. King's t'ollege, London, and St. Mary's,
Oscotl. Although he studied law and was admitted to the
bar in 1851. he devoted liitnsdf to science, and in 1802 be-
came lecturer on Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at St.
Clary's .Medical School. London, a position he held until 1884.
1 'lom 1874 to 1877 he was Professor of Biology at the Catholic
I'niversity College. Kensington, and since 1890 he has Iwen
Professor of the Philosophy of Natural History at the L'ni-
versity of Louvain, Belgium. Prof. Mivart has been vice-
president of tlie Linnean and Zoological Societies of London,
and has published many papers, cliiefly anatomical, in the
J'rocee(li?tf/fi nixi\ Transaetioits of these scxMcties, ami in the
J'hiliiKiiphiciil TriinsnctioiiH of the Uoval .Society. Among
his other works are The Genesis of Species (1870-71) ; hes-
■^'iiix in Klementary Anatomy (1872): Man and Apes (1873);
(iinteinporary Evolution (1876); The ('at. an Introdurtion
to the Study of Back-boned Animals (1881) ; The Origin of
Human Reason (1889); Monograph of the Canidie (18!X));
and Types of Animal Life (IH'M). He is widely knnwn as
an opponent of certain features nf the Darwinian theory,
denying that evolution is applicable to the human intellect.
F. A. LfCAS.
Mixed Mathematics: the application of mathematical
princijiles to scientific investigations or to prmtical con-
structions in the arts. The term is used in contrarlistinction
to the term " pure mathematics," which is apjilied to the in-
vestigations of the ]>urely scientific jirineiples of malhe-
nialics.
.Mixed Modes (in music): Sec Mode.
.Mixes : See I.ndhxs ok Central America.
Mnenioiiies, m'e-mon iks [from (ir. /u>D^Kut<(t. mnemonic,
ileriv. of furfifjiuy. mindful, remembering, deriv. of furfifir). mem-
ory): artilii-ial systems inteniled to aid the meimiry. They
were highly esteemed in antiquity, attracte<l much atten-
tion after the revival of learning, and still claim a share of
popular interest. The systems dei)e:id on associations, usn-
.illy of an artificial sort. The ])lan commonly used by the
Greeks and Romans was to select a real or imuginarv house,
and impress on the mind the dilTcrent riHjms with their
walls, windows, furniliire, etc. In prefiaring a discourse
each part (cf. the phrase " in the first place ") was associated
witli a given room, ami the subdivisions, eti-., with the parts
of the room ; then the orator in delivering the discourse
would imagine himself going through the rooms and seeing
the parts with which he had associated his heoilings.
Houses were also set apart for memory of diderent classes
of facts, and synilxils were "stored" up in them. Then
the houses were combined to make a street or town. A dif-
ferent plan, approved by Winckelman and Leibnitz for the
memory of dates, etc., is to ass<jciate letters with the num-
bers. The letters, usually cnii.-onant.s, corres|ionding to the
numliers, are made into real or meaningless words by the
addition of other letters, and the words arc associated' with
the fact to be remembered. Thus if it be desired to remem-
ber that ])rinting wius invented about 1436. according to one
system 1 =; t, 4 = r, 3 = in, and 6 = /j, and the combination
/n'Hieni/ous can be formeil and associated with printing be-
cause it was such an important discovery. Other svstems
consist of memorizing scries of images, and especially me-
morial rhythms which are associateil with the facts to be
remembered. Or intermediate or additional associations,
often of an absurd or startling character, are added. Sys-
tems of mnemonics will doubtless enable " the victims "to
call up disconnected dates and facts which it might not
otherwise be possible to remember; but it may well be
doubted whether it be any advantage to keep such things in
mind. There are some cases (e. g. the number of davs in
the months and the rhythm, "Thirty days hath .Se|)tei'nber,
April, June, and Xovember ") where an artificial aid may
be worth the while, but the elaborate sy.stems which have
been [jrojioscd would seem to crowd the' mind with useless
furniture and interfere with logical and judicious inemonr.
Bacon coinparcil the feats of memory which can l)e iK-r-
formed by such systems with the exhibitions of ro|)e-<lan-
ccrs. which may " cause admiration " but " can not be highly
esteemed." True methods for cultivating the memory are
logical ways of conceiving, classifying, and analyzing facts,
and connecting them with central'and permanent interests.
J. JIcKee.v Cattell.
Mnenioteclinies [Gr. /u^/ii). memory + t«x*ti. art]: the
art of memorizing, together with the artificial devices and
systems for aiding the memory. Another and more common
term is Mnemonics {q. v.).
Miievis: the sacred ox or bull of Hcliopolis, probably
dedicated to the sun-god, Ra, as was the city (StralH), xvii.,
i.. 22. 27), or possibly to Osiris (Plutarch. Isis. ^ 33) as Osiris-
Mnevis. His cult is supposed to have been similar to that
of the Apis bull at Memphis (sec Sekatis). and to have fur-
nished the prol<itype of the golden calf worshiped by Israel
in the desert (Ex. xxxii.). Sec also Wilkinson. Ancient
Egyptians, iii.. 306-307. As to the color of the animal there
is some uncertainty. Ancient authors speak of it as black,
but on the basis of obscure inscriptions some sup|>ose it to
have been white. Charles R. Gillett.
Moa : suppose*! to have been the Maori name for the ex-
tinct gigantic birds of New Zealand, and now used as a
common name for any S|)ecies of Dinorxis (q. v.).
Mo'abites [ileriv. of Moah. from Ileb. Moiil>h] : descend-
ants of Moab. the son of Lot by his eldest daughter (Gen.
xix. 37). An idolatrous |K'ople. they were hostile to the
Israelites, in spite of the relationship iK'lweeii them. The
southern boundary of the Moabites wiis the brinik Zered (the
modern Wady el-.\hsy), which em|)ties into the southeast
corner of the Dead S«'a. Their territory was about "20 miles
from E. to W., and at one time extended as far X. (.50
miles) as the mountains of (iih'ad. .\t the time of the Ex-
odus they hail lost about 30 miles of territory, having lieen
ilriven S. of the Anion by the Ainorites. Subdued by
David, they regained their inde|H'ndence after the dismem-
U'riuent of the Hebri'W kingiloin. aided Nebuchadnezrar
(604-561 n. r.) against the Jews (2 Kgs. xxiv. 2) and rejoiced
in their overthrow (Ezek. xxv. 8-11 : Zeph. ii. 8-10). which
conduct induced the prophetic denunciations of Isaiah (xv.,
xvi.. xxv. 10(. Jeremiali (xxv. 21 ; xlviii.). and Amos (ii. IS),
all of which were fulfilletl, for they s*H)n after disappear
from history.
Moabkte Stone. The: a stone or block which celebrated
the achievements of one of the Moabite kings. Mesha (about
000 B. r.). It was of black basitll, 3 ft. 8) in. high, 2 ft.Si in.
824
MOAVIAH
:mockixg-bikd
wide, and 1 ft. l-i't^ in. tliifk, roinulcd at both ends, and in-
scribed with thirty-four linos of lli'brc\v-l'hu)ni(;ian writing;.
It \V!i5 found Aug. 19, 1868, by tlic Kcv. Mr. KU-in at Dhiban
(the ancient Dilion), just N. of the Arnon. Thougli Ijniken
to pieces afterward by the Arabs, six-sevenths of tlie in-
scription liave been preserved, anil two-thirds of the stone
itself are now in London. This inscription proves that the
Greeks added nothing to the alphabet which was brought to
them from the Kast. Tlie best edition of the te.xt, witli a
translation and copious notes, is by Canon Driver in his
2\!'otes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of tSamuel, willt an
Introduction on Hebrew Falmotjniplnj, and t/ie Ancienl
Versions and Facsimiles of Inscriptions (O.xfonl and New
York, 18yO, pp. Ixxxiv.-xeiv.). He thus translates it:
1. I am Mesha son of Cbemoshmelek. king of 3Ioab, the Da-
2. -ibonite. 5Iy father reigned over Moab for :W years, anii I rei^n-
3. -eil after my father. And I made this high place for Cheuiosh in
QRHH, a high place of sal-
4. -vation, because he had saved me from all the kings (^), and be-
cause he had let me see my pleasure on all them that hated
me. Omr-
5. -i was king over Israel, and he afflicted Moab for many days,
because Chemosh was angry with his la-
6. -nd. And his son succeeded him ; and he also said, I will afflict
Moab. In my days said he th[us :]
7. but I saw my pleasure on him. and on his house, an<l Israel per-
ished with an everlasting destruction. And Omri tooiv pos-
session of the [la-]
8. -nd of Mehedeba. and it (l. e. Israel) dwelt therein, during his
days, and half his son's days, forty years : but [resto-j
9. -red it Chemosh in my days. And I built Baal-Meou, and I made
in it the reservoir (?) ; and T built
10. Qiryathen. And the men of Oad had dwelt in the land of Ataroth
f i'om of old ; and laiilt for himself the king of I-
11. -srael Ataroth. And I fought against the city, and took it. And
I slew all the [people of]
13. the city, a gazingstoek unto Chemosh. and unto Moab. .And I
brought hack (or. took captive) thence the altar-hearth of Dav-
doh {?). and I drag-
13. -ged it before Chemosh in Qeriyyoth. And I settled therein the
men of shrn, and the men of
14. MHRTH. And Chemosh said unto me. Go, take Nebo against Is-
rael. And I
15. went by night, and fought against it from the break of dawn
until noon. .\nd I too-
16. -k it, and slew the whole of it, 7,000 men and .... and women,
and ....
17. -s, and maid-servants ; for I had devoted it to Ashtor-Chemosh.
And I took thence the [ves-j
18. [-sels] of Yahwkh. and I dragged them before Chemosh. .\nd
the king of Israel had built
19. Yahaz. and abode in it, while he fought against me. But Chemosh
drave him out front before me : and
20. I took of Moab ^00 men. even all its chiefs ; and I led them up
against Yahaz. and took it
21. to a<id it unto Daibon. I built qrhh, the wall of Ye-arim {or, of
the Woods) and the wall of
22. the Mound. And I built its gates, and I built its towers. .\nd
23. 1 built tlie king's pala<*e, and I made the two reser[voirs ( ?) for
waiter in the midst of
24. the city. AikJ there was no cistern in the midst of the city, in
QRUU. And I said to all the people. Make
25. you every man a cistern in his house. And I cut out the cutting
for QRHU with the help of prisoner-
26. [-S of] Israel. I built .Aroer. and I made the highw.ay by the .'Vrnon.
27. I built Beth-Bamoth, for it was pulled down. I built Bezer, for
nuns
28. [had it become. And the chie]fs of Daibon were fifty, for all
Dai))On wa-s obedient (to nie>. And I reign-
29. -ed [over] an hundred [chiefs] in the cities which I added to the
land. And 1 hnil-
30. -t Mphede[bia and Beth Dililatlien, and Beth-Baal-Meon ; and I
took there the shccp-grazers ( ?).
31 sheep of the land. And as for Horonen, there dwelt therein
.... and ....
32 Chemosh said imto me. Go down, fight against Iloronen.
And I went down . . . .
33 [and] Chemosh [resto]red it in my days. And I went up
thence to ... .
34 Aiid I
Iteviscd by S. M. Jack.son.
Moaviah : See Ommlvoks.
Moberly : city ; Randolph cc. Mo. (for location of county,
see map of Missouri, ref. ci-G) : on the Mo., Kan. and Tex.
and the Wabash railways; l:iO miles E. by X. of Kansas
City, 148 miles W. of .St. Ijouis. It contains the division
headquarters and machine-shops of the Wabash railway
system, 3 vitrified pressed-brick plants, flour ami planing
mills, machinery repair-shojis, foundry, agrictdtural-implc-
ment works, ami ice-factory, and has a national bank with
capital of .$100,000, an incorporatcil bank witli capital of
$2.").0()0. and 2 clailv, ^ weekly, and 2 otlicr periodicals. Pop.
(18.S0) G.OTO ; (18»0) 8,21.'5. " Kditor ok " Monitor."
Mobile : city (fntinded in 1702, capital of the province
of Louisiana till 1720, captured from the English by the
Spanish in 1780, occtiiiicd by the V. S. troops in 1813, incor-
porated as a city in 1810, area reduced and name changed
to Port of Mobile in 1870, rights of municipal govcrnmcnl
restored in 1887); capital of Mobile co., Ala., and only port
of entry in the State (for location, see map of Alabama, rcf.
8-.V). It is on the Mobile river near its cnlraiice into Mo-
l)ile Uay, !ind on the Louisv. and Nashv.. the Jlubile and
liirui., and the Mobile and Ohio railways ; iiO miles X. of
the Gulf of Mexico, 140 miles E. of New Orleans. The city
is build on a sandy plain ri^ing from the river's bank, and
in the suburbs arc several attractive' hills on which arc
many cost ly lesidences. It has a fine watcr-suiiiily from
.Spring Hill, 6 miles distant, from Clear Creek, 11 miles dis-
tant, and from artesian wells, struck in 1802. Jlotlern ipuir-
antine protective measures have relieved the people from
all apprehension of danger from yellow fever. The harbor,
formerly very shallow, has been improved by the V. S. Gov-
ernment, ami vessels drawing 17 feet of water are now atl-
mitted to the city wharves. Mobile has an extensive export
trade, ])articularly in cotton and naval stores, lumber, rosin,
tur|)entine. and coal, ami an import trade chielly in colTcc.
In the calendar year 1893 the value of exjiorts of nu'i'chan-
dise was $3,301,031, and of imports .^.")33.816. The en-
trances of shipping average 338 vessels, of 191.800 tons, an-
nually, and clearances 348 vessels, of 199,256 tons. The
census returns of 1890 showed that 229 manufacturing estab-
lishments (representing 51 industries) i'e(iorted. These had
a combined capital ot $1,450,373: employed 2.331 ]icr.sons;
I>aiil i;8o7,660 for wages and .$1,433,136 for materials; and
iiad products valued at $2,872,017. The lu-incijuil iinlustry
accoriling to the amount of cajiital employed was the manu-
facture of lumber, which had 9 establishmcnt.s and $564,910
capital, employed 703 persons, paid !s220.594 for wages and
$513,376 for materials, and had products valued at $937,499.
Then followed printing and publishing, foundry and ma-
chine-sho]i jiroduets, saddlery and harness, flour and grist
mil! products, tobacco, and ship-building. Market-garden-
ing has become an important imlustry, having an aver-
age annual product valued at $500,000. The city has 45
churches, a .Jesuit college at Spring Hill, Homan Catholic
academy at Summerville, 7 other Catholic schools, Harton
Academy, Alabama Medical College, 2 libraries (Public and
Bar) with about 10.000 volumes, 4 orphan asylums. U. S.
Marine Hospital, a port hospital. Providence Infirmary, V. S.
Government building. 2 State hanks with combined cajiital
of $2.50,000, a national bank with cajiital of $300,(100. and a
monthly, 2 dailv, and 3 weekly pcriodictils. Pop. (1880) 29,-
l:i2; (1890) 31.076. EuiTOR OF " Register."
Mobile River: a stream formed by the confluence of the
Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. A few miles below the
junction it divides into two branches, of which the eastern
is called Tensas, and both branches stibilivide into several
others, which meet in a common embouchure at the head of
Mobile Ray. The total length of the Mobile river proper is
50 miles. The city of Mobile is on its west bank.
Moccasin [Indian, Algonqnian. inakisin], or Wafer-
moccasin : a very venomous ser[)ent of the Southern U. S.,
found in swamps and wet places, and even in water. It
is 2 feet long, dark brown above and gray beneath. Its bite
is justly dreaded. Its scientific name is Ancistrodon
(Toxicophis) piscivorus. The name moccasin is also given
to the coiiiierhead (Ancistrodon contortrix).
Moccasin Flower: See Cyi-ripedh'm.
Mo'clia: town; in the province of Yemen, Arabia; on the
Red Sea, in lat. 13 19 X. (see map of Persia and Arabia,
ref. 10-D). It has a good, strongly fortified harbor, and is
the most celebrated coffqe-markct in the world. Slocha is
a comparatively modern city, probably much later than the
establishment of Islamism. It became rapidly important
as the jilace of export of the coffees of Yemen, hence called
Mocha coffee. The place has lost its imitortancc and de-
cayeil, especially since the British took jinssession of Aden.
Pop. abtiut 5,000. Revised by M. W. UarrinutoS.
Jlocba-stone: See Chalcedoxy.
Mocking-bird : a singing-bird (Mimus- pohjglottns) of the
family I'lirdidip. found in the warmer parts of North Amer-
ica. Its general color is ashy brown above, white below,
with the outer tail feathers and bases of primaries white.
It is a rare summer visitant in the more Northern States.
The mocking-bird is reputed to be the best American song-
bird. Besides its own tlelightful song, it imitates the notes
of most other birds. It readily learns to whistle tunes, but
not to talk. The mocking-bird bears confinement well, es-
pecially if taken when young from the nest. Its .song in
the cage is often superior to that of the wild bird, but the
MODE
825
biril often becomes a nuisance from its persistent utterance
of luml wliisUinj; notes. Ituvisetl by K A. Llcas.
Mode, or Mouil : .See Verb.
Mode L^'i'i *'• l'"r. from Lut. hio'(/m«, nieiisnre, due meas-
ure, intiniier. mode, rhythm, nielodyj: in modern nmsic, a
certiiin scheme or urran^ement of sounds in direct order
from low to liigli, or ricf t-erxa, under whic-li tliey are recog-
nized by the ear as formintr a eoin|jUte and conclusive series
exleiidini; over ei;;ht dejjrees. and haviiiff a dislinclly
markeil beijinninj;, prof^res.-'. and ending;. If the eiglil |irin-
cipal sounds coiiiprisi'd in the octave were tquidisiant, there
could be only one such mode or sv.-item, injusmuch as a series
of notes conimcneing on 1) or I'J, etc., would differ only in
point of pitch (not in quality) from another scries c'oni-
mencin;? on \i or C; but as it is. we find in the octave live
whole tones and two .<cm /-tones; and it is also essential that
these toni'S and semitones shall fall into a certain order to
render the scale available in modern music. That order
may bo twofold — viz., major and minor — ami these two
forms of scales constitute the two modes now in use, the
third above the tonic bcin<; in the one case nuijor, and in
the other minor. The pattern scale of the mitjor mode,
with the places of its two smaller intervals or semitones
marked by slurs, is given in Ex. 1 :
Ex. I.
From no other start in-j-point but C can such a scale be
formeil by the use of the natural notes or intervals, inasmuch
as the relative positions of the two semitones between the
third and fourth ami the seventh and ei;Lchth couM not be
]ireserved if we should beirin on D, K. !•'. or any other dcj;ree
of the scale. A scale in this mode may. however, be founded
on any other dcffreo by the use of such sharps or flats as
nuiy be found necessary to raise or lower the incorrect in-
tervals, and thus brinj; them into conformity with the nor-
mal scale of C. (See Tra.nsi'osition.) The pattern scale of
the minor mode (that of .\), with the peculiar position of its
two semitones, is shown in Ex. 2:
Ex.2.
^^
^
A scale such as this also can be formed from the natural
notes oidy by beKinnins on A. But (as in the major mode)
it may lake its rise from any other dcfii-ee of the scale by
usinfT the necessary sharps or fiats to bring its intervals into
eorrespoiideiice with the model.
The distinction between the two modes sprinjrs cliiefly
from the dissimilarity of the respective thirds, sixths, anil
sevenths, which are all (in their natural or orijrinal form)
one semitone Kteater in the major than in the minor mode.
These intervals are therefore the characteristic and es,sen-
tial elements of the moiles when those moiles are viewed
in their simple ami normal condition. In the minor mode
then' is a certain peculiarity which does not appertain to
the major — viz.. a ilifference between the asccndmj; and the
dcseenilini; scale — and also an indeterminate or eiiuivocal
quality in the sixth and seventh of the s<-ale whieli is too
subtle to be regulated by any fixed rule. In the ascending
scale (see Ex. 2) it will be observed that the seventh is
minor, and for that reasoti can not be a true and satisfac-
tory ■' leadinir note " to the octave above. The interval of a
whole tone tlnis existing between the seventh and the eighth
is disappointing and repidsive to the cultivateil ear. and
especially so in. final cadences. To obviate this, it tiecomes
necessary to bring the seventh one semitone neaivrtothe
octavo by means of a sharp, thereby constituting it a leail-
ing note similar to that of the major niinle. Uv this proc-
ess wo create a new difficulty by widening the distance be-
tween the xixlli and the seventh into the interval of an
augmented second. This also admits of adjustment by rais-
ing the sixth aNo n semitone, which places it now midway
between the fifth and the seventh. With these modifica-
tions the a-scending minor scale of A will stand as in Ex. 'J :
Ex. s.
It is a valid objection, howe»-er, to this sharj^ing of the
sixl/i that it renders the upjier |jarl of the minor scale iden-
tical with that of the niujor: for it is evident that by such a
process every trace of a distinctively minor modi; is'obliicr-
ated. On comparing the altered minor scale at a. in Ex. 4
with the major >,alc at /,. ii will be xen thai from thr fourH'i
upward there is no dilleruncc whatever:
"in
For this reason comi>o.sers of instrumental music often pre-
fer the u.se of the natural to the shar|K-d sixth; and this not
only when the progression of the nieUHlv turns (/uirjiirnrj
from the sixth, but also when it anctm'U to the sharped
!*eventh and the fictave. Some illustrations of this are given
at II, b, and c in Ex. 5 :
Ex. .■;. a I, c
'-. ■-»
i^^^y-
A similar difference of opinion and practice prevails also
in regard to the descendiiii/ scale in the ndnor mode. Ordi-
narily, the seventh and sixth are taken in their natural form
—i.e. unchanged by sharp.s, etc.; but frequeiitlv the pro-
gression by the sharped seventh and the nnlural sixth is jirc-
ferred, and in numerous cases is even imperative. In this
form, as shown in Ex. 6. one of the strongest characteristic
intervals of the mode is preserved — viz., the somber and
plaintive effect of the sixth ;
Ex. (1.
^-^— » —
=C
1—
In this form of the descending minor scale a singiilarly
beautiful effect is produced by a chain of thirds or sixths, as
at a in Ex. 7, while no such etTect is oliservable when the
same movement is taken on the natural notes of the scale,
as at & :
Mixed Modes. — In modern music much of the variety
and beauty of the hannony often arises from the mingling
of chords belonging to one of the modes with the regular
progressions of a composition written in the other. This
occurs most freipieiilly when in the course of a piece in the
major moile cirtain harmonies are Uirrowed from the cor-
re>ponding minor, and are substituted for thoM> which
Would nalunilly (Kcur. By a skillful use of this device
many of the most striking aiul expressive tniils of the
nnnor mmle may be tran>fern'd and in('or|K>rated into the
major mo<le, thereby enriching that mode with new ancl
singularly U'auliful effects, and also surprising lli>> ear by a
train of unex|H'cted ami gniceful turns of Ihi ' -uch
as could not be produi'ed by the onlinary | ~ of
either of the miwles exclusivelv. The chief >■.....>•. i istie
intervals of the niinles are the tlunl and sixth, with the di-
minished seventh of the minor. Those lielonging to the
minor, when juiliciously transferreil into music of the major
mn<le. ns passing harmonies, not implying or leading into
other keys, give a new interest and coloring even to very
eommonplai'e ideas, and an- al«) the sonrci' of the grandest
as well as the most elesant and pathetic development.* of
modern musical art. In its simplest form this mixing of
826
MODE
modes occurs when, for instance, we change the major triatl
of the tonic or subdominant into the correspoiuiinfc' minor.
Thus in Ex. 1 the tonic triad of C major at a is oxchangod
at 6 for the tonic triad of C minor; and at c and d a similar
change takes place with the subdominant triad :
Ex.1.
It is quite evident here that the harmony at a and c belongs
to the scale or key of C major, while that at b and d is de-
rived from C minor. On the same principle are to bo in-
terpreted such progressions as those in Kx. 2, where several
intervals of one mode are exchanged for those of the
other (major yielding to minor), as indicated by the acci-
dental Hats. X. B. — By (imitlhui all llie flats, the example
will be reduced to a simple major harmony, and may be so
played :
u^^^sj^m.
Ex.2.
li^^^
r
w
■ -g*- ^ ■<&■■ .
pe=sgapsp
S
The superior richness of effect thus obtained by the mixture
of moiles will be still better apprehended by comparing the
plain harmony of Ex. 3 at a with that at b, where two di-
minislied sevenths are borrowed from the minor scales of P
and C :
Ex. 3. «
Haydn.
Compare also the passage at a in Ex. 4 with the harmony
given at b, the mysterious beauty of which latter arises alto-
gether from the adoption of two chords (in the first full bar)
belonging to foreign scales :
Ex. 4.— o
Ecclesiastical TModes are those on which, for many ages,
the music of the Churcli was founded. JOacli of these" .scales
consisted of five tones and two seiTiitones in tlic octave, as
in the modern diatonic scale. The notes, however, were
taken in their natural order (i. c. without flats or sharps) fmni
whatever degree of the scale the series might begin. 'J'lie
relative position of the two semitones to the five tones would
therefore differ very much in the vai'ious scales, and music
written in one scale could not be transposed to another with-
out the loss of most of its distinguishing features. A scale
beginning on C, for instance, was quite different in structure
from another beginning on D or E, etc. There were, in
reality, as many modes as there were scales ; and with one
ex<'eption they were unlike either the major or minor modes
of our modern system. Each scale had its own peculiarity
of form, and from that form resulted a certain (juality or
effect — solemn, tranquil, joyous, or plaintive — which consti-
tuted its special characteristic.
The aiu'icnt (ireek.s,amid their confused, bewildering, and
almost uiiinlelligiblc speculations concerning musical inter-
vals and their mathematical proportions, finally classified or
arranged them in these several species of octaves now called
'• modes." At first there appear to have been only four, and
these were for the most part named after the "nations to
which their origin was referred. These four modes were
the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and iMyxolydian (or mixed
Lydian). The first of these began on D of the scale, the
second on E, the third on F, and the fourth on G ; and their
scales were as in Ex. 1, with a semitone in every case falling
between E and P and between B and C.
Ex. 1. Dorinn.
i— t-
1 — r
Phrygian.
ram?:
1 — h
=l=t
1 — r-
Lydian.
Myxolydian.
P^
=t=t
=t=:t
f^J^TTS
To these four modes were added by the Greeks two
others called the Ionian and the ^olia'n, and subsequently
the Ilypo-Dorian (from im6, below), the Hypo-Phrvgiaii,
llypo-Lydian, Hypo-Jlyxolydian, Hypo-Ionia"n, and Ifypo-
^Kolian, making in all twelve modes by name, though" (as
will lie seen presently) several of them appear to be only
duplicates. Of these modes, St. Ambrose in the fourlh cen-
tury selected the original four for use in the Church — viz.,
the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Myxolydian. And, as
the plain-chant or canio-j'ermo in the early ages seldom ex-
c'eeded a fourth or filth in its compass or range of inflection,
the limits of these scales were held to be sufficient for all the
psalmody and liturgical demands of public worship. Even-
tually, however, the Church melodies were extended so as to
embrace the remaining degrees of the octave, and in the
course of time they assumed a character so nearly resem-
bling what was afterward called the "florid style "as to re-
q\iire much more space than that afforded by the narrow
bounds of the recognized modes. This led to the introduc-
tion by .St. Gregory (200 years after St. Ambrose) of the
other modes above mentioned, though with some modifica-
tions and under a different nomenclature. The old modes,
including al.so the Ionian and .<3iolian, were called "au-
thentic," or principal, while the added modes were styled
" plagal," or subordinate ; and on these twelve modes" (or
those most approved) the chants and other music of the
Church were written. Hence the rise of the well-known
" Gregorian tones " or chants, eight in number. These were
short strains consisting of inionations (or introductory
notes), reciting notes, mediations, cadences, and usually
several terminations or "endings." The plagal modes al-
ways began on the fourth below the corresponding authentic,
as if three notes below were added to the authentic, and the
three upper ones omitted. In Ex. 2 all these modes, both
authentic and plagal, are exhibited, and the different jilaees
of the semitones are marked, as before, by slurs:
Ex. 2. Itmian, authentic.
Ionian, pfaynl.
i^^^^i^g^^
-f— t
Dorian^ authentic.
Phrygian^ authentic.
^^
Dorian, plagal.
MODEXA
MODJESKA
827
Lydifin, anl/urrUic.
Ijydian, ptagal.
On noticing tliis example fritically. it will be seen that sev-
eral of tliu plaifal scales are uppareiiUv mere duplicates of
some of llie authentic. Thus the Lydiun plagal ami the
Ionian authentic are the same in ;i/)/c.i. as are abo the Myxo-
lylian pla^'al and the Dorian authentic. It is not to be jire-
sumed, however, that these scales are in all respects identical.
There is a prolmhility, at least, that the Greeks made use of
some kind of temperament, by wliich certain intervals of
these similar scales were so far modified as to give them a
S|iccial coloring or elTect, and thus enable any one to recog-
nize in them a real distinction. It is known also that the
melodies, cadences, and general ino<le of treatment proper to
the plagal were not also considered appropriate to the au-
thentic; and thus a difference might exist, though the notes
were in other respects the same. This may perhaps be better
undei-stood by observing that something similar often occurs
even in modern music, nn illustration of which is given in
Kx. 3, where the same train of notes will be found to suggest
dilTereut ideas, according as the notes are regarded as be-
longing to the key of C or that of G :
Ex. 8. In C.
There is also a further point of difference between au-
thentic and plagal modes, which are alike in notes. Each
mode was treated by the ancients as consisting of two parts
or divisions, the lower and the upper. In the authentic, the
lower division comprehended five degrees of the scale, and
the remainder (beginning im the fifth) formed the upper
ilivision ; but in the plagal the case was reversed — the lower
division comprising only four degrees, while the umier (com-
mencing on the fourth) contained five. The dillerence is
shown in I^x. 4. where the divisions in two of the modes are
marked bv strokes :
Ex. 4. Dorian^ authentic.
Dorian, ptagal.
From this it will be evident that the whole course of a mel-
ody in a plagal mode would give an impression essentially
difTerent from one in an authentic mode, even though the
two should coincide in notes, and seem to form one and the
same scale.
In some of the modes it was found expedient to correct
the imperfection of (he fourth and fifth by the use of an ac-
cidental flat or sharp. In Gregorian music the lUit is often
cxpresslv written in cases where the note requires it; but it
is prubahle that the sliarp was in many oases used, though
not actually written. See Grove's Pidioiinri/ of Miixic and
Miisirian.i! Revised by I)l-i>lkv Hic k.
Mo'denii (anc. }[utina): a large town of Xorthern Italv,
'•apilal III' the former duchy of .Moilena. which embrace<l
the territory between Venetian Lombanly, the Pontifical
Slates. Tuscany, and the .Mediterranean, and the duchy
"f I'arma and the kingdom of .Sardinia (see map of Iialv,
ref. .-{-D). The town itself, sitmited in l.it. 4-t :!S N.. loii.
10° .56 E., lies in a low, moist, but healthful ami fertile
plain between the Secchia and the Panaro, with which
rivers it is connected by canals. It is connected by canal
with the Po and the Ailriatic also. From the rainparLs,
now converted into a public promenade, the views are fine;
the city itself is well built and tlie streets and s<|Uares are
spacious. The l)Uiimo was begun in lOitU; adjouiing it is
the famous tower I,a Ghirlanilinu. ,i\'> feet in height. The
ducal palace, a vast and grand mediaeval edifice, contains a
piclure-galU-ry with many fine works bv the l«>st Italian
masters : a library of iw.lJtio volumes and :{.(tOO .MSS. ; a mu-
seum with •i(),IJ()0 ancient medals ; also archive-s of the great'
est interest. Mi^lena Ixjasts many learne<l societies, and is
conspicuous for her educational and charitable institutions.
The university, founded in KiTS, ha-s nearly I J(K) student.s.
There are nninufactures of leather, silk, vin'egar, and cast
metals, and a large trade in agricultural produce. Tlie his-
tory of this town may lie traced to 200 u. c. JIark Antony
besieged it without success. Ciecro names it as one of the
mo.st splendid of the lioman cities. In the reign of Con-
stantiiie it began to decline, and so rai>idly that .St. Ambrose
in 3HT speaks of it as " but the corjise of a city." Its mediae-
val history is stormy and changeful. In 12^8 the Manpiis
(Jbizzo d'Este became ruler of Modena. and in liill also lord
of Keggio. From this time, with a few brief intervals, the
house of Este. in one or another of its branches, governed
Modena and its dependencies until 1859. Among the most
distinguisheil of its dukes should be mentioned liurso (H.ji),
afterwaril also Duke of Ferrara, a true friend of peace and of
the people; Alphonso 1. (14T0). a man of great genius and
valor and the patron of Ariosto; Alphonso II., a brilliant
and magnificent prince, whose court was made illustrious by
the poet Tasso. Modena formed a part of the Cisalpine re-
public, but in 1814 was restored to Francis IV., who in 1831
dishonored himself by his faithlessness in the terrible affair
of t'iro Menotti. Francis V. was ilriven out by his subjects in
1M4.'S, restored soon after by Austria, and obliged to lly a sec-
ond time in \K)\), soon after which Modena by a popular vote
Wiis annexed to the kingdom of Italy. Pop.' (18!I2) ({4,,'jOO.
Modes'to: town (founded in 1870); capital of Stanislaus
CO., t'al. (for location of county, see map of California, ref.
7-D); on Tuolumne river, and S. Pacific l{ailroa<l ; 30 miles
S. E. of Stixktiin. It is in an agricultural, wool-growing,
and fruit-raising region, and in the center of the Modesto
and Turlock irrigation district of 2.50,000 acres ; contains 7
churches, gas and electric-light plants, a national bank with
capital of^lOO.OtM), a State bank with cai.ital of ^175,(H)0,
and a savings-liank with capital of ^SO.fXH.). and 2 dailv and
3 wecklv news]iapers; and has mainifactories of agricultural
impleni"ents. Pop. (1880) l,(i!t3; (181)0) 2.402; (1894) esti-
mated, 2,.5O0. Editor of " News."
Mod'lea (Sar Mohac, Molycat, Molnca): a large town in
the province of .Syracuse. Sicily : in a fruitful valley sur-
rounded by lofty hills; about 20 miles W. .S. W. of Xoto and
about 10 miles from the sea (see map of Italy, ref. 10-F).
The streets are narrow, but the buildings are g<KxI, and
among them are some fine churches, a muni<ipal palace,
and a strong ca.stle. The trade here is considerable, and the
exports are wheat, barley, olive oil, hemp, etc. The chief
interest of Modica for the traveler, however, consists in the
remains of a trogli«lyte city not far distant in the direction
of .Spiicciiforno. Pop. about 3H,4(X).
Modjes'ka. IIklena: actress; b. in Cracow, Poland. Oct.
12,1844. Her father was Michael Opido, a cultured man,
who gave lessons in music. She manifested at an early age
a taste for the .stage, but did not adojit the profession, on
account of family opposition. When seventi'en years old she
married JIodrzejewsKa, a Government oHicial in Cracow.
When she went on the stage in the F. S. she abbnvialed
her name to MiMljeska. In 1862 she made her first apjiear-
ance in an amateur jierformance at Bochnia, a little town in
Austrian Poland. Iler success was such that a small com-
pany was orgatiizeil. and. iLssisted by her younger sister, she
plaved at the Government theater in Lemberg. Czemowce,
and towns in Galicia. She returned to Cnicow in 186.'). and
became the le.nling laily in the tln-ator in that city. She
received offers to play in France and Germany ; the younger
Dumas jiersonally inviting her to npiwar in Paris as Mar-
guerite Gautier in his Dame aiix Camrliiif. She n'fused.
preferring to remain in Poland, .\fter her first husband's
death, she nnirried in Sept., 1868, Charles Ilozenta Chla-
powski. In Warsjiw she playi^d the heroines in the prin(U|>al
plays of .ShaksiK'are, (ioet he. Schiller, anil Molien-, and in
new Polish dramas. .She remaine<l seven years in that city,
and her repertory in her native tongue compriswl 284 ]>nrta.
82S
MODULATION
MOERIS
Slio left the stage in 187G and went to the U. S., settlinR
near Los Angeles, Cal., where slie liopeil to fouml a Polish
colony. Alter studying Knglish for a few months, she made
her tirst appearance in the California theater, San Francis-
co, in 1877, as Adrienne Lceouvreur. Her success was im-
mediate. She has since made a nmnherot tours throughout
the U. S. and in England, and also has visited I'oland pro-
fessionally. Beatrice, Imogen, Juliet, and Rosalind are her
favorite Shakspearean characters, but she has achieved dis-
tinction as Mary Stuart and Camille. B. B. Vallkxtine.
Modulation [from Lat. modula'iio, deriv. of modiila'ri.
measure, regulate, modulate, deriv. of mo'duhis. dimin. of
mo'dus, mode): in music, the process by which, in any part
of a composilion, a transition is made from one key to an-
other. Every piece of music, if regular, is written in some
particular key, and to this several others are so nearly
related that short excursions nuiy be made into them from
the original key. From a major key we may thus proceed
to the keys of its dominant, subdominant, relative minor,
and the relative minors of the dominant and subdominant
— i. e. from the key of C major, for instance, we may pro-
ceed to the keys of G, F, A, E, and 1), and from a minor
key wo may pass to the keys of its dominant and subdomi-
nant, its relative major, and the relative major of its domi-
nant and subdominant; i. e. in the key of A minor we may
modulate to the keys of E, D, C, G, and P. It is to be ob-
served, also, that a transition may be made into any of these
nearly related keys by the intervention of a single chord —
viz., that containing the leading note and dominant of the
new key. Transitions of this kind, being simple and eas-
ily effected, constitute what is called ndtural modulation.
Abrupt modulation occurs when a transitiiui is made into
some more remote key, as from C major to Ap ; or by a
sudden change of the mode, as from C major to C minor,
A minor to A major, etc. Enlidrmonic, modulation takes
place when one and the same note (with the harmony de-
pendent upon it) is treated as equivocal or having two dis-
tinct relations, and therefore capable of progression in two
entirely dilferent directions. This occurs, for instance,
when Ft] is assumed to be EJ, or when Bj) is regarded as
A3, and a transition is unexpectedly made in accordance
with the latter, instead of the former quality of the note or
chord. Tlie modern tendiuioy is toward remote modula-
tion, and our ears have become so accustomed to it that
much which would have horrified the composers and audi-
tors before Beethoven's day is now acceirted by us as only a
mild and gentle stimiilant. It is certain, however, that
modulation should not be introduced simply fur the sake of
modulatiii-ff. but for the purpose of illustrating some new
phase of thouglit or emotion. To render this elfeetive im-
plies that tiie key of the piece should previously have be-
come well defined and settled to the ear before such modu-
lation is introduced. Otherwise the effect produced will be
that of a restless uncertainty as to key and tonality. As
"it is a poor rule that will not work both ways,'' the rest-
lessness referred to might be exactly the purpose of the com-
poser. Shifting modulations would then constitute the best
means to that end. The student will find an ad unrablc il-
lustration of this idea in the first scene in Wagner's Tann-
hausi-r. Revised by Dudley Buck.
Module : in architectui'e, one-half the lower diameter of
the column used as a scale of dimension for all the various
parts of a classic order. The Italian arcliitcctts of the mid-
dle of tlie sixteentli century, especially Vignola and Palla-
dio, and later Scamozzi, sought to establish an exact canon
of proportion and form for every detail of the five classic
orders, based on comparative measurements of antique Ro-
man examples. The module was taken as the unit, and di-
vided into "minutes" or "parts"; twelve in (he Tuscan
and Doric orders, and eighteen in the Ionic, Corinthian, and
composite; or, according to Sir William Chambers, into
thirty minutes for all the orders. The height, iirojection,
and thickness of every part of each order weri! specifietl in
minutes and modules. This highly artificial .system of pro-
portions has never prevailed to any great extent outside of
the text-books, though sometimes employed in detailed com-
parisons of dilferent examples of the orders. See Aiicui-
TKCTUKE and OaoERS of Akcuitectube. A. D. P. H.
Modulus: See Logarithms and Imaginary IJuantities.
Modulus of Elastifity : a constant number ex|)ressing a
certain <|ualily of an elastic solid. If a force is applied to
elongate a bar of any material whose cross-section is 1, and
whose length is L, the amount of elongation will depend
upon the nature of the material and upon the intensity of
the force. If the applied force is not too great, the bar will
recover its original length when the force ceases to act; ami
the greatest strain to which a bar may be thus subjected
and recover its original length is called the lindt of the
body's elasticity. If we denote the total eloniration of the
bar in question when acted upon by a force M', within the
limit of the body's elasticity, by /, we shall have the relation
in which E is constant for each particular material ; this
constant is callecl the modulus of elasticity. See Mahau's
Civil Engineering, Appendix, note D.
Moe, mo, Jbrgen Enoebretsen: poet, folk-lorist, and
clergyiuan ; b. in the district of Ringerike, Norway, Apr.
22, 1813; received his first education in a public school,
and was then privately prepared for the university. While
receiving this tuition he gained the friendship of P. C. ^
Asbjornscn (see AsB.iiiRNSEN, Peter Christian), a friend- B
ship that was to lie of the greatest importance not only for
these two men personally, but for Norwegian literature and
the study of folk-lore as well. ^loe studied divinity at the
university, graduated in 18;i9, and, after teaching school
and preaching in difTercnt parts of Norway, was in 1875 ap-
pointed bishop of the diocese of Christiansand. Among
his poems (Digte. 1850 ; 2d e<l. 1856) are some of the most
popular Norwegian romances and ballads. J lirenden oy
i KJarnc't (In the Well anil in the Tarn, 1851) contains
some exquisite stories for little children. Moe's chief im-
portance lies in his activity as a gatherer and releller of
popular fairy tales. Jloe made several jom-neys into the
country to gather popular tales, first in 18:55, then every
year from 1841 to 1852. The full appreciation of the sci-
entific and national value of these treasures that had been
hidden among the people was only gained by Jloe after he
had seen the famous collection of the Grimm brothers. In
1842 he ])ublifhed, together with P. C. Asbjornscn, the first
installment of JS'orslie Folkeeventijr, samlede red P. C. As-
hjornsen og Jsrgeti Jloe {\H42-44; 2d ed., with a scientific
introduction by Moe, 1852; 5th ed. 1874; translated by
George Webbe Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse, Ed-
inburgh and New York, 1859 ; 3d ed. 1888). Of the sixty
tales contained in the second edition of this book, thirty-
one are by Moe. The influence these popular tales have
had on Norwegian language, literature, and art, can hardly
be overestimated ; thus the present Norwegianizing of the
language dates from the ajipearance of their work. Moe's
Samlede iSkrifter (Coinplett? Writings) were )niblished in
two volumes by his son, Moltke Moe, in 1877. D. in Chris-
tiansand. Mar. 27, 1882. P. Groth.
Mocbius, Paul .TuLirs, M. D. ; neurologist; b. at Leip-
zig. Germany, Jan. 24, 185;! ; studied medicine in the Univer-
sities of Leipzig. Jena, and JIarburg. graduating M. D. from
the former in 1876 ; in 188:i was apjiointed doceiit in his alma
mater. Helms given special attention to nervous diseases.
He has been associate editor of Sehmidt's Jahrbueher since
1885. Among his published works sxre Die JS'ervositat (Leip-
zig, 1882); Allgemeine Diagnostik der Nervenkrankheiten
(Leipzig, 1886). S. T. Armstronu.
Mit'on : an island of Denmark, in the Baltic Sea; se|ia-
rate<l from Seeland by Ulfsund, and from Falster by Gron-
sund. Area, 84 sq. miles. Pop. about 13,000. It is one of
the most fei-tile and (on account of its elevated and divcr-
silied surface) one of the most beautiful of the Danish isl-
ands, presenting a row of bold blulfs toward the Baltic.
Principal town, Stege.
Moeris \Mcri. the lake, or Mer-ur, great lake, in the Pa-
iom = Fayuiu. the lake] : an artificial reservoir covering 63
sq. miles, "at tlie entrance (S. E.) of the Fayum region, in
Egypt, constructed by Amenemha III. of the twelfth dy-
nasty. By the ancients the construction was attributed to
a king to whom the name Moeris was given. The lake can
not be identified with the Birket el-Kuriin, the existing
natural lake at the N. W. of tlie district, because the hit-
ter's low level (200 feet below the entrance through the
Libyan Hills) would have rendered it useless for its pur-
pose. It was employed for the storage of water in time of
high Nile, for purposes of irrigation. Its destruction was
due simply to the natural decay of the retaining embank-
ments tlirough lack of care. The region was cxiiloreil and
the line of embankments traced by Linant Bey (Memoire
sur It lac Moeris, 1843, and Memoires sur les pri?icipaux
MCESIA
MOHAMMED
829
Iravaux (I'utilitf imhtique, pp. 47-88; Lcpsiiis. Letlrrx frnm
l^ij'ipl, p. 'J2), Hint tliov are si ill to be soeii. For anciont de-
-.riplions. sou Jleroiloius (li., 14'J f.), Uioilorus (i., 5i), Strabo
■ xvii., i.. a"), and I'liiiy (Sat. Hist., v., !», 50; xxxvii., 12,
71!). 'J'lirsf wiitcre, however, do not a^'ree with one aii-
c'lliiT, and all llicir .statements tan not be true. Ueiiinanl.s
if the two pyramids mentioned by Herodotus have been
iliseovcred in recent times. Charles U. Hillf.tt.
Miu'sia : province of the Roman empire, corre.s|ionding
to the jn-eseiit I!iil;;aria and Servia ; bounded N. by the
Daiiulje, K. by the IJIaek .Sea, S. by the Ihemus (Halkan
.^lountains), and \V. by llie Save. Originally it was inhab-
ited by tribes of Thrueian race, with whom the Komaiis
came in <:ontacl after the conquest of -Maci'donia, but it wits
not made a Koinaii [irovince until the time of .\u;.'iistus.
It wa.s then diviiled into Miesia Inferior (ISulpiria) and Su-
perior (Servia). fortilications were constructed alon;; the
Uanubc, and several Roman settlements were formed.
Amoiig its towns the most remarkable were Tomi on the
HIack .Sea, whither Ovid was banished; Durostorum (Sili.s-
tria) on the Danube; and Sinjjidunum near the jircsent
Belgrade. In 2.j0 a. n. began the invasions of the Goths,
and in 3!I5 several (iothic tribes settled in the country and
received the names of .Ma'so-Goths. The country remaincil
a province of the East Roman or Byzantine empire until,
in the seventh century, the Slavonimis and Bulgarians en-
tered it and formed the kingdoms of Servia and Bulgaria.
Ma>so-(i(>ths: See Ulfila.
MolTat, Robert : missionary ; b. at Ormiston, Scotland,
Dee. 21, 179."i ; was by occupation a ganlener : went to South
Africa as a missionary in 1816, and passed fifty-four years
in successful labors among the Bechuanas and other barba-
rous trilK's, into whose languages he translated portions of
the Bible, hymn-books, and other religious books. He pub-
lished in 1^42 Lnhors niul Scenes in South Africa. He re-
turned to England to live in 1870. A testimonial, amount-
ing to £'.'),80ll. was presented to the venerable missionary in
1873, in recognition of his lifelong labors. D. at Leigh.
Kent, Aug. 9, 1883. The wife of the c.\plorer Dr. Living-
stone was a daughter of Mr. Mo (Tat. See J. S. Moffat,
Lirex (,f Hubert and Marij Muffnt (1885).
Mogador. or Siicra : town of Morocco, on the Atlantic:
about 130 miles W. of the citv of Morocco (see map of Af-
rica, ref. 2-B). It is regularly laiil out and well built, and
has an e.Ncellent harbor. It lias extensive exports of wool,
gum, wax. hides, gold-dust, festbers, and almonds. Pop.
about 15,0IX), half of whom are Jews.
MogllMev: government of Russia; situated on the Dnie-
per, between lat. 53 and ."r X. .Area. 18.-551 sq. miles.
The .surface is a level or slii;htly umlulating plain, of an
elevation of from 600 to !J(X) feet, forming the watei-shed
between the Dnieper and the Dwina; the soil is very fertile
ami the climate niiUI. Of the whole area, nearly one-half
(46 ]ier cent.) is under crops; nevertheless, considerable
quantities of grain are usually imported, on account of the
immense consumption of the distilleries, (irain. timber (es-
pecially masts), and cattle are largely produced, and carried
on the Dnieper to the ports of the Black Sea. The cultiva-
tion of hemp is very nnportant ; hemp and hemp-seed oil
are exiwrted to Riga. Pop. (18U0) l.:iS7.000.
.MoghMcv: capital of the government of Moghilev, Rns-
i:i; on the Dnieper (see map of Ru.ssia, ref. 7-1'). It is a
handsome and well-built town, the see of a Greek bishop
and a Hoinan Catholic archbishop, and the residence of
many of the Russian nobility. It has many good educa-
tional institutions, several manufactures, and a lively exjiort
trade in grain, hides, leather, wax. and honey through the
ports of the Baltic and those of the Black Sea. The prepa-
ration of skins is an old and famous industry of the pla<e.
lis cathedral, built in 1780, is a very fine building. Pop.
(1H9I) 4.').311, of whom two-thirds are Jews and the rest
White Russians.
Moglliler: town in the goTernment of Podolia. Ru.ssia ;
on the Dniester; 190 miles X. W. of Odessa (see map of
Ru.ssia, ref. 9-B). It is a beautiftillv situated anri thriving
town, with ab.iut is.."i()0 inhabitants, of whom nearly one-
li.ilf are Jews and the rest Little Russians. Grain, wine,
sjiirils, timber, etc.. are bought in (ialiciaand soM in Oclessa,
and manufactured goods are imported from .\iistria and
sent to the interior of Russia. The Little Russians an'
mostly occupied with agriculture, ganlening, wine-making,
and mulberrv-culture.
Md'giil, Moffhill. or Mughal [a (orniiilion of Mongol]:
the name generally a[>plie.l by Euri>[M.aiis to nieiiiLH'rs
of that .Mohammedan dynasty of Mongol descent which
in the si.xteenth century c-stablisheil il.self in Hindustan
under Baber, a de.scendant in a direct line from Timour or
Tamerlane, and which here founded a irreat and [lowerful
empire. The most remarkable of the rulers of this dvnastv
Were Akbar ( l.").JO-Ui<).)». Jeliaiigir (l(10.»-27l. and Auriing-
/.ebe (16."(S-17(lTi. during which |ieriod tin- <iiipirc comprised
almost the whole of lllnilustan. In Europe tlie.se monarchs
Were generally known under tin- name of the (irenl Mik/ii/,
and the most extravagant sioriis of their riches and power
were current. Their maghilic-eiiee iM-cainc proverbial, and
hiiits at their wealth ami splendor are freipient in nil comic
writers of that pericMl of Eiiro|H-an literature. The title used
by themselves was the I'ersian a/kiA. and Persian was the
ollicial language. After tiie death of Auriingzel«- tin- power
of the dyna-sty rapidly declineil. and at the beginning of the
nineteenth century the Mogul empire was but a shadow of
it.self. When the British coiKpiered India they gave the
rulers of this dynasty a pension, but after the rebellion of
18.57, in which it was im|>licatcd, the last Great Mogul was
banished to Rangoon.
Mohacs. mo-haach' : town of Southern Hungary, on the
Danube; 37 miles by rail E. S. E. of FQnfkirchen '(see map
of Austria-IIungtiry', ref. 8-G): the center of a c<msidcnible
trade in cattle, grain, wine, ami other agricullural iiriKlucts,
which are sliippe<l hence to Vienna. Pop. (18!H)) 14.468.
It is famous as the jJace where two of the most momentous
battles in Hungarian history were fought (Aug. 29. 1536,
and Aug. 12, 16N7). In the former the young and chivalric
king, Louis II., with an army of hardly 25.(K>0 men. at-
tacked, without waiting for the re-enfonements which ap-
proached under John Za[)olya. a Turkish army of 20<»,000
men, umlcr .Solyman the .Magnificent. After a protracted
and desperate fight the Hungarian army was cut entirely to
nieces, the king in his flight drowned in the Cscllve, an'd a
large portion of the country fell into the hands of the
Turk.s. In the latter buttle the Anstro-HuMgarian army
under Charles of Lorraine completely ilefeated the Turks,
and put an cn<l to their dominion in Hungary.
Hu'hair [from O. Fr. tnuiihaire > Fr. moire (whence
Eng. moire): cf. Arab, iniift/iai/i/ur. a kind of coarse eame-
lot or haircloth]: a name for tlie wool of the Angora goat
and the fabrics woven from it. This kind ct goods, for-
merly made only in the East and imported sparingly into
IOuro[)e by way of Venice, is now extensively protluced in
Great Britain and other jiarts of Europe, and less exten-
sively in the l". S. Mohair is combed like coarse wool or
Worsted and alpaca. It is inixeil in many cases with cotton
or silk. The raw material brings a high price.
Moliainmad. Shams rn-niN : .See Hafiz.
Mnliam'ined. or MH'lloinct [from Arnh. Miihommad. a
man's name, liter., prais<-d. deriv.of hanimla. to prai.se] ; the
founiler of Islam; the jtrophet of the .Mussiilinans or Mos-
lems; b. at Mecca, in Arabia. Aug. 27. 570. His family,
Hashcm. was |)oor, but his father, Abd-Allah, who dieil two
months before his liirth, belongi-d to the Kori'ish. the most
•listinguished of the Arabian tribes, to whom the guardian-
ship of the Kaaiia ((/. V.) wiis hereditarily intriisteil. When
six years old he |o,s| his mother. Amina, and two years later
his gTandfather. .\tHl-el-!Moutlalib. Ailopteil by his uncle,
Alxm-Talib. he accompanied him to Syria, where he met the
monk Bahini or (ie<irgi>, who in those early interviews exer-
cised a large influence on his subse<|uent history. At the
aire of fourteen he was present with his nnele.s at the battle
of Xakla Ix'tween the Koreish and the Havazin. ami pickoil up
the arrows as they fell in the fight. Then hi' served as a
shepherd and CHinel-<lriver for Al>ou-Tnlib |.">m4-5!i4i. bv
the integrity of his conduct winning tli. -Krn.iTiie of h'l
.'Vmin. the faithful. Kmiiloy<-d by the «• ^ Khiuli-
jah, the chief lady in ^Iii-ca. as her bu- I. he so
won her gnititmle and esteem that. altlii.ui;li lilleeii years
his senior, .she oiTenil him her hand and be<K!iie his wife the
following year. -Mohammid proud a faithful and tlevoted
husband. Their union was bai^pv. sjive that of their seven
children the t lire)' s<ins died in infaney. The years .596 to
6111 were comparatiyely uneventful. Fn-ed by liis inarriag«
fmm the nK-essity of daily labur. .Mohammeil wa* able to
give full exerci.se to that religious sentiment which had
always t>een dominant in his ehamctor. Every year he
withilrew for long piTiods to Mt. Hira. near Mecca, and
passed the time in meditation ami prayer.
830
MOHAMMED
MOHAMMEDAN ART
The relij;ious condition of Arabia was most deplorable.
The orijjinal luonotheisin of the Arabs had been supplanted
bv star-worship, deuion-worsliip, siiako-worsliip, and every
Tariety of fetichisiu, often aceoni|)anied witli debasing and
inhunian rites and practices. Judaism ami Cliristianity
were indeed adhered to by certain tribes, but in sucli de-
graded and distorted forms as to be little preferable to the
prevalent polytheism. None of those faiths could satisfy
Mohammed.
The Arab historians state that on a Friday, the seven-
teenth day of tlie nicmtli of Ramazan, while in the cave of
Hira, Moliamiuod saw in a dream tlie angel Namous (Ga-
briel) and heard himself saluted as prophet of (iod. These
ecstatic visions were repeated at intervals in his subsequent
life, attended by bodily convulsions resembling epilepsy. In
them Gabriel revealed to him the successive ciiapters of the
Koran {q. i\), wliich he committed to memory, tus he could
neither read nor write. These experiences he at first con-
fided only to Khadijah, who became Ins immediate convert.
During three years'lie preaclicd in secret and made eight
converts, his nepliew Ali becoming the first male Mussul-
man. During nine years (613-623) he preaeheii publicly,
making few converts," often in peril of his life, enduring all
manner of insult and persecution from the Mecoans. and
especially from the Koreish. Khadijah and Abou-Talib
died in 619. In 620 he converted six men from Yatreb who
had come in pilgriinage to Mecca. On their return home
they advocated the new faith with success. Two years after-
ward (JIar., 622), Yatreb, in the person of seventy-five repre-
sentatives, on the hill of Acaba, not far from Mecca, solemn-
ly swore that it accepted Islam and acknowledged Moham-
rned as the prophet of God. He now chose twelve apostles,
after the example of Christ, to propagate his religion. The
Mussidmans of Mecca emigrated to Yatreb, leaving only Ali
and Aboubekr with the prophet. Despite attempts at his
assassination he succeeded a few months later in escaping
(see Hejiba) to Yatreb, which at once changed its name
to Medinet-el-Nabi, City of the Prophet. A mosque was
immediately begun, at the erection of which he labored with
his own hands, and. in which he preached his first sermon
(623). Hostilities soon broke out between Jlecca and Jle-
dina. The Mussulmans, 314 in number, defeated a thou-
sand Koreish at the battle of Bedr (Jan., 624), but at the
battle of Jit. Ohuil (.Ian., 62.j) were themselves defeated by
Abou-Soupliian,the leader of the Koreish, on account of dis-
obedience to the [iropliet's orders. Medina was besieged
(627), but Mohammed was able to divide his enemies, some
of whom became his adherents. He signed a truce (628) for
ten years with the Koreish, wherein it was stipulated that he
might make the pilgrimage to Mecca the following year.
This he did (629) accompanied by 2,000 Mussulmans. As
the Koreish violateil the treaty, he raarcheil on Mecca
with 10.000 men. The Koreish surrendered without fight-
ing. The conqueror destroyed the 360 idols surrounding the
Kaaba, and Abou-Souphian and all the inhabitants declared
themselves converts to Islam. The negotiations he had
undertaken with Abyssinia, Persia, and the Byzantine em-
pire, were unsuccessful. During the years since the He-
jira. Islam had made such constant and rapid progress as
to have become i)rac-ticaUy the religion of Arabia; so when
Mohammed again made the pilgrimage to Mecca, it was at
the head of 100,000 Mussulmans (632). His constitution had
been undermined four years previously by poison given him
by a Jewess. Soon after his return to Medina he sickened
and died June 8, 632. In the unconsciims delirium of his
last moments he talked of the angels and God.
The two charges brought against Mohammed are that he
sanctioned and himself practiced jiolygamy — marrying four-
teen wives after the death of Khadijah, ten of whom sur-
vived him — and that he sometimes employed artifice or the
sword in propagation of his faith. Till the death of Khadi-
jah, when he was forty-nine years old, the closest scrutiny
reveals no flaw in his character. He was devotedly attached
to his mother's memory, never forgot a kindness, and was
unselfish and just. He was an able statesman ami a skillful
commander, intre[)id in battle, generous and humane in
victory. He put forth no extravagant claims concerning
himself, always declaring that he was only an ordinary man,
unable to work miraides, and that his sole commission was
to proclaim the unity of (Jod. Whether self-deceived or
not, he was sincere. The better he is understood, the more
favorable will be the verdict upon his life and work. Im-
partial investigation must pronounce him one of the great-
est and most sagacious reformers the world has seen. See
Davenport's Apology fur Mohammed and the Koran (Lon-
don. 1869) ; (iagnier's La Vie de JIaltomet (Amsterdam,
1732); yiuir's Life of Mulio7iiet (London, 1861) ; d'Ohsson's
Tableau de V Empire Ottoman (Paris, 1787) ; Caussin de
Perceval's Kssai sur Vhintoire des Arubes (Paris, 1847-
48); Saint-llilaire's i!/a/iome/ et le Coran (Paris, 1865); Se-
dillot's Uistoire des Arabes (Paris, 1854) ; liosworth Smith's
Mohammed and Mohammedanism (London, 1874); Spreng-
er's Das Leiien und die Lehre des Moliammed (Leipzig,
1861-65); Garcin de Tassy's L'Jslamisme (Paris, 1874);
Weil's Mohammed der Prophet (Stuttgart, 1843).
E. A. Gkosvenor.
Sloliammod : the name of four Ottoman sultans. Mo-
HAMMKU I. (1413-21), b. in 1379. When Bayczid I. died in
captivity (1403), one year after the battle of Angora, and
Tamerlane retired beyond the Oxus, the Ottoman empire
renuiined in anarchy during ten years, while Bayezid's four
sons, Soulei'man, Musa, Isa, and Mohammed, disputed the
throne. In 141ii Mohammed alone survived, and became sole
ruler. His main elfort was to restore the almost ruined em-
pire to its former condition. Though his reign was filled
with wars against the learned dervish Behreddin, the imjios-
tor Mustapha, Kai'amania, Persia, and Ycnice, he loved peace,
and was a sagacious, just, and generous soveregin, — Moiiam-
MKD II. EL Fatih, the Conqueror, the Great (14,51-81), b, in
1429 : son of Murad II. Illustrious as general, statesman, and
legislator, no other sultan is equally revered by the Otto-
mans, He was expert with the sword and bow, and pos-
sessed prodigious strength and courage. He knew Arabic,
Greek, Latin, and Persian ; was a poet and writer, and was
well versed in geography and mathematics. He favored
the arts and sciences, built hospitals, mosijues, and schools,
and founded the great Ottoman code, or fundamental law,
the Kanoum-Name; yet he was treacherous, cruel, and re-
vengeful. He conquered Servia in 14.59, the Peloixmnesus
in 1460, the empire of Trebizond and Wallachia in 1461, Ka-
ramania and Bosnia in 1463, Herzegovina in 1467, Negro-
pont in 1470. the Crimea in 1476, Afbania in 1479, and cap-
tured Otranto in 1480. He was successfully resisted by
Hunyadi at Belgrade (1455). bv Scanderbeg in Albania till \l
the death of that hero (1467)." and by the Knights of St. ^
John at Rhodes (1480). His pre-eminent exploit was the
overthrow of the Bvzantine or Eastern Empire by the cap-
ture of Constantinople (Jlay 29, 1453) after a "fifty-three
days' siege. That city he "reorganized as capital of the
Ottoman empire, guaranteeing the Christians many rights
and privileges, and attracting inhabitants from abroad. He
died May 2, 1481, while leading his army in an expedition,
the object of which has alwavs renuiined unknown. — Mo-
hammed III. (1595-1603), b. in "1566; son of Murad III. and
of the Venetian Baffa. On his accession he had his nine-
teen brothers bowstrung. An indolent and incapable
prince, the empire rapidly declined during his reign. In-
surrection followed insurrection, and the wars with Molda-
via. Wallachia. the German empire, and Persia, were disas-
trous, despite the capture of Erlau and the Ottoman victory
of Kerestes (Oct, 26, 1596), where 50,000 Germans and Hun-
garians perished.— Mohammed IV. (1648-87), b. in 1641 ; son
of Ibrahim I. Indifferent to the empire, he devoted Inm-
self to hunting and pleasure. His reign, though signalized
by two illustrious grand viziers of the Kupruli family, was
disastrous. Its chief events were theconi]iietion of the con-
quest of Crete (1669), the terrible defeats of St. Gothard
(1664), and Jlohacs (1687), and the unsuccessful siege of
Vienna (1683). The army, sharing the popular discontent,
deposed Mohammed in 1687 and raised his brother Soule'i-
man IL to the throne. Mohammed was confined in the
seraglio, where he died five vears later (1692).
E. A. Grosvenor.
Mohammpdan Art : the .art of the jrohammedan peoples.
In it certain dominant trails, ilue largely to common religion,
override tlie wide racial distinci ions wliich separate I he A ryaii
Persians and liicliaiis from tlie Semitic Arabs and the Turks.
The Mohammedans excel in many of the decorative arts,
anil in all branches of design display a special predilection
for brilliant but harmonious color, and for surface ornament
of extreme intricacy and minuteness of detail. Such orna-
ment is generally composed of wholly conventional or
geometric elements, except in Persia, where the Koranic pro-
hibition of iiictorial art is less rigidly const rueil than among
the Aralis and Turks. -In textile falirics, especially rugs and
carpets, in wall decoration by quarry ornament and encaus-
tic tiling, in cabinet-work and inlays, in certain branches
MOUAMMKDAX ART
831
of metal-work, and in manusoript illumination, the art of
the Levantine Muslenis, tlie Persians, ami the MoliuinuieJans
of Inilia, is particularly brilliant ami worthy of study. In
architecture each of these races has built up its national
style out of materials and su;;;;estions furnished by the peo-
ples it has comiuered ; so that traces of Uyzantine. .Sassa-
nian, Xorman. and even classic art are found in all Saracenic,
Persian, and Imlo-.Moslem works. In all the.sc one detects
the predoniiiKuice of the idea of surface decoration, whether
of inlay or carvinjr. in marble or plaster or wooil ; the de-
penilence on color rather than on architectural form for the
chief effect, and the developuient of u'eornetrie motives as
the basis of ornament. To this shoulil be added a wholly
ori;jiiial innovation in the decorative use of .\rabic letteriiifj,
in relief or in color, to form borders and friezes of great
richness and beauty.
The Arabs, who in the seventh century carried the oon-
querinj; slamlard and faith of Islam from the piles of India
to the Pillars of Hercules, were neither artists n>ir builders,
nor even for the most part dwellers in cities, but nomadic
Iriliesmen, and therefore compelled to make use of the arts
and of the craftsmen of the lands they cououered. The Sas-
s.inians in Persia, the Copts iu Kiypt, the l{y/,;inline Greeks
in the Mediterranean countries, were their builders and
decorators for centuries. The earlier Mohammedan works
therefore partake of the character of the arts of widely di-
verse peoples, though these arts were transformed in time by
the imperious control of the .Vrabic mind and Koranic re-
strictions. These facts explain the vari(^ty of style which
di.sringnishes from each other the arts of the Ej^yptian
Arabs, the Moors, the Turks, the Persians, and the several
schools of Iiido-Moslem art. The most chariu-teristic mani-
festations of Arabian art, .so called in dislinction from the
Moorish or Moresque art of Northwestern .\frica and Spain,
are to be found in H^ypt, especially in Cairo, and in .Syria.
The splendid mosque of Omar in tierusalem was biult
(li'i' A. D.) by Byzantine architects, but is quite uidikc any
liyz.intine type. The same was true of the sreat mosque of
Kl Walid at Damascus (705 a. v.), recently destroyed or
seriously injureil by fire. In Cairo also the earlier mosques
and tombs were by Coptic architects; but, unlike the Coptic
Byzantine churches, they prestmted a new model of design,
consisting of many parallel rows of slight columns or piers
bearing arches and supporting richly decorated wfHMlen ceil-
ings. The hall was preceded by an atrium or court, and the
end of its central aisle was ailorned by a mihrab or prayer-
niche, iniiicating the clireclion of Mecca, as in the partly
ruined mosques of Arnron (642-720) and Ibn Toulam (876).
In later mosques a domical hall or a cavernous vaulted
chamber, open to the court, replacecl the columnar arcaded
hall, its walls incrusted witli colored nnirbles in rich designs
(mos(pie of Barkouk, 11 111, and of Hassan, 13.56). In these
and some others one sees, associated with the mosque proper.
a whole congi'ries of schools, hospitals, and tombs in plans
of great complexity. In the fourteenth century the general
adoption of domes and minarets, under Persian influence, led
to a great iticrease of architectural splendor. The mosques
nf Hassan (1356), El JIuayed (1415), Sinan Pacha (1468), and
Kait Bey (1463) are beautiful examiiles of this style of de-
sign, which is illustrated on a smaller scale by the tombs
of the caliphs and of the Mamelukes. In all thes<< the four-
centered, pointed arch, the Saracenic "slalactiti' " corbeling,
interlaced star-patterns ami minute geometric detail, play an
important part both iti the external and internal decoration
of walls, domes, and minarets. The Arabs particularly ex-
cel in cabinet-work of small pieces combined in intricate
star-patterns, and in lattice-screens of spindle-work of great
beauty and variety.
Murexque Art. — The art of Morocco and Tunis is not well
known as that of the .Moors in S|)ain, being much less ac-
cessible, and seldom comparable either in splendor or im-
portance with the works of the .Spanish M<K)rs. Cordova.
Seville, Toledo, (Jranada, Tarragoini. and .Segovia — all eon-
tain relics of the granileur of the Moslem dominion which
lasted from 710until the linal expulsion of the Moors in 14!t2.
The mosque of Cordova, founded in 786. consists of 17 rows
of 32 columns, each carrying super|)osed horscshiK" arches,
elaborately cusped, with a domiciil sanctuary built 2(10
years later. Many smaller mosques of this type exist in
.Spain, at Toledo, ami elsewhere; but the most splendid
products of Moorish architecture are palaces, of which the Al-
cazars at Seville. Segovia, and .Malaf,'a. and the .Mhambniat
• iranada are the chief examples. The latter, built during
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, has always been re-
garded as one of the wonders of the buihler's art, on account
rather of its superb decoralicm than of anything marvelous
in its architectonic coni|>(jsition. Begun liv Mohammed-
bcn-al-IIamar in 12;W, enlargeil in 1279. 1306, and 1348. it
comprises two large atnl several smaller courts siirroundiKl
by halls and chambers of varieil size and form, ami emlnd-
lished by arcades and fountains of great beauty. The build-
ing is one story high, without external regularity, entirely
covered internally with rich and miimte iliiqier-work in
plaster, brilliantly colored and gilded exce|)t where the
lower parts are revetleil with a wainscot of enameled tiles.
The arches are all cus|M'd, the slender columns are of colored
marble, and the windows filled with finely executed plaster
screens or lattices. There is less of strictly architectural de-
sign hero than in the buildings of Cairo,' but an even freer
use of detail in relief, gilding, ami <-olor. The influence of
this sumptuous decoration was long felt u|>on the (iothicart
of .Spain, and even upon the Renaissance art which suc-
ceeded it.
Persian Art. — Among the Persians we find a highly orig-
inal and vital development of style in architecture atid
decoraIii>n. Less ostentatious than the Ilispano-.Miiresipie,
more rigidly constructive than the Egypto-.\rabic, Persian
architecture oilers examples of im|«ising conceptions exe-
cuted with exceeiling reflnetnent. and sumptuously decorated
without sacrifice of dignity. The Persians ap|K>ar to have
excelled in the construction of vaults and domes from im-
memorial times, and the type of dume. slightly swelling anil
pointed, which they adopted for their mosques and tombs is
encountered aVikv in Cairo ami in India, where architecture
owed much to Persian influences. Various mosques and
tombs at Ispahan, Tabreez. Sultaniye. etc.. show a rich deco-
ration of enameled and painted tiles, externally as well as
internally — a branch of art for which the Persians have al-
ways been famous. The " green mosfpie " at Broussa (Tur-
key) may Ijc considered a Persian work, its lining of rich
blue-green tiling being wholly of Persian make. The round
minaret, universal in Turkey and frecpient in India, is also
of Persian origin. Not only in tile-making, but in the
weaving of rugs and carpets, Persian art displays surjiassing
excellence; especially in its skillful blending of rich colors
broken into mnmie areas, never in large masses, as in those
of Asia Minor. In calligraphy — an important branch of
Moslem art — in the illumimition of manuscripts, in the print-
ing of caliccx'S, the Persians have never lost their supremacy.
Belonging to the heretical sect of the Shieh. they mterpret
very broadly the Koranic prohibition of pictorial art, ami
Persian decoration consequently displays a freedom and re-
source, e.sjiecially in its floral forms, not mot with in Sara-
cenic or Turkish design.
Turkish Art. — The .Seljukian Turks, who in 14.')3 under
Mohammed II. finally overthrew Constantinople, after occu-
pying for nearly a century the .surrounding territory in Asia
Minor and Thrace, followed the example of all other Mo-
hammedan coni|Uerors by adopting at once the arts of the
conquered race. The Conqueror's mos<]ue. the work of
Christadoulos, a Byzantine Greek, was a mollification of the
.St. Sophia typo of domical construction and planning, a ty|>e
which has persisted, with variations, in Turkish mosque
designs down to the present time. The noblest example of
this is the mosque of Siileiman the Magnificent (cirrn 1.5.50),
while in Constantinople, Broussa. I)anuis<'us. ami other cities
are a nuinlM'r of other examples only inferior to this. The
exteriors are more elalnirate, the interiors plainer, than those
of their Byzantine prototy|M.'S, to which the Turks have
added minarets and cloisters, domical tombs, ami many
other acces,sories. The pointiil arch, with voussoirs alternate-
ly light and dark, monumental doorways set in vast niches
with staliU'titic arches or heads, and picturi-squely spreading
wooden-eavcd roofs, are features of Turkish architeclun-
which has pnxluced, besides niosipies, some fine toml)S and
fountains, but it hwksthe aluindon ami exulx-rani-eof .Xrabic,
.Moorish, or Indian art, and has suffered much from the in-
fluence, in the eighteenth century, of the most degradeil
fi>rms of riK'oco design, due to the im|H>riatiim of Italian
artists. The Turks excel, however, in ne(><llework. nig-weuv-
ing. and some branches of metal-work ami inlay.
Iiiilian Art. — Northirn India came nntler the Moslem
sway at the end of the twelfth century, ami the I'alhan
monuments of the next century in Itelhi anil .\jmen- differ
but little from the older .laina colonmnliil courts and halls.
This i<! also true of many of the mosques and tombs of Ah-
medabad, Mirzapur, and Birkej. though their domes and
minarets ally them with the coiileni|K>rary buildings of Per-
832
MOHAMMEDANISM
sia and Egypt. Still more nearly related to Persian models
are the mosque and the bazaar at Kalburjiah (Deccan), and
the Jumma iliiddjid and the tomb of Alalimild at Bijapur,
in which tile syst<'m of vaultini; by domes on inlerseetiii";
pointed jji'oincd pendentives at once recalls the mosque and
the bazaar at Ispahan ; but the most s|ilendid works of Mos-
lem art in India belong to the Mogul period (1494-1707), in
which — especially at Agra and Delhi — the resources of
Hindu and Saracenic design seem to have been combined
with womlerfnl results. The Taj Mahal is one of the most
beautiful buildings in existence. See India.
Indo-Mt)slem art can not always be sei)arated from Hindu
(pagan) art in its minor products, such as rugs, carpets, brass-
work, and wood-carving, in which racial rather than relig-
ious characteristics predominate. These worksare all marked
by a wonderful patience and minuteness of detail, and by
rich and harmonious combinations of line and color.
Refekexces. — For other details, see Constantinopi^e,
India, Persia, and Saracenic Art. Among the leading
works of reference are Prisse d'Avennes, L'Art Avabe;
Bourgoin, Les Arts Arabes; Texier, L'Art inoderne de In
Perse; Owen Jones, (rrammar of Ornament and The Al-
hambra; h. Parvillee, L' Architecture Ottomane; J. Fergus-
son, Indian and Kastern Architecture. A. D. F. Hamlin.
Mohnmmetlaiiism : the name commonly Init improperly
applied by Furopcans to the religion taught by the prophet
j\iohamnu'd. The name Islam (resignation, submission) is
that given by the founder and invariably cm))loyed by its
adherents. The latter deprecate being called Mohammed-
ans or Mahometans, asserting they are followers of no human
being, but are Mussulmans or Moslems (the resigned or
submitted).
Knowledge, according to the Mussulmans, is derived
either from the five physical senses or from tradition,
thereby including both oral tnulilion and revelation, or
from reason. iS"o knowledge is derived from inspiration.
The Koran, the gift of revelation, contains all the laws and
doctrines considered of divine origin. This book is further
expoun<led, in addition to its obvious meaning, by the Sunna,
or oral tradition concerning the prophet's sayings, actions,
and oven his silence in certain circumstances; "by the Idyraa-
y-ummeth, or explanations and legal decisions rendered by
the apostles and chief disciples contemporary with or imme-
diately subsecpient to the prophet ; and by the Kiyass, or
later decisions, made during the early centuries of Islam.
The central, all-dominating idea of the faith is the unity
of God. In the creed, " There is no God but God, and Mo-
hammed is the prophet of God," the first clause is the all-
important, and the second is added, not to exjilt Moham-
med, but simply that men may accredit his mission, and
hence accept and believe whatever he taught as revealed to
him concerning tlie deity. The theologic system, however,
embraces many other doctrines. For convenience and defi-
niteness two catechisms have been drawn up : one in Turk-
isli, called Exposition of tfie Mussulman Faith, by Moham-
med lien I'ir All el Berkcvi; and one in Arabic, by Xedjhm
ud-din Nessefy, who died at 15agdad in 1142. These two
eateeliisms do not disagree, but the latter is the authorized
and universally accepted summary of orthodox Islam. With
Oriental prolixity, and with scant regard to their logical order
or relative importance, it sets forth fifty-eight doctrines or
articles of faith, all of which are equally held by the ortho-
dox. Some are sanitary rather than theological: some
hardly more than definitions; some seem almost puerile,
while others set forth the sublimest truths held in common
by all monotheistic peoples.
Doctrines. — The existence of the world proves a creator.
This creator is God. "There is only one God: he lives, is
eternal, omnipotent, and omniscient; hears all, sees all: is
endowed with will and action: in him there is neither form
nor face nor limits nor numbers nor members nor parts nor
multiplication nor division, because he is neither body nor
matter, and has neither beginning nor end; he exists by
himself, without generation or habiliit ion, beyond the con-
trol of time, incom|)arable in his nature as in'his attributes,
which, while not distinct from his essence, do not constitute
his being. God possesses the word. The word, eternal in
its essence, has neither visible letter nor character nor
sound, and its nal^ure is the opi)osite of silence." " The
Koran is the uncreated word of (iorl, written in our books.
engraved on our hearts, articulated on our tongues, heard
by our ears, in which the sound of the word is received, and
not the word itself, which is eternal and self-existent." The
believer's future spiritual vision of God is demonstrated by
reason and revelation. In the tondj sinners are tormentetl,
there the faithful enjoy spiritual delights, and there all the
dead, without exception, are (|Uestioned by the angels
Munnker and Xekiras to their God, their religion, and their
jirophet. The resurrection of the dead, the balance wherein
are weighed all actions committed during lite, the dailj'
record (kitab) of each individual, the examination on the day
of judgment, the bridge (at Sirat), the celestial basin, and a
never-ending paradise and hell, are all real and certain.
There are twelve capital sin.s — polytheism, homicide, injury
of another, adultery, desertion on the field of battle, magic,
robbery of orphans, disobedience to parents, sacrilege at
Jlecca, usury and illegal gain, theft, use of wine — any of
which God may pardon save polytheism. Through the in-
tercession of the prophets guilty believers will not remain in
hell forever. Faith is belief in and confession of all re-
vealed by God : good works can be increstsed or diminished ;
not so faith, which is the same as Islam. Tlie destiny of
the elect tind the damned is decreed by the Eternal, for jire-
destination exists in the essence of God, and he never
changes; but this predestination extends only to sjiiritual
condition, does not include all mankind, and has no connec-
tion with one's moral, civil, or political condition; num is
never deprived of free will. The projihets, envoys of God,
have attested their mysterious mission by prodigies and
marvels: of these Adam is the first: Christ is superior to
all the others save Mohammed, the last and most eminent
of all. The angels, God's messengers and servants, are with-
out sex. The sacred books descended from heaven, were
put into the hands of men, and are in order of rank the
Koran, the Pentateuch, the Gosjiels, and the Psalms. Tlie
bodily ascent of Mohammed to the heaven of heavens is a
fact. The saints possess the gift of miracles. The funeral
prayer for om^ just dead is incumbent on the survivors. The
use of the bath is obligatory on travelei-s. Date-juice is not
a prohibited drink. Saints do not attain the same felicity as
the prophets. No man is exemjited from obedience to posi-
tive and prohibitive laws. The text of a sacred book must
be understood iu its literal sense. To lack faith in the sa-
cred books, to be indifferent to sin, or to joke about religious
matters or about worship, to distrust tiod, to have no fear
of his threatenings or punishments, to jiut confidence in
diviners or omens — all those things are itdidelity. Prayers
for the dead contribute to the repose of their souls. God
listens to prayer and grants its petitions. Certain signs
will announce the end of the world. Doctors of theology
are not infallible. Hunnm ju'ophets are superior to angelic
pro].)hets. and men are higher than angels. The foregoing
ennimary. together with nine doctrines concerning the rank,
prerogatives, and limitations of the early calijihs and
inuuns, gives briefly and in the same order the contents of
the catechism of Omar Xessofy.
liitual. — As to matters of ritual or required external ob-
servance, there are four systems all equally reputed ortho-
dox, though differing in various details, founded bv the
imams Azam Ebu Hanifeh (d. 767), Schafiy (d. 849), Malek
(d. 7!)o). and Ilannbol (d. 8.15). This ritual hius been almost
unnuHlified since the ninth century. iMost Mussulmans are
followers of Hanifeh, but the four systems are taught side
by side in the large theological seminaries. The external
oiisorvances are five: purification or ablution, prayer, fast,
pilgrimage, and the titne. The manner whereby each shall
1)0 discharged is iiulicat'ed with scrupulous and mirnite par-
ticularity. Purification does not deliver from sin, which
can be washed away only by re]neutance and works of peni-
tence, but no num is permitted to perform any religicnis act
until himself and his garments are free from material de-
filement. Prayer must bo made toward the Kaaba ((/. v.)
five times every twenty-four hours, just before sunrise, at
noon, in the afternoon, at eveinng. and during the night.
The words are carefully prescribed as are also the prostra-
tions, genufiections, and changes of position. Prayer is
incumbent on every Mussulman, male or fenuilo, after the
age of seven. Fast continues through the entire month of
Ramazan (7. v.\ This is obligatory after the age of four-
teen. As to pilgrimage, see Had.t. The tithe, not really
though nominally a tenth, is required only of the rich,
or of those in easy circumstances, and is devoted to in-
digent coreligionists. Though these observances, save the
fifth, are demanded from every believer, a variety of condi-
tions may free from the porfornuince of any or even of all.
This discharge may be many times repeated, through
months, during years, or even throughout a lifetime. Thus
MOHA.MMi:UANI.SM
mOhler
833
poverty, sicknesi!, pliysieiil rlefeets, inii)iility to proviilo for
family necessities in i!use of ulwence, niiiy uinl ilnes ilispense
thoiisjiiiils frinii the liiulj. These cxeiiiptiiins iin- s[M!ij«lly
fri'i|Uent ill the case of women, on ueeouiit of their physieiil
weakness or iihysieal eunditioiis of sex.
Moral Cdile. — This ean hunlly he sepanited from Mussul-
man theolojiy, the two so trench upon and are so connected
with each oilier. Its miiiiitiu> are almost iiilliiile. The
vices specially denounced are hypocrisy, ils in readinj; the
K.iran for pay or admiration ; envy, as wisliin>r that another
limy lose his property; olistinacy, covetonsne.ss, filnllony. and
avarice. Love of the worlit is the initial principle of sin,
and is folly, for real joy is only in luaven. One must not
'I'tior the ri<'li simply for his wealth, or despise the jKmr, or
■k out ft nei;;hl>or"s s»-cret faults, or deceive another, or
■ •■r lose fri>m sii;ht I ho real motive for shunning vice. The
fiireinost virtue is patience, whereby one endures misfortune
and sufferiiif; without expres.sed or stH-ret complaint ; such
patience is the nece.ssary fii-st fruit of Islam, inasmuch as
the believer is entirely and joyfully submissive to Uixl's will.
Grutitndc to ami fear of (iod, trust in his mercy, aversimi
to merely worMly (lelij;lit.s, are in close connect icui. Hu-
mility is re(piisite wliereby one declares himself the Iciust of
the faithful. Uiie shoultf always think well of others, but
judge himself severely. A promise must be .strictly kept;
one must never lie nor steal, or touch anything impure, or
play games of chance. Friday should be especially es-
teemed, because Adam and Eve were created on that day.
Kindness to animals is duty ami wisdom, for emli shall be
judged not only by his comluct toward men, but toward
brutes. One must watch carefully against any sin that may
enter by any of " the seven dooi-s," which might then become
" the seven gates of hell." Those doors are the ears, eyes,
tongue, hands, feet, stoiniuOi, and the organs of sex.
Charyei a<i(iinst Ixlam. — The main charges are sensuous-
ness, t^jleration or approval of slavery and iiolygainv, the
position to which it is siijiposed to relegate woman, ami that
It has often l>een propagated by the sword. The first anil
last charges are well sustained. The doctrine of literal in-
terpretation seems to necessitate that the glowing pas.sages
of the Koran be taken in strict literal sense. They arc so
understood by the vast majority of Mussulmans, have hence
furnisheil a most powerful incentive in battle, and largely
contributed to the clitfusion of the faith. Yet many <if their
theologians assert that these passjiges arc pictures or meta-
phors, the literal interpretation of which must mean "inter-
pretation according to the idea contained." As to slavery
and polygamy, Mojiammeil found them everywhere in Ara-
bia. He destroyed neither, but restricted and ameliorated
both. As to the third charge — so far as it can be divorced
from considerations of polygamy — woman was elevated bv
Islam : not, indeed, to the highest dignity, but still to a posi-
tion such as in .\rabia she had never known before. The
seclusion of woman is iirimarilv thi' result of Oriental preju-
dice and iileas, not of (slam. S'owhere is the mother held
in greater reverence than among the Mussulmans.
Fiitelity to Exierniil Observances and Jnilnence, of the
Miirnl Code. — Islam has many merely nominal adherents,
and others apparently uninfluenced by its moral teachings.
Moreover, by strange inconsistency, many zealous Mussul-
mans have ailopled and openly maintain customs and ideas
opposed to their prophets teaching, and directly violating
his commands, !• or example, Islam forbiils caslrati(pn and
the employment of eunuchs, yet eunuchs almuml in the
palaces and inansi<jns of wealthy Mussulmans. The fifty-
scconcl doctrine ileiiounces faith in diviners, magicians, for-
tune-tellers. iLstroliigers. and omens, yet belief in these things
is universal aiming .Mussulmans. I'ersistency in denying hu-
man free will is expressly declareil im|iieiy deserving of
death, yet Kismet — the most absolute and all-embracing
fatalism — is practically accept eil by the Mussulman world.
Mohammed cleclare<l, " No monasticisin in Islam," yet the
seventy-two orders of ilervishes — really moiik.s, though mar-
ried— are its most fanatical, most revereil. and perhaps
most powerful supporters. Yet, after all this is grantiil,
the fact remains tiiat Islam diH'S have a marvelnus hold on
its inemlA>rs, ami that ils external rei|uireiiients are ol>-
Served in gi'iicral wijh marvelous fidclitv. The rite of cir-
cumcision is iieviT omitted. The Mussulman who does not
make his piirilications and stated pniyi^rs. who eats ixirk nr
indulges in wine, who dr)es not scrupulously keep tne fast
and, if wealthy, give his alms, is the rare exception. The
voung .Miissulm.in. eilucati'd abroiul or in contact with
Western or European customs, may be lax, indillerent, or
279
skciilical, but the immense majority adhere to their religion
and '\ls nractices with a tenacity' probably m \.r L-uater
than to-ilay. S>me of the virtues'ii enjoins' il in
higher degice than tliey do others, but thi' &\' -ul-
man is iialiiiit. sulmiissive, simple, uuenviuuii, houol, t*;in-
perate, hospitable, and kinil.
Serin. — Mohammeilan sects arc ex" i- •'■ • . ^ mj
many have iK'coine extinct. They .r •!,«
"seventy-two heretical s<fts." but li ,,w
the real numlier. W'hih' somelimes foumled on inlerpretu-
lion of d.>clriiies, as the Wahabees, thev have generallv arisi-n
in partisanship, in adherence to the siipposed claims I'lf s<ime
individual leader who.se jiretensions have Iw-en elevated to a
doctrine, as .iiiiong the Sliiltes. In the intciisit v of their sec-
tarianism tluy have often iK'en enve ned and' fanatical \>e-
yond expression and almost beyond belief. .S>e Is.maIi.is, KaR-
MATIIIA.SS. MoTASALIS, N'f.SAmiKH, .SlIllTKS. WAIIAMKfJS, etc.
More than alnuist any other great religion. Islam seems
held bv its very nature within certain geographical bounda-
ries. It might spread indefinitely E. and \\ . along an im-
mense belt X. and .S. of the equator, yet there are certain
parallels beyonil which it can liardlypiuss, or, if it pa.sses,
where it can never hold its own. Lwal in its self-imposiyl
restrictions.it lacks capability of adjustment. Yet a iiiimI-
crn school of Mussulmans claim that it is capable of adapt-
ing itself to all latitudes and civilizations. See the refer-
ences under .Moiummkd, and Caliph, Omsiiades. .ShiItes,
Six.viTKs, and Dkrvisiies. E. A. Ukosve.nor.
Mohave Indiuiis: See Ycmas Indians.
Mohank River: the principal affluent of the Hudson,
surpassing in volume that stream above its confluence. It
rises in Lewis co.. N. Y.. and after a generally eastward course
reaches the Iluii.sim at t'ohoes. It allords valuable wattr-
power, and flows through a valley famed for its beauty.
Mohawks: .See Iro^ioiax Indians.
Mohee'lcv : same as Moghilev (q. v.).
Mohcgans: Sec Alconvi'ian Indians.
Mohl, .IiLK.s, von : (trienlalist ; b. at Stuttgart. Germany,
Oct. 2.5. 1800; educated at Tiibingen for the Lutheran min-
istry, but was early attracted to Oriental studies, thinese,
and especially IVrsian. in which he was destined to win re-
nown. In 182;} he went to Paris, where, iiniler the leader-
ship of de ,Sacy. at this time was the great s<h(Hil for ( >riental
learning in Europe. He thus came iimler the inllucnce of
Ampere. Eugene liiirnoiif. ami Abel Hemusat. In 1826 ho
received the appointment of a professorship of Oriental
Languages at Tiibingen. with permission to remain in Paris.
At this time tbe French fiovernment commissioned him to
prepare an edition of Firdausi's Sluih yrimali (s«'e FlR-
DAlsI). the first volume of whiih appeareil in ISJS. Me
worked also for a time in London and at Oxford. In 18-17
he became Professor of Persian at the College ile France,
and in 18.^2 director of the Oriental department of the
national printing-onice. He was a member of the Institute,
and was most closely associated with the .Societe .\siatique
down to the time of his ileath. .Ian. 4. 187R. His princifial
work is his editicm of Firdaiisi's Slirlh yamnli. text and
translation (Le Lirre den Jinin par FirdnuAi. tt vols.. Paris,
18:!(5-08), in<-omplete at his death. An edition of the trans-
lation, in .seven volumes, appearetl after his death (Paris,
1876-78). Important also are hiscolU-cteil reiMirts published
poslhumouslv under the title i'ingl-Keiil Ann dm Aludea
Orienlalfs (f'aris. 187!t). — His broliier, Ilriio v<in Moiiu b.
at Stuttgart. .\pr. 8. 18(l,'>: studied medicine and natural
science at Tiibingen. ami was appointeil Pr<ifessor in Botany
and dirwtor of Ihi- Imtaniial garden in that city in LSCi.
I>. JIar. :il, 1872. He wa^ the most emiin'iu v. _. ij'il.I.' .iMnt-
omist of his day. His principal works :i' "i
iiud das Winden der Jiauken innl Sr^'h T ;
Beitruye ziir Analumir iind J'li;/- -<■
(18;}4); (rrnndzutfe zur Atuttumie i>
getabilinrhrn Zellr (18.'>I|; and a lar_
the ]>rincipal ones col|e<'ted in his I
Revised by A. \ .
MJihIer. mo Icr. JoiiAXN .\i>AM : theologian; b. nt Inu'crs-
heiiii, Wnrtemberg. .May «. 171l«: si'>i ■ i il,..,l...-v .i ,.v-
eral of the most pnuuinent univei- :li
I'mtestant ami Itoinan Catholic : w.i- 1
the Koman Catholic Church in IMll: U-^Miiie I'roft-snor of
Theology at Tllliini;en in I.'<2.'>. ami at Miiniih in 18:i,'i. I), nt
Miinirh, .Vpr. 12, 18;t,s. His principal works an- hie Ein-
htit in dcr Ktrche, udtr dan J'rincip drt Katholirinmua
834
MO UN
MOLK
(1825), ami his SymholU- (1832). which ran through many edi-
tions, ami was translated intoEnf,'lish in 18:i2 by Robertson.
It is an exposition of tlie doctrinal diiTerences between Roman
Catholics and Protestants as set forth in their recnj;nizod
creeds or gi/mbols. It was answered by Nitzseh, Marheineke.
and especially by Baur. The controversy wliich ensued
rendered Miihler's position so painful that he sought a
transfer to some other univei-sity. Cliaii's at Bonn and
Miinster were offered, but he finally accepted the call to
Munich. Revised by Joux J. Keaxe.
Muhii, Henrik : meteorologist and geographer ; b. at Ber-
gen, Norway, Jlav 15, 1835 ; attended the cathedral school
1845-53; the university in Christiania 1852-58: was as-
sistant observer at the astronomical observatory at Chris-
tiania 1800-66: has been professor in the university and
director of the Meteorological Institute since 18G6. lie was a
member of the international committee of the meteorological
congresses of Rome, Vienna, and JIunich. He was a direc-
tor of the physical part of the Norwegian North Atlantic
expedition wi'th the Viiringen 1876-78, and member of its
editorial committee. He was also a member of the inter-
national polar conference, and organized the Norwegian
polar station at Bossekoji. He received the honorary de-
gree of Ph. I), from Upsala in 1877. His publications are
numerous. Among them maybe mentioned his Alias des
tempetes de Vhistilut Met. de Norvege (1870); the Reports
of the Norwegian Atlantic Expedition, Astronomy, Geog-
raphy (1882). Meteorology (1883). Depths. Temperature, and
Circulation of the North' Sea (1887); and especially his ex-
cellent Grundzuye der Meteorologie in Norwegian and Ger-
man (1875 ; 4th ed. 1887), also translated into Russian, Span-
ish. Italian, and French. M. W. Harrington.
Moir, David Macbeth : physician and author ; b. at Mus-
selburgh, Scotland, Jan. 5, 1798; became in 1817 a successful
practitioner of medicine at Musselburgh, where he was set-
tled till his death. He soon became widely known as " Delta,"
from the letter A appended to his numerous poems in the
periodical literature of that time. His Legend of Genevieve
(1824), Autobiography of Jfansie Waiich, a novel (1828),
History of Medicine (1831), Domestic Verses (1846), and his
lectures on Poetical Literature (1851) are all of value. D.
at Dumfries, July 6, 1851. Revised by H. A. Beers.
Moisture : See Humidity.
Mojave Indians : See Yuman Indians.
Mojos. or Moxos. mo-hiis' : a race of Indians in Northern
Bolivia, ()rincipally on tlie .Mainore. one of the great branches
of the Madeira. Formerly they extended to tlie Guapore,
Itonama, and Beni, and were very numerous; their tribal
relations were loose, each village being practically inde-
pendent ; they subsisted principally by agriculture, wore
long shirts made of bark, and were mild and friendly in
disposition. When the Jesuit Cyprian Baraza came among
them in 1674 they readily listened to his teachings, and tif-
teen large mission villages were established in their terri-
tory ; one of these, Trinidad (founded 1687). is now the
capital of the department of Beni. The descendants of the
Mojos are devout Catholics; they are industrious, excel in
light artistic work, and are much in demand as canoemen
and rubber-gatherers. Physically they are a handsome race,
and rather light colored for Imlians. By their language
they belong to the great Maypurc or Arawak stock, which
once extended to the Bahama islands ; the (ruani'is of Mat to
Grosso'are closely allied to tliem. They are said to number
about 30.000, but this includes other tribes which have
mingled with them in the missions. The best existing
grammar and vocabulary of their language is that of Father
Marban (Lima. 1701). See Keller, The Amazon and Ma-
deira Rivers (1875). Herbert II. Smith.
Mokanna : Sec Hakim-Ben- A i.i.jVH.
Mokr^. mok'rt?e, Otokar : poet and novelist ; b. at Biide-
iovicc (Budweis), Bohemia, in 1854 : studied law at Prague ;
IS state notary.at Vodfiany. and editor of the Lacind laii-
hovna ndrodn'i (People's Cheap Library). He belongs to
the romantic school. His poems, epic and lyrical, are col-
lected in Jihoreske melodie (Melodies from Southern Bo-
hemia, Prague, 1880); Bdsne (Poems. 1883); Na divcim
kameni (On the Maiden's Rock, 1885) ; Dumy a legendy
(Reflections and Legends, 1888). His short stories. PovUlky
a arahesky (Short Stories and Arabesques, 1883) and PovUlky
a drohne kresby (Short Stories and Sketches, 1886). contain
reminiscences of his travels in the South. J. J. Kral.
Molale : See Waiilatpuan Indians.
Molasses, or Treacle [formerly melasses from Fr. m(-
lasse, from Span, melaza, molasses < Lat. mella ceiis, honey-
like, deriv. of met. met lis, honey] : a thick, dark-colored
sirup, produced during the manufacture of sugar, consist-
ing essentially of nncrystallizable sugar, water, coloring-
matter, and various im]iurities. It is in part the product
of the sugar-iilanlalioii;; (.known as West India and New
Orleans molasses), and in part conies from the sugar-refin-
eries of other countries (sugar-house molasses). The latter
is separated by the centrifugal process, by claying, and the
other operations of sugar-retining. Moljisses is used as a
cheap substitute for sugar, especially by the poorer classes,
and is^imported in considerable (juantities for the mami-
facture of Ruji (;;. v.). See Suuar.
Molay, Jacqies Bernard, de : the last grand master of
the order of Kniglits Templar : h. in Burgundy about
1244. Little is known of his life till about the year 12t)S.
when he became grand master. Pliilii) IV., who was then
reigning in France, viewed the order with suspicion and
longed to get possession of its vast wealth. His hostility
was increased when the management of the order was in-
trusted to so able a chief as de Molay, who soon won re-
nown for himself and his comrades by his invasion of Syria
in 12i)9 and his temporary conquest of Jerusalem. He
was defeated, ho\yever, in 1302. and forced to take refuge in
Cyprus. There he received an order from the pope at the
instance of Philip commanding him to return to France.
He obeyed the summons, was hospitably received by lin-
king, aiid made an ostentatious entry into Paris, but Philip
at once began active proceedings against the order. In
Oct., 1307, de Jlolay was arrested, tortured, and forced tci
confess the guilt of the Tenii)lars ; afterward recanting his
confession, he was dragged to the stake and burned to death
by a slow fire in Paris, Mar. 18, 1314. F. M. Colby.
Molbet'li, Christian : scholar; b. in Soro, Denmark. Oct.
28. 1783 ; was connected with the Royal Library, was director
of the Royal theater, and Professor of Literature at the uni-
versity. His most important work is his dictionary, which,
though out of print, is still a standard work. He was a
diligent investigator and a voluminous writer, but lac-ked
breadth and sympathy. D.June 23. 1857. Among his pub-
lications may be mentioned Dansk Ilaand-Ordbog til Ret-
skrivninqs o'g Sprogrigtigheds Fremme, etc. (1813) ; Den
danske fiiimkriynike (1825) ; Henrik Harpestrengs La-gebog
(1826) ; Den aldste danske Bibel-Oversaittehe, etc. (1828) ;
Dansk Ordbog, etc. (1833 ; 2d ed., 2 vols., 1859) ; Daiisk
Dialect- Ijcxikon. etc. (1841); Dansk Glossarium over for-
teldede danske Ord . . . fra del 13de til det IGde Aarhttn-
drede (2 vols., 1857 and 1866). D. K. Dodue.
Molbecli. Christian Knud Frederik : poet : son of
Christian Molbech ; b. in Copenhagen, July 20,1821. From
1853 to 1864 he was Professor of the Scandinavian Laii-
guiiges and Literatures at the University of Kiel; during
the following seventeen years censor of the Royal theater
and dramatic and literary critic. In the latter capacity he
wrote several sympathetic and original criticisms of Shaks-
peare. His first collection of poems, Billeder fra Jesn
Liv (Pictures from the Life of Jesus, 1840), is a successful
attempt to reproduce Oriental local color. The drama.
Klintekongens Briid (The Cliff-king's Bride, 1845), is al-
most wholly lyrical, but Vennsbjerget and Dante (1852)
show decided advance in dramatic power. His most pojui-
lar work is the drama Ambrosius (1877). which displays re-
markable techni(]ue. His translation of Dante (begun 1848).
while characterized by great lieauty and finish, is somewhat
lacking in force and historical truth. Among his other
works may be mentioned Lyriske Digte og Romancer (Lyr-
ical Poems and Romances) ;"i>«'wrui(/ (Twilight, 1856) ; r.nd
Efterladte Digte (Posthumous Poems, 1889). D. May 20,
1888. 1^, K. DoDuE.
Moldrtu. mSl'dow : a river of Bohemia. It rises in the
Bohnierwald Mountains at an elevation of 3,750 feet. Hows
first in a southeastern, then in a northern direction, becomes
navigable at Mudweis. and joins the Elbe opposite Meluik
after a course of 276 miles.
Moldavia: See Roumania.
Molding: See Moulding.
Molds : See Mucoracb.e and Water-moulds.
Mole |M. Eng. inolle. appar. abbrev. of moletrerp. niold-
werp (: Germ. manUvurf. mole) ; O. Eug. molde. soil + ireor^
po/i. throw] : a name given to the various small insectivorous
mammals forming the sub-family Talpina;, distinguished
MOLE
MOLlftKK
835
by their mlaritalion to an uiidergrouml life. The eyes arc
iniiuite, the body oyliiulrieal, the neck short, the feet broad,
powerful, and more or less turned on edge. Tlie fur is soft.
?'*•.-
European mole iTalpa europccaj.
Fore-foot of Iho
mule.
thicii, and silky in texture. The common European mole
(Tal/Ht euro/>(f'«) t'onstruc-ts a (Iwellin;; consislinjf of a cen-
tral nest, surrounded by two circular tunnels, an upper and
a lower, connected by various jpaj>sai,'es, and from these the
long burrows open out in different directions. The mole
of the Eastern U. .S., Scalops (ujiialicii.^, excavates lonjf
subterranean passages, the earth being thrown up at inter-
vals, forming the well-known mole-hills. The star-nosed
mole (Cnndytura crislnia) is easily distinguished by the
curious lleshy points surrounding the nose. The name mole
is often applied to burrowing animals resembling the true
moles in habits and general external appearance, such us the
golden moles (Chrys(trhlorid(f) of Africa, and the sjind-inole
or mole-rat (SiuLA.x, q. v.) of the MuriUie. See also Talpid-e.
P. A. Lucas.
Mol^, mola', Louis Matiheu : statesman ; b. in Paris, Jan.
24, 1781 : was educated in Switzerland and England ; attended
afterward the Ecole I'olvtcehnii|UC of Paris; published in
1806 his Kisai.i de Morale et Politique, which attracted the
attention of Xapoleon bv their defense of monarchical prin-
ciples; held dilierent olMecs in the civil service during the
emfiire; was made a count and peer of France, and was
conlirmed in the possession of these dignities bv the IJour-
Ijons; became Minister of Marine in INl.i, of Foreign .VlTairs
in 18;iO, and Prime Ministerfrom 18:50 to 18:59; retired from
iHilitical life after the coup d'ilal, and died at Champlatreux,
Nov. 2:5, 18">.5.
Mole-cricket: a name given to the burrowing crickets,
anil primarily to those of the genus Oryllolalpa. In the
L'. S. they are most common in the South. They are more
commonly found in wet ground, and some species are very
destructive to crops.
Molecules: according to the commonly accepted theory
of matter, the smallest particles of any definite substance
that can exist in the free state. For example, water, the
chemical compound, consists of the elements liydrogen and
oxygen, which are combined chemically with each other.
Now, the mass of water is believed to consist of extremelv
minute particles, each of which has the same composition
as water. These [mrticles are the molecules of water. If
the molecule is decomposed, the constituents of the molecules
are obtained, and these are hydrogen and oxygen. When
water is converted into vapor these moleiules are separated
from one another, and move freely through the ma-ss, the
average velocity of the motion increasing with increiusing
temperature. See Ciikmistry. Ira Uemsk.v.
Mo'lescliott, .Jacob : physiologist; b. at Ilerzogenbiisch.
IloUaiul, .\iig. i), 1822; studied medicine at Heidelberg: Ih>-
gan to practice at L'trecht; lectured on physiiilogy at Ilei-
<lelberg from 1847 to 1854, but was cimsidered to emlanger
religion and morals by his views of the alisolute n'lalion
between the lowest material conditions and thelii^liesl spir-
itual manifeslations of human life; reniveil a professorship
at Zurich in 18o(); removed in 1861 to Turin (in 18711 was
called to the same cliair in Konic) ; in 187(5 became an Italian
senator. Wherever he was the physiological course became
one of the most ])<ipular coui-ses in the curriculum, and the
inllueni'e of his leaching in rehabilitating the methods pur-
sued in the Italian universities can not Im- overestimated.
His principal works are Physioloijie des Stnffirerfist'h in
Pftnmen und Thieren (Erlangen. i8.')1); /)cr Krri.ilauf dex
/Jr6("na (Ment 7.. 18.'52); Lehre rf/r AViAri/m/itmiV/f/ (Erlangen,
IS-W); Phyxiologie der Xahrunfjxmitlel (Oiessen. 18.'(!H:
Phi/xiidngisches Skizzeiihurh ((Jiessen, 18(>1); Lrhrr mm
Leben (Giessen, 1867). He was coeditor of the IlullHitdisclie
lifilraye zu den nnatiiminehen und jihynoloijinchrn Wiiuen-
schnflen from 184(5-48, and of the UnlrrxHrhunyi-n ziir Xa-
turlehre dm .\tei,srheH und drr 'J'liiere from 18."i«-70. |). at
Rome, May 1!», 18'j;5. S. T. Akmstko.xu.
Mulexnorth, (irii.Koiin Li.vdsav, K.C. I.E. : civil engi-
neer; brother of Kev. William Nassau Molesworlh; b. at
Millbrook, Hants, England, in 1828; was educated at the
(Aillege of Civil Engineers. Putney; served an ajiprentice-
sliip on the London and Northwestern Kailway; |jerfect«l
his studies in mechanical engineering under Sir William
Fairbairn at JIanchester; superintendeil the coiistructiim
of the buildings and machinery of the royal ar-iiial at Wo<j1.
wieh in 18.j4-.).j; was fv.r several years a consulting engineer
in London; went to Ceylon in 18i)U; became chief engineer
and director-general of the railways in that island, and in
1871 was apiiointed consulting engineer to the Uovernment
of India. His Pocket-book of Enyineering Pnnniiln- pass<-d
through six editions in a single year, ami is i. ' as u
standard work in the profession. Among olli uns
are State Hailwaya tn India (18?2j and Ji,,,,, , ,,,,,^,n in
India (1885).
Moleswortll. Sir William: statesman; b. at CamlH>r-
well, London, England, May 2:5, 1810; succeeded to the
baronetcy in 182:1; studied at the I'niversity of Cambridge,
but was obliged to leave on account of having challenged
a tutor to tight a duel ; finished his education at Edin-
burgh University and in Germany; traveled through Eu-
rope; became in 1831 an enthusiastic advocate of reform
measures; was elected to Parliament for East Cornwall I>ec.,
18;i2:was an intimate friend of Henllmm and .lames .Mill,
of whose opinions he was a leading exponent in Parliament;
founded lite London Uevieic in 18;j5, which lie merged in
The M'e^tminster Review in 18:j(5, and published at great ex-
pense a mapiificent edition of the ^\'orkK of Tlioman llobbea
(16 vols., 1839-45), of which he presented copies to the lead-
ing libraries of Great Hritainand Ireland, and left unfinished
a Life of Hobbe-1. which remains unpublished. Sir William
Molesworth was the first to call public attention to the
horrors of the convict system then in vogue, and to the mal-
administration of the Colonial Utlice. and was largely instru-
mental in cITectinga radical change in lK>th thes*- important
branches of the administration. In 18.53 he Iwcame first
commissioner of public works in the cabinet of the I-jirl of
Aberdeen, and in 18.15 Secretary of .Stale for the Colonies in
Lord Palmersloirs first cabinet. This appointment was
haileil with great enthusiasm liy the colonies, but before any
considerable results could be derived from his policy 3Ioles-
worth died in London, Oct. 22, 1855.
Molesworth, William Nassau: clergyman and historian;
b. at Millbrook, near Southampton. England. Nov. 8,1816;
was educated at King's School, Canterbury. St. John's and
Pembroke Colleges, Cambridge, where he was grailiiated in
1830 ; took orders in the Church of England ; became incum-
bent of .St. Andrew's, Manchester, in 1841, mul vicar of .St.
Clement Spotland. Uoclnlale. in 1844. He publislii'd, liosides
several minor works, a History of tlie Htform Hill of 1S3S
(1864); a \ew SyMem of Moral Philosophy (ls67):'and a
History of England from the Year W.W(:5 vols., 1871-7:5). A
later cditiim brings this valuable work to the vear 1874. H.
Dec. 19. 1890. Revised by W. S. Pekbt.
Molfet'ta : town ; in the province of Bari delle Puglie,
Southern Italy: in lat. 41 13 N., Ion. 16 39 E. ; on a little
peninsula surrounded by the Adriatic except on the S. (.see
man of Italy, ref. 6-0). A comnio<lious and secure harbor
and its ccninil jMisition make this place one of the chief
markets of the province, Ixith for iini>orts and exixirts. the
latter consist ing of gniin. wine, almonds, olive oil, el<-. There
is also considerabli' in<luslrv here in the way of small manu-
factures. The origin of .Molfetia is not well known, but
probably it was foumlcd alM>ut :5tH) A. 11. Pop. about 30.(KtO.
Molii^re, ino li-rtr : Jkan Hapti.ste IVmjuklin: certainly
the greatest ilramalist, jierhaps the gn^ale-st litemry figure,
of p ranee, whos«' stage name. .Moliere. has I'ompletely sup-
planted his ri'al <me. He was baptized in Paris, Jan. 15,
1622. and it has been concluded that this was his birthday
as well. Of the cin'um<taiiees of his chiMhood and ciluea-
lion we have but meagiT knowledge. .\s in the ca.-* of
Shakspoare. with whose career that of Moliere presents not
a few pandlels. what is piisilively known of his early years
gives but a faini and fnigmentarv picliin- of his youth and
training. That his |mnMil.s, Jean PiKjuelin ami Marie Cress^,
were of the class of tradesmen, of comfortable but nKnleat
836
MOLIERE
circmnstances. and thai his father hoKl the ofTice of valef-
de-chaiiibrt of the king, aud obtaineil its coiiliiiiiance for
his sou; that Marie C'lvsse died in 1G32, and lliat a step-
mother came into the family the following year, but died
three years later; that Jean Po(iuelin gave his son a good
education, sending him to the College of Clermont and to
the law school at Orleans, and looked forward to seeing
hira succeed to his own honorable trade and oflice; and that
the son deliberately renounced this succession, chose the
actor's profession, and at the age of twenty-one became a
member of a troupe of players which he helped to form —
those are tlie principal items of our positive knowledge of
the youth of ^[l>liere. This scanty material has been over-
laid with a rich embroidery of tradition and anecdote, to
wliich criticism assigns various degrees of probability, but
which can in no case have authority enough to be of any
service in helping us to a knowledge of the discipline and
development of his mind and talent. The same is true also
for the following period of fifteen years, mainly spent in
traveling in the provinces, during which he was obtaining
the mastery of tlie instrument of language and of his other
dramatic tools, and deepening and enriching that observa-
tion of life and that reflection on its facts that gave the
materials on which those tools were to be exenused. The
new troupe, which styled itself the Illustre Theatre, had at
its head the Bejart family, with which Moliere connected
himself later (1663) by marriage, and of which the most
conspicuous member was Madeleine, a woman of beauty and
brilliant talents, with the character of whose relations with
Moliere legend and conjecture have lieen unprofitably busy,
but whose presence so near him in the intimate associations
of the theatrical life must have had serious influence upon
him. Compelled by a year of persistent failure to leave
Paris, where it had made its trial of public favor in the
then popular tragedy, the oomi)any returned fifteen years
afterward (1658) with the fame of especial success in com-
edy. It was as purveyor of comic material for his troiipe,
of which he had meanwhile become manager, tliat Moliere
founded its prosperity, and at the same time prepared his
own career as dramatic author. At first doubtless his work
of composition was very slight, consisting merely in throw-
ing into rough dramatic form whatever material came to
hand, or adapting to the uses of his company dramatic
works from foreign, particularly Italian, sources; but, how-
ever slight, it was sufficient to develop that alert, easy,
and brilliant style that made, even the two pieces which he
brought back to Paris (L'Etourdi,Le Depit ainoureux)ot
such now and fresh charm that their success was immediate,
and won for Jloliere the protection of the king's brother,
and a permanent home in Paris for his players.
Jloliere, however, was not content with a comedy that
redeemed by qualities of style the stereotyped characters
and situations of the Italian fashion, and in 1659 he gave,
as if to try both his own powers and the terai>er of the pub-
lic, the I'recieuscs ridicules, a slight and ra|.iid sketch, in
one act and in prose, whose interest could not be sought in
the very simple and transparent plot, but lay wholly in the
satiric portraiture of features of contemporary society. In
it was clearly foreshadowed his mature comedy of manners
and character, in which he was to advance from the tran-
sient interest of passing fashions to the deeper and more
pernuuu^nt interest of the universal human |)assions ; but in
spite of the encouraging success of the Precienses ridicules,
he did not make this advance at once or rapidly. Besides a
lingering weakness for tragedy, which led to the heroic
comedy Dun (iarcie de Navarre (1661). a signal failure that
rendered further experiment in that direction inexpedient,
there were two serious impediments to the realization of his
highest coiuiept ions of comedy. The concern for financial
success and the prosperity of his com[iany, which as man-
ager he was bound to feel, forbade him to be negligent of
the public taste, and dictated those ligliter and nujre ex-
travagant farces that sacrifice the truth and interest of
character to considerations of comic effect, and the royal
favor enjoyed by Moliere and his company since tlieir return
to I'aris, which might have socui'ed Inm a greater independ-
ence toward the public taste, was accompaniod with no less
serious restrictions of his complete artistic freedom; for as
manager of the king's comedians he was frequently charged
with the preparation of those semi-operatic comedies that
wore the delight of Louis X1V\, and a constantly recurring
feature of the great fetes for which his reign is famous.
Of the twenty-nine compositions written by Jloliere after
he was finally established in Paris, no less than thirteen were
produced directly in view of such festivities, and were in-
tended by their great patron to be subordinate to tlie
accompaniment of dance and music, for which tliey were
hardly nmre than a pretext. It is not strange, therefore,
that il was not till 1662 that Moliere gave, in the Ecole des
femmes, an example of the mature dcvelo|iriu'nt of his
ideas. It is rather a striking mark of his genius and of the
wealth of the materials with which observation had stored
his mind that in the ten years that intervened before his
early death (Apr. 17, 1673), in spite of all obstacles, and
under the pressure of such various and aUsorbing tasks, he
produced the series of great comedies that remain the glory
of the French dranui.
The form that comedy took in these mature and free ex-
hibitions of his art, and of which we have glimpses also even
in his farces and his pieces made to order in the striking
vigor and truth in the drawing of their personages, is that
of the serious comedy of character — serious, not because he
ever renounced the use of his great comic gift, or sought to
release himself from the comic dramatist's obligation to
make his audien<'e laugh, but because the subjects treated
by him, the qualities of character and motives of conduct
that he preseiit.s, and the human relations that he studies
are of such ])rofound and permanent concern. The prepa-
ration of woman for her role in society, the question of
what that rule really is (UlCcole des femmes, Les Femmes
sivvanles): hypocrisy, the means that it uses and the evils
that it works (Le Tartiiffe. Don Juan) ; avarice as a master-
ing passion and its effects upon the normal human alTections
and instincts {L'Arare); selfishness and an easily sacrificed
morality turning a sincere and honest heart to misanthropy
(Le Misuntlirope) — these are some of the more prt)minent
themes of these serious comedies. These qualities of char-
acter are set forth, not in abstract types or personifications
of a single passion, but in very lifelike, concrete individuals
which a penetrating observation of life has endowed with
great truth and vitality; and these motives of comluct and
these human relations are exhibited in the careful grouping
of those individuals and their action and reaction upon one
another, which a sane reflection ujion life has informed with
great interest and value. The serious comedy of Moliere
hardly employs other means than these for its comic effect,
which is none the less genuine and irresistible for being
attained by such purely intellectual means. The intrigue
is slight, and accessories of costume and scenery are dis-
pensed with. A drawing-room with its oi-dinary furniture,
and a company of men and women in their ordinary dress,
furnished all the necessary material.
The following is a list of Moliore's dramatic works, with
the dates of their first production: L'jklourdi. 5 acts, verse
(1653 or 1655) ; Le Depit amoureux. 5 acts, verse (1656) ; Les
Precienses ridicules, 1 act, prose (1659) ; Sganarelle, ou le
Cocu imiujinaire, 1 act, verse ,(1660) ; Don Garcie de Na-
varre. 5 acts, verse (1661) ; L'Ecote des Maris, 3 acts, verse
(1661); Les Fdcheux {coined ie-ballef). 3 acts, verse (1661);
L' Ecole des femmes, 5 acts, verse (1662); La Critique de
Vficole des femmes, 1 act, prose (1663); U Impromptu de
Versailles, 1 act. prose (1663); Ije Mariage ford (comedie-
ballet), 1 act, prose (1664) ; La Princesse d' Elide {comedie-
hallet), 5 acts, verso and prose; IjC Tartu fe. 5 acts, verse
(1664); Don Jutni. Tt acts, prose (1665); L'Amour medecin
(corned ie-ballet). 3 acts, prose (1665); I^e Misanthrope, 5
acts, verse (1666); Le Medecin multjre lui, 3 acts, prose
(1666); MHicerte (comidie-ballet), 2 acts (unfinished), verse
(1666) ; Jja Pastorale comique (comedie-ballet), 1 act, verse
(1667); Le Sicilien (comedie-ballet), 1 act, prose (1667);
Amphitryon, 3 acts, verse (1668); Oeorge Dandin (comedie-
ballet), ■.i'acts. prose (1668); L'Avare, 5 acts, ])rose (1668);
M. de J'ourceaugnae (comedie^hallet). 3 acts, prose (1669);
Les Amants magnifiques (comedie-ballet), 5 acts, prose
(1670); Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (comedie-lMillet), 5 acts,
prose (1670); Psyche (tragedie-ballet), 5 acts, verse (1671),
Moliere and Corneille joint authors; Les Fourberies de
Scapin, 3 acts, ])rose (1671) ; La Comtesse d' L'scarbagnas
(comMie-ballel). 1 act, prose (1671); Les Femmes savantes,
5 acts, verse (1672); Le Malade imaginaire, 3 acts, prose
(1673).
All previous editions of Moliere's works are, superseded
for the student by that in the series Les Grands Ecri rains de
la France, edited by Eugene Despois and Paul Mesnard (10
vols., Paris, 1873-89). The tenth volume contains a life of
Moliere by Mesnard. A handy small edit ion, in two volumes,
preceded by a notice by Sainte-Beuve, has been pulilished.
llis works have several times been translated into English.
MOLIN
.MOLLUSCA
837
recently by Henri Van Lnun (0 vols., liOnilon, 1875-77), nnil
\iy ('. 11. \Viill Oi vols., Lonilon, l»7(i-77). An excellent Bib-
li'dijniphie MuUiresque has been prepared by I'uiil (iiieroix
(I'uris. l»7o). A. (i. (,'ankiklu.
.Muliii, Jony Petkr : seiilptur; b. in .Sweden, Mar. 17,
IMl I. In 18■l;^ he went to Coipenha^en to take le.vsons from
Tli'irwaldseii, but the hitler ilied six months later, and .M<>-
liii was ailiiiilti'il into the studio of the medalist Cliristensen.
lie studied in Home from 1»45 to l«5;j, and on his return to
Sweden he lieeamc a l)rofes.sor at the Art Academy in 1855.
His sJroup The Wrenllers, exhibited in London in 1862, se-
cured him a Euroftean reputation. 1). July 2i), 1H7:J.
K. B. A.
Molina. m»>-lee'naa, Jl'a.v I(iVArio (in Italian, fiiovANNi
Idx.vzioi : Jesuit historian; b. in ihe province of Talca,
(^hiii, June 'i'S. 17;J7. lie was educated by the Jesuits, and
taught in their colleires, but did not join the order until
after its cxpnlsicm from America (17(i7) : he then went to
Italy, where, in 1771, he was admitted to the society and
took orders. After 1774 he resiiled at Bolofjna. He had
already shown f;reat talents, and was ma.sler of several lan-
enajies; he now devoted himself to teaehin;;, jjivinjj liis
leisure to the preparation of historical works on t'hili. In
177(i he published anonymously Compemlio di aluritt del
Chile, and this was foUowed \)\ Sagyio xitllii .i/nriit iiiiliirale
del ('/lite (1782) and Snijijio ilillti sluriii ciiile dtl CIiHk
(1787). The latter, especially, was very popular, and was
translated into several lanj^uajres, incliiding English. lie
published various scientilie papers, and the ailvaneed doc-
trines which he tauijlit led at one time to his temporarvtlep-
osition from orders. A fortune which he inherited in
1815 was beoueathed to his native city to found a literary
institute. Molina's works <;ave the first iletinite account
of t'hili, hut he can hardlv be calle<l a profouml historian.
I), at Bologna, Sept. 12, 182!). H. II. SsiiTU.
Molina. Lns : theohjgian ; b. at f'uenea. in N'ew Castile,
Spain, in 1535; entered the order of the Jesuits in 155:5;
was Professor of Theology at Ihe I'niversitv of l-^vora, Por-
tugal, for twenty yeai-s. 1). in Madrid, o'ct. 12. 1001. In
1588 ho published his Liheri Arbitrii rum Om/iie Donis,
Dii'ina FrcPKcienlin, I'mi-idenlin, Prftdi-slinntione et lie-
pn/hiilione Cuncordin. which, uinler the form of a commen-
tary on some parts of Thomius .\<piinius's,S'HWH»i Thenlogiw.
attempted to explain, on a new basis, the harmony between
grace and free will. The Dominicans, of whom Aouinas is
the chief glory, attackeil Ihe book and the Jesuits defended
it. A heated controversy between the Thomists and Mo
linists ensued, the nuitler wius referred to Home, and Cle-
ment VIII.. in 1597. appointed a commission, the celebrated
Congregatio de Auxiliis. to examine it. The delilierations
of this body lasted, with various interruptions, nine years,
the only result being that the contestants were forbidden to
denounce either Thomism or Molinisni as heri'tical. Thoui;h
discussion on the subject has bi'cn reneweil at various times,
no decision has been rendered by the Church.
Revised by John J. Keaxe.
Molina, Pedro: statesman: b. in Guatemala, in 1777;
received an excellent education ; became a physician, and
WHS distinguished as a poet and a politician; was noted for
the liberality of the political views which ho inculcated in
his writings; was one of the meudnTs of the first national
executive in 182:i ; went as ambassador to Colondiia 1825,
and signed a treaty of alliance ; represiiiteil Central .\merica
in the Congress of Panama 1826; wius goveruiir of (iuate-
mala 182".». Secretary of Slate for Foreign Affairs 18:}2-;i:! ;
was exiled by Carrera, and resiiled some years in Costa
Rica; was deputy to the constitutional assf'inbly 1848. and
for many years jiresident of the medical faculty and chief
director of the Lniversily of Guatemala. I), about 1850.
Molina. Tirso, de : See Tbllkz, Gahriel.
Molin<> : city (incorporated in 1872) ; RiX'k Island co.. III.
(for location of couniy.see map of Illinois, ref. ;i-C) : on the
Mississippi river, and the Burl. Route, the Chi., Mil. and
St. P.. and the Chi.. Rock Is. and I'ac. railwav; ; opposite
Hock Island. 2 miles E. of I)aven[iort. la.. IfW' iinle~ \V. of
Chicago. The three cities of .Moline, Rock Island, ami Ilav-
enport are connected by steam and street railways, ferries,
and bridges, and all derive water-power for manufa<luring
from the river. The city is in a rich coal-n>gion. and there
are a nun\ber of producllve mines in ilsvicinitv. It has
model water-works, gas ami electric lights, 10 cluirches. 6
public-school buildings, ;J8 schools, public library (founded
1873), 2 national banks with combined capital of (;250.0(Ni,
2 State bankswilh caiiitul of it:200.000. and 2 daily. » wevkhi
ami 2 other |ieriodicals. The industries include' the nianii-
facture of agricultural implements, malh-Hlile iron, stcnm-
engines, earriagis. buggies, ai ' ' abi-
net and pipi- orgnTi-, lead i ma-
chines, and furniture. Pop.,.-- ... ,.- ,,.;i.i.,.
KlIITOK OF •• IJISI-ATCII."
Molinpt, ni5 hM' nil . Jkax : chronicler and pipct ; the date
of his birth is unknown. He was canon of N'alenciennes.
librarian of Marguerite of Austria, and historiograiiher of
the house of Burgumly. D. at Valenciennes, l.'i()7. Ho
wrote a chronicle of Burgumly for Ihe years 1474 to 1.500,
and a number of poems. I.f Trin/jle de jAir^. La Viijile den
Murtn. La Ciimiiliiinle dr (''miilaiiliiiople, vU-. llelnnied
the lionmn de In Jiune inlo prose, and gave a Christian in-
terpretation to its allegory. His works are markeil bv an
affectation of wit and by li pedantic Latinizing sivie which
his example helped to accredit. A. G. Ca'nkield.
MoPiiiism : .See Moi.i.vA, Lns.
Moli'iio del Rcy [Snan., king's mill]; a massive scries
of buiMings half a mile N. of the castle of Chapulte|»ec,
near the city of Mexico. Thev were originally used as a
flour-mill, afterward as a foundry of arms, and Were oecu-
pied as a fortress bv a portion of the Mexican army during
the war between the I . .S. and Mexico. (»n Sept! 8. 1847,
the buildings were attacked ami carried by storm by a di-
vision of Ihe l'..S. army leil bv ton. Worlh.' The Mexicans
were commanded by Leon and Perez. Each side hail about
4,000 men, and the loss on both sides was heavy.
Revised by II. II. Smith.
Molinos, mo-lee nSs, Mhu'EL : mystic : b. near Saragossa.
Spain. Dec. 21, 1627; studied at Pampeluna and Coimbra ;
settled, after being onlained priest, in Rome, where a great
number of people cl\,ose him for their confessor ; when after-
ward his papers were seized, they im-luded about 20.(K(0 let-
ters from persons asking for his spiritual advice. In 1075 he
published his (iiiida Splriliidh. which attracted great atten-
tion and was translated intodilfereiit languages. It teaches
that true godliness consists in uninlerruptiil communion with
God, established by contemplation, anil was Ihe foundation
of the so-called l^uielism which afterward found its most
striking development in Madame Guyon. The Jesuits,
however, found that this view endangered the doctrine of
giH)d aclions. Pope Innocent .\I. condemne<l the book in
1087: Molinos reeanled. but was imprisoned for the rest of
his life in a Dominican monastery at Rome, where he died
Di-c. 2f». 10110. .See Bigelow, Molinos the Quietisl (New
York, 1882).
Moliso : Sie ('AJiPonA.sso.
MoIIcnliaiipr, Edward: violinist and composer; b. in
Erfurt. Germany, Apr. 12. 1827; when nine years old made
a concert tour as a violinisi with his two elder brothers,
Eriedrich and Ileinrich; studied under Enist and.Spohr;
fled to England to avoid becoming a soldier, and went to
the L'. S. in 185:5. seltling in New York. He has played in
many concerts as a violin soloist, and has taught many vio-
lin scholars. He has composed much for his instrument ;
three symphonies, some chamber music, songs and miscella-
neous pieces, and three operas. The Corgican yinV/c (1861);
BrejikerK (1881): and The Muxk Ball. D. E. IIervkv.
Miil'ler. Poil Martin; writer; b. in Denmark in 17JM;
studied theology, but iH'came a iirivate tutor and later
teacher at a Ijilin school in Co|K'nliagen ; in 1818 took an
active part in the literary slrugu'le of that lime as a sup-
fHirter of Oehlenschliiger; from 18I!tto 1821 was chaplain on
a China merchantnnin ; from 1827 to 18:!! was I'rofe>sor of
Philosophy at the Cniversity of Chrisliania ; fn>m IKtl to
1838 held the sjime |H>sitional the rniver>ily of Co|H-nhagen.
Besides a number of songs, he publisheil a translation of
the first six Uwiks of the Odi/MKei/ ilH25i. ihe earliest in
Danish, philosophical and crilieal ' iiid an unfin-
ished novel, h'li daiisk Sliidfiits .1 ■■ Adveiilun-s
of a Danish Student). Ti'- ' ■-' ' , , .J work, is one
of Ihe most cliaraclerisi , lal prodiici ions in Dan-
ish lileniture. It is full mi: fun. and shows ili-op
insight into hunnin character. D. ISt8. S<f /'. .V. Mi'llm
efterliulte Skrifler i et L'dcnig ved Chr. Kinther (Coi>enhu-
gin. 187:1). ' D. K. l>oi«iF..
MollnsVa [Mixl. Lat., doriv. of Ij«t. wioZ/m. soft]: that
great division or branch (phylum) of the animal kinpilom of
which Ihe cuttlefishes, sipiids. snails, slugs, clams, ovstors.
838
MOLLl'SCA
«tc., are familiar examples. The name is given in allusion
to the soft eluiracter of the tissues, a point of no importance.
That brancli of zoology which treats of molluscs is some-
times termed malacology anil sometimes coiichology, but
both terms are passing into disuse.
To make more clear the essential features of all molluscs
■we construct what we may term an ideal or schematic ani-
mal which will represent the conditions found in no one
species, but ratlier a composite of all forms. By exaggera-
tion of some parts and by modification or even suppression
of others, this typical mollusc may be made to represent all
known forms. Such a typical mollusc is bilaterally sym-
'j
FlQ. 1.— Diagrammatic ioiiKitudinal .Sfutiun of a mollusc : n. vent ;
an, anterior artery ; c. tentacle ; eg, brain ; /, foot ; I, liver ; m,
mouth : pg, pedal ganfclion ; pig. pleural ganglion ; ji. nepliri-
dium ; o. ear : pn, posterior artery ; pc, pericardium ; os. organ
of smell ; ra, right nephridial opening i s, stomach ; t;, ventricle
of heart ; vg, visceral ganglion.
metrical ; its lower sin-face is develo]ied into a strong mus-
cular creeping-disk, the/««/; its upper surface is thin, and
in its center is a shell-ghind which lias the power of secret-
ing the calcareous .sApW so characteristic of these animals.
Around the shell-gland the wall of the body projects as a
double fold in every direction, forming the pallium or
mantle, and inclosing between it and the body and foot a
manlle-cai'ity. At tlie anterior end of the body is the head,
bearing a pair of sensory tentaeles, and the nearly terminal
mouth ; the vent is in the median line at the posterior end
f>f the body, and the alimentary canal with v.irious convo-
lutions connects the two. In the majority of forms the
mouth is provided with jaws and a peculiar ril)bon-Iike
structure, armed with hooks
or teeth, and variously
■■ c known as the radiila, odtm-
liiphure, or lingual ribbon.
■h This odontopliore is a veri-
tal]]e file, and is vised either
to rasp the food into small
..^ particles or to drill holes
_..q through solid substances.
,_^^ ILiuj Tlie stomach is large, and is
,,,.,. , SoQ surrounded by a voluniiiious
I ^' liver, while tlie intestine is
I** nil jPc variously wound and con-
I " torted in its course to the
"7 vent. The heart is dorsal :
' "" it consists of ;i nieilian ren-
• f tricle and a pair (right and
,„i k'ft) of auricles, and pumps
-. . -_, jj-Tai^^fa^- rg the blood received from the
Ui H. *-=rS^^W^;;- "■»• gills (hence arterial) through
the arteries. There are no
J. capillaries, the circulation
^ being largely lacunar, i. e.
through spaces without
lirojier walls. Surrounding
the heart is a pericardium
Fio. 2. — Diagram of a mollusc or chiiinber which contnins
viewed as a transparent object "^ cnamoer w nicn contains
from above : nu. auricles i.f "" blood and which is of es-
heart ; e(. ctenidium tgill) ; <;, jiecial interest, since it is the
reprodiiciive organ ;/,. head ; xvni: bodv-cavitv or cwlom.
Ig. left genital opening; /it, ,•, -.r n - ,. .,
left nephridial opening: m, comparable with that of t lie
mantle ; mo, inner bonndarv of annelids. This pericardium
mantle-cavity ;.-!/, right geni- is connected with the exter-
tal opening. Other letters as i i i i r
before. '<;"«»= o= n,j] world by means of a
pair of convoluted tulies (or-
gan of Bojanus, nephridia) which function as kidneys.
Their duets empty into the posterior niaiitle-cavity, one on
either side of the anus. The sexual glands (c/onads) are also
paired, and the sexual openings are near those of the excre-
tory organs. The respiratory organs consist of a jiair of
Fig. 3. i ! aio rrse st-etion of a mollusc : i. in-
testine ; ma. mantle ; sh, shell. Other let-
ters as before.
comb-like gills (cfenidia) in the posterior mantle-cavity, but
these may disappear, their place being taken, funclionally,
by gills developed
from other parts
of the body or by
other respiratory
structures (lungs).
The nervous sys-
tem is compli-
cated, and consists
of several nerve-
centers {ganglia) ,
connected by
nerve-cords (com-
inis-inres). These
paired ganglia are
(1) the cerebral.
above the mouth ;
(2) the pleural, on
the sides near the
head ; (3) the pe-
dal, in the foot ; and (4) the visceral, on the sides of the
body near the ctenidia.
The typical molluscan larva is called a veliger, and pre-
sents many points of similarity to the larva (trochosphere)
of an annelid, or to the larva of a turbellarian worm. It is
characterized by the possession of a disk-shaped shell-gland
with a delicate shell, a rudimentary foot, and a peculiar or-
gan, the ?'e?Hj?!, consisting of a fold of skin above the mouth,
armed with long vibratile cilia which serve as locomotor
organs when the larva first escapes from the egg.
\Vith this schematic mollusc as a
starting-point, the structure of any
of the 20,000 species may readily be
understood. A few of the modifi-
cations presented by the various
structures and organs may be con-
sidered here, the reader being re-
ferred to the various manuals of
comparative anatomy for further
details.
The Foot.— The primitive flat
creeping-disk described above oc-
curs in the chitons, in most Gastero-
pods, and in certain Ijamellibranchs.
It may at times be divided trans-
versely so that three regions arc
recognizable, an anterior propodi-
«»(, a middle mesopodivm, and a
posterior meta pud i u?)i . Lateral out-
growths from the foot may also oc-
cur, parapodia, arising from the
creeping surface, epipodia from its base. In most Lamelli-
branelis the foot is compressed, taking a tongue-like form
or hatchet shape ; in the Pteropods the parapodia arc high-
ly developed, and take the wing shape which gives the group
its name. In the Cephalopoda two views obtain as to the
foot. In one the siphon (see below) is regarded as the honio-
logue of the foot of the tiasteropod ; in the other the circle
of arms around the mouth. In many molluscs the foot is
provided with glands which in many Laniellibranchs secrete
strong threads (%ssH.s) which fasten the animal to some
support.
The mantle is most primitive in the chitons and limpets,
and from this condition modifications in various directions
may be traced, more or less co-ordinated with the develop-
meiit of a vi.iceral sac. This latter name is used to indicate
that portion of the body which contains most of the viscera,
and which may attain considerable size. It is least promi-
nent in the Laniellibranchs, and here the mantle isdeveloped
chiefly as two lobes, one on either side, which envelop the
whole body and foot. The lower edges of these mantle
lobes may remain free or they may unite to a greater or less
extent with openings for the ]irotrusion of the foot and for
the ingress and egress of water. These latter openingsare
always posterior, and the mantle may be prokmged into
tubes {siphons) sometimes several times the length of the
body. In the Cejihalopods the visceral sac is greatly devel-
oped, and here the mantle is drawn out into a conical sac ;
in the Scaphopoda this type of modification reaches its ex-
treme, and as the mantle is open at its dorsal end it is tu-
bular in this group. In most Gasteropoda the visceral sac
is also large, but it here undergoes a peculiar modification
which needs mention. As it grows upward and backward
\
Fin. 4.— Veliger stage of
Vermetu.t {after I^a-
caze-Duthiers) : c.
brain : e. eye ; /, foot ;
T?j. mouth : o, ear; s,
sliell ; t, tentacle ; r,
velum.
MOLLUSCA
839
it topples to the one side or tlie other, and llie result is an
iriturfurenco with the primitive sjiniaetry thuraoteristic of
the typical mollusc. As u result the luuntle-cuvity of one
side is more or less complelely olililerated.the vent is forced
to the opposite side, earryini; with it sexuiil mid excretory
openings as well as the frills. In the extrt-uie cases the
vent is carried to the anterior end uf the body, and one of
the fcills and one of the t;enital and nephridial duels may
persist, this beiiif? placed, liy the twislinj.; uf the body, ou
the side opposite to that where it really belonjcs. The bo<lv
may at the same time acijuire a secondary symmetry, and afl
clews to the torsion are then to be traced only In the in-
ternal structures.
Thmliill is a characteristic structure, and as it is so easily
preserved it is the best known part of the mollusc. It is
formed primitively by the shell-gland, but the mantle may
also participate in its secretion. It consists chiefly of car-
bonate ancl phosphate of lime plus a varying amount of a
peculiar horny sui>stan(e to which the nume cunchiutin has
lieen given. From the method of its formation — secreted by
the o\ifer surface of the iiumtle and shell-gland — it fnllow's
lliat the newer layers of the shell are on lis under or inner
surface, and as the animal increases in size these newer lay-
ers project beyond the older ones, thus prcxlucing on the
outi'r surface concentric striai the lines of growth. The
mantle is often ornamented with pigmented spots, and
these reappear in the shell itself, giving it its peculiar mark-
ings, or there may be lobes on the margin of the mantle
producing spines or ridges upon the shell. The shell layers
are not all formed in the .same way. In some the particles
of lijue have the sh.ipe of minute prisms, ami in such cases
the shells have a dull, earthy or porcelaneous appearance.
In other forms the shell is marked with very fine lines which
produce dilfraction spectra, and such nacreous shells arc
pri/.eil for their iridescent or rainbow-like hues. The deli-
cali' (ilay of color in pearls is due to the same cause.
The form of the shell varies greatly, but all forms maybe
rcduci'd lotlieonetype — a llattened cone — already mentioned,
and in all but the ciiitons it is at first a single piece. In the
liamellibranchs this single shell breaks in the median line
soon after hatching, and the resulting right and left halves
form the two valves .so familiar in the oysters and clams.
In the case of some Gasteropods(limpets)tlic shell varies but
little from its primitive condition, but in the others the
bemling of the visceral sac converts the elongate cone into
a spiral, which is either right-handcil or left-handed accord-
ingly as the sac inclines to the one side or to the other.
Most Gasteropod shells are right-handed, but left-handed
{sinislriiJ) shells occur sometimes as abnormalities in typic-
ally ilcictral species. In nnniy Gasteropods the shell is inore
or less degenerate. In the slugs (himnx, etc.) it ocfure only
as an internal rudimentary plate, and in the naked mol-
luscs (N'udibranchs) it is present only in the yonnsj. In the
C'ephalopiids the shell is either external or internal, the lat-
ter being a secondary condition. In the nautilus it is di-
vided internally by transverse partitions into a series of
chambers, the purpose of which is not thoroughly under-
stood. The internal shell in the C'ephalopods may be illus-
I rated by the " cuttle-bone " of the shops ; but space will not
allow a consideration of the relations of this to the pen of
the sijuids and tn the shell and guard of nniny fossil C'ephalo-
pods. The shell of the paper nautilus (Argonuuta) is not a
true shell, but rather an egg-protecting case.
In some Gasteropods the dorsal surface of the mctapodi-
um (sec above) has the |K)wer of secreting limy mailer, and
thus is formed a horny or calcareous door or operculum
Fio. .1— Opercula of «1) Ampullaria. (8) Tiirlio. (3) I'rochut,
(4) Strombus, (5) Purpura, (6) Xerila.
which closes the aperture of the true shell when the animal
is retracted into it. From its method of formation this is
clearly not the other valve of the univalve shell, comparable
to the second valve of a bivalve shell, as was once held.
The various parts of the shell have received names, some
of which may Ix; defined here since they are iin|j<jrtunt in
the description of the various groups.' In the Lunielli-
branchs (bivalves) the liinge is the line of meeting of the
two valves or halves of the shell, and it is pruviiled with an
elastic ligament. \\\v function of which is to upcn the valves
when the adiluctur muscles which draw them tugcther are
relaxed. On the inner surface of the shell may hv seen the
impressions of tlie.sc adductor rnusides, one or two in num-
ber, as well as tlmse produceil by the nlrnrtor muscles of
the foot. Along the margin is Ihe iialliol line caused by
the attachment of the margin of the mantle, and in those
forms with a well-ileveloind siphon (si'c above) this line has
a deep indentation (pallidl sinus) behind, produced by the
attachment of the nnuscles which retract tlie.se tuln-s.' On
the outer surface near the hinge is a prominence {umbo)
around which, as a center, the lines of growth are arranged,
and in most bivalves (except Xuculu, etc.) this umlnj |Hjiiitii
toward the anterior end. In the univalves tin' oiK-ning of the
shell is the aperture, the axis of Ihe spiral is the columella,
the last whorl is the body-wlmrl, and the other whorls form
the spire. The two edges of the aperture are the lips, and
the place where they join the other whorls the suture. The
spire is yjos/fWor, and both anterior and |>osterior margins
of Ihe aperl ure may be produced in griMives or canals named
according to llieir j)osilion. The outer surface shuws more
or less clearly the lines of growth parallel to Ihe outer lip,
and in some species there are periods uf rapid gruwlh alter-
nating with lines of rest. In these latter periods there is
formed a tliickeiiecl lip, which Ix'iiig left behind at Ihe next
time of growth forms a ridge or varix on the outer surface.
Tlie odonlopliure occurs in all molluscs except the hamel-
libranchialaand isolated individuals in other group.s, and its
presence or absence was formerly made a basis of division
of the molluscs into two great gr<pups. The odoiitophore
consists of an elastic
ribbon upon the floor
of the throat, re-
placed by growth at
Its posterior end as
rapidly as it wears
away by use in fr. i
It pas.si-s over a c .
lilaginous cushii.u.
like a belt over a
jiulley, and is moved
i)ack and forth by
appiMpriate iniiscles.
On its upper surface
are arranged, row-
after row, numliers
of recurved hi«ik-likc
siliceous teeth, the
whole ribbon being
not inapt 1 v compared
to a flexilile file. The
number and arrangement of those teeth vary in the differ-
ent families and genera, and hence Ihe characters presented
by the ribbon have bi'en seized ii|K>n as an aid in classifica-
tion. In each transverse row there may be five different
kinds of teeth; in the center a rhachidian tooth flanked on
Fio. 6.— Diagram of niollus^'an month and
fHlontophitre <afier l^n^t : c. t.tn^rue
cartUsf^e ; /. fold of railula sJieaih ; he,
cavity of head ; j. jaw ; ni. niiutele. o,
odontnphore ; if. o'^ipliagus ; », opeo-
ing of salivary gland.
U
LJ
Flo. T. — Dentition of Cltitunetltu.
either side by one or several rows of somewhat similar
pleural teeth, and outside of thes<' a varying nunilxT of
uncini. .Smielimes Ihe pleune may 1m> si!ppn'S.se<l, and in
certain groups the rhachidian leetli may disjip|M'ar. The
number "f teelli mi the iKlmitophore vary between very wiile
limits. Thus in Kulis drummimdi Ihe Intal is IMI, in lAI-
torina litorea H.-'ilM), in Helix jmmntia "JUtKIO. and in
Helix ghiesliregliti ;{!l,.'ilH5. A dental fnrmnia has lieen de-
vised 111 represent diairnimnmticnlly the Iwlh in a Iransverse
row. Thus in i'hiloneltus {>fv ciil) Ihe formula is 5 -f !l + f
-I- :i -I- ."i, indicalini; llial there are five un<-ini and three
pleurals on either side and a single rhachidian in the middle.
840
MOLLLTSCA
wliile the formula for Murex is 1 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 1, the pleu-
rals being absent.
Tiie re.'ipiriilori/ organs consist primitively of at least a
pair of comb-like or feather-like gills, but tlie I'aet that in
the chitons and in the Nautilus — the most i)riniitive of the
Cephalopods — there is more tlian one pair, points to the con-
clusion that this may have been the primitive condition.
Each gill possesses two blood-vessels, an artery which brings
venous blood from the body, while the vein carries it in tlie
purified condition to the auricle of the heart. At the base
of each gill is a peculiar sense-organ, regarded as an organ
of smell. As this primitive type of gill may disap])ear, its
functions being taken by other structures, the name cleiiid-
iiim has been applied to it (Gr. urels. comb -I- elSot. form), to
avoid confusion with other gill-like structures. The ctenid-
iuni has un<lergone least modification in the Lamellibranclis,
Cephalopods, and lower Gasteropods. In the other Gastero-
pods occurs that twisting of the liody whereby the gills
change sides, and by which one of them may entirely disap-
pear, and with its foss one of the auricles of the heart be-
comes obsolete. In others of the Gasteropods and in the
tooth shells (Scaphopoda) the ctenidia may entirely disap-
pear, their place being taken cither by "adaptive gills" de-
veloped from almost any part of the body or by so-called
lungs, as in our land snails or, lastly (Seaphoda), by the
general body walls. The liinga. just referred to (sec PuL-
moxata), are formed by a growth together of the mantle
edge with the wall of the body, leaving but a small respira-
tory pore wliieh communicates with tlie mantle cavity, now
converted into the pulmonary sac. The inner upper surface
of the sac is lined by a delicate membrane in which a rich
network of blood-vessels occurs. The transfer of gases takes
place here in the same way as in the human lung. Certain
of the lung-bearing Gasteropods have become aquatic (//(/;«-
nmidw). l)Ut these are forced to eome occasionally to the sur-
face and tlien to breathe like their terrestrial relatives. In
the deep water of the Lake of Geneva, however, t here occurs
one of these Pulmonates(Lv/TOH(e«. ahijssicola) which fills its
pulmonary sac with water,but the sac seems to have under-
gone no essential modifications.
Nervous System and Sense Organs. — The nervous system
presents too many complications for description here, fur-
ther than is hinted at in the account of our schematic mol-
lusc. One feature, however, needs mention. In tiie twist-
ing of the body as a result of the weight of the viscjeral sac,
the commissures leading to the visceral ganglia may become
included, the result being that the cords become crossed, and
that visceral ganglion winch morphologically belongs to the
right side is carrieil to the left and vice versa. The organs
of special sense deserving notice are the eyes and care. The
olfactory organ has already been mentioned. In nu)st forms
the eyes' are borne on the head and firesent varying degrees
of complexity. In all cases they are formed by an involu-
tion of the external skin, and in "the Xautilus the interesting
feature occurs of an inuige-forming eye without a lens, the
structure lieing a reproduction of the "i)in-liole camera,"
which is so familiar. In the Lamellibranchs, where a head
is absent, the eyes, when present, occur in other [larts. In
some they are placed at the ends of the siphons, wliile intlic
scallops (Pecten) they are ijlaeed at regular intervals along
the margin of the mantle, where they appear like veritable
jewels. The ears, which are ahuost universally present, are
epithelial sacs in close proximity to the pedal ganglia. The
lining cells of these sacs (or ofnci/s/s) are connected with
nerve-fibers, and the cavity is provitled with (1 to 100 or
more) hard bodies (otoliths), which, set in vibration liy tlii'
sound-waves, hit the sense-cells and thus stimulate the
nerves.
Class I. Ampiiineu'ra. Bilaterally symmetrical marine
molluscs with two pairs of longitudinal nerves, untwisted,
with ganglion-cells their whole length, and connected by
numerous transverse cords.
Order I. Placoi'iiora (or Polyplacoph'ora) AiMPniNEURA
witli an oval outline ; above the body is protected by eight
plates of shell overlapping like shingles. Helow (except in
Chitonellus) is a large creeping foot. In the mantle-cavity
are numerous gills (ctenidia), and into it empty the paired
reproductive and excretory ducts. The median heart is
provided with two auricles ; the head is not distinct, and
cephalic tentacles are lacking. Kyos are usually said to be
lacking, but in some species the shi^lls are covereii with sense
organs (/esthetes), which ISlumrich regards as tactile. Some
of these, however, become modified into organs which, struc-
turally at least, are eyes. A lingual-ribbon is present. The
chitons (see Chiton) are comparatively few in number, and
most species live in shallow water.
Order II. Solkn'ogas tres. Represented by a few worm-
like molluscs (f7Kf/orfer;H((. iVpoM(e;u«) fr«mi the deeper seu.s,
in which a shell is lacking; the cuticle contains calcareous
spicules, the mantle-cavity is reduced, and the foot is rudi-
mentary or even entirely absent.
Class II. Gastekop oiJA. Embraces the snails, slugs, etc.
Asymmetrical molluscs with a distinct tentacle-bearing
head, a large creeping-foot, tlie viscera contained in a large
protruding dorsal visceral sac (which may be secondarily
lost), which is usually covered by a univalve shell (generally
spirally coiled) into which the whole body may be retracted
for protection. A lingual ribbon is always present. The
class is divided into three orders— Prosobranchia, Puhno-
nata.andOpisthobranchs — for the details of which reference
should be made to the article GASTKRoponA.
Class 111. ScAPuop oDA. Symmetrical marine molluscs in
which the body is elongated in a dorso-ventral direct ion, and
the mantle is converted into a tubular sac which secretes a
slightly curved tubular shell open at either end. Ctenidia
are lacking, and the strong foot forms an ellicient digging
organ. These forms (Dentalium, etc.), which receive their
name, tooth-shells, from their resemblance to an elephant's
tusk, have very little of popular interest.
Class IV. Lamellibraxchiata. Symmetrical molluscs
with the laterally compressed bodies inclosed in a bivalve
shell, with a hinge above, the valves opening freely (except in
a few sedentary forms) below. The valves are opened by an
elastic hinge ligament, and are closed by means of adductor
muscles which pass from one to the other. The mantle-
cavity is large, and contains the usually broad lamellate
gills, there being two on either side. Between the gills is
the visceral mass, the foot extending from its lower surface.
A distinct head is lacking, as are all of the cephalic organs —
eyes, tentacles, radula, etc. — found in the other molluscs.
Nephridia and sexual organs are paired, and the heart in
most forms has two auricles. Some are diiccious, some her-
maphrodite ; all are aquatic, most living in the sea. Five
orders are recognizeil : Prototfranchia. Filihraiicliia, Pseudo-
lamellibranchia. EulameUibranchia, and Septibranchia.
For details, see Lamellihranchiata.
Class V. Cephalopoda (q. v.). In these bilaterally sym-
metrical forms the body is usually elongated in the dorso-
ventral direction, the mantle-cavity being large. The foot
is divided into two portions. Of these the anterior becomes
produced into a cu-cle of arms or tentacles surrounding the
mouth, while the rest is formed into the siphon, to be men-
tioned again below. The arms — eight, ten, or many in num-
ber— are provided with numerous sucking-cups, by means of
which the animals are enabled to seize their prey. In many
forms one of these arms, in the male, can lie charged with
packets of sperm, and then it is separated from tlie body
and becomes attached to the female. The siphon is a tube
on the lower surface of the body, produced by the union of
the edges of the foot; into it empty the alimentary canal
and the duct of the ink-gland, and it forms, liesides, the
most ethcient organ of locomotion, the water which is taken
into the mantle-cavity being forcibly expelled thrnugli this
tube, the reaction carrying the animal swiftly through the
water. The mouth is always provided with an odontopliorc,
and it has, besides, a pair of horny jaws. slia|ied much like
tliose of a parrot. The auricles and the ventricles of the
heart are always separate, and the auricles may be either
two or four in number, the number always agreeing with
that of the gills. Anotlier feature is the presence, in all the
Dibraiicliiate forms, of an ink-bag which secretes a colored
flui<l which is discharged, making clouds in the water when-
ever the animal wishes to escape from its enemies. Many
species have the power of changing the color of the body by
means of curious expansible color-bearing cells (ehromato-
phores) situated in the skin. In the rapidity and extent of
these changes they far excel the fameil chameleon. The
nervous system is highly developed, and the central portion
or brain is inclosed in a cartilaginous case recalling the
vertebrate skull. The sense-organs, especially the eyes, are
also higlily developed. The eyes in the Nautilus are built
upon the principle of the •' pin-hole camera," but in the
others a lens is present, and the whole closely simulates tlie
visual organ of the vertebrates, although developed in an
entirely different manner.
'I'he Cephalo]ioda are divided into two oi-ders based, among
other things, upon the number of gills. In the Tetra-
branchiata there are four gills, and in the single existing
MOLLUSCOIDEA
JIOLUCCAS
841
Fio. S.— An OotfipcHl Cephalnpoil :
i}ctoi>llM ttthi'i'rulitllis (abuut
one-teiiih its nuturul size).
getiiis, Xftu/iliis. there is a coileil external shell, tlie iiiteriiir
of which is iliviiled into ohuiiilnTs, in the outer one of whieh
the iininial lives. In gcoloffieal titnes this order was niiieh
more niiinerous, Ammonites anil Naiitiloids lieiiifj very
aliiiiidaiil in the Paheozoic and Secondary rocks. In the
Uihraiichiata there is a single ))air of nills, and the shell,
when [iresi'iil.is nidiitjenlary
and internal. The Uiliian-
chiutes are sulidiviiled into
two groups, the OctofKxla
with eight arms and the I)e-
capoda with ten. To the
l_)eto|MHla belong the cuttle-
fish proper, ami the ciitlle-
Ixme, feil to birds, is the in-
ternal shell of these forms.
In the case of the iiaper nau-
tilus an external shell is
liiult, but this occurs only in
the female, and the shell,
which is in reality but a case
for the eggs, is formed, not by the mantle, but by a pair of
expande<l arms. In the Decanoda are groiipeil the sijuid
and their allies, and of these tlie giant squid of Newfound-
land deserve especial mention. Only recently have they
been brought to the attention of naturalises. The largest
one known measured 20 feet from the beak to the end of the
body, while one of the arms was ii't feet in length. The
smaller si|uid are caught in large numbers as bail for cod.
The literature of the .Molliisca. especially that descriptive
"f the shells, is enormous. In spite of its age. the best geii-
ciiil W(jrk is W'oiKlward's Manual of Hit MdUu.ica (;M ed.
187o). The best account of anatomy aii<l embi'vology will
be found in Lang's Lehrbuch dir venihichendeii Aitatoinie
(IH'.fi). Several authors have attempied monographs of all
known species. Of these the most complelo are the works
of Kiener, JIarliiii and Chemnitz, and Tryon. See I'ai.eon-
T0I,0(1Y. " .1. S. Kl.NiiSLEV.
MoUilspoi'dcafMod. Lat. ; jn()//w.sr«, mi>llusc + fir. «?Sos,
ajipenraiice, I'nnii, likenessj : a name applied by Henri ^liluo
Kd wards in l,S4l to a group of animals contain iiig the lirach-
iopods, I'olyzoans, and Tiinicates. These are now distrib-
uted in other classes, and the term is not now used in sys-
tematic zoology. See i{RACBI01H)DA, BbYOZOA, Tl-.NH.ATA,
and I'ai.eontoloov. F. A. L.
.Hollyiiinn'k : the common or almost universal name
among Kiiglish-speaking sailors for the smaller albatrosses,
Diiimrdca brarhyiiia, and D. inelanopliri/n. It is a moili-
fiealion of the German mallemuck, applied to the fulmar
nelrel (fM/marH.t ;//((ciVi//j(), which in turn came from the
Uulcli mallemuf/ije, a name for small Hies or midges which
associate In swarms. F. A. L.
Mo'locll, or Mi>I<'('ll [from rieb. ynnUkh, deriv. of melelh
I : Arab, iin-lik). king), called also Miii-oiu (1 Kings xi. .'»)
iiid .Mil I ell II 111 (Zeph. i. .5): the fire-god of the I'luenicians
;i modilication or hypostasis of Baal, the sun-god), but
spoken of in .SiTipture as more especially " the alximination
of the .Vmmonites." That children were sjicrificed to this
deity is not to be questioned, although "passing through
the lire to .Molecli " may not always mean so much, Solo-
mon and other later Kings of Jiidah are mcntionetl as wor-
shiping it, but the captivity seems to have eftectually extir-
pated his cultus. Diodorus Siculus (xx.. U) desi-rilM-s a
I)razc-n image used among the Carthaginians in sacrificing
children to Cronos or Saturn. Revised by S. M. Jackso.v.
Molokiii, mo-lo-kaa™: the middle island of the Hawai-
ian group, and one of the smallest. It is ;i."i miles long by 6
broad, contains about IT.'i stj. miles, and is thinly iiopulated.
It is (lat in the center, but elevated at the ends ; the western
iiart is arid, the eastern wr)oded. There is a I'olonv of
lepers on the islaml, numbering about 7(M). On the island
Oahu. to the \V., is an asvlum l^r lli.' childriMi of these
lepers. ■ M. W. II.
Molting: See Molltino.
Miilt'ke. Hklmitii Carl Bf.rmiard, von: field-marshal;
b. tM. •Jli. IMOO, at I'archim, in .Mecklenburg; wius edueateil
at the Military Academy of Copenhagen ; enlereil the Prus-
sian service in W'ii. and was apiHiinted a meinl'er of the
staff in lM;i2. He dev<ited himself with great energy to the
scientilic part of his oirice, and pnblisheil in ls;t."i a work on
the Turko-Uussiaii war of 182S-2!!. This war. as all ques-
tions n'lating to the Orient were of great interest to Prussia,
led Moltke, who wan thoroughly conversant with Ihcm, to
make a journey to Turkey in lKt.>. The sultan, Malimud,
to whom he was introiiuced, ami whose Ciinlideiice he en-
joyeil, procured for him a furlough of several years, during
which lime he aideil Ihe^nltan Ity his advice, both in the reor-
ganization of the Turkish army and in the improvement of
the fort i Ileal iipiis of .Sdlstria, Shooinia, Vania. ItiHislchuk,
and the Itardamlles. Toiri'lln'r with several oilur Prussian
ollicers on furlough, he aceonipanieil the Turkish army in
the cani|>aigns against the Kurds and agaiii-t .Mi-heniet Ali.
Viceroy of Kgypt. Afti-r the ileal h of Sultan .Mahmiid he
relumed home, and published in IS41 LrlUm nii Ihr Situa-
tion ill Turkey in tlie yearn W.W-.W (1H41). and a map of
Constantinople and the Uosplioriis on the scale of 1 : •J.'i.OOt).
Ill 1S40 he was a|ipiiiiiled adjutant to Prince Henry i>f
Prussia, who lived iii Koine, and the fruit of his residence
in this city was a map of its siirrouudings. After the death
of the prince in IK-IT, he was allacheil to the govenmr-gen-
eral on the Hhine. and Ix-came chief of u division of the
staff in 1H4M, chief of the slaflf of the Fourth Aniiy-ooq>s
from 1K4!I to 18.")."i, adjutant to Prince Friedrich Wilhel.n in
IH.5(i, and chief of Ihe slalT of Ihe whole army in 1K.>I. In
this pioniinent position he made his name imniortal as a
general. L'lider his inspiriting leadership the stall became
a most conveiiielil and etieclivc means of commanding the
arniv. and in Ihe siibs«'i|uent wars his plans and di.sjKwitions
resulted in an unbroken series of brilliant victories. For
the achievement of such results the pres«>nce of Ihe king
was of vital imiKirtance. In 1866 and in 1870-71 the latter
led as commander-in-chief, and gave absolute authority to
Moltkc's dispositions. On a minor lield. in 1H(J4 against
Denmark, Prince Friedrich Karl having received the coni-
niaiid in .\pril. Moltke leil the army for the first time in
war, having drawn up beforehand the plan of the whole
campaign. In 1866, in the war against Austria and her
allies, he entered a larger theater, and showeil his strateg-
ical talent in a most brilliant manner. In June. IS«M!. he
was made a general of infanlrv, and after the short and as-
tonishing campaign was finislied the king u'ave him the
highest Prussian order, that of the IJlack Kagle, and the
Diet voted him a dotation. He was elected a deputy to the
North tierman Diet in the next year. Anticijialing the
French attack, he planned a campaign against France im-
mediately after the Austrian war. This plan was laid U-forc
the king in 1S6X. and followed out in 1870 as far as suih a
plan could lie followed — that is, with respect to the or-
ganization of the army and the choice of the first point of
attack. The French campaign of 1870-71 is probably one
of the most brilliant whieh has ever been fought, and al-
though its entire success can not be asc-rilK-d to Moltke, as
many different agencies were at work, the larger share is
nevertheless his due. Altlitiugh jK>ssesse<l of the highest
theoretical education, he was never caught by a theori'. but
surveyed with avlmirable fneilom the chaniring incidints of
war, and acted in accordance with tluin. With him the
greatest audacity of plan was connected with a perfectly
cool and sober calculation in the execulion: and this was
his greatness. On the day of the capilulalioii of Met z the
king made him a count ; on the conclusion of the armis-
tice he gave him one of the five grand crossi's of the Iron
Cross, and on the day of the return of the triio|>s to Berlin
he made him a field-marshal. He also received a dotation of
300.0()0 tlialers. and the fnedom of many cities was pri'senled
to him. His ninetieth birthday was celebrated in Berlin with
great magnificence. He was not very talkative, and as ho
was thoroughly conversant with «'veral languages, people
said of hiin, epigrammatically, that he was siliiil in seven
languages, .\iiiong the works which he partly wrote, partly
edited, are The Italian Campaiyn «/ /.v.;;/ (IsiKti : T/ie Her-
man Ariny (1.S71): and Tlie /■ranro-lierman War (1872).
He was placed on the retiri'd list of the army in IKKSand
aiitMiintiil president of national defensi'. D. in Berlin. .\pr.
24, 1S!»1. Kevised by .IaS4Es Crant Wii.so.n.
Molno'ros. or SpifO IsliindK: a large gronp of islands
of the Malay .\rihi|K'lai.'o, lying iH-lween ('.' ' • ' Vew
Guinea, belween lals. :! S. a'lid «° N.. and 1ki ;26'
and \.i\ K. T..lal area alK'in l-,>oiio .,, ,i . are
all of volcanic origin, high. ■ •■e<iiiigly
fertile. The forests, which • '■' 'heir
verv tops, contain leak, elMiny, .-^iidal, iron, a ■■•'d,
liesldes |ialms, breadfruit tn-es, and many v iho
finest fniit-treos. Kice. s»ige. cotton, indigo, o'li' . . aiei m-
gar are grown; the nutmeg and the clove are indigenous to
Si2
MOLY
MOMENT
all the islands, but the Dutch have confined the cultivation
of the clove to Aniboyna and tlie Uliassers, and that of tlie
nutmeg to the Banda islands; on the other islands the
trees of native growth have been rooted out. The original
inhabitants were Malays; Arabs. Hindu, and Chinese have
since iminigratod and settled, and there are many mestizoes,
descendants of Europeans — Portuguese, Spaniards, or Dutch
— and natives. The northern division of the archipelago,
comprising the islands of Ternatc, Tidore, Bat Jan. Makian,
Jlotir, and the Obi group, and forming tlie residency of
Ternate. which contains about 100,000 iidiabitants, is only
indirectly under Dutch Ciovernmeiit. while tlie southern di-
vision, comprising Amboyna, the Haiida islands, and the
I'liassers. and forming the two residencies of Amboyna and
Banda. which together contain about 242,000 inhabitants, is
governed directly as a province of the motherland. 'I'lie
northern division is inliabiled largely by Jlohamniedan pi-
rates; the southern by Christians in orderly comniuiiilies.
The Dutch have possessed these islands since the beginning
of the seventeenth century. See Ambovxa and Baxda Isles.
' Revised by M. W. Harrington.
Mo'ly [= Lat. = Gr. ^iAu] : a fabulous herb, a sovereign
remedy for all diseases, which Mercury gave Ulysses as a
counter-charm against Circe. The ancients idciitilied it
with a species of garlic. A wild Oriental garlic is now
<ia,\\ed Allium mo/y; it is a showy plant, cultivated under
the name of golden garlic for ornament.
MolybMcuitp : the natural sulphide, a mineral crystal-
lizing in tlie hexagonal system, with eminent cleavage, and
occurring commonly foliated or in highly flexible, inelastic
scales. In its crystallization, hardness (l-l'O), lead-gray
color, and metallic luster it much resembles graphite, but is
distinguished from that mineral by its streak, which is lead
gray, its specific gravity, 4'6, and by emitting sulphurous
fumes before the blowpipe. It is met with in gneissoid,
granitic, and other crystalline rocks. The natural dioxide,
molybdic acid, occurs as mohjbdite. a yellow earthy mineral,
and also combined in several minerals, as with lead in wul-
fciiite.
Molybdc'nillll [from Mod. Lat. tnoli/ljche'iium, from Lat.
vuihihiUe'na = (Jr. ixoKv^haiva. galena or litharge, deriv. of
lw\vffSos, lead] : an elementary metal, occurring in a well-
known mineral which is so extremely similar to graphite or
black lead that it was first discovered in 1778 by Scheele
to yield the peculiar oxide known as molybdic acid. A few
years later, in 1782, Hjelm isolated its metal. Molybdic
acid occurs native, as mnlybdite. or molybdic ocher, of which
there are several American localities. Of the native sul-
phide, molybdenite, there are quite a number of localities in
America. Its most importimt compound, practically, up to
this time, is the compound of molybdic acid with ammonia,
used in chemical analysis for the detection and determina-
tion of phosphoric acid. Revised by Ira Remsen.
Mombasa : an important town on a coral island near the
east coast of Africa, in 4 4' S. lat., with one of tlie best
harbors on that coast (see ma]) of A I'rica, ref. G-G). Founded
by the Arabs after they began their occupation of the east
coast in the eighth century, seized by the Portuguese in the
sixteenth century, and from early in the seventeenth cen-
tury the possession of the rulers of Muscat and ZanzilMr, it
was ceded (1801) in perpetuity to the Imperial British Kast
Africa Company, and is the ca])ital of their territory Ibea.
It is comparatively healthful, its harbor has been greatly
improved, many new houses have been built, and it is to
be the coast terminus of the railway to Victoria Nyanza.
Mombasa is the starting-point of many caravans to the in-
terior. Pop. about 25,000. ' C. C. Adams.
Moment : a term used in mechanics, with several signifi-
cations. 'J'he moment of a force with regard to an axis is
the product of the force by a certain function of its position
with regard to the axis ; it is the measure of the tendency
of that force to cause rotation about the axis. If the axis
and force -are at right angles, tlie moment is simply the
product of the force tiy its distance from the axis, and in
that case the moment of the force may be said to be taken
with regard to the point in which the perpendicular filane
through the force meets the axis. If tliei'e be several forces
acting in the .same plane, the sum of their moments, witli
regard to an axis perpendicular to the plane, or a point in
the plane, taken positively or negatively, according to tlie
direction in which they cause rotation, is called the result-
ant moment. If this residtant moment be zero for all
points in the plane the forces are in equilibrium, and con-
versely, if several forces in the same plane are in equili-
brium the algebraic sum of their moments with regard to
any point must vanish. (See Statics.) If the forces be ex-
pressed in pounds and the distances in feet the moments
are expressed in the compound unit called a pound-foot.
The bending moment &i any section of a beam is the alge-
braic sum of the moments of all the forces on cither side of
that section. Thus in Fig. 1 the beam, whose depth is d
and length is I, is loaded with a single weight W, wliose
distance from the left and right supports are m and n re-
spectively. The reaction of the left support, due to the
weiglit IV, then is W-j, and the reaction of the right sup-
port is ll'y- The bending moment at tlie section AB dis-
tant X from the left support, is ^^f- Accordingly, the
bending moment for a section between the left support and
the weight varies directly as x, it being zero at the support
and becoming W —r- at the load. The greatest bending mo-
ment due to W will occur when it is at the middle of the
span, or when to = n = i?, and this is the position which
causes the greatest stress in the beam. (See Flexi'RE.) If
a load, ir, be uniformly distributed over a beam, so that w
is the load per linear unit, the l.iending moment at any sec-
tion distant X from the support is
31 = ^wlx — ^wx'^,
and the law of variation of the moments is that of a parab-
ola. The maximum bending moment occurs at the mid-
dle of the span, or when x=:\l, and its value is \M'P,
which is only one-half of that due to the same load concen-
trated at the middle.
The statical moment of a plane surface is the sum of the
products obtained by multiplying each element of the sur-
face by its distance from an axis in that plane. If a be
any elementary area and y its distance from an axis, the
general expression for the statical mo-
ment is 2«v/. As one of the simplest
special cases the rectangle in Fig. 2.
whose breadth is b and depth d. may be
considered, and with reference to an
axis coinciding with the base the stat-
ical moment is U>d^. This may be ob-
tained by summing the expression 'S.f'y f^.-
by the integral calculus, or more simply p,Q o
bv multiplying the area of the surface
by the distance of its center of gravity from the given axis.
I i t h(^ axis pass through the center of gravity of the surface
the statical moment is zero.
The moment of inertia of a plane surface is the sum of
the products obtained by multiplying each element of the
surface by the square of its distance from an axis in the
same plane. Thus the general expression is 2ai/', and the
value for any particular case is obtained by integration.
For instance," the moment of inertia of the rectangle in Fig.
2, with respect to the axis AB, is
I = f\bdy)y^ = ibd\
o .
The least moment of inertia with respect to an axis parallel
to AB will be for an axis through the center of gravity of
the given surface; for the rectangle this is -^^bd^ The
term moment of inertia when used without qualification
gcnerallv means the value for an axis through the cenlerof
gravity of the figure; if this be called I (he moment of in-
ertia / for any other parallel axis maybe derived by the
rule /' = I+Ah'\ where A is the area of the surface and h
the distance between the two axes. The values of tlie least
MOMIERS
MOXACUISM
843
inrmiciit.s of iiicrlia fur the cases of most iinportaiicr are
^'ivi'ii ill till- uriicle Klkxikk.
The |Milar iiioiiiviit iif incrtiii of ii iiliinc surfiu-e is llie
iiroduct So.'/*, wliiTf <i is fsliiiiulo<l with respect to a |Kiiiil
111 llif pl.iiie illstciKi of with n-sncc't to u line. Its vuluo cull
lie found Ijy a ilnnlile inte^fiiil in polar co-oniinales, or
more simply liy uililin^' toj^etlier the two niomeiits of iner-
tia taken with respi^et to two axes ut rij^ht uiijjles to each
other and piissinj; tlirouf;h the ;;iven point. Tims the polar
inoiiient of inertia of a reetaiijilu with respect to its center
is ^hiP + -^\b^ii. The polar moinent is principally used in
conneelioii with the torsion of shafts.
In the computations urisiiif; in the design of structures
nnil machinery, tallies jfiviin; numerical values of the mo-
ments of inertia of anf^h'-iroii .-sections, I-lieaiiis, etc., arc
advanfaKeous. 'J'hese will ho found in Trautwiiie's h'rigi-
neers' Purket-hnok, and extensive taliiilatioiis for the various
sections of columns are ffiven in Oshorn's Tiihles of Mo-
ments of Inertia (New York, 1881)). See also Dvnamk s and
Force. Ma.nsfield Mekiiima.n.
Mdmiors, nuVmi-a [= Fr., liter., mummers, maskers: cf.
O. Fr. momi-r, inuinm, mask one's self] : the cant name given
in 1818 to a hody of evangelical Protestants of .Switzerland
and the ailjoining parts of Fiance and (iernmny, whose dis-
tinguishing characteristic was the fervency of their relig-
ious exercises. The .Momiers accused the national Church
of Switzerland of apostasy from Calvinism, especially in de-
nying the divinity of Christ. They were consequently sub-
jected to repressive measures, and ultimately returneil to
the orthodox communion. The most distinguished of the
Momiers was Kcv. Ca'sar Malan. See Oeschichte tier J/o-
rniem (2 parts, Hiusel, 18'2o).
Monnn'son, Tiikodor: historian: b. at Garding, Schles-
wig. (jeriiiaiiy. Nov. :i(). 1817: stiidicil law and philologv at
Kiel; traveled ISU— 17 in France ami Italy collating ,'\i.S.S.
and inscriptions; was Professor of Uoman Law at Leipzig
in 184X. but was dismissed for political reasons; was called
to Zurich in 1853, to Breslau in 1854. and to Berlin in 1858
a.s Professor of Ancient History. .Moinmsen is alike distin-
guished as a historian, jurist, epigraphist. numismatist, and
]ihilologist |iroper. Of the monuniental Curpiix In-trripdnn-
um Liitinnrum, of which he is the originator and editor-in-
chief, ho himself published vol. i., iii., viii., ix., the pii'face
to vol. i. being additionally noteworthy as one of the linest
specimens of modern Latin prose. This work has illumined
va.st areas of previous darkness, and laid the foundation for
the scientitic stinly of Uoman antiipiities ; his Uoman His-
tory (vol. i.-iii., 8tli ed.. vol. v.. lid ed., on the Uoman prov-
inces; vol. iv. on imperial Uome is not to appear till after
his death ; transl. into English by W. P. Dickson) is one of
the great masterpieces in the domain of historiography. Its
style is of crystalline clearness, and in the famous chapters
dealing with Uoman literature or in his characterizations of
individuals, for instance, it is brilliant. The originality of
his inferences anil historical combinations. ba.sed as they are
upon an unprecedented imustery of all available sources of
information, have elicited universal admiration even by
those who attacked some of his views, notably his flagrantly
unjust disparagement of Cicero. His Ji'i'misrhe,'! .yrni-iresi'n
(1850), Uoinisrite C'/iroiiolof/ie (18,5!)), and above all his JiO-
misches Staulnrirht {\i vols., ad eil. 1W8), arc I he funda-
mental and slandanl works on these resiM'ctive subjects.
Kipially celebrated are his edition of the Dii/enta, Solintis,
■ liirilanes, the MonHmentnni Anri/raiiiiin. his UDmixclte
/'tiriiliiinf/en, 2 vols.. Ziir Lebenxi/ftr/i iriite iliH jtlni/erin
/'/iiiiiis (in Ihrmen iii., pp. :tl-13!t), etc. .\ complete list
"f all his writings up to 1887 is given by C. Zangemeister,
I'/ii'Dilor Mommneti ah .Sc/iriflx/eller, and takes up sixty
closely printed pages. In 1881) part of his fine library was
destroyed by lire, lint was replenished by ilonations from
foreign scholars. — Tvcno, brother of Theodor. b. at (iard-
iiig, May 2;t, 181!); studied at Kiel, travelecl in Italy and
(ircece, and taught in gymnasia in Kisenach. (•Idcnlnirg.
aiicl l''iankfort. He is chietly known as the editor of J'in-
il'ir (lsii4); wrote I'aniya J'iiidarira (1877): and is the
author of a Oerinan translalioii of his favorite poet. — .\l'-
oisr. another brother, b. at I ildesloe. .Iiily 25. 1821 ; studied
at Kiel; taught school in various (iernian cities. He is an
authority on (ireek and Konian chronology. Cf. es|H'cially
//>"«r/()/i((7iV (18(54); ('/ironolni/inrhe L'ntentiirhiinyrii iiherdas
Kalrndenresen iter Urieclien (188;!). Alfred (ji'DEMax.
Miiniitstcnnn'iro : a town of (tiialemala. denartment of
Toloiiicapan : on the high plateau: iiImiuI Vi miles N. N. \V.
of Totonicapan city and GO miles W. X. \V. of (iuateniula
(s<'e map of Central America, ref. :j-I)). It is an agricullunil
center of soiuo im|iurtaiice. Pop. ( 181)2) saiii Ui hv nearly
I'.'XM'. II. U.S.
Moniot'iila' |Mod. Lat., named from .V'(//i<;7u«. the typic-
al genu*, fn.m Kng. m«m»/, from Aiiier. I ml. mu/nio/,' mo-
mot, >lomotii>|: a family of liirds containing the motniots.
The bill is rather long, somewhat decurviMl. depres>^-d nt
the ba.se, coinpressed forwaril, and with deiilicnhited edges;
the tai-si short and scutellated ; the too normal : the tail is
graduated ami prodiiceil toward the middle. The maxillo-
palatines and voiiierine boiics are of the " desmognath " tyi>e.
The birds are most closcdy related to the todies ( Toi/iJip) and
more distantly to the Corariidir. Mernpidtf. ami Alcedinidir
or kinglishers'. .\ccordiiig to Murie (Ai». 1872. |,|i. ;i8:i-412)
there are four well-delined tH'iwrn—w/.., ilomotus, Barypth-
thenyim, IJylomanes, and Kiimomolun.
Uevis<.d by F. A. LiCAS.
M<iiii|>ox. iii>Jiii-|H*s (often written Mosii-os. or Mojipoz):
a town of the department of Bolivar, Colomliia ; on a
swampy island, formed by the river Magilalcmi, which here
divides into .several channels ; near lat. i) 18 N. (set map of
South Ainerii'a, ref. 1-Ii). It was founded by Ileredia in
15:J!) on the western bank of what was then the main river
channel, and it was long tlii' chief river-i«irt of this region.
In 1702 it was nearly destroyed by a (l<jod. but was reliuilt.
In 1 80S the main river channel became changed to one of
the other branches, and onlv small boats can now reach
Mompox ; in conseipience, tiie place is falling to decay.
Mompox has a colh'gc of some note. It was the scene of
iin]iortaiit combats during the war for indeiiendeiice. Pop.
about in.OOtt. 11. n. .s.
Mo'iniis [= Lat. = f!r. Mw^iot. liter., blame, ridicule] : in
flreek mythology, a son of Night, according to HesiiHl, and
the pcrsoiiilicatioii of mockery and censure. Aphrodite was
the only being whom he found blameless, a fact which an-
gered him so much that he burst.
Mdii'ncllisiil [from Lat. mo'uaclnis. monk (whence Kng.
monk) = tir. lumaxit. monk, deriv. of ^uii/ot. alone] : a life of
religions retireineiit from the world, whether in solitude
(the anchoretic or eremitic life) or in company with others
(the cn'nobitic life). Monachism is of very ancient origin,
and has a history withtait as well us within the Christian
Church.
I. PrK- and KxTRA-CllRISTIAX MoXACIIISJI.
Pre-Christian monachism had its most elalxirate and strik-
ing develojiment in India.
Jlindu .'liitiachism. — The lioginningsof Flinrhi monarhism
are shrouded in invstery, but Buddha found it in existence
as an important ailjuncl if not an essential feature of Brah-
maiiism when he began his work in the fifth or sixth cen-
tury before Christ, and doubtless it was already of long
standing. According to the code of Mann, which, though
of uncertain date, is the chief einbiNliment of nomislic Hnih-
manisin, the lives of all twice-born men, or iiienibers of the
three highest ciustes, Brahmans, Kshatrivas, and Vaisvos,
are to consist of four stages or periods. They an- to lie first
unmarried students, then married householders, then they
are to leavi- their families ami retire to the fon^st, where
tliev ari' to live the life of anchorites, and linally thev are to
become ami remain until death mendicants, absorixtl en-
tirelv in religious contemplation. This rule was of course
never carrii'd out strictly by all. but Hindu monks, espiH'iallr
from the ranks of the Brahmans, were certainly numerous at
an early day.
The austerities to which many of these monks siibjoctod
themselvis wen' very S4'vere. From the earliest limes lirah-
manisiii had made much of the doctrine of penance, and
ha<l taught that not only the voluntary ndiiKpiisliment of
the comforts and amenities of life, but also self-inflicted
boflily torture, was eflicaeious for the ac(|uiromeiit of relig-
ious merit, and for the release of the soul from the Uindage
of tninsinigration and itsalisorption iiideilv. Where Mich ■
Ix-lief exi-iti'd of course not only retin-iii- ■ • '- ■ •' '..rld
for the sake of ndigioiis meditation, but ices
of the s«-veresl kind were lumnd i. i , ! by
such as wen' siipi''<si'<i to lie in a p ■ iietil l>y them
— that is. by the •■ twiei'-lKini." T; .iirl mountain*
during the cent iirii-s pn'i'wling the l hn.-lian em were flilwl
with devotees. whos<' austerities npialeil anything that can
lio fouiiil in history. They liveil on nn.is and hertw: they
drank water only: they ex|i<>s«il Ihemsi'lvi's iinpn>to<'t<Hl to
844
MONAClllSM
all changes of the weather; they scourged anil lacerated
and nmtilated themselves; they went almost naked, many of
them entirely so. They became known to the (jreeks in the
time of Alexander, and were called by them gymnosophisis,
or •' naked philosophers," and there can be little doubt thiit
their intluenee was felt to a greater or less extent by many,
not only among the Greeks, but also among the peoitles of
Western Asia, and possibly even among the Egyptians.
f'aulama and Buddhistic Jlonachimn. — The greatest fig-
in the history of Hindu nionachism is (iautania, the
founder of Buddhism. Out of the individualistic monasti-
eism of Brahmanism he built a monastic order, atid promoted
the cajnobilic at the expense of the eremitic mode of lite.
His principal oliject was the formation of a monastic broth-
erhood, the members of which .should be dominated by one
idea and pledged to the propagatioTi of one doctrine— that
all life is misery and must be got rid of by a long process of
di.seipline, which involves in this life the subjugation of the
body and its passions by rigid asceticism, and by the undi-
vided devotion of the soul to spiritual tilings. Such a mo-
nastic brotherhood or order, as Jlonier-Williams well says,
" constituted in its earliest days the very essence, the very
backbone, of Buddhism, without which it could never have
been propagated nor oven have held its own." Buddhism
was in fact itself monasticism. for no one could become a
truly enlightened disciple of liuddha, no one therefore could
attain the blessedness of Nirvana, who had not lived for
some time at least the life of a nioidi.
Buddhistic monachism differed from earlier Hindu nion-
achism in still another ami very important- respect. In
Brahmanism the monastic life was open only to the throe
np|]er castes, and in practice was confined chiefly to the
Bralimans themselves; but Buddha threw his order open
to all. Even the lowest might enter it and through it at-
tain that blessedness which had hitherto been reserved for
the favored few. Moreover, in spite of the stigma which
attaches in India to unmarried women, Buildha oven sanc-
tioned female monachism and organized an order of nuns,
thus making the highest blessedness possible of attainment
to women as well as to men. Buddha's monastic order did
not constitute a priest class, nor was the rite of initiation
looked upon in any sense as an act of ordination conferring
special grace u|ion the initiated. There was no hierarchical
organization, and no central authority. No vow of obedi-
ence was taken, as in the monastic orders of Christendom,
each monk being left to work out his own salvation in his
own way, and expulsion from the brotherhood took ]ilace'
only in case of the gravest offenses, such as theft, murder,
and indulgence in sexual intercourse. Nevertheless the
monks were expected to govern themselves by certain well-
defined rules. They were to eat only the simplest food, and
to possess nothing except what they got by collecting alms
from door to door. They were to eat only one meal a day,
and were to abstain entirely from intoxicating drinks. They
were to live during the dry season in the forests with no
covering except the leaves of the trees ; during the wet sea-
son they might dwell in caves, or in huts built in groujis
and forming regular monastic villages. Their clothing was
to be of rags or strips of yellow cloth. Buddha disajiproved
of the nakedness of many of the Hindu monks, and insisted
that his followers should always be fully clothed, though in
the simplest and poorest possible manner. Moreover, he did
not encourage the extretne austerities practiced by many,
which resulted often in the entire breaking down of the
physical const itution. He inculcated subjection but not de-
struction of the body.
Gautama's monastic order started with ten members, but
grew very ra[]idly, until its adherents were numbered by
hundreds of thousands. Buddhism was from the begiiuiing
a missionary religion, and the monks were the missionaries.
They found their way gradually to China, Korea, Japan,
Mongolia, Tibet, and many other Asiatic countries, and,
though driven out of India, where they had become shame-
lessly corrupt, in the eighth and ninth centuries of our era.
their numbers multiplied rapidly in other lanils.
Monachism in China ana in Persia. — Outside of India
monachism seems never to have been widely prevalent in
ancient Asia, except where Buddhism made' its intluenee
felt, though there arc traces of ascetics tendencies of a mild
character and of a prodilect ion for a life of retirement in the
teachings of Confucius and Mencius. the Chinese sages, and
the monastic life apparently found a limited accoptiince
at 'an early day in Persia. The sharp dualism of the Ber-
sian religion would seem well calculated to promote the ex-
tremest kind of asceticism, and to lead to the general prev-
alence of monachism, but its effect was far less marked than
might have been expected.
Among the Hebrews and Oreelcs. — Among the Hebrews
the tendency toward an ascetic and monastic life appeared
at an early day in the Nazariles and later in the Essenes,
but the religious and etiiical principles of the pemjle at large
were not favorable to its growth. Among the Greeks, for-
eign as all their native'instincts were to anything of the kind,
the ascetic and monastic tendency ajipeared in the Pytha-
goreans and in the Orphic brotherhood, and also, though in
another form and on (piite different grounds, in the Cynics.
Among the Egyptians. — In Egypt monachism found a
home and enjoyed a striking development in the Alexan-
drian period in connection with the worship of Serapis.
The Serapis temples, especially the famous one at Mempins,
were made the abode of multitudes of monks, who came
thither that they might dwell in seclusion from society and
from their families and friends, in the hope of attaining
that purity whicli was not to be gained in the midst of the
cngros.smenls of the world. Some rather striking similari-
ties between the Serapis monachism and the Christian mona-
chism of Egy|it have been poiiited out liy Wcingarten in
his UrsprU7ig des Mnnchlliums and in the Zeitsclirifl fur
Kirchengesc\ichte (1877. i.).
Among the. Mohammedans.— -The Mohammedans also, al-
though the teachings of the Koran are not such as to pro-
mote or even to leave much room for monasticism, have
had from an early day their dervishes or fakirs, many of
them simply wandering monks, belonging to no sect or
society, but others of them forming regrdarly organized mo-
nastic orders, and as such constituting the historic represen-
tatives of Sofism, or the s]>iritual and mystical side of Is-
lam. There are to-day many such orders among the Mo-
hammedans, and they are both influential and popular.
Membership in somi^ of thoin is compjitible with marriage
and home life and the pursuit of a regular trade or business ;
in other cases it involves temjiorary or permanent retire-
ment from society and residence in regular monasteries; in
still others absolute solitude, the strictest asceticism, and
the most rigid and even revolting austerities.
BiBLiooRAPnv. — Besides the general works upon the n--
ligions of India. China, Persia, Egypt, etc.. see especially K.
Spence Hardy's Kastern iVonac/ii.s)n (18.50); Jlonier-Will-
iams's Brahmnnism and Hinduism (1891) and Buddliimii
(1889); J. P. Brown's Dervishes, or Oriental t<piriti(alism
(1868); hptromrs 3/aferiaux pmir I'histoire du Christian-
isme en f.gypte (1832); and Boissier's La religion romaine
d'Auguste aux Antonines.
II. Christian Monachism.
To such pre-Christian forms of monachism as have been
described some scholars have sought to trace the origin
of Christian monachism. regarding tlie latter as of for-
eign, not of native, growth. \\'cingarten, for example, puts
the origin of Christian monachism into the Post-Constan-
tinian period, and traces its rise especially to the influence
of the Serapis monachism of Egypt, referred to above.
It is true that Christian monachism in some sections may
have felt to a greater or less degree the influence of one or
another form of pagan monachism. but the causes to which it
chiefly owed its rise are to be fouiul !u>t without but within
the Christian Church. The tendency to the monastic mode
of life, which has exhibited itself in so many peoples and
under the influence of such various faiths, has proved itself
largely indcpcnilent of peculiarities in religious opinion, and
is clearly due to a common hiiuum instiiu't. Though theo-
retically it would seem that only dmilism furnishes a suiTi-
cient basis for it, it has shown itself in practice equally at
home in pantheism (Urahmaiiism), atheism (Buddhism),
and the strictest monotlu-ism (.Judaism and Mohammedan-
ism). This being the case, the appearance of the tendency
in the Christian Church need cause no surprise, and it is
quite unnecessary to invoke the influence of pre-Chris-
tian forms in order to exjilain it; but there were peculiar
reasons within the Church itself why monachism should find
a congenial home on Christ ian .soil, why it should there have
the most remarkable and elaborate development it has any-
where enjoyed. Monachism is in fact aiuitural result of the
ideal of the Christian life whi<-h prevailed in the Church
almost from the beginning, and which had its roots in the
teachings of Christ himself. I'nder the influence of their
belief in the sjieedy return of Christ — a belief to which some
warrant had been given by Christ himself in his eschatolog-
MOXACillSM
845
iciil iliscourses — primitive Christians conceivod of tlif Cliris-
tiaii lite as a heavenly, nut an earthly, life. 'I'he present
world was soon to pa^s away and the kinploin of heaven
was soon to be revealed, and it was the duty of every heliever
to live as a pilj;rini and stranger on the earth, to realize
coiislaritly his heavenly litizciishlp and destiny, tij be sepa-
rate from the world and superior to its intere>ts and eon-
I •■rns, not because tlie world is evil, but becausi' it is, at least
in its present form, transient and unreal, and because it is
soon to be replaced by new heavens and a new earth. It
was inevitable that with tliis conception of the Christian
life — a conception which has had a place in the tUiristian
Church from the very l)e;.'innin;;— the tendency shouhl soon
make itself felt to reijard all that binds a man to this world
— the ties of family, of friendship, of property, of citizen-
ship— as hindrances to the highest spirituality, and hence to
view them with suspicion and ultimately to repudiate them ;
but the conception of the ('hristian life which has been
dcscril)ed led naturally to a peculiar emphasis upon indi-
vidual purity and holiness as alone belilliiij; the believer's
heavenly caliinir. and this emphasis was greatly enhanced
by the belief in the immediate and constant pn-sence of the
Holy .Spirit, promised ami sent by Christ, a belief which was
universal and all-controlling in the primitive Church. Ke-
garding their bodies as " temples of the llolv (ihost " in a
most real an<i vivid sense, these primitive Christians must
necessarily look upon fleshlv sins with peculiar aversion.
The result wjis that at an early day — even before the end of
the first century — the ethical emphasis in Christian circles
was transferred from active love for God and man, upon
which Christ had laid chief stress, to abstinence from sin,
es[]ecially from sin of a Heshly character. That asceticism
should follow was inevitable. Another influence must also
be recognized as eontriliuling to the sjinie general result.
Tills was the growth of the conception of Christianity as a
law which I il naturally to the practice of penance, a prac-
tice wliich I ad begun to find a place within the Christian
Cli 'rcli evc:i before the middle of the second century. It
wiLs iii>;vital)le that as the belief in the necessity of penance
rooted itself more and more firmly in the mind of the
Church, Christians should seek to make amends for their
breaches of the law by ascetic practices, by voluntary acts of
self-sacrilice and mortification, just as the Hindus had done
centuries before.
Early Asceticism. — Justin Martyr, writing about the mid-
dle of the second century, records that Christians were
already beginning to abstain from tlesh, wine, and sexual
intercourse, and among various heretical sects of the s;ime
f)eriod, such as the Marcionites, Encratites, ami some of the
eading Gnostic schools, asceticism, often of a very severe
kind, was made obligatory upon all. In the ease of the
(inostics the ground of their ascetic practices is to be found
in their dualism, but other sects, no less strenuous than they
in their emphasis of asceticism — as, for instance, the .Moii-
tanists — were not dualists in any sense, ami only ri'prcsented
in an extreme form the same tendency which was making
it.self felt in the Church at large, and tlie growth of which
has been described.
Anchorelic Life. — Out of this " asceticism in solution," as
it has been called, this asceticism, practiced with ever-in-
creasing zeal in the midst of society, grew naturally in
course of time the earliest form of monachism proper, the
anchoretic or eremitic life. It was soon found that the
■• separateness " from the interestsand concerns of the world
which the prevalent Christian ideal demanded of all Chris-
tians was not easy of realization in the midst of society,
where those interests and concerns were constantly pressing
themselves upon the attention of Christians as well as of
others. It was natural that those who were in earnest in
their desire to realize that ideal should llee from the dis-
tractions of society, and should endeavor in s<iljtude to live
the life of the .Spirit, which they found it increasingly im-
possible to live to their satisfaction in the midst of the world.
The necessity of flight from the world be<-ame increasingly
'■ssing as the Church grew in numbers and inlluencc, and
.a its elTort to conipier and win the w<.rlcl became more and
more secularized, more ami more of a world-chundi. It
was natural, tof), Jhat such flight from the wiu'ld should be
n'ganletl by many not simply as a means of escape from its
distractions, but also as the consistent realization of the
Christian ideal which has been des<Til>ed — the idi'al of world-
renunciation. To renounce the world not simply in part,
hut wholly — to 1)0 not simply ascetics, but hermits — must l>e
increasingly the desire of such as wished to make earnest
in
le»
wo»k of the matter. Thus a double impulse — on the one
hand to es<a|ic from temptation, on iKV other hand to give
completer realizjition to the Chrisljaii ideal— the fruit on
the one hainl of a conscious sense of weakness, on the other
hand of a conscious sense of slii-iii.'th— drove im n into the
desi'rt ; and thus was pronioteil tin- (on. , [.lion — itself as old
as the second century — of a .1 ."i -' .. i . i ' i ' ■ i ss.
the one for the ordinary Chri
the midst of the world, ami wi
of family, the other for a select (ew, tlie spirit ual aristocracy
of the Church— capable of realization only in I hi- desert, away
from the haunts of men. With the gen'end ' 'i by
the Church at large of this double standard <•: ..re
was created a permanent place f..r Christian mi.iiii. i.i-in, and
its jierinanent influence and iK.pularity were assured.
.SY. A iithoii I/.— TUv earliest Christian hermit known to us
is St. Anthony of Kgypt (.Jerome's account of Paul of Thebes,
whom he calls aiiclor rilie monanlicip, is without doubt pure-
ly legendary), whose life and personality are depicted in
the pages of Athanasiiis's I'lVii Anlnnii'. a work which is
rather a romance than a sober biogra|.hy. but which is doubt-
less bused upon fact. J'he Atliaiiasiaii authorship of the
Vita An/oiiii has been denied by many scholars, with es]ie-
cial vehemence by Weingarlen, but it is testified to bv Greg-
ory Xazianzeii, Kufinu.s, and others, and c«n hardlv'lic suc-
cessfully impugned. (.See es|M'cially I-;ichhoni's Alliannsii
lie vita ancelica lestimunia, 1880.) Born about the middle
of the third century. Anthony was led in early life, under the
influence of the Gospel story of the rich young man, to give
all his property to the poor,and finally to retire tothc desert
in order to' devote himself to uncea-sing communion with
God and to the undivided contemplation of spiritual
things. lie lived in solitude until a great age a life of
the most rigid asceticism. The fame of his holiness spread
throughout Kgypt. and his example was followed bv many
others, so that before his death, which took place alKiut
the middle of the fourth century, the deserts of I |i|K-r Kgypt
had become the home of a large multitude of Christian ascet-
ics. At an early date, moreover, [lossibly even ln'fore t he close
of the third century, the eremitic life had found a home in
Palestine, and it soon spread throughout .Syria, and before
the middle of the fourth century even beyond the confines
of the empire toward the East, (Compare the sixth and
eighteenth homilies of the Syrian Aphraates.)
Co'Nobilic Life. — Originally living in the strictest solitude
thesi' anchorites gradually and quite naturally got into the
habit of gathering alxuit some espmially famous and sainted
hermit, in the hope of learning from him and of receiving
in converse with liim blessings greater than they could en-
joy alone. Thus grew up Kaipat. or villages of monks, each
monk living in his own separate hut, but enjoying at will
more or less intercourse and fellowship of worship with his
companions. Such colonies grew ntpidly by accession from
the world-church, ami were very numerous in Kgypt. Syria,
and Meso|Kitaniia during the fourth century. The next step
in the development came with the ^iM<rT^,pu>i', or common
dwelling-house, which followed naturally when the advan-
tages of assiK'iation had made themselves felt. With the
establishment of such houses the second orco-nobitic stage
of monasticism proper wius fairly launched, and nionasticisni
in general speedily to.ik on this form.
i'arliomius and tiis liuli: — .Siuli association within a com-
mon house made possible and at the same time necessitated
some regulation of the life of the monks so 8ss<Kiate<i. The
first one. so far as we know, to draw up a definite .M-t of rules
for the government of the monastic life was Pachomius of
the Thebaid. who built a monastery on the island of Taln-n-
n.T in the upper Nile before the middle of the fourth cen-
tury. Pachomius also built a convent for lii~ -i-i. r n..! her
companions near his monastery, and tliii~ lie
earliest promoters, if not the founder, of -m.
The hist.irie significance of I'achoniius d..<s in.t lie. as is
commonly suppost'il, in the fai-t that he was the f.iuiider of
the cienoiiitie life, for it certainly .\ ' ' his
monastery (even iH'fore the eml >: lie
Origenist llieraias had gathen^il a! i, :.lo-
polis a band of disciph's who Iml a common life of strict as-
ceticism and joined with him in the pursuit of theological
studies, as we learn from Kpiplmniiis, J/tirr. .W, tlT, 6!I|. but
in the fact that he foriixil nile« for the Liivernmenl of that
life, thus giving CI.: .mil law.
II is monastery wa- the in-
fluence of his rule w. ■-...■. .-..^ ,,.,....,>.,,_,.- ., >■ .i in mo-
nastic circles ever%'where. The form and details of Pocbo-
8i6
iMOXACniSM
inius's rale are no longer known, for the alleged longer and
shorter recensions of it still extant are no longer considered
authentic.
Tic Hide of Baml. — The next great figure in the history
of Ka.storn monachism is Basil the (Jrcat, Bishop of Cii'sarea
in Cappiidocia in the latter part of tlie fourth century. He
was an ardent a<lniirer of the monastic life, having himself
indeed spent some years as a monk, and he did much when he
became a bishop to promote its influence and at the same
time to bring it under proper regulation. He approved
rather of the coenobitic than of the anchoretic life, and pub-
lished a code of rules which gradually supplanted all earlier
and local rules, ami has remained substantially until the
present day the monastic code of the Kastern Church. Basil's
monastic rules are embodied in substance in his ascetic
homilies, and two alleged recensions of them arc still extant.
Of these neither is the work of his own hand, though the
shorter one is probably a fairly accurate reproduction of his
original code. According to Ba.sil"s rule, a monk takes the
three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, but the vows
are not per[)etual and irrevocable.
Since Basil's day monachism in the East, though always
widespread and religiously influential, has remained practi-
cally stationary, and has had no such varied and interesting
history as it has enjoyed in the Western Church. It has,
moreover, never been so well and thoroughly organized, nor
so great a social and political power in the Kast as in the
West.
Western Mnnnchism. — Knowledge of the new mode of life,
which' was already widespread in the East and which was
gaining rapidly in favor among all classes of Christians, is
said to have been first brought to Rome by Athanasius about
340 A. D. Whether the report be true or not, monachism,
of which we have no traces in the West before this time,
began to acipiire a considerable hold in Italy and Southern
(laul before the end of the fourth century. Early in the
fifl li cent ury John Cassian founded a monastery in Soul hern
Gaul, and wrote two famous treatises (CoUationes Fatrum
au<l JJe inslitutis ccenobiorum) which did much to spread
among his countrymen a knowledge of Eastern monachism
and t() form the character of the monastic life of the entire
West.
Cnntrast between Eastern and Western 31onachism. — A
marked difference between Kastern and Western monachism
is apparent almost from the beginning, a difference due both
to climate and to race constitution. Such exposure and such
severe austerities as marked the lives of Eastern monks were
impossible in the more rugged climate of the West (the West,
for instance, boasts no •' pillar saints" like Symeon Stylites
of Syria, who, in the fifth century, won for himself fame by
living thirty years on the top of a pillar) : and a life of mere
contemplation and of bodily inactivity could never find the
same favor among Europeans as among Asiatics. The result
was that Western monks have always satisfied themselves
with a less extreme asceticism than their Eastern brethren,
and in their restlessness and activity have always done more
work and taken a more active part in the affairs of the world
than they. The monastic ideal, to be sure, remained at least
for a long liuu' the same in the West as in the East, but a
modified method of attaining that ideal was distinctly
sanctioned by Cassian and adopt eil by the West at large.
Benedict of Nursia and the Benedictine Order. — The
greatest figure in the history of early Western monastieism
is Benedict of Xursia. who in 529 founded the famous
monastery of Monte (Casino, the parent moiuistery of the
great Benedictine order. The historic significance of Bene-
dict lies in the fact that he founded the first regular monas-
tic order, and that he gavi' to his urdcr. anil liirough it to
Western monachism in general, a deliuilc rule which in time
supplanted all others and gave |)ernianent character to the
momudiism of the West.
Benedict's rule requires of all mendiers of the order a
threefold vow : Stahilitas loci, or permanent adherence to
the order; conversio morum, involving poverty and chas-
tity: and nt/edientin, not only to the rules of the order liut
also to one's superiors in the monastery. Ijabor is empha-
sized anil made mandatory upon all. Asceticism is of course
enjoined, but of a moderate, not a severe, type. Each mon-
astery is to be thoroughly organized with an abliot at its
head, elected by the unanimous vote of its inmates. l)ul no
federation of monasteries is proposed. The rule of l?ene-
dict speedily found favor in all jiarts of the West, and in
the time of Charlemagne nearly all the monasteries of West-
ern Europe were Benedictine.
Influence of Gregory the Great and of Cassiodorus. — Al-
though Beneclict nnide much of the element of labor, he did
not propose any change in the prevalent monastic ideal, but
Gregory the Great, himself a Benedictine monk, who be-
came Bishop of Rome in r)!)0, conceived the idea of emjiloy-
ing monastieism as a great nnssiouary agency for the s))rcad
of Christianity among the barliarian.s. 'rhenceforth the pas-
sive ideal of Eastern monachism was supplemented, and in
many cases replaced, by the active missionaiy ideal, and the
monks became the chief agents in the Christianization and
civilization of barbarian Europe. Another important step
was takt'ii in the latter part of the sixth century by t'assio-
dorus. who made his own monastery of Vivarium a center
of classical and theological learning, and thus gave to West-
ern monachism an intellectual impulse which it never lost.
Throughout the earlier Middle Ages the monasteries were
the centers of learning, and the only theological seminaries
the Western Church i)osse.s.«ed. Even after the rise of the
universities their teachers were for a long time taken from
the ranks of the monks.
Rise of Clerical J/onachism. — Originally monks were lay-
men, but for many and obvious reasons a transfornnition
gradually took place, the result of which was that before
the end of the ninth century nearly all mona-steries were
clerical establishments, and a regular monastic clergy was
growing up alongside of the parish or secular clergy.
Change from Bpiscopal to Papal Jurisdiction. — During
the next two centuries, moreover, the monasteries, which
had hitherto been to a greater or less extent subject to the
bishop in whose diocese they were situated, were gradually
freed entirely from episcopal supervision and brought under
the direct control of the pope, very much to the enhance-
ment of the papal [lower.
Growing Corruption. — During the troublous Merovingian
period the monasteries fell into a shameful state of corrup-
tion, many of them liecoming practically the [irivate ]irop-
erty of this or that violent and avaricious prince or noble,
and being transformed from religious institutions into for-
tresses and military camps, or still worse, into dens of vice,
in the practice of which the monks themselves had their
full share. In the latter part of the eighth century strenu-
ous efforts were made by Benedict of Aniane to bring about
a reformation, and his efforts were seconded by Charle-
magne with some success.
7Vie, Clugniac Beforniatinn. — The great reformation, how-
ever, came with the establishment in 910 by William of
Aquitaine of the monastery of Clugny. This monastery was
put under the immediate jurisdiction of the pope, the Bene-
dictine rule was adopted and rigorously enforced, and the
influence of the new foundation was speedily felt far and
near. A number of othiu- mcjuasteries — newly founded or re-
organized— soon united with Clugny toform a socicly known
as the Congregation of Clugny, with the Clugniac abbot at
its he.ad as arch-abbot. This was the first instance of the
federation of separate monasteries — a practice which later
became quite common.
The aim of the Clugniac reformation was threefold: In
the first place, the renovatiim and rejuveiuition of monasti-
eism— an aim which was successfully accomplished during
the tenth century : in the second place, the extension of the
monastic pi-inciple tii the life of the secular clergy — an aim
which was carried out by Gregory VII. when he forced celi-
bacy upon the latter: and in the third place, the complete
subjugation of the lay wcu'ld to the reformed clergy — an
aim which was realized in the papal s\iprenuicy of the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Jlonasticism, which had
been in the lieginning a flight not (udy from the world, but
also from the world-church, was brought by Gregory and
his successors — consistent representatives of the Clugniac
spirit — into the service of that church, and those who had
renounced the world now came back into the world to sub-
due and control it. Monachism was thus given a new mis-
sion which it has never lost sight of.
Formation of Xeu^ Orders. — In the latter part of the
eleventh century, under the influence of the s]>irit which
found voice at Clugny, began the formation of new mo-
nastic orders in great number, all of which iiut themselves
at the service of the Church, and constituted an admirable
and ever-growing standing army. Among them were the
Cistercians, .a refornu'd Bem'dictine order founded in 1098,
and boasting as their greatest light .St. Bernard of Clair-
vaux; the mililarv orders, chief ainouir which were the
Knights of St. John (1118), the Knights Templar (1119).
and the Teutonic Knights (1192); and finally the mendi-
I
JIOXACI
MONAD
847
rant orders — the Franciscans (1208) and tlie Dominicans
TIte Mendicant Onlerg. — The fonnution of the mendicant
orders marks an epoch in the history of Western moiia-
chisiu hardly second to the fouiulalinn of Chi^inv. The
chirf iiii|julse came from Francis Itcrnanlone of Assisi.
Fired with tlie ilesire of imitating the life of Christ, he
adopted for himself, and later made the liasis of his new
monastic order, a threefold watchword — humility, love, and
obedience — the first to he realized bv a life of absolute pov-
erty, corporate as well as individual: the second by a life
of self-Siurilicin^ devotion to the ;;ood of others; anrl the
third by williiij; and complete submission to the Catholic
Church. The Dominican order, fouiideil about the same
time by Dominic Guzman, with the especial aim of preach-
inpr the orthodox faith, early borrowed the mendicant prin-
ciple of the Franciscans, and the members of the two or-
ders, inspired liy the gospel of St. Francis and fired with his
zeal, became the great preachers and evangelists of Eurojie.
Tliesc mendicant friars went everywhere as preachers and
confessors, carrying the firiuciples of St. Francis into the
homes of the people, untd there resulted a religious refor-
mation of the entire Western Church, the effects of which
were felt for a century and a half.
Decline of Monnr/iixni. — The thirteenth century was
the golden ago not of monacliism alone, but of the Roman
Catholic Church; but in <he fourteenth century began a
decline which alTected all the monastic orders, the Mendi-
cants incluiled. Corruption took the place of purity, indo-
lence of inilustry, sellisluiess of devotion to the good of
others, and the church and monasticism gradually fell into
disfayor and contempt, which the general skepticism at-
ten(hint upon the great intellectual awakening of the dawn-
ing modern age served only to emphasize.
Monachi>im xince the lieforniafion. — Protestantism, of
course, was anti-Tuonastic in its tendency, but the Protes-
tant Keformation led to the formation of several new or-
ders auuing the Catholics, chief of which wi're the Jesuits,
founded by Ignatius Loyola in lo'M, an order which sub-
ordimited everything, even personal holiness and growth in
grace, to the advancement of the interests of the Roman
t'atholic Church, ami thus departed as far as it was possible
to depart from the early momistic ideal of world-reruincia-
tion.
The centuries since the Reformation, while they have seen
the establishment of many new monastic orders, have been
\mfavorable to the growth of the monastic spirit and to the
extension of monastic influence. This is especially true of
the eighteenth century with its lilieralizing and rationaliz-
ing teiuleiicies. From the efTects of that century, which
culminated in the French I{evolulion. monachism has never
recovered. Willi the exeeplion of the .Jesuits, the orders
have little inlluence in Europe, and in some countries are
not even allowed to exist, as, for instance, in Spain, Portugal,
and Italy. In the U. .S., on the other hand, a number of or-
ders have found a home, and as many of them devote them-
selves wholly or chiefly to missionary anil philanthropic work,
they constitute an important agency in promoting the
growth of the Roman Catholic Church.
HiiiLiooRAPUv. — The literature upon the subject of Chris-
tian monachism is very extensive, and oidy a few works
can be mentioned here. Weingarten, L'rs/jruiiy ileK Jlunch-
thiimK (1877); Harnack, Dim Monclilhum, seine Ideate itnd
seine Oesc/iichte {Med. 188G); also /Jie Pseudit-Clementisch-
en liriefede Virginitate iinil die Kn.it eliung de.i Moncfitlnnns
(S. 15. der Berliner Akiul., 18!)1, p. ;!(!1, wi/.); Borneuuinn. In
inve.ilig. Monach., orig., etc. (188.5); von Biedenfeld, L'r-
.ipning und (Jexcli. sihnmlliclier Munelisoiden im Orient iind
Occident 0 vols., 18:t7); de .Montalend)ert, Les Miiine.i d'm--
cident depitis Saint-Iirnoit ju.sini'd St. Bernard (Paris, 1800,
seq. ; translated into Knglisli, The Monks of the West. 2 vols.,
1H(}1). For literature upon special orders and monasteries,
see special articles. A. C. JlctiiKFEKT.
Moiiari, mo-naachee, Ernesto : scholar; b. at Loriano,
Italy, in 1844. lie obtained his doctorate in l.**"'-, and has
since devoted himself to Ronumce philology, becoming one
of the chief representatives of this s<-ience in Italy. In 11^72
he founded with Stengel and Manzoni the Hiristn di tiliilngiii
ritinama, which continued till 1870. In that vear he was made
Professor of Romance Philology in Rome, fn lS78he found-
ed the Oiornale di tilologin rnmnnzn. which came to an end
in 1884, and was followed by the series of stuilies called
Studj di fitoli>gia roinnma, still directed by him. Uesidei!
these useful lalxirs, he has published numerous studies on
subjects in the field of the Ronmiice languages, text.-*, etc.
Uf these mav be mentioneit I'JUlj drammulici dei Disei-
/itinati deir Vinhria (in Kir. di HI. rum., i., 2*5, and ii., 21<);
II (.'anziiniere jxirliighrse delta liihtiuteca Vaticana (Halle,
I87.')); It t'liiiznnirre chigiaHu(\i:<\'>::im, 1878); I'restuinazia
italianu dei priini secuti, fuse. i. (18S!t). A. R. Marsh.
Monaco, mu-naa'ku : the smallest of the independent prin-
eiiialities of Eurojie ; on the Mediterranean, nearly surround-
ed by the French department of Alpes-Marilimes; 1) miles
E. of the city of Nice (si'c map of Italy, ref. 4-A). Area. 8 wi.
miles. L'p to IHOl it had an area of 72 sq. miles, and included
Mentone and Roi'cabrumi. It now consists of Monaco, the
capital, Condamine, ami Monte Carlo, the three towns hav-
ing (181)0) populations of ;{.2!I2, 0,218, und a,7U4 r<-siK'ctively.
Hesides its .sovereign prince, Albert (b. 1848), it has a gov-
ernor-general and a council of state. There is a "guard of
honor" and an army consisting of five oflicers and seventy
num. There is a court of first instance and a juge de paix's
court. Two judges from Paris, appointeil by the prince,
act as a court of appeal when necessary. The principality
has its own coinage, which is current in all the states of the
Latin L'nioti, and its own postage-stamps. The revi'ime is
derived from the gaming-tables and from the exportali(ui
of olive oil, oranges, citrons, and perfumes. The capital is
situated on a rocky promontory on the port of Monaco, and
is surroumled by ramparts. It is the see of a bishop, and
contains among its public buildings a palace, a cathedral,
und a museum. Condamine has munufuctures of li(pieurs
and perfumes. At Monte Carlo is the Casino, a group of
handsome buildings situated in a beautiful park, besides
hotels and villas for the acconnuodation of visitoi-s (alxint
400.000 annuallv) to the gambling-rooms in the Casino.
For 500 years Monaco has belonged to the lirimaldis, a
Genoese family. It was annexed to France iii 17!t;t; was
restored to the Grimaldis by the Treaty of Paris (1H14);
was (ilaced under the protection of .Sardinia by the Treaty
of Vienna (1815); and in 1800 came under the protection of
France, which in 1801 bought from the Prince of Monaco
Mentone and Roccabruna.
Mon'nd [from Lat. mn'naa.monadis^CiT.novis.itoviXos,
unit, deriv. of idvos. alone] : a philosophical term. It doi>s not
seem to have lieeii used with any technical meaning by the
ancients. It obtaine<l such first in the writings of (iiordano
Bruno (1.548-lOlM)), who used it to designate the primal ele-
ments of all existence, spiritual as well as material. (See his
De Monade, Sumero et I'igura.) The monads, which are mi-
nute spheres, contain the potency of all the forms of life.
The soul is a monad, and God is the monad of monatls.
Probably it was the doctrine of (iiordano Hruno that gave
Leibnitz the fuiiilanuntal thought of hif^ Monadoloyy. In
that work Leilmitz lays down his doctrine of monads, which
he elsewhere defines as "metaphysical atoms, destitute of
parts and incaoable of being produced or destroye«i natu-
rally " (i. e. witliout a creative or annihilating act of tlie
primal monad or Gixl). They all differ from each other,
and are subject to continual autiunalic change, involving,
of course, the existence of something that changes and
something that remains — in other words, multitude in
unity, which again involves ap|>etite ami perception. They
are indeed "entelechies" (not in the Aristotelian sens*') or
potential souls, existing in a state of unconsciousness. They
are created by Goii, the primitive I'nity. who is the aliso-
lutely infinite and perfect Being, toward which they all
tend, and which they all symbolize and more or less con-
fusedly reiiri'sent through their more or le>s nunierous rela-
tions. Thus every cn'uted monad repre.s<'nts the entire
universe. (Sec Journal of Svecutntire I'hilnsnphi/. vol. i.,
pp. 132, seg.; ct. Coleridge, Itetii/iDiis Miisingn, " Ilelleve
thou, I) my siml," etc.) The profundity of the Munadnlngy
has seldom Immmi recognizi'd. Kaut pnipounded a dwtrino
of monails. which, however, he reganleil asextemli-d though
simple. They exert attraction and n>piil- ■-■h >iiuc-e,
and are perfectly elastic. (Cf. Kant. ' i I'}ii/»i-
ca.) lie siiggesteil. in his CnViV/nc nf i 'it (.4»«-
philmlieder1{'ilrxiiiii.''h<iirif'< a d'<lriiie >.iiiiewliat simi-
lar, but approaihing more nearly t^' that of I.eiluiitz. lie
holds that what to our external wiiM' is objective may be, ti>
its own internal si'iiso, subji'ctivi — that the mnlorial is but
the outside aspect of thoui.-ht. Since then Ilerniann \aAt.o
{Mrdicinisrhe I'stjrhiilniji,) pro|Hiuii(letl a dintrine of sjiirit-
ual monads or simiile iinextendet) U'ings, each of which is
a mmlilication of tlie alisolute, (Cf. the Sung of the Xomg
848
MONADXOCK
MOXET
in Jordan's Kibelungen.) Tliere is no elonr line of dcmarka-
tion between nioniid and Atom (<y. v.); but the lornier con-
notes rather tlie dynamic, the latter rather llie material, side
of the primitive elements. Thomas Daviusox.
Monadnock : See Grand Moxaunock.
Monads: a group of flaijellate Ixkusoria (9. v.) embrac-
ing a number of minute forms oocurrins? in stagnant water,
a few being parasites in man and other animals.
Monagras, mo-naa'gaas, Jose Tadeo : general and politi-
cian ; b. near Maturin, Viwie/.uela, Oct. 2^, 1TS4. lie served
with distinction under Bolivar 1813-21, attaining the rank
of general of division in the latter year. Subsequently he
lived in retirement until 1831, when, for a short time, he
led a fruitless attempt to re-establish the fallen republic of
Colombia. President Soublette gave him high military
commands, and supported hira as presidential candidate in
1816; tlie liberals, who were in opposition, claimed to have
carried the electir)ns, but congress adjudged it to Monagas,
who was inaugurated Mar. 1, 1847. A revolt of the liberals
which followed was suppressed, but Jlonagas, by his equivo-
cal course, lost the support of his own party ; in Jan., 1848,
he dissolved congress by a coup d'etat, and assumed dictatorial
powers. Paez, who had declared against him, was ilefealed
and imprisoned in 1850. He was succeeded in 1851 by his
brother, and took command of the array, lie was re-elected
to the presidency for the term beginning 185.5, but after the
adoption of a new constitution in 1857 a revolution broke
out, and he was forced to resign Mar. 1.5. 1838, and left
the country. In 1868 he led the revolution which de-
posed Falcon, and was elected president by congress, but
before he could assume office he died (near lia Guavra. Nov.
18,1868). H. H.S.MITH.
Mon'ng'lian : county of Ireland ; in the province of Ul-
ster. Area, 500 scj. miles. The surface is hilly, in the east-
ern part even mountainous. The principal range is that
of Slievebeagh, which extends into F'ermanagh, and, in its
highest point, rises 1,254 feet above the level of the sea.
The county was formerly densely wooded, but is now nearly
bare of trees. The numerous small lakes and streams form
a peculiar feature of the landscape. In the more level por-
tions the soil is fertile, but on the hills it consists of a stiff
clay difficult to handle. The main crops are oats, barley,
flax, and potatoes. The only important manufacture is that
of linens, and it has for several years been on the increase.
Pop. (1891) 86,306. Principal town, Mon.aghan, named
from a monastery very early founded there (see map of Ire-
land, ref. 6-H).
Moii'arcliy [from Lat. mnnnr'chia = Gr. fiovapxia, deriv.
of )j.6vapx'>^- monarch ; iJi6vos, alone -I- ipxeif. rule] : govern-
ment of a state by one chief only. Succession to the throne
has generally been determined by heredity, but in some
monarchies, as, for example, in the former kingdom of Po-
land, the elective principle has been recognized. Where the
will of the monarch is supreme over all other authorities in
the government there is an absolute monarchy. Such a
goverinnent as that of Great Britain is called a limited mon-
archy, from the fact that the power of the crown is sub-
jected to constitutional limitations, and is held in check by
other authorities. Absolute monarchies, which as the world
advances toward freeilom are becoming rarer, are now found
in perfection only in the Kast, where were the five great mon-
archies of the ancient %vorld — namely, Chaldaja, Assyria,
Media, Babylonia, and Persia. In Europe the rise of the ab-
solute monarchy marks the transition from the medieval to
the modern agi\ The latter part of the fifteenth century
saw Englunil, France, and Spain under the domiiyon of ab-
solute i-ulers, whose government was in general a great im-
provement on the petty tyrainiy of feudal miignates. but the
revolution of 1688 in England and the changes on the Con-
tinent resulting from the French Revolution transformed
the European absolute monarchies into the constitutional
governments of the present. See Government. F. M. C.
.Honasticisiii : See Monachism.
.Ilonastir: chief town of vilayet of Monastir, European
Turkey ; important military post (see map of Turkey, ref.
4-B). It carries on large transit trade in wheat and skins;
manufactures carpets and gold and silver ware. Pop.
50,000.
Monhod'do, James Burnet: lawyer and author; b. at
Monboddo, Kincardineshire, Scotland, in 1714; educateil at
Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Groningen; practiced as advo-
cate in Scotland in 1767; became a judge, with the title of
Tjord Monboddo. His Dissertation on Language (6 vols.,
177;J-02) expresses his theory of the origin of the human
race from the monkey, which he further elaborated in
Ancient Metapliysics ((5 vols., 1779-99). D. in Edinburgh,
May 26, 1799.
Moiick, Charles Stanley, G. C. M. G. : Fourth Viscount;
statesman; b. at Templemore. Ireland, Oct. 10, 1819; edu-
cated at Trinity College. Dublin, and called to the bar in
1841; succeeded his father in 1849; entered the House of
Commons 1852; was a lord of the Treasury 1855-57; was
Governor-General of Canada 1861-68; received a seat as a
baron in the House of Lords 1866; became in 1S71 a com-
missioner of the Irish Church temporalities, and was land
commissioner in 1882-84. D. Nov. 19, 189.5. During his
service in Canada the Dominion was established.
Moucrelff, mon-kreef. Sir Henrv Wellwood, D. D. :
clergyman and author; b. at Blackford, Perthshire. Scot-
land, Feb. 6, 1750, being eldest son of Kev. Sir AVilliam
Moncreiff ; was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh Uni-
versities; was ordained a minister of the Church of Scot-
land 1771 : was for some time his father's successor as min-
ister at Blackford; became pastor of St. Cuthberl's, Edin-
burgh, 1773, and moderator of the General Assembly 1785;
was a popular preacher; "succeeded Dr. John Krskiiie in
the chieftainship of the Whig party in the Kirk of Scot-
land"; took an active part in the ecclesiastical controver-
sies of his time, and late in life assumed the name of Well-
wood. D. in Edinburgh, June, 14. 1827. He was the author
of Discourses on tlie Evidence of tlie Jewish and Christian
Revelations (1815) ; An Accovnt of the Life and Writings of
John Erskine, D. D. (1818) ; of many pamjihlets on ecclesias-
tical topics; and of several volumes of Sermons. His Posthu-
mous Sertno7is (3 vols., 1829-31) were selected by Dr. Andrew
Thomson, and edited, with an Account of the Author's Life,
by his son. Sir James Wellwood Moncreiff (1770-1851), who
became a judge of session and a lord justiciary, known by
the courtesy title of Lord Moncreiff.
Moneton : town of Westmoreland eo.. New Brunswick:
on the bend of the Petitcodiae river, a rctnarkable tidal
stream flowing into the upjier end of Sliepody Bay, the west-
ern arm of the Bay of Fundy (see map of Quebec, ref. 5-1).
It is a railway center, junction on the Intercolonial Railway,
89 miles N. E. of St. John and 186 miles N. W of Halifax,
and terminus of the Moncton and Buctouche Railway, 32
miles long. It is a prosperous and rapidly growing place,
having a sugar-refinery and cotton-factory, and surrounded
by a flat and fertile farming region. The extreme range of
tide in the Petitcodiae is 70 feet, and the bore passes up the
river in a wall 4 to 6 feet high. The immense salt-meadows
alternately covered and uncovered can be reclaimed, and arc
very rich in fertile soil. Pop. 8,765. M. W. II.
Monday [M. Eng. tnonedai/. monetiday < 0. Eng. monan-
dieg, liter., tlie day sacred to the moon ; muna. moon + d<pg,
day. Cf. Germ. Montag; mond, moon + tag, day]: the
second day of the week.
Mondo'vi (anc. Monsinci, Monsrega'lis. or Vicodunum) :
town in the province of Cuneo. Northern Italy; about 42
miles S. of Turin and about 1,600 feet above the sea-level
(see map of Italy, ref. 3-B). It is surrounded by ancient
walls. The episcopal palace is a very fine building, and the
cathedral and other churches are of considerable interest.
About 2 miles from Mondovi is the great satictuary of the
Madonna di Vico, adorned with interesting works of art. In
1796 occurred in this neighborhood the engagement known
as the battle of Mondovi. in which Bonaparte defeated the
Piedmontese army, and thus prepared the conquest of all
Upper Italy. In 1799 the town was sacked by the French,
and nearly destroyed. Pop. about 10,300.
Monera [Mod. Lat., from Gr. juov^pTjs, single, from fiivos,
single]: a name given by Haeckel to a supposed group of
Protozoa, wliich differed from all others in the lack of a
nucleus, each individual being a living mass of uiulillcren-
ti.ated protoplasm. Since the group was named various
members have been found to possess a nucleus, and have
consequently been referred to the Ruizopoda (q.v.). It is
possible that in the forms that remain the absence of a
iniclcus is app.arcnt rtither than real, and the essential
nuclear substance (chromatin, eic.) is scattered through the
cell instead of being concentrated in one place. J. S. K.
Monpt, mS'na', Claude: landscape-painter; b. in Paris;
contemporiiry. He is the chief of the modern impressionist
landscape-painters in France, and his works are nolable
JIONKTAKV STAN HA Kits
849
f.ir their luininnsity, frank truth to nature in respoct lo
li^ht und air, ami fur ori^iiial color sclienii-s. His uit-lhocls
have been used liv many imitators, most of whom fail to
ffi't more than the snpertieial (|nalitios of his work in their
own, but his inlluenee has been beneficial in llmt it tenils
to draw attention to the supreme imi)orlancc of lij^ht and
atmosphere in landscape-paintiii};. lie paints nniny of his
pictures near tiiverny, a villaffe of Normandy, where he liaii
a studio and is surrounded by an enthusiastic (,'ronp of fol-
lowers. He does not exhibit at tlie Salon, but his works are
often seen at various snudi exhiliitions in I'aris, and many
of them are owneil in the L'. S. Four excellent ones are iii
the collection of William II. Fuller, New York.
William A. Coffix.
.Monetary Stamlurds: standards o{ value, i. c. oxchanpc
value, embodicil in sonu> form of money. Three such stand-
ards are now familiar to men's thought, jrold alone, silver
alone, and tfold and silver used toj;ether, formin;;a bimetal-
lic slandiiid (not "double .-.landard," a sad misnomer) ami
the basis for a system of bimetallism. In most or all coun-
tries liavin;; the sole jjold standaril silver is also useil in some
subordinati- relation, either for fidl le^al-tender money, as
in the U. .S., (iermany, and France, or for subsidiary coins
alone, as in Great IJritain. Most countries liavinj; the silver
standaril employ mcue or less gohl for trade with gold lands,
bnviuK and sellin;; it as a commodity.
hiMKTALi.isM. — Bimetallic money is money constituted by
adniilliuj; bol'i f;old ami silver to free coinaije, and niakini;
eiu'h an uidimited Icfjal tender at a certain relation in value
to the other. This system must be carefully distin^juished
from the mere use of full legal-tender silver along with gold
(legal-tender tokens), as in the U. S., Germany, and France,
That does not constitute bimetallism, because silver is not
in those circumstances open lo free coina^'c. A single na-
tion may, of C(jurse, a<lopt bimetallism, but it is doubtful
whet her any nation by itself could now pernuinently maintain
it. If bimetallic money is possible, i. e. if it is fea.siblc to
keep the two metals at ft fixed value in relation to one an-
other (see below), a binu'tallic system of money must |io,ssess
cMiineut superiority over any other system. 1. Bimetallic
money guarantees to the value of the dollar, or other mone-
tary unit, a ^/ciK/iHf.s.s attainable in no other system. The
importance of this i|uaUty in money, jireventing general
prices from either rising or fiillin;;. is incalculable. .Moiio-
inetallists greatly umlerratc it, thinkiui; too much of money
as a mere means of etrecting exchanges; whereas, in the
present condition of the world's business, the vast bulk of
time contracts and deferred paynu-nts renders paramount the
charu<-terof money as a just ittniitlard of value, making gen-
eral prices steadfast through periods of time. Fluctuations
in the value of the money unit in any system will be sliu'ht,
nearly in proportion to the whole volume of (unwrought)
standard money metal contained in the system. Gold and
silver fri'ely coiru'd together would nuike such vi>lunu' not
far from twice as vast as cither could furnish alone. Kven
if the whole volume of money metal were the same in both
ciuses, a bimetallic nionev unit would have a less variable
value than a unit realized in a single metal, because fluctua-
tions through extraordinary discoveries or losses, exporta-
tion, or new uses or disuses in the arts, are less liki'ly to
occur in both nu'tals at the same time than iu one alone.
The vice of money with an unsteaily value is nuinifest in
gold countries, where, at present, owing lo the iirogressive
scarcity of gold available for monetary uses, a fall of prices
is going on, to whiih no end is visible without an abandon-
ment of the sole gold standard. The preeiousness of golil,
through military and other hoarding, will ilrive more and
more nations lo paper money, whose depn'ciation, acting as
a premium on the exportation of |irodncts from Ihes.' to gold
countries, must depress in these latter the prices of inler-
national commodities, and to some extent all prices. As
paper money, when it hius displaced gold, almost inevilaldy
works an increase in its own volume, leading to re|M>al(Hl
elevations in iirices, the process nanu^d bids fair to lie end-
les.s, 2. A solid bimetallic nuinetary system would estab-
lish ft common measure of value, a fixed |iar of exchange,
not only between the different states uniting to sustain it,
Imt between every |>air of countries on earth. It wouhl
make the commercial world into the most perfect possible
unity for purposes of trade. Such unity always existed till
\X''^, when silver vvius demonetized. Exchange ju-m'esses
between India and (Jreat iiritain, for instance, were then as
simple and easv as Ihev are now or ever were between any
280 ■
two sepanito sections of the earth. Betwcon the nionev of
London and that of Calcutta, in spite of the fact that'one
wiLs gold and the other silver, there wa.s iiractically a fixed
par, as there is to-day between doHurs ami sovereigns, rales
of exchange osiillating in the onr ilimtion or the other
from this piirasthe balance of traile mi^jht .-wing, but never
l>ey<md the [lerceutage re(|uired for the shipment of s|>fcie,
and always ni a way more or less calculable Ix-foreliund tie-
cording lo the sea-son of the year. Merchants in one coun-
try could place onlers for the other's priKlucis long before-
hand, t'ontracls might be in gold money or in silver, in
sterling or rn|Kes, imliflerenlly, f<ir it coiiM be f<ire.steii bI-
mosl to the in'iiny ln'W much a sum of either wnulil mean
in terms of tiie other at the ilale when I hey wire lo mature.
After the denionelization of silver in 11^73 all this wius
changed. The tie that had bound the two nieials together
at the relation in value of 1.1* to 1 was gone. Nothing like
fixity of par between ICiust and West has since existi-d. The
London trader can no longer with safety offer former or any
silver prices for Indian products, since he can not tell a day
or an hour beforehand what that sum of silver may sooii
enual in gold. Merchants in India arc in like case if they
wish British goods. This evil, which works against inter-
national hmuinij as well as against infernal ional trade, can
never be remedied save by international bimetallism. The
serious (|ueslioii is whether the two metals can be so united
as to colli iniic for, say, a century at the .same value in terms
of one another. Many respected writers still deny this |k>s-
sibilily, but clearly they do not consider the whole case. All
the members of the Koyal Hrilish Gold and Silver Commis-
sion of 1HSG-8S (six of them then iK-inggold monometallists,
though one of these, li. H. Courtney, M. P., is now an ardent
bimetallisi) declare their U'lief that it is possible to bind
the metals together in the way named. Jevons, Lexis, and
Leon Say, among other eminent authorities not liimelallists,
have expressed the sjtine belief. A considerable list of emi-
nent nionetary writers could be given, who at first opposed
bimetallism, but after examination embraced it. .Moreover,
biiiutallisni did actually work in France from lK(i;t to 1ST3,
and that though coudilions were far less favorable to it than
they have ever been since, or ever could bo under a careful
international agreement. The argument for the feasibility
of iiimetallism is briefly as follows: 1. Were both gold and
silver freely roimd the monetary deniaiid and supply of them
Would, iu fixing the value of given nuantilies of lliein. have
far more inlUience than the commodily supply and demand
would have. 2. A legal-lender and debt-paying value ratio
between a given quantity of gold and a given (|iianlily of
silver can be established by statute in any slate and by treaty
tliroughoul any number of states. 3. .Since men discharge
their pecuniary ol>ligalionsasea.-ily aslhey can, the existence
of such a legal value ratio would, if this ratio ever for any
reason failed to niatih the commercial ratio, stimulate de-
mand for the metal that was comiueivially ihecheaiK'r, less-
ening at the same lime the demand for the dearer, and .so
tend to bring the bullion value ratio back to I he legal value
ratio. 4. If the field of the legal arrangement is large, so as
to cover a third of the world's goUl and silver, unless the
legal value ratio determined uimii is wiilely difTerenl from
the ratio in (|uantily between tJie total stocks of the two, the
.stimulus of demand for the cheaiier will overliear every
tendency to part the parities named, and maintain the unit
quantity of gold and the iinil (|iianlity of silver |>eri>elually
at the same value. This theory in no sense liavenses the
law of supply and demand. Bimelallist legislation is ex-
pected to uriiig the above result lo pa.s.s, ih>1 in defiance of
economic forces, but by si'lling fri'e certain economic fonvs
now latent and giving the pr»[H'r din-clion lo those already
working.
LiTF.KATiRK. — Rrparix of Royal Gold and Silver Commis-
sion (InsIh-SS); Nicholson, Mnney and Munrtarij I'mMrm*;
Walker. Monei/, Trade, and Juduntni: II. II. Giblis, t'ullo-
0111/ on Currency ; Horton. The Silver I'lmnd; Sue.ss, T"**
yiilure of Silver {'^•nnXo dooumeiin; .\mlri>ws. .Ifi Ilimett
Dollar; publications of Hrilish Bimetallic I.e"ifiie.
K. Itixj. .\M>Rf:ws.
MoxoMjrTAl.LisM is the use of only one metal as money of
full legal tender, either gold or silver. In the scvenlecntb
and eighteenth <>eiiliiries most, if not all, civili/ed muntrips
employed both gold and silveras monev of full letml lender,
intending to use them simullaiienusly, f".' " ''m
alternately. The us<' of two nutals n. -h-
iiient of a legal ratio between Ihem. givi:,,. ,. ,,.. op-
tion of imying, for example, either 1 ox, of coined gold or
850
MOXETARY STANDARDS
>fOXEY
loj oz. of eoiiu'il silver for an equal sum, the mints of the
country being ojien ut all times to the coinage of either
metal in unlimited amounts for private persons. Concur-
rent circulation of the two metals can continue only so long
as the market ratio coincides with the legal ratio. When
1 oz. of gold, as in the example cited, comes to be worth a
little more than 15^ oz. of silver, gold will be exported or
withdrawn from general circulation. If the market ratio
turns the other way, silver will be exported and gold will be
retained. The monetary history of nations consists mainly
of these changes an<l of the recoinages to which they leil.
There were twenty-six changes of the ratio in France be-
tween 1602 and 1 778. Prior to the year 1871 the only countries
that had the single g<ild standard were Great Hritain and
her colonies, Portugal, Turkey, Persia, Brazil, and the Ar-
gentine Republic. Those which had the single silver stand-
ard were Germany, nollan<l, the Scandinavian countries,
Austria, Russia, Egypt, Mexico, .Japan, India, China, Central
America, Holivia. Ecuador. an<l Peru. All the countries not
named in either of tliese lists had the liimetallic system, or
double standard, although some of thcui did not have any
silver of full legal tender in actual circnlation. The U. S.
was in this category. The single gold standard was legally
adopted by Great Hritain in 1816, but it had been prac-
tically adopted in 1774, when an act was passed limiting the
legal tender of silver coins to .€25. Both silver and gold
had been full legal tender up to this time, the ratio being a
little less than 15^ to 1. Tlie legal and the market ratios
did not coincide. There was a tendency to export silver,
the new pieces of full weight being chosen for exportation
and the old ones of light weight retained for home circula-
tion. The reason for passing the act of 1774 was that the
silver In circulation was so much worn that it Wiis no longer
worth its face value. This act limiting the legal tender of
silver was in force with only a brief intermission more than
forty years Ijefore the single gold standard was formally
adopted. When the new German empire was formed one
of the first questions that came before it was the disordered
state of the currency, which consisted of seven different
systems of legal-tender silver coins, besides a variety of
gold coins, German and foreign, passing as commercial
money, and also state notes and bank notes passing at vary-
ing rates of discount. The reasons offered to tlie Reichstag
by the Minister of Finance for the adoption of the gold
stanilard were that silver was too bulky and inconvenient
for the needs of modern commerce, and that it had on this
account created an artificial demand for bank notes and
prevented any rational regulation of the banking system of
Germany. Accordingly, iu 1871 the Reichstag passed a law
for the adoption of the gold standard, which was more effec-
tually carried out in IHU'i. The Scandinavian countries
immediately followed the example of Germany. In the
meantime two officials of the 17. S. Treasury, John Jay
Knox and H. R. Linderman, had been charged by Secretary
Uoutwell to prepare a bill for revising and consolidating the
coinage laws of the U. .S. At this time the country had no
gold or silver money in circulation, being still on the paper
basis of the war period. Mr. Knox and Dr. Linderman, ob-
serving that gold had been the only metallic mom'V of full
legal tender iu actual use since 1834, and that the silver dol-
lar was worth as metal 2* cents more than the gold dollar,
omitted the silver dollar from the list of U. S. coins as an
obsolete thing. In 1873 Congress passed the law, but it is
not true that it wsis passed surreptitiously, or that the omis-
sion of the silver dollar from the list of coins was unnoticed.
The effect of tlie measure was to make the U. S. monometal-
lic in law as it luul been in fact during a whole generation.
The legal ratio in France was lo+ to 1. In 1873 the market
ratio had risen to 15-75, in consequence of which there was
an extraordinary flow of silver to the French mint, accom-
jjanied by an exportation of gold. A treaty had been formed
in 1865 between France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy, by
which their raoni^tary .systems had been assimilated. This
association, called the Latin Union, is still in existence. The
members were called together to take action in reference to
the outflow of gold, and it was decided to stop it by restrict-
ing the coinage of silver to a fixed sum for each country.
In 1876 it was stopped altogether in all those countries. In
Holland the same policy was adopted for the .same reason.
Austria had an irredeemable paper currency, but she too
became alarmed at the decline of silver. In 187!) the market
ratio to gold had reached 18-30 to 1. The Austrian Govern-
ment in that year ordered its mints to be closed to silver,
and in this way checked the decline of its paper currency
which was redeemable in silver. In 18n2 Austria prepared
to resume specie payments on the basis of the single gold
standard. The arrangement is not yet {18'J4) fully completed.
Init will not be long delayed. Rcmmania changed her system
from silver to gold about the same time. In 18113 British
India took the first step to the introduction of the gold stand-
ard by clcsing her mints to silver. In 18!)4 the republic of
Santo Domingo changed from silver to gold. The coinage
of silver on private account in Russia has been stopped, al-
though that country is still on a paper basis. The only sil-
ver monometallic countries ot inqiortance now are China
and Mexico. There arc no bimetallic countries, unless Japan
may be called such, that country being actually on a paper
basis. The advocates of the single gold standard contend
that the monetary changes here enumerated have been the
result of natural selection, being in this respect akin to all
the other great improvements that have taken place in hu-
man affairs. The burden of proof to show- the contrai-y is
on those who would oppose a natural movement by artificial
means. Three ineffectual attempts have been made to turn
mankind back to bimetallism by international agreement.
These were the two monetarv conferences held at Paris in
1878 and 1881. and the one at Brussels in 18!)2. The only
country in Europe that declared itself in favor of bimetal-
lism in the Brussels conference was Holland. Bimetallists
say that these changes in the monetary systems of nations
have not been brought about naturally, but by the action
of men, by the laws and decrees of governnients. Of course,
all changes which need to be exiiressed in laws and decrees
are made liy men and governments. Nobody contends that
they grow on bushes, but the fact remains that they came to
pass without outside compulsion, Germany, for example,
was under no outside compulsion to change to the gold
standand in 1871. She found it to her advantage to do so,
and that is all that is meant by the word •'naturally." The
same maybe said of all the other countries that have fol-
lowed (ierniany's example. Germanydid notcom])el France
in any other sense than that of offering France a large amount
of silver at the ratio which France had voluntarily chosen.
This can hardly be called compulsion, but if it liad been
compulsion it is not easy to see what else could have been
done if France preferred gold to silver. It is said that
France held the two metals steady at the ratio of 15^ to 1
from 1803 to 1873. That is a mistake. The market ratio
varied during that period between 15-40 and 16-25, with the
result of ilriving gold and silver alternately out of circula-
tion. If France had really held the ratio of the two metals
steady for seventy years, of what consequence would that
fact be if she failed on the seventy-firsts Bimetallists say
that gold niononietnllism has caused a fall of prices. If
this were true a fall of jiriees is not necessarily harmful. It
may be advantageous, and must be so if the money income
of the larger part of mankind has increased or remained
stationary during that peri<id. As money wages have ad-
■vanced materially in this country since 1873 this reasoning
has no force. Space does not suffice to pursue all the argu-
ments of the bimetallists. The main contention on the
other side is that the gold standard has been adopted by
governments because gold is universally acceptable to indi-
viduals, while silver is not ; that money is an instrument of
trade, and that no system is po.ssible which neglects or runs
counter to the preferences of traders ; and that international
bimetallism is impracticable.
The literature of this subject is vast, but is mostly found
in government publications, such as the official rejuirts of
the three monetary conferences referred to, speeches in Con-
gre.s.s, and public investigations. The painphlet and inaga-
ziue literature is very large. See Laughlin s IlintDnj of Bi-
met((l/ism in the United ^'/o/cs (New York) ; (iiffen's Cane
ngainst BimetdlliKm (London): Bamberger's Sticlnrurte der
tiilberleute (Berlin). Horace Wuite.
Mon'cy [from 0. Fr. moneie > Fr. monnaie : Ital. mone-
ia : Sfian. jnoneda < Lat. mone'trt. mint, coin, money. See
Mint]: a standard by which w-eallh is measured, and an in-
strunu-ut by which one kind of wealth can be exchanged for
another. Sloney differs from currency: while currency is
anything with which commodities can be bought and debts
canceled, it does not ahvays have an intrinsic value, but may
be, as in the case of bank-bills or government notes, merely
a voucher or represi-titative of value, in which case it is not
money. Jloney is that kind of currency wiiieh has an in-
trinsic value, ami which thus, if nut used as currency, w-ould
still be wealth.
MONGE
MONGOLIA
851
Different CommniUtieit Uiied as Money. — Any article of
wi'iillli — i. e. aiiythiii;; wliicli hiis value — may be useil as
money. Tin was thus employed in aneient Syraousu and
liritain, while to the same purpose we tiud iron in Sparta,
cattle in Kome and (iermany (peeiiniii, from jh-cum, catlle),
a preparation of leather amoiifj the Carlhajriniuns, platinum
in Kussia, lead in Kurma, nails in Scotland, pieces of silk
amoM^; the Cliinese. cuius of pressed tea in Tarlary, salt
in Abyssinia, cowrie-shells on the coast of Africa, slaves
among the .\n^lo-Saxons, tobacco in Vir^jinia, coilfish in
Newfoundland, bullets anil wampum in the early history of
Massachusetts, logwood in t'ampeachy, sugar in the \Vest
Indies, soap in .Mexico, etc. : but from the time of .\brahani,
when he paid ((ien. xxiii. I(i) to the children of Ilelli 4<K)
shekels of silver, "current money with the merchant" — Ihe
• nrliest historical record of a i)urcha.sc with money — till now,
-lid and silver have been the money of the world with
' ivilized and commercial people.
These metals possess some singular advantages which ex-
plain why they are use<l as money. They are intrinsically
valuable, everybnily in the civilized world desiring gold and
silver, not simply as in<iney, but for ornaments, for plate, and
other uses, and no one being able to olitain them without
labor. They have both the elements, therefore, of true
value. IVsides this, they wear out very slowly; they arc
very easily ilivisible and malleable, and can be reiulily al-
loyed ami refined ; they are largely distributed over the
globe, and are yet of suilicient scarcity; they are of the
same quality wherever found, and are subject to fewer
fluctuations in value than any other commodity known.
This last ipiality is a prime ro(|uisite in money. In exa<tly
the degree in wjiich the value of money were unstable would
it cca.se to be a trustworthy standard of value, while in the
same degree exchanges would be imide dilBcult and con-
tracts uncertain.
In order that money may be a standard of value as well
as an instrument of exchange, its own value must be invari-
alile — a condition to which gold and silver better conform
than any other commodity, but in which any currency not
convertible into these necessarily fails. When bank-notes
or government notes become currency without a correspond-
ing basis of money, nothing hiis ever been able to prevent
their fluctuation in value and the consequent effect upon
all other values. The temptation to increase these issues
according to the fancied interest of the bank or the gov-
ernment is always likely to prove irresistil)le, in conseiiuence
of which the comnuiiiify employing them finds itself lUKxled
with a currency uiion whii'h all values float with an un-
steady motion, and any standard of value is out of the
question. See Coinadk, Cikrkxcv, and MoxET.tRV .Sta.nd-
ARiis. Uevised by .V. T. Hadi.kv.
Monge, Gaspard: mathematician and physicist; b. at
Beaune, France, May 10, 1746: studied at Lyon ami Mezi-
eres, and, having nuide several important discoveries in the
science of engineering, was called in 17H3 to the chair of
Hydrodynamics in the Paris Lyceum. During the Kevolu-
tion ho became .Minister of Marine, but resigned that posi-
tion soon after the execution of Louis -XVl. and took charge
of the manufactories for supplying the army with arms and
gunpowder. Under the Directory he founded the ftcole
Polytechnique, but, after holding for a lime the chair of
Mathematics in that institution, was sent to Italy to take
charge of the removal of the captured art treasures to
Krance. While in Italy he formed a close friendship with
Napoleon, whom he afterward accompanied to Egypt, as-
suming the direction of the Egyptian Institute. On his
return to France he resumed his duties in the ftcole Poly-
technique; was chosen senator in 1805, and in the following
year received the title of Count of Pelusium. .\fter the
second restoration hjyvtat his |)ositions, ainl died July 18,
1818. In addition to several important discoveries in phys-
ics, he invented the method of descrifitive geometry and left
valuable treatises on that subject: Li-fonx de Geomrtrie De-
scriptive and Applicniinn ile I'nnnhjKe a In (Uometrie (1795).
He also wrote a Traile (li-mentaire de Statiqne (1788).
K. M. l"oLBV.
Monffliir, or Mnnsrir: a city of Bengal, India; chief
place of a district of the same iiame, on the right bank of
the Ganges; hit. 2."> 'i'i N.. Ion. 86 liO hi; terminus of a
sliort branch railway connecting with the main line along
the south bank of the Ganges (see map of N. India, ref. 7-II).
The city consists of a nn^ky blulT, on which is a fort m^w
occupied by administrative offices, and a lower part stretch-
ing along the Ganges for over 6 mile.s. It is a manufactur-
ing city, ami has long been celebrated for its manufacture of
arms and objects in iron. The pr<«lucts of this industry are
more recommended by their cheapne.«s than their excellence,
and the industry is in dccailence. Thenr are also factories
of textiles, dyes, soaps, gla.ssware. boxes, furniture, shoes, and
idols. Much ylii or native butter is exporteil. Tlie city was
formerlv a .Maliommedan center, but tlie iM)pulalion is now
mostly llindu. Pop. .")7,877. M. W. H.
Mongo'lia: the laml of the Mongols: a C'hinefte posscit-
sion in Central Asia ; bounde<l on the N. by Silwria, on the
K by Manchuria, S. by China proper, and on Ihe W. by
Chinese Turkestan: area, l,28K.0OO .mi. mill's; poiiulalioti
about 2,0<X),0(JO. There is no natural boundary between
Manchuria and Mongolia. A line of pali.sailes (still shown
on some maps) formerly marked the dividing-line, but it no
longer exists.
A large portion of Mongolia is occupied by the great
Desert of Gobi, a desolate and sterile tract of almost treeless
country, extending N. K. and S. W. between the !H)th and
1211th meridians of K. Um., in some places exhibiting a con-
siderable dei>ression, and in some jiarts more than "200 miles
in breadth, (jeiierally this ileserl is a level land, and though,
on the wh(de, at an average elevation of 2,600 feet above the
sea, there are but few hills of any altitude. On the other
hand, the Alashan coimtry to the S. is mountainous and
well wooded. On the western side of these hills the great
river Ilwang-ho runs for nearly 4(X) miles, and s<jme peaks,
beyond where the llwang-ho forces its way eastward, are
covered with periielual snow, and arej)robalilv not less than
lO.tXtO to I2.0(X) feet high. To the N. and N'. W. chains of
high mountains se(iarate Mongolia from Siljcria, the range
of .\ltai being the most famous. This, which is the richest
portion of Mongolia, is chiefly in the hands <if the Buddhist
monks, the high priest himself residing at Vrua (q. v.).
Though l)etler watered than other parts of Mongolia, and
the Source of some considerable rivers, such as the .\mur
and the Orkhon (which flows into the Siberian lake Baikal),
the intense winter cold renders the rearing of even the com-
moiu'st an<l hardiest vegetables almost impossible.
There are three principal divisions of Mongolia : (1) Inner
Mi>iigolia. lying .S. of the desert and N. of the Great Wall ;
(2) Outer Mnuyiilia, between the desert and the Altai Moun-
tains, and reaching from the inner Khingan to the T'ien
Shan peh-ln : and (:!) Kokoxor (q. v.), which is separated
from the rest of Mongolia by the province of Kansuii. The
inhabitants of Inner Nlongo'lia arc diviiled into 6 coriis and
24 tribes, ranged under 4U koshun, or banners, each of which
is comnmnded by a hereditary prince. The princiiml tribes
are the Kortchin an<l iheOrdos. The Tsakhars, who occupy
the region immediately N. of Ihe (ireat Wall, are governed
by a tu-tung, who resides at Kalgan. Their [laslure lands
are now included in the extended Ixmndaries of the [irovince
of Chihli. just as tho.se oc-cupied by Ihe Tuniets are niclude<l
in .Shansi. This portion of Inner Mongolia is being rapidly
filled up by Chinese settlers. Outer Jlunqolin is divided
into four cireuit.s, or khanates (TusheUi, 1'sets«n, Sainoin,
anil ,Ie.saktu), the tribes belonging to one khanate being
forbidden to migrate into another. These are |Militically
under the rule of two Manchu residents at I'rpi. The four
khanates constitute one aiinak, or section, sulidivided into
86 koshun, or banners. In the whole of Mongolia there are
33aimaksand 172 banners.
Owing to the peculiar character of their country, the
Mongols are now, as they have ever l)een, essentially no-
madic. By far Ihe largest number of the jHipnlation ilwell
in tents, and their chief pos.sc>ssions are large herds of
camels, horses. slii>ep, asses, and mules.
The Mongols are middle-sized, strong, and active; their
skin of a dark-yellow hue ; their faces bn>ad, with flat no-ses
and projecting ears. They have little U-anl, and generally
shave off what they have except one tuft. They Ulong to
the great group now often calleil Turanian, and arc thus al-
lied to the Chinese, Tibetans, and the ,Iiij.(inesp, and more
remotely to the Ksquimaux. Samoyi>dis, Lapi's, Turks, ami
Magyars; in other words, to nearly IWi>-lliirils of the whole
human race. In aneient history we find their ancestors
under the generic title of S<ythians or Cimmerians, and the
founders of the Miilian empire, whose cuneiform writings
we an- even now only partially able to d<-<'ipher: in later
times they appear a,s tiie terrible and devastating Ilnns, and
still later' as tlie scarcely less fenx-ious warriors of Genghis
Khan and Timour.
852
MONGOOS
MONITOR
As they are of the same stock as the present Sfanehu
rulers of Cliina, similar interests as well as relationship in-
sure their chiefs many favors from the Chinese Governiiicnt ;
thus, some are married to princesses of the imperial liouse,
so as to attach them more closely to the reigning family,
while, as a rule, the rich gifts they receive far exceed tlic
nominal tribute exacted from I hem. Unlike otlier nomadic
nations, they have an alphabet (derived from the Syrian
Kestorians) and a literature — of little value, however, being
chieily translations from Chinese works, or stories more or
less fabulous of their great national hero, Gengliis Khan.
Except as wandering lionles, overwhelming each country
in itii turn, and rather by their viu^t numbers than by
knowledge of war as an art, we hear little of the Mongols
till the time of Genghis Klian. Not long after the Kalklias,
under their khan, Kublai, conquered all China, and held
the chief power tliere for about a century: and though, as
is usually the case with empires so formed, that of I lie .Mon-
gols was" soon broken up into a number of separate dynas-
ties, the great 'riiiiour widely extended the already vast
frontiers of the Mongol empire. Lastly, in the year 151!),
Baber, a lini-al descendant of Tiinour. founded by conquest
a monarchy in Hindustan, popularly called the •' iMogul "
dynasty, aiid celebrated for the famous Akbar, a contem-.
porary'of Queen Elizabeth of England. To the invasion of
Western Asia by the Jlongol tribes we owe the estaljlish-
ment of many dynasties which became notable in history,
partly owing to ilieir conflict with the Franks during the
crusades, and [lartly to the great ability in matters of gov-
ernment which these wild tribes from Central Asia exliil>
ited as soon as they found themselves settled in the fertile
lands of the West.' Among the dynasties which owe their
origin to the Mongol conquests may be mentioned that of
the Moguls of Persia and Syria (a. d. 1157-1355); the Kara-
koiunbu (Turkomans of the Black Sheep). A. D. 13aT-14!)6 ;
those of the White Sheep (a. d. 1406-1503): and, connected
with these, the Kipcliaks of the Crimea, and of the Ivazan,
with the Usbeks of Bokhara, Sainarcand, and Balkh.
A considerable trade passes through Mongolia to China
on the one side and Russia on the other, with frontier
marts at Kiakhta in Siberia and Maimaichin in Mongolia.
This trade is carried on wholly by barter, money being
either forbidden or (at least) seldom used. The caravans
perform their journeys between October and the end of win-
ter, bringing furs, woolen stufis, and leather from tlie West,
and conveying thither teiis, silks, cotton, rhubarb, and sugar-
candy.
Besides Urga, Kalgan, and Maimaichin, already men-
tioned, the other chief centers of trade are at Kobdo, on a
plateau of the same name in the Mongolian Altai, Uliasu-
tai, some distamu; to the E. of Kobdo : Saicha and Ku-
kukhto, on tributaries of the Hwang-ho, near the border of
Shansi ; Dolanor, or Lama-miao. 1.50 miles N. of Peking;
Jehol, near the border of Manchuria; and Uada, 60 miles E.
of Jehol. See Hue's Traivlx in Tartdri/, Thihut.dud Cliina
(3 vols., 1852): Wolff's Gesc/iichte tier Mongolen (Breslau,
1872) : Prjevalsky's Moni/a/id. the Tanr/ut Ciiuntri/ and tlie
Solitudes of Tibet (trans, by E. Delinar JNIorgan, 2 vols.,
London, 1876); lloworth's //('.v/on/ of the Jloni/ols (3 vols.,
London, 1876-88); ami Gilmour's Among tlie J/on^ois (Lon-
don and New York, n. d.). Revised by R. Lilley.
Mongoos : Sec Munhoos.
Monier-Williams, Sir Monier: Sanskrit scholar and
Indologist ; b. at Bombay. India, in 1819; studied at King's
College, London, and at the East India Company's (College
at Ilailevburv; became Boden .Sanskrit scholar at Oxford
1843, and graduated 1S14 : Professor of Sanskrit at llailey-
bury 1844-58, and at Cheltenham College 1858-60; was
chosen Boden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford Dec, I860;
visited India 1875-76. Rai.sed to the knighthood 1886.
Author of a Sanskrit Grammar (1846: 4th ed. 1877); an
English-Sanskrit Dictionary (1851) ; Kdliddsa's Sdkuntald,
with translation (1853); text-books in Persian (1858) and
Hindustani (1859) ; Origimil Papers illustrating the History
of the Application of the Roman Alphabet to the Languages
of India (1859); Indian Epic Poetrg (1863): A Sanskrit
and English. Diclionary (1872); Indian Wisdom (1875);
Hinduism (1877); Modern India and the Indians (1878);
Religious Thought and Life in India (1883); The Uohj
Bible and the Sacred Books of the East |1887); Buddhism
in its connection with Brdhmanism and Hinduism, and its
contrast with Christianiti/ (188!)).
Revised by Be.vj. Idk Wheeler.
Monism ; a philosophical term denoting a theory that
holds one ultimate being in the universe. Dualism hoUls
two ultimate princijiles. for example, mind and matter. Sir
William Hamilton applies the term "monist " to the jihil-
osoplier who •• rejects the testimony of consciousness as to
the ultimate duality of the subject and object in percep-
tion." The materialists may hold that the subject which
thinks is material, like the object it perceives. The idealist
may hold that the object it perceives is only a vision in the
mind. The term ''monism" has come into much use re-
cently to indicate the doctrines of materialists like Ilaeckel,
who holds "all matter to be ensouled or endowed with feel-
ing and motion, or, better, the power of motion; on ele-
mentary attraction and repulsion is based every other
psychical iilienomenoii, and consequently the highest de-
veloped soul-activity of man." W. T. Harris.
Monitiou: in the practice of the English ecclesiastical
courts, the mildest form of ecclesiastical censure— simply
an order admonishing the person complained of to do some-
thing sjiecified in the instrument "under pain of the law
and ])enalty thereof." Nevertheless, when duly and regu-
larly served, disobedience to it entails the )ienalties of con-
tempt of court. The other uses of the word are — (1) warn-
ing; (2) cautionary instructions or diructions; (3) a formal
letter or document issued from an archiepiscopal or episco-
pal court, ordering any person under the jurisdiction of the
bishop to do, or to leave undone, some act or course of
proceeding in which the bishop is interested.
Revised by W. S. Perry.
Monitor [from Lat. wo «)7oc, warner, deriv. of mone're,
warn. So called because thought to give warning of the
approach of a crocodile] : name of a genus of large Old
World lizards, some of which a|iproach the size of alliga-
tors. The typical species, the Nile monitor (M. niloticus)
attains a length of 6 feet, half of this consisting of the slen-
der tail. The animal is gray with dark blotches. It is be-
lieved by the natives to be hatched from crocodile's eggs,
but in reality these form a portion of its food. The M.
draccena of India and M. gouldii of Australia are also well-
known monitors. The great lizards of tlie South American
family Teiidce are often called monitors, and indeed closely
resemble the true monitors. Revised by P. A. Lucas.
Monitor [from Jlonitor, the (proper) name given the first
vessel of this type] ; one of a special class of nearly sub-
merged armored vessels, invented by John Ericsson (q. r.),the
principal features of which are a revolving turret protecting
guns of large caliber, and an overhang deck protecting the
propeller and rudder. Plans for such a vessel were submitted
by Ericsson to Napoleon III. in 1854. but were rejected,
and the first vessel of the sort ever constructed was built
under contract with the U. S.. for use in blockading South-
ern ports in the civil war of 1861-65. It w,as named Mon-
itor Ijy Capt. Ericsson, was launched at tireenpoint. Long
Island, on Jan. 30, 1862, and went to sea Mar. 6 in command
Ericsson's Muuitor ul lyOl.
of Lieut. John L. Worden. U. S. navy, with a crew of forty-
five men and twelve officers. The Monitor was an iron
hull with wooden deck-beams and side projection, and of
the following dimensions;
Extreme length 172 feet.
breadth 41 " 6 in.
Depth of hold 11 " 4 "
Draught of water 10 " ti "
Inside dill meter of turret 20 "
Height of turret !' "
Thickness " ^ "
" of side-armor 5 "
" deck-i)lating 1 in.
Diameter of propeller 9
" " steam-cvliiiders(two) 36 in.
Length of stroke. . . .' 2 " 2 "
Displacement! 1.'255 tons.
Armament, two 11-inch shell guns, each 15,668 lb.
The engravings represent a side elevation of the Jlonitor
and turret, showing the position of tlie turret, jiilot-house,
MONITORIAL SYSTEM
MOXMOL'Tn COLLEGE
653
propeller, equipoise rutUler. ami anchor-well; also a trans-
verse section. This vessel fought a nieuiorulile en<;u(;eineiit
with the I'oMfiilenite ironclwJ Meiiiuiack in the l'oren>H>n
of Mar. !), ISIV.'. olf Newport News. Vii., neither being able to
destroy the other; but the Monitor was successful in pro-
tecting Union shipping, and the .Merrimack was obligeil to
withdraw for repairs. There was no loss of life on either
side. The Monitor foundered off Cape llatteras Dec. 31,
1H62.
During the civil war 54 monitors of various sizes were
built, as follows: Single turret — 10 of the Pas.saic class. 844
tons; !) of the Canonicus class, 1.034 tons: 20of theCasco
class. fil4 tons : and 5 for river service, 472 to .578 tons.
iJoiilile turret — t of tlie Winnebago class. 970 tons ; 4 of the
Miantonomoh class, 1,,")64 tons; and 2 seagoing monitors,
Dictator and Puritan, of 3,000 tons, old measurement. Of
these four were lost — theWeehawken bvfoumleringat sea. the
Patapseo, .Milwaukee, and Tccumseh by explosions of torpe-
dcK>s. In a<ldition to the above there were begun four moni-
tors of the Kalamazoo class. 3.200 tons, which the close of
the war found upon the stocks unfinished. These with
others, which by lu])seof time had become no longer service-
able, were broken up later; a few were sold, and at present
(18114) but eighteen remain on the list of vessels of the U. S.
navy. Eight of these are of the Passaic and five of the
Canonicus class, and all arc laid up at some naval station.
Of the remaindiT, four — .\inphitrite (Tonawanda), Monad-
nock, Puritan, anci Terror (.Vgamenticus) — are undergoing
changes to meet the recjuirements of modern naval warfare;
while one — .Miantimoinoh — hiis been completed ami is in com-
mission for service on the North .Atlantic station.
Revised by C. Helkxap.
Monitorial System: an educational system of impor-
tance in the history of pedagogy for the stir it made in the
early part of the nineteenth century. The rival claims of
Lancaster and Bell to the discovery of the system and the
emulatiiin developed between the two societies which they
represented to carry out the principle did much to improve
the English schools: still, neither really discovered the
principle, since it had been ailvocated by Conienius l.'jO
years before in the Didnctica Magna. In Lancjister's own
words, the distinct features of the plan are: First, that by
his system of order and rewards, together with the divisioii
of the schools into classes and the assistance of mimitors,
one master is able to conduct a school of 1,000 children;
second, that by printing a spelling-book or any other lessons
for reading in large type, they may, when suspended with a
nail against the wall, bo read by a number of children, a
method whereby one book will serve for a whole school;
thini, the introduction of slates and ilictalion, a method
whereby .500 Ixn's may spell and write the same wonl at the
same instant of time; fourth, an entirely new nietho<l of in-
stniction iti arithmetic, whereliy any child who can read
may teach arithmetic with the utmost certainty; fifth,
cheapness, three shillings a year for each child in a school
of 300, and four shillings for a greater number. The sys-
tem was founded on the assumption that a ofaild who knows
nothing of teaching, and sc^arcely more of the subji-ct
taught, can be a thorough instructor. The objections an-
too obvious to neeil relating. The last feature of the
methcKl as stati'd by Ijanca.ster. namely, cheapness, was un-
doubtedly its main recommendation. S<'e Sliarpless, Eiig-
linh Ktltirntinn (1802); An llld Kiiiicalinnnl Hifurmir. by
J. M. D. .Meikh'johii. .See also articles BEt.l„ Dk. .Xnhrkw;
ami Imxcastkr. Joskph. C. 11. TuL'UutiL
.Honiz. Felii'.\ : See Colvmbi-s, Christopher.
Monk : See Mo.vachism.
Monk, Georoe: See Albemarle, Duke of.
Monkey [from diniin. of Ital. monna. Span, mona, O.
Fr. nioiine, female ape, Woman, crone, contructiou of m«-
donna, \eLii\]: a name applied in a general way to any of
the oriler I'rintatea except man. but generally understooil to
mean one of the smaller, tailed s|M'eies of Anthro/joiJea in
distinction to the larger a|H's and baboons on the one
hand, and lemurs on the other. .See IIoMi.viii.v, Primates,
SiMItD.C, iioWLI.VO Mo.XKEY, EnTELLI'S Mo.NKKV, etc.
F. A. LiCAS.
Monk-.<>eaI : popular name of a large seal (Munnrhiis
albivrnter) fouiul ni the Mediterranean, and southward in
I the Atlantic to the Canaries. It is of a dark-brown color,
dirty yellowish white Ijenealh, and attains a letigth of !i to
6 feet. An allied species {M. tropicalin) occurs in the West
Indies, and these two are ]>eculiar as being the oidy earless
seals (Phucidw) found in warm latitudes. F.A. L.
Monksliood : the common name of the European sconito
(Aconilitm napellun), also called wolfsbane. Tins, the most
important species of the genus, is a perennial herbaei-ous
plant growing in the mountainous regions of Europe, and
cultivated s<jmcwliat in gardens as an ornamental flower.
The root is tapering or spindle-shaped, and is sometimes
mistaken for horseradish. The stem is erect, simple, rising
several feet. The leaves are dark green on the upper sur-
face, shiny, and are deeply divided. The flowers, which
are borne upon a hands<inie terminal raceme, are large, of a
violet-blue color, and with the upjier of the five petals de-
veloped into a hoodlike appendage. The fruit consists of
three snuill nods. All parts of the aconite are highly poi-
sonous, but the root and leaves only are us«;d in medicine.
Their virtues depend on an alkaloid, aeonitine. which is one
of the most virulent p<iisons known. Aconite prwluces sen-
sory and motor paralysis, and especially affects the heart,
directly lessening the force and fre<|uency of its beats. In
fatal dose it kills by cardiac and respiratory paralysis, the
symptoms resembling those of death by hamorrhage. A
peculiar effect of aconite is a nuiidincss and prickling, which
in moderate dose is felt aliout the lips, throat, and tins of
the fingers, but in larger dose extends up the arms and legs.
Aconite is u.sed for much the same puri>osc for which bleed-
ing used to be employed — namely, to nuKleratc the heart's
action in the early stages of acute febrile complaints. It
also seems to have a special jviwer over inllanimations of
the tonsils and throat. From its |Kiisonous proiH-rlies it re-
quires to be used with caution. Digitalis is the physiologic-
al antidote to it. Preparations of aconite are also very
useful applied externally to relieve hx-al (uiins. The appli-
cation produces at the spot the |J0culiar tingling alK>ve re-
ferred to. Revised by II. A. Hake.
Monluc. moii liik', Blaise de Lasserax-Massencome. Sei-
gneur de: solilier and author; b. near Condom. 1.VI2 (f). of an
old, noble family. In his youth he was a page in the household
of .\ntoiiie de Lorraine, s<Hin tiegan a military career as archer
under Bayard, ami was almost continuallv under anns for
fifty-five vears. He had reachetl great distinction in the
wars of Francis I. and Henry II., having been knii;hted in
l.">44, when the civil wars broke out, in which he (lefende<I
the Catholic cause with anlor. In 1.574 Henry HI. gave
him the nuirshal's staff. D. in l.')77. His memoirs, enti-
tled CtinimentnireK. dictated in the la.st years of his life, are
a simple, frank, and very vivid story of his can'er. and of
great historical value. They have Ix'en published by de
Ruble for the Socicte de I'llistoire de France (.5 vols.)
A. G. CANriELl).
Monnionth :' city : capital of Warren co.. III. (for loca-
tion of county, SIM- map of Illinois, ref. 4-C); on the Chi.,
Burl, and l^. and the la. Cent, railways; 28 miles E. of the
Mississippi river. It is in an agrieuftnral and bitununons
coal-region ; is the seal of Monmouth Colh'u'e (Ciiited Pn-s-
bylerian, charted IStyS); hius 2 lil'nr " ' ' 'go
aiid Warren County) with over Jlo ;iil
banks with eoniliined capital of s. v,4
weekly, and 2 other [n'ritHlicals; anrf lias manufaclorii-s of
ftgriciiltural implements, sewer-pipe, paviiig-lirick, and car-
riages and roml-carts. Pop, (18S(t) ,'.,ImhI: (IMiHl) ,'i.!«6.
Editor oe '• Daily Review."
Monmoiitll Cnllege: an institution in Monmouth. III. ;
foundiil .1.111. 1. IN.'iti. It is under the contnd of the I'nited
Pri'sbytenan I'liurch, and is pronounced in its Christian
character, but in no ,s<'nso sectarian. Its first cl«.ss gradu-
atetl in 18r>8. The institution has had but twiv presidents —
Dr. D. A. Wallace (1856-78) and Dr. J. U, McMichael, who
85J:
MONMOL'TIISUIRE
MONOXGAIIELA CITY
assumed olTiet' in 1878. In 1893 lliere were thirteen profes-
sors and 300 students. The college buildings are situated
in a beautiful campus of 10 acres. Four euurses of studies
are offered, leading to decrees A. 15., U.S., and M. H. of four
years each, and B. Jj. of lliree years. J. B. MciliLii.\i;L.
Moniuoiithshire : county of Kngland ; bounded S. by the
estuary of the Severn and t he Bristol Channel. Area, .534 sq.
miles. Along the coast the land is low and lev<-l. but I he
northern and northwestern parts are elevated and hillv, the
highest point, the Sugar J^oaf, rising 1,8.56 feet. \Vheat,
oats, and barley are grown, coal, iron, and limestone abound,
and mines are extensively worked. I'op. (1891) :J.52,41G.
The county formed part of Wales until 1535, and the Welsh
language is still in general use. County town, Moninoutli.
Moiinier, mo ni-n. Marc: scholar and writer ; b. at Flor-
ence, Italy, of a French father and a (Tencvese mother, Dec.
7, 1829. After studying at Xaiiles, Paris, (ieneva. Heidel-
berg (1851-52), he finally settled iti Naples, remaining from
1855 to 1864. Then he removed to Geneva, becoming corre-
spondent for several Parisian journals, notably the Juiirnal
des Debats, and soon after Professor of Comparative jjilera-
ture in the university. His lectures were remarkably suc-
cessful, and hearers came from all over Europe to his
courses. lie died at Geneva, Apr. 18, 1885. His earlier
published works were mainly pamphlets and books con-
cerning Italy, for which he had t he keenest sympatliy. One
of these, L'itulie est-elle la tcrre des marts ? (1830), made a
sensation in Europe. Later he began to publish on purely
literary subjects, Les lileMX. de Figaro (1868), a brilliant
.<udy in the history of the drama; Geneve et ses poetes du
XVI' siecle d nos jours (1874); Les conies poputaires en
Italie (1880). In his last years lie was at Vork on an exten-
sive Histoire de la lifferalure moderne, to be made up from
the lectures he had been giving for so many years, lie suc-
ceeded in publishing, however, only two Volumes, La Re-
naissance, de Dante a Luther (1884) and La Reforme, de
Luther a Shakspeare (1885). Besides these more serious
labors we have from his pen several interesting lighter pro-
ductions— a romance, Les amours permises (1861); a series
of short plays for marionettes, published in 1871 under the
title Theatre de Marionnetles; and several volumes of
verse, Lucioles (1863); Poesies (1873): La vie de Jesus, in
verse (1875); a translation of Goethe's Faust (1876); and
Recils et Monologues, vers (1880). A. R. Marsh.
Monobromate of Camplior : a substance used as a
drug; made by heating together in a sealed tube camphor
and bromine. It occurs in colorless crystals or scales, and
has a mild taste resembling camphor. It is almost entirely
insoluble in water, but is freely soluble in ether, alcoliol,
and chloroform. It is supposed to possess the combined
powers of the bromides and camphor, and is used as a nerv-
ous sedative. H. A. II.
Monocen'tridae [Mod. liat., deriv. of Gr. /iSvas. single +
Ktvrpov, spine] : name of a family of fishes of the order Teleo-
rep/iali and sub-order Acanthopteri, rejiresented by a single
known species. 3IoHocen.tr is japonic.us, which is an inhabi-
tant of the Chinese and .Japanese seas.
Monocliord [from Lat. monnrhnr don — Gr. fwvSxopSov.
liter., a thing with a single string; /iims. alone, single +
XopSv. string] : an instrument ehietly used for the computa-
tion of musical intervals and the adjusting of their respec-
tive ratios with reference to the scale. It consists of a single
string stretched over a board or bos. At each end the
string passes over a liridge, and is fastened to a strong peg
or wrench-pin. Underneath the .string there is usually
placed a scale with numerous divisions and sul)divisions. at
any of whieli the string may be stopped by means of a
movable or sliding bridge, which serves to divide the string
into two parts from any desirable point. The string of tlie
monochord should be "of equal thickness tliroughout, and
strong enough to bear a moderately high tension. For
|)ractical U.SO, a string of sufficient length to give the .sound
of C C with clearness will be found mo.st convenient. Such
a string, if stopped exactly in tlie middle by the movable
bridge, will sound on either side the octave of the (; C — i. e.
the sound of the /lalf length of the string is an octave above
that of its whole length. When stopped at one-thinl of its
length, the sound is an octave and fifth above tluit of the
open string; and one-fourth of its lengtti produces the C of
the second octave, or two octaves aljove C C. The ratios of
all the intervals may be found by pursuing the same proc-
ess of division.
Moiiodiromc : .See Casiavel-.
Monocotyledons [from Gr. /«{i/or, sin-rle, and KoTv\riStii'.
cotyledon]: a sub-class of higher flowering jjlants (Angio-
sperms), cliaracterized by having tlieir leaves, from the first,
alternate (the lowermost, or first leaf, coli/ledon, is thus sin-
gle), the veins of the leaves mostly parallel, the ])arts of
their flowers commonly in threes, and the woody bundles in
their stems separate, and arranged with seeming irregular-
ity. Exceptions to all of these characters occur, but there
is such a general agreement that there is little difficulty in
recognizing the plants which belong to this sub-class. Char-
acteristic Monocotyledons are the lilies, orcliids, palms, and
grasses, nuiny of which are anuiug the most useful and best-
known plants in the vegetable kingdom. Eight orders of
Monocotyledons are pretty well ilefined, including from
thirty to thirty-five families. There are now known about
20.000 species. See Dicotyledons, Plants, Fossil; and
Vegktable Kinodo.m. Charles E. Bessey.
Moiiod, mo'nod . Prkdehic JoiiL .Ieax Gerard: theolo-
gian: b. at ]\loniiaz, Switzerlan<l. May 17,1794; was edu-
cated at Geneva; suc<'eeded his father. Jean Jlonod (1765-
1836), in the pastorate of the National Protestant Church of
the Oratoire, Paris, but seceded in 1848, and became the
leader of the Free Evangelical movement. D. in Paris,
Dec. 30, 1863. — His brother, Auolpiie, succeeded him in the
[)astorate at Paris in 1847. and was an able orator and au-
thor of the orthodox school. He was born at Copenliagen,
Jan. 21, 1802; died in Paris, Apr. 6, 1856. He published
Lucile (1841); Saint-Paul (1851); La Femme (1862): and
several volumes of sermons. His Ijife. by one of his daugh-
ter.?, appeared in English translation (London. 1885).
Revised by S. M. Jacksox.
Moiiodelphia : See Placextalia.
Monogram [from Lat. monogram'ma: Gr. iJi6vos. single
(i. e. together in one) -I- 7pa/i/uz, h'tter. thing written, deriv.
oi ypi(piiv, write]: a character nuide up of all or the more
important letters of a proper name. Tliis is the strict sense
of the word: a character made up of two or three initial
letters; as, for instance, J. Q. A. for John Quincy Adams is
not a monogram, but a Cipuer (ij. v.). Moreover, the char-
acter (&^c., or, as modified, &c., .stan<ling for et cetera, is not a
mo!iogram because not made up of a proper name. It will be
seen, therefore, that real monograms are very une<immon.
The great number of ciphers used by en- _
gravers, book-printers, etc.. in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries include hardly a
lialf-dozen real monograms. A perfect one
is seen in Mr. Philippe Burty's stamp (see
cut), put upon the prints of his fine collec-
tion. The best known monogram is that of
the word Christ in its Greek form. XPI2T02.
The letters X P do not neees.sarily form a monogram, but
when combined thus O they form one which lias been
in use for centuries, y^ See Labarum. R. Stl'ruis.
Mono Lake: a l)ody of water in Central California, E.
of tlie Sierra Nevada. It is without outlet, and is variable
in area. In 1883 it was 13^ miles in diameter from E. to W.
and 11 miles from N. to S., and had an area of 85-5 sq. miles,
a mean depth of about 61 feet, and a maximum depth of
1.52 feet. Its elevation is 6,380 feet above the sea. The
mouiitains along its southern border rise from 6.000 to 7,0(tO
feel above its surface. The water contains .53-47 grammes
of various salts to the liter, of which 18'.5 are sodium
chloride, 22-6 sodium carbonate and bicarbonate, and 11
sodium sulphate. The high percentage of sodium carbon-
ate and bicarbonate, aiiKmnting to 42'25 per cent, of the
total solids in solution, makes the brine of commercial
value; by estimate the lake contains nearly 200.000,000 tons
of these salts. Tlie water is so inten.sely saline and alkaline
that it is uninhabited by fishes, but it swarms with the
larva' of insects and with small crustaceans known as brine
shrimps. The lake was formerly 680 feet deeper than it is
now, as is shown by ancient beaches, and had an area of
316 sq. miles. Israel C. Russell.
Monomania: See Insaxitv.
Mouometallism: See Monetary Standards.
Mtinongaliela City: city (chartered as a city in 1873);
Washinglon co.. Pa. (for location of countv, see map of
Pennsylvania, ref. 5-A) ; on the Monoiigahela river, and
the Pcnn. and the Pitts, and Lake Erie railways; 21 miles
S. of Pittsburg. It is in a coal, petroleum, ami natural-gas
^n
MOXONGAIIKLA UIVKR
MONOPOLIES
855
region, and hiis the only mniiufactory of carborundum in
the U.S. The city luis elcetrie lights, brick-paved streets,
thorough sewerage, 2 private banks, and 2 dally ami 2
weekly newspapei-s, and paner, (lour, and planing mills,
machine-shops, foundries, siiip-yard and ilocks, and the
usual indiistri<'s cDnneiteil with coal-mining. Pop. (1H80)
2,U04; (I8y0) iO'Jti; (18'J4) li,U84.
Editor of " Daily Republican."
Mnnongiilioln River: a stroaui which rises in Randolph
CO., West Va., Ilows X. liOO miles in a tortuous course and
joins the .Allegheny to form the Ohio al Pittsburg, Pa. It
is navigable bv slackwater improvements IDG miles to Mor-
ganlown. W. Va., and 200 miles for keel-boats. It flows
through a fertile aiul highly prosperous region abounding in
<oal, timber, and various minerals. The navigable Youghi-
ogheny i> its most important tributary.
Moiioph'ysi tes [ from ( i r. iwvocpvairns. monophysitc : lUms.
single + (piais. nature]: pirsons adhering to the doctrine
of monophysitism. I. The Monophysiles were an Ori-
ental sect originating in the fifth century in the views of
Ei'TvrnKs ((/. c), concurring in the main with them, though
with certain specific dilTercnces. They held that though
Christ is of two natures, which became conjoined at the
incarnation, he does not subsist in two natures. (See
CuRisTOUKiv.) There is in this sense but one nature, after
ihe union, though that nature involves and embraces two
|iarls. The human is not annihilaleil, but is virtually lost,
or virtually, though nut essentiallv, absorbed in the divine
— " like a little honey mingled wilji the ocean." The N'eslo-
rians virtually argued there are two natures, therefore there
must be two persons; the Monophysiles, there is but one
persons, therefore there can be but one nature — both argu-
ing in this way from a true premise to a false conclusion.
II. The spirit of the JloiiO|iliysites was that of their era.
fierce ami bl ly. tJnly internal harmony was needed to
make them very formidable ; l)Ut a system which originated
in extravaganci' and confusion of thought ran out of neces-
sity into a number of sects. These multiplied rapidly alter
the extinction of the hones of the Monoohysites to main-
tain themselves as the ortliodo.x and catholic Church of the
Hast. The sects which arose were a-s follows: (1) The
.\ci'phaloi : (2) the Julianisls; (:^) the Severians; (4) the
•lulianists; (T>) from the Severians sprang the .\gnoetists ;
li) the Trilheists; (T) the Damianists ; (8) the Cononites ;
on the Niobitcs.
III. The most important councils as.sociated with the
history of the Monophysites are — (1) the Council of Con-
stant iiiople (448-449) : (2) the '• Robber Synod " at Ephesus,
which restored Eutyches (44!l) : (S) the C'ouneil of Chalce-
don, the fourth (ecumenical (451). It decided that the two
natures are united without fusion, without mutation, imli-
visibly ami inseparably — one Christ in two natures. It is
renuirkalile, however, that the common (ireek text reads
"o/two natures," which is the precise form preferred by
the Monophysites. (See Milnscher, Ilnndbneh d. Doymen.
(iesch., iv., 101.) The.se results were accepted universally in
the Western Church, and very generally in Ihe East, but
were rejected with great violence, as Nestorianizing, wher-
ever the Monophysites were in force.
IV. The struggle was violent an<l protracted between the
parties. (1) In I'niestini' the diphysite bishops were ex-
pelled, and Theodosius was nuide Patriari'h of .lerusalem.
(2) In Eijiipt, under the presbyter ^Klurus and the deacon
Mongus. the Monophysites .separated themselves. (U) In
Aniiiich, Peter the Puller, from whom the Monophysiles
are sometimes called Fidlonians, attempted to introduce
into the Trisjigion the formul.i, "Thou (tlod) werl crucified
for us," which the enemies of the Mon<ipliysiles insisted
must mean that the divine nature was cruiified if Christ
had but one nature, and called them Theopaschites. (4)
The Emperor /.eno(4.S2) put forth the Ihiwliron (agreenu-nt),
which was designed to harmonize the ciuitending parties.
It used geiu>ral expressions, which ignori'd the exact iMiints
at issue, avoided eiinally the phrases "one nature ' and
"two natures," enndemned Imtn Eutyches ami Xestorius.
and nuide an allusion to the Council of Chaleedon which
wius far from respectful. It widened the breach and in-
flamed the aninu)sity. (.1) IVnu- Eelix III. (4.'<:i-4'.»2) pro-
nounced against the llennlicim and excommunicated
.Veaeius, the Patriarch of Constantinoiile (484). This led to
a suspension of communion between tlie Western and East-
ern Churches for thirty-f(mr years. (0) The Emnemr .\nas-
tasius I. (4111-518) at tiie beginning of his reign held fast to
the IffiKiliron. with an evident leaning to the Monophysites.
(7| In addition to the doctrimil Interests there wasastruggle
between Rome and Constantinople for bupremacy. Rome
and orthodoxy came forth triumphant. Justin l.(4!Hi-^t'i7),
with Pope Ilormisilas (.")I4-o2;f), ellected the reunion of the
Greek and Eatin Churches (.")18), the llriinlicun was set
aside, the decUions of the Council of Chaliedoii were es-
tablished, the bishops dejxiscd bv the .Monophysites were re-
stored, the fornnda of faith demamled by the \io\tis way
acknowledged, Severus and his followers were condeninml.
the names of the obnoxious patriarchs of Constantinople
were stricken from the Uiityc ii Uj. v.). and the names of
Leo the Great and of EuphemUis ami .Macedonius, the
patriarchs of Alexandria, were lns<Tled in them (5 1 it). (H)
The Monophvsilcs were now branded as heretics iMilh by
the state and Ihedonnnant Church. A thousand of their
bishops and other clergy were deposeil, imprisoned, and
outlawed. Prominent among these was Xenayas (Philoxe-
nus, d. .522). (!l) The strength of the Monophysites in
Egypt was so great that they were able to finil in it a ri'fugo
in the time of the terrible storm which had broken on them
(Timotheus, yE^lurus, Severus. .lulian).
1'ho siihere of the Monophysites was the Eiust, where
local anil fjolitical jealousies intensified the disputes which
aro.se with the Church of the West.
(1) Monophysitism was influential in Egypt, from Alex-
andria as a center. In that land it continues to this day.
(See Conic CiiiKcii.) (2) In Syria. Mesopotamia, Asia
Minor, Cv|>rus, and Palestine, under the Patriarch of Anti-
och, the .Nfonophysites take their name from theirorganizer
and restorer. Ihe monk and presbyter Jacob liara<lai, and
are known as Jacoiutks {q. v.).
The Akmenia.n Church i,q. v.) is nominally monophysite.
The total number of the Monophvsites is probably aliout
9.000.000. See Dorncr's Jlmton/ of the Doctrine of (lie I'er-
son of Clirixt (18til-t};{). Revised by S. .">I. J.vcKsy.x.
Monop'onps [from Lat. monnpo'lium =Gt. nomw^Xim:
n6voi. ahine. sole + ■Ka\tiv. .sell] : '1 he |Kissession t)y an inili-
vidual or by a group of individuals of the exclusive right
or the exclusive power to supply or to demand s<inie siKH'ial
kind of goods or services is a monopoly. The word is often
used to include special personal gifts, e. g. those of a great
musician or artist, or pos,sessions that from their nature are
strictly limited in extent, as special tracts or ]iieces of land.
(See Rknt.) In its ordinary broad meaning, however, the
word is applied only to a braiuh of business which, from
whatever cause, is jiractlcally — not neces.sarily entirely or
legally — controlled by one executive head.
From various iHtints of view monopolies have lioen classed
as natural and artiticlal, public and private, ceneral and
local, permanent and temporary. ])roductive and trade mo-
nopolies, monopolies of (lurchiuse and of sale, etc. For the
purposes of this article it is best to recognize (1) legal mo-
nopolies: (2) natural monopolies; (:?) capitalistic monofiolies.
with various kinds under each. It will be mited, t<K), from
the course of the discus.sion, that these titles are not lu-oos-
sarily exclusive, but that they rather serve only to empha-
size Important characteristics of origin or nature.
liEcfAL .MoNoroi.iKs. — («) Stale Mminfmlirn. — Simon Steme
calls attention to Ihe fact that the greatest of state monopo-
lies is that of government itself. We are apt to overlook
the fact that the functions of Ihe stale are monoiM>li,slic. or
else to think that these functions are <-learly limllt-<l and pe-
culiar in theirnature. A brief conslileration. however, shows
us that the sphere of the stale's m(ino|Hilistlc activity may lie
confined lo the protection of the slate fn>m external attack
and internal revolution, or it may be extended to include
more and more of the duties usually left to private enler|>risc
until we n'ach the socialistic state, in which the goyernmont,
the one monopolist, controls all business.
With some dilTerenees. however, the practice of the great
modern states is to monopolize only those lines of business
that are of vital intenvst to the jieople. and in wlios*' man-
agement the peopli' must have eotifldenee For example,
the education of ehildren, the coin: < "• > 'lie cnn> of
highways, tin' imstal service, the p^ .-enerallv
cared f()r by Ihe states imd are USUI
A chief pur|Kise of many stale inoiioi'obes, <-s|i»imlly in early
times, has bei-n to priH'ure n'venue. Regular taxation, in the
historical ilevelopment of nations, is a late exi>edient for
raising revenue, early states being eom|H'lled to rely uj-on
income from state fands, mines, and claims and rights of
various kinds. Ancient Grvece and Rome furnish examples
856
MONOPOLIES
of monopolies of salt and other mines, though corruption of
the lessees sometimes niaile them ui!|ini(it!il)le. The Jliddle
Ages fiirnisli numerous instances. Tlie Emperor Frederick
II. is saitl by Cibrario to have established in Naples early in
tlie thirleentli century monopolies of iron, salt, copper, raw
silk and wine, wliile salt was a state monopoly also in Venice,
Pisa, and Zurich, and a century later in France ; and in his
account of the Italy of Dante's time he tells us of a monop-
oly of guardianships, from which large sums were obtained
for permission to marry. The development of the monarch-
ical system in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with
the niereantilistic doctrine of the same period, however,
gave a great impulse to state activity and state interference
in industry, and in tliis period state monopolies for revenue
purposes especially flourished. In Spain, Italy, (ieruiany,
France, and elsewhere, such objects ji-s colTee, iiowder. wheat,
playing-cards, and alcohol were monopolize<l by the state.
Colbert introduced the monopoly of tobacco into France in
1674, the business being farmed out. Austria introduced it
in 1670.
At present we find state monopolies for fiscal purposes in
many states: e. g. salt in Austria. Italy, Greece, Kouniania,
Servia, Turkey, and in part in India, while the production is
so controlled in Prussia that an enormous tax can be col-
lected from it; toliaceo in Turkey, France, Italy, Austria-
Hungary, and Spain; opium in Turkey and parts of India;
watches and gunpowder in France; alcohol, since 1887, in
Switzerland, in Russia until 1862. The purpose of the alco-
hol monoi)oly in Switzerland is also iu part to reduce the
consumption of alcohol and lessen alcoholism. The same
purpose is aimed at in the Gothenburg system iu Sweden,
whicli is a monopoly of the sale of spirits farmed out to a
private company. South Carolina in July, 1893, put into ef-
fect a law making the sale of alcoholic liquors a State mo-
no|ioly. After some riots, brought about by the vigorous
efforts of Gov. Tillman to enforce tlie law, the courts finally
declared the law unconstitutional.
(^uite opposed to these laws in spirit is the monopoly of
the state lottery in Prussia, Saxony, Hamburg, Spain, Aus-
tria, and Italy, from which large sums are put into the
state treasury by encouraging a popular vice.
Many of these monopolies, especially that of tobacco,
have proved very satisfactory from the fiscal standpoint,
while some authorities are of the opinion that whenever a
common necessity like salt becomes a natural monopoly it
ought for the safety of the public to be made a state mo-
nopoly.
(b) Private monopolies granted hy government became
very common in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
They had at times a fiscal aim, as they were often sold ; but
so many anil so important kinds of business, including salt,
leather, coal, soajj, cards, beer, wine, etc., became thus mo-
nopolized, largely through gifts to courtiers in England in
the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., that Parliament had
to protest vigorously, and Sir Edward Coke, in l(i02, in the
famous case of Darcy vs. Allin, decidinl that while the king
could grant a temporary monopoly, thus recognizing the
value of patents, all grants in restraint of trade were ille-
gal. In 1625 an act of Parliament limited this power to
the granting of patent rights.
^lonopolistic grants, however, to great commercial and
colonizing companies from different states of that time may
well be juslifie<l, e. g. such as were given to the East India
Company, founded 1600; the Dutch East India Company
1602; Hudson Bay Company, 1670; John Law's Company
of the West, 1717. afterward t!he Company of the Indies, 1719
(the Missis,-.! ppi scheme) ; and many others. Though the last
proved a gigantic speculative failure, and though even the
first two did not ])rove so successful financially as liad been
hoped, yet the advantage of the monopoly of tra<ie and gov-
crinnent granted them seems clear. So largo amounts of
cai)ilal were needed to carry out the enterprises; the time
that nuist elapse before any returns could bo ho])ed for was
so long; the risks, not merely of the business but also of
capture of ships by hostile nations and by pirates, were so
great; the necessity of dealing promptly and finally with
semi-civilized, barbarous, and savage peoples was so imper-
ative, that possibly no one could have been found willing to
undertake the enterprises unless a monopoly of the trade
and even of some of the prerogatives of government were
granted in advance.
The al)use of power by the governments, as has been
shown, led to a reaction against the monopolies, while the
raereantilistic doctrines that had tended to foster them
were greatly weakened in popular favor in the latter part
of the eighteenth century, especially under the attacks of
Turgot in France and Adam Smitli in Great Pritain. The
era of free trade and laissez faire set iu, and only since the
rise of the socialistic movement has there been a vigorous
effort made to strengthen and extend legal and especially
state monopolies.
(c) A patent right given by the government of a state se-
cures to the owner and his assigns the nu)nopoly of the manu-
facture and sale of the patented article for a fixed term of
years ; in the U. S. seventeen years. The object is, of course,
to stimulate invention, and no thinking person woulil deny
either the right or the advisability of the state to secure to an
inventor the fruits of his intellectual activity ; but whether
this justice to the inventor is best secured by a patent nm-
nopoly or not is doubtful. Some think that the desired end
woukl be better gained by granting to the inventor a royalty
on all the articles of his invention manufactured, while leav-
ing free to any one on payment of tliis royalty the right of
manufacture. Copyrights and trade-marks are of the same
general nature and value as patent rights.
Natvkal monopoliks have beconu> in the most highly
civilized states of greater significance, ])erhaps, than legal
monopolies. Of these monopolies there are to be distin-
guished two chief classes, although the line between the
two can not be sharjily drawn : 1. The first includes those
lines of business of which the outjiut is closely limited by
natural causes, with relatively speaking little reference to
the amount of capital employed, as, for cxamjile, the mining
of nickel, or the use of a water-power; or it miglit be the
employment of the finest view-point near some natural won-
der, as Niagara Falls. Wherever, from purely natural
reas(ms. the possession and management of the business by
one legal person excludes that of another, we have a natural
monopoly of this first class. Generally speaking, these mo-
nopolies are relatively of little econonnc significance for the
industrial world as a whole, though they may be of great
local value, and have often \>een made state monopolies for
revenue purposes. Were there luit one or a few coal or iron
mines in the world their owners would have a dangerous
monopoly. As it is, it has been found that competition be-
tween the owners of different mines will generally prevent
too gross exactions, although the anthracite coal mines in
the U. S., acting in conjunction with railways, have at
times proved oppressive. The private ownership of the
land about Niagara Falls was opjircssive to tourists, but it
had little effect upon general economic conditions. It must
be noted that these iijitural monopolies presujiposc private
ownership guaranteed by law. The natural monopoly of
personal ability and of land ownershiji, properly classed
here, may be jiassed with the mention of them.
2. The second class of the so-called naliiral monopolies
includes all those lines of business that have been designated
as " indn.strics of increasing returns," i.e. imlustries that,
when once firmly established, for an added amount of
capital invested will give a product more than proportional
to that on the first investment. The chief industries of this
class are railways, the telegraph, tele]ihone, ti'amways, gas
ami electric lighting works, water-works, etc., and are prac-
tically all modern. In Eurojie the railways are often state
monopolies, the telegi'aph is uniformly so, and municipalities
frequently own and nuinage the gas-works and sonu'times
the ti'amways. In the U. S. such enterprises are private
generally, excepting water-works. After a railway has been
once put into running order its carrying capacity can be
doubled at an outlay of capital far less than the original
one. Some of these industries are almost identical with
the first class of natural immopolies. while others are more
nearly like the capitalistic monopolies mentioned below. It
is not practicable, even if it were profitable, for many com-
peting tramway lines to be laid in the same street, owing to
lack of space. The same principle holds regarding gas and
water works. On the other hand, there is room enough in
all country districts for many competing telegraph or tele-
phone or even railway companies to do business if it were
profitable. It is only the fact that such lines would not be
profital>l(! that i)revents their construclidn. The nature of
development (jf the business is the chief mark of di.-^tinction
between these two classes.
Capitalistic monopolies is perhaps the best name for
those industries that become monopolized simply through
the business advantages that arise from the use of large
capital. Only of late years has this kind of monopoly be-
come prominent, and that chiefly in the U. S., but indica-
I
MONOPOLIES
857
tions seem to point to its extension. The licst-knnwn ox-
aiii|ilus of tapiliilisllc inononoly in the U. S. are tlie Sii(;ar-
rcfmories C'onipaiiy (Siisfiir Iriist), the Distillers ami Cattlc-
fecders t'oni|>UM_v (Whisky Trust), atnl the Standard Oil
Coiiipany, althiju;;li thr hust nientidned, so far as it lia-s had
to ilo with the production or shiimiriil nf iruile oil, either
l)V railway or pipe-line, is in f;oo(i part a natural niono|>oly
also, and allhoujjii, further, the .Standanl Uil Company
achieved its power lar;;ely throu;;h the a.-sislance of the
railways, which are natural monopolies. The capitalistic
niono|Kilies can not always lie sharply distin;;uished from
the natural nionoplies of the second chu^s meiilioned above;
but. fienerallv spcakin;;, they are not to any ncjtieeable ex-
tent inihistries of increasinf? returns, and the advantages
that -Mialile them to become monopolies arc mostly of the
nature of sjivinj; in cost of distribution of product or of
mana<;ement. For example, for a su};ar-refinery to double
its output would in niany ca-ses involve the outlay of nearly
as much capital as ilid the ori^'iiial establishment, while for
a street-railway to double its carryinj^f capacity would prol>-
ably involve only the purchase of extra cars and tnictiou-
nowcr, the road-bed remaining the same. On the other
hand, twenty supir-rclineries workin<; in harmony under
the same manai;emcnt could save in many ways, ami be
run for much less than if each refinery were managed inde-
]X"ndently.
A tni.tt. as the word is applied to monopolies, is simply
a form of business orijanization, iismilly of a capitalistic
moiujpoly. As nearly all natural monopolies of the second
cla'iS mentioned above and all aipilalistic nuumpolies re-
quire the investment of vast capital, nearly all have lx?en
orpmized as corporatiiuis. The trust is a device to com-
bine into one compact harmonious working whole any num-
ber of ililferent corporations with dillerinj; interests.
As the writer of this article stated in The Economic Jour-
nal lA Mar.. IH'Ji, '• to accomplish this result it is necessary —
(1) That the interests of the ditrerent corporations be made
common. ('2) That the m.inai,'cincnt of the iliU'crent corpo-
rations be made harmonious. (.'!) That no corporation or in-
dividual have it in his power to withdraw from or to break
up the organization, as is done under pooling systems. In
forming the trust to accomplish these ends: (1) The ma-
jority of the stlX^kholders of each coriioration interested
(in the case of some of the trusts — as tiie Cotton-oil Trust
and'the Sugar Trust — nil the stockhoMers) surrendered in
trust their shares of stock to a board of trustees of nine or
eleven men; i.e. they gave to this board an irrevocalile
p)wer of attorney or proxy, by virtue of which this board
neld a majority of votes in each one of the corporatiohs,
and could therefore elect its odicers and direct its policy.
This naturally harmonized the actions of all, ami. the trus-
teeship being irrev(x-able. no individual can make trouble.
(2) To protect the sto< kholders and make their interests
common, this board of trustees issues to the stockholders, in
lieu of their surrendered stock, trust certilicates. The
profits of all the various corporations are |>ut into one com-
mon fund bv the trustees, and then divided among the
holders of tlie trust certificates pro rata. The holder,
therefore, of each oertilicate receives the same dividend,
whether the eorporatiim whose stix-k he surrenders pays a
high or a low prolit, or even is closed and makes no profit
at all. It is rea<lily seen that this arrangement nnikes it to
the interest of each trust-certificate ho|ih-r that those estab-
lishments be run that nnikc the best profits, whether these
include his own establishment or not, antl that the |x>orer
ones bo shut down if they are not needed. The plan has
been uniformly successful in attaining its ends. In practice
it has generally Ik'cu fouml ailvisable to leave the manage-
ment of the individual corporations in the hands of their
former olTicers, and they have exercised their power at dis-
cretion ; but in every case the power of removal is of co\irse
in the hands of this l)oard of trustees, so that their judg-
ment will bo followed, and any lai-k of success in manage-
ment is sure to meet its penalty."
The trust may easily be put back into the corporation
form by issuing to each trust-certificate holdera corres|Hind-
ing amount of capital slwk. giving him an uiidividi-d in-
terest in all establishments represented. This plan ha-s
been followed by sonu> of the trusts under the pressure of
hostile decisions by the courts.
The iwusKs ok i.vDrsxRiAL as distinct from statk mo-
Noi»OLV may be .said to lie in the nunlern form of industrial
organization itself, the form that was the outcome of the
steam-engine, the power-loom, the railway, the telegraph.
and the other great inventions of the age. Of cours<', in this
whole discussion the ordinary ci-onoinic motives on which
demand for products depemls. and in accordance with which
demand fluctuates, are assumeil. The nwessity of iloing
business on a great scale ha-s altered the nature of <'om|icti-
tion itself: and from exces.sive competition, where coiniieti-
tion is possible at all, springs the great coinbinulion of in-
terests that ri'sults in practical nuinopoly; and vet this
competition manifests its<'lf in difTerenl ways. It' has al-
ready been noticed that in some natural mnno|Hilies, as street-
railways, no competition is [Hr^^ible, U'caiise the nature of
the business does not permit two companies to work in the
same place. In the ca.se of railways a would-l* coiii|M>titor
may lay another track Upside the original on<'. ami enter into
competition ; but the principle of increjusing returns that a|>-
plics to su<-li a business shows us that the iiicreasi'd work, if
any, accomplished by the two railways might have IxM-n far
more cheaply done by increasing the plant of the first one.
If competition begins between the two railways, and each is
able to do all or nearly all the business, rather than lose its
traflic each can afford to carry freight at any price aUne
the running cost, thus losing the interest in part or whole
on the original inveslmenl. Experience shows that in the
case of parallel railways competition often actually dcK-s
continue, until both railways carry freight at losing rates,
or combination is effected by means of a lease, or |Miol,.or
other device. Parallel railways are at times built for the
mere purpose of forcing the original railway to purchase or
lea.se Ihein. in order to avoid the excessive c<iinpelition.
The ca.se of great nianufa<turing establishments, e. g.
sugar-refineries, distilleriesof alcohol, cofton-factorii's. which
are not natural monopolies, and which are subject to the
principle of increasing relunis to no such extent as are rail-
ways, is nevertheless, as regards competition, not materially
dilterent. Although a new rival fact<iry might perhai>s bo
built nearly as clieaiily as the original one couhl ilouble its
capacity, yet if two factories representing large invest-
ments of capital come into competition, it often liap|iens
that, ralher than lose trade, or shut down, to the certain
destruction of much of the capital, both companies will run.
perhaps must run, when their gains are not enough to ]iav
fair interest on the capital invested, in aihlition to the run-
ning expenses. The only remedy is combination, either
tacit, with a common ceasing to cut prices, or formal,
through a pool, or trust, or jiurchase. To be sure, com|x-ti-
tion may ruin the weaker eslalilishment, leaving the fittest
to survive : but w here large capital is invested, and the coin-
(letitors are fairly evenly matched, this result is not so easily
reached as is a combination, nor in many cases is it eco-
nomically desirable. In the early days of the civil war in
the U. .S. the (iovernment, by raising the internal revenue
tax on alcohol to 20 cents a gallon, then to fid cents, then to
^l.."iO. then to f 2.1KI, with in each case a consiilerable interval
of tiiiie intervening before the higher rate was iiii|H>se<l
after it had licen ann(>unce<l. so incri'ased distillers' profits
that a large number of new distilleries were built, far inon-
than enough to supply the normal demand forah-ohol. The
result of the fierce competition that ensued was the ruin of
some distillers, but nearly all the larger establishments sur-
vived, though there was relatively little or no profit in the
business for most of them. To improve their conditic'ii Ihey
found if necess^iry to unite in a ihioI. to limit their priMluc-
tion, and at times even to tax tneinsi'lves to ex|Hirt alcohol
at a loss in onler to secure belter jirices on the home market.
The tenacity o( invested capital and the fierceness of the
com|H>tition which finally leil to the combiiialion into the
Whisky Trust, which, under various names ir f or-
pinizaiii>n. has U'cn able to securi' nion' i . are
shown by the fad that at one tiini' all " '' ■■
l«iol, some eighty in numlHT. ai;reed t'
at i>nly 40 [HT cent, of fhi'ir normal i ,
and later, another year, at only 2.'* iK-r cent, of this en) «<■-
itv; and al.«o bv the further "fact t1i;it. nfler th>> foniinti..n
of the trust, twelve of the U'sf il ■ the
full extent of their ca|iacity pr I as
had the eighty distilli>ries l>efore. ^ni -
on the capital inve-tiMl in llnni all. "
perhaps not s<i strikinjr, iti !ii. l.i-t.Tv ■ :
cotton-<iil. ami cotton! umfrti'ture, as well a.s, in a
less prominent way. lb' us of lurnlier-dpalers, mill-
ers, steel-manufacturers, etc.. and the many lix'al ass<X'io-
tions in all lines of liusincss, a main feature of whos»' exist-
ence is t he effort to keep up prices by hindering c<un|>i'tition —
all lead to the conclusion that, when business is done on a
858
MONOPOLIES
large scale, so much is at risk that, witli exceptions lierc and
there, too fierce and yet necessary competition is the force
that drives couipetitoi's into combination more or less com-
plete with the purpose of securing prices that are, in fact.
nu>nopoly p'"'''t's, thougli they may not be high enough to
yield great profits. To say that the cimiljinaliuus are maile
for the purpose of securing large capital in order to elfect
the saving made by more complete organization, is to state
the same fact from another standpoint.
Some of the strongest combinations, notably the Stand-
ard Oil Company, have been aided in their growth to mo-
nopoly by the special freight rates granted them by the
railways. In this way one company may have succeeded in
crushing or absorbing its competitors instead of being
forced to unite with them on equal terms ; but in this case
as before the fierceness of competition springing from mod-
ern melliods of production with largo capital has produced
the monopoly, which is powerful enough to prevent, within
certain limits, effective competition.'
37je lienetits of monopolies — if by that term we under-
stand tlie great business organizations that, by virtue of
their strength, are often enabled to put down 'smaller com-
petitors almost at will, and that obtain prices higher than
would be possible under a system of equal competition, al-
though they may not be entirely without competition — are
often great, both to the owners and to the community,
though sometimes the benefits to the community may ije
more than offset by accompanying disadvantages:
1. When competition becomes fierce, there is frequently
upon the market a supply of goods so great that it can
not be sold at remunerative prices. Either the amount pro-
duced by each must be lessened, or some of tlie competing
establishments must stop business entirely. In actual busi-
ness it frequently happens that competitors agree to limit
each his output to less than his producing capacity, of
course at a waste of invested capital. If now all combine
into one great institution with harmonious interests, a great
saving will be effected by working the Ijest plants at their full
capacity, and stopping the others entirely, turning them to
other purposes to the best advantage |)ossible. The monop-
oly then saves to society capital and labor that would other-
wise be unprofitably employed ; or, assuming that no com-
bination is made, and many fail in business, the monopoly
mislit have saved much of the capital thus lost by being
forced out of business. 2. The saving in industrial energy
obtained by putting all production in any one line under
the management of the leading experts is almost incalcu-
lable. 3. A great organization with brandies in various
parts of the country saves much in transportation. Each
customer is served from the establisliment nearest him.
In the case of bulky articles, such as salt, sugar, or oils,
this saving is very large. 4. The saving in a large estab-
lishment from side products that in a small one must needs
be wasted is great. The solicitor of the Standard Oil Com-
pany writes that in tliis way " the cost of manufacture of
lubricating oils and wax in connection with the refining of
petroleuui has been reduced by improved methods and con-
stant attention, and tlie price has been constantly reduced,
averaging to-day (188!)) 50 per cent, less than in 1878." 5. A
cheapening of manufacture is often made in materials also
from careful study liy experts and from a complete organi-
zation, neither of which would be possible in a small estab-
lishment. According to the experience of the Standard Oil
Company : '• In 1873 barrels cost the trade .|2..'ii') each. They
are now manufactured at ovir own manufactories at a cost
of .^1.25 each. Aliout ;!..500.00U barrels arcs used per annum.
This single item amounts to §4,000,000. In 1874 cans cost
30 cents each. They are now made by our manufactories for
less than 15 cents. Thirty-six million cans are used each
year, and this one item of saving amounts to §5,400,000 each
year." The same cheapening process he shows in wooden
cases, pumps, stills, tanks, and every thins used in the busi-
ness. Of course, many or all of these articles would have
been cheapened within that time if made by others for tlie
use of smaller eslalilisliments. and it is probable that the
difference in the money standard was not fully taken into
account. Still it liolds trui^ that this may well be a great
source of saving to tiie community, made by the monopolies.
6. In addition to the advantages mentioned, the managers
of the great monopolies claim a lowering of prices ami a
steadying of prices, both of wliich claims are commonly de-
nied. It is charged also against tliem that their power en-
ables them to force down undidy the prices of raw material
and wages.
Their influence on prices may profitably be considered in
detail. The fixing of prices by all who have goods to sell is
for the pur|)ose of making tlie highest possible profits,
whether the business be a monopoly or be carried on under
a system of free competition. Such a truism seems neces-
sary as a reply to the feeling often exhibited ai;ainst monop-
olies. The feeling and purpose of a moiiojiolist is the sajiie
as that of any other business man. Their circumstances
differ. The monopolist puts his price as liigli as he can
without thereby lessening the deman<l for his goods more
than enough to counterbalance his high |irofit on each in-
dividual sale. He seeks the greatest net profit. So with the
other; but in the case of tlie monopolist the subjective feeling
of the purchaser alone limits the sale, and lience the price;
in the case of the other it is this feeling working in har-
mony with the desires of competitors to make sales that
fixes prices. If the article to be sold is a luxury that people
can readily do without, or especially if it is an article for
which another can be easily substituted, the monopoly i)rice
will probably not dilfer much from that whicli would be
fixed by free competition. It may even, owing to jirejudice
against monopolies, be lower at times than that. If, how-
ever, the article in question is a neces.sary of life, the mo-
nopoly price may be, and probably will be, fixed much
higher. In the case too of most of the so-called natural
and capitalistic monopolies of which we have spoken another
element enters in fixing price. These monopolies are rather
partial monopolies. Nearly all of them have some few com-
petitors who can not enter seriously into rivalry so long as
the prices are not very much higher than competitive prices
would be, but who would become dangerous rivals if prices
became too exorbitant. On the whole, we might conclude
a priori that we should find prices somewhat, but not very
much, higher than competitive prices, and experience estab-
lishes the conclusion. The monopoly might fix its price be-
low' the competitive price, but it will not.
In the case of the sugar monopoly, the price of refined
sugar began to increase before the formation of the trust,
but that of raw sugar kept pace with it. When the trust
was formed, however, the difference between the prices of
raw and refined sugars increased from about one cent per
])ound and even more occasionally, showing that the trust
was getting a monopoly price and gaining from 1 cent a
pound upward more than would have been possible under
competition. The lessened cost of refining that must have
been made by the trust from its better organization as well
as its greater power both as a buyer and seller, doubtless
made its profits even more than the figures show ; but even
this comparatively small monopolistic price worked in part
its own defeat. After some two years it was enough to
bring about adverse decisions by the courts, involving great
expense and a reorganization. A hoslile public opinion,
and especially the high profits, called into the field new re-
fineries, notably those of Claus Spreekles in Philadelphia,
capable of offering effective competition. Prices were
thus forced down, until the difference in price between
raw and refined sugars was but very little greater than
before the trust was formed. The greater gains, if any. were
practically all from savings under the better organization.
In Mar., 1802, the chief competing refineries were absorbed
by the company, so that since then it has had a more nearly
complete monojioly. The effect was seen at once by an in-
creased profit of one-half cent a jiound within a month,
which soon became an increased profit of nearly, and at
times quite, 1 cent a pound.
The history of the aleoliol refining in the U. S. since 1881
leads to like conclusions. Whenever a pool was formed prices
went up. and the difference bi'twern the jirice of a bushel of
corn and that of the alcohol made from it increased. When
a pool broke, prices and profits fell and remained low till
there was a new organization. After the formation of the
trust prices were cut for a time to force in conqietitors.
Again during 1880 and part of 1800 prices were held low,
because it was found that the higher profits were strength-
ening competitors and calling new ones into the field.
Then more distillers joined the trust, and prices went up
again. So with other similar organizations, such as the Lead
Trust, Standard Oil Company, Cotton-oil Couijiany, Linseed-
oil Combuiation, etc. A careful statistical study shows that
when prices do not go up, the downward tendency previous-
ly existing from new inventions and improved metliods
seems to be cheeked. Though the increased profits coming
from the sources of saving mentioned above may satisfy
some of the stockholders, yet it is generally not enough. A
MONOPTERlDiE
MONOTH ELITES
859
monopoly iiiiKlit often lower prices and still inukc as pootl
[irotils as under free ooinpetilion. It generally does rai:>e
prices.
A monopoly has probably a tendency to steady prices,
llioutrli this tendency is not always clearly nianifested. the
less freipient cliaiifies in prici'S lieiti^ coiiMl<-rl)aliincrd by
the mure than eurrespoiidinj; extent of the changes when
they do come. .See Political Hcience (Quarterly, .Sept., WM,
for statistics of prices.
Evils or Moxoi-olv. — Besides the evils incidentally men-
tioned in connection with the consideration of the elfects of
iiiononolies on prices, the following may be noted: («) The
>peciilation in their stocks ileprives the market of a cliuss of
securities in their nature especially well adapted for safe
investment. (4) lluvinga practically certain market and sure
profits, the monopulists tend to become less enterprising,
inventive, careful in business methods than those under the
spur of compi'tilion. The economic loss from this slothful
spirit can not be computed, but it must be great, and the
social effect must be baneful, (c) The organization of in-
dustrial society on the feudal plan, through the crushing of
weak estalilishmenls or their alisorplion into the few large
monopolies that coutnjl industry, must affect society pro-
foundly; and unless the iidluence of subordinate position is
counteracted in some way not now foreseen, the effect will
be to weaken thi' independence and enterprising spirit of
business men. {il) The possession of enormous capital and
great interests at stake leads sometimes, perhaps often, to
political ('(irruption, buying of legislators, and courts.
AiTiioitiTiKS. — T/ie J-Jioniimir Journal, .lune, 18U1, has
an excellent article by I'rof. Haslable, summing up the
state monopolies employed for revenue purposes; Stourm,
Lfs fimincex de rAiicien Regime; C'ibrario, Economia I'o-
lllica del Medio Em (lib. iii., ch. vi.) ; de I'arieu, Traite
des InipOts (iv., p. 471 (T.): Adam Smith, Wealth of \a-
tions: Kenort of House Committee of Congress on Manu-
factures, Fiftieth Congress, No. 4, 105; Xew York Senate
Keport on Trusts, 1MS8; Ke|)ort of Caruidian Legislature on
Trusts and Combinations, 1888; \V. \V. (.'ook, Tmxts, The
Corporation J'roblem, Stock and Stockholiterx and ('or-
/loration Law {ch. XKi\.); Heach, On Private Corporations
(cli. xli.). The last two authorities cited give an excellent
bibliography of trusts. The Economic Journal (English),
Mar., 18i)2; Politicrit Science Qiiarterlii, Mar., Sept., Dec,
1888, June, 188'.l, SiMit., 18!)4: Atlantic jlon/hl;/. Mar., 1881 ;
.lohn M. Uonliam, Induxirial Liberty; S. C. T. Dodd, Com-
binations, their Uses and Abuses. Jeremiah \V. Je.nks.
Monopter'ulm [Mod. Lat. from nlonop' terns, the typical
genus; (ir. ^vos. single + irrep6v. wing] : name of a family
of the order of eels or Apodes, containing a peculiar species
of fish (Monoplerus j'avanensis), found in the East Indian
and Chino-Japanese seas. It sometimes attains the length
of .3 feet or more.
Moil'otlioisni [fir. ixivos. alone, single, one + Beds, God]:
thed(K'trine or belief that there exists but one (Jod, as dis-
tinguished from polytheism, which teaches the existence of
more than one divinity. Judaism, Christianitv, and Mo-
liammeiianisin are the principal monotheistic religions.
Monntll't'litcs [dr. ij6ms. single + etAfic, wish, will; cf.
SfKrifia. the will]: adherents of monothelilism, the doctriiu!
that there is but one Will in the person of Christ. (See
CuRisToi.oov.) It is oppo.sed to diothelitism. the doctrine
that each nature of Christ pos,se.sses a distinct will, both in
faculty and exercise.
I. 'I'hough monothelitism proceeded from the Catholic
side, it is yet an offshoot of the monophysitic influence on
the Church policy of the Hyzanline court. The monophy-
sile struggles of the fifth and sixth centuries had been the
sources of uproar and of anarchy thnaighout the empire.
The.se at bust a.ssumed such a shape as to threaten its unity
and perpetuity. There seemed tube special ground for the
fear that Egypt, where monophysitism ruled almost without
restraint, would cut itself loose from the orthodox court
in Byzantium and form a separate kingdom. The dangers
of the hour were heightened bv the prolonged war with
the I'ei-sians ((iiO-G'28). Ilerai-lius (t!10-ti41) sought to
avert the threatening evils by removing the terrible schism
which still divided the Chureh. In his interview with
I'aul, the monopliysite Patriarch of .Armenia, the expres-
sion "the one eiu-rgy of Christ " had iH'en usimI, and the
impression it made oil both sides — it is disputed by which
it was first used — suggested that il might be made the basis
of a compromise between the Catholics and the Moiiopliy-
sites. With the Catholics, and in accordance with Chalce-
don, the two natures were to be asserted, and yet with the
doctrine of one theandric energy, one volition, implying
one will, virtual provision wmild' I* made for the sort of
unification for which the .Monophysites contended. Pro-
tracted conferences followed with the inonophysile patri-
archs,' Arcadius of Cyprus and .\thanasius of 'lIiera|>olis,
subsequently of .\ntioeli, und with the orthodox patriarchs,
.Sergius of Constantinople and Cyrus, who was jiluced by
the emperor in the see of Alexandria. Thej* men, repre-
senting the great divided |)arties, were willing to concur in
the doctrine propounded by the emperor as one which
would preserve the truth, foV which on each side the con-
test had been protracted. The first fruit of the compro
mise was that, under (he energetic efforts of Cvrus. the
Severians of Egypt were brought Imck to the orlhoilox
Church (fl:i;j). The Monophysites, who were not satisficxl,
were yet forced into com|iliaiice.
II. (1) Sophronius, a learned ralestinlan monk, who at
the time of the union was in Alexandria, maintained, es-
pecially against the seventh proposition of Cvrus, iluit the
doctrine was in conflict with orthodoxy. \Vhen ((i;!4) he
became Patriarch of Jerusalem he caused it to be con-
demned by a synod, on the ground that two natures involve
two natural energies of will, two operations, two wills, and
that in Christ the energy of each nature, of each will, ojicr-
ates under the coencrgy of the other nature, the other will,
undivided and unmingled. (2) fin the appeal of Sergius,
Pope Ilonorius 1.(625-6:38) advised that llie whole c|ues-
tion should be dropped as involving fruitless speculation.
Nevertheless he decided in favor of the moni'lhelite view
(6o3). (;j) On this declaration the emperor fell himself
authorized to put forth a new creed, uniler the title Ecthesis
pisteos (exposition of faith, 6:58). Probably it was written
by Sergius. Its language is ambiguous ; ii forbids all con-
trovei-sy on the question; and while it confirms the doc-
trine of Chttlccdon, it maintains that we are to '•ascribe all
the operations in Christ, the human as «idl as the divine,
to the Word incarnate. . . . Every operation pnx'eededtrom
the same incarnate Word, without division or confusion. , . .
Christ's Ixuly, though animated with a rational soul, pro-
duced no motion whatever of it.self." (4) Jleanwhile So-
phronius had been keeping up a corresfKindence with Home,
but an end was put to all the negotiations in that direction
by the Mohammedan inva.sion of Pali'stine and Egypt (6:J7-
640). While lhe.se events cut off .Sophronius from connec-
tion with the rest of the Christian world, his adherents,
Stephen in the East and the abUit Maximus in the West,
worked in his spirit. (5) Pyrrhus, the successor of .Sergius
in the see of Constantinople (6:5!)), approved of the Ecthesis,
but was led by Maximus |645) to renounce it. An African
general synod (646) without a dissenting voice condeiiinetl
monothelilism. After theileath of Ilonorius (6:18) Po[K'Sev-
erinus declared against the Ecthesis. Po|k' John I\ . (640-
042) condemned the Ecthesis, and urged Constanline III.. the
succe.s.sor of Ileraclius, to withdraw it (641). Po|k> Theolore
I. (642-649). at the apical of the African Church (646). niaile
the .same demand of the Emperor Con.stans II. (C;tO-6(W),
threatening that if it were refused he would excommunicate
the Church of Constantinople. He constituted at the s<iine
lime .Stephen, Bishop of Itor in Palestine, apostolic viear,
with orders to depose all the monolhelite bi.sliopsand clergy.
Hemmed in in this way, the Byzantine court yielded; C'oii-
stans withilrew the Ecthesis (648).
III. (1) In |>lace of the Ecthesis, however, the emiKTor
set forth the "Type of the Failh " — the rvwos rfli wtarmt.
The TyiH- forbade anew all contention on the will or wills
of Christ; men were to be satisfied with the decisions of
the five genend councils; mailers wen- to lie put back to
the |uiinl at which they sIo<mI befon- the strife; and those
who allempleil to renew Ihe disiu.ssion were to lie visited
with Ihe .Si'veresl penalties, i'c<lcsiastical and civil. (2)
Principle and parly zeal, however, alike maile il ini|M>ssible
at this staire to suppn>ssthe mailer in this way. The reply
of Pope Theodoras was excommunication and nnalhema
against Paul, Patriarch of Constantinople, who was suit-
posed to be Ihe aiithnr of the Tuihis. Po|h' Martin I. (64!»-
6.">5) pursued the warfare against the emperor with vet
greater vigor. .\t the First Literati .SyiuHl ((Mil) diolhelil-
isin wa.s establisluil as the Chureh diM'Irine; Ihe defenders
of monothelilism in general, Ihe PatrianOi of Conslanlinoplo
in particular, and Ihe two imperial e»licls were put umler
the analheiiia. The coursi' of Ihe ik>ih' wius in-nliHl bv the
emperor as tn^asonable. lie was seiied (tkW) by Kullio)«i),
860
MONOTOCARDIA
MONRO
imperial deputy, and taken to Constantinople a prisoner.
His life was spared only on the intercession of the dying
Patriarch Paul, but he was sent into exile, where he died of
his sulTerinjis, (irni to the end. The abbot Maxinius was ap-
pealed to by every form of pei-suasion to aeknowledfie the
Tupos, but he could not be moved. Finally his right hand
was cut off. his tongue torn out. and he was sent into exile,
in which, at the age of eighty, he died (6G2). (3) Such sav-
agery would have power for a little time, but for a little
time onlv. Pope Adeodatus (677) excommunicated the
Greek patriarchs; the Greek Church in return excommuni-
cated the pope; and the Kastern and Western Churches were
again sundered. The rapid growth of tlie Mohnnimedan
power made the healing of this perilous breach of the most
urgent im])ortance. Constantine IV. Pogouatus (OGS-GSi)
entered into negotiations which led to the convening of tlie
sixth general council (680-681), the First Trullati. (See
Tkullan Councils.) A doctrinal writing from the hands of
Po|)e Agatho (680) formed the basis of the conclusions
reached. The Monothelites saw thr.t nothing but a mira<-le
could save them. The miracle was attempted, but the dead
body woulil not rise, and the doctrine of one will lay dead
with it. Tlie council anathematized all iMonothelitcs. Pope
llonorius had been anathematized in the letter of Agatho ;
the council anathematized him again. It was decided that
there is in Christ two natural wills and two natural oper-
ations, unseparated, immutable, undivided, unmingled —
"two natural wills, not in antagonism, but the human will
following, not resisting, but rather suliject to, his divine
ancl almighty will." The (-'hurch of the West had stood
lirm (or the faith, even at the price of the dishonor of her
dead pope. The decrees of the council were confirmed at
Home, and V)y the Second Irullan Council (6'j'i), known as
the tjuiuisexfura. (4) The Emperor Philippicus (Bardanes)
brought aliout a temporary triumph of the Monothelites at
a council held at Constantinople (711), which reversed the
decisions of the sixth general coimcil, but at his downfall
(7i:i) mouothelitisni lost the little influence which had been
left it, and vanishes out of history. A doctrine which for
a century convulsed kingdoms, arrayeil [lojjes against em-
perors, and pope against pope, and council against council,
had in a little while no representatives on earth, except the
poor handful of Maronites, who gathered about a monastery
on Li-V)anon, and who as a body survive that Byzantine
kingdom to whose policy they owed their being, thougli
they have long renounced the doctrine which suiulcred
them from the great body of the Catholic Church.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
MonotoearMia [Gr. ijl6i'os, tme + KapSla. heart]: a division
or sub-order of the gasteropod Moi.niscA (7. i'.) freipiently
called Pectinibranchia. It comprises a large number of spe-
cie's, most of which are marine. These are all united by the
fact that the heart has a single (left) auricle (whence the
name), and a single feather-like (pectinate) gill is present.
There is but a single renal organ, and usually the left an-
terior raantlt^fold is greatly prolonged and more or less com-
pletely rolled into a tube (siphon) through which water is
drawn for resjnratory purposes, and which frequently leaves
its impress on the shell as a groove-like outgrowth or canal
from the anterior margin of the lip. The i\Ionotocardi;i are
sulidivided by systematists upon characters chiefly derived
from the lingual ribbon. (See Mollusca.) These divisions
are —
(1) Archit.-cnioglossa, in which the teeth in a tr.ansvorse
series on the lingual ribbon are arranged 3, 1, 1, 1, 3. This
group is the; most primilive of the Monotocardia, as is shown
by th(! presence of a rudimentary right auricle and by cer-
tain peculiarities of the lu-rvous .system. It comprises,
among other families, the cowries (Cyprmldce) of tropical
seas, and the pond-snails (P/duditikUf) of fresh waters. In
these the siphon is but slightly developed.
(2) TiBnioglossa, with teeth "2, 1, 1, I, 2. Here belong the
marine forms (Naticidie') which are common on the shores
of the U. S., and which lay their eggs in those pecidiar
bands commonly known as "sand-saucers." In these the
siphon is imperfect. The other ticnioglossale forms are
very inimerous, and but a few of the more prominent fami-
lies can bo mentioned ; among them the periwinkh-.'i {f/il-
(urinidw), the slipper limpets (C'ah/plni'ida). the CeriUiiidie,
the strombs {Utrombidw). triton-shells (Tritonidiv), tim-
shells (Doliidni), violet shells (Ianthinid.e, 17. t'.), and the
Hktkropoda (q. v.), all of which are nnuine; the fresh-
water limpets ( Valvatidai) and the melanians, also fresh-
water; and a few forms which, like the CyclostomidcB and
Truncatellidce, dwell on the land.
(3) Stenoglossa or Kachiglossa, with teeth 1, 1, 1, the prin-
cipal mendjers of which are the whelks (/iMrci/nV/fp), volutes,
olive-shells, miter-shells, cones, etc. The cones are especial-
ly noticeable from I he fact that there is an unpaired poison-
gland connected with the lingual teeth. J. S. Kinusley.
Moiiotreni'ata [Mod. Lat. : Gr. n6i'os. single + rp^jtui. per-
foration, hole, deriv. of rirpaivfiv, bore, pierce, jierforate] : the
lowest order of mammals, the sole existing order of the sub-
class Ornithodelphia or Prolotheria. The name is derived
from the fact that, as in the birds, one external orifice, open-
ing into a common cloaca, serves for the discharge of alvine
and renal excretions and for reproductive purposes. They
are by far the most jerimitive forms of their class, and in
their structure dc]>art less frcin the old-fa.>:hioned reptiles
and amphibians than many (jlliers. One of the most in-
teresting and significant points of their economy is that they
mature very much larger eggs than other mammals, and
they are even oriparoiis. The brain has a small cerebrnin,
whose hemispheres are chiefly connected by a well-devel-
ojied "anterior commissure." the " corpus eallosum " being
rudimentary; but the most striking and peculiar structural
characteristics appertain to the sternal apparatus: the ster-
num has a pecidiar T-shaped bone (the episleruum or inter-
clavicle) in advance of the manubrium or iiresternum : the
coracoids extend from the clavicle to the sternum, and only
toward nuiturity become anchylosed with the scapula. Such
features contrast remarkably with the simtde sternum of all
other mammals. The oviducts are enlarged below into uter-
ine pouches, but ojieii separaiely (as in oviparcjus vertebrates
generally), and debouch into a cloacal chamber, as already
noted, no true vagina being developed. The testes are ab-
dominal in position throughout life, and the vasa deferentia
do not open into a distinct urethral channel, but into the
cloaca. The mammary glands have no nipples. Of the only
two types known, one (the Ornithorhynchids) lays two eggs
in a ne.-^t, while the species of the other (the Tachyglossids)
as a rule only develoji a single egg, which is carried in a
pouch developed by the mother. See Dvckbii.l. EcniDXA,
Ormthorhynchid.e, and Taciiyulossid^. TnEO. Gill.
Monroa'Ie : town; in the province of Palermo, Sicily; 4
miles S. \V. from the city of Palermo (see inaji of Italy, ref.
9-K). It has little of interest except its cathedral, one of
the most splendid temjiles in the world. It is in form a Latin
cross; the exterior has undergone modifications, though
some original portions remain unchanged; the bronze doors
date from 1186. The interior (;!25 feet long and 125 broad)
consists of three naves su|iporled by sixteen gigantic columns
of Oriental granite, with capitals of exepiisite workmanship.
Adjoining the cathedral is the great monastery of the Bene-
dictines. The terrible iiias.^acre known as the .Silician Ves-
pers (12l*2) began on the road from Palermo to Jlonreale.
Pop. about 13,900.
Monro', Alexaxdkr, M. D., F. R. S. : anatomist ; b. in
London, Kngland, of Scotch i)arents, Sept. 8, 1697; studied
medicine and surgery at Loiuhm under Cheselden, at Paris
under Bouquet, and at Leyden uniler Boerliaave; was ad-
mitted as a surgeon at Edinburgh 1719; was elected by the
town council in Jan., 1721, (irst Professor of .\iiatomy to the
new medical .school estalilished in connection with the uni-
versity, and instituted a course of instruction which soon
made that school the best medical college in the world. lie
was one of the two principal promoters of the Koyal Infirm-
ary at Kdinburgh, where he delivered clinical lectures;
founded a society for collecting and publishing professional
pa|iers: edited six volumes of Jlidicol JiK.int/x and Obserra-
h'oiis (1732). and two volumes of Ensoys. J'/ii/itiriil and Lit-
erari/. fnr the same body, which had then taken the name of
the kdinlnirgh Philosophical Society. Ilis own publications
comprised d.ileo/m/t/. or Treatise on tlie Aniitomi/ of the
ifo/Mvs (l<;dinburgh', 1726); Esmji on Comparative Amitomy
(LoihIou, 1744); Olmervation.i, Anatnniiciif and Physiologic-
al (F/dinburgh, K.'iH): and an Account of the Success of In-
oculation, of Smallpox in Scotland (1765). These, with other
tracts left in MS., were printed together in 1781. Dr. Monro
resigned the chair of anatomy to his younge-st son. Alexan-
der, in 1759, but continued his clinical lectures at the in-
firmary. I), in Edinburgh, .luly 10, 1767. Dr. Monro is
often styled Primus, to distinguish him from his son and
grandson of the same name. — His eldest son, Donald, b. 1731,
was also an able physician, and published several medical
books, besides a memoir of his father (1781). D. in July, 1802.
MONRO
MONROE DOCTRINE
861
Monro, Ai.exandkr. M. D., F. R. S. E. : anatomist ; son of
Alexaiiiier Monro (lti!tT-1707) ; I), in Eilinliur^jh, Mar. 24,
17*}; studied snrftery in tlie rniversilvof Edinliur),'li under
his falhiT, to whom lie boi-anie Assistant I'rufi-ssorof Anat<.my
Julv, 1756 ; s|M;nt some time at the nieilicul sehools of Herliii
) and Leyden ; succeeded his father as full |irofes>or in 175U,
and also as secretary of the I'liilosophieal Society, which in
17Ha took l>y royal cliarler the title of Royal Society of Edin-
burgh. Anionf; his puhliealioris were /^e Veins Li/mp/ialieig
Fa/i'u/««M (Uerlin, 17->7). which involved him in u contro-
versy with Dr. William Hunter of Lotnlon ; On the Slriic-
ture and Futirliunit of tlie AVrroi<« SyMem. a large illus-
trated folio (Edinburgh, 17S;{); On the Structure and I'hy-
niology of Fixhex (folio, 17^5); Description of alt the. Hurste
MucoHip of the Ilnmnn Jiwly (I'W); and Three Treatises
on the Jirain, the Kye, and the Ear (illustrated. 17it7), be-
sides several pajiers in the Transactions ol the Edinliurgh
Royal Society. He retired from his |>rofessorship in listW.
I), in Edinburgh, Oct. 2, 1817. He wa-s .succeeded by his son
Alexander, called Tertius (b. lIT-i; d. IS'ii)), who wrote An-
atomy of t lie JIuman Jiody (IHl^J).
Monroe: city (si^ttled by S|)aniards in 17%); capital
of Ouachita parish. La. (for location of parish, .see map of
Louisiana, ref. 7-1)); on the Ouachita river, and the yueen
and t'resc. and the St. Ij.. Iron .Mt. and S. railwavs; 75 miles
W. by N. of Vicksburg, 4(K) miles N. \V. of New (Orleans. It
contains 5 churches, U. S. liovernment building. 2 national
banks with combined cajiital of ^IllMMMJ. a merchants' and
' farmers' bank with caiutal of I^IOO.OOO. ami a daily and 3
weekly newspapers. '1 he industrial establishments include
a cotton compress, !IO-inch Morse jiress. ice-factory, 2 cotton-
seed oil-mills, 2 shingle-mills. 2 sawmills. 2 brick-factories,
a stave-factory whost; total output is shipped to Bordeaux.
France; a sash, door, and blind factory, and a cigar-factory.
( >ver 4(UK10 bales of cotton are |)resscd here annually. I'op.
I imO) 2,070; (l«iJO) a,2.-)(); (lS!t4) estimated. 6.0(JO.
Editor ok "TKLEiiRApii-BrLi.F.TiN."
Monroe: city; capital of Monroe co.. Mich, (for location
of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 8-K); on the Raisin
river, ami the Flint and I'ere -Marq., the Lake Sh. and Mich.
S. and the Mich. Cent, railways; 'i't miles ,S, of Detroit. It
contains a city library (fcmnded 1837), seminary for young
women, conservatory of music, a national bank with capital
of $50,000.8 private bank, and two weekly newspai>ers; has
extensive nurseries and vinevards; and manufactures flcpur.
lumber, and sash and blinds. " Pop. (1880)4.930; (1S90),5,258;
(18!)4) 5,613. Editor of •■ Commf.rcial."
Monroe: town; ca[^iital of Union co., X. C. (for location
of county, see map of North Carolina, ref. 4-E); on the Caro-
lina Cent. Railroad; 25 miles .S. E. of Charlotte. It is a
manufacturing tomi, with carriage-factory, iron-works, cot-
ton-mills, foumlrv, and other industrial establishments.
Pop, (1880) 1,564;' (1890) 1,866.
Monroe: city; capital of Green co.. Wis. (for lo<'ation of
( i.unty, see map of Wisconsin, ref. 7-1)); on the Chi., Mil.
and .St. I', and the III. Cent, railways; 34 miles W. by S. of
•lancsville. It is in an agricultural, dairying, and stock-rais-
ing region, and has a large cheese-factory, boiler-works,
wagon-factory, agricultural-implement works, a national
bank with capital of *100,1K)0, a State bank with <apital of
if7.5.00O. and a dailv and 5 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880)
3,293; (1890)3,768"; (1895)3,84.3."
Monroe, Jamf.s : fifth President of the U. S. ; b. in West-
moreland CO.. Va.. Apr. 28, 17.58; son of Spence Monroe,
anil a descenilant of a .Scottish Cavalier family; educated
at William anil Mary College; entered the Revolutionary
army in 1776; served with distinction in the principal en-
gagements of 1777-78; was wounded at Trenton: stmlied
law under .lelTerson ; served again in the latter part of the
war; and wius delegate to Congress 178;j-86. Perceiving
the defects of the .\rticles of Confederation he desired the
■ \tension of the powers of Congress, and in 17.'<5 moved to
'u/er on that body the authority to regulate interstate
Hade. The adi>ption of this resolution led to the calling of
a convention at .\nnapolis. ami ultinuilely to the fornuition
oj the Constitution. .Monroe, however, as delegate to the
Virginia convention in 1788 opposed the ailoption of the new
instrument by his native State, anil as I'. S. Senator 17!K)-!»4
he supported the .Anti-Federalist party. He was minister
to PVance 1794-96, and (iovernor of 'Virginia 1799-IH02.
Ue was sent as envoy extraordinary to France in 1802, and
with Livingston, the minister resident, negotiated the Lou-
isiana purchase. He was minister to Great Itritain 1803-06,
but in 1N05 his duties there were interrupted for a time by
a siH'cial mission to Madrid to settle the Iwundaries of th'e
new purcha.se. He failed in this, and the treaty which he
negotiated with Great Britain was not acceptable to the
U. .S. Government. Returning home in 1H07 he published
an elaborate defense of his course a-s a iliplomati.-t, and in
1811 received a subManlial proof of the public contidenc^p
by l)eing again eliited (jovernor of Virginia. In the same
year he was ap|iointed Secretary of State, and held that
oflice till 1817, combining with its duties thosi' of Secretary
of War in 1814-15. In 1817 he was electwl Pn>ident over
Rufus King, the Feileralisl candidate, and in IH20 was re-
elected by the almost unanimous vole of the electoral col-
lege. The chief events of this pros[ien>us ailministration,
"the era of good feeling." were the conclusion of a conven-
tion \yilh Great Hritain relating to the Newfoundland fish-
eries in 1818, the aci|uisition of Florida from Spain in iHlti
the establishment of a system of internal improvements, the
enunciation of the Monroe Doc'trine, the .Missouri Compro-
mise of 1820, the recognition of the inile|H.ndence of the
Spanish-American states, and the hist visit of Im Fayette to
the I'. .S. In 18;{1 he removed to New York, where he died
July 4, 1831. Mr. Monroe was a man of plain and unaf-
fected manners, un(|iiestioneil |>urity and honesty, and of
very robust and useful though not Williaiit iiualities as a
pulilic oOicer. He was Ixdoved by all parties, and few men
did more than he to remove the animosities and jirejudices
so rife in the early part of his political life. .See Gilman's
Life of Monroe in the American .Slatesineii Series (188;)).
Revised by F. M. Colby.
Monroe City : tfiwn : Monroe co.. Mo. (for hx-ation of
county. si'C man of Jlissoiiri. ref. 3-II); on the Burl. Route
and the .Mo., Kan. and Tex. railways; 30 miles S. \V. of
t^uincy. III. It contains 8 churches, pulilic-school building
that cost ^2.5.000, planing, carding, and grist mills. 2 State
banks with combined capital of :f5.").(X)0. and 2 weekly new.s-
iiapers. It is in a prairie region, and ships annually 200 car-
loads of railway ties. Pop. (1880; 040 ; (IS'JO) 1,8;!0; (1894)
local census, 2,114. Editor of "News."
Monroe Doctrine: the name given to a declaration of
the jioliey of the I'. S. in o[>|Kisition to the interference
of European powers in the noiitical affairs of the American
conlinent.s made by Presiilent MonriM.' in his message to
Congress in 1823. It was known that at the Congress of
Verona (1822) a project had Ikcii diMUssed of aiding .S[iain
to recover dominion over her revoltnl American colonies.
Mr. Canning, wliile making his preparations to go to India
as governor-general, received the ap|Kiintment of Secretary
for Foreign Affairs in Sept., 1822. and it was by his iiiflueiioe
that the British Government wa.s led to take energetic meas-
ures against the absolutists' principle of interference in iire-
venting revolution and all jioiitical changes proc'eeding
from the people in opi)osition to the rulers. France early
in 1823 was ready to invade Spain for the purpi>se of over-
throwing the revolutionary government, 'i he next measure
\yas likely to be an attempt to subjugate the Spanish colo-
nies, some of which the l'. S. tiovernment ha<l recogni7.cd
as independent nations. The British Goyerninent is under-
stood to have suggested to the V. S. the policy of making
some protest against such interfen'iice in the affairs of the
American stales or colonies. The suggestion l>eing ap-
proved of by the President, by .1. y. Adams, Secn-tary of
State, and by Jefferson, who was consulle<l, the annual
message of Dec. 1823, contained the following declarations:
" That we should consider any attempt on the part [of the
allied |Kiwers] to extend their system to any iHirtion of this
hemirphere as dangerous to our |i»aee ami safety." and
"that we could not view any iiiterpisilioii for the puriiose
of oppressing [governments on this side of the water »lif>se
inde|ieiideiice we had acknowledged), or controlling in any
manner their destiny by any Eiiro|N'an |"iwer, in any other
light than as a manifestation of an unfriendly disfiosition
towani the l'. S." This de<-larnlion. t.^g.-fher with the
known sentiments of the Briti>h (a' 'an
end to any designs which may havi in«
toward armed inlerfennee in .\mi i ..i.,. ilso
eonsislinl with iiiternatiMiial riL'lil^^.and wasfi. : liy
self-defense. The lialance of [lower had in - no
application, for that principle is essentially coniiiu-d to Eu-
ropean .states, and interfen-ni-e on |Kililical, dix-lriiiarT
grounds is unrighteous. This deelHrat ion ha.s n"<i'ivi'd thr
assent of the country. It may lie calle<l a )ian of il.s settled
862
MONROVIA
MONTAGU
policy, thoviftli C'onjrrcss never took formal action in regard
to it ; but it slionlil not be stretcheil into a warrant to pre-
vent any dealings of an American with a Kuropean state
which may be distsisteful to the I'. S. The Monroe doctrine
was aimed at interference with the constitution or form of
government of an American state forcibly carried out.
These limitations are often lost sijjht of. liuring the civil
war in the U. S., when the Frencli emperor put the Arch-
duke Maximilian on the throne of Mexico, the U. S. Gov-
ernment was too bvisy and too weak to endeavor to prevent
the measure ; the time wa-s chosen accordingly ; but in or-
dinary times that or a similar step would have roused gov-
ernment and country to opposition. At the close of the
war troops were marche<l toward the Mexican border, the
French forces were withdrawn, and the cmiure fell. An-
other declaration of the same message is as follows : That
" the American continents, by the free and indciicndent
<<bndition which they have assumed and maintain, are
henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colo-
nization by any European power." If those words ex-
pressed the intention that the South .Vmericaii republics
should be prevented from freely surrendering their territory
for the purposes of colonization, this was going altogether
too far : it was avowing a rule of interference on the part
of the U. S. equally to be condemned with the similar one
acte<i on by European absolutists ; but it is probaljle that
the words were intended to mean that the western hemi-
sphere was already occuiiied by a number of states whose
territories were contiguous, leaving no .S[)ace for further
colonization, a. somewhat doubtful statement. This mean-
ing is to be inferred from what Mr. Adams, tlieii Secretary
of State, said in 1825 when he was President, unless he is
to be considered as retracting what had been hastily uttered
two years before. He .says, in reference to a congress of
American powers at Panama, that " an agreement between
all the parties represented at the meeting that each will
guard, by its own means, against the establishment of any
future European colony within its borders, may be found to
be desirable. This," he aiids, " was more than two years
since announced by ray predecessor to the world as a prin-
ciple resulting from the emancipation of the American con-
tinents." The House of Representatives, however, opposed
the principle, even when thus interpreted, by a resolution
that the U. S. " ought not to become parties " with any of
the republics of South America " to any joint declaration
for the purpose of preventing the interference of any of the
European powers with their independence or form of gov-
erinneut, or to any compact for tlie purpose of preventing
colonization upon the continent of America." The majority
of the House was quite willing, without question, to ap-
prove of independent action with regard to interference
when it should be threatened, but to prevent colonization
they seem to have regarded as not wort h any diplomatic pro-
ceedings. This dechiration of Mr. Mnnroe lias since fallen
into oblivion. The other will probably always carry with
it the approval of the U. S. Revised by T. S. Woolsev.
Monrovia : the capital of Liberia (q. v.).
Moiis : the capital of the province of Hainaut, Belgium ;
on the Trouille ; 'dH miles S. S. \V. of Brussels (.see map of
Holland and Belgium, ref. If-C). It is strongly fortified,
has a beautiful cathedral built in the sixteenth century and
a very interesting town-house built in 1443, extensive manu-
factures of linen, lace, earthenware, and tobacco, and carries
on consideralile trade. As an im]iorlaiit strategic point it
figures prominently in llie history of the wars between Spain
and the Netherlands, France ami Spain, and France and
Austria. After enduring many sieges and changed hands
several times, it becam(! by the treaty of Utrecht one of the
barrier towns of the Dutch, but in 1746 it was taken by the
French, and soon afterward restored to Austria. After
the battle of Jemmapes in 1793 it formed a part of the
French repuljlic, but was lost to France on the downfall of
the first empire. Pop. (1892) 34,90.5.
MonSQiTat, mon-sa-raat', Joaqi'IN, de, j\Iarquis of Cru-
illas : a Si)anish general and administrator. Viceroy of
Mexico Jan., 1761, to Aug., 1766. War having broken out
between Spain and (ireat Britain in 1763, Cruillas took ac-
tive measures to defend the coast, and he was the first to
organize a regular militia. The latter measure, by foster-
ing the military spirit of the people, had important effects
on the country. II. II. S.
Monsoon' [ : Fr. mousson : Span, mnnznn : Ital. monsone,
from Jlalay mdsim, season, monsoon, from Arab, mausim.
time, season] : a seasonal interchange of wind between con-
tinent and ocean — an animal land and sea breeze. The
name was first applied to the seasonal periodic winds alter-
nating between the southern part of the continent of Asia
and the Indian Ocean, but has since been expanded to in-
clude all ca.ses due to similar causes. The continents are
warmer in summer (especially lielow lat. 42' "N. or .S.), and
the cooler and heavier air of the ocean flows in ; the reverse
occurs in winter. The alternation is the more marked the
larger the continent, the more arid its interior, and the
greater the elevation of the latter; it is most marked when
ranges of mountains are .so arranged as to accentuate the
differences between the air of continent and ocean, and the
slope facilitates the flow of the air — upward on the principle
of a flue or downward by gravity. The best marlied case
is that of Southern Asia, where the summer monsoon is
from the S. and brings rain, while the winter monsoon is
from the N. and brings dry weather. There are Australian
monsoons, though not so well marked, but the interchange;
between the Asiatic and Australian, combined with tlie
trades, cause seasonal jieriodic winds over the East Indies.
The other continents have their monsoons. The most dis-
tinct in the U. S. is that of Texas, extending at times up
the Jlississippi valley to the ('ana<lian boundary. See Fer-
rol. Popular Treatise on Winds (1889). and the present
writer. 'J'/ie Texan Monsoons (Bull. Phil. Soc. of Washing-
ton, xii., 293-308, 1894). JIark W. Harrixoto.n.
Monstrelet, moii stre-la', Exguerrand, de: chronicler; b.
at C'amlirai. France, about 1390 ; was provost of his native
city and bailiff of Wallaincourt, where he died July 30, 14.'53.
He wrote a Chroniqne. narrating the historv of France
from 1400 (the date at which Froissart stops) to 1444. The
latest edition is by L. Douet-d'Arcy (7 vols,, Paris, 1857-63) ;
English translation bv Thomas Johnes (13 vols., London,
1810).
Monstrosity, in natural history : See Teratology.
Mont, Ment, Month. Mentliu : the Egyptian god of war.
who was especially worshiped in llermonthis (Erinent) and
Thebes. He was variously represented as a liawk-headed
deity, though he sometimes wore the head and horns of a
bull which was sacred to him under the name of Bakh. the
Bachis of the classics. He is also occasionally pictured
with the head-dress peculiar to Anion. In later times he
was identified with the sun-god Ra, as Jlont-Ha. His name
was used in inscriptions as a synonym of power (" strong as
Mont "). In conjunclioii with the Semitic Baal, the combi-
nation stood for the highest ideal of might.
Charles R. Gillett.
Montagnais : See Ai.iio.vijuiAX IxniAXS; also Athai-as-
CAN Indians.
Montagnards, moi'i'tiCiinyaar' [Fr., liter., mountaineers],
or simply Tllp Monutain : in the first French Revolution a
name sometimes given to tlie ultra-democratic members of
the National Convention, so called because they originally
sat in the highest seats of the hall. The Girondists were, in
distinction, called the Plain; and after their destruction
the lower ])art of the house was called the Marsh (Marais),
and was occupied by the undistinguished rabble of Ja-
cobins, the leaders retaining the high scats.
Moii'tagli, Basil: law reformer and author: b. in Lon-
don, Apr. 24, 1770; a natural son of the Earl of .Sandwich
by an actress, Mi.ss Ray or Wniy. He graduated at Cam-
bridge 1790 ; was soon after called to the bar at Gray's Inn,
and at^quired a largo and pi'ofitable practice in London,
chiefly in bankruptcy ca.scs. He was a member of the liter-
ary circle of which Coleridge was the chief ornament, and
came near being carried away by the social theories of Will-
iam Goihvin. In 1806 he was apiiointed a commissioner of
bankruptcy, and exerted himself successfully through a ser-
ies of years to procure the reform of the law'concerning
bankruptcy, which was then highly objectionable. Under
the new law he became accountant-general of bankruptcy,
compelled the Bank of England to [lay interest on deposits
ordered by a court of bankruptcy, and distinguished him-
self by his ailvocacy of other reforms, especiiilly t he aboli-
tion of capital punishment for minor offenses. He was a
voluminous author, having published forty volumes and left
in MS. ItlO more. His principal professional work was a
Digest of the Bankrupt Lines, but he is best known as the
careful editor of tlie Works of Franeis Bacon (16 vols.,
182.')-34), of which the last volume contains a Life of Bacon.
D. at Boulogne, France, Nov. 37, 1851.
MONTAGU
MOXTALEMBEUT
863
Montatrii. EiiWAUD Woktley : ailvcnturcr ; son of Lady
Miirv Worlley .Muiitiif;u ; 1>. at Whanicliffi', Yorkshire, Kiij;-
laiiil, in Oct., 17iy ; was the lirst Kn^lish chihl inoculated
for sinailpox ; was placiMl at Weslniiiisler School, liul run
awav tlirce tinu'S, inakint; a voya^ic once us a cuhin-boy to
, Spain ; wils elected in 1T47 to I'arliiiiiient. but had to resijjn
on account of debt ; went to I'aiis, where he was imprisoned
on account of ;;ainblinK transactions ; was a Konian Catho-
lic in Italy ; traveled in Arabia and Ej;yi>t, and professed to
be converted to Mohaniinedanism ; aiitl was returninj; to
England when he dieil at I'ailua, Italy, May •,', ]7T<>. lie
publisheil some paiiers in The J'/iiloKu/j/iical Triiniarliinuf,
and a volume of lielhrliona un llie Uise and Fall of l/te
Ancient Jtrpnhlica (1759), of which the authorship was
claimed liv his tutor. Ho left an Aulubiograp/iy, l\rM pub-
lished in iH6y.
[ Moiitairii. Ki.iZAHKTii RoBl.Nsos : author; b. at York,
England, Oct. 2, 1720; was married in 17-12 to Edward
Montagu, grandson of the fifth Earl of .Sandwich, and
cousin of Eilward Wortley Montagu, the husband of Lady
,Maiy, anil being possessed of wealth, ambition, and some
literary talent, became a celebrated leader of London sf)eiety
in the second half of the eighteenth century. She gave a
famous annual dinner on May Day to the London chimney-
sweeps, ancl her magnificent residence in Portland Sipiaro
was the headr|uarters of the so-called Blue-stocking Club,
and figures largely in the iliaries of the period. Mrs. Mon-
tagu wrote three of the Dialogiiex of the Dead published in
the 4th ed. of Lord Lyttelton's work bearing that title (176.'i),
and &n Essay on the WritintjH anil Oenitis of Shukspeare
compared m'lh the Greek and French Dramatic Poela {I7li'.>).
but is best known by her ('orrrxpondence. of which 4 vols,
have Ijeen edited by her nephew. 1). in Lonilon, Aug. 'i-i,
ISOO. Sec her Life, by Dr. Doran, entitled ,1 lAubj of the
Last Century (1S72). Revised by II. A. Uegrs.
Monta&ril, .Marv Wortlev, Lady : b. at Thoresby, Xotts,
England, in ItilN); a daughter of the Earl of Kingston; was
second cousin on her mother's side to the novelist Fielding.
Even in childhood she was a favorite in society on ac-
count of her wit and beauty. In 1712 she married Edwunl
Wortley Montagu, without her father's consent. In 1710
she went to Constantinople with her husband, then ambassa-
dor to the Porte. In 1717 she made a successful trial of in-
ocidation for smallpox upon her only son — a practice com-
mon in the East, but unknown before her time in Western
Euroj)e. Her successful intrixluction of smallpox inocula-
tion into England was accomplished in spite of great oppo-
sition an<l personal abuse from all classes. After her re-
turn to England in 1718 followed a bitter quarrel with
Pope, who had been her friend. In 17:30shc left her hus-
band, and resided chiefly in Italy. D. in England of cancer,
Aug. 21, 1762. She is remembered chielly for her brilliant
Letters, written during her travels. Her great-grand.son.
Lord WharnclilTe, published a collected edition of her works
with Life (3 vols., 1837 ; 3d ed. 1887).
Revised by II. .\. IJekrs.
Montague: village; Muskegon co., Mich, (for location of
i county, sec map of .Michigan, ref. 7-11): <in White Lake,
which is here navigable, and the Chi. and West Mich. Rail-
way ; .') miles E. of Lake Michigan. It is in an agricultural,
fruit-growing, ami lumbering region, and has regular steam-
boat communication with the principal ports on Lake Michi-
gan ami considerable commerce. Pop. (1881)) I,2!I7 ; (IsiMh
1.023; (1804) 1,410.
Montaerur, Charmcs: .See Halifax, Earl of,
Montaii^np, mon t<lfl', Michel Ev^iem, .Seigneur de: es-
sayist ; 1). near liergerac, in Perigord, France, Feb. 28,
1533. He was educated with great care, first at home,
where he Icarneil Latin at the sjime time with French, then
at Bordeaux. Ho was a precocious student, and at fifteen
was studying law. In l."i4 he took his scat as counselor in
the Parliament of Bonleaux, where began his great friend-
ship for Etiennc de la lioetie. Ho had little taste for public
affairs, and after his father's death resigned (l.*)70) his oHice.
In 1509 he had [lublislu'd a translation of the nieoloijia tia-
luralis of Rainioml Sebond. ami in l.")71 he erlited the post-
humous works of his friend la Btn'tie. In 1.58() he is.siic<l
the first two books of Fssais. and in the sjime year set out
"II a series of travels in Northern France, tiermany, Switz-
I ilanil,nnd Italy. His interesting but not remarkable journal
of this tour wivs published in 1774. While still in Italy
(1581) he was chosen mayor of Bordeaux, and discharged
the functions of that oflfice with success, in difllcult times of
civil ilis.sensions, till 1.58."), when, shortly liefore laving down
his ollicci, he eX|Kised his character to' serious iiiiputaliomt
ing from the city while thejilague was raging there.
bv lie
jiJague V
in l.")88 he published in Paris a fifth edilion of the A'awiM,
enlarged by the addition of a Ihiril Unik. In the followinff
years he was somewhat obscurelv conne<teil with iMilitical
event-s. ' D. Sept. i:t, 1.VJ2. ThJ F'wis are familiar dis-
courses with the reader, whom he takes completely into his
confidence, about what he ha.s ilone anil .seen, 'reaii and
thought, si't down in a sort of willful disorder, and as far as
possible from a systematic philiisophv. Living in a time of
the most active ferment of ideas, when the Remiissance was
struggling against the mediavul order of things, the Refor-
mation against the Church, he saw that minh is to be said
on lioth sides of all (luestioiis, and gave U]i the task of find-
ing an absolute and convincing decision in thif clash of
opinions and views. He gave it up with serene good
humor, not feeling the need of such a decision with the in-
tensity of minds like Pascal's, and in giving it up he did
not feel obliged to relinquish his theological orthiKloxy. So
if the spirit that gives unity to the L'uxaiii is essetitiatly
ske|itical, it is so without bil'terncss. The A'««ii<j are writ-
ten in a rich, varied, and exceedingly jiersomd stvle, ca[>a-
l)le of the utmost easy familiarity ami of serious' and sus-
tained eloquence. By" it Montaigne holds rank as one of
the very greatest mas'ters of French prose. He left two an-
notated collies of the Esiiaia. I'lHin one, now lost. Mile, de
Gonrnay founded the edition of 15115 ; upon the other, now
in the library of Bordeaux, was founded the edition of Xai-
geon in 1802. The classic edilion is that of 3. V. Le Clerc
(4 vols.. Paris, 1805). The edition of 1.588 wils republished
by Motheau and Jouaust (Paris. 187:{-80). Cf. A. Griln, Ln
rie pul/liqne de M. Muntaiijne (Paris, 1855); G. Merlct,
Eludes litliraires sur let classiques frunfain (Paris, 1882).
A. G. Caxfield.
Montalembort. inon'ta'it hiiin l>Ar'. Charles Fordes de
Tuvox. Comtede: French publicist and statesman; b. in I/on-
don. England. May 29, 1810; son of the Marquis .Marc Renede
.Montalembert. He entered public life young, showing an
enthusiasm for the liberal neo-Catholic niovenieiit. He was
in ls;!(» associated with Lumennais and Laconlaire in put)-
lishing the journal L'Areiiir. but. like Laconlaire, after the
papal condemnation of that journal, he ri-coiled and did not
follow the radical evolution of Laineiinais. In lKi5 he en-
tered the hereditary upjx'r house, and developed great jiowcr
as an orator in sufiport of ecclcsiu.stical measures. es]H'cially
the right of Roman Catholics to establish schools of their
own independent of the university. He still combined an
ardent devotion to the Church with an enthusia.«m for liber-
ty and liberal ideas, and when the revolution of 1K48 came
he accepted an election to the A.s.sembly, where he voted at
first with the inotierate republicans, but afterward joined
the reactionary group. He diil not accept the eni|iire of
Napoleon III., and was one of its most dangerous uiitago-
nist.s, remaining in the Chamber of Deputies till 1857. Fail-
ing of re-election then, he retired from public life, and de-
voted himself to litemry work, but he remained un active
influence in clerical circles, oppo>ing persistently, though
without success, the acceiitance of the dogma of |iapal in-
fallibility. D. in Paris, >lar. 13. 1870. His works comprise
a Vie de Sainte- Elisabeth d'Honyrir {\XW): L'Arrnir poli-
liifue de I'Ani/lelerre (18.55); I'ie JX. el lA>rd I'nlmrrslon
(1><56); the pamphlets I'ne nation en Driiil ' " f' 'i»e
libre dans I' Flat libre; and his main work, / !e»
Moines d'dceiilent depuis Sainl-lii'noU jusiiu \, .- ,'.'i r-
naril (0 vols.. 1860-671. This is not so much a can ful his-
tory as an elixpient plea in which the ardor of the defender
of the Church dictates the choice and pn>sentution of the
materials. The qualities of the orator are more conspicuous
in him than those of the writer. After his death apjnare*!
Leltres <J un ami de collii/e IS^T-.IO (1S74). lie himself
Sirepared an edition of his (Eurrrs complitrs (Paris. IHJl-
8). Cf. Craven, Le Comte de Jtontnlembrrt (Paris, 1873).
A. (i. Caxiielu.
Moiitalenibort. Marc Rene, Munpiis de: military en-
gineer: b. at .\ngouleme. France. .Inly Hi. 1714 ; d. Mar. 2Jt.
1.800. Descendeil from a nolile family, hi' entered the uniiy
at the age of eighteen, and served nt the siegi-s of Kehl nm)
Phillipsburg and in thewarwith Bohemia. .Sul>s«-quently he
engaged in the mainifacturr of cannon for the Fn-nch navr.
At the age of sixty-two he U'iran to publish his tn^at work.
La Forlificiition perptndiculairt, ou I'Arl drfrn/iif tupi-
864
montalvAn
MONTANA
rieur a Toffensif. The use of tlie casoniate in some of its
forms goes back to Albert Di'irer and San Jlicheli, in tlie
early part of the sixteenth century, and it was resorted to
by Vauban in his second and third systems, of which the
tower-bastions are casemated thrmif;hout. but it was re-
served for Montalembert, in the latter part of tlie eijrh-
teenth century, to give it an extraordinary develoi)nient,
and to make the casemate the essential clement of a system
of fortification. Notwithstanding that the French corps of
engineers rejected the system in its intended application,
and disclaimed, as an engineer, its author, it nevertheless
constructed in 1786, for the defense of the harbor of Cher-
bourg, forts which are in reality almost copied from his de-
signs. European nations followed the exam|)le.
Kevised by James JIercur.
Montalr&n. .Ti-an Perez, de, Doctor : dramatist and
story-teller; b. in Madrid, Spain, in l(i02 ; d. there, insane
from over-work, June 'io. 16:i8. He is oni; of the mosi in-
teresting and important of the lesser literary figures of the
Spanish "golden age." Educated at Alcala, lie obtained
his doctor's degree in 162.'), joined a fraternity of priests in
Madrid, and became a notary in the Inciuisition. All tliis,
however, was merely for the sake of obtaining leisure to
write. He became intimate with Lope de Vega, and a
friend of almost all the great writers of his time, with the
exception of Qucvedo, who was his bitter enemy. His lit-
erary master was Lope de Vega, whom he loved and ailmired
unreservedly, and whom he celebrated in his Fama pu/iftima
de Lope de Vega (1636). He tried his hand at most of the
genres practiced in his day, both in prose and verse. In
1624 he published //«.? norelaii cjemplares, and in the same
year, with the connivance of Lope de Vega, his Orfcn. in
competition witli the successful Orfeo of Jaurcgui. In 163T
appeared his nominally jiious work Vida y piirgnton'o de
San Patricio. This was followed in 1632 by a collection of
stories, anecdotes, and even jilays. El para-todos, of a di-
verting kind. During all this time he had been producing
constantly plays and so-called aufos, of which he wrote in
all about sixty. Ear the best, and the only one that has
held the stage down to the present day. is Los Amrin/e.t de
Teniel, wi-itten in imitation of a similar piece by Tirso de
Molina, but far surpassing it in dramatic efEect. This
theme has been one of the most popular in the history of
the Spanish drama. Though Montalvan has not the excel-
lences of Calderon and Lope de Vega, and is often guilty of
the worst excesses of the |)laywrights of his generation, he
rarely produced a piece without great beauties. He prepared
himself for publication two volumes of his plays, which ap-
peared in 1638 and 1639 (reprinted in 16.52). The best of
them are to be found in vol. xlv. of Rivadeneyra's Bibliofe-
ca de Autores EspaRoles (Madrid, 1881). A. R. Marsh.
Montalvo, Garcia OrdoSez, de : Spanish romancer; the
author of the earliest existing version of the famous ro-
mance Amadis of Gaul (q. v.). Little is known of his life
beyond the fact that he was governor of the city of Medina
del Campo. and lived in the end of the fifteenth century. The
question of the origin of his romance and of its relation to
the supposed work of the Portuguese Vasco de Lobeira
(q. V.) is involved in great obscurity. After completing the
Amadis proper, Jlontalvo wrote a lesser work on the deeds
of Esplandian, son of Amadis and Oriana. Both are print-
ed in vol. xi. of Rivadeneyra's BihUoteca de Autores Espn-
itoles (Madrid, 1874) with an Intruductio7i by D. Pascual de
Gayangos. A. R. Marsh.
Montana, inon-taa'na [Lat. (so. ci'vitas, state), fern, of
monta nus, mountainous] : one of the U. S. of North America
(Western group) ; the twenty-eighth State admitted into the
Union.
Location and Area. — It lies between lat. 44° 6' and 40'
N. and Ion. 104' and 116 W. ; is .bounded on the N. by the
provinces of Alberta and Assiniboia, Canada, on the E. by
the Dakotas, on the S. by Wyoming and Idaho, and on the
W. bv Idaho; average length K. to VV., 470 miles; average
l)rea(ith N. to S., 275 miles: area, 146,080 sq. miles (1)3,491,-
200 acres), of which 770 sq. miles are water surface.
Phi/sical Features. — As its name indicates, it is a moun-
tainous country, in which there are some fine valleys, and it
has an abundance of tiinlier, such as pine, spruce, cotton-
wood, and aspen. The streams ai'e skirteu with dense
thickets, in which at the proper season there is fo\ind jilenty
of serviceberries, currants, and gooseberries. The Hitter
Root range of mountains forms the southwest boundary ;
the main chain of the Rocky Mountains turns N. at the
State Seal of Jloiitana.
southwest corner, and forms between the two ranges a great
btusiu, which constitutes one-fifth of the entire area of the
State. About
three-fifths of
the .State con-
sists of rolling
table-lands in
the E., which
are generally
treeless and of-
ten ill-adapted
>o irrigation.
The streams
which traverse
these table-
lands, how-
ever, are gen-
erally lined
with cotton-
wood, willow,
and other sim-
ilar trees. The
principal riv-
ers are the
Gallatin, Jef-
ferson, and Madison, here called the Three Forks, which
unite and form the Missouri. Besides these are the Yellow-
stone, Musselshell, Milk, Teton, .Sun. and Maria's rivers, etc.
Flathead Lake is the only considerable lake. The Yellow-
stone National Park is partly within Montana.
Jliiieral T'roductions. — Gold has been found in every por-
tion of the State. Silver ore, iron, and coal are also found.
Lignite, copper, and petroleum are among the mineral
products. The value of gold, silver, lead, and copper mined
since 1862 has exceeded 1320.000,000. Butte City is the
great mining center, in which the annual product of silver
and copper is valued at more than .^20,000.000. During the
five years next preceding 1893 the output of cojiper exceeded
that of anv other State. Since 1888 it has reached anmiallv
about 100,000.000 lb. In 1890 the production of lead was
more than 10,000 tons, placing Montana fifth among lead-
prodvieing States. In 1891 the gold product was 139,804
fine oz., value f 2,890,000 (State rank, fourth) ; silver, 16,3.50,-
000 fine oz., value 124,029.394 (State rank, second) ; copper,
112,063,320 lb. (State rank, second); and coal, .541,861 short
tons, value |1,228.630. The copper product was 39'4 per
cent, of the total product of the country, and almost all of
it came from the small hills in the town of Butte. The most
productive coal counties were Park. 285,74.5 tons, value
.$692,570; Cascade, 198,107 tons, value .$396,219; and Galla-
tin, 56,981 tons, value $13.5,893. There were two coking
plants, with 140 ovens, which used 61,667 short tons of coal
and produced 29,009 short tons of coke, value $2.58,523. A
number of deposits of coal well-ada]>tcd to coke-making
have been found near the entrance to the Yellowstone Park.
Valualile sapphire mines have been opened on the right
bank of the Missouri river. 12 miles Js. E. of Helena, and
there is an abundance of marble, common, green, variegated,
and black, in the Sweet Grass Hills.
t^oil and Productions. — 'J'lie mountains of Montana are
usually well covered with forests, but tlie trees are, if de-
ciduous, almost exclusively willow, pojilar, and cottonwood ;
if evergn-eii. pine, spruce, fir. cedar, and balsam. There is
very little hardwood timber in the State. Grass and flowers
of great beauty abound in the valleys. As a grazing country
this will always maintain a high rank, the " bunch grass, '
so excellent for cattle, covering all the hillsides and plains.
Indeed, many herds are turned out in the autumn to get
their own living through the winter, and springtime finds
them in good condition. Since 1885 much has been done
to increase agriculture by means of irrigation. Along the
foot-hills and between the great mountain ranges favorable
opportunities occur, and wherever irrigation has been pro-
vided an abundant agriculture is the result.
The following summary from the census reports of 1880
and 1890 shows the extent of farm operations:
FARMS, ETC.
1880.
1800.
P«r cmU*
405,(583
$.'!.a.'i4.no4
B.B03
1,904,197
8a',.r.is,.'i40
268-9
881'2
Total value of farms, including
6888
• Increase.
I
MONTANA
865
The followiii;; ttilili' shows the ncrcapo, vielil, and vuhic
(it the |)riiicii)iil ciDiis ill the ouleiidur yetir 1803:
CROPS.
Amt^
YUU.
Tdat.
(Vjfd
WhpaC
1,103
43,481
aa,uM
5,183
4,799
349,069
80.au6 biuh.
«*i.7«7 ••
8.ST7,WI ••
10<'.,i«is ■■
iXi-.'.-jt;;; •■
4'iu,a;o toiiH
S;.'i,2l4
BIKI.a)0
Hnrl.-y
I'lilatoes
Huv
'i 170 (lUT
471,100
»i,-i35.a«
On Jan. 1, 1894, the farm animals eonifiriscd 190..'il9 horses,
value *.">,108,7n:t ; 994 mules, value |;4.V-M7: 80,419 iniUh-
eciws, value $M!»H,4.'i7 ; 1 ,0.'>t>,9.')2 oxell ami other cattle, value
$U;,I1-J7,9T!); 2.7H0,1H)8 sheep, value )J4,8'Jl,89.j ; and :i!),;i88
swill.', value l(;;i0y,036: total head, 4,111,180; total value,
ii;-J7.9:i."),287.
Cliiniilf. — Tliecliiiuite is milder than that of Stales farther
E. in the same latitude. Tlio aunuiil mean temi>eratiire
ranges from 44° lo 48 . The elimate is verv dry. The an-
nual rainfall at Fort Heiiton is Imt 1217 inches, and it is
nearly the same over must nt the .State.
Difinions. — For ailministrativc iiurposes, Montana was
divided (1894) into twenty-three counties, as follows :
COUNTIES AND COUNTY-TOWSS, WITH POPULATION FOR 1800.
IlfiiviT Head
Carbont
< "nsi'ade %
(■Ii..i.-au
t'USttT
Ittiwson
I>t**T IjOtlRe
t'Tk'im t
l-liillifaat
(iitllnliii
< Jrniiitet
.It'lTi'rsnn
).<■» is and Clarke.
MadlKon
Meagher
Mi.>^siiula
I'arkt
Kavuliit
Silv,T How J
Swfct (ira-sst
THont
Valley*
Yellowstone %
Totals.
7-D
7-H
4-F
.Vfl
6-K
4-J
5-E
5-H
8-C
7-F
6-D
8-F
.VE
7-E
&-F
.VI)
7-G
tl-I)
5-E
7-H
S-E
3-K
6-1
Pop.
8,714
8.058
2.510
IHO
8,876
3,l>t3
Pop.
1890.
4,655
4.741
5.:i08
2.050
1.M.55
3,514
' 15.246
2.404
B.02«
(,,:>i\
19,145
.1,915
4.6«2
2.743
4.74H
a.s.'fi-
14.127
6.8W1
23,744
2,065
89,159 132,159
COUNTY-TOWNS.
Dillon
R«d I>:Ml(fe
(Jreat Fulls
Fort Benton
Miles Oily
Ulendive
Deer Ixnl^e City..
Ix'wistown
Kalispel
Rozfiiiun
I'hillinaliiiri;
B(nil(ler Valley . . .
Helena
Virginia City
White Sulphur Sp.
Missoula
Livin^ton
Steveusville
Butte
BiK Tifnl>er
Choteau
Gla.s;ow
Billings
Pop.
ISW.
1,012
624
8.979
624
956
i°,463
2.148
1,068
13',8.ii
675
640
3,426
2,850
10,72.i
205
886
• Referent-e for locatinn of counties, see map of Montana.
+ Formed sinee census of 1S90. X Formed since census of IHSO.
I'rincipal ('itien ami Toivng, tn'lh Population in IS'.iil. —
Helena, i;t.834; Unite City, 111, 7i! ; Great Falls. H.979: An-
Jteonda, ;!.97.'> : Missoula, ;1.426 ; Livinpslon. 2.8.50; Bo/e-
man. 2,14;i; Wulkerville, 1,74:?; Marysville, 1,489.
Population and Han-x.—Xn 1870,"20..")9.") ; 1,860, 39 1,59-
1X90, 132,l."i9 (native. 89.0(;3 ; foreign, 4;l.0!«i: luale, 87,KS2 ;
fiinale, 44,277; wliilc, 127,271; colored, 4.8.88, <'om|irisinj;
1,490 persons <if .Vfrican descent, 2,.W2 C'hineso, 6 ,lapaiiese.
«iid 800 civilized Indians).
Finiinre. — The Slate has no debt, and (feneraliv has a
lar^e balance in its treasnrv. The assessed vaUiaiions in
189;t were : real proiK-rtv. $00,612,702 ; personal. ^150,982,1 18 ;
railway, ^O.O.Vi,:!.-..-. ; total, lj:l27,.')4):<,175; and the tax rate
was $2..")0 per Sl.llOO.
Iiaiikiii,i.—\\\ 1803 there were 20 national banks with
"nilii icapitiilof If 3,.")7.").0(M), ill, liviilual deposits of ;ji<l.24I,-
•"il7, and surplus aiicl prolil.s of $2,331,807: and 4 State
I'Hiiks with capital of :6.!(i.">.000, deposits of |;482,2U7, and
surplus and prolit.s of s!!t|.7.'")l.
Jlian.iof Conuiiuninition. — In 1892 the Slate Imanl of
equalization fixed the asses.sed value of all railway liro|MTlv
in the State at $9.287.."i32. an iiiciea.se in the year'of $l..■ilm,■-
I42. caused liy the Pacific extension of the ("i real Xorl hern
liailway, which hail :{83 miles of roadU'd in the Stale
There were twentv-nine railways in all, with an at-Trepite
niileafie of 2.602, t)ie principal ones bein^r the Northern I'a-
citic and the Oreat Northern. The extension of the lattter
o|iened to settlement the Flathead country, anil also tappeil
lorests of cedar, lir. ami pine that wen- previously almost
inaccessible; it thus passes tliroui;li a r>'j,'ion whose ajrri-
enltiiral resources are capable of siistainiin; thousands of
families.
281
Chureheg. — The census of 1890 (rave the following statis-
tics of the principal religious bodies :
DKNOIUNATIOm.
Kmiiihii I'aihollc
Mi'lliotllKl F|ilHcor>al
I'rcsUyi.rliin In the U. 8. of A
Prot«^HUtiit t:iiiHcoiiAl
Disciiilas of Christ
Baptist
MelhiMlist KpiHcupal South . . .
CuuKn'};aUoiial
Ovfulik.
•Wtelb.
Maatan.
M
102
25.149
48
48
I.90I
84
S4
1.232
ao
M
1.104
u
14
786
14
14
SN3
n
a
4«
1 7
7
S46
tlH4,100
i&e.Hao
n.ooo
106,460
6H.8(»
n.floo
74,000
88,800
.SV/ioo/«.— The act of Coiifrrcss iirovidinf; for the adini.ssion
f Montana, North Dakota, .South llakotn, and WashiiiKton
guaranteed that on becomiuf; a State .Montana should re-
ceive the sixteenth and Ihirty-sixth sections of everv town-
ship of the State, the proceeds from the .sale of which' should
forma iiermanent school fund ; that the State should also
be entitled to 5 ])er cent, of the net priK-ceds ri'ceived from
all sales of public land retained by the U. S. within the
Slate made subsequent to its admission, the sums so derived
to be likewise a part of the iiermanent scl 1 fund : and that
the State should receive a f:rant of 72 stn'tions of unappro-
priated public lands, lo create a fund for the support of a
.State university, 140.000 acres for a^-rieultural colleKes,
100,000 acres for a school of mines. 100.000 acres for Slate
normal^ schools, and .W.OOO acres for a deaf and dumb ilsv-
luin. Under these provisions, the l,ef;islatiire in 1893 passi'-d
acts establishiiifr the State I'niversity at .Missoula, the Stale
Agricultural l'ollcf,'e at Bozeman. the State S-h<Hd of .Mines
at Butte City, the State Normal .School at Dillon, the State
Deaf and Dumb ScIkmiI at Boulder (."ily, a .State lieform
School at Miles City, and a home for orjihans, foundlings,
and destitute chiliiren at Twin Bridges. At the same time
the .Slate lioard of education was authorized to select lands
for the educational iiisliliitions. I'ulilic .s«hcKil statistics at
the end of 1891 showed, children of school age, 29,;t.')3 ; at-
tending public schools, HI.O,")! ; teachers. .IK'!; amount col-
lected for si'hool purposes, $.548.021 ; amount paid for teach-
ers' salaries, $273,276; for libraries, $0,289; f,.r s<h<H>l
apparatus, $7,021; for incidental expenses, $,'>4,197; and
for sites and buildings, $l,llMI,,"i70.
Lihrarifs. — Acciirding lo a l'. S. CJoveninicnt reiKirt on
public libraries of 1.000 volumes and iipwanl ea<-li in 1891,
Montana had o libraries, containing 21,139 bound volumes
and 1,300 pamphlets. The libraries wen' eliLssified as fol-
lows: General, 1; college, 1; law, 1; State, 1; and histor-
ical,!. The Montana Historical .Society was made a State
institution in 1891.
l^sl-ofUcen and Periodiealn. — In .Ian., 1894. there were 400
posl-onices, of which 22 wen> presidential (2 first-clB.ss, 4
s«'cond-clas.s. 10 third-class) and 378 fourtli-<'l(Lss. Then-
Were 113 money-order oflices, a inoney-<inler station, and 6
postal-note oHices. Of isTioilicals, there were 11 of dailv. 1
tri-weekly, 1 semi-weekly, Itt weekly, 1 .si-mi-monlhly, and 6
of monthly pulilication ; total, 84.
Cliaritable. Prforniatnn/, and Pt-nnl In*litulion». — On
the admission of the .Slate the former territorial |>eniten-
tiary at Deer Lodge was turned ovi-r for a .Slate pris<in. and
a second one ha.s been erected since at Billings. I'ending
the completion of the anthorizeil .State institutions, arrange-
ments were maile to maintain I he insane at public eX|H'nse
by private individuals at Warm Springs, ami a uuinlier of
deaf anil dumb, blind, and feeble-minded childn'n, in ap-
propriate institutions out of the Slate. \ ,S|ate Invanl of
charities and reform was cn-ated by the I><gislature in 189.3.
Political Onianizatinn. — The constitution permits aliens to
own mines and minim; pro|H'rty ; prost-riln's |>olyg«iiiy : and
prohibits tnists. contract lalMirin prisons ainl refiirnialorie.s
and lotteries. Theexeculiveaiilhorily is vested inatiovenior,
I.ieiilenaiil-Governor. secretary of Stale, attorney-geiienil.
Stale treasurer. Slate andilor, and .sn|«'rinlendeiil of public
instruction, all electetl for four years. Thetti'vernor is given
anthorily lo veto sennrale items of 1 • ' :lls. The
leuislaliveantliiirity is veiled in a 1. ily.eoin-
prising(lS!i;i| a S-naleof 10 iiieinb. ,r\.iir^,
and a lloii.-^' of Ki^pn'seiitalives of .V> i
two years. The l.egislatiiri' holds bieni.. i
to sixty days. It is pri>hibite<l fnun making ;i|.pr. .pri.iiions
for charitable, industrial, eiliicalional, or U-nevolenl pur-
poses to any |H'rs<m. cor|K>rnlioii, or cuinmiinily not under
the alKMilute eontrt.il of the Stale, nor to aiiv denominational
866
MONTANELLI
MONT BLANC
or sectariiin institution or association. The Supreme Court
has appi'llate jiii-isdii;tion only, with a supervisory control
over all minor courts. It consists of three judges (who may
be increased to five) elected by tlie peo|)le for six years.
Judges of district courts, county attorneys, justices of the
peace, and the clerk of the Supienie Court are also elected
by the people. Citizens of llie U. S., who have been resi-
dents of the State for one year, and of a county for tliiily
days next preceding an election, may vote, excepting U.S.
soldiers, felons, and Indians. Women are eligible to hold
the olRce of county superintendent of schools, or any sehool-
distriet office, and have the right to vole at any school-dis-
trict election. The tax rate for State purposes was limited
to three mills, with the provision that when flie value of
the taxable property of the State reached AlOO.ttOO.IKH) the
rate should not exceed two and a half mills, and when the
value reached ^300.000,01)0 the rate should not exceed one
mill and a half : but the rate may be increased by a majority
vote of all those voting on the question at a general State
election. The State capital was fixed temporarily at Helena.
At the general election in 1892 votes were cast for a perma-
nent capital as follows: Helena, 14,010; Anaconda, IO.I80;
Butte City, 7,~.r3 ; Bozeman, 7,(!8.5; Great Falls, 5,045; Deer
Lodge, 98;i ; and Boulder. 205 ; and final choice between
Helena and Anaconda was deferred to the general election
of 1894.
History . — Montana had had a few settlers, mostly trappers
and hunters and some missionaiies, for many years before
its organization as a 'territory, but its growth dates from the
discovery of gold there in 1801. It was a p.art of Idaho
Territory till Jlay 26, 1864, when it was organized as a sepa-
rate Territory. After the discovery of gold, people Hocked
in from all (|uarters. In the earlier days there was a very
mixed population, among which were a number of noted
robbers and desperadoes, who at one time seemed to have
complete possession of the Territory. This state of things
continued until the resjiectable portion of the community
could endure it no longer, when they formed themselves
into an organization known as the "Vigilantes,'' who ad-
ministered the law without partiality or favor, and many a
miscreant was hanged by them. It was once a favorite
hunting-ground for hunters and trappers, and Fort Benton,
on Missouri river, at the head of navigation, was a fur-trading
post. Having adopted a State constitution the Territory was
admitted to the Union as a State on Nov. 8, 1889. Oii Oct.
15, 1893, the surplus lands of the Crow Indian reservation,
in Southern Montana, aggregating about 1,800,000 acres,
were opened to settlement.
GOVERNORS OK M0XTAX.\,
Territorial.
Sidney Egertnn )864-fi.'5
"State.
Joseph K. Toole ....
John E- Rickards. . .
Robert B. Smith
1889-92
1893-97
1897-
Franeis Meagher (acting). 18G5-^J6
Green Clay Smith 1866-69
James .M. Ashlev 1869-70
Benjamin F. Potts 1870-82
J. Schuyler Ci-osl>y 1883-84
B. Piatt Carpenter 18fM-85
Samuel T. Housi-r 1885-86
Preston H. Leslie ias6-89
Ai;thorities.— Gannett, Metf.orological Ohservafio7is in
Utah, Idaho, and Montana, 1872 (vol. ii., United Statta
Gnographical and Geological Survey of the Territories) :
Crittenden, Jleteorological Observations in Colorado and
^ontana. lS73-7i (vol. vi., ibid.) ; Codified Laws. lSGS-7i
(1872); Blake, .S'i</«-ewc Court Report.';,' 1SGS-7S \ Bancroft,
Washington, Idalio, Montana (1890); Maddox, .SV/j/vh/b
Court lieports of r«.sp.s- (1891 and 1892) ; Mineral Resources
of the United States (1892) ; U. S. (.!ensus Bulletins; Reports
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Revised by C. K. Adams.
Moiitiinern. Gh'sei'I'e : statesman and i)oet ; b. at Fuc-
cecchio, in Tuscany, in 1813 ; d. in 1862. He was educated
at the University of Bisa. and in 1838 published a volume
of poetry ; from 1837-39 pr.uct ic<'d successfully as an advo-
eate;and in 1848 was nppointcil I'rofessor of Civil and Com-
mercial Law in the University of I'isa. Even before 1848
he had excited much attention by his proposed lilieral re-
forms, by the political association known as Fratelli Italiani,
and by the Italia, a journal edited by him at Pisa in 1847
with the motto " Hiforma e Nazionalita." On the breaking
out of the revolution in 1848 he volunteered, and distin-
guished himself by his valor. A re|)ort of his death at the
battle of Curtatone became current, and he wa.s universally
lamented. Mazzini wrote a splendid eulogy upon him. He
was, however, only severely wounded and a prisoner. On
Ids return to Tuscany he became a member of the constitu-
tional ministry, and on the flight of the grand duke in 1849
he was chosen triumvir with Guerrazzi and Mazzini. At
this time he exerted himself for the union of Tuscany with
RoiTie. While he was on a mission to Paris the restoration
took place, and Montanelli remained an exile until 1859,
during which time he published two volumes of memoirs,
Memorie suit' Italia e speciahntnte sulla 7'oseana dal JSI4
at ISSO (Turin, 1853; French trans, by F. Aniaud, Paris,
1857). Among his poems are mentioned willi praise La
Tentazione. and a tragedy entitled Camma. In 1859 he
declared himself for the autonomy of Tuscany, rather tha.i
for the unitication of Italy. La Nuova h'tiropa. a journal
founded by hiui. was the siieeial organ of his peculiar jwlit-
ical ideas, and its publication- ceased at his death. See K.
Redi, Ricordi biografici sa Cf. Montanelli (1883).
Revised by A. R. Marsh.
Moii'taiiists : an early Christian sect, the followers of
Montamis of Pepuza in Phrygia. He appears to have been
a priest of Cybele. was converted about 150 a. d., and soon
after began to fall into fits of ecstacy ami to utter jirophe-
cics. He was joined by two women (Maximilla and Pris-
cilla) of wealth and high social position, who deserted their
husbands and became prophetes.ses. Kxi>elled from the
Church, he set up for himself, organizing a body of preach-
ers to be supported by the voluntary contributions of his
followers. He established a singular hierarchy, consisting
of (1) a patriarch, residing at Pepuza, which was to be the
metropolis of the millennial kingdom ; (2) cenones, which
have not been described ; (3) bishops. Orthodox in respect
to the cardinal doctrines, his teaching, in substance, was
that the Mosaic and Christian dispensations having failed
to save the world, a new revelation hail been made through
him and his two ju-ophetesses. This revelation pertained
not to doctrine, but to discipline. The ]>oints were — (1)
fasting, at first two and afterward three annual fasts of a
week, instead of one such fast ; (2) forbidding second mar-
riages ; (3) refusing restoration to such as had been guilty
of murder, adultery, or idolatry ; (4) requiringthe veiling of
virgins in the assemblies of the C'hurch. The novelty was
not in the things themselves, which were already popular,
but in prescribing them in obedience to what was clainu'd
to be a new express revelation. The system was received at
first with some favor at Rome. Irenjeus of Gaul was tol-
erant toward it. Finally it was treated everysvhere as a
heresy. Its strongholds were in Asia Minor and Northern
Africa ; TertuUian was its ablest chamiiion. Severe laws
against the sect were enacted {Cod. Just.. 1:5: 18-21) as late
as 530 and 532 A. n. The original sources of information
in regard to Jlontanism are. mainly, Eusebius. Hist., vol. iii.,
14-19; Epiphanius, n<n:, 48, 49;" and 22 of the 37 Trea-
tise.f of TertuUian. See Montanism and the Primitive
Church, by John de Soyres (1878).
Moutauiis Arias : See Arias Montanus.
Moiitaiihan. moii'tii baaiV : capital of the government
of Tarn-et-Garonne, France ; on the Tarn. 31 miles N. of
Toulouse (see map of France, ref. 8-E). It is an old but
wcU-buih town, founded in the twelfth century, and con-
tains a still older cathedral. It has large manufactures of
woolens and beet-root sugar, extensive dye-works and distil-
leries, and carries on a considerable trade in wine and grain.
It was one of the Protestant strongholds in France, and has
a flourisliing Protestant theological school. Pop. (1891)
22,616.
Moiitaiik' Point : a high, fertile headland, the extreme
eastern jioint of Long Island ; a part of the townshi[) of
East Hampton, Suffolk co., N. Y. It was the seat of the
Moiitauk Indians, now extinct. It has a stone lighthouse
with a Hashing white light of the first order, 172 feet abova
the sea, and also a fog-trumpet ; lat. 41° 4' 13' N., Ion. 71°
51' 6" W.
Montaiiks; See Algonquian Indians.
Mont HIanc, moii' blaan' [Fr. vhite mountain, from its
perpetual snow] : one of the Pennine Aljis. 15,750 feet high,
and the highest mountain in Europe except Mt. F^lbruz in
the Caucasus. It is a long ellipse of granite aiul crystalline
schists directed N. E. and S. W., and standing at the aiigle
where France, Switzerland, and Italy meet, the principal
peak being in France. It is covered with an ice cap so
thick that a horizontal shaft driven in at 40 feet below the
highest point to a distance of 75 feet with lateral drifts, did not
I
MONTCALM
MONTELUPO
867
reach the rock. From this mass of ic* extend numerous
(jlmicrs down the valleys, in some cases to un elevation of
(iiily ;i.(i(IU fett. The line of iHT|>etiiiil snow extends down
to 8,(itiO feet. The dniinuf;e is inti> liolh the Ulioueund IV
The ascent is danfjerous and futij^uinff. riijuiring two davs,
starting from (.'hnniouni (elevation 3,44.) feet) on the ji'.,
and spending the lirst night at Urauds .Mnlets (11,.W5 feel).
The first ascent was made by the guide ISalniat in 17Mt5.
The second, in the following year, was by the celebrated
pliysiiist .Saiis.siire. who recorded the first |)liysical observa-
tions ever made on high mountains. .Mont IJIane has since
been a notable liehl for scienlitic exploration, and in .Sept.,
isy;}, under the instigation of M. Janssen.an eminent Krench
scientist, an observatory was erected on the mountain near
the ape.v. It is devoted to metcorologic and astronnihic
work. Mark \V. IIarkixgton.
Moiitfnliii, muii'kaalm', Louis Joski'ii Saint-Vekan, Mar-
rpiisde: sf>ldier: I), near N'imes, France, in 1712. Descended
from a noble family, he received a careful education, and at
fourteen years of age entered the army, and was distin-
guisheil in Italy. Holiemia, and Gernuiny. attaining the rank
of colonel. In IT.'iO he was appointed to the chief comnumd
of the French troops in Canada, and three months after his
arrival captured Fort Ontario ((Jswego) and a year later Fort
William llenry (Lake George); in July, 17.)8, he occupied
Fort Ticoiideroga, where he successfully repulsed a greatly
superior liritish force under Abercrombie, To protect
(^ui'bec, threatened by the forces of Gen, Wolfe, Montcalm
a.sseMibleil the main body of his troops on the Montmorency,
where, .luly 31, 17.5!), he reimUed \Volfe, who, retiring, se-
cretly reached, Sept. i:J, the heights of .Abraham, in the rear
of the army of Nlimtcalin. Willi numbers nearly equal,
Montcalm gave battle to the British, but, though displaying
the utmost |)ersomtl bravery, his troops gave way, and were
entirely routed by a charge which followed. Wolfe fell re-
joicing in his victory, while Montcalm, who had received a
fatal wound, died the following day, exulting that he should
not live to see the surrender of (Quebec. A monument
stands in (juebec to the memory of the two heroe-s.
Mont Cenis, mrjiVs«-nee' : a remarkable mountain pass
of the Alps ; on the boundary Ix-twcen the Italian province
of Turin and the French department of Savoie, at the junc-
tion of the Graian and Cottian .Vlps. It forms a plateau
6;77:J feet high, with a peak 11.4.51 feet high. In 1803-10
Xapoh'on I. laid an elcgatit and comfortable carriage-roud
over the [ilateau. connecting France with Italy. In \t*li~ a
railway on the Fell system wa.s carried over the pass, run-
ning for the most part by the side of the carriage-road. It
never paid well. and was discontinued in 1871. The famous
tunnel was bi'gun in Aug., 18-57, completed Dec. 25, 1870,
and opened for tralVic in Sept., 1871. It is 8 miles long,
lacking only 30 yards. Its north eml is .3,942 feet above
the sea, its .south end 4,380, and the midiUe about 1.5 feet
higher than the south end. The cost was £3,000,000.
Trains run through in about twenty minutes. See Frejus,
Got, DE.
Montclair: township: Essex co., X. J. (for location of
county, see map of Xew Jersey, ref, 2-1)): on the Del.,
Lack, ami W. and the X. V. and Greenwood Ijake railways ;
.5 miles X. bv W. of N'ewark, the county-seat, 14 miles
W. X. W. of Xew York city. It comprises a tract .5 miles
long by 1^ miles wide, and has for its western boundary the
First or Watchung Mountain. Its average elevation above
tide-water is 301 feet : the part called "The Heights" has
an altitude of 3(58 feet. The township has l>ecn built up
chiedv by Xew York business men, and the residential parts
are .Montclair. Upp<>r Montclair, and Mimtclair Heights,
forming together a charming, healthful suburb. There am
several churches, a military acailemv, a high school, com-
pleted in 1803 at a cost (vf ;^12.5.1!»0. public schools, a library
founrleil in IS68. a club-house opened in 18.8!l, a State bank
with capital of :f.50.tM'0. and two weekly newspapers. I'op.
,(18«0| 5,147: (1800) 8.ti.5ti: (l,sfl5) 11.7.53.
.Mont Ue Pift^', m<5n dc-pi-n tii' [Fr., mistransl. of Ital.
Mniilr di I'ieli). liter., moinit of pity or compassion ipietn
meaning both piety ami pity), ("f. Fr./)(»7f'and/)i7iV|: an in-
stitution for the loaning of money at a low inten-st to the
IM>or, pledges being taken for security. The earliest s«'ems
to have U-en that of Padua, founded in 1401 in opposition
to the usurious practice of the Jews, The ancient lioinbaril
houses and modern Ifuin-fumls are in principle the same.
The .Vo/i/i' (fi /'iV/(i at Home ar«> among the best managed
in the world. The Mont de Piele nniy be regarded as a pub-
lic system of pawnbrokerage. A similar system has pre-
vailed in fhiim for ages. S«-e Pawnhkoki.no.
Mont-Iloro-les-ltuiiis. mm, d>'>r Iu-IjAiV (i.e. the Baths of
Mont-Dorr): nii im|Hirlunt health n-sort of the de|>artni«nt
of I'uy-i|i--Dome, France; 11 miles S. S. K. of lOichefort, on
the head-waters of the Dordogne river. It i.s situated in a
piclurcMjue region among the mountains, 3.445 feet alwve
sea-level. Here are loid, hot, mineral-watir, mud, and
vapor baths, the l>eneticial effects of which have Ik-cu known
since the lime of the Uomans, who res<jrtiil to the place.
The |H>pulalion of the commune is alioul 1.400; tin- annual
number of visitors .5,00(J. M. W. H.
Monte Carlo : See Monaco.
Monte Casino: See Cassixo.
Monto Cristo (the Oylana of Pliny) : an Italian island,
between Corsica and Tuscany, 30 miles S. of Kliia: rendered
famous bv .Alexander Dumas's romance Tfie Oiunl uf Mtmlt
l.'rislii. It is a conical rock of granite. 5 miles in circumfer-
once, 2,093 feet high: long uninhabiteil, but in 1874 made
a penal colony. It has very little knd capable of cultiva-
tion, ■ M. W. H.
Montoru'riili. 1!ai.monim>, Count of : .soldier; b. near Mo-
dena, Italv, in 10tt8 ; entered the Austrian army in 1627;
distinguished himself in the Thirty Years" war, and after-
ward in the Polish war against the Sweiles, and received in
1600 the command of the allied .Austrian and French army
in Transylvania, with which he defeateil the Turks in the
great battle cif St. Gothard. <.n the Kaab. Aug. I, 1664. In
the war between Frame and Holland he again cominandeil
the Austrian army, and distinguished himself much in the
campaigns between 1672 and 1676. In 1679 the emjieror
made him a prince of the empire, and the King of Xaples
gave him the duchy of Jfc-lfi. I), at Lintz. Oct. l»i. 1681.
He left a memoir on the Turkish war, written in Italian,
and translated into Latin, Gernian, and French, and several
other writings, including sonnet.s.
MontcHo'ro. Sir .Moses Havim, F. R. S. : philanthro-
pist; b. at Leghorn. Italy. Oct. 24. 1784. .At an early age
he wa.s taken to England by his parents. He rose to prom-
inence as a successful merchant, ami was niailc a broker
on the London Stock Exchange. He was honored for his
integrity and l>enevolence. In 1824 he retired from busi-.
nes-s, and devoted the remaimler of an unusually long life
to works of charity and to the amelioration of the condition
of the Jews in all jmrts of the world. In 18:!5 he became
president of the I'nited Deputies of British Jew.s. In 18;i7
he was jireferred to the oflice of sheriff of Ij<indon and Mid-
dlesex, in which year he was knighted by the Queen. In
1846 a baronetcy wa.s conferred upon him. His first visit to
the East wa.s nuide in 1827: his secoml in 1839 for the pur-
pose of founding colonies for Jews. In 1840 he again visilnl
the East, and at Damascus .secured the relea.se of the Jews
who had been charged with thi' munler of a monk. In 1846
he pleiiiled before Emperor Nicholas at St, Petersburg in
favor of his people : 18.55 he brought a.ssistance to tho-M.- who
were suffering from the famine in .Syria: 1858 he traveled
over Europe in the unsuccessful endeavor to sc<"ure the rc-
lea-so of Edgar Mortara. who had lieen fori-ibly c<mvertcd to
Homan Catholicism. In 1863 he visiteil Constantinople, in
1864 MoriK-co. in 1866 Syria, in 1867 Bucharest, and in 1875
Jerusali'iu. In memory of his wife hefoumled at Kam.sgate
the Jutlith Montefiore'College for the tniining of JewLsh
divines. D. at Raraspate, Julv 2-8, 188.5. Si'C Juilith .Monte-
fiore. I'rirale Joiinial of a I'i>i7 In Kgijpt ami 'I'olfjiline
(Ivondon, 1836): Diariex of Sir Moar.i and Lady Monttfiore
ed. by L. Loewe (I^ondon. l'8!Ht) : Baley's Mmirrn '3lrlhu«tlah ;
Dirtitinary of Xalional Biography. e<l. by Sidney Leo
(xxxviii., p. 278). Riciiard Gotth'eil.
Mont«'leo'iiP dl Cala'bria: town: in the province of
Catan/.aro. Siutheru Italy: situatetl on an emineniT. 11
miles E. of Trti|i<a (s<'e niai' of IlnN r. f 'i in. aiul contain-
ing .some fine buildings. This to» the site of the
ancient JfipfHiniiim of Magna (it > known under
the R<imans as IVio Valrntin, and i.k.I. a prominent part
in the XeaiM.litan wars of th.' Miil.lle .Ai.i>«. In 17M3 it suf-
fered fearfully from an earll . . ..■,! nearly
the whole town, inchnling th r.-cted by
Roger the Xorman. Pop. al«-... ...■■.
Montrlu'pn, Baccio, da: sculptor ami «r"hil<N't : b. at
Montelui">. near Florence, in 1450: d. at I n. . •■ oi LVW.
.\moiig his I'arly works are a HenMili'S for ' dei
Medici, and a bronze statue of .Su John the I . for
868
MONTEMAYOR
MONTERO
the garden of Porta Santa Maria — one of the best statues
ever produced in Florence. He carved many crucifixes in
wood for cliurchcs all over Italy. One of these is at St.
Mark's convent in Florence, another at Arezzo. At Lucca
he built the Church of San Paolino. W. J. S.
Moiitemayor, inon-ta-miia-yor', Jorgk. de: poet; b. at
Montenior, near Coinibra, Portugal, probably between 1.510
-and 1520: d. in a duel at Turin, Italy, in 15(51. Originally
n. soldier, he became eonnectcil with the traveling chapel of
Philip II., owing to his knowledge of music. He was thus
■enabled to visit several foreign countries, particularly the
Netherlands and Italy. The work for which ho is fiinumsis
the pastoral romance />('««« Enamurnila, written in Spanish,
as were all hisiither works. It is modeled upon the Arcadia
of .Sannazaro, but contains much of the author's personal
experience and regret for unrequited love. This was iirst
published in an incomplete form at Valencia in 1558 or
1.559, nor was it ever finished by its author. After his death,
however, several persons undertook to go on with it. First,
Alonso Perez, a physician of Salamanca, carried it a little
way. according to JIuntiMuayor's own ]ilan, wliich had been
communicated to hira (1st ed. 1564, and often after that
date with the original Diana). Next, CJaspar Gil Polo, a
professor of Greek in Valencia, furnished another continu-
ation, also never finished (1st ed. 1564). Finally, one Hier-
onymo do Texeda, a Spaniard residing in Paris, prepared
stiil a third continuation, the dullest of all (Pans, 1627).
The original rouiauce became at once extremely popular,
not only in .Spain, but in other countries. Translations were
made into Latin, French (six version,s), German (two ver-
sions), Dutch, and English. The last, by Bartholomew Yong
(London, 1598, folio), as the introduction shows, was made
because of the interest felt in the work by the illustrious
group to which Sir Philip Sidney belonged, though its pub-
lication was delayed nearly twenty years. Another sign of
this interest is the fact that the Diana was the immediate
model of Sidney's own Arcadia. Besides the Diana, Jlonte-
raayor wrote a considerable amount of verse of various
kinds — lyrics, ballads, elegies, pastoral and satiric poems.
These are to be found in the Canciimero de las obras de.
Jorge de Montemayor (Antwerp, 1554, and often), and in
the Canciimero espirifual (Antwerp. 1558). See G. Schonn-
herr, .forge de Montemayor, sein Leben und sein Sc/idferro-
man (Ha'Ue, 1886). A. R. Marsh.
Monteinorelos, formerly Pilon : a town of the state of
Nuevo Leon, Mexico; 53 miles S. F. of Monterey; at the
southeastern base of the Sierra de la Silla; about 2,000 feet
above the sea (see map of Mexico, ref. 4-G). It is the
center of a rich sugar-producing district. Pop. about 10,000.
H. II. S.
Montenegro (in Servian Czrnagora, Black Jlountain) : an
independent principality of Europe; situated between 41°
45-43° 15' N. hit. and 16° 15-17° 35' E. Ion., bounded by
Dalraatia. Herzegovina, and Albania. Its area, 3,506 sq.
miles, was somewhat increased by the Congress of Berlin
(1878) through the cession of territory on the Adriatic with
the port Antivari,and later(1880)of another port — Dulcigno.
The country is a mass of rugged and lofty mountains, with
dense forests of oak, beech, poplar, fir, and sumach. The
loftiest peak, Kut.sch-Kom, is 9,250 feet high. There are no
roads and few villages. The people are a sturdy race, jios-
sessing all the characteristics of half-barbarous mountain-
eers, oec\ipied in a primitive way with agriculture, hunting,
anil fishing when not engaged in war. No real census has
ever been taken, and there is no budget, henc<' estimates are
only approximate. Pop. 220,000, of whom 4,000 are Roman
Catholics, 4,000 Mussuhnans, and 212,000 Orthodox Greeks.
Though '■ Montenegro is a military camp," there is no .stand-
ing army, but every Montenegrin between sixteen and fifty
years of age owes military servlt'e, and the [)rince can in ii
few days put under arms 3(5,000 men (20,000 between twenty
and forty in the first class). The revenue amounls to $300,"-
000, <ierived from taxes on land and cattle, from govern-
ment salt monopoly, and customs dues, which are 6 per
cent., ad valorem; public debt, $.500,000. The exports of
cattle, sheep, goats, scodano (a dye-wood), insectic^ide pow-
der, smoked meat, fish, cheese, skins, and wool amount to
.$1,000,000. The political history of Mont(^negro is one long,
ferocious heroism. When Servia was conquered by Bayezid 1.,
at the battle of Kossova(138!)), many of the inhabitants look
refuge in the mountains under the lead of Balsha, son-in-law
of the slain Servian king Lazarus, and have since main-
tained their independence against the frequent and desper-
ate attempts of the Ottomans to subdue them. The country
has often been overrun by armies more nmnerous than the
entire population, the inhabitants almost exterminated, and
the capital, Cettignc, several times captured aud burned
(1623, 1714, 178.5). Still they were generally victorious over
these fierce invaders, and their independence was formally
acknowledged by the sultan in 1878. Peterthe Great made
an intimate alliance with them in 1710, and they have often
been assisted by Russians, whom they regard w'ith jieculiar
affection. At present Russia i)ays them annually $17,000,
not as a subsi<iy, but as indeninily for losses tliev sustained
in 1813, when helping to expel the French from the Dalma-
tian coast. For over 300 years their government was theo-
cratic, the metropolitan (Vladika) of Cettignc exercising
despotic authority; but it is now a hereditary absolute
monarchy vested in the Petrovitch Niegosch family. The
chief towns are: Cettignc. 1,200 inhabitants: Podgoritza,
4,000; Nikchitch, 3,000; Dulcigno, 2.000; Antivari. 1,.500;
Kolashine, 1,500; Niegosch, 1,200; Danilovgrad, 1.000.
E. A. (JROSVENOR.
Montf pin, mSii ta piih , Xavier Aymon, de: novelist: b,
at Apremont, Ilaute-Saone, France, Mar. 18, 1824. He dab-
bled a little in politics in 1848, founded the newspaper Le
Canard (1848), contributed to the anti-revolutionaiy Le
Pamphlet and Le Lampion, and published satirical pam-
phlets. He had already (1847) made his appearance as a
novelist with Les Clievaliers dii lan.^i/iienet, and after 1848
he abandoned polities for literature. He has jiroduced
novels with surprising ra|)idity. Each work, as a rule, has
appeared in several volumes, and these number nearly 350
(1894), Besides these, he has composed, alone or with col-
laborators, more than twenty jilays. He depends for his
interest upon exciting incident and sensational situation.
A. G. Can'field.
Monterey : city (settled by the Mexicans, former State
capital); Monterey Co., Cal. (for location of county, see map
of California, ref. 9-C) ; on Jlonterey Bay, and the S. Pac.
and the Jlonterey and Fresno railways; 80 miles by sea
from San Francisco, with which it is connected by a line of
steamers. It has a capacious harbor, absolutely safe in any
weather; has electric lights. 3 churches, large public-school
building, 2 State banks with combined caiiital of $70,000,
and 3 weekly newspapers. The famous old Mission Church,
Colton Hall, where the State constitution was signed, and
the old custom-house are still preserved, but nearly all the
adobe houses of the early Spanish and Mexican inhabitants
have been replaced bv modem buildings. Pop. (1880) 1,396;
(1890) 1,662 ; (1894) estimated, 1,800.
Editor of " New Era."
Monterey, mon-tfJ-ni' [Span., liter., Mt. King] : capital and
most important town of the slate of Nuevo Leon, Mexico;
in a valley or small plain, ]iartly surroundeil by picturesque
mountains of the Sierra Madre (see map of iMexico, ref. 4-G).
It is on the Mexican National Uailway (from Mexico to
Laredo, Texas), and is connected by other lines with Tam-
pico and Eagle Pass; a line to Matamoros is in course of
construction (1894). The city covers a large area on the
banks of the little river San Juan; the houses generally
have only one story. The princiiial public buildings, ca-
thedral, etc., face on two large squares. There is a large
trade, especially with the V . S.. and the town has consider-
able manufacturing establishments, including a large one
for woolen goods, breweries, tan-yards, etc. The climate is
dry and healthful, though warm in the summer months,
and somewhat changealile; mean winter temjierature, .55°
F. ; summer, 83'. A .settlement was formed here probably
as early as 1581 ; it was called Leon in 1584, when it became
the capital of Nuevo Leon; and the present name was
adopted in 1596. During the early {)art of the war with the
V. S. the Mexicans, having been defeated liy Taylor on the
Kio Grande, concentrated their forces at Monterey; here
they had nearly 10,000 nu'n under Anq>udia. Taylor ad-
vanced from Jlatamoros Aug. 5, 1840, with 6,650 men. and
carried the greater part of the fortifications and city after a
hot battle in the streets and houses during three days. Sept.
21-33. Ampuilia then capitulated, and was allowed to march
out with his force. Pop. (1892) 46,000. H. II. Smith.
Montero, mon-ta'ro, Lizauho : naval officer and politician ;
b. in the province of Piura. Peru, May 27, 1832. lie was in-
volved in (he rebellion of Vivaneo 185(i-57, and was ban-
ished until 1S()0 ; took a leading part in the defense of Callao
against, the Siianish fleet May 2. 1806; and conunanded part
of the land force against Piei-ola 1874. When the war with
MONTE ROSA
MONTEVIDEO
8C9
Chili briike out he had attainetl the rank of ailmiral, but
served a^ain with the hind forces, coiiiiiiaiided the rijjht
wing at the battle of Taena. and took part in the defense of
Lima. After the fall of that city he was made vice-presi-
dent in the provisional government, and I'resiilent t'alde-
ron, having been imprisoned by the Chilians (Sept., 1«>)1),
Montero ii.s.sumed the e.xeeutive at Arequipa. Tlie Chilians
forced him to evacuate that place Oct. 21), 1W3. and he re-
tired to Bolivia, only returning after Caeercs had U-en regu-
IhiIv elected president. Subsequently he was senator from
Piura. 11. 11. Smith.
Mon'te Ro'sa : a mountain in the Alps, exceeded in ele-
vation oidy by .Mt. Mlanc ; on the boundary l)ctween the
.Swiss canton of V'alais and the kingdom of Italy, at the
junction between the I'ennine and Lepontic Alps. It rises
in nine peaks, the four central ones of which are more than
14.0IM) feet high, the highest, the Dufourspit/.e, having an
altitude of 1.5,217 feet. It is rich in metals. Gold, copper,
and iron mines are worked. The highest of these mines is
sitinited at an elevation of 10,.')(X) feet, in the region of per-
petual snow. The Dufourspitze was ascended for the first
time in IS.V).
Montrsano : town ; capital of Chehalis co.. Wash, (for lo-
cation of county, see map <>( Washington, ref. 5-B); on the
Chehalis river at tlie head of navigation, and on the X. Pac.
Kailroad; '>() miles S. by \V. of Olympia. It is engaged in
lumliering, salmon fishing and canning, stock-raising, dairy-
ing, and manufacturing, and has a national bank with cap-
ital of $,'50,001), an incorpor.ited bank with capital of ^T.'J.OOO,
a private bank, and two weekly newspapers. Pop. (1890)
l,6;i2. ' Editor OF "ViDKTTE."
Montesquieu, mSn tes'ki-o', Charles Loiis de .SEro.NUAT,
Baron de : historian and political philosoplier; b. .Jan. 18,
ItW*, at the Chateau de la Bredc, near Bordeaux, France,
whence he derived the title he bore iluring his youth — Baron
de la Brede. He was educated at the oratorian college of
Juilly; studied law at Bordeaux; in 1714 became councilor
of the ParlemenI of Bordeaux, and in 1716 president. The
same year he entered the Academy of Bordeaux, and showed
more taste for study than for business. Under the influence
of Newton he turned to natural history and conceived the
plan of a Ilinloire phi/siqiie de la terre ancienne el moJenie
(1710). In 1721 he produced the Letlres Persnnes, in which,
under guise of letters written home by a Persian traveling
in France, he satirized French society and institutions. In
172.') came the Temple de (inide, an allegorical prose poem.
He was chosen to the Academy the same year, but the king
refused to sanction the choice on the plea that he did not
live in Paris. In 1728 he was elected a second time, and
took his seat. The next years were spent in travel in tier-
many, Austria, and Italy, and in observing the institutions
and manners of those countries. Montesijuieu went next to
England, where he remained nearly two years, stuilying the
methods of government. He returned to France in 1731,
and applied himself seriously to historical .study. The first
fruits of this labor were the Considerations siir les causes
de la grandeur et de la decadence des Romains (1734), in
which Tie sought to discover the laws of political life through
the very complete political experience of Konie. The Dia-
logue de Sylla et d'Encrate (174.5), an imaginative embtMli-
ment of Roman ideas in characters, is closely connected with
it. .Ml this, however, was preparatory to his great work,
L' Esprit des Lois (1748). The scope of this work is indi-
cated by its fuller title : On the spirit of laws, or the neces-
sary relations between a country's laws and the nature of its
fovernment, its manners, climate, religion, commerce, etc.
n spite of errors and inaccuracies and a want of orderly
plan, it has been, by reason of its vast information an<l its
fertility of general views, one of the most important Iwoks
of modern times in its field, and established the metho<l of
historical treatment of political science. It was received
with great enthusiasm, an<l ran through twenty-two editions
in a year and a half. To the objections it called forth Mon-
tesouieu repliecl by the Defense de t'Eipril des Lois (1750).
I). Feb. 10, 17."m. Some minor writings were long kept from
print by his farailv — Deux opuscules de Muntexi/uieu and
Melanges inhllts de Mnnlesouieu (Paris, 1801-02). The best
edition of his CEnrres com/jieles is bv K. Lalx>ulave (7 vols.,
Paris. 1879). See A. Horc], Montesquieu (Paris, 1S87). and
Political Science. A. (i. Cankield.
MonteverMo. Claudio: originator of the mixlern style of
musical composition ; b. at Cremoiui, Italy, in 1568 : d. in
Venice in 1(543. Monteverde was the first to discover and
employ the chord of the dominant seventh and its inver-
sions, also the chord of the ninth and the (>rinciple of sus-
pensions. Besides this he showed astonishing gifts in the
composition of ilramatic music. He coni|>osed nianv o|>iTai<,
and may be said to have originate*! truly lirauiatic iiiusic in
contradistinction to the then all-prevailing contrapuntal
style of the ohl ecclesia-stieal composers. In the orihesira
he also made innovations and improvement.s. In 16(»H. at
the performance of his Orfeo, he employed Uiirty-six instru-
ments. In 1824 he intriHJuced into a large can'ata, aiuong
other novel eflect.s, a tremolo for the stringe<l in.strumeiits
as we now employ it to express agitation, rage, anger, etc.
It is sairl that the appearance of this tremolo uiMjn pajwr so
astonislie<l the performers of that day that at fir^it thev de-
clined to attempt it. ' Dudley Bick.
Monteverde. .Ii-ax Domi.suo: soldier: b. in Teneriffe,
Canary islands, aboul 1772. He served at first in the S|«n-
ish navy, attaining the grade of captain of frigate. Being
stationed on the Venezuelan coa-st. he excliaiigi-d into the
army, taking the rank of mariscal de camjio. The revolt
which had broken out at Caracas attaiiieil great hea<lwar
until the disastrous earthquakes of Apr., 1812. Montevenle,
taking advantage of the confusion, cillectetl forces in the
western provinces, advanced rapidly on Caracas, and. with
very little fighting, compelled the 'submission of Miranda
in August, occupying the capital .so<in after. He treated
the conquered region with great severity, and, in violation
of his own treaty, sent Miranda a prisoner to Spain. His
excesses excited new revolts: he was flriven from Caracas,
repeatedly beaten by Bolivar, ami finally shut up in Puerto
Cabello, where he was deposed bv his own ofiicers Dec., 1813.
In 1816 he returned to Spain, where he died in 1823.
Heriiekt H. .Smith.
Montevideo: village : capital of Chip|iewa co., Minn, (for
location of countv. see map of Minnesota, ref. 9-B»: at the
junction of the Cliipiiewa and Jlinnescila rivers, and on the
Chi., Mil. and St. P. Railway; 133 miles W. of .Minneap<.lis.
It was founded soon after the Sioux Indian outbreak in 1862,
and is near the spot, now marked by an imposing monument
erected by the .State, where Little Crow surremlered a large
body of hostilcs and several hundre<l while prisimers. There
are 7 churches, Windom Institute, .State High School, graded
schools, a State bank with capital of $:«UX)0, 2 private banks,
a monthly and 2 daily periodicals. .5 elevators, and 2 large
flour-mills. It is in an agricultural, dairving, and st<*k-
raising region. Pop. (1880) 862; (1890) 1,4.37: (189.')) 1.800.
Editor of " Leader,"
Montevideo, Span. pron. mon-ta-vee-da 5 : capital and
chief city and port of I'mpiay ; on a small bay of the north-
ern shore of the Rio de la Plata, where the estuary liegins to
open out into the Atlantic ; hit. (of the cathedral) 34 54 SJi',
S. Ion. .56° 12 18' W. (.see map of South America, ref. 8-E).
The bay, which is al)out 2i miles long and wide, forms the
best harbor on the Plata; it is, however, open to winds from
the S. E., and it will not admit vessels of over 15 feet
draught : larger ships anchor in the o[>en roadstead formed
by the mouth of the estuary, where, during the winter
months, they are exposed to the dangerous storms called
pami>cros. A conical hill, the Cerro, marks the southwest-
ern side of the entrance to the bay. and is a conspicuous
feature in the landscai>e. The city ix^cupies a low ridge or
headland with gently sloping sides: this gives it an excel-
lent surface drainage during the frequent rains, and there
is now a good system of under drainape. The water-supply
is obtaine<I from the river Santa Lui-ia. aliout 12 miles Ji.s-
tant. The streets are wide and straight, crossing each other
at right angles; the most important ones nin along the top
of the ridge, where also there is a series of fine public
squares. The better class of houses in the city pM|it>r are
commonly in the Italian style, three or four stories high;
owing to'the general ta.ste for an-hitei'lure anil the free use
of white marble in building, this is one of the handsomest
cities of South America. Among the numerous fine pub-
lic edifices may be mentioned the catheiinil. inuniei|>al
building, government jialace, school of arts anil si-iemt's,
and the Solis theater. Lines of tranwars nin to the out-
skirts— Paso Molino, La rnion, etc. — when- there are nu-
merous charming suburban resiliences, summndeii by gar-
dens and lawns. The Prado. about 3 miles from the city,
is a handsome park, adornwl with fountains, groTcs. and
flower-ganlens. Pix-itos and Buceo. on the co».«t just E.
of the v\\\. are much frequente<l for bathing: and \ ictoria
and Villa del Cerro, on the opjiositc side of the bay, contain
870
MONTEZ
MONTFORT
many slau.shler-liouses and establishments for curing hides,
preparing jerked beef, etc. At Cerro there are llireu hirfje
dry docks. Montevideo absorbs a large portion (jf tlie com-
merce of Uruguay, and to some extent the trade in transit
to the rivers Parana and Paraguay ; lunnerous regular lines
of steamers connect it with Kumpe, North America, lirazil,
the Argentine, and the Pacitic coast. In lyui the numlier
of vessels which entered the port was 4.033, of which l,OUa
were from foreign ports. In 1H8'J the value of the exjiorts
was about $17,415,000, of the imports §3:i,4TG,000. The
most important exports are hides, jerked beef, and other
bovine products, and wool. Kailways connect the city with
Santa .Vna (Brazil), Minas, and Uarra de Santa Lucia. The
city, like Uruguay in general, has few important manufac-
tures. It is the seat of a university, schools of niediciiu%art,
etc., and many charitable institutions. Jlontevideo was
founded in 1726, and during the colonial period was little
more than a fort and settlement, dependent on liuenos
Ayres. On Feb. 2, 1807, it was taken by a British expedi-
tion, but was soon abandoned. When Buenos Ayres de-
clared its independence, in ISIO. the Spanish forces in-
trenched themselves in Montevideo, whence they were not
expelled until. June, 1814. It became the capital of Uruguay
in 1838, but at that time had oidy 9,000 inhabitants. Its
commercial prosperity began in 183G, owing to the short-
sighted policy of Rosas, which drove trade and immigra-
tion from Buenos Ayres and turned the current to this
port; the tyranny of tlie dictator also drove many of the
better class from Buenos Ayres to this place, and it became
a center of opposition to him. From 1843 to 1851 Oribe,
supported by Rosas, made constant efforts to take the city ;
this period is known as tlie " nine years' siege." Notwith-
standing this and the burdens of subsequent civil wars,
Montevideo has prospered steadily. Pop. (1892) officially
given as 238,080 ; but this includes the department of Mon-
tevideo, which contains 256 .sq. miles; the city proper prob-
ably has about 180,000, most of the rest being in C'erro, Vic-
toria, Poeitos, Buceo, and other villages of the outskirts. See
Mulhall, Handbook of the River Plate (1892) ; Childs, Sixin-
isti- American Republics (1891); Isodoro De-Maria, Com-
pendia de la historia de la Repiiblica Oriental (1874-75).
Herbert H. Smith.
Mon'tez, Marie Dolores Eliza Rosanna, Countess of
Landsfeld, known as Lola Montez : adventuress ; b. at
Limerick, Ireland, in 1818 ; was the daughter of an ensign
named Gilbert ; was married in 1837 at Neath to a Capt.
James, from whom she soon separated ; appeared as a dan-
seuse in Paris 1840 ; proceeded in 1846 to Munich, where
she became mistress of King Louis and received the title of
Countess of Landsfeld. She took an active part hi politics,
but was compelled to leave the country by the outbreaks of
1848; went to the U. S. in 1851 ; appeared for some years
as an actress and lecturer, and published her Autobiograptiy
(1858), besides various other writings. D. at Astoria, L. I.,
Jan. 17, 1861. Revised by B. B. Vallentime.
Montezu'ma : town ; capital of Poweshiek co., la. (for
location of county, see map of Iowa, ref. 5-1); on the
la. Cent, and the Burl., Cedar Kap. and N. railways; 24
miles N. of Oskaloosa, 56 miles E. of Des Moines. It is in
a farming, dairying, and stock-raising region ; has valu-
able coal deposits in its vicinity ; and contains 4 churches,
2 public-school buildings, electric lights, a national bank
with capital of $50,000, and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop.
(1880) 921 ; (1890) 1,062; (1895) 1,231.
Editor op " Republican."
Muntezilllia [also written Moteczuma. Moctezuma, Mo-
TEtiiuzoMA, etc.; Aztec. JlotectiJi^oma, the sad or severe
one]: the name of two war-chiefs or so-called "emperors"
of ancient Mexico. — Monteztma I., culled Ilhuicamina, was
born about 1390, became chief in 1436. and, like most of the
line, was a successful warrior; he is said to have been the
first who carried his arms to the Gulf coast. D. about 1464.
— Montezuma II., surnamcd Xocovotzin, w^as born about
1476 (according to Bernal Diaz, in 1479), and is famous as
the chief of Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion.
He was the son of Axayacatl, a former chief; w;is early
noted as a warrior; and it woulil appear was also a priest.
In 1503 he was chosen to succeed his uncle, Ahuizotl. At
this time Tenochtitlan. or Jlexico, was the most powerful
city of the plateau, and its authority was in some sense
recognized by most of the tribes as far as the Gulf to the
G. and southward to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Jlon-
tezuma had almost continuous wars with the Tlascalaus,
who liad never been subdued ; and he is said to have made
an expedition far southward into Honduras. From these
and other wars he brought back thousands of prisoners, who
Were sacrificed in the temples. In 1518 he liearil that shiiis
with white men (Grijalva's expedition) had ajipeared on the
coast ; and his uneasiness at the tidings was increased, it is
said, because it had been foretold that descendants of the
white god, tjuetzalcoatl. would one day come and rule Mex-
ico. When Cortes landed at Vera Cruz, Ai>r., 1519, Monte-
zuma sent him gilts, but tried to dissuade him from coming
to Tenochtitlan. Beyond this it does not appear that he
ever attempted an armed resistance; and the only fighting
done by the Sjjaniards in their march over the i)lateau was
in the indeix'ndent territory of Tlascala, and in Cholula,
where they discovered, or thought they discovered, a con-
spiracy, and punished it by killing several hundred unarmed
[leople. Since Cortes had insisted on coming, preteniling
that he was an ambassador from the King of Spain, Jlon-
tezuina received him well, going out from the city to meet
him, assigning him (piarters in a jiublic building, and send-
ing rich presents to him and his officers (Nov. 8. 1519). The
coriiiiion people soon showed that they hated the strangers,
and were inipalienl with the pusillanimous policy of their
chief; Cortes, fearing an outbreak, boldly seized Monte-
zuma in his own house, and confined him as a hostage in
the Spanish quarters. Here he wa.s, in the main, kindly
treated, and nominally ruled as before, through his officers ;
on one occasion, wlien it was alleged that he was attempt-
ing resistance to his jailer's wishes, he was put in irons.
The people at length rose in open revolt, and attacked the
Spanish quarters. At the request of Cortes, Montezuma
appeared on the wall and attempted to pacify them; but
he was received with a shower of stones, and fell back
wounded. Four days after he died, probably more of grief
and shame than from the effects of his wounds. June 30,
1520. See Prescott, Owi^Mes^o/ J/i?.ri'co ; Bancroft, ///s/ory
of tlie Pacific States: Mexico (vol. i.) ; Bernal Diaz del Cas-
tillo, Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Xueva AV
paRa. Herbert H. Smith.
Monlfaucon.moiVfo'koiV, liERNARD.de: classical scholar ;
b. at Souhiye, in Languedoc, Jan. 17. 1655 : served for some
years in the army, but entered in 1675 the Benedictine con-
gregation of Saint-Maur, devoting himself exclusively to
classical studies, inspired by Aniyofs famous French trans-
lation of Plutarch ; traveled in Italy, and settled in 1701 in
Paris, where he died Dec. 21, 1741.' The first fruits of his
extensive learning were new critical editions of several of
the Greek Fathers, but his enduring fame rests upon the
PaUeograpliia Graca (1708), by which he became the
fountler of scientific pal.-eography. He examined 11,630
JISS. with a view to determine chronological data from the
chajacter of the handwriting. Other works are L'Antiquite
expliqnee et representee en figures (French and Latin, 15
vols., 1719-24); liibliotheca bihliotliecarum MSS. nura (2
vols, fob, 1739), containing a list of the MSS. examined by
him during a period of forty years; JJonnments de hi iiio-
narchie fran^aise (1729-33, in 5 vols. fob). Cf. E. de Broglie,
La societi de Vabbaye de Haint-Germain (2 vols., 1891).
Revised by A. Gudeman.
Montfernit : formerlv an independent duchy of Italy;
lioundeil by Piedmont, jMilan. and Genoa; now a part of
the Italian "province of Turin. From the time of Otto the
Great it was governed by margraves or marquises, of whom
several became famous as military chiefs, especially in the
crusades. Conrad successfully defended Tyre against Sala-
din in the third crusade, and inie of the leaders of the
fourth was Boniface III. who after the establishment of the
Latin Empire of. the East (1204) became lord of Thessaly.
Montferrat became a duchy in 1574. In 1631 a part of it
was ceded to Savyy, which in 1703 secured the remainder.
Mdiitfort, Simon, de. Earl of Leicester: statesman; b. in
France early in the thirteenth century, a son of Simon
de Moutfort,' the vanquisher of the Albigenscs. In 1231 his
brother, the Count AmaurydcJIontfort, gave him the honor
of Leicester, inherile<l from his m.aternal grmidniother, an
English lady; for this title Simon did homage to Henry III.
in 1231, and in 1239 it was formally granted by the king
after his marriage with the king's sister; was for many
years employed as governor of Gaseony, where he conducted
inany wars with advantage, and twice refused the French
regency ; in England, unlike most other French adven-
turers of that period, he took the iiart of the barcms against
the king in the wars of Henry IIL's reign ; compelled the
^rON'TFORT
MONTI
871
kins to sifrn the provisions of Oxford 1358. ami in 1202 !«■-
iiiiin- tl»' Ifudcr of till' Imronial purty ; ilii-tiiti-d li-niis ut
tlic viitory of Lwwrs 12(i4; suninioneil Hit- I'lirliaiiiciit of
12(J.>,iit wliifh kiiiKlilsof the sliirc iinil rcpri-i-nlulivcs of the
l)orou(;hs were iiilmittiMl — thi- K'^rni of the fill lire Iloutie of
Coinnions: lieciiiiie jiislieiiiry of Kiii:himl. Loni; the virtual
master of the ri'uliii, he wns atlackeil hy Kilwiinl. I'rince of
Wall's, at Kvcslmiii, anil there defcttteii and sluin Aug. 4,
12«'"i.
Monirort. Simon, de, Coiint. subseciuently Ciniiit nf Tou-
lousi-: soldier; I), alioiit ll.'iO; tixik part in llie fourth ciii-
sude ; was appoiuled lea<ler by the pope of the crusade
ajiainst the .All)i'.;enses in 120y, and beeanie famous for the
unheard-of cnii'lty with whirh he su|ipres.sed this move-
ment. In 12i;i he took Toulouse from Coiiiil Kayiiioiid, hut
wa-s afterward driven from tiie eily, and when lie retuined
to besii';;e it he was killed by a stone thrown from the wall
June 2"), 1218.
.Mont'.ri>lll('r: See .\1"roxai"TICS.
M<)iit;;omt>ry : cily (founded in 1817, incorpornted in
18:t7. Miade Slate capital in 1^47); capital of .Maliama and
of !Moiil),'omery Coiinly (for location of county, see map of
Alabama, rcf. •'i-I)); on the .\lHbaina river, and the Ala.
Mid., the Cent, of (ia., the Louis, and Xash., the Savannah,
Amer. and Mont., and the \V. of .\la. railways; 1H() miles
N'. K. of Mobile, with which it has steamboat communication
all the year. It is built on the lilulTs of the river, and is in
an a;;riciiltiiral, miiieral. and yellow-pine and hard-wood
timber n'ffion. It contains 3(1 churches, 7 large cotton-
storage warehouses, 2 compresses, 4 ginneries, 5 public-
school buildings, an orphanage, a home for widows, L'. S.
Government building. State Capitol (erected in IH.jl), 13 na-
tional banks with combined capital of ^42'').IXH). a State
bank with capital of $l(M).f)00. 2 private banks, a banking
and insurance com|)any, ami ■^ daily, 5 weekly, 3 monthly,
and 2 other periodicals. There are gas and electric light
plants, electric street-railway, water and sewerage plants
(the former supplied from artesian wells), and suburban
parks at Hivcrside and Highland Hill. E.\tensive deposits
of coal and iron are within easy reach by rail and water,
and the city is connected with the heart of the timlwr re-
gion by a narrow-gauge railway. The river tonnage of
freight averages 5(I0,0()0 tons annually, and the aggregate
business of the cily exceeds jfiiill.Odll.lJlio in value annually.
Besides the industries connected with the cotton, coaL, iron,
and tiiiilH;r production, there are brick-yards, flour-mills,
and carriage and wagon, ice, candy, fertilizer, cigar, soap,
papei-box. vinegar, cracker, and other factories. Pop. (Ib80)
1(5,713 ; (1890) 21,883 ; (1893) estimated. 2t5.0(X).
Editor of " Adverti.ser."
Montgomery: village; Orange co.. X. Y. (for location
of county, see map of N'ew York. ref. 7-.I); on the Wallkill
river.and theKrie and the Wallkill Val. railwavs; 12 miles
W. of N'ewbiirg. 70 miles X. by W. of Xew York city. It is
in an agricultural and dairying region, has 4 churches, pub-
lic union school, and 2 weekly newspapers, and is princi-
pallv engaged in farming and the manufacture of paper and
woolen goods. I'op. (1880) 935: (1890) 1.024; (1894) esti-
iiialeil, 1.200. Editor of " Stand.»rd."
.Montgoiiierj' City: town; Jlontgomerv oo.. Mo. (for lo-
cation of couiily. see map of Missouri, ref. 4-1); on the
Waliash Railroad ; 84 miles W. of St. Louis. It contains
7 churches, high school, public school, free public library,
electric lights, woolen, flour, tobacco, and box factories. 2
State banks with combined capital of ^(i2.(KK>. and 2 weeklv
newspapers. It is in a farming, dairying, and live-stock
region, and has valuable quarries in its vicinitv. Pop. (1880)
l.liio: (Is'iO) 'j.i!)!). EniTOR OF "Sta.mi.^rd."
.Moiil^oiiier}'. (lAiiRiKt., Cointe de: soldier; b. about 1.530;
was an olllcer in the .Scotch Ouanl at Paris. In l.V>9liewas
invited to joust against King Henry II. in the royal lourna-
ment, anil accidentally drove a splinter of his lance into his
antagonist's eye. causing a fatal Wound. Hetlien retired fora
time to his estates, and afterward traveled in Ilidy and Kng-
laml. Having tiirneil Protestant, he returned to France i
and took part in the Huguenot wars, winning distinction by
his brave defense i>f Rouen, and by his success«'s in I^angue-
doc and IVarn. He went to Paris after the treaty of .St.-
• iermain. and was in the city on the night of the massacre
of St. Hartholomew, but escaped by the swiftness of his
horse. In 1573 he made an attempt on La RiM'helle, liiit
without success. Then, gathering a considerable body of
Huguenots, he Ix'gan war in Normandy, but wascaplure<l in
the Caslle of Domfnmt ami taken lii Paris. I)r>piU- hi«
captor's promise that his life should lie spared he was exe-
ciiled by urder of Catherine de Medicis, June 2«, 1574.
F. M. CoLBV.
Montgonierj .Umtji: poet; b. at Ir\ine. A yr>ihi re. Scot-
land, Nov. 4, 1771; was the son of a Moravian preacher;
was educated at the Fnlneck .ScIiihjI. Yorkshire, ami ap-
prenticed to a grwer, but ran away in 1 7^9, and in 1792
became clerk to .loseph (iaies, a faii'i..iis joimialisl of Shef-
field, who soon after wils coin|>el!ed to e>ca|»' to the l". S.,
having been accused of Iri'ason. Montgoiiierv then fouiideii
The^ Slii-ffield Irin. which he edited ihirty-^Ine vears, 1794-
182.5. lie U'gan in early youth to write' piM'irv. in which
he won great po(iiilarity,'n.'.twiihstanding the o|'ipf)sition of
the critics. In is;i5 he receivcl a |*'nsion. and dedineil the
professorsldp of Rhetoric at Kdinburgh. 1). at Sheflleld,
Apr^30, 1H54. His jirineipal works »n- J'rimn Amiinrmrnln
(1797), written during an imprisonment for seditious HIh'I;
7'/ic WfKl /h</iVx (1809). an anti-slaverv poem ; Tfie World
before the /7«w/(1813); (ireeulaiid (IHi'.l); /Vi/w by a I'oet,
Ledureson Poetry and Enylinh Literature {XWMi-'M); Oriiji'-
nnl llymm (18.53). Montgomerv is liest known bv his
hymns and devotional |Kiems. lievisc<l by 11. A. Reeits.
Montjeroniery. .Tou.v Hkrrikx: sailor; b. at Allentown,
X. .1.. Nov. 17. 1794: entered the navy as midshipman 1812;
was a miilaliipman on board the flagship Niagara at Perry's
victory on Lake Erie. Sept. 10, lNi;t, receiving a swunl and
the thanks of Congress; was with Kecalur in the naval
campaign against Algiers 181.5; commanded the sloop-of-
war Portsmouth on the Pacific coast 184.5-4«, during which
crui.se he took missession of Lower California. iMcupied
(niaymas, and bliK'kaded Mazatlan for .S4iiue months; was
commissioned ca[itain 1^.53; wils in command of the Pacific
sipiadron ls(50-til ; made commodore .Julv 10. lHfl2. and
rear-adniinil .lulv 2.5, IHOfl; commanded tiie naval station
at .Sackett's Harbor 1807-69; retire<l 1869. 1). at Carlisle,
Pa.. Mar. 25, 1873.
Montiromeryshire: county of Xorlh Wales, compri.sing
an aieii of 797 sq. miles. The surface is mountainous, and
the soil, with exception of the valleys of the Scveni, Wye,
and I)ee, not fertile. On the niountain-|iaslures many
sliee|i are reared, and the county is the chief seat of the
Welsh flannel manufacture. Pop. (1891) 58,008. Chief
town, Montgomery.
Month [M. Eng. month, moneth < O. Eng. monh, m5-
nati : O. II. (ierm. mi'mod (> Germ, monal) : Icel. md-
niiftr : (ioth. mP;i«|M: cf. Miki.n): a [leriiKl of time roughly
corresiionding in length to one revolution of the nii"iii
around the earth. The length of a mean lunation is 29d.
12li. 44m.2'.8s. Months were at first therefore ret'koiied as
alternately 29 and 30 days long, twelve lunar nionlhs fall-
ing short of the length of a year by alxiut llj days. The
methods Used by diflerent |ieoples to obviate this di.sparily,
together with the history of our own system, are discussetl
in the article Calk.vIiar (7. r.). In the present calendar, as
definitely estalilished by law, the months of January, March,
May, July, August. Octolx'r, and r)eceml>er have each 31
days, the months of .April, June, .September, and Xoveinlxr
have 30, ami the month of February 28 days in a common
year niel 29 in leafi-year.
.Miinllioloii', Charles Tristax. de. Count: siddier and
companion of .N'apoleon I. at .St. Helena : b. in Paris in 1783 ;
entered the armv in 1708; disliniriiislied himself in the bat-
tle of Wagram '18<»9: was atlacheil to the j" '- ' ■' -' ''T of
XajKileon: acted as his aide-de-camp duriiiL; ri-d
Davs; followed him to St. Helena, and wa.-^ 'UP
of his execuloi-s. .'\fter 18;t0 he n-entored the 1- ninli nriny ;
took |>art in the attempt of Prince Louis XniM'ti-on at Rou-
logne. and was condemned to twenty yais' iini'risoiimenl,
but n-gnined his lilHrty after the I{<'v..|iiiioii ,.f l>-ls. ■md
lK>('ame a nieiiilier of the 1.. i' ' ' ■ ' '' V'lg.
24. 18.5:1. In connection will 'n'd
Memnireti jmitr i^rrir a Vilt---' "»,
rrritfi a Sainte'lleli-ne, MiuA . ^-'i-
25 ; -id ed. IKKh ; and in lS4rt /. .'. ni-
ftrrriir ya/xil'im a Saintr-JJilih' .
Mnn'tL N'incexzo; pool; b. M» Mf'>n«ine, ri»^r Rnvcnna,
Italy. Feb. 19. 17.'>4;d. in M i-d
literature with (he poet On iiid
imitated Yaraiio and Dante: .o 1. in.- • n uu'i m. p -iiion
of si'cri'tarv to Prince Lnigi Itnicchi, him<»'lf s«'«'r<lary of
872
MOXTIAXO Y LUYANOO
MONTPELIER
Pope Pius VT. Inspired by the tragedies of Alfieri, Monti
became a tragic poet, and wrote the tragedies An'stocleiiio
(1785) and Galeotto Manfredi. Basseville, the representa-
tive of the French republic, having been assassinated at
Rome, Monti, to please the iiapal court, wrote a poem en-
titled Cantica in iiiorte tii t'yo /J«.<i'(V/c, which f;ave him
great celebrity. This poem was followed by two otliers. La
Musogonia and La Peroniade, satiric attacks upon the
French Revolution and the whole revolutionary movement.
On the triumph of Bonaparte, however, jyionti sought
the protection of the rising genius, and obtained at Jlilau
the post of secretary of the executive directory. Tlieuce
he was sent to Bologna as commissioner of tlie Cisalpine
republic. After the Russo-Austrian invasion (1790) he tied
to Paris, and there wrote a third tragedy, Cajo Oraccho;
and his Ma^cheroniana, a poem in three cantos, on the
death of the mathematician Lorenzo Maseheroni. Return-
ing to Italy after the battle of Marengo, he was appointed
professor in the Brera at Milan, and of Italian rhetoric in
the University of Pavia. In 180.5 Xapoleon named him his-
torian of the kingdom of Italy. Then followed certain adu-
latory but unsuccessful poems — H Bcirdo della Sf/fti xcra,
La Spada di Federico; afterward an iuditferent tran.s-
lation of Persius, and an elegant translation of the IJiad of
Homer. When Napoleon fell (1815), Monti was ready to
compose a poem in honor of the Emjjeror of Austria, Fran-
cis I. In the last years of his life he prepared a volumi-
nous Proposia di almtne corre.zioni nl aygiunte da farsi al
vocabolario delta Criisca (6 vols., Milan, 1817-24). Collected
editions of his works appeared in Milan (6 vols., 1839, sey.),
Florence (5 vols., 1847), Milan (1 vol., 1847). See Vicehi, Viii-
cemo Monti, la teffere e la pulitica in Italia dal 1750 al 1S30
(Rome, 1885, seq.) ; also B. Zumbiui, Suite poesie di Vincenzo
Monti (Florence, 1886). Revised by A. R. Marsh.
Monti.ino y Luyando, Agustix, de: poet; b. in Valla-
dolid, Spain, Mar. 1, 1697. Educated by an uncle in the
island of Majorca, he wrote there a poem, El robo de Dina.
and a drama. La lira de Orfeo, which gave him some re-
pute. In 1727 he went to ^ladrid. where he had political
employment of some importance, and became a memljer of
all the academies, as well as director of the Academy of
History. D. in Madrid, Nov. 1, 1764. He is chiefly known
for his attempts to regulate and purify the Spanish drama,
bringing it under the rules of the French playwrights, par-
ticularly Racine. For this purpose he composed two trage-
dies, Virginia(\loO) and Atliaidpho (1753), so rigidly regu-
lar as now to be scarcely readaljle. He had great repute in
his day, both in and out of Spain. A. R. Marsh.
Moiitlcello: town; capital of Drew co., Ark. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Arkansas, ref. 5-D) ; on the St.
L., Iron Mt. and S. Railway ; 85 miles S. by E. of Little
Rock, the State capital, 35 miles W. of the Mississippi river.
It contains saw and grist mills, university school, and a
weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 891 ; (1890) 1,285.
Monticello: town; capital of Jefferson co., Fla. (for
location of county, see map of Florida, ref. 3-Ci) ; on the
Fla. Cent, and Pen. and the Savannah, Fla. and West, rail-
ways ; 30 miles E. of Tallahassee, 142 miles W. by N. of Jack-
sonville. It is in a farming and fruit-growing region, and
contains 6 churches, 2 public schools, several private schools,
and 2 weekly newspapers. Pop. (1890) 1,218; (1895) 953.
Editor ok " Constitution."
Monticello : city ; capital of Piatt co.. 111. (for location
of county, see map of Illinois, ref. 6-F) ; on the .Sangamon
river, and the Wabash and the 111. Cent, railways: midway
between Chicago and St. Louis. It is in a corn-growing and
stock-raising region ; contains 5 churches, 3 public-school
buildings, water-works, electric lights, and 2 weekly and 2
monthly periodicals; and has steam flour-mill, steam ele-
vator, foundry and machine-sho|is, planing-mill. harness,
broom, and cigar factories, and jiali'Ml fence and tile works.
Pop. (1880) 1,337; (1890) l,(il3. EorroR of " Buli.ktin."
Montieello : town (laid out in 1835) ; capital of White co.,
Ind. (for location of county, .see map of Indiana, ref. 4-C) ;
on the Tippecanoe liver, and tlie Louis., New Alb. and Chi.,
and the Pitts., Cin., Chi. an<l .St. L. railways; 21 miles W.
of Logansport, 25 miles N. of Lafayette. It has 4 churches,
2 public-school buildings, 2 weekly newspaper.s, electric
lignts, 3 flour-mills, canning-works, and a hub and spoke
factorv. The river furnishes excellent water-power. Pop.
I1880)'l,193; (1890) 1,518; (1894) estimated, 1,800.
Editor of " Herald."
Monticello : city (settled in 1836) ; Jones co., la. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Iowa, ref. 4-K) ; on the Ma-
quoketa river, an<l the Chi., Mil. and St. P. Railway; 36
miles S. W. of Dubucpie, 216 miles W. of Chicago. ' It is
the center of a large dairy region, has extensive creamery
interests, manufactures feather dusters, feather trimming,
and cigars, and contains 6 churche.s, high and grammar
schools, water-works (supplied from an artesian well), and 2
weekly newspajjers. Pop. (1880) 1,877: (1890) l.!)38; (189.5)
2,079. Editor of " Exi'RKss."
Monticello: village (founded in 1804, made the county-
seat in 1809) ; capital of .Sullivan co., N. Y. (for location of
county, see map of New York, ref. 7-1) ; on the Port Jervis.
i\Iont. and N. Y. Railroad; 24 miles N. of Purt Jervis. 40
miles W. by N. of Newburg. Its altitude of about 1,600
feet above sea-level gives it an invigurating, dry atmosphere,
and makes it a charming health an<l jjleasurc resort. It is
in a lumbering region, and has a tannery in which fancy
leather for bookbinding and other purposes in the arts is
numufactured. an academy, Methodist Episcopal, Presby-
terian, Protestant Episcopal, and Roman Catholic churches,
and two weeklv newspapers. Pop. (1880) 941 ; (1890) 1,016;
(1894) estihiated, 1,100. with suburbs 1.600.
Editor of " Republican- Watchman."
Montmorency, Fr. pron. inoiVmo'ra'an'see' : the surname
of an ancient and illustrious French family, traced back as
far as 950 to Bouchard, Sire de Montmorency, a great
French feudatory, nephew of Edred, King of" England.
The Montmorencies were long known as the prenner barons
of France, and among those of this name were six grand
constables, twelve marshals, four admirals, many cardinals,
generals, grand chamberlains, and other high' magnates.
Belgium and Luxemburg have still several princely and
ducal lines of this family. Count Horn and Marshal Lux-
embourg were both Montmorencies.
Montmorency. Anne, de. First Duke: soldier; b. at
Chantilly. Jlar. 15. 1492 ; was one of the leading generals in
the wars of Francis I.: gained renown for his gallantry at
Marignano and Mezieres, and was captured with Francis at
Pavia in 1525. On the renewal of the war with Charles V.
he commanded with such success that he was appointed by
Francis constable of Prance. In the war with Spain he was
defeated and captured at St.-(^uentin (1557). During the
first Huguenot wars he commanded the royal army. He
was taken prisoner at the battle of Dreux (1562), but was
soon released. In 1.563 he drove the English from Havre,
and fought with Conde at Saint-Denis. He was fatally
wounded in the latter engagement, and died on the follow-
ing day, Nov. 11, 1567. — Henry, fourth Due de Montmo-
rency, a grandson of the preceding; b. at Chantilly. Apr.
30, 1595; godson of Henry IV., when sixteen years "old be-
came admiral of France and Viceroy of Canada. He served
with distinction in Italy and against the Huguenots; took
part in the rebellion of (laston of Orleans, and was executed
by order of Richelieu at Toulouse Oct. 30, 1632.
Montmorency, Falls of: a beautiful cascade in the
Montmorency river, 8 miles N. E. of Quebec. The river
rises in Snow Lake, Montmorency County, and flows S. for
more than 30 miles, emptying into the .St. Lawrence, after
being joined by Des Neiges river. About a mile above the
precii)ice of 250 feet, over which the waters take their final
leap, are the natural steps, fonued by the action of the
water on the rock. At the base of the steps or terraces is
a narrow, water-worn channel tlimugh which the stream
rushes as in a mill-race over cascades and through seeth-
ing pools. Between the falls and the natural steps the
river is crossed by a wooden bridge built since the destruc-
tion of the beautiful suspension bridge that once spanned
the cataract. Montmorency is a favorite resort for visitors
to Quebec. In summer the scene is very impressive from
the Duke of Kent's lodge, or from the steep stairway on
the eastern side. In the winter the freezing spray forms
a cone which attains a consideralilc height, and down this
tobogganers slide with great velocity. The road to tlie falls
pas.ses through the straggling village of Beaufort with an
asylum and numerous picturesrpie residences. Beaufort was
the headfjuarters of Montcalm in 1759 when he prevented
Wolfe from landing at Montmorency Falls. A railway con-
nects the falls with Quebec. J. JI. Harper.
Montpelier : town : Bear Lake co., Ida. (for location of
county, see map of Idaho, ref. 11-F); on the LTnion Pac.
Railway ; 145 miles N. W. of Green river. It is in an agri-
I il^^slhv js^shssl ^°|!5lii^
MONTPKMKR
cultural, cliiirvinfr, luriiljerin;;, iiiul mining region. Pop.
(18«0)rj46; (1H!»0) 1,174.
Montpclier : city; capital of the State of Vermont ami
of \Vusliiiij,'l()n County (for location of county, si>e niai) of
Vermont, ref. 4-C') ; on the VVinooski or Onion river, liere
crossed by a stono bridge, ami on the Mont, and Wells
River and the Cent. Vt. railways; 40 miles .S. E. of HurlinR-
ton, 20.1 miles N'. N. \V. of Boston. It is in an agricultural
and granite region, is the commercial center of a large ter-
ritory, and has an extensive triule. It contaius 6 churches,
the Vermont Methodist .Semimiry (chartered in IHii'.i), the
Washington Countv (Jrammar and Montpelier L'nion
Schools, electric-light, gas, and water plants, .5 libraries
(Alumni of the .Methodist Seminary, State, Public, L'nion
School, and Washington County (jramnuir .School) contain-
ing nearly 40.(KM) volumes, an educational, .3 weekly, and 2
monthly pcricidkals, and 2 national banks with a comliined
oapital nf .>;400,I10M. n Slate bunk wilh •-ipiliil ..f *tw,000,
MONTREAL
873
HtaU] Capitol, Muutpelier, Vt..
and a savings-bank and trust company with capital of $-50,-
000. The town was made the State' capital in IXO.'i. ami
contains a Capitol built of granite, with a frontage of 177
feet and a dome and cupola 56 feet high, surmounted by a
statue of Agriculture, 120 feet above the ground. The
principal industry is the ijuarrying of the celebrated Barrc
granite: other industries are the manufacture of .sawmill,
candy-making, and other machinery, leather, organ and
piano springs, and clothes-wringers and washing-machines.
Pop. (IHSO) ;},21!t ; (18!H)) 4.160.
Montpellier, moiVpel i-a : capital of the department of
Ileruult. France : on the Lez ; 6 miles \. of the Mediterra-
nean and 76 miles W. X. W. of Marseilles (see map of
France, ref. 8-G). Its proineniules afford the most splendid
views of the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, and the Alps;
and as its climate is remarkably mild and salubrious, its
vicinity is covered with villas and cottages. Remarkable
among its buildings are the cathedral and the aqneduc^t. ami
among its institutions its medical sihool, founded in the
Midille Ages by Arabian physicians and in 1289 incorpo-
rated with its schools of law and arts as a university ; a l)i>
tanical garden, the flrst cstablishetl in France, and many
excellent collectiims, are connected with the school. Mont-
pellier has large distilleries and manufactures of woolens
and cottons, and it carries on an important trade in wine,
olive oil. fruits, and grain. Pop. (18!tl) 6i).2.i8.
Montppiisier, moiVpaaiVsi-a', Anne Marie I.*uise d'Or-
L^ANs, I)uchesst> de (better known by her courtesy title of
Grande Mademoiselle): niece of Louis .XIII. : b. in Paris.
May 29. 1627. Being of royal blood and having enormnus
wealth, she was encouraged to look forward to the French
throne through a marriage with Louis XIV.. but was dis-
appointed in this and in other plans for a brilliant niat<'h.
and, attributing her misfortunes to Mnzarin, favon^il the
rebellious movement known ii-s the Fromle. In the ensuing
war she played a bold anil masculine part. In Iti.Vi. at the
time of the lighting in the city, she held the Bastile and
saved her defeated party by 0|>ening the gates and onlcring
the cannon to be directed against the royalists; and during
the riots that followed she occupied the Hotel de Ville and
tried to mediate between the combatants. After this she
was for some time in dispmee, but returned to the court in
I6.')7, apparently restored to favor, .\bout this time she fell
in love with La'lzi-n (q. c), and in 1670 she s<iughl the r<iyul
l>erinis,sion to marry him. The king's conxMit van at first
given and then withdrawn at the instance of other members
of the riiyal family. I.,auzun [lasstsl ten years in prison, but
after his rehiuse in 16M1 Mailiiiicii>elle and he were »e<Tetlv
married. The union was nnhaopy and they soon s<'pttnite<I,
after which she devoted herself to religious duties and to
the completion of her Mrmoirejt. I). .Apr. !», ]6ii:{. The
Memoirm were first publisheil at .\mstenlam in 172U; edit-
ed and repui>lishe<l liy M. Cherucl in IS.'W. See Voltaire's
6'iVf/e de Luuia XI \ . F. M. Colbv.
MontpcMisipr, Antoink Mabie Piiiuphe \jovk d'Ob-
L^ANs. Duke of: the fifth ami youngest son of I^fiuis Phi-
lippe. King of the French : b. at' Xeuilly, .July :il, 1824 ; was
educated at the College Henri IV., an<l in 1K42 wb.s afc
pointed suux-lieulmant of artillery : took luirt in several
campaigns in .\frica, won the grand cross of the Legion of
IJonor, anil rose to the rank of brigadier-general in 1H46.
At this period the negotiations tiK.k place by which the
duke was betrothed to the si.ster of the t^ueen of Sjjaiu.
These alliances and the famous "Spanish marriages " pro-
duced a great sensation in France and dis.satisf act ion else-
where, esi)ecially in England, .\fter his marriage. Oct. 10,
1846, he took up his residence at the [lalace of the Tuileries,
whence he was driven in 1h48 by the revolution which de-
throned the king. He finally fi.\ed his residence, with the
iliiches.s, in the palace of San Telmo at .Seville. Besides
honorary ap|>ointments, he was nuide by t^ueeii Isal«ella, in
18.58, captain-general of the Spanish army, and in 18.59 she
conceded to him the honors due to "infants" of S[>ain.
This cordiality was disturbed by |KiIitical troubles accumu-
lating about the queen's government, and by his alleged
andiition to succeed to the .Spanish Ihripiie. After the de-
thronement of the iiiieen (Sept .. 1N68) his claims were pressed
by his friends, but lie wa-s not successful. The most marked
event of this periixl is his ouarrel with his cousin, who s|H>ke
of him in bitter and insulting terms. A duel ensued and
Montpeiisier killed his adversary. Due Henrique. The duke
and his familv lived for some years in Paris. D. in An-
dalusia, Feb. 4, 1890.
Montreal [literally. Mount Royal]: city: provinceof Que-
bec. Canada: ranking first in the Dominion in |iopulation,
wealth, commercial imjiortance. and i)olitical influence (see
map of Province of (Quebec. r<>f. 5-B). It ix'cupies a com-
manding position at the highest point of ix-ean navigation,
and the beginning of a vast system of railways and canals
that ramifies throughout Canada. The city has grown up
along the .southeast side of an island formed by the junction
of the Ottawa river with the .S|. Ijiwrence. the older portion
lying upon the slope of a hill, known as The Mountain, whose
cri'st has been reservetl for a public [wrk. the newer parts of
the city spreading out at the ea.st and wist ends upon more
level ground. The general direction is northeast by south-
west, and with the broad river in front and the richly wiKide<l
Mountain behin<l, Montreal presents a most picturesque and
plea-sing apiM'arance from anv point of view.
Arm and (irneral Plan. — The length of the city is about
6 miles, and the breadth at its widest i>art over 2 miles.
The main avenues run parallel wilh the river, and the cross
streets at right angles to it. I'lMin the whole, the street plan
is regular, although in the older wards there are many nar-
row, tortuous streets. The alley system is in use in the
newer residence quarters. The business part of the city is
closely built up with lofty and sul«stanlial warvhous«'S and
office buildings. In the residence (piarter the streets are
broa«l, well shaded with trees, and line<l wilh hands<ime
stone dwellings, brick and wchhI K-ing very Utile us^nI.
There are many open s<pian'S scattered thnugh the citv,
and the principal ones, such as Dominion Sipiare, Victona
Square, Viger (ianlens, and St. Louis S|Uan'. are adorned
with pimds. fountains, and flowers. The Mountain Park
comprises nearly ."MK) acres, and is iH'autifully laid out and
carefully inaiiitnined.
Imfw'rlaiit I'lihlir Biiildinffn. — The principal public build-
ings are ihe ci.urt-house and'the eitv-hii" ' •'■ '-'L'e blix-ks
of gray limestone : the new Uiard o^ ir.i j. a hand-
some .•^trueture in re<l sandsl.ine; the 1- - market;
the exhibiliiin buihlings. when' the pruvincini enhibition is
held annually: the drill hall and armory, the largest in
Canada: and the federal buildings, such as the custom-
hoii.so, |Kist -office, etc.
MONTREAL
MONTROSE
Inslitutions. — In institutions of all kinds Montreal is
exceptionally rich. Within the bounils of the city arc the
grandest ecclesiastical edifices, the liest-cquiiipcd and most
largely attended university, the richest Catholic convents
and monasteries, the finest j)ul)lic schools, the most perfectly
appointed public liospitals, and the most costly and luxuri-
ous clubs in Canada. The chief church buildings are the
new St. James's Cathedral (Roman Catholic), modeled after
St. Peter's at Rome on a sc-ale of one-half ; Church of
Notre Dame, in one of whose lofty twin-towers hangs the
largest bell in America ; St. James's (Jlet hodist), the most
splendid Protestant church in Canada ; Christ Church Ca-
thedral (Episcopal), a beautiful specimen of (iothic arciii-
tecture; the Jesuit church, nolable for its line frescoes;
and St. Paul's and Crescent churches, both Presbyterian.
The public-school buildings are principally of the modern
type, the new high-school building being the largest in the
Dominion. There are four hospitals, the Koyal Victoria,
presented by Lord Jlount-Stejiheii and Sir Donald Smith at
a cost of several millions of dollars: the Jlontri'al (leneral,
opened in 1822 : the Hotel Dicu. a large and useful lioman
Catholic institution : and the Western Ilospital. As an edu-
cational center Montreal takes high rank, the most impor-
tant institution being McGill University, founded in 1813.
The University of Bishops College has its medical depart-
ment in Montreal, and there are many important French in-
stitutions, such as the branch of Laval, the Seminary of St.
Sulpice. St. Clary's College, and the convent of Ville Marie.
Tliere is one free library, the Fraser Institute, with 40.000
vohinies. Other good liliraries are the Redpath of McGill
University with 35.000 volumes, the Law Library with 1.5,000,
the Mechanics' Institute with 12,000, and the Union Catho-
liijue with 20.000. The oidy museum of note is that at-
tached to McGill University. In the galleries of the Art
Association there is a choice collection of paintings.
Government, Finance, etc. — The municipal affairs are ad-
ministered by a mayor and corporation elected by popular
vote, the city being divided into wards, each represented
by two or more aldermen. The annual revenue is about
$2,6.50,000, and is usually exceeded bv the expenditure, with
the result that a debt exceeding $20,000,000 has been in-
curred. The total assessment is $136,000,000, and the rate
of taxation $1.25 per $100.
Buniness Interests. — As a manufacturing center Montreal
stands sixteenth on the list of .Vmerican cities. In 18!)1 the
number of establishments was 1,735 ; capital invested, $51,-
212,133: number of persons employed, 38,562 ; total wages
paid, $13,078.546 : and the value o'f products, $52,509,710.
The principal products were sugar, cotton, flour, malt liq-
uors, tobacco and cigars, and iron and steel goods. The city
is the chief distributing point for the commerce of the Do-
minion. It contains the largest wholesale houses, the leading
Ijanks and other financial institutions, and the headquarters
of the two great railway systems, the Canadian Pacific and
the Grand Trunk. Situated at the head of ocean navigation
in the summer season, and having Boston and Portland as
winter ports when the St. Lawrence is closed, it holds the
key to the commercial movement the year round. In 1893
the imports aggregated in value $53]7i)6.06: the exports,
$48.205,531 ; the customs tines paid, $7,038,403. The arri-
vals of seagoing vessels were 804, and during the year abcjut
6,000 inland vessels, with aggregate loimage of 1.500.000,
were in the port. The first bank was established in 1817,
and named after the citv. It has a capital of $12,000,000
and a reserve fund of $6,000,000. In 1803 the total capital
of the banks was $27,756,266, the deposits $67,625,582, the
circulation $13,005,959, and thi^ discounts $78,610,263.
Jli.sfor!/. Antigiiities, ctc.^Wbeu the first town was built
upon the island can not be known. As early as 1.535 Jaccjues
Cartier found a .strong settlenu'Ut of llocli'elaga or Beaver
Indians, who were active tiaders, and whose iiifiuence ex-
tended far up the Ottawa and down to the (julf of St. Law-
rence ; but when in 1603 (Uuimplain visit,e<l the olace. the
Indian town had vanished ami desolation prevailed. Light
years laler, when he decided to establish an entrepot for
trjide he chose the same location, and built I'laee Koyale, the
site of the present Custom-house S(pnire. Until 1642 Place
Royale continued to be merely a trading station, but on
May 18 of that year the city was formally foumled by Jlai-
sonneuve. The original purpose was nniinly to Christianize
the Indians therefrom, tlie Ottawa river furnishing ready
passage to the Great Lakes among friendly savages. The
first charter therefore prevented the company by whom
the enterprise was carried out from engaging in the fur
trade, but so favorable was the site for commercial purposes
that Montreal shortly became an important center of traffic
in spite of the endeavors of the authorities of (Quebec to pre-
vent it. In 1663 the company of Montreal got into financial
difTiculties, and transferred its jiossession to the .'^ulpicians.
Three years before that a young olllcer of the garrison,
Adam Doulae, Sieur des Ormeaux, with a handful of com-
panions had, by a most heroic sacrifice, saved Canada from
the Iroquois, meeting their invading force at the LongSault
Kapids, and holding it at bay for five days until he and all
his companions were slain, when the Indians withdrew dis-
heartened by the stubborn defense. In 1689 the Iroquois
fell upon Lachine, at the uiiper eiui of the island, and nias-
saered 400 inhabitants. The early days of the city were full
of warfare with the Indians, \aried by more civilized but
scarcely less .bitter diplomatic strife between the religious
and civil authorities at Jlontreal and (Jucbec. Notwith-
standing many restrictions in favor of Quebec, Montreal out-
stripi)ed her. The peltry-trade was her chief support, and
this grew to immense proportions, until the glut of beaver-
skins brought ruin upon nuiny connected with the business,
and it had to be reorganized upon a sounder basis. In 1741
the fortifications of the city, begun in 1717, were completed.
They consisted of solid masonry with a deep ditch, and had
thirteen bastions. Seven gates gave admittance within the
walls. Nothing of these now remain, the growth of the city
having long since compelled their demolition. It was to
Montreal that Gov. de ^ audreuil retreated after Jlontcalm's
defeat by Wolfe at Quebec, and there was signed the eajiitu-
lation of New France. On .Sept. 7, 1760. the entry of the
British troops marked the beginning of a new era.
During the war between the North American colonies and
Great Britain, in Nov., 1775. Brig.-Gen. Kichard Montgomery,
leader of a division of the Continental army, invaded Canada,
and captured Montreal. He set out from thence to join Ar-
nold at Quebec, where their joint forces suffered defeat and
JMontgomery was slain. Since then, with the exception of
the excitement connected with the rebellion of 1837, the his-
tory of Montreal has been that of ever-increasing growth
aii<l prosperity, varied by occasional incidents of note, such
as the epidemic of Asiatic cholera in 1832. the epidemic of
ship-fever in 1847, the burning of the Parliament building
by a mob in 1847, the great fire of 1852, the opening of the
Victoria bridge by the Prince of Wales in 1859. the great
Hood of 1861, the Orange riots of 1877, the smalli>ox riots
of 1885, etc. The population of the city in 1891 was 216,-
650, an increase of 61,413 since 1881. Including the sur-
rounding municipalities, which practically form parts of
the city, the total population is about 260,000. Nearly half
the inhabitants are Irench-Canadians, the other portion be-
ing jirincipally English, Scotch, and Irish.
J, Macdoxald Oxlet.
Montreal d'' Albino: See Fra Moreale.
Montrose': town: in the county of Forfar, Scotland : on
the South Esk (see map of Scotliuul, ref. 9-J). It lias a good
harbor, lined with wet and dry docks and handsome quays;
its bleaehing-works, flax-spinning mills, and manufactures
of linens are important, and it carries on some ship-building
and a considerable trade. Pop. (1891) 13,048.
Montrose': town ; capital of Montrose co.. Col. (for loea-
ticHi of county, see map of Colorado, ref. 4-B) ; on the Denver
and Rio Gr. Railroad; 353 miles S. W. of Denver. It is in a
farming, fruit-growing, and stock-raising region, and has a
bi-monthlv and two weekly newspajiers. Pop. (1880) not in
census; (1890) 1,330.
Montrose: borough; capital of Susquehanna co.. Pa. (for
location of county, see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 2-H); on
the Del., Lack, and West, ami the Montrose railways; 8
miles W. of Alfred Station. 165 miles N. by W. of fhila-
delphia. It is in an agricultural region, lu^arly 2.000 feet
above sea-level, is a popular summer res(irl. and has three
weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 1,?22; (1890) 1.735.
Editor ov " Democrat."
Montrose, James Graham, First i\Iarc|uis of: soldier;
b. at the family estate of Montrose, Scotland, in 1612: was
educated at the Univer.sily of St. An<lrews: traveled in
Italy and France; returned home in 1637, and joined the
Covenanters, as it is said, on account of the cold reception
Charles I. had given him. After some successes against the
royalists, Montrose was won over to the king's side in 1639.
He was created a mar(|uis. and in 1644 he gathered lui army
of about 5,000 men, partly Irish mercenaries and partly
MOXTS
MONZA
875
IlifjlJaiiilers, who followed liinh from Imlrrd of the C'amp-
Ik-IIs. With this uriiiv he made a most siieeessful caiiipaiKii,
defiiited the Coveiiaiiters several times with >;reat slmnihler,
and took several towns, whiih were jjiveii ii|i to plunder and
massacre; but on Sept. Vi, l«-|."i, he wils defeated at I'hilip-
haugh by David Lesley; in .July, 164(i, lie capitulated at
' Middleton. and soon after h'ft Seotland for the Continent.
Having lieen authorized by Charles I., and afterward by
Cliarles II., to raise a force and invjule Scotland, he trav-
eled from Austria to the Scandinavian kinK<loms, busv in
the kinjr's interest. In Mar.. Ki.'iO. ho lauded at tlu' Ork-
neys with a small furce. but havitij; fjone as far to the S. as
the border of Uoss-shire, his army was scattered, anci he him-
self taken prisoner, eondemnoil to ih-ath as a traitor a^ramst
the Covenant, and hauj^ed at Kdinburj^h, May 21, l(!.">tt.
Xoilts. miJn. I'iKKKK nr (it'AST, de, .Sieur: explorer; b.
in Sainton^e, France, aliout lolitJ, of an Italian Catlmlic
family; became a I'rotestant, ami attaehe<l himself to the
fortunes of Uenry IV.. by whom he wius fjiveu a liijjh \wst
in the royal housidiold. He hiul already made a voyage to
Canada with Chauvin. when in ItiO;! the kin? appointed hira
director of the Canadian Cuinpany. to which he {iranled,
under the name of .\cailia, the re;;iou between lat. 40 and
48" N. I*e Munts fitted out a considerable expedition ; took
Samuel Champluin. I'outrineourt, Miencourt. and Pontgruve
as his chief officers; sailed from Havre Mar. 7, lt!04; ex-
plored the Bay of Fimily ; discovered Annapolis harbor and
the river St. John, which he asi'erided : visiteil the St. Law-
rence, and returneil to 1-' ranee in October, while his colony
established itself at I'ort lioyal (now AunapolLs) under I'ou-
trineourt. On his arrival at court de Monts found his mo-
nopoly ended: various other trrants were made to different
imliviiluals, and he failed to obtain indemnification. He
dis|)atched a vessel in command of Lescarbnt to the relief
of Poutrincourt Mar., KitMJ; dispatched Chainplain and
Pontjjrave on a new voyajje to the St. I^awrence 1607; sent
them other vessels 1608, by the aid of which l^uebec was
foundeii. On the death of Henry, in 1610, de Munts lost
favor at court. D. in Paris in 1611.
Montserrat, inont-ser-nlt : an island of the British West
Indies, forminjj part of the Leeward islands colonv; crossed
bv lat. 16 42X., Ion. 62 13' \V. Area, 32 sq. mi'les. Pop.
(18U1) 11.672. It is ;« miles X. W. of Guadeloupe and 2!)
miles S. E. of Xevis ; between it and Xevis is the little island
of Itedouda. Like most of the Caribbean islands. Montser-
rat is mountainous and of volcanic orij;in. It has a crater,
the .Soufrierc, which is nowipiiescent, thoui;h emitting fumes
of sulphur. The highest iicak is about .'t.OIX) feet above sea-
level. The principal products are sugar, rum, and tropical
fruits ; the latter, especially limes, are now exported in large
quantities. The only town is Plymouth ((Hip. 1.47.1). Mont-
serrat was first colonized bv the Knglish in 1632, but wus
held by the French 1664-68 and 1782-84. II. II. Smitu.
Moiitt. JoROE : tmval officer and politician: son of Jla-
nuel Moiitt. statesman : b. at Santiago, Chili, 1847. He was
a captain in the navy when, iu the latter part of 18!»0, the
Chilian congress began its resistance to President Balma-
ccda. When (Jan. 6, 18!ll) the congressional leaders pro-
claimed a revolution, Moiitt was given provisional command
of the naval and land forces. Soon after the ileatli, by sui-
cide, of Balmaceda (Sept. ID) Montt was proclaimed pn>-
visional president, and was regularly elected to the office
Nov. 6. ISttl. for a term of five years. II. II. S.
Montt, MAxrr.t, : statesman: b. at Petorca, Chili. Sept.
5, 180i). He was educateil in the N'alional Institute at San-
tiago, and for a time was a professor there, but was soon ap-
' pointed to government offices; ctitered actively into [Mililics,
! and became leader of the con.s»!rv«tives. In 1841 he was
f president of the Chamlier of Deputies. Minister of Justice
1841-4.), and of the Interior 184t>-48; and in ISil he was
• Iicteil [iresident of Chili, assuming office Sept, 1; by rv-
1-clion in I806 he relaineil the office until .Sept. 1, 1861.
Uuring this perioil the country was, in the uniin. very priis-
jterous, and many material improvements were instituted;
l)ut the extreme conservative policy of President .Mi>ntt and
his principal minister. Varas. I'aused great discontent among
the lilM'rals. Immediately after his inauguration in 18.'>1 a
■ 'iinidable revolt broke out. and it was put down only after
veral months of hanl fighting. In IH.V* there were fn-sh
liisorders, culminating iu a fierce civil war and several san-
guinary battles in 18.V.I; l>Mt in this cas«' also the n^volu-
tionists were beaten, and many of the most prominent men
iit Chili were banished. President Montt turned over his
oflTiee pea<-pfully to liis successor, Perez, and subsi-qucntly he
was presiilcnt of the Supreme Court. Moiitland \ aras were
the founders of the extreme coiiservalive party, now known
iti Chilian p..litii-s as the Muntt-Varista-s. 1). at .Saiitiago,
Sept. 20. ls.H((. 11. ji. Smitu.
Monnment : a eomnicinorative stmcture, as a building
erected or a stone set up in memory of an ini|K>rtant event
or in honor of a famoiLs man; by I'Xtension. any important
buililing, perhaps in the sense that such a building com-
memorates the piLst. Moiniinents proper, that is, structures
put up in memory of something or soniebiMly. are of nil
sizes and kinds, from the snwdl churchyard cross to the tireat
Pyramid. The last-nanieil mass of stone is generally ad-
mitted to have si.rveil as a tomb at last if not at first", and
the other pyramids of Kgypt are tombs atid nothing else.
The great .Sphinx, however, is a mcmunieni of a different
kind, erected in honor of a divinity, or a system of worship
ami devotion. It is a huimin-headeil lioii, cut otit of the
living granite nx^k, and of gigantic size, and is probably the
oldest monument of which any considerable n-mains exist.
Among the Greeks one very curious s|.«K-ii's of monuments
existed — those which commemorated the triumphs of the
chiireiji. or leaders and organizers of the Dionysiac musical
festivals. A bronze Iripoil wils cnmiiionly the prize at such
a contesj, and the winner would erect a pillar or a small
edifice upon the top of which his prize wuulil hv ilisplayed.
The very beautiful circular building in Athens knowi'i as
the Monument of Lysicrates was one of these ehiiragu monu-
ments, lireek tombal monuments are also of great inter-
est. (For these and the great K<iman stnict-ures made into
fortresses in the .Midille Ages, see Tombs.) The Homan
moninnenis erected in honor of a great event or of a living
man deserve s])ccial notice. See Arch for the best-known
type of such monuments.
Ciilumux. — The huge and very richly adome<l columns of
Trajan and of M. Aiirelius at Home, and the smaller and
much less elaborate (lillars set \\\> in .Alexandria in Diocle-
tian's lime, and in the Konian Forum iu Phixais's time, are
original examples of a style of monument which has pre-
vailed overall the F.uropean world in inoilern times. The
London monument of Hsli Street Hill, in commemoration
of the great fire of 1666; the Nelson column in Trafalgar
Square: the Napoleon column of the Plai-e Vemlome in
Paris, and that in memory of the lievolution of 1830 in the
Place de la ISastile ; the Washington Monument in Balti-
more, and the pillar of Alexander I. at .St. Petersburg, are
well-known instances of this form. Trajan's campaigns are
sculptured iu long panoramic display on the spiral liand
which adorns his shaft, and the galleries of his basilica may
have afforded a better chance for the study of these than
<'ould be had by those standing on the |>aveiiu'nt below;
but the copies of this gn-at original are without its advan-
tages, and are generally devoid of anything worth liKiking
at with care, the Antonine column of the sicond centur)-
and the Napoleonic one of the nineteenth century being
cold readjustments of the great original |ilan. OU'lisks, as
the Uomati world understood thein. and as the mcKlerii world
takes them over from Kome, are monuments of a st.rt very
nearly akin to the columns. To the Kgyptian builder an
olndisk was not an indei>cndeiit eivetion: many obelisks were
brought by the imperial officers to Home, and from Kome
one of these wanderiHl on to Paris, where it stands in the
Place de la Conci>rde. To a strii-t ilefinition of the word
monument these, in their new homes, hanlly conform ; thc.v
are now decorative objects, the adurumenls of public places,
and little more.
The tnily characteristic monument i>f modem times is
the memorial eluipel. the memorial hi.spiial. the college
hall, or the sjie<'ial libniry named afl<r th. - Mic
event commemoraliMl. Such fouixlatii'iis a- .y
take on a ilecorative chorm-ter in some \>.iv . ,g8
whi<h house thi'm. are monument* in ■ i>f the
word. They can not, however, n'place ]i • ptindv
di'corative structure, the e<ili>ssnl statue r»
lliiriiria at Munich and Bartholdi's /. rk
harbor, i' ' a
portrait - in
sciilpturi. . ^-'-c
.S'lLPTURK. • Kl-!WBLL fiTlBaiS.
r M;i... 1. .1. . .. i|,g
-.«
map of Italy, ref.2-C). Itisafav.! "in
retreat, ami the Cmwn Prince ami I'nncew of Italy p-ner-
Mon'za : town; in the pnivince
Lanibro; at>out 10 miles S'. N. F..
876
MOODY
MOON
allv pass a part of each year ut the royal palace, situated in
a beautiful park. Moiiza, though for a time the royal resi-
dence of the great Theodoric, is best known as the capital
of the old Lombard kings, and especially as the favored scat
of the renowned Theodolinda, who adorned it with magnifi-
cent buildings. Very interesting memorials of this queen
are still preserved in the cathedral; also the_ famous iron
crown, so long used for the coronation of the Kings of Lom-
bardy. The history of Mouza is intimately connected with
that "of Jlilan. Pop. about 18,000.
Moody, DwiuHT Lyman- : evangelist ; b. in Northfteld,
Franklin co.. Mass., Feb. 5, 1837; received a meager educa-
tion ; worked on a farm till he was seventeen, when he be-
came clerk in a lioot and shoe store in Boston ; joined a
Congregiitiiuial church soon after, and in 1850 went to (.'hi-
cago, where he engaged zealously in missionary work among
the poor classes; in less than a year he built up a Sunday-
school which numbered over 1,000 children. He was in the
service of the Christian Commission during the civil^ war,
and subsequently became city missionary of the Young
Men's Christian Association of Chicago; a clnirch was budt
for his converts, and he became its uunrdained pastor; in
the Chicago fire of 1871 the church and Moody's house and
furniture, which had been given him, were destroyed, but a
new church was erected in its place. In 1873, accompanied
by Ira D. Sankey, Moody went to Europe, and hcld'religious
revivals at Edinburgh, (Jlasgow, Dublin, London, and other
cities of Great Britain ; in 1875 they returned to the U. S.,
and held large meetings in various cities. Jloody has since
continued his evangelistic labors in the U. S. and in Great
Britain. He has established four schools, three at his native
town of Northfield, Mass., and one at Chicago. Two of the
Northfteld schools are academies fitting students for col-
lege, the third is a woman's training-school, while the
Chicago institution is for biblical instruction. Among
his published works are Arrown and Anecdotes (1877) ;
Heareii (1880); Secret Power (1881); The Way to dud
(1884) ; Bible Characters (1888), etc., and several collections
of sermons.
Mooltau, India ; See Multan.
Moon [M. Eng. mnne < 0. Eng. mnna : 0. H. Germ, mdno
( > Germ, mond) : Goth, mena < Teuton, mena : Lat. men-sis,
month : Gr. /ivvTi, moon, fi-liv. month : Sanskr. mas, moon] :
the satellite of the earth, bearing the same relation to it that
the satellites of other planets do to their primaries. In size
and mass, however, it differs much less from its primary
than do any of the other satellites, its diameter being more
than one-fourth that of the earth, and its mass nearly one-
eightieth.
The following particulars relate to the size and motion of
the moon :
Greatest distance from earth's center. . . 252,600 miles.
Least distance from earth's center 231,700 "
Least distance from earth's surface 217,740 "
Diameter of moon 2.161 "
Mean interval from one new moon to the
next, called a lunation 29d. 12h. 44m. 3-8s.
Density (that of the earth = 1) 0-605
Gravity at the surface (earth = 1) 0-165
If the mean density of the moon were the same as that of
the earth its mass woulii be in proportion to its volume, or
about one-fiftieth. The ditference in density does not neces-
sarily prove that the moon is composed of materially diifer-
terior of the earth. The force of gravity at tlie moon's sur-
face is about one-sixtli that at the earth's surface. Thus an
ordinary man would weigh but 25 or 30 lb., and could jump
over a stile several yards high.
P/iases of the Sloun. — A careful study of the changes
w-hich the moon goes through in the course of a month shows
that it is a dark globe, shining by the light of the sun, and
revolving round the earth at a distance much less than that
of the sun. When this glol)e first emerges from the sun's
rays the hemispliere turned toward the earth is all in dark-
ness, except a l)right border on one side, which we see illu-
minated. This gives the form of a crescent, which one can
easily reproduce by looking at a globe illuminated by a can-
dle nearly on the opposite side of it. It will frequently be
noticed, however, that when the moon is a crescent her whole
globe is visible, shining with a faint, ashy light. This ap-
Fio. 1. — Comparative dimensions of the eartli and the moon.
ent substances from the earth ; it may arise from the fact
that the pressure in the interior is much less than in the in-
FiQ. ij. — Orbit of the muou, showing the lunar phases.
pearance, sometimes called " the old moon in the new moon's
arms," is evidently due to the light reflected from the earth
upon the dark hemisphere of the moon. When the moon,
moving through one-fourth of a revolution from the sun, is
in the first quarter, the hemisphere turned toward the earth
is one -half illuminated and
one-half dark. The globe tlien
presents the familiar appear-
ance of a semicircle. As it
moves around into the position
of full moon, or opposite the
sun, the entire liemisphere
turned toward us is illumi-
nated. During the seconil
halt of the revolution the
same phases are repeated in
reverse order.
Sidereal and Synodic Bev-
olutions of the Moon. — Whi'U
the moon, after passing a star,
completes a revolution so as
to come back to the same star,
it is said to make a sidereal
revolution. The time required
fur this is 27d. 7h. 43in. (See
.AcrEi.ERATiox.) If the sun
were apparently fixed among
the stars, this would also be
the period frmn one new mcion
to another; but, owing to the
earth's revolution around tlie
sun, the latter appears to describe a comj)lefe revolution
among the stars in the course of a year. Hence if we sup-
pose the moon to begin a sidereal revolution at the mo-
ment when she is in conjuncticm with the sun, we shall find
that after completing such a revolution the sini has moved
away from that point about 27°. Therefore the moon must
Fig. 3.— Sidereal and synodical
revolutions of tlie moon.
MOON
877
overtake the sun (i. e. triivel farther, the distanee m to n,
Fi{;. -i) before new moon can attain occur. Tliis rei|uires
two (lays and live hours, so that llie synodic revolution, or
the period lielween one new UKMin and the next, reijuircs
more than twenly-iiine days and twelve hours.
Jioltition iif tlif Miiiiii. — Lon^ heforo the telescope was in-
vented it was evident to careful observers that the moon al-
ways presented tlie same face to the earth. It therefore
rotates on its axis in the same time that it revolves around
the earth. It is ofli'ii supposnl that, prescntinf; always the
same face toward Iheearlh, it can have no rotation at all,
anil a fjreat deal ha.s been written to explain the fallacy of
this notion. The explanation turns upon what we should
mean by saying the nxion had no rotation. In scientific
lanfjua^e a body is said to have no rotation when any line
pa-ssinj; throui;h its center and in a fixed p(Jsition relative to
it-s surface always points in the same direction. Now, as the
moon revolves arouiiiltlie earth, the earth must appear from
the moon in dilTerent ilireclions from lime to lime, and
seem to an observer on the moon to make a complete revo-
lution around it in one month. Hence if the moon did not
rotate at all it would appear to an observer on the earth to
make one rotation on its axis, because lus it moved around
the earth he would see all sides of it in succession ; but in
order to turn the same face always toward the earth it must
turn arounil on its axis exactly as fast as it revolves around
theearlh ainl in llie >:uiic ilirei/tion.
L
Flo. 4.— Tlie fult moon.
From this correspomlencc between the rotation and revo-
lution of the moon, it follows that the latter is not a perfi-ct
globe, but is slif^htly elonpited in the direction of the earth.
Without such an elonpition the correspondence of the two
motions would not be kept up forever, because in the course
of asjes the moon iiioviiitr sometimes a little faster and some-
times a little slower would present dilTerent faces toward
the earth. The deviation from the spherical form is, how-
ever, so sliftht as to bi- immeasurable with our iiislrument.'!.
Libratiim iif llir Mmin. — The rotation of the moon on its
axis is nearly iinironii, while in its motion around the earth
it moves fiLsler when near perij;ee than when near apof;ee.
Its latitude also varies from time to lime. In conseouence
of these inei|Ualilies the f;lobe seems, to telescopic vision, to
vibrate buck and forth lhroii;;li a very small amount from
time to lime. This vibration is called the libnition of the
moon. In conseipience of it about A'nths of the miKin's sur-
face may be seen at one time or another. The remaining
portiyns ati' forever hiilden from human eyes.
Tele,scii/iii- A/ipmninCf of the Minm. — Seen lhroii);h a
small lelescoiH' at the proper time the moon is the most
beautiful ami strikin;; object in the heavens. To see it to
the best advantaile we must not choose the time of full
moon, which people are apt to clo. but rather the lirst ipiar-
tor, or even two or tliree days before the first ipiarter, when
the form of the illuminated portion is still a eres<'ent. The
moon presents the most beautiful ajipearaiice when viewed
throufth a small telescope :i or 4 inches in diameter, thougli
to see the smallest details of the surface a lar;,'e telescoiie
IS necessary. I'mler the most favoralile circumstances the
moon does not .seem Hal. as to the naked eye. but the (jlob-
nlar form is very evident. The (.'cnerid elTecl is that of
cha.sed silver or gold. The delicacy with which the surface
seems to Iw worked, when viewed in the way we have
doscribeil, is exquisite; the highest art of the giddsmith
could only imitate it. Willi higher telescopic powers fea-
tures of a very remarkable character arc brought out on the
lunar surface. When (ialileo first viewe<J this luminary
through his small and imperfect telescope he is said to have
considered that the moon liad land and water, like our globe;
but careful study shows that the surface is totally unlike
that of our earth. Xo liipiid is visible upon it. There is no
evidence of any atmosphere ; if one exists at all it Ls so rare
as to be totally inappreciable. In cons<-ijuence, there is no
vegetation, no life, and, so far as we can ol)ser\c, no change
of any sort. We might describe the moon as a place where
i-lu. 5.— Lost quarter uf the uit>uu.
nothing ever happens. No sound ever breaks the eternal
silence; every object, large and small, slays where it was
I'laced long ages ago; and doulitless our remotest jKisterity
will .see the moon just as we .see it to-day. The surface is
indeed very rough, and the mountains are about as high as
on our earth: but these lunar mountains are totally differ-
ent in shape from our earthly ranges of hill.s. They have
the appearance of extinct volcanic cones and walled plains,
in the center of which a smaller cone can fn'i|uently !«
seen. The whole aspect suggests volcanic action at some
former jieriod, but nothing like an active volcano has ever
Ix'cn seen. With a telesco|)i> of low power small regions
will seem to Im> snuwth, but when we look thnaigh one of
sufTiciently high i>ower, cavities, furrows, and lumps arc
visible alnio.st everywhere. Ijong, deep rills, or clefts, are
quite numerous; ami perhajK; the most extraordinary fea-
tures, which can almost be seen with the naked eye. an' long
white streaks which extend from some of the prominent
mountains through distami's of several hundred miles.
Tehxcopic and I'/iotuynipliir SImlrjnfllie Moon. — Though
the moon is much the nearest of the heavenly IxHlies, yet,
even on the moon, an object would have to !*■ aljout 50 miles
in diameter to be clearly visible to the naked eye. No mi-
nute details can therefore be sei'U except with a telcscoiM-.
.\ telescope magnifying a hundred limes woiiM niake vi-idle
an oliject half a mile in diameter, and higher niagnif> in;;
powers would show vet smaller objeits. but not in propor-
tion to the power. \Vhen we use ixiwers of .several liumlred
times all the indistinctness canseii by the air and the iiiiper-
fections of the glass are magnified in the same ilegree. so
that we at last n>ach a |Hiint Iwyoiid which no incn-a-s*' of
power will help the vision. It may be ipieslionnl whether a
power of more than l.fHKt can be used with Hdvanlage in
viewing the nnxm even with the gn-at Lick telesco|(e of
California.
The photographing of the iniwm has in nn-enl years lieen
practiced with gri'at success. The lunar photographs of
kutherfurd and I>ra|M'r,of New York, wen- justly ••(•h'braletl
in their time. The fine air of the lix'alily in whii-h the
Lick Observatory is situated and the sjileiidiil eqiiipmenl of
that institution have bi-eii utilized for pholorr: ■ ' '
face of our satidlile on a scali' and with a niiniH'
i)efon> reaihed. It is pni|>os<'d, with the aid of II ^
graphs, to noike a map of the nnKin showing the (-ontignra-
tion of ils surface with the utmost detail. S. Newimmii.
878
MOOX ALPHABET
MOORHEAD
Moou Alphabet: See Blind, Education of the.
Mooney, Jamks: ethnologist; b. at Richmond, Ind., of
Irish [>aientage. in 1801 ; began the study of Indian ethnol-
ogy as a boy of twelve, Starting in an eiuleavor to make a
geographic list of all the tribes of Xorth and South America,
and steadily prosecuted this purpose, which soon widened in
scope. After leaving school he learned the printer's trade,
and worked at it six years. In 1885 lie went to Washing-
ton, where his work secured the recognition of the Bureau
of Ethnology, his list of tribes, then numbering nearly 3.1)00,
being taken as the basis of a Dictionary of Trihid Syno-
nyms. Soon after this he began ri'searchcs among t he Cliero-
kees. In the cour.se of this investigation ho discovered and
secured the whole secret ritual of tiieir priesthood, the most
complete collection yet obtained from any tribe. Later he
began collecting materials relating to the ethnology of the
South Atlantic tribes. In 1890 he was commissioned to
study the ghost-dance among the wild tribes in the \\'est ;
soon after he was commissioned to work among the Kiowas,
and made an extensive collection for tlu^ World's Columbian
Exposition, together with an ethnologic study of the tribe.
His principal publications arc Meilirul Mythology of Ire-
land (1887) : Funeral Customs of Ireland ('l8S8) ; Holiday
Customs of Ireland (1880, published in Proceedings of Am.
Philos.Soc, Philadelphia); Mythsofthe Cherokees; Cherokee
Theory and Practice of Medieine (in .hmrnal of American
Folk-lore) ; Indian Tribes of the Potomac ; the Cherokee
Ball Play (in American Anthropologist): Sacred Formulas
of the Cherokees (in Seventh Report of Bureau of Ethnol-
ogy) ; The Siouan Tribes of the East (in bulletin of the Bu-
reau of Ethnology) ; The Messiah Religion and the Ghost-
dance (in Fourteenth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology).
Moonstone : a variety of adularia, or transparent potash-
feldspar (orthoclase) : so ciiUed because when polislied it
presents an opalescent appearance due to internal cha-
toyant or pearly reflections. Varieties of oligoclase and al-
bile (other species of feldspar) occasionally present a similar
appearance. The finest moonstones come from the Kandy
district in Ceylon, where many thousands are annually cut
into gems and exported. G. P. K.
Moor'croft, William: traveler; b. in Lancashire, Eng-
land, about 1770; studied surgery in Liverpool and Paris,
and becatne one of the earliest veterinary surgeons in Eng-
land. In 1808 he went to India as superintendent of the
East India Company's stud in Bengal, and being of an ad-
venturous disposition made two daring journeys to Balkh
and Bokhara in Central Asia in the disguise of a Hindu pil-
grim (1812 and 1819). He was one of the earliest explorers
of the Himalayas and the lakes, rivers, and valleys of Chi-
nese Tartary. 'in 1820-23 he visited Ladakh, Kashmir, .-Af-
ghanistan, and Bokhara. With the government of Ladakh
he concluded a commercial treaty which virtually opened
the whole of Central Asia to English commerce. Of almost
equal importance were his numerous geographical discover-
ies, and this second journey seemed to be a great success,
when, on his return, he was seized at xVndkhui, between
Bokhara and Cabul, with malignant fever, and died Aug.
27, 1825. His papers were recovered by Alexander Burns,
and his Travels were edited by Prof. H. H. Wilson in 1841.
Moore, Clement Clarke : scholar ; son of Bishop Benja-
min Moore; b. in Xew York, .luly 15, 1770; craduated at
Columbia College in 1798; in 1831 became ' Professor of
Biblical Learning iii the Protestant Episcopal Seminarv ;
afterward Professor of Hebrew and Greek, and then of (ji-i-
ental and Greek Literature. He was t he author of a Hebrew
and Greek Lexicon (1809) ; a volume of poems (1844) ; George
Castriot. surnamed Scanderbeg, King of Albania (1850);
and of the well-known l)allad" called' The Visit from St.
Nicholas, hegummg : "'Twasthe night before Christmas,
when all through the house." He also edited a collec-
tion of his father's sermons (1834, 3 vols.), and was a con-
tributor to Philailelphia and New York newspapers. D. at
Newport, R. I., .July 10, 1863. Revised by H. A. Beers.
Moore, David Hastinos, M. A., D. I). : minister and
journalist; b. near Athens, 0., .Sept. 4, 1838; graduated at
Ohio University in 1860; joined the Ohio conference in the
same year; entered the Union army as a private in 1863,
and was elected captain of Company A, Eightv"-sev(Mith
Ohio Volunteer Infantry; on ex]>iration of terin became
major and the lieutenant-colonel of the r25th Ohio Volun-
teer Infantry, serving until the fall of .\tlanta; resumed
the pastorate and served several churches in Ohio; was
president of the Wesleyan Female college, Cincinnati, 0.,
1875-80; president of Colorado Seminary and first chancel-
lor of the University of Denver 1880-89 ; became Professor
of Political Economy in Colorado University in 1889; has
been editor of The We-ttern Chrisliun Advocate since 1889.
Moore, Edward : dramatist; b. at Abingdon, Berkshire,
England, Mar. 23, 1713; wa.s the son of a dissenting minis-
ter, and was brought up a;? a linen-draper in London, but
abandoned that business and engaged in literary pursuits.
He published Fables for the Female Sex (1744); The Trial
ofSelim ; the unsuccessful comedies of 7'he Foundling (1748)
and Gil Bias {1751); and the very successful tragedy The
Gamester (1753 ; often reprinted). A collccte<l edition of
his Poem.% Fables, and Plays was |)ublished in 175(i, and his
Dramatic Works a,mca,vet\ in 1788. He became the editor
of a paper called TIte World, in which he was assisted by
Lords Lvttelton and Chesterfield, and other able writers. I).
Feb. 38, "1757. Revised by H. A. Beers.
Moore, Sir John, K. B. : soldier; son of John Moore,
M. D. ; b. in Glasgow^ Scotland, Nov. 13. 1761 ; entered the
army in 1776: served in the Mediterranean, in America, and
the West Indies, and sat in Parlianu'ut for a time : was gov-
ernor of St. Lucia 1796-97 ; served in Ireland 1 798 ; was bad-
ly wounded in the Net herlands 1799 ; served in Egypt and be-
came major-general and K.B. 1801 ; served afterward in Swe-
den (1803) as envoy and commander of the British cont ingcnt ;
took (Oct. 6, 1808) chief comniaml of the British troops in
the Peninsula, numbering 33.000. managing the campaign
against Napoleon with consummate skiltand boldness: but
the failure of the Spanish to co-operate with him compelled
him to fall back upon Corunna. He conducted the retreat
with masterly skill. He was kdled at the battle of Corunna
by a cannon-shot Jan. 16. 1809. This battle was an ex-
tremely spirited one, and the victory was claimed bv both
sides. The British at once took shiji for England, and tlio
town was evacuated. The Burial of Sir John Moore, by
Rev. Charles Wolfe, has immortalized both its subject anil
its author. See the Life by his brother (3 vols., 1834).
Moore, Thomas : poet ; b. in Dublin, Ireland. May 28,
1779, of Roman Catholic parents; was in youth distin- m
guished for his skill in lyric poetry; studied iit the Dublin Hj
University and at the Middle Temple, London. His first ■
volume of poems, the Anacreon (1800), was a success; the
Poetical Works of Thomas Little (1801) was vastly more
popidar, though disgraced by a vein of licentiousness" which
Moore lived to regret. He was in the civil service in the
Bermudas 1803-04 ; made the tour of the U. S. and Canada ;
raan-ied in 1811 Bessy Dyke, an actress of admirable char-
acter. For many years his principal writings were political
satires in the Wliig interest, full of wit and of general inter-
est in their own day, but of small valuer now. His subse-
quent works of permanent value are the Irish Melodies
(10 parts. 1807-34) ; Lalla liookh (1817) : Loves of the Angels
(1823); Life of Sheridan (1825); The Fpicurean, a romance
(1827); Life 'of Byron (1830) and the History of Ireland
(1827-35). He excelled as a song-writer, and many of his
songs set to favorite airs, such as Aniby's Daughter. Those
Fvening Bells, The Lost Rose of Summer, etc., are still
popular. Jloore had brilliant powers in conversation, and
was a talented singer. D. Feb. 2.5, 1853.
Revised by H. A. Beers.
Moore, William Eves, D. D., LL. D. : clergyman : b. at
Strasburg, Pa., Apr. 1, 1833; was educated at Yale College;
studied theology privately with Dr. Lyman H. Atwater;
has been pastor of the First Presbyterian church of West
Chester, Pa., 1850-73, and since 1873 of the Second Pres-
byterian church, Columbus, O. He has been permanent
clerk of the General Assembly since 1884, and was moder-
ator at Saratoga in 1890. He has jiublished Sew Digest of
the Acts and Deliverances of the General Assembly of the
Presbyterian Church (Philadelphia, 1861), and The Presby-
terian Digest (Philadelphia, 1873 ; new ed. 1886).
C. K. IIOVT.
Moor-fowl, incorrectly called Red fironse: a ptarmi-
gan of the British islands (Lagopus .sroticus), which is one
of the most highly prized of British game-birds. It is not
oidy shot ext(Misiv(dy by sportsmen, but it is snared for
market, and even bred in confinement for food. It is about
16 inches long, mostly of a red-brown color, and feathered
to the toes.
Moorhcad : city ; capital of Clay co., Minn, (for location
of county, see map of Minnesota, ref. 5-A) ; on the Red
MOOR-HEN'
MOQL-EGUA
879
liivor of the Xorlli, and tlie North. I'm: and the Oront N.
railways; oppnsile Far^'o, \. 1).. LTiU iiiilos W. of Duluth.
It is ill an asritiilturul regimi, ami coiituiiis Hope Academy
(IjiithcraiO, a lii;;h scliool, 2 national lianks with coiiiliiiiiiU
capital of $110,(MX), and a ilailv and 2 w<*klv newspapers.
Pop. (ISSO) nut in census; (ISilO) 2,088; (lsy.j)"3,2!IO.
Moor-hoii : a nuinlier of the rail family {Uallitlcp) com-
mon ill iiiiiuy parts of Kiirope, Asia, ami Africa. Its .scicn-
titic imnie is Uallinulii c/ilunijjus. It is about a foot lonj;,
of a dark-slate color, with a conspicuous red frontal shield
fonniil liyun U|)waiil prolonsalioii of the licak. The miH)r-
lu'M swims well, aiiil keeps time to the strokes of the feel
willi a nodding motion of the head. The nest is larjie, hut
usually hidden ainouR the rushes, or placed at some distance
from the edjre of the water. The e{;};s are aliout ten in
numher. The moor-hen is e.\tromely common on ijuiet rivers
and small ponds in Great Britain. Allied species occur iu
temperate and warm regions throughout the world.
F. A. Lucas.
Moors [from I.at. .Ifan'riis. later Mor ns. a Moor ( > Fr.
Miiiire) = (ir. Manpo;. Maiirilaiiian. apparently a special us<>
of /taupo;. dark] : the name generally given to the Jlohamme-
daii race who invaded the soutlieni part of Sfiain in the
early part of llie eiglilli century A. D. All the leaders of
this famous invasion were Arabs, but as their forces were
largely recruited from the African population of the neigh-
borlioinl, the old Mnuri of Mauri/aiiia, the whole of the
invaders were called by the popular name of Moors; so, t(K>,
in early English writers Moliammedans are constantly thus
designateil. The history of tlidr invasion of .S|)ain is the
simplest possible, and needs not, to account for it, the poet-
ical tales invented afterward. FixkI was scarce among t he
Herber tribes ; ranch discoi\l prevailed in the waning king-
dom of the Visigoths; tlie .Jews, cruelly oppressed by tlie
Spanish rulers, as everywhere else, were for aiding any who
might help them ; alM)ve all, the .\rab chiefs, who had swept
the seaboard of Africa to the waters of the Atlantic, liiid
wiiiriors at their disposal hard to restrain under pc^aceful
bonds, but ready to undergo any toils for the hope of fur-
ther plunder. Hence the invasion of .Spain was naturally on
this wise: Musa. the Arab Viceroy of Western .Africa, si-nt
his freedman Tarik. a. d. 711. to survey its southern prov-
inces, and in less than one year the whole of Andalusia, then
the richest part of the IVninsula, had submitted to his ariu.s,
while he had himself left behind him for all time a sure rec-
ord of his prowess, the ancient Calpe. which he had captured,
being named from him tiebel-al-Tarik (the hill of Tarik),
now slii>r(ened into Gibraltar. In the course of the next
year .Mu>a himself came over, jealous of the fame of his
lieutenant, and in the course of the next five-and-forty years
all Spain, except the Asturias, submitted to the rule of suc-
cessive warriors with the title of emirs, the deputies of the
Viceroys of .Africa. Many of these men (they were twenty-
<me in all) were able administrators, and revived agriculture
and the arts, which had falli'n into abeyance toward the
close of (he feeble sway of the Visigoths; while some of
them carried their arms into Vranee, and attempted, but in
vain, to establish there a similar Arab kingdom. The fate
of jwrhaps their greatest le«<ler, Abd-er-Ahman, and the
crushing victory over him in A. v. "32 by Charles Martel in
the plains of Toui-s. are known to every student of history.
In later days, though .Aral) hosts ravaged Carcassonne and
Xarbonne and burned .Mai-seilles, they were never able to
Secure a permanent fooling on French soil.
The subseipient history of the Moors in Spain is the his-
tory of certain dynasties they foun<led there, which main-
tained for more than seven centuries a strong or a weak sway
over tlie whole or parts of that country, according as they
were or were not supporteil by their own people, internal
treachery in the end acconii)lishing what all the arms and
valor of the Christians had failed to achieve. The first, in-
deed the only, dynasty which swayeil the whole of Spain
and Portugal, with the exception of the .Asturias. was that
of the Oinmiade cati[)lis from A. n. 75fi to a. n. WW. This
dynasty was founded by .At)il-er-.\hnian. who reignetl thirty-
four years. During his rule his capital. Cordova, was a
center of learning — not for .\rabs only, but for Christians.
Many able nilers followed him, the most eminent l«'ing the
second and the third of that name. .Alid-er-.\hman II. was
distinguished as a warrior of great prowess, which is shown
by his recapture of I<ar(.vlona from the Franks (a. n. S27),
his bnrningof Mai-seilles (a. i>. H:i!>i. an<l his successful en-
counter with the first Scandinavian vikings who hud n-aehed
Spanish coasts (a. d. 844-«4.5). AUi-er-Ahman III., whose
reign exteiidiil from A. Ii. !tll to iMll. was iirohnbiy, with the
exceptions of Haroun-al-Knscliiii and .\kl>nr of Delhi, tlie
ablest ruler that has ever giiVcnigd the followers of the
Prophet. As a warrior he was pre-eminent, but as nn iiii-
niinistralor he was even prcaler. He wiis, too. the first of
the Western rulers to adopt Hie title hitherto re»erve<l for
the Calijilis n| Hagdud alone, that of "commander of the
faithful, ■ and to rule his own dominions without
to the original stmt of Islam. JIuny of the works !
still attest his powvr ami inunifhrence — notal)l_\ ...,.;
nios<|ue at Cordova, with many roads. canaU.' a<|Ueducts.
and bridge.s. Many CJilleges and schools were al.-o founiliil
by him or by his son, Al-llakem II., who, mor>' jx-rhaps than
he, wa-s an enthusiastic lover of literature, the great library
he formed at Cordova being unrivaled at that period. After
the death of .\1-Ilakem (A. Ii. !l7(i) the (hiimiade |H>wer raii-
idly declined, chiedy from iiitirnal ipiarrels or from the
ill-regulated ambitiim of individual jiiiiici-s. Indeed, on
til
-regiiiaieii amuuiiui ox imiivi.iual iiiiiici-s. Imleed. on
e dis.solulion of this family the Slohummedan i«iwer
f"
in Spain may be said to have been in a stale of Jw-nV;
and though from time to time men of vigor ari>se and for
a while reslored the sinking fortunes .if Islam, the attacks
of the Christians became more and more [■ersistent, end-
ing in the tiiial capture of (iraiiada by Ferilinand in I4!I2.
After the taking of (iranada, the Moors who diMred lo re-
main still in .Sjiain were reipiired to accept Ihe outwaid
forms of Christianity ami to be baptized, and those who did
so were calleil by the Moruti (or adherents to the ancient
faith of Islam) Chrmliuiiofi MurixcuK, or Mormcoji alone, in
derision. The atrocious cruelty with which these |Kjor )>eople
were treated after every solemn promise hud Ihcii broken by
the Catholic party is a grievous nlol on the memory of Fer-
dinand and of his suwessors. The skill of the Moors iu
agricultuiv contributed greatly to the wealth of the country
for many centuries.
AlTHORlTlEs. — Guyanpos, Iliitlori/ of Ihf Molininmedan
DitiiiiKlien in Spain (2 vols., 1S-10-J3); Hozy, JJie/oire Jrs
Jliitiiiliiiun/i d'Aapaf/ne (4 vols.); Laiu-Poole, I'hr Jluon in
S/jiiiii {\t<St)); Abou Zacuriu, ii7>ro (/e -l(/r(Vi(//Hra (2 vols.,
Madrid. 1S7S). Kevised by C. K. Adams.
Moo'rnk [native name]: a species of cassowary (Ca»M-
nriii.'i hiniitlli], differing from the cassowary of North Aus-
tralia (f. ni(.«^rrt/i^) ami relate<l spei'ies in having the hel-
met-shai>ed crest of its head much less elevated and flat-
tened behind, and the absence of cervical wattles. It is
about 5 feet high. Compared with its nearest allies (C
irestemianni and C. picticoltin), it is distinpiished by the
blue color of the throat as well as the Imck j'f the neoli. It
is an inhabitant of the .Australasian island of New Kritain.
It is very easily tamed, and is often kept in a d<inie>slic«tid
state by the natives who rear the birds from the egg. Like
the O.St rich, it swallows stiiiies. iron, and whatever else it can
pick up. When hanl pressed it kicks, giving a seven' blow.
Like the emu, it is often seized with an ebullition of joyous-
ness, and then it dai^hes aUnit as if half insane. See also
Cassowakv. Kevised by F. A. LfCiS.
Moose : See Elk.
Moo>ioll<>ad Lnkp : the source of the Kennebec river; a
liody of water lying in Somers«-t and Pisculaipiis cos.. Me.
It is :iC miles long, fMin 3 to 10 miles wide, and is sur-
rounded by a pictures<|ue forest region sjiarsely inhabited.
It is a favorite re.sort for s|Mirtsnien and anglers. Its waters
altuuml in fine trout and uri' luivipitcHi by steamers.
Moi|iiats Indians: See Shoshonkax Iniuans.
Moi|iieirua. ino-kii gwiui : a marilime de|iartinent of
Southi'rn Peru, adjoining Chili, and iHHinded on the N. by
.Arec|uipa and Puno. It was sc'parated from Are<)iii|ia iii
1H7.">,aiid previous to the war with Chi' '-"' '
of the three provinces of Moi|iiei:iia, Ai
an aggnirale area of about ;{0,2<H) s«). ;
tion of (iO.MM). Hy the tn'aty ratified .Mui rica
and Tacna were to Ix- held provisioiiall) !■; ten
years; at the eml of that time the |Hiiple of thr piouiiei-s
to di-termine whetln'r they will Udong to Chili or Peru, nml
the country to which they are annexed t«> i -' i.iioi)
totlieolher. I'p to thetiineof Ihiswrili! ~'.M)
the question has not lieeii seltle<l. Thus di-' Mo-
ipiegiia consists of the single provini'e of i one,
with an ana of alHiiit 10.4(KI s<|. miles, an. I n of
iierhaps 40.000. The coast region for a i-^ inland
IS arid desiTt ; the eastern part, which . . :.ous, eon-
880
MOQDELUMNAN INDIANS
MORAL PHILOSOPHY
tains fertile valleys, noteil for their rich vineyards. The
principal exports are wine and brandy. Moquegua, the
capital and cliief town, is situated in the valley of the river
Ho, 65 miles by railway, from its port of Ilo, and 4,500 feet
above the sea. It was an Indian settlement before the Con-
quest. Moquegua has been repeatedly destroyed by earth-
quakes, the last time on Aug. 13, 1868. Owing to the ex-
cellence of its wines it has been called the Peruvian Bor-
deaux. Pop. about 5,000. H. H. Smith.
Mo(|ueiiiiiiiiaii or Jliitsun Indians [Moquelumnan is
from Moquelunine, a corruption of the Miwok word Wa-kal-
u-mi-toh. the native name of a river in Calaveras co., Cal.] :
a linguistic stock of North American Indians comprising
two divisions — the Miwok (twenty-three tribes) and the 01a-
mentke (twelve tribes). The original habitat of the former
embraced the territory bounded by Cosumne river, Fresno
river, the Sierra Nevada, and the San Joaquin, except a strip
on the east bank ot the last-named river. The Miwok terri-
tory was bounded on the S. by San Francisco Bay, on the
W.'by the Pacific Ocean from (Jolden Gate to a point below
Bodega Head, thence by a line to the southwestern corner
of the Yukian territory northeastward of Santa Rosa, and
on the E. by the Copehan family.
Habits and Cnstorm. — As recently as 1876 the Miwok
were described as the largest body of Indians speaking the
same language in California, but they were also held to be
the lowest in culture. Tlieir beliefs have been described as
superstitious and degraded, their conceptions imbecile, and
their legends obscene almost beyond belief. The Miwok
tribes practiced cremation, but it was never universal. Their
houses were very rude, those of the Miwok having been sim-
ply frameworks of poles and brush which in winter were
covered with earth. In the mountains a cone-shaped sum-
mer lodge of puncheons was made. Acorns formed the prin-
cipal food of these tribes, and were stored for winter use
in granaries raised above the ground. It has been asserted
that the Miwok ate every living creature indigenous to their
territory, save the skunk.
With' the Miwok, chiefship was hereditary except when
the successor was not of sufficient commanding influence.
As with most of the tribes of California, marriage among
the Miwok tribes was practically by purchase. When twins
were born one of the children was killed. Shamanistic rites
were performed by both men and women, and scarifieation
and sucking were the principal remedial agents. The acorn-
dance as well as a number of other ceremonials, principally
for feasting or amusement, were formerly celebrated by the
Miwok. No puberty dance was celebrated, nor did they ob-
serve a dance for the dead, but an annual mourning, and
sometimes a special mourning, was observed.
Population. — t'omparatively few of the natives of the Mi-
wok division of this stock survive, and these are scattered in
the mountains.
Al'thorities. — Stephen Powers, Tribes of California,
Contributions to North American Ethnology, iii. (Washing-
ton, 1877); H. II. Bancroft, History of California, i.-vii.
(San Francisco, 1884-90). See Indians of North America.
F. W. Hodge.
Moraes, rao-raaV7s, Prudente ; politician ; 1). at Itu, SiSo
Paulo, Brazil, about 1845. He studied law at Sao Paulo ;
was admitted to the l)ar in 1863. and in 1866 was elected to
the [}rovincial assembly. In 1870 he avowed republican
principles, an action which at the time seeiued to debar
liim from taking any further part in polities; but in 1879
he anil two otlicr re|>ublicans were elected to the Sao Paulo
assembly, where their moderation and dignity did much to
advance their cause. In 1885 he was elected to the national
chamber of deputies, being, with two others from Sao I'aulo,
the first avowed repulilicans who ever entered that body.
After the revolution (in which he liad no ]iersonal jiart)
Senhor Moraes was the first republican governor of Sao
Paulo (1889-90), and inmiediately after was elected senator.
In Feb., 1890, he was a presidential candidate, receiving 97
votes against 133 given t(j Fonscca. Subsequently he was
president of the Brazilian senate. The ])residential elec-
tions of Feb. 28, 1894, took |ilace when the rebellion was at
its height, and Moraes was elected by a large majority.
II. H. Smith.
Moraine' [= Fr. ; cf. It-al. mora, heap of stones, probably
from Teutonic; cf. Germ, tlial. (I5avar.) mur, broken stones,
debris] : (1) a nia-ss of stones and earth carried by a glacier ;
(2) a mass of stones and earth deposited by a glacier. See
Drift, Geoloov, and Glaciers.
Moralities: See Miracle-plays and Dance of Death.
Moral Philosophy \mo7-al is from Lat. mora'lis, relat-
inj^ to morals ur manners, deriv. of mos, maris, manner,
custom, conduct, way of life] : the theory of the value of
human conduct. Moral philosophy, or ethics, is a branch
of the philosophic as distinct from the physical sciences.
The latter investigate facts and relations in their objective
character. They fulfill their end, therefore, when the facts
are adequately described and their relations stated. The
philosophical sciences — namely, a-sthetics, logic, and ethics
— deal with the investigation of value. They reach their
end, not in a description of a given experience, but in an
estimate of its worth as a part of the whole system of ex-
perience. The philosophical sciences are sometimes termed
normative, in that they all recognize a norm or standard,
as duty, truth, and the good. This, however, is a derivative
mark, not the primary differentia. The norm is simply the
basis enniloyed in estimating value.
The Origin of Ethical Theory. — In primitive societies
morality is identified with the customs of the community ;
and these customs, receiving religious sanction, are thus
binding religiously as well as morally. This fact lends to
retard the growth of any theory of conduct. Custom when
consecrated l)y religion is the essence of conservatism. Free
inquiry would imply both lack of loyalty to the community
and disrespect to the gods. The chief offset to this ex-
treme conservatism is found in the existence of the councils
of the community, in which certain questions are discussed
and decided on their own merits ; but among every folk, except
the Greek, this germ of free inquiry was checked by the as-
sumption that the decision simply declared existing custom,
or else (when the council was a priesthood) made known the
immediate will of the gods. In Greece, the discussion of
the means and ends relating to the welfare of the commu-
nity took at an early period a wide range, and was freed
from any slavish subserviency to the fixed habits of the past
or to the divine will. A divine sanction was supposed to
attach to the themistes (or Judicial decisions), but this was
rather in virtue of the wisdom displayed in them than be-
cause they were regarded as authoritative expressions of will.
We find" the early proverbs and maxims — the so-called
gnomic morality — different from those of other peoples in
putting im])()rtance upon certain habits of mind and states
of character rather than upon the performance of certain
outward acts. Such maxims as " Know thyself " and "In
nothing excess" already contain in themselves the principle
of a free as distinct from a customary morality. The devel-
opment of democracy, with its popular judicial tribunals
and its assemblies for the general discussion of political
matters, was a further influence in promoting the growth
of moral reflection. A premium was put on power to per-
suade and to move the citizens of a community in all mat-
ters of public policy. At the same time the Greek, with his
strong community feeling, always referred the measures
under discussion to the welfare of the state as a decisive
criterion. Ahmg with this development of a reflective
standard and method of judgment went a continual in-
crease in the exchange of culture between Greece proper
and the Greek colonies in Asia Minor and Italy. The effect
of this was to alistract the consideration of moral questions
from their identification with local cu.stoms. If we add the
vast expansion in art and science found in Athens, conse-
quent upon llii^ Persian wars, we have all the material for a
growth of conscious ethical theory. The immediate stimu-
lus to this came from the Greek dramatists on one side and
frcjin the teachings of the Sophists on tlie other. Amid the
decay of older religious beliefs and customs, attending the
exiiansion of life, the dramatists tried to uphold a morality
liased upon a inirification of the oldi'r iiiythology. This
tendency culminated in the assertion that the fundamental
ethical relations are absolute, eternal, and controlling in all
the affairs of life ; meantime the Sophists were moving in
quite a different direction.
The Influence of the Sophists. — In connection with the
rise of the <iemoeracy and increase of intellectual inter-
course, already mentioned, there grew up a well-defined
class of persons who made it their business to instruct am-
bitious citizens in the community in whatever was best cal-
culated to make the latter capaple of securing political in-
fluence. Protagoras, for example, affirmed that he " was
able to give his pupils skill in botli private and public af-
fairs ; that his pupils learned to order their own houses in
the best manner, and became able to speak and act for the
.MoitAL riiii.osoriiv
881
best in iifTairs of the state." (Plato. Prolaiforax, :tl9.) The
•Sopliists, in other words, professed to iilistruot <|ueslioiis of
social welfare from the traditions ami haliits of any [mrtic-
ular eoMiiniiiiilv, and to discuss tlieni wilh reference to the
welfare of the stale at larKe. This t;''"eralization of the
idea of the state and its welfare or pjod formed the hasis
at once of the art of politics and of the science of ethics.
Mi>re than this, many of the Sophists made use of concepts
derived from the philosophic theories of the time to attack
all traditional morality and, at least indirectly, morality it-
self. There was, for example, a general agreement aniong
them that, so far as the sulijects or cilizens of the eomnui-
nity are eoncenieil, moral rules are simply the expressed
will of the stronm'r; that duly is simply the neeessily of
suhniittingto superior force; while, on llu' part of the rulers,
or stronger, moral rules are simply expedients for securing
personal advantage.
Infliti'nce of Sitrralen. — The work of Socrates may be de-
scribed as an effort to use the positive side of the Sophistic
teaching against the negative side, and in the interest of an
intrinsic morality like that taught by IIk' dramatists, but
freed from its religious dependence. The <juesliou raised
liy the Sophists was whether morality exists by nature (ipiia-fi)
or by institution — that is, by sheer enactment (fij'irti). St)c-
rates endeavored to show that it exists by the very nature
of num and the slate; thai there is a single and supreme
good or end for the individual and ihe commuuily, refi'rence
to this end fixing the value i>f all particular acts and habits.
The liasis of morality is therefore knowledge of this good.
Except in .so far as the agent knows the good and acts with
reference to it, his conduct is jiurely haphazard. .Socrates is
therefore in agreement with the Sojihisls in attacking all
morality that is merely customary. So far as morality is
merely traditional, it may be regarded as based upon either
arbitrary authority or considerations of private expediency.
.\ll such conduct therefore is more than mui-moral ; it is
immoral. .Socrates, at the same time that he founds reflec-
tive theory, is the creator of a new type of morality, lie
introduces, as the precondition of all oilier virtues, the virtue
^k of insight into the good and the doing of acts because of
^L. their value wilh reference to this good. He differs from the
^^KSophists, not in the emphasis put on Ihe discussion of moral
r
Ique.stions — in that respect he is himself a Sophist — but in
his insistence upon the necessity of a stanilanl and method
for the discussion — a standard and method to be derived
from an examination of tiie essential end and laws of con-
duct itself. Hence his generalization of the Delphic rvoiSt
(TfavT6v as the fundamental principle of morals.
The Limits of thf Socriilir Klhics. — In contrast with both
the customary an<i the .Sophistic moral teaching. .Socrates
points to Ihe practice of the artists and artisans. The latter
Know the ends at which they aim; they proceed from a defi-
nite model or pattern, and follow a method every step of
which has definite reference to the end to be reached ; nuu'e-
over, in the use of their method, they observe coiitinuallv
rules of measure and proportion. In decided contra.st with
this is the practice, not only of the ordinary citizen, but of
the politician, the poet who sets up ivs a moral teacher, an<l
the Sofihist as a professed teacher of virtue. Xo one of these
has a fi.xed or universal aim, pattern, or rule of measure-
ment. Socrates himself di>es nut claim to have himself any
knowledge of what this supreme controlling goud is; he
represents simply a demand that men do ni>t claim to be
moral, much less teachei-s of morals, until they can base
their conduct upon assured insight into the good. His own
attitude toward knowledge of the good is thus finally ile-
cidedly ironical. .Meantime .Socrates urged, not only by
precept, but still more by his own practice, loyally to the
spirit of the community of which one is a member. The
relation between loyalty to the community and insight into
the good is nowhere developed by Socrates. We may as.surue
that ho /(■// the identity of the gt)oil as known by .scientific
insight, and the gooil as expressed in the laws of the coin-
muiiity, but he nowhere affords any justification for the
identification. These liniilalions fix the problem for his
successors.
Iii/liiinre of J'/tifo. — Sneaking roughly, we may say that
Plato, following the funtlamental Socratic ]>rinciple of the
identity of knowledge ami virtue, had to acconiplish two
thiugs — to Work out more positively the content of the go<Ml,
and to establish more in detail its connection with s«K-ial
organization. The first of these tasks he attempted to per-
form by bringing the problem of the nature of the giMHl into
closer connect ion wilh the problem of the objective si ructure
282
of the universe. He united, that is lo say, tlie elhjeal
analysis of the end of man wilh the philostiphicul anulvsig
of the nature of reality. Nature itself wa-s interpreted teli-o-
logically ; the g<iod or end is the supreme law and unity of
both being ami knowing. The second problem he met bv
admitting that nmst men can never of theins«-lves attain tii
insight into the ginxl or to true moral action. It is ni-<'es-
sary. therefore, lo reconstruct the whole social fabric so that
tlie knowledge of the good obtained Ijy Ihe philo.suphers or
the wise shall be mediated to the rest of the commiinitv
through the very structure of Ihe .social organization. Ill's
scheme of virtues ami his idea of social orpinizalion stand,
therefore, in direct relation to each other. The supreme or
controlling cliuss in a state must, by Ihe nx.ral ni-<essily of
the case, be those who conipnliend Ihe supreme gcHxI. and
who can estimate the value of particular acts by reference
to the supreme good as a stamlard. This cla.ss 'f<illows the
good simjily because they appreciate it ; their virtue is wis-
dom. Of them it is true that knowledge and virtue arc
identical. The next class in the stale is composed of those
who, without ability in llicmselves tol-omprehend the giMid.
can appreciate it sullicic'iitly when made kiuiwn liv the
ruling class to defend and maintain it at all hazanls. 'I'lieir
virtue is courage, or knowledge ot the go(K] at one remove.
The lowest class in the state is comjKjsed of those who
neither know nor can ponilireli/ as.sert. under the direction
of others, the good, but who can, when restrained, ilevole
their energies to supplying the material making iiossible its
realization by others. This is the industrial class, whose
virtue is control or temperance; that is, knowledge at two
removes. Justice is the whole made one by wj.sdoin. Plato
further began the psychological analysis of conduct by
transferring the constitution of the state over into the .struc-
ture of the individual soul. The appetites an<l desires, on
their more pa.ssive side, correspond lo the industrial cla.s.s,
the impulses and active desires to the loyal citizen class;
reason to the ruling cla-ss, and the balance of the powers to
the just state.
Jnjhifiice of Ari sloth. — Aristotle tended to separate ethics
from its close connection both with metaphysics an<l wilh
political organization. Plato himself had been obliged lo
admit that his idea of the universal and absolute giKnl was
but a bare outline; that it represcnieil an ideal to Ix) filled
up rather than an accom|ilishe(l fact. Aristotle added that
in any case the ethical problem must relate to a good prac-
tically realizable by man. and not lo some Iranscendeut giKnl.
In place, therefore, of a metaphysical analysis of Ihe good,
Aristotle subslilutes a descriplion of the moral excellence
found in the be.st type of Ihe citizen gentlemen, a type which
Athens, with its centuries of disciplinary and refining influ-
eiu'cs, had reared up. His acount of goodness and of the
chief virtues de.scrioe the ideals ami habits of the typical
Athenian gentleman; his principle of Ihe golden mean is
Ihe generalization of Ihe artistic principle upon which the
Athenian character, in its best estate, had formed itself.
Aristotle thus put at lhedis]K>sal of all later |>eoples Ihe net
product of (ireek life on its strictly moral siile. As regunls
the method of atlaining virtuous character, .\ristolle .sul>-
stitule<l for Ihe Platonic ideal of direction through s<N-ial
organization (now no liPiiger [Kissible, even as a dream, l)e-
cause of the loss of Athenian independence) Ihe iih'al of
habits formed through careful discipline and tniiiiing.
Personal edu<alion tends lo iH'come the instrument for
doing what previously s<Kial life as a whole had done. This
emphasis upon the |H'rsonal training of the individual inatle
necessary more attention to the nature of the individual
agent. .Vrislotle's ethics are thus as deciiledly psychological
(US Plato's an' |Militical. It must not Ih^ Ihoughl, however,
that Ari.slolle completely M'vers ethics from imlilics. Kdu-
calioii is still conceived as carried on by Ihe stah- ; the coni-
inuuity is thus the chief ethical instrument, iiidiriHtly if not
directly. .Mon'over, since the individual is by nature s<K>ial,
he can realize his full good oidy in rehilii>n t<i others; his
g<Knl includes a life in a comniunily. In this way the stale
is also one form of the ethical end, but Aristotle dislimlly
separates Ihe practical and so<ial virtues from the contem-
plative virtues, making the latter higher in \):\»\ and thus
pri'iiares the way for the later isolation of Ihe individual,
and the divorce of ethics from [wlitii-s.
Fiirthir (Ireek Iteirlopmrnl. — The .so-called one-sido<l .So-
cratic schools, namely, the Cvnii' and Ihe Cyrenaic, had
alromly entered u|Hin \\w individualistic development. Wilh
the growth of Ihe Macedonian and lionmn supri-niwie.o, the
welfare and customs of Ihe local comniunily c«mc to nieui
882
MORAL PniLOSOPnY
less and less to the individual. He was thrown back upon
himself for moral stren-ith and consolation. It is eustoniary
to put tlie two later schools, the Stole and Epicurean, cor-
responding to the two one-sided schools already spoken of,
in marked opposition to each other, and even to regard tlic
Stoic scliool as the embodiment of all that was nuiiily and
truly virtuous in the life of the times, while the Epicurean
is regarded as given over to lax and selfish pleasure-seeking;
but considered in relation to the place which they occupy iii
the development of ethical problems and methods, the agree-
ment between these two schools is much more im|)oi'tant
tlian the differences. Both are concerned with the ijuestion
of how the individual, in an environment which is becoming
more ami more indillereut to him, can realize satisfaction ;
both answer in terms of a personal detac-hment from all
outward concern, and of an attainment of internal self-suf-
ficiency; both make wisdom the chief means in reaching
this end : both, in a word, deal with the problem of the true
satisfaction of desire in a world wlicre good is no longer
mediated through social organization, but has to he attained
through the individual himself. Both schools therefore
continue the psychological analysis, working out, indeed,
the whole problem of will in its relation to desu'e, reason,
and pleasure. In both schools there is an equilibrium
reached through a remarkable compromise between self-
satisfaction aiKl self-sacrifice. While the Stoic school rep-
resents, upon the whole, asceticism, it has strongly hetionis-
tic factors in it. The wise man was freed from everything
merely customary, and this gave rise, in extreme cases at
least, to a shameless disregard of the ordinary conventions
of life in the satisfaction of passions. Moreover, the very
contempt which the Stoic displayed for pleasure was in
itself largely hedonistic; he felt that the pleasures which
he despised were of little account compared with the pleas-
ure of knowing that he was independent of them. On the
other hand, there is a marked ascetic factor in Epicurus.
He emphasizes the necessity, in orilcr to secure stable pleas-
ures, of moderating and even surrendering the urgency of
desire. On the social side, the Stoics introduced an abstract
cosmopolitanism by the side of their self-sufficient individ-
ualism. They conceived of the whole universe — " nature,"
in their phrase — as a vast city of which gods and men are
the citizens, and for which the immanent reason, the Logos,
gives laws. They thus generalize the ethical analysis which
Plato and Aristotle liad made with reference to the Athenian
community. To live according to nature was to assume the
same kind of relation to the whole world that Plato had
required of the citizen with reference to his own community.
The Epicurean school was even more definitely hostile in
its moral aims to actual political life than the Stoic ; but it
set up the ideal of a brotherhood of like-minded men whose
bond was not formal law, but personal friendship and volun-
tary sympathies.
iiifiii.e?ice of Christianity. — The introduction of Chris-
tianity tended rather to deepen the existing antithesis than
wholly to shift the center of interest. Within Christianity
itself there were two contending strains. One, in its em-
phasis njion individual salvation and the freedom of the
will, tended to reduce to the lowest terms possilile the social
side of conduct. It regarded social life, from the family to
the state, as having primary relation to raan"s ai)petites, in
themselves evil ; social institutions therefore were either
to Ijo got rid of or, since that was impossible for most men,
to be endured as neci^ssary evils. On the other hand, the
conception of love as the supreme law of life, and of a king-
dom of heaven as a supreme S(jcial institution having com-
plete community of inlerest;s — harmony of man with man —
made the social aspect of conduct more prominent than it
ever had been before. In the early centuries these two factors
exist side by side with almost no consciousness of their con-
tradiction. The chief immediate result in ethical theory
was to center all moral (juestions in the will, and to con-
ceive of will as power of personal choice rather than as
expression of either desire or wisdom. God's will was the
source and sanction of all moral law; man's will the free
source of either goodness orl>adness; and tin! eternal des-
tiny of man was fixed by the relation assumed between the
divine will on one side and the human on the other.
Roman Influence. — The Roman emf)ire formed at once
the scene upon which all the contending ideas and tenden-
cies met, and the framework which held them together and
gave them objective consistency. The Latin influence
furnished no new ethical analysis. It supplied neither a
new idea of the supreme good, nor a further demand for
personal righteousness. What it did afford was a vast and
coherent system of practical means for realizing the ideal
elsewhere developed. The system of private rights whidi
civilization owes to Roman genius made the individualism
of the Greek morals and Christian religion more than a
speculation of the ])hilosophcr and an inner state of tlie
saint; it gave this individualism objective body. In the
same way the unified system of law and executive [lower
necessary to the centralization of the Roman empire afforded
at once a symbol and an objective support for the other-
wise vague aspirations toward a unified humanity current
in Greek and Christian thought. The first five centuries of
our era are an epcich of fusion and assinulalion. The Greek
ideas furnish tlie theoretical analysis of conduct ; Chris-
tianity insists upon the infinite meaning of life, and both
are interpreted, on the practical or working side, by means
of the legal and ailministrative concepts of Rome.
Medimval Etlticut Tliconj. — The result of this fusion is
the Catholic Church of the middle ages with its well de-
fined structure both as a political institution and the main-
tainer of a dogmatic system of truth. Ethical theory as
free examination of conduct ceased; but none the less the
Catholic Church gathered up into itself the net product of
previous culture, and made it a tremendous influence in the
practical discipline of men, both in their inner conscious-
ness and in their community life. The official ethics was
dominated by the legal ideas inherited from the Roman
empire. God was the absolute lawgiver and judge. Moral
laws and the laws of physical nature were the expression of
his will, almost his arliitrary commands. The moral life
was a process of conforming to legal rules ; moral disci-
pline a scheme for paying, either directly or vicariously, the
penalties incident t(j infniction of law. The itlea of govern-
ment was everywhere supreme. The com]jlete subordina-
tion of science, art, and ordinary social life to the demands
imposed by the transcendent God, resulted in making an
organized dualism out of conduct. The supernatural is the
all-important, but the present and ai-tiial is the natural,
which therefore can not be ignored. Thus there are two
organs of moral knowledge, wisdom, making known the
natural law, and revelation, declaring the supernatural ;
two types of virtue, the natural and the theological ; two
instraments for realizing the law, the state, the secular
expression of the divine will, the kii)gdi>m of nature, and
the Church its sacred expression, the kingdom of grace.
The Begimiings of3Iodern Moral I'hilu,sophi/. — The
Renaissance, here as elsewliere, marks a body of thought
working free from constriction and subordiiuitiou, and be-
ginning to assert itself on its own account. After two or
three centuries of conflict we find free theory finally able to
maintain itself. Moral jihilosophy is severed from its theo-
logical subjection. From, say, 1625 to 1785 there are two
main currents of ethical thought, the continental and the
English, flowing on in relative independence of each other.
The continental is from the De Jure Belli et Pads (1625) of
Grotius to the ethical writings of Kant ; the English from
the Leviathan of Hobbes to the death of Adam Smith. The
continental school grew u[i under the traditions of Roman
law and administration. It was interested mainly in an
analysis of law; its source, sanction and content, jurally
considered. English thought grew in connection with the
struggle for political and industrial freedom. Hence it took
the individual agent as its foevis of interest and discussed
moral questions as they bore upon the indiviilual's life.
Agreement and Difference of the Engli.-<h and tlie Conti-
nental Movement.^. — It is customary to contrast the English
and the continental phases of moral philosophy, regarding
the former as empirical and the latter as rationalistic; yet
their identity in ]irinciple was far more importinit than
their difference in method. The problem of lioth was fixed
by their attitude to the dogmatic character of media'val
theory: both were seeking a free basis for morality; in
finding this, both start from the nature of the individual
in himself, carrying out the same tendency in ethics which
the Protestant Reformation introduced into religion and
Descartes into mctapliysics. Both neglected the positive
and historical element — a neglect lasting until after the
French Revolution. Both had the same fundamental ques-
tion to deal with, the relaticm of the individual to .society.
The chief difference was that the English movement con-
ceives of this relation as the adjustment of self-interest and
benevolence, while f he cont inental deals with it as t he relation
between the inner morality of the individual and the out-
ward order of tlie state; moreover, English thought deals
MOKAL PniLOSOPllY
883
I
with the iiuliviiliml as a fcoling and (lesirinc; iM-iriK, while
ciiiitineiital lliuiight derives its conclusions from his rational
nature.
7'Ae Continental Development.— Grotius (15S.S-1645) ini-
tiated ethical science on the Continent. With Ihe lireak-up
of the feudal system and of the |iolitical aulhoritv of the
Catholic Church, toffelher with the emersjenie of inde|H'n<l-
ent nationalilies, it hecanie necessary to find a new source
for authority and law. Cirotius was'particularly cc.ncerned
with the prohleni of the relations between the various Ku-
ropean states. Obviously there was no political sovereiffiitv
to impose law, ami yet if there was no law anarchy was a
sure result, (irotius fell back upon the idea of u'law of
nature antecedent to ami controlliiij^ positive law. This
natural law mijjht be de(ined both as the law of rea.soii
and as a fundamental S(jcial law. It spranj; from the
rational iin|>ulse in the nature of man to sei'k for permanent
uni<m with Ids fellows, and to identify his {,'ood with tlieirs.
The law of nature or rijj;ht is to ilo whatever tcmls to exe-
cute this impulse. To Leibnitz (l(i4t>-1716) we owe the idea
of a distinct philosophy of morals. Puffendorf (16:52-94)
hiwl distinj^uished lictween a furuin inleriinm and nfuritm
externum. The former was t)ie rejrion of reli^rion in which
all moral <luties were included, the latter the ref;ioii ><( juris-
rudence. Leibnitz pointed out that moral duties must
lave a sphere of their own, separate from theolofjy on one
side and from jurisprudence on the other. Thomasius
(le'TVlTSH) tried to find a common principle underlyini^
the sciences of morals and of civil law. The fundameiitul
nature of man is toward rational hap|iine.ss; the primary
law of nature is thcrtfore to seek both inner and outer
peace. Morals deal with the former law; jurisprudence
with the latter. The duties of the latter are expressed nefta-
tively : ilo not injure others. Its law is the law of justice :
its definin;; mark the coercive character of such duties.
The moral law is positive: do unto others as one would be
done by: its law the law of Ix'nevolence, and its defiiunnr
trait the impossibility of using coercive force. Thomasius
thus afforded a philosophical basis for the prowins tendency
towanl confessional reliitious freedom. WoKT ( l(i7!)-lTr)4)
contributed no materially new elements, but carried out the
idi-a of the rational character of morality on the formal
side, workini? out the .scheme of duties and virtues into a
re;;ular svstem on the basis of the principles of lojric.
T/ie Ilni/li.ili Deir/opiHenl.—Uohhes (1.">M8-167!») did for
Kii','lish Ihoujrht what ftrotius did for continental. The
characteristic of his moral idiilosophy is the pecidi.ir union
of a thorou-jhly epiistic psychology, with an assertion that
the iHisis of all moral obligation is positive law issued by a
Sftvereign. The individual left to huns<'lf aims always and
only at his own pleasure, so much so as to bring every indi-
vidual into conflict with every other. The institution of
the state is neeessjiry to set limits to this self-seeking; by
its enactments, which bring order out of anarchy, it .sets nj>
the moral ideal and definite moral duties. This theory of
the positive origin of moral law called out the first n-at-tion
— an assertion of the intrinsic character of ethical distinc-
tions. (See Intuitionalism.) The intuilionalists asserted
that one law directly made known was that of Iwiievolence,
or the iluty of considering the common good a.s one's own,
but neither More (1614-W7), Cumberland (l(W2-171S), nor
Clarke (1075-172!)! showed how this piimiple of benevolence
aiipiale<l to the individual. Imleed. so far as they rh-alt
Willi the i|Uestion of how benevolence could become a work-
ing motive for the individual, they tendeil to fall back on
external rewards and punishment. In so far they not only
left the psychological egoism of Hobbes unrefuteil, but
also implicitly assi-rted it. This deficiency Shaftesbury
(1671-171M) attempted to make good by a new analysis of
the individiiars make-up, with a view to showing the active
presence within him of disinteresleil impulses or siicial alTec-
tions on Ihe same level as his self-s<eking teiidiMicies. But-
ler ( I(i!l2-17-V2) went a step further and ilenie<l that even the
self-regarding impulses, so called, aim at pleasure, claiming
that each is directed to its own appropriate objift, .S-lf-
love he held to be a general principle arising from reflec-
tion, and subject therefore to reason, as determining in
what it really consists and how it may truly 1h' oblainiHl.
Iliitcheson (lti!ll-1747) applied the same idi-a to the analysis
of Ihe social impulses, distinguishing between the natural
and turbulent impulses on one side, whi'ther personal or
sixiial, and calm self-love and calm l)enevolence on the other.
He thus attempts to give Ihe ultimale moral value to the
balance of the impulses as atlected by reason, claiming that
a reo-sonable self-love ami a rea.s4inable benevolence coincide.
He also laid great stre^s on the di.sinlen-sled eli"-^". i- • • f
the social affections. Since no one of these writ'
that the moral g<XMl coincides alisolutely with !■
lent impulses, the ipiestion of the objwt of a|>pnil>Hiiuh, or
the giHHl, eaiiie to be a distinct problem. Hntclieson in-
tensified this problem by recoginzing the op|i<>>,iliim Ije-
tweeii the disposition or characti-r from niiieli 8<-ts priK>ee<l
and the nature of the ads (heins4d\es. He dislinguishcil
between the formally giKnl. whose criterion is in the char-
acter, and Ihe materially goiKl, whose criterion is in the n-
sults of acts, holding that the test of the goiKlm-ss of an 8<-t
is its tendency to jiromole the greatest happiness of the
greatest niiml>er. lie thus prepared Ihe way for the later
utilitarianism. Hume (1711-70) attempts to'iinile Ilutche-
son's account of the object of approbation with a psvcho-
logicul account of approbation considere<l as a stale of niinil.
According to him, apiirobalioii is the stale of pleasurable
eonsc-iousnes.s, arising through sympathy, when we CH<nlem-
plate aiiv traits or acts which are agreeable or u.^eful to
others, llume thus carries to its extreme Ihe emphasis u[)<.n
feeling latent in the earlier writers; that »hi<di is apjirovcd
and the act of aiiprobatioii are both states of feeling. Rea-
son comes in only as enlighlening the feelings. Adam
Smith (172:}-"J0| carries out still further Ihe idea of svmpn-
thy. Hume had not allempleil to dilTereiiliate nmral aji-
probation from the sympathetic pleasure arising at the
contemplation of any enjoynieni whatever. .'>mitli under-
took to supfily this lack by holding that our moral sympa-
thy is not with Ihe mere experiences of others, but with the
aciive impulses from which the experiences arise. More-
over, he substituted for the more or less haphazard svmpa-
thies of Hume's moral agent the .sympathies which would
arise in a spectator who was both imparl lal and enlightened.
Our own conscience or self-judgment is simply the ri'flex of
such an imaginary spe<-tator. Hartley (170.>-.'J7) completed
this psychological analysis by the fuller use of the idea of
association. He practically eliminali'd the •• reius<in " of the
older moral writers by accounting for all complex facts as
associations of fileasure and pain with simple sensations
and appetites.
'J'rnnsilion to the Moral Philiigophy of the yineleenth
Century. — The common tendency of more rc<-ent ethical
thought, tinderlying all differences bt-tween the various
schools, is fixed by the effort lo deal more adeipiately with
the s<icial factors of morality. Kant (1724-liSlMi. in Ger-
many, anil Bentham (174f<-!'i42). in Kngland, represent Ihe
transition from their respective siihs. In Kant the contra-
diction in previous rationalistic ethics almost comes lo con-
sciousness. This con trail let ion lay in deriving the moral
laws from reason, which is a-ssumecl lo be universal and
necessary, and yet in beginning with the individual ami
considering the slate simply as a conipait U'tween indivi<l-
uals. Kant became aware of the iuH'es,sitv i>f explicitly as-
serting the universal charaeler of the individual as to his
rational nature, and he .-^'l it over against the parlieulnr
side found in his appelilcs and feelings. Morality thus l)e-
conies the struggle of the rational universal will to give Ihe
law to conduct, as against the induiemeiits of the s<-nsuons
appetite. These two selves, monH)ver. he li'iids to identify
with the results of Housseau's (Kditical analvsis, aci'onling
to which the individual is to be considere<l IkiiIi as sover-
eign or legislator and as subject, or recipient, of law. The
universid character of Ihe law to be n^alizeil forces Kant lo
the verge of realizing the social nature of morality. Hav-
ing, however, excluile<l all historical content as empirical,
he can get no further than ass«'rting that the moral law,
since universal, demands equal reganl to all |ier>iinalilies,
and refpiires of each that he ad so as to make |">ssible Ihe
harmony of all — Ihe kingdom of ends. Instead, therefon-, of
continuing the parallelism U'tween Ihe inner ami Ihe outer
(that is. Ihe moral, motive, ami p<'litical slnnturv) ere»li-<l
by Thoniasius. he a.s.serts the inies.-ily of having Ihe out-
ward conditions of action so regulated as lo enable Ihe in-
ternal moral motive to l»e n-ally exe<Mili><l. Tim- ih.- struc-
ture of Ihe stale and law. though not in lie 'ral,
must lie niaile of such sort as will [H'miil lb' i of
morality. It was. of course.- '' •' ''
ei|uilibrinm I'f the imlividu;.
lied. Meanwhile Bentham. • : .
similar transformation in Kngiish etlin-s. Un one siile ho
as.st'rle<l that the sole criterion of morality is found not in
Ihe dispositii>ii of Ihe agent, but in Ihe tendency of a<is to
affect the happiness and misery of all sentient creatures ; bo
884
MORAL PHILOSOPHY
condemned all other standards as capricious and subjective.
On the other hand, he demanded that the whole legal struc-
ture and machinery, lioth legislativ<> and judicial, be trans-
fornie<i so as. in tlie first place, to have equal regard to the
welfare of all, and. in the second place, to induce the indi-
vidual really to identify his own happiness with that of
others. Thus the contradiction latent in the earlier Eng-
lish thought conies to consciousness. The more (from
Shaftesbury down) the writers had insisted upon the benevo-
lent character of the individual the more it was open to
cynical observers like Maiuleville to point out the discrep-
ancy between the theory and the actual facts of political
and' economic life in Englaiui, where self-seeking seemed
the rule. Bentliara"s utilitarianism may thus be considered
an assertion that the previous utilitarian theory of the iden-
titv of private and ]iul)lic happiness can become a fact oidy
wlieii the legislative ami judicial agencies of the slate are
brought into play to eciiialize conditions and furnish motives.
Utilitarianism 4 iius became the intellectual instrument of
reform in the interest of the rising democratic spirit. Eth-
ical theory was forced from the attitude of mere psycho-
logical analysis into a theory of the nature ami methods of
social well-being.
Recent Ethical T/ieory. — The movement in Germany sub-
sec|uent to Kant consists in translating the abstract univer-
sal will of his theory into concrete social terras. The uni-
fied life of society was substituted for formal reason. The
particular or sensuous self was transformed into a given in-
dividual within the social whole. The categorical impera-
tive, that is, the consciousness of the legislative character of
the rational self, was translated into the consciousness on
the part of the individual of his place in the social organ-
ism, and of the duties devolving upon him because of this
]ilaee. In Hegel (ITTO-lSol) this tendency reached its cul-
mination. In )iis pliilo.sophy the moral consciousness of the
individual is but a phase in the process of social organiza-
tion. In England Bentham was followed by James Mill
(1773-1836). who, uniting tlie psychology of Hartley with
the reforming utilitarian spirit of Bentham, became the
center of the philosophical liberal school — a school which
had an influence quite out of [jroportion to its actual num-
bers. The son of .lames Jlill, John Stuart Mill (1806-73),
came early in life under the influence of the disciples of
Coleridge, who was introducing German transcendental
philosophy into England according to his understanding of
it. While the younger Mill renuiined at bottom a Bentham-
ite, he modified utilitarianism in such ways as to meet the
intuitionalism of thi! other school at least half way. He in-
troduced the conception that the quality of pleasure is more
important than its quantity, and that the highest quality is
found in the satisfied conscience of the wise and virtuous
man. He admitted an independent moral consciousness in
the sense which the individual has of himself as a member
of a community. lie thus added to the external sanctions of
Bentham a stritrtly internal sanction. He further deepened
the scxnal factor of nuirality, introduced by Bentham, liy lay-
ing less emi>hasis upon llii! dinict activity of political admin-
istration, and more upon the organic and continuous national
life with its moral bent and religious attitude. This, as an
educative force, he c^ame to regard as the finally determin-
ing element in morals.
Recent Scientific Injtiience in Ethics. — As we have al-
ready seen, the democratic tendencies in social and indus-
trial life resulted in attaching greater importance to the
objective and social content of morality. This practical
tendency has been re-enforced in the last half of the nine-
teenth century by the development of science. The historic-
al method, worked out in Germany and applied first to law
and language, became the ruling instnnnent of scientific
investigation. The effect was to ]iut in clear and definite
"light the dependence of the individual upon his social cn-
virouuient. This idea was generaliz(>d by Comics (17!)8-
1857), who nuule it the basis of a religious doctrine as well
as of a moral theory. The theory of evolution broadened
and deepened the historical method by applying it to the
entire past history of the world. The result in ethical the-
ory has been the introihiction of biological concepts, and
the att;acliiug of new imiiortance to anthropological re-
searches into the early customs of humanity. The lasl dec-
ades have witnessed an clfort to rethink the previous results
of etliical speculation in the light of the new scientific
methods, and by the incorporation of the anthropological
and sociological data thus attained. Tlie result, curiously
enough, has been that the moral philosophy of Germany has
been ren<lered more empirical, while that of England has
become more meta|ihvsical. German ethics hail reached by
its rational analysis tlic necessity of building up ethics on a
social basis. The groundwork was thus provided for the
ready assimilation of the historical data. On the other
hand, English thought, having been led bv its psychological
analysis of the individual to the lu'cessity of recognizing
the social relations of the indiviilual. felt the need of philo-
sophical concepts, which would enable it to emerge from its
individualism, and assert the organic place of the individual
in the social whole. These organic ideas it found prepared
in the philosopliical systems of Gennany.
BinLiooRAi'nv. — There is one excellent brief history of
moral philosophy in English — Sidgwick. History of Ethics
(London and Xew York. 3d ed. 180i). The I'arlier writings
liy Mackintosh. On the J'rui/rrss of Ethical I'hilosophy dur-
ing the Sfventeenth and t.iyhteenth tV;i/«n'e6' (Edildnirgh,
1872), \Vhewell, History iif Moral Science (Edinburgh,
1863), and Mauric-e, 2/oral and Iletaphysical I'hilosophy
(London, 1861), are by no means anti(|uated, although their
•'tendency" has to be allowed tor. Leslie .Stephen. English
Thought in the Eighteenth (.'e?it iiry (Ijondon, 1876), should
be consulted for tli.-it period. Martiiu>au"s and Bain's (see
below) ethical writings have historical sketches. Bonar,
Philosophy and Economics in their Historical Relations
(London and New York, 18!I3), contains nuich valuable his-
torical material. Lecky's History of European Morals (2
vols.. New York, 1870), is a history of customs rather than
theories, but should be consulted.
In Gernum the historical literature is much more abun-
dant. Among earlier writings Schleiermaclier, (irundlinien
einer Kritik der hisherigen Sittenlehre (Berlin, 1834); Stahl,
I'hilosojihie des Rechts (vol. i.. .">th ed. Tilbingen, 1878);
Knmncr, Die geschichtliche Entwickeiung der liegrife von
Staat, Rechf mid Politik (Leipzig. 3d ed. 1861); Mohl. Ge-
schichte u. Literutur der Staatswisseitschiiften (Erlangen,
1855-58). Among the best of the recent histories isjodl,
Geschichte der Ethik (Stuttgart, 1889), dealing, however,
only briefly witli earlier thought and colored by a distinct
tendencv. In addition, we have /.iegler. O'ischiehte der
Ethik (2 vols.. Strassburg, 1881-86: a third still to appear);
Kostlin, Oeschiehte der Ethik (Tubingen, 1887; as yet in-
complete). In French we have Janet, J/istoire ae la Philo-
sophic morale et politique (2 vols., Paris. 1858).
Limits of siiace compel us to keep detailed references to
the ethical thought of the nineteenth ccntiiry. The most im-
portant literature is Bi'Utliam. Principles of Morals and
Legislation (vol. i. of Works. Kdinbuigli, 1838; also a .sepa-
rate ed. London. 1879); Au^iln.Jurispnidence (2 vols.. Lon-
don, 1869) ; Mill, Utilitarianism, l)i.'<sertations and Ei.icus-
sions (vol. iii., Bo.ston, 1865; also se])arate ed. Boston. 1887) ;
Bain, Morid Science (Xew York. 1869) and Emotions and
Will (London, 3d cd. 1888}; Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics
(4th ed. London and New York. 1890); Wilson and Fowler,
Principles of Morals (2 vols., Oxford, 1886-87). The fore-
giiing are all utilitarian, though the last two in ]>articular
attempt a reconciliation with intuitional factors. The chief
English writers who have made use of the evolutionary idea
are Darwin, Descent of Man (Xew York, 1871), chs. v. and
vi. ; Spencer, Data of Ethics (Xew York, 1882; endiodied
also in Principles of Ethics. 2 vols., Xew York, 1893);
Stephen, Science of Ethics (London, 18S2). Accounts and
criticisms will be found in Sorley, h'Hiics of yiituralisni
(Edinburgh. 1885); Schurnum. A'/ /i (>•(// Import of Darwin-
ism (Xew York, 1887) and Kantian Ethics and the Ethics
of Evolution (London, 1881); Williams, Evolutional Ethics
(New York, 1893). iMarlineau, Types of Ethical Theory {2
vols., Oxfonl, 18,85). ccmtinues more than any other one
writer the English ethical traditions of the eighteenth cen-
tury. In Gernumy, Kant. Werke (vol. v.. Leipzig. 1867. cd.
Hartenstein ; trans, by Abbott i\i- A'ant's Theory of Ethics,
Lonilon, 1883): Hegel", Philosophic des Rechts, U'(';-^e (vol.
viii.. Berlin, 1833; account of it in Morris. Hegel's Philoso-
phi/ of State (Chicago, 1887), and trans, of selected portions
in 'Stcrrett's Ethics of Heijel. Boston, 1893). Annmg recent
writers Steinthid. Allgeineine Ethik (Berlin, 1885; Iler-
bartian. >q)on the whole), von Ihering, Der Zuvck im Recht
(Leipzig, 1877). Wundl. Ethik (2d ed. .Stuttgart, 1892),
Paulsen, System der Ethik (2d ed. lieiliii. 18<l4), shoulil be
nu^ntioncd. llOII'ding. 7v'//((7.- (German trans. Leipzig. 1888),
gives wliat is jirobablv the best existent statement of a so-
cial utilitarianism. 'I'lie introchn'tion of German philoso-
phic concepts into English ethics is represented by Bradley,
Ethical Studies (London, 1876); (ireen, Prolegomena to
MORAX
MORA%nAN' CIlL'RCn, TIIK
885
Ethics (Oxford, IHS;!; mid vol. ii. of Workn. Loiiflim, 1800);
Cairil, Hucitil J-'hilusuji/iy of Comie (2d ed. N'fW Vink, IHlKt);
Critical J^ltiluHop/ii/ of Aunt (2 vols., Gliusfjow and XfW
York, \HH'J). Akxaiider, Murdl Order mid I'rogrenH (Ijoii-
doii, lyn!)), and Hitcliie, Danvin rind IJer/el {IaimIdu. 1K!i:(),
are attoiiipls to unite this mode of tliiiikiiig with evoliilioii-
ary coneepts. .Joii.s Dewky.
Muran. Kdw.vrd: marine and genre painter; b. at Bol-
ton. KnKlaiid. An;;. 19. 182!). lie was a pupil of M.de I'aris
in Holton. of Hamilton and of Welicr in I'liiladdphia. ami
of tlie Koyal .Vcademy, London ; came to tlie I'. .S. in 1844;
is an a.ssociale of the National Academy; memlier of the
American Water-color Society and of the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine .Vrts. His f'oi/r/i/ Morning — Englisit Chan-
nel is in the collection of Tlinmas 15. Clarke, Xew York.
Moran is wi'll known as an etcher. .Studio in Xew York.
W. A. C.
Moran, Tno>ns : landscape-painter; li. at l!(]|t.in. V.\\\i-
lancl, .Ian. 12, 18:!T; a pupil of his brother, IMward Moran;
came to the U. .S. in 1844 ; has painted jjictures of l{itcky
Mountain scenery and other American view.s. llis Chamn
of the Colorado is in the Capitol at Washington; he became
a Natioiuil Academician 1884. and is a raemoer of the Penn-
sylvania Academy of Fine .Vrts. He is a skillful and able
etcher. .Studio in Xew York. W. A. C
Moratiii'. Lkanuko Kkksaxdkz. de: dramatist; son of
Xicolas R Moratin; b. in Madri<l. .Spain. .Mar. 10. 17(iO ; was
carefully educated for literary pursuits, thoufjh for some time
he was engaKed in the jewelry trade; received prizes from
the Academy of Madrid in 1782 and 17H.5 ; visited I'aris in
1787, where he nuide tlie ac(|uaintance of Goldoni, ami
brought in 1770 his first and best comedy on the stage. El
Viejo y la Xiita. It wiis his object to reform the .Spanish
theater, and he succeeded. Gixloy, Duke of Ah-udia, gave
him u pension ; he traveled extensively in France, F.ngland,
Holland, and (iennauy, and his later dramas, which were
receive<l with great applause, evince, besides a mitunil talent
of consideral>lc vigor, a highly developed taste. King
.loseph made him his librarian, but after the resloration of
Fenlimind VII. he left Spain, lived mostly in I'aris.and died
there .June 21. 1828. His excellent work, Orlgenes del Teatro
EsjMiHo!. written in Paris, reaches only to Lopez ile Vega,
Moratin, Xicoi.as Fkr.va.sukz, ile : poet; b. in Mailrid.
Spain, .luly 20. 1737; was of an ancient Biscayan family;
received a careful education ; became a lawyer and Professor
of Poetry in the Imperial College at Madrid; was the
founder of the literary club which took its name from the
i-otlee-house of San Seliaslian. and with the cnuutenatico of
the court and of the great nobles undertook, amid great
opposition, the reformation of the Spanish theater by sub-
stituting for the religious drmniis. or antos Kacrauienlalen.
pieces more in acoordaiu'c with modern taste, especially as
represented by the French school. He had previously pub-
lished a comedy. La J'etimeira (I7(i'i), ami a tragedv, Ak-
crecia, as specimens of the new dranuitic s<-hool, but neither
of them hail been placed upon the stage. ITormesinda, rep-
resented in 1770, aihieved success, and f/uzman el Hiieno
(1777) was much admired for its cla-ssic verse. Moratin was
also the author of Diana, a, didactic poem (176-'5). and Las
Xaves de Cortex dextriiidax (17(i.i). u narrative pooni on the
conquest of Mexico, considered by Ticknor to contain the
noblest verse of its kiml produced by any Spanish writer of
the eighteenth century. .Ml his pieces are characterized by
puritv and correctness of diction and harmonv of versilica-
tiou. ■ U. iu Madrid, May 11, 1780.
.Mora'via (Oerm. Muhren) : province of Austria ; Ixnindetl
W. I)y liuhemia, X. by Bohemia and Silesia. K. by Hungary
and Silesia, and S. bv llimgarv and the duchv of .\ustria.
Area. 8,.')8;f S(i. miles.' Pop. (IM'.IO) 2.270.870. of' whom 600,-
000 are Slavonians and the ri'st (Jermans. It is almost en-
tirely encircled bv mountains — W. by the Moravian, X. by
the Sudclic. and f.. Iiy the Carpathian — whose branehc^s anil
spurs intei-sect the province, with exception of the southern
part, which forms an elevaleil plain, (ienerally. the surface
sloiies toward the S.. Inivei-sed bv the Morava 0>r March)
ana a number of minor streams, w)iich all semi their waters
to the Danube. The more eh'vated portions of Mi>ravia are
not fertile, but yielil coal, alum, jiraphite. saltpeter, and
metals, especially iron, cop|H-r, and lead ; the valleys ami
the southern plains are very fertile, atTonling excellent
pa-sturage and producing grain, potaliH's, flax, hemp, hop.s,
wine, chestnuts, and various kinds of line fruits. Cattle,
fine horses ami sheep, geese, fowls, ami bees are rejired, and
extensive manufactures of cotton, linen, silk, and woolen
fabrics are carried on. In the twelfth century .Moruvia was
made a margravate and declared u lief nt the Bohemian
crown, to Ije helil by tlio younger sons ; in 1.120, on the death
of Louis 1 1, at the Ijttttle of Slohacs.it fell to Austria, t>i-
getliiT with Bohemia, from which it was forniallv s<'iiarate<J
ill 184U. Kevise.l by W. B. SlIAW.
Moravia: villaee (settled and nam<-d The Flats in ITND,
name changed to pnscnt in IHi;!); Cayuga co., X. V. (for lo^
cation of county, see maii of Xew Yijrk, ri'f. 4-1'); on iho
(»wa.sco inlet, aiid the i.,eliigli Val. linilroml ; 18 miles ,S. E.
of Auburn, the county-seat. It is the center of a large
grain-growing and dairying region ; has gooil water-|mwer,
elei'tric lights, and improved svslem of water-wurks; and
contains .5 churches, union grailed s*-hoo|, public librar)-, 2
national banks, a monthly ami 2 weekly periiKlicals', 2
founilriis, flour-mills, checs<'-factorv, and' Imrnd, broom,
furnilure, and window-screen factories, i'op. (1K80) 1,.'>40'
(18!»0) 1,480 ; (18!>4) estimated with suburbs, l,0riO.
KUITOR OK •• KEI'l'BLlrAX."
Moravian Bretliren : Sec Moravian Ciurch ami Bo-
IIKMIAX BkKTIIRKX.
Moravian Church. The:, an ecclesiastical organization
owing its distinctive name to'the fact that in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries Moravia constituted one of its prin-
cipal seats, and because it was renewed in the eighteenth by
refugees from that countrv. Its oflicial name, however, i*
the I'hurch of the United Brethri'ii, or the I'nitaa Fralrum,
and it originated not only in .Moravia, but also in Bohe-
mia. The blood of the martyr liuss (see Hiss. .Joiix) wils
its seed. It was foundeil bv some of his followers in 14.')7
on the baronv of Lititz. in liohemia. on the following three
principles: 'fhc Bible is the only source of Christian doc-
trine; public worship is to be conducted in accordancu
with the teaching of the Scrii)tures and on the m<Hiel of the
apostolic Church; the Lords .Supper is to be received in
faith, to be doctrinally defined in the language of the Bible,
and every human explanation of that language is to be
avoided. Its first ministers were priests of the Calixtine or
national Church, from which the Brethren had secedeil.
In 1407. however, they introduced a ministry of their own.
and second the episcopacy from Bishop Stephen of the
Austrian Waldenses. in spite of freipieiit iK'rscculion.s at
the hands both of the Koman Catholics and of the national
Church, they increased in niunbi'rs and influence. At the
lieginning of Luther's Befonnation (in \'il') they had aUmt
20O.tHK) memliers and over 4f)0 i>iirishe,s. In the course of
time they established collegi-s and theological seminaries,
set up several print ing-|>resses, and translated the entire
Bible from the original into the Bohemian tongue. This
version has remained a standanl to the pre.-^-nt <lay. AlKiut
1.54!l they spread to Polanil ; and in l.Vi7 the I'nitas Fni-
trum was ilivided into three eccli'siastical provinces — the
Bohemian, the Moravian. and the Polish — I'ttch governol by
bishops of its own, but aH'iinileil as one Church. Keligious
liberty having In-en proclaimed in Bohemia and Moravia in
KiOi). the Brethren became one of the legally acknowltHige<l
churches of these lands. In the early |>art of the Thirty
Years' war. however. Ferdinaml il. iiuiugnratctl the so-
called Coimter-Kcforination. which crusluHl evangelical re-
ligion luit of Bohemia and Monivia. Oiilv a hidden .seed
of the Church of the Brethren remaiiu-il. ^le majority of
its memliers, together with the Lutherans and the Reformed,
were driven into exile (I6°20), A new ivnter was now e»-
tablished at Lissa in Poland, and many parishes of n'fupees
were formed, luit Lissa was destroyed in lO-IO, in a «ar be-
tween I'ohind anil .Sweden. and the n-mainiiig luirishes wen"
gradually absorlied bv other i'role>taiit iHKlies. For mon>
than half a century tiie I'nitas Fratrum ceased to exist as
a visible organization. Its hidden seed in Bohemia and
Moravia, however. rt-mainiHi, and its ilhi-'ri"iis bishop,
Amos I'omenius. filled with a proph> • " of
il-s renewal, re|iiiblislied it.« liistory, i ,-<-i-
pline, eommeniled the future Church i ' the
care of the Church of KnglauiLand tool iiile
its episi'opacy. Hence, (or n i. n.-l gy-
inen of the Hefonneil I'hup - "f
the I'nitas Fratnim, that tie "Ul.
On .lune 17. 17"22. a few desc. ndanl.- of ilic lirctlinu, who
had lied from their native land to Saxony, began to build
tlie town of Hernihiit on an estate of Count Zinzendorf.
where an iLsylum hod been providwl for tliem. This town
886
MORAVIAN CHURCH, THE
MORBIDITY
soon becnino the rallyinji-place for the remnant of the
Church, desteiuhuits ot which, to the number of several
hundred, iinmijjrated thithor from Hohemia and Moravia.
They introduced their ancient discipline, handed down by
Conienius, and in 1735 received their venerable episcopate at
the hands of its two last survivors, Daniel Ernst Jablonsky
and Christian Sitkovius. At the same time, however, many
Christians from different parts of Germany joined them, so
that the renewal ot their Church involved a union of the
German element of pietism with the Slavonic element which
they represented. The result was a development different
from that in Boliemia and Moravia. Count Zinzendorf
himself became the leadinjr bishop of the resuscitated
Church, and he strove to build it up in such a way as not-
to interfere with the rights and privileties of tlie state
Church, in the communion of which he had been born, and
to wliich he was sincerely attached. In carrying out this
principle he did not let the renewed Unitas Fratrum expand
as other churches expand, but established on the continent
of Europe, in Great Britain, and in America exclusively
Moravian settlements, from which the follies and tempta-
tions of the world were excluded, and in which was fostered
the highest type of spiritual life. In doing this he carried
out Spener's favorite idea of ecclesiola; in ecclesia. Fifteen
exclusive settlements still exist in Germany and four in
Great Britain. In such towns, until recently, Moravians
onlv were allowed to hold real estate, and the Church con-
trolled not only religious but also municipal, and to some
extent industrial, atl'airs. This fundamental principle is
now undergoing a change which will gradually lead to the
abolition of the entire system of exelusivisra. In the U. S.
it has been given up, the last vestige of it disappearing in
18.56. The American Moravian Church now stands on the
same footing as the other Protestant denominations of the
republic, is pursuing the same polity of extension, has
largely increased its membership, and is flourishing in other
respects. Even in tlie period in which esclusivism was fully
developed throughout the Unitas Fratrum, it did not i-e-
main idle or stand aloof from work for the spread of the
kingdom of God. On the contrary, while its peculiar sys-
tem necessarily kept it small at home, it began a very ex-
tensive mission in heathen lands, a no less influential do-
mestic mission on the continent of Europe, and a number
of educational enterprises that have given it a name far
and wide. In 1857 its constitution was remodeled. The
Unitas Fratrum now consists of three provinces — the Ger-
man, British, and American — which are independent in all
provincial affairs, but form one organic whole in regard to
the fundamental principles of doctrine, discipline, and
ritual, as also in carrying on the foreign and the Bohemian
missions. Hence there is a pr9vincial and a general gov-
ernment. Each province has a provincial synod, which
elects from time to time a board of bishops anil other cler-
gymeij, styled the " Provincial Elders' Conference," to a<l-
rainister the government in the interval between synods.
To this board is committed the power of appointing the
ministers to their several parishes. Every ten or twelve
years a General Synod of the whole Unitas Fratrum is con-
vened at Herrnhut in Saxony. It consists of delegates
from each province and from the foreign missions, and elects
a board of twelve bisliofis and other clergymen, styled the
■' Unity's Elders' Conference," which oversees the whole
Church and superintends tlie foreign and Bohemian mis-
sions. The doctrine of the Church is set forth in its Cate-
chism, its Easter Morning Litany, and in the statutes drawn
up by the (ieneral .Synod, and comprises all those points
which are held by Trinitarian Christians as essential to
salvation. The distinguishing feature of Moravian theol-
ogy is the yirominence given to the person and work of
Christ, and a marked characteristic of the Church gener-
ally is its catholicity. The ministry consists of bi.shops,
presVjytei's, and deacons. The episcopal office is not pro-
vincial and not diocesan, but represents the whole Unitas
Fratrum. A ritual is used which comprises a litany for
Sunday morning — free prayer being allowed at otlter times
— forms for baptism, the Lord's Supper, confirmation, etc.,
services for the festivals of the ecclesiastical year, and a
particular litany for Easter morning. Love-feasts are held,
in imitation of ihe primitive ai/ajxp. preparatory to the
Ijord's Su]iper and on otln^r occasions. The use of the lot,
which at one time was universal, is now greatly restricted,
and in the American province resorted to only when a min-
ister receiving an appointment requests its use. Foot-
washing, too, has been abandoned. The enterprises of the
Church are the following: (1) Boarding-schools for yonng
people not connected with it, educating annually about 2,500
pupils of both sexes. There are, besides, numerous paro-
chial school.s, a college, a missi(mary institute, and three
theological seminaries. (2) Ftireiyii missions, begun in
173'2, since which time more than 2,200 missionaries have
been sent out, comprising the following 16 "mission prov-
inces"— namely, Greenland. Labradnr, Indian country of
Xorth America, St, Thomas and St. .John, Si. Croix, Jama-
ica, Antigua, .St. Kitts, Barbados, Tobago, Mos(iuito {'Oast,
Surinam, South African western province. South African
eastern province, Alaska, Trinidad, Demerara. East Africa,
North (Queensland, Australia, and Tibet. (:i) Bohemian
missions, begun in 1870 in the early seats of the Unitas
Fratrum, and numbering four stations. (4) Domestic mis-
sion on the continent of Europe, called the Diaspora, hav-
ing for its object the evangelization of the European state
churches, without depriving them of their members, who
are organized into "societies" within the Church, and car-
ried on in Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Norwav, Swe-
den, Poland, Livonia, Esthonia, and other ]mrts of I{us,sia.
The whole nuinher in the three provinces of the Unitas Fra-
trum is about 33,400, of whom 19,4!t7 belong to the Ameri-
can province ; the whole number of communicants in the
fiu-eign missions is about 31,000 ; of baptized adults, 55,860 ;
the number of foreign missionaries, 347. Besides these there
are about 80.000 connected with the Dlas])ora mission. See
31oravian J/c(«)/a? (Bethlehem, Pa.); also histories in Ger-
man bv Bost (1848, Eng. trans.), in English bv Schwcinitz
(1885), J, Taylor Hamilton (1894) ; Seilferth, on" their consti-
tution : Thoin)iS(m, on their missions (1883) ; and Moravian
Schools and Customs (1889),
Revised by Robert de Schweixitz.
Moray : See Elginshire.
Moray Flrtli : an inlet of the German Ocean, on the
northeast coast of Scotland, 16 miles wide at the entrance,
and stretching inland for about 39 miles, to the mouth of
the river Bcauly.
Moray, James Stuart, Earl of : See Murray.
Morazaii', Francisco: soldier and politician ; b. at Tegu-
cigaljia, Honduras, Oct., 1792. About 1827 Honduras and
Salvadcu' broke out in open revolt against the arbitrary and
unconstitutional acts of Arce, president of Central America,
and Morazan as a military leader quickly became the fore-
most man in Central America, He assisted in gaining Hon-
duras for the liberals ; then marched into Salvador and
Guatemala, took the capital of the latter state (and ot Cen-
tral America) in Apr.. 1829, at once assumed the executive,
proceeded to restore the constitution, and called a congress.
In 1830 he was duly elected president of Central America.
In the main he governed with wisdom and liberality. The
opposition of the reactionist and Church parties soon pro-
duced a succession of revolts, and though Morazan was re-
elected in 1834 he could not maintain order. At the end
of his second term no provision had been made for electing
his successor, and the Central American Confederation was
ipso facto dissolved. Supported by Salvador he made a
vain attempt to preserve the union by force; but he was
finally defeated by Carrera at (iuafema'la. Mar. 18, 1840, and
forced to fly to Peru ; thereafter each state acted independ-
ently. In Apr., 1842, iMorazan landed in Costa Rica, and
again proclaimed the confederation. Carillo, jiresident of
Costa Rica, was deposed, and Morazan assumed the presi-
dency at .San Jose; but in September he was driven out of
the city by a counter-revolution, was captured soon after,
and .shot at (San Jose, Sept. 15, 184'i He was undoubtedly
one of tlie ablest and best men that Central America has
ever produccil. HKHiiKRT H. Smith.
Morbidity [from Lat. morhiditas, from morlins, disease] :
liability to or relative prevalence of disease as shown by the
ratio of the number of days of sickness to total niiml)er of
days lived, or ot the number of .sick pei-sons at a given time
to the total number of persons in the community.
Death-rates, even when derived from coinfilete and accu-
rate data, can furnish only inconipletc and imperfi-i't infor-
mation with regard to the relative prevalence of disease in
different communities, or as to the amount of time lost Viy
sickness. iMany forms of disease which make life more or
less a burden, and which partially or entirely disable a per-
son, seldom or never ajipear in the registers as causes of
death, and rarely can we find any definite and certain rela-
tion between the number of cases of a disease, or the
MORBIDITY
MORDANTS
887
amounl of time lost by tlic siiff«rers, and llip iiiiinber of
deaths repoitcil as caused by that disonse. The |>ro|Hirtion
of deaths to cases in such acute iliseases as scarlet fever,
measles, whoopiuK-cou^^h, vellow fever, etc., varies greatly
indifferent o|iidenii(s. Hn<i such chronic alTect ions as con-
sumption, I5rif;ht's disi'jise. valvulur hiiirt disease, etc., dif-
fer much in dillcnut individuals as to the number of days
or weeks of inability to work which they ]iroduce. From
the results of data obtained from the records of mutual
benefit and sickness assurance societies, it is usually esti-
mated that, durini; a term of years, for every case of death
in a community there are two persons constantly sick, which
implies that there is an average of two years' sickness to
each death, so that if Ihi^ mortalilv of a plaie were \H per
l.(«)0, the morbi.lity would be M per 1,0(»0. This is a high
estimate, unless the wonl "sickness" be taken as incluiling
slij;ht functional ilisturbances as well as ilisablin;; diseases,
(jur sources of inforuialion with res'ird to sick-rates arc
very limited as compared with those for death-rates. The
most reliable are the records of the army anil navy, of the
police force in some cities, and of certain societies for mu-
tual aid in case of sickness. The followini; table shows the
number per 1.000 constantly sick in the Hritish army from
1868 to 1877, from 1878 to 1887, in 1888 and in 1889:
Troops at Imme aod abroad .
Unitfd Kin>?doni
fiibrallar '
Malta
C'yiirus
F.gypt
Canada
Kermiida
West Inittes
Sniitli Africa and St. Heleoa.
Mauritius
CVylon
China
China and Straits Settlements.
India
ISG^-TT. 1878-87. 1888. 1889.
40 .'le
49-!
5S I
45 R4
4908
60 0!
09.30
75 7S
SS-9S
»4-7l
4«-42
5201
8888
61'9S
soot
68 67
88- 14
41-48
R9-47
30'8I
SO SS
60-45
24-09
tB 40
5-.>-(H
80-48
66-80
S8-.S8
'90-t«
87 38
* Straits Settlements only.
In the F. S. army the avcrnffe number constantly sick per
1.000 of mean strentjthis about 41 U>r Ihe while and a little
more for the colored troops. These (ij;ures relate only to
adult males, and would indicate about -i cases of constant
sickness to every death, but no doubt many of th^ cases arc
comparatively slight. The average time lost by sickness for
each man cluring the year is. in Ihe U. S. army, from 14 to
15 days: in the Italian army, from 13 to 14 days; and in
the liritish army, from 19 to 31 days.
With these may be compared the figures for the sickness
among members of friendly societies in Kngland, as given in
Mr. Finlaison's second report, published in 1884. For males
between 21 and .50 years of age — i. c. the usual ages of those
in military s<'rvice — the average number of days' sickness per
annum was, for those engaged in gener.d labor. 8 days; for
those employed in light labor. 7 days; and for those employed
on heavy labor, !)i days. Taking all the male members of
these friciully societies, it was found that during the period
of life between the ages of lo and >*~>. each man has about
5 years of sickness, but that during the age of labor, from
16 to 66, the average annual time of sickness is about H
weeks, and of this the amount of sickness during the first
half of working life is almost exactly half that of the second.
In the I'. S. census taken .Tuui' 1. 1HH0, it was found that
for the total living population of \'t years old and upward
the immber sick varied in ditlerent parts of the country
from 7-17 to 22-7 per 1.000 for males, ancl from 81 to 17'5
for females. It should be remembered, however, that at
this time of the year there is the least amount of sickness.
The amount of sickness increases after the age of l.'j in
a definite ratio. Thus by the census report for 1880 it ap-
pears that the proportion of sick to Ihe 1,000 of population
of different ages was as follows:
AOR.
Mtlm.
ranuls.
i.vai
e»
8-6
13-8
lfl-8
SB 5
44-5
fl-M
2.'>-."t5
9-7
.35-15
115
iV .15
.Vi-«5
11-4
av4
ixi and over
358
The mean sickness-rate for the whole [mpulation Mi years
of age and upward was 12-75 per l.tXH). It will be seen thul
morbidity follows the same general law as mortality iu re-
spect to sex and age, being greater among ualesat udvunued
ages.
Iri the renort on the census of Ta.smania for 1881 the fol-
lowing table is given showing the numU-r of ciuses of t| jg-
abling sickness an<l accirlenls found on a given day in eitub
1,00U of living population :
ARE PERIODS.
■icsirua.
TWorto.
T««l^
Tkto^
All a^es
U'lS
tu
9-M
15-60
40 10
96 27
11 81
SHU
8 7:t
15 UU
41 -ao
111 48
1 (H
070
1-44
1 84
5. '.4
9 UN
1 80
044
157
306
« IS
6«»
0-15 years.
15-SO ••
81KV) "
.vi-ru "
70 and over
The comparatively high sickness-rate in children in Tan-
mania was, in part at lea-st, due to the fact that measles was
prevailing throughout the colony at the time the census
was taken.
The difference in morbidity in cities and in the country is
shown in the following table, giving average annual sick-
ness-rates in males in the Foresters' Friendly Si*iety for
the five years 1871-75. and in the Manchester L'nily of
Odd Fellows for the yeai> lHt)(}-70. as given in Xeison's
work. The Hates of Mortality and Hicknets, etc. (London,
8vo, 1882) :
FoRESTEBs' Friendly Socibtt,, Makcheitfer Vxrrr or Odd
1871-75. Kkij/^>ws, 186670.
Nitnbcr of pvnoaa.
Rwsl
dklrlcu.
18
5.268-0
ao
78.565-5
25
W.558-5
80
77.8t;3-t
85
61.046-0
40
44.180-5
45
28.89!) 5
.W
17.782 0
55
10.984 5
60
6.983 .1
65
4.4<B0
70
2,890 5
75.. ..
670 5
80
101 0
85
I4«
90
SO
ToUls
Clly
dUtHcU.
2.1
55,;
97
104,
87,
05
40
23
12
421,7930 500,8500
S<<kDaa|»r '
mratbvr piff an '
Dum to wmIu.
Raral I CIt.v I
(Uttr'U. ^^Il^'U.I
- ti
!)|2 0-SWi
ofiii I -ax
210 1 41M
-4IH I 870;
-— 8 i-.Wi
3 673
4 Sl'.l
7 714
•.;44 It 219
r«i II tw
4-ii 13 .S8I
551 7 KS
771 1 »a»
aum la wuhi.
0' 1
5 1
0 2
0
i> II
0 10
II •*;
OS!
0 6
7-jri
001
1-858] 1-404 »2.9«»
Rnrml
dklrkld.
8..521 I
51.17:. '
ta '
U' ■
31
2r..i- 1 1
2<l.832 i
1IVI'~ '
K'- -
.-I -
265
56
13
8
Oljr I Rnrml I CHy
dltul<-u. lUiU'U. dbu^
,!«» o:
ri! ' n ■
71 0
II n
-.- 1 I
71 r.' 1
470
713
ril3
171
IIT
8 VJ
4|...
.47 750
850.360 1 36S 1616
J. .S. Hillings.
Morbihan' : deimrtment of France ; a part of the old
provinie of Bretagne, bordering S. on the .\tlantic. Area,
2.6'2.5 si|. miles. The northern [lart is hilly, but the rest is
low and level, fonning large (ilains, in .some places very
fertile, in others occupied bv heath or marshes. The islands
along the coast are especially remarkable for their fertility.
Horses, cattle, sheep, and liees are extensively reare<i ; com,
hemp, llax. and apples are raised ; cider, butter, and honey
are the principal jinKlucts. The fisheries an- very imjior-
tant. Pop. (1891) 544,470. Principal ttiwns, L'orienl and
Valines.
Mordants [plur. of mordant = Fr, liter., biting, pres.
partii-. of nionire, bite, etch] : sul>stances used in dyeing
and calico-printing to fix colors which have no allinily for
the tissues; in gilding, any vis<'ous or sticky matter em-
ploved in making gold-leaf' adhere, .\nimal fibers, as silk
and wool, generally attract coloring-matt, rs ; for them,
therefore, mordants' are less ini|>ortant, though they are
often used, either to make the color more durable or to
brighten or otherwise modify the tint. Few clor" ran,
however, be made to adhen' to vegi ' '•
linen, without the aid of a monlant. '
monlants ari- called adjnt ■'
stantive. SalTlower is a ~
linen; most other dyes an
monlant has a (Misiti've alllmty fur ImiUi i-..i..r and tiln'r. and
binds the two top-thi-r. The nm-i iiii|><irtaiil ninrtlnnii Hr«>
soluble salts of aluminium, iron, and tin. If e-'-
mersed in a solution of acetate of aluminium, n
tate of aluminium will Ik- fixisl on the fil«'n< so linnK n- i"
resist removal by washing; if the cotton bi- now trcali-<l
888
MORE
with water and ground madder, the red coloring-matters of
the madder, alizarin and purpurin, will unite with the
acetate, and thus each fiber will become covered with the
red ma<ldcr lakes, or salts of alizarin and purpurin, to-
gether with the acetate of aluminium. If an iron salt be
substituted for the acetate of aluminium, as acetate of inm,
a similar result would follow tlu- treatment with madder,
except that, as the iron compounds with alizarin and i)ur-
purin are purple, the cotton would be dyed of this color.
Sometimes the mordant and color are applied simultaiu;-
ously. Astringents, sucli as sumac, nutgalls, etc., arc em-
ployed as mordants, anil act by virtue of the tannic acid
they contain. When nujrdants are printed on cotton cloth
in stripes and figures, and the cloth thus mordanted is sub-
jected to the action of the dyestuil, tlie color is fixed in
similar stripes and figures, leaving the other portions of
cloth white ; this is calico. Sometimes the color is mixed
with a salt of the mordant, and the two printed together
('■ topical printing "). On subjecting the cloth to the action
ol steam, tiie acid of the mordant, generally acetic, is ex-
pelle<l, and the base and color become fixed on the cloth.
The term mordant is sometimes a])plied to agents which
act iiierely mechanically and cement the color to the fiber,
as albumen, casein, etc., which are used for pigment colors,
•such as ultramarine, oxide of chromium, etc., and for aniline
colors. The term is also applied to salts which furnish a part
of the nuitter of which the color actually consists, as the
iron salt in producing Prussian blue or the lead salt in form-
ing chrome yellow. In these colors there is no proper mor-
dant, as the insoluble color is merely produced in the fiber
by the combination of its component parts. This difference
is more apparent than real, as the sauio is actually true when
aluminium or iron is used with madder or with astringents.
.See Calico-prixtixo and Dyeing.
More, IIaxnah : author ; b. at Stapleton, Gloucestershire,
England, Feb. 2, 174.5 ; was educated at a seminary kept by
her two elder sisters at Bristol, in which she afterward be-
came a teacher; began writing poems, pastorals, romantic
tales, and tragedies at an early age ; made the acquaintance
of Garrick, liy whom her tragedies of Percy (1778) and The
Fatal Secret were successfully produced at Covent Garden ;
obtained the warm friendship and atlmiration of Dr. .John-
son, Burke, and the literary circle swayed by them ; aban-
doned writing for the stage from religious scruples while in
the height of success, and devoted her pen to the advance-
ment of religion and education ; settled at Wriugtou 1786 ;
produced Sacred Dramas (1783). Florin (1786), Tlioiujlifs on
the 3Ianni'r.i of the Great (1788). and Religion of l/ie Faxh-
ionable World (1791) ; estaljlishe<l at Bath Tlie Cheap Re-
positori/ (179.5), a monthly periodical, in which she pub-
lished a series of simrt moral stdries, including the cele-
brated Slieplierd of Salisbiirji Plain : acipiired a competence
by her writings and the management of her seminary ; re-
nioved to Bai-ley Wood, near t'heddart (1802), wIku-o she
founded several charitable schools ; pul)lished Strict ires on
the Modern System of Female Education (1799), which led
to her being invited to draw u[) a programme for the edu-
cation of Charlotte, the I'rinciess of VV'ales ; wrote in 1809
Ccelehs in Search of a Wife, her most popular Ijook, fol-
lowed by Practical Piett) (lSll),aiiil numerous oilier works;
settled at Clifton 1828; died in that place .Sept. 7, l.s:!:i,
leaving a fortune of ,€;!0,000, one-third of which was be-
queatlied for charitable juirposes. A pleasing incident in
her later life was her affectionate interest in the boy Thounis
Babington Macaulay, who resided a considerable tiuu! with
her, and doubtless owed souu'thing of his extraordinary
literary career to her watcliful care. Her complete Works
were pulilislied in eleven voluuuw (1830). and several of them
are still frequently reprinted. See her Memoirs, hy William
Roberts (2 vols., 1838) ; the Correspondence of Hannah More
with Zachary Macaulay (1860) ; and the Life by Miss Youge
(1888). Revised by H. A. Bkkks.
More, Henry, P. R. S. : divine : b. in Grantham, Leices-
tershire, Englaiul. Oct. 12. 1614; was bred a Puritan ; stud-
ied at Eton and Christ's College. Cambridge, where he took
a fellowship (1639). D. at Cambridge, Sept. 1, 1687. He is
remembered as a mystical ]iliilosopliiT and admirer of Plato
and the Cabbalists ; author of J hilosophical I'oems {11)47);
Cotijectura Cahbalistica (16r)!l) ; 2Vie Mystery of Iniquity
(1664); Divine Dialogues (1668); Enchiridion Efhicum
(1669) : Enchiridion Metaphysicum (1671) ; and of a num-
her of other works characterized l)y acuteness, great learn-
ing, and a thoroughly devout spirit.
More, Sir Thomas: statesman and author; b. in London
in 1478, son of Sir Thomas More, judge of the king's bench ;
studied Latin under Nicholas Ilart ; became at tlie age of
fifteen a member of the family of Cardinal .John Morton,
Archbishop of Canterbury, for whom probably he acted as
secretary or amanuensis in iireparing Tlie Hisiorie of the.
Pittiful Life and Unfortunate Death of King Edward V.
and the Duke of York, his Brother, with the TroulAesome
and Tyrannical Oovernment of the Usurpation of Richard
IIL, and liis Miserable End. which has been called the first
specimen of classical English prose; entered Canterbury
College (now Christ Church), Oxford, where he learned
Greek under Linacre: became an intimate friend of Eras-
mus; studied law at New Inn and Lincoln's Inn; lectured
on jurisprudence at Furnival's Inn. and on St. Augustine's
De Civitate Dei at St. Lawi-ence church ; resided for some
years in a Gray Friars monastery, partaking of the manual
hibors and spiritual exercLses of the monks while pursuing
classical stuilies and learning French and music ; married
Miss Jane Colt 1505; engageil in the practice of law; soon
rose to great eminence; was elected to a magistracy of
criminal causes and a member of Parliament for Jliddlesex :
opposed the exactions of Henry VII. both before the courts
and in Parliament, thereljy incurring the wratli of that
monarch, vi.^itcil upon his fatlu'r in the form of malicious
prosecution, fine, and imprisonment. Soon after the acces-
sion of Henry VIII. Cardinal Wolsey was charged to secure
for the crown the services of the brilliant young advocate,
which he effected, not without difficulty, and Jlore was suc-
cessively made master of requests and confidential envoy to
the Netherlands (1514 and 151.5) to negotiate for the enlarge-
ment of commercial privileges. About this time he com-
posed in Latin his most famous work, the ^ "/(i/)/o, or account
of an imaginary commonwealth in a distant island of the
Atlantic, of which the manners, laws, and state of society
were depicted as a model worthy of English imitation. This
work, printed at Louvain. Antwerp, and Paris in 1516, and
at Basel in 1518, was quickly translated into English, Dutch,
French, and Italian, and excited universal admiration. More
was made privy councilor and treasurer of the exchequer;
was knighted 1521 ; was rep(-'atedly sent by Wolsey on special
commissions to France ; became a favorite of the king
through the wit and wisdom of his conversation ; was chosen
S|ieaker of the House of Commons 1523 ; made chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster 1.525; accompanied Wolsey on his
famous embassy to France 1527, and became Lord Chancellor
1529. The Reformation had then recently begun ; Luther
had violently assailed not oidy his cherished friend Erasmus,
but his monarch, and More entered zealously into the lists,
attacking the new doctrines upon their weakest points with
inimitaljle learning and wit, as well as causticity. More was
by nature conservative ; his religious convictions were of the
strongest kind ; his tendencies to asceticism were now reviv-
ing; it is not therefore siiri)ri.sing that he regarded the re-
pression of heresy as a tluty of jiaramount obligation, but the
accusations of cruelty in the persecution of Protestants seem
unfounded. However ready the chancellor might be to aid
Henry VIII. as "defender of the faith," he could not be ex-
pected to acquiesce in the royal vagaries in dealing with the
rights of Queen Catharine of Aragcm, and his refusal to-
countenance the proeeeilings for divorce led to his retire-
ment from the chancellorship in May, 1.532. He thenceforth
lived in seclusion at (Jhelsea ; was one of the believers in the
divine mission of Elizabeth Barton, the nun of Kent, and in
Apr., 1534. was committed to the Tower for refusing to swear
allegiance to the "act of succession," which excluded the
daughter of Queen (,'atharine from the throne in favor of the
offspring of Anne Boleyn ; remained in prison above a year
in free communicaliou with relatives and friends; refused
to take the oath of submission to the king in his newly as-
sumed character of head of the Church, and all efforts by
the council to change his resolution having proved fruitless,
he was brought to trial befcu'c the high commission for con-
structive treason, condemned to death, and executed within
the Tower, July 6, 1535. By the unanimous consent of his-
torians. Sir Thomas More is considered one of the greatest
minds and purest characters on record. One of his chief
characteristics was his unconquerable pleasantry — a quality
which did not desert him even upon the scatfold. His col-
lected Works, Latin and English, were published at Louvain
1.5.56-57; the best known, the Utopia and the Latin Epi-
grams, have often appeared sejiarately. .See biogra]iliies by
liis son-in-law. Roper, his great-grandson, Cresacre More,
C'ayley, Sir James Mackintosh, and Lord Campbell.
I
5I0REA
Moro'a : tlie ancient Pelopi>nne/ius(iii]nn(\ of Pflops. q. >•).,
the luvjif soutliiTn peninsula of tiree<e, sepiiruled from
the niiiinland by the (iiilfs of 1'utiu.s, Coriiilh. uml Kf;ina,
and conru'cteil with it by t lie narrow Isthmus of Corintli.
Area, estimated at H.a«;i sq. niih-s. I'op. (IHySO HIH.II'M. It
isnnelevated table- land eneircledwitli hinli mountains, often
arid and unproductive on account of lack of water, but in
many places iMtersccte<l by very fertile valleys. The cfy-
luolojjy of the name Muna. which in the early .Middle Asks
superseded the old name, I'elopoinie.sus, is uncertain. Some
derive it from murnn, mulberry, because the outline of
the country is like that of the leaf of the mulberry : others
derive it from more, a Slavic word, signifyin;; "sea," mean-
ing by it the more maritime part of (irecce. The latter
seems the more proliable, as the land was invaded in the
eighth <-i'ntu:'y by Slavic tribes, which settled ami remained
here, and f;ave many rivers and places new names of Slavic
origin. The mime is no lonjjer in use. Sec Fallmerayer,
Geschichle der llalbinsel JIurea (Stuttgart, IWiO-UG).
Kevised by J. K. S. Stehbett.
Moronle, Frn : See Fba JIoreale.
Mor^'as. ino ra'aa , Jean": poet, novelist, and romancer;
b. at Athens. Oreece, Apr. 15, 1856. His youth was passed
mainly at Marseilles; then he traveled in Germany (study-
ing for a time at Heidelberg). Switzerland, and Italy. Jn
1HS2 he went to Paris to live, and devoted himself to
letters. In 1SS4, he published a volume of verses, Li'k Si/rlei,
which was receiveil with acclamation by .Mallariiic. Verlainc,
and the other members of the group calling itself Li'.i Di'ra-
dr/itn. Since then Moreas has been one of the leaders of the
school. In 1886 appeared more verses, Can/ilrneK. The
next year he wrote with Paul Adam the romance Les De-
moi8e)tes. Since that date still another volume of poems
has appeared, IcoiiiiKlane ; also the impossible romance Lit
femmt miiiyre, and the fantastic story The citfz Mirandn.
A. R. Maksii.
Morpaii, ino'ro', Adries: genre-painter; b. at Troyes,
France, Apr. 18, 1843; pupil of Pils; was awarded second-
class medals at the Salon of 1876 and Paris K.Kposition of
1889; decoration of the Legion of Iloncir 1892. His works
are notable for graceful drawing and spirited characteriza-
tion. Studio ill Paris. W. A. C.
Morenn. Glstavk: figuro-painter; b. in Paris, Apr. 6.
INili; pupil of Picol ; was awarded medals at the Salons of
1H(!4, IMG."), and 1809; second-class medal, Paris E.Kposition,
1878; was made an otlicer of the Legion of Honor 1883;
member of the Institute 188!). His compositions are orig-
inal in conception and of great variety ami depth of color.
Or/;/ii>i/,< (1867) is in the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris. Studio
in Paris. \V. A. C.
Moreaii. Heuesiite: poet ; b. in Paris, Apr. 9, 1810. His
parents were very poor, and, after receiving a fair education
in a charitable institution, he learned the printer's trade, but
left it to become an usher in a school. For a time he lived
a bohemian life in Paris in poverty ami illness. Afterward
he published at Provins a satirical pcrioilical, Dini/hie, in
which he gave vent to his bitterness against society. I>. in
wretcliiiliicss in a hosoital Dec. 10, 1838. His reputation is
due to his graceful short stories and the poems of the vol-
ume Mi/iisotiK, published shortly before his death, more no-
ticeable for their ileciiled promise than for mnch that they
contained, A. G. Ca-Vkield.
Moroilll, Jacijies Joseph, M. D. : alienist; b. at Montre-
sor, department Indre-et-Loire, France, in 1M44; l)egan his
medical studies at Timrs under Hret<inneau, then went to
the Paris scIkwI, graduating M.I), in 1830; was iiilmie at
Charenton under Kscpiirol until 1S32; in that year traveled
with a patient in the Fast ; returned to Paris in 1H40. and
passed trie competitive examination for attending physician
to the insane asylums of Bicetrc and .Salpetriere. Among his
important writings are Dii hnchixch el de I'nliennlinn men-
tale (Paris. 1845); De I'eliologie de VepHepxie (Paris, 1854);
Truile jinilique de la folic n^i'rojmlhiqiie (Paris, 1809). lie
was coeditor of the Annnlen medico-pxycholiigiijueii from
1855 to 1862. 1). June CO, 18»<4. S. T. Akmstro.no.
Morpau, Jean Victor: soldier; b. at Morlaix, in Hre-
tagne. .\iig. 11. 1763; studied first law, but in 1792 joined
the army, and eviiici'd under Pichegru such a military talent
that ill 1794 he was iiiaile a general of ilivision. In 1796 he
commaiiiled the army oC the Kliiiie and Moselle, and |K>ne-
trate<l into the center of Bavaria, driving the Aiistrians un-
der Archduke t'harles In'fore him : but after Jounlan's de-
MORELOS Y PA VON
889
feat at WOrzburg (.Sept. 3), he was compcll -d to retreut. and
this retreat, while fighting a su|H>rior and virt<ir- ■■
establislu'd his fame as one of the greatest livii.
Iiicideiilally implicateil in Ihi- conspiracy of i'i<le .
ceived no <-omiiianil for nearly two years;' but in 17U)i lie com-
manded in Italy. ami ilistinguished'hinisi-lf again. Hy iIiom-
who wished to overthrow tlie Direct. iry the dictatorship was
ollered him, but he declined the olTer'and gave his siTvici-.
to Napoli (^M Apr. 25. ISOO, he cross,,! the Hliine at lb.-
hea<lof an army of 11HI,(KM) men, and f,.|lowi-,l Ihe campMi-n
through Havaria ami .Austria to the walls of Vienna, iiiciing
with the decisive victory at Hohenliiidcn, I)^'. 3, which rv-
siilted in the Peace of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1M()1 ; but from
this moment a rivalry sinaiig up between him ami Naiio-
leon. He was arreste,l Feb. 15. 1S04, its mi aecoiiip|i,-e of
the conspiracy of Pichegru and Cadoiidal airaiiist tin- life of
the lirst consul, and although the iinH.fs w.re iiiMillicii'iit,
he was declared guilty June 10 aiul banislnd. II.- went I,)
the U. S., and si'ttled at .Morrisvill,', Pa., but on the invita-
tiimof Alexander I. of Russia he ri'turiied to Furoiu- in 1813,
and was present at the emperor's siile in the battle of Dres-
den, Aug. 27. 1813, when a cannon-ball fractun-d Ijoth his
legs. He ilicd Sept. 2, 1813, at Laun, in Bohemia.
Mnrelicad City : city ; Carteret co., \. C. (for l.*ati..n of
county, see maji .if North Car.iliiia, ref. 4-J); .m Bogue
Sound, and the Atlantic ami N. C. Railroad ; 5 miles \V. bv
S. of Beaufort, 36 miles .S. F. of Newbern. It is in an agri-
cultural region, is connected with Beaiif.irt bv steain-f.rrv,
and has regular steamship c.immunication with New Vork
city. Pop. (1880) 520; (1890) 1,064.
Morel [also moril. from Vr.morille, from Dutch moriljt:
O. H. Germ, morliila > Mod. Germ, morchel, mushroom]:
the name given to the members of the
genus Morclulla, belonging to the as-
coinycetous group of Fungi, and bi~t
known for their esculent qualities, be-
ing among those fungi which were
first usimI as articles of fo.Kl. The
most widely known species of the ge-
nus is Jlorchella esciilrnia, which in-
habits woody and bushy places, grow-
ing cliiedy in the sjiring. The com-
mon morel is found in the L'. S., as
Well as in most parts of Europe, but
those in commerce come mostly from
Germany.
MoreUa. ma-rrirva"ii (originally
Vai.i.adoliii); cai.ital and largest city
of the state of ^lichoacan. Mi'xici;
on the plateau; in hit. 19 42' X.,
Ion. 100" 54 W.; 6.370 feet alM)ve the
.sea (sec map of Jlexii'o. ref. 7-ti).
Like most Mexican towns it is very
regularly laid out and has sev.Tal large .squares ; the cathe-
dral, one of the finest in the repiililic, faces the Plaza ile lo-
Miirt ires, when- Matamoros was .shot in 1814. The inanus
factiires and export tnule are uiiiin|Mirtant. The climate is
variable and, during the suininer months, intestinal diseax-s
anil intermittent fevers are sometini-s pri'valent ; these are
owing to the llinxling of low laii.ls near the city. Water is
supplii'd through a hanils4ime ari'liOil ai|U<>.liict. Mortdia
was founde.1 as \'alladoliil in 1541. and lu'iame the capital of
Michoacan in 1582. In IMIO-U it wa.s on.' ..f tiie priii.'i|ial
cnt.i-s of revolt. In IMtKl the bishopric .>f .Mich.utcan i.Mo-
relia) was raised to an archbishopric, with .San Luis Pot.isi.
Ijiieri'taro. Leon, and Zainora iu> sulTragans. Pop. |I»<1>2)
alx.ut 30.000. II. H. S.
Moro'los: a state of Mexico; surrtnin.Ie.1 by Mexico.
Puebla, ami Guerrero. It is the smallest of the M.-xican
stales exiept Tlaxcala, having an area of only 1.650 s<].
miles. The surface is very irregular, rising in the N. to the
sn.iwy cone of Pi'i ' '' ' ' ...i . .- — ii....,rd to
warm valleys, wl: n is
gallieri-.l. Sugar • vnl-
levs, and sugar and rum are the priii.'ii>iil .Np^ils. P.>p.
(1892) 143,540. Capital. Cueniavaea. The larti->l t.iwn is
Cuantla, with about 16.000 inhabitant.-). Mon-l(»s was !>ep»-
rate.l from Mexico in I8t)9. il. IL S.
Morelos, or Clndad Morolos: principal city of Moreli».
Mexico. S<e ClAiTi.A.
Moro'los )• Pavon'. J"-k Mahia : (latriot ; K n.-ar Apat-
ziiigan. Mi.lioa.an, .Mexii... Sept. 30. 176.5. When thirty-
Cufiiiiinn iiiorel. natu-
ral tsixe.
890
MORENCI
MORGAN
two vears old he gained admission, as a poor student, to the
college at ValhidoUd. In due time Morelos became a priest,
receiving curacies near Valladolid, where he resided. In
1810 he joined the revolt which had been proclaimed by his
old preceptor, IIidaloo (q. v.), and was sent to raise forces
near Acapulco and t'hilpancingo. After Hidalgo's defeat
and death (1811) the patriots in the northern provinces were
threatened with complete destruction. At this juncture
Morelos formed a new center of resistance in the S. and
saved the cause. Ue repi^atedly defeated small Spanish
forces, thus obtaining arms; and in November advanced on
Puebla and Mexico. Gen. Porlier, who marched against
him, wjis disastrously beaten (Jan. li, 1812), and Jlorelos
took up his position"at Cuaulla with about ;!,()()() men. sub-
secjuently increased to r),ri.")(). The viceroy, in alarm, placed
all his available forces under the command of Calleja, who
on Feb. 1!) attempted to take Cuautla by storm, but was re-
pulsed. The siege of Cuautla, which followed, is one of the
most famous episodes in the history of Mexico ; it lasted for
sixty-two days, and in the end Morelos escaped with a great
part of his forces, after having inflicted incalculable injury
on the royalists. During the succeeding two years ho was a
enlist ant scourge to the S|)auiards, moving rapidly from one
n-gi'Mi to another and winning repealed victories. In Oct.,
1812, he tocik Orizaba, in Xovember he stormed Oaxaca, and
in Aug., 1813, he captured Aeapuleo after a long siege.
Soon after he called a patriot congress at Chilpancingo,
which made him captain-general, declared the abolition of
slavery, and on Nov. 16, 1813, put forth a declaration of in-
dependence. .Morelos now marched into Michoacan and
attempted to take Valladolid. liut was defeated by Iturbide
(afterward emperor) Jan. 1-5. 1814. Thereafter the tide was
against him. In Nov., 1815. he was captured, taken to
Jlexico, and, after being forced to do penance before the In-
quisition, was shot near the city Dec. 32, 1815. H. H. S.
Morenci : village : Lenawee co., Mich, (for location of
county, see map of JMichigan, ref. 8-J); on the Lake Shore
and Mich. S. Railway : 80 miles S. W. of Detroit. It is in
an agricultural and dairying region ; contains 7 Protestant
churches, union schools, 2 banks, and a weekly newspaper,
and has a creamery, cheese-factory, brick and tile yards,
brick and tile machine-shops, and flour, saw, cider, and sor-
ghum mills. Pop. (1890) 1,248; (1894) 1,310.
Editor of " Observer."
Moreno, Gabriel Garcia: See Garcia Moreno.
Moreno, JIiuuel: poet; flourished about 1650. Little is
known of his life. He was a native of Villacastin (or Mad-
rid, accoriling to Montalban, Para todos), a notary of the
royal court, and secretary to Philip IV., who sent him on
one occasion as a member of an important commission to
the pope. The titles of various works have come down to
us. among them a Didloyo en defensa de. damas, and two
novels — Ln dfsdic/ni im Id ctmatancia and El curioso cunanfe.
The only work we have, however, is a collection of epigrams,
two hundred in number, which were published in Rome
under the title FI<»-ks de. EspaiJa (1735), and are reprinted
in vol. xlii. of Rivadenevra's Biblioieca de Aiifores Espafi-
olen (2d ed. Madrid, 1875"). A. R. Marsh.
Moreto y (labana. mo-rii t«-efc-k;ui-baan'yaa, AgustIn :
drarrialisi ; b. in Madrid, Spain, Apr. 9, 1618. He began his
studies at Alcalii in l(!-'i4.and received his licentiate Dec. II,
1039. Al)out 1640 he seems to have begun to produce plays
upon the stage, and for a number of years he lived at Mad-
rid in intimacy with t'alderon, Vojlez de Guevara, Rojas,
Mira de Mescua, and other brilliant spirits of the time.
Later, though exactly when is not known, he embraced the
ecclesiastical cai'eer, and entered the househohl of the Car-
dinal-.\rchliishop of Toledo, who showed him much kindness
and affection. When, in 1657, the prelate reorganized the
brotherhood of San Pedro, associating with it the hospital
of San Nicolas, he desired Mcin-lo to superintend the busi-
ness for him. Accordingly, in Dec, 1659, the latter entered
the brotherhood, and much of the rest of his life was de-
voted to its affairs. The sincerity of his interest is proved
by the fact that at his death he left all his property to the
poor. D. in Toledo, Oct. 28, 1669. Moreto is one of the
most important of t he Spanish dramatists of the seventeenth
century. Though at first he chielly iuulated the work of
Lope, de Vega, Calderou, and others of his great predeces-
sors or contemjioraries, he often did this with such success
as to supersede his originj-ls. As his talent matured itself,
furthermore, he initiated a distinctly new movement in the
drama. He lirst completely abandoned in certain of his
pieces the romantic and fantastic elements of earlier com-
edy, and replaced them by the deeper interest of character
and mannei's. In El Undo Don Dieyo he paints inimitably
the contemporary fop, and El deaden con el desdin is one of
the most perfect and delightful comedies in any modern lan-
guage. The latter was imitated bv Moliere in his I'rincesse
d' Elide, but with little success. \Ve have 103 plays or dra-
matic pieces from his pen (nineteen of these, however, writ-
ten in conjunction with others). There is, unfortunately,
no complete and satisfactory edition of them. A volunie
entitled Primera parte de las comedias de don Ai/ipixtin
Moreto y ('abafia appeared in i\Iadri<l in 16.54, and in 1676
three volumes with similar titles were published. Many
plays, however, ditl not appear in these, and are to be found
only separately, or in the collections of plays by various
hands i.ssued during the seventeenth century. The best
modern edition, containing thirty-three [lieces, is that of
Luis Fernandez Guerra y Orbe, with Life, in vol. xxxix. of
Rivadeneyra's Biblioieca de Auiores ExpaRoleH (JIadrid,
1873). A. R. Waksii.
Moret'to. properly Alessandro Bonvicino: painter; b.
at Brescia, Italy, in 1498: he studied under Ferramola. At
the age of twenty-three he already was a distinguished
painter, and worked with Romanino in the Corpus Christi
chafiel in San Giovanni Evangelista. where he first gave
Eroof of his mastery of tone and color. His work can be
est studied in Brescia and its neighborhood, but the Brera
at Jlilan, S. Giorgio Jlaggiore at Verona, S. M. JIaggiore at
Trent, and S. M. della Pieti in Venicfe, and the chief Euro-
pean galleries possess fine examples of his work. His great-
est pupil was Giambattista Moroni of Bergamo. 1). at
Brescia in 1555.
W. J. S.
Morg:an, Conway Lloyd : biologist and psychologist ; b.
in London, Feb. 6, 1852 ; was educated at the Royal Gram-
mar School, Guildford, and the Royal School of Mines,
London ; was lecturer on Science at Rondebosch, South
Africa, 1878-83 ; became teacher, ]>rofessor, dean, and prin-
cipal of University College, Bristol, England, in 1884. His
princiiial works are Animal Biology (1887); Animal Life
and liitettigenee (1890) ; An Introduction to Comparative
Psychology (1894). He is associate and nu'dalist of the
Royal School of Mines, correspondent of the Pliiladelphia
Academy of Sciences, Murchison medalist, etc. J. M. B.
Morgan, Daniel: soldier; b. in Hunterdon co., N. J.,
1736 ; removed to Virginia in early life, and in 1755 joined
Braddock's expedition as a wagoner ; received 500 lashes in
1756 for an alleged insult to a British officer. On the out-
break of the wai' for independence he raised a company of
riflemen, with which he marched to Boston, and accom-
jianied Arnold's expedition against Quel)ec, where, after a
brave resistance, he was forced to surrender himself a pris-
oner; upon being exchanged he was ajipointed (Nov.,
1776) colonel of a Virginia rifle regiment, which he com-
manded with great ability, and was conspicuous at Sara-
toga; promoted to be brigadier-general in 1780, he was at-
tached to the Southern army, and Jan. 17, 1781, won the
victory of Cowpens over Tarleton, successfully avoiding
Cornwallis's subsequent pursuit and rejoining Gen. Greene.
For this service Congress voted him a gold medal. In 1795,
as major-general at the head of a large army, he was employed
in suppressing the "whisky insurrection" iu Pennsylvania;
was a meuibrr of Congress 1795-99. I), at Windu'ster, Va.,
July 6, 1802. See the Life by Graham (New York, 1856).
Morgan, George Washbourne: organist; b. at Glouces-
ter, England, about 1821 ; at eight years of age he played
the organ in the St. Nicholas church there ; removed to the
U. S. in 1853, and was organist successively of St. Thomas's
church, Grace church (eighteen years), and St. Stephen's
Roman Catholic church, all in New York, and the Brooklyn
Tabernacle. He was a remarkable iierlVu-mer, and a won-
derful sight-reader. His later years were spent in concert
tours. I), at Tacoma, Wash., July 10, 1892. D. E. II.
Morgan. (iKoboe Wasuington: soldier and ambassador;
b. in Washington co.. Pa., Sept. 20. 1820; fought in the
Texan army for indcp<'udence, aftaining the rank of cap-
tain ; was appointed cadet at the U. S. Military Academy in
1841, but without graduating settled in Mt. Vernon, O.
(1843), and becauu', a lawyer. In the war with .Alexico he
served a vear as colonel of the Sec(md Ohio Volunteers, and
then as colonel Fifteenth U. S. Infantry, receiving the brevet
of brigadier-general lor Conlreras and Churubusco. where he
was severely wounded; was U. S. consul at Marseilles 1855-
MORGAN
MORG ANTON
891
68, in the latter ycnr boin;; uppointfil ininistiT to PnrtuKdl.
In the civil wii'r ho wiis a|>|ioiiitfil Nov., IWil. Iiripulirr-
gcMoral of voluiili'crs. Hy reason of ill-health he resi(;iie<l
iti '111110, 1M6;): wiLS the iiiisuecessful I)eiiioeralic eaiiiliilalo
for (Joveriior of Ohio in \H^'>; was eleoleil M. ('. in 18(1(5 anJ
IMTO. I), at Fort .Monroe, Va., July 27, 1N»:!.
Morsan, Sir IIk.skv John: hnecaneer; h. in Wales ahont
1():!7: slii|i|ieil a-; a sjiilor to Uarhailos; went thenee to .la-
inai<'a; joineil a Imml of Imeeaneers, of whieh he siHin lio-
euine the leiuler, ami iiltini.itely heeanH' |ios.-ies.-M'(l of a for-
niiilahle ticket, with whieh he rejieatedly <-a|)tureil important
seaports and ntva^eil whole districts of the Spanish Main.
Morffan's earliest e.xpli>its were on the coilsIs of CanifK-clie,
where he made many prizes. lie then eomliined his forces
with those of an older corsair named -Manswell or Manshelil,
and the two advontnrers advanced npon ('arta;;ena, whi(di
they Would have taken hail not a ipiarri'l lielween the Kng-
lisli and Kreiieh Ijuecaneers hroken out, in eons<i|uenee of
which I hey returned to Santa (.'atjilina. I'pon .Mansfield's
death Morgan heeanie his heir anil successor, and thence-
forth meditated holder euterprLses. With a widl-eipiip[«'d
fleet of twelve vessi'ls he ravaged Los (lavos and the south
coiLst of Culia: mareheil itdand : took and ravaneil I'uerto
Principe after a formal l)attle: took Puerto Hello in New
(iranaila ItitiS, carryini; hy assjiult its three forlres.ses. The
city wa.s evacuated only <iri |)aymenl of a heavy ransom by
the >;overnor of Panama. In the follow inj; year he a.ssem-
hled all the "hrolhers of the coast " (hermanoH de la ciisln)
for a rail 1 upon Panama: maile rendezvous at t'a|)eTiliuron,
Santo Domingo, Dec. Iti, KiTO, with thirty-seven vessels anil
2.200 men ; captured the island of Santa Catalina a second
time, and took and destroyed the fort of San l/orenzo at the
mouth of the Chagres river. The huciaMeers then ascended
the Chagres river in canoes with I.IiOO men; had to fiKht
with conci'aled Indians, hut succeeded in crossing the isth-
mus, and ajipeared before Paiutma -Ian. 2G, ItiTl. The city
was defended by four regimenLs of the line, besides 2.H0()
armed citizens and 2,000 sjivage Indians, hut this consider-
able force was totally routed and the cily taken, siu'ked, and
burned. After a residence of a month at Panama the buc-
caneers returni'd to Jamaica with a booty i>f over ^2.001), (XK).
Morgan then returned to civilized life, was knighted by
t'harles II.; became commissary of the admiralty; pul)-
lished at Ijondon his Voyage to Panamn (I6*t), and spent
the lii-st twenty years of his life in opulence in Januiica,
where he died in 1G!H). See J. ('. ilutcheson. Sir Ihnry
Morgan (18!(0), and Howard Pyle, The /iuccaiieers and
Jfaraiiil' ri of Amerira (181)1).
Morgan, Jons Hunt: soldier; b. at Hnntsville. Ala.,
June 1, 182(5; served in a cavalry regiment in the Mexican
war: became a manufacturer of bagging at Ijcxingtoii. Kv.,
where in Sept.. 18(51. he or'.;anized the Lexington liilles,
with whom he joined (len. Buekner in the t'onfederate serv-
ice; commanded a squadron of cavalry at Shiloh. and soon
afterward Ivgan a si-ries of raids through the [Hirtions of
Kentucky held bv the Union forces, destroying railways,
bridges, anil supplies, and gaining a wide celebrity. In 18(52
he was appointed major-general. In 18(5:5 he cross<>il the
Ohio river on a bold raid, but was captured with most of
his eommand. and was contined in the Ohio |ienitentiarv.
He succeeded in escaping, and again undertiMik a mid in
Tennessee, but was surprised during the night i>y Federal
cavalry at a farmhouse near Greenville, and killed while at-
tempting to escape .Sept. 4, 18(54.
Mori;un, Jons Tvi.kr: Senator; b. at .Mhens, Tonn.,
June 20. 1824; moved to .\labama; reieived an iwademic
education; was admitted to the bar 184.') ; served in the Con-
federate army; was raised to the rank of brigadier-genenil;
was a presidential elector in 187(5: wius elected to P. S. SiMl-
ate as a Democrat .Mar. 5. 1877; re-elected 18.S2 and 1K88;
was appointed with Justice John .M. Ilarlan arbitrator for
the U. S. in the Bering Sea controversv with Great Britain.
I'. II. T.
Mortraii. Morris IIirKV. Ph.D.: classical scholar: b. at
Providence. 1{. I., Feb. 8. 1H,")!» ; gradiiati-d A. It. al Ilarvanl
1881; was head tutor at St. Mark's School. Southl>.iroiii:h.
Mass., lK81-,84 : received the degree of Ph. D. from Harvard
1887; since 1887 has been instructor and As<istiinl Professor
of (treek and Latin at Harvard; is author of />'• igni:> rliri-
endi modi's iipiid nnliquoit. Diss. Inaugur. (1887); llirlionary
to Xenoplionx Amiliasis (with J. W. White), 181(2: Thf Art
of llorsemiin.iliip by Xenophon : Traiu<laled with Kruuiyn
and Xuten (1SU3).
B. 1. W.
Morcon. Svuxev ftwcNsox, Ijuly: novelist; b. in Dul»-
liii, Ireland, aikiut 1780: was the daughter of an actor, who
anglicized his nninc from McOwen, and was imid to |>i>sm->s
S4)ine literary ability. She published in 171»7 a volume of
poems, and afterward wrote two novels, whiih met with lit-
tle sueeess. In 18(X5 her novel. The Wild Jrin/i dirt, a A'li-
lionnl 7'ii/c. gained her a sudden iM.piilarily. This Work
introduced her into aristo<nitic Kii[,'li^h <-inles, and in 1812
she married Sir Thomas Charles .Morgan, u dislinguisheil
physician. She continucil for many years to write novels,
Sfmgs, comic operas, biographies, and works of travel.
Among her more |>opiilar novels Were Flormef Macarlhu
(1816); The i)' lirieH» and the l/'Flahertyg OKiT): and The
I'rinceits (I8;!.j). In other ihparlments her lie."! i^i-lebratiHl
works were lirobably the l.ifr and Timex of Sulvatur Ito»a
(182;!) and \Voman' and ht'r J/iM/<fr (IWO). Ijuly Morgan
WILS long a leader in London literary siK-iety, where she
gained warm friends and had no huk lif bitter enemies. In
the last year of her life she published /'a/mageit from my
Aiilnhiog'raiihy (1^58). D. in London. Al«r. Pi. IKTift. An
edition of her works was edited by herstdf in 1 8.'i.'V-5«5. .She
is said to have gained t'2'>.(J(K) by her writinjp'. in addition
to a pension of £;{00 conferred u|ion her by the miiiislry
of Lord (irey. See Lady Morgan, hir t'arrrr, l.ilrniry
and Personal, irilh a (iliiiipse of her Frirndu and a Word
to her Caliimniatom (18(50). by W. J. Fit zpat rick, and her
Meiuoirx, edited by Hepworth Dixon (2 vols.. 1862).
l{.vi«<.<l by H. A. Bekrs.
Morganatic or Lrft-handrd .Marriuco [morganalir \s
from Late Ijit. morgonatica. a morning gift, a kind of dowry
given on the morning before or after the marriage, dcriv. of
f). H. (ierm. morgan, morning]: a marriage betweim a man
of noble birth and a woman of inferior station or rank, by
the terms of which neither the woman nor herchildren have
any right to the titles, anns, or dignity of the husband, nor
any right to succeed to his estate except a.s prrivided by con-
tract. These restrictions afleet onlv the rank and iiropertv
rights of the jiarties concenied, ami do not affeit tfie valiif-
ity of the marriagi'. which in general is regularly celebrated,
and the children of such a marriage are legitimate. Mor-
ganatic murriagi>s are still cimiinon among the nobilitv of
the (Jermaiiic states of Ennifie, but the morganatic veiU- is
now the sole wife, and not. lus was fonnerly fri'iiueiitly the
ca.si', a second wife taken over and almvp another wife of
ecpial rank with the husband. In the Middle -Vgi-s it was
unlawful among the (iennan nations for a man and woman
of ditlerent nink to inti-rmarry. and severe [wnnlties were
attached to the act. the woman Uinj; liable in some ciuk-s to
the death penalty. These [K'tialtics wen' later nuKiemtwl,
and the woman and the <-hildn'n, if any. were excliidtil
from their rights to the ninJi and es-tale of the husband and
father, the children taking the rank of the mother. These
ri'strietions are now, however, done away with, except as to
the reigning families and the highest nobility. The term
left-handeil inarriagi> arose fn>m the old custom that the
childnMi of such a niarriii;.T should fallow on the inferior,
that is. the left, hand. See ( hambrrSK Journal (Kdinburgh),
vol. xxxvii., p. 1: Shelfonl (M Marriage and Itivorce;
Zopll. I'eber Mixjiheiraten in den regierendrn Fiiritlrnhilii*-
ern (.Stuttgart, 18.'>:5); and S<diulze. lUe llauMie*elze drr re-
gierenden denltichen Frinilrnhdiixer (M vols.. Ji'iia, 18(J2-ty),
F. STfRiiKs Alle.\.
Mortran (formerly Rrashrar) Citj : city; St. Mary's
parish. La. (for location of parish. M'c nuip of Lou: - '
11-D); on the .\tchafalaya rivi-r. and the .S. P
road: 80 miles W. by .S. 'of New Orleans. It lui . _ ;
liarlHir and regular steamship communication with Tejuui,
CuImu. and .Mexican i>orts: is the central sugar de|Kit of
Soiitheni Louisiana, surrounded liy a strictly siigar-iane
con itrv; and has largi' ovster. fish, veo'table. and moss in-
terests." pop. (18.8(1) 2.015; (18U0) 2,2«I ; (I8IM1 e-iiniati'd
with suburbs, :5.,'j00. KniToB or - Ucvikw."
Morcanflpld : town (fonndiil in 1811); 1 . ' - ' •
CO.. Kv. if'T lix-ation of county, see ina|> ol
JI-D); on the Ohio Val. Itailwav; .'» Illlle^ >.
river, :!."> miles S. W. of Kvansville. Ind. It is n
tural region, and contains live churches. i;ra.i>
s.hi«d. and a weeklv ne>.s|«i|*'r. Pop. (1880) 744; U.-UO)
l.OiM: (18!I4) estimati-d, l.UOO. KlHTou or "SiJi."
Morffanton : town ; capital of Burke <•<).. N. (
tion of CMUfitv. se<' map of Xorlh Carolina, ref. :^ 1
Calawlia river, and the Kiehmond and DanviUe l.;iiir. no .
5o miles W. of Stati-sville, 64 niik^ X. W. of Charlott.-. It
892
MORGANTOWN
MORLEY
is in an agricultnnil and mineral rcfricn, and has gold veins
and a weelily newspaper. Top. (1«8()) SGl ; (18"J0) 1.557.
Slorgrautowil : town (incorporated in 1785); capital of
Monongalia eo.. \V. Va. (for location of county, see map of
West Virginia, ref. 5-1); on the Monongahela river at the
head of the slackwater improvement, and on the Halt, and
Ohio Railroad: UHi miles S. of Pittsburg, Pa., with which
it has regnlar steandioat coniiiiunicalion. It is in an agri-
cultural, stock-raising, and natural-gas region ; is theseatof
the West Virginia University (non-sectarian, chartered
18(i~), which in 18110 had Ki professors and instructors, 208
students, 6.000 vohnnes in the lil)rary, and §15.000 invested
in scientific apparatus. .$130,000 in grounds and IjuiKlings,
and $108,000 in productive funds; and has water-works,
electric lights, aii<i a serai-raonthlv and two weekly [leriodi-
cals. Pop. (1880) 745; (1890) 1,011; (1804) estimated with
suburbs, 2,000. Kditor of '• Posr."
Morg:ar'tcil : a mountain pass in the canton of Zug,
Switzerland, between .Morgartcn Hills and Ijake Kgeri.
On Dec. 6, 1315. tlie Swiss won here their tirst victory over
the .\ustrians, though numbering only 1.400, while the Aus-
trian army eonsisleii of nearly 15.0(10 men. Services are
performed on the annivers,ary of the battle in a chapel
erected at the foot of tlic hill.
Mor'srlieil, R.\i'nAEL Saxzio : engraver; b. in Florence,
Italy, .June 10. 1758. Ilis father, an engraver, gave him
early instruction in his art, and sent him to the school of
Volpato in Rome. Volpato gave him his daugliter in nuir-
riage, took him into partnership, and shared with him the
labor of executing the plate of Rapluud's Pantri.'iSKS in the
Stanze of the Vatican. The dedication of the plate of Ra-
phael's Transfigiirntiim to Napoleon in 1813 ol)tained for
him honors and preferment. From Louis XVIII. he re-
ceived the decoration of the Legion of Honor and the cor-
don of St. Michael. I), in Florence, Apr. 8. 1833. The en-
tire work of ^lorghen is estimated to comprise 254 pieces,
eighteen of wliich are from Ra|ihael; seventy-three are por-
traits. The most celebrated plates are T/ie Last Supper,
after Leonardo da Vinci ; the dladonna del Succo. after
ATidrea del Sarto; the Madi>nna della Segijiula and Tlif
Transfiguration, after Raphael; the Aurora and St. Jutin
in the Wildi'rnitiis, after Guido Reni ; and portraits of Dan-
te, Roccaccio. Petrarch, Ariosto, Tasso, Leonardo da Vinci,
Rapliael, and Francesco Jlon^ada. Palmerini, the pupil of
Jlorghen, published in 1824 a Life and portrait of his uuis-
ter, with a catalogue of his works.
Revised by Russell Sturuis.
Mori, mo'rre, Arinori, Viscount : scholar and statesman ;
b. in the province of Satsuma, Japan, in 1848. Being a
gentleman's son, he had every advantage of educatiim, and
studied abroad 1866-68. Appointed to a legal post .soon
after, he early associated himself with educational matters
as a commissioner of schools, and this predilection con-
tinueil to develop itself. When cliar</e d'affaires in Wash-
ington he arranged the postal convention with tlie U.S.
He afterward served as minister plenipotentiary at Peking
and London, and in the lattei" city was intimate with .Spen-
cer, Huxley, and other advanced thinkers. He returned to
Japan with distinct educational views, and was given the
port folio of educal ion in 1885, wliich he held until his deat h,
on the day of the proclamation of the con.stilution, Feb. 11,
188!). He had been guilty of some negligence or breach of
etiquette in visiting the sacred shrines at Ise, and a Shinto
fanatic, Nishino Bunlaro, working himself up to frenzy,
stabbed the viscount in his ow-n house. J. JI. DixoN.
Mori'iih [the feminine of Jfore/t]: a district in Palestine,
on one of whose mountains Abraham attempted the sacri-
fice of Isaac ((Jen. xxii. 3) and Solomon afterward built the
temple (3 C'hron. iii. 1). This identity was alTirmed by Jo-
sephus (Antiq., i. 13, 2) .and is accepted by a nuijority of the
best scholars. See al.so Jerusalem.
Mo'ricr, James: traveler and autlior; b. in Kngland in
1780, was a nephew of William Waldegrave, Lord Kad-
stock ; early entered the diplouiatic service; was private
secretary of Lcu-d KIgin in his cud)a.s.sy to Constant inot>le ;
accompanied the graml vizier in the campaign in Fgypt
against the FreniOi. Having acijuired an intinuite knowl-
edge of several Oi'iental la'nguages he s[)enl uuiny years as
secretary of legation or as cliart/i! d'dffaires in Persia; pub-
lished -1 Journi'fi tlironyh Persia, Armenia, and Ania Mi-
7iur to Constantinople in the Years l.S'oS and liV!) (London,
4to, 1812), A Second Juurney through Persia, etc., between
the Years ISIO and ISlii, with a Journal of the Voyage by
the Brazils and Bombay to the Persian Gulf (1818), and
attained great celebrity through his romances describing
Pei-sian numners and customs — The Adventures of llajji-
Baba of Ispahan (5 vols., 1824-38), which was ft)llowed by
three others upon the same theme — Zohrah the Jlostuge {fi
vols., 1832), Ayesha. the J/aid of Kars (3 vols.. 1834), and
Jlirsa (3 vols., 1841). D. at Brighton, Mar. 23, 1849.
Mii'rike, Eduard; poet; b. at Ludwigsburg, Wurtem-
berg, Sept. 8, 1804; studied theology at Tiibingen; was ac-
tive as a minister for a number of ycai's, but retired on ac-
count of ill-health, and was in 1851 appointed Professor of
Literature at a girls' school in .Stuttgart. Here he taught
successfully until 1866, when he again retired. He died
June 4, 187.5. Morike. who in his early youth was deeply
influenced by the Romanticists, but kept himself free from
their extravagances owing to his classical training, may
justly be called the greatest Gennan lyrist after Goethe.
Like the latter, he undei-stood how to transform life into
poetry, and how to remain a naive poet in Schiller's sense
despite the influences of abstract modern thought. In his
6'c(//V/i/e(1838) he gives expression to the dee^)est and most
tender emotions of the human heart, reminding us by the
melody of his rhythms, his graceful humor, and his classic
repose, of the best iiroduiMioiis of German [lopular poetry
as well as of the Greek lyrics. Miirike's prose writings also
bear a classic stamp. Ilis famous novel Mater yolten (1832)
can in many respects be compariHl with Goethe's Withelm
Meisfer, and some of his smaller stories, like Mozart auf
der Reise nach Prag ami others, are masten>ieces of their
kind. His translations of Anacreon and 'rheocritus also
deserve high praise. See his Gesammelte Srhriften (Stutt-
gart, 18iKJ); Fr. Th. Visclu-r, Kritisrhe (lanye (1844, vol.
ii.) ; Friedrich Notter, Eduard Mijrike (1875); Julius Klai-
ber, Eduard Morike (1876). Julius GoEnEL.
Morillo. mJi-reelyi). Pablo; soldier; b. at Fuente de
Malv,-i. Spain. 1777. He was a sergeant at the battle of
Trafalgar, and during the French invasion (1808-09) was a
noted guerrilla chief in Murcia. In 1809 he joined the
regular army, and in 1814 was made general of division and
given command of 10,600 men (subseciuenlly re-enforced) to
put down the rebellion in the northern part of South Amer-
ica. He occupied the coast provinces of Venezuela almost
without opposition (A|pr.-ilay. 1815). and in August ap-
peared before Cartagena, which was only taken in Decem-
ber, after hundreds of the inhabitants had died of famine;
Morillo himself lost 3.000 men, mainly by disease. In May,
1816. he entered Bogota, and within a few weeks hardly a
patriot soldier was left in Xew Granada. Morillo used }iis
victory with merciless severity, and several hundred per-
sons were executed, including many of the foremost citi-
zens. For his succes.ses lie was created Couut of Cartagena,
with the title of Pacificator. Meanwhile the patriots hail
organized new forces in Venezuela, and he marched into
that country, leaving part of his f(n-ces at Bog:ota. After
Bolivar's victory over these .Morillo was confined to Ven-
ezuela; in Nov.. 1820. he was forced to sign an armistice,
and soon after he was relievcul at his own re(|nest. He sub-
seriuently held several high commands in Spain, and was
created Alarquis of Fuenles ; but his vacillations during the
contest between Ferdinand \'ll. and the ('(U'tes ended in
his disgrace in 1823, and he retired to France, settling at
Rochcfort. In 1836 lie published an account of his Ameri-
can campaigns. D. at Rochefort, July 27, 1838.
Herbert U. Smith.
Morisoniiiiiisin : See Evanoelical Union.
Morlaix. lur/r'la ; town ; in the department of Pinisterre.
France; at the confluence of the Jarleau and Kerlent ; 6i
miles distant from the sea (see map of France, ref. 3-B).
Its harbor has 13 feet of water at onlinary and 33 feet at
s]u-ing tides. The railway from Paris to Brest is here car-
ried across the river on a viaduct 934 feet long and 307 feet
high. Morlaix has some manulactures of tobacco and pa-
per, and considerable coasting trade. Pop. about 14,860.
Morlcy. Henry: biographer and literary historian; b. in
London. Sept. 15, 1822; was educated at King's College,
London; practiced medicine 1844-48 ; was two years a suc-
cessful instructor; became in 1851 a London journalist, and
afterward edited The E.raminer; was lecturer on English
literature at King's College, London, 1857-65; and from
1865 to 1889 was Professor of English Language and Liter-
ature at University College, liondou ; then became emeritus
MfiRLKY
MORMONS
8»3
jirofossor; was cxiiiiiiiirr in Knplish Innpiinfre. litoratiirc,
uml liislorv. lit tin- riiiversity of liondon. IMTd-TS ami IHTtl-
tCi : from IH7H to 188!) lii-lil the saiiio |)rofrssoi>lii|i iit yuiHii's
t'olloKo. Loriilon: and from 1882 to l88!t wa-; |>riiRi|ial <if
I'nivi-rsity Hall, l.oiuloii. I), in Carislimokc. IsU-of \Vi;;lit,
May II. 18!»4. 11.; was the author of Ilnw In Mukf Home
f'ii'lienll/ii/ (1H.",(|): JJrfntw of L/iioniuce (18.j1); Liien of
I'alissy, {'nrilaii. C'onu'lius AKri|i|ia, Marot, etc.; Kiiglixh
Writers before Chaucer (2 vols.. 18(14-<1T). revise<l and eoii-
tiniied as Kiii/IikIi UVi'/erd (8 vols.. l887-t):i): TahteK of Emj-
lixh Liternlitre (18GS) ; A Firxl Sketch of Kuyliiih Lilernlure
(187;!); Kiii/Ush lAtirnture in the Ueiyn of Victoria (\H>i\);
and has edited many important series, sueh as The Lilirarv
of KnKlisli Lileraiure (18*(1, vols, i.-v.) ; .Moriev's I'niversal
Mljrary {l)e},'iin in 1884): C'nssell's National l.i'lirarv (l>ef;mi
in 1881)). ete. Hevised by II. A. ISkkks.
Morlcy. John : author and statesman; li. at Mlacklium,
Laneashire. Kni;land. l)e<-.-.i4. 18;J8; edueal4'd at Chell.'nliani
and Lincoln ('ollef;e, O.xford. Kladuatiuf; in 18.")!). lie wa.s
admitted to tlu' bur in 187:i; was editor for some years of
The Lilirari/ (imelte.of The Forliii</hlli/ h'lrieir from 1867
to 188-.>. of The /'a/I Mall (lazelle from '188(1 to 18N:{. ami of
Macmilliiii's Jlai/aiiiie from 1883 to 188.'). lie is the editor
of the valuable i)iuj;ra|ihies known as the Kn<jlish Jlen of
Letters Series, and is the author of many noteworthy erilieal
and biof;ra|ihieal studies, inchnlin;; Eihiiund Hurke (18(j7),
Critical Mixcellauiex (1871-77). Voltaire (1872). On Ciim-
promixe (1874), Jioiixseau (1870), Diderot ami the /■Jnri/clo-
jia-ilixls (1878). CohJeri (1881), Kiiierxon (1884). ami Wal/>ote
(188!t). An edition of his ItV/cAx was |iid>lished in ls,><(Mi8
(1(1 vols.). In 188;! he became nuMnber of Parliament for a
division of Newcaslle-on-'l"yne. but was defeated in the fjon-
eral elections r)f 18!!.'). He is an advanceil Liberal in politics,
un advocate of Home l!ule. and was Chief Secretary for
Ireland in (Gladstone's cabinet iu 1886 and again in 18i)2-95.
Morlpy, Samuel : philanthropist ; b. in Well .Street.
Hackney, London, (Jet. 15, 180!); increased his inherited
wealth as a numufactiirer of hosiery; took prominent place
in his reli^jious denondnation, the ('onf,'re;;ati(>nal, but re-
fuse{| to hold the ollico of deacon ; was a leader in the " Ijhie-
ribbon" or total abslineiice mnvoment ; sat in I'arliann'nt
as member for llrislol from 18t)8 to 188.j, when he relirecl iu
liroken healtli, aflir di'cliniii;.; a neerase. He was a nuiniti-
cent patron of philanlhropie, relijrioiis, and nolitical enter-
prises, and left an enormous fortune. I), at his house, Hall
Place, near Toid)ridf;e, .Sept. 5, 1886. See lus Life, by Ed-
win llodiler (Loudon, 188it).
.Morley, Thomas; composer; b. in England about 1'i4'i;
was a pupil in music of W illiain ISirde ; studied at ( )xfonl ;
imitated the Italian style; was a skillful performer ami a
prolific composer of anthems, church services, ballets, can-
zonets, and madriirals. He published four books of Mad-
rifials (|.V.I4-1(>I)1) ; .1 I'liiine and Katie Inlrudiirtion to
I'racticalt Miiticke (1.')!I7); and The Triiiiiiphs of Oriana
(1601), an exlraonlinary performance, being a collection of
twenty-four madrigals in honor of (Jueen Klizabeth (Oriana)
by as many Knglish verse-writers, .set to nnisic by " Thonias
Morley, Hach. of Musieke ami (ientleman of Her Majesty's
honorable t'hapell." One of the verse-wrilers was .lohn
.Milton, father of the celebrated poet. Morley died in Lon-
don in ll>t)4.
)Ioriiioii. Book of; See Mormons and Smith, Joseph.
Mormons, or, as they call themselves, the Ciii'ROii of
Jksis t'niusT OK Latter-day Sai.nts: a religious soot
founded by .Joseph Smith. .Ir.. at Fayette. Seneia co., X. V..
.\pr. 6, 18:!(), since 1847 havinir its center and chief seat in
I'tah. Tlie membership in 18!»2 was about 2;ltMXK), includ-
ing 20,000 living in other countries than the I'. .S. 'I'lio
Mormons are Christians, their articles of faith declaring l>e-
lief in (iod. the Kternal Father, and his .Son. Jesus Christ,
and in the Holy (ihost ; that men will be punished for their
own sins, and not for Adam's transgression; that through
the atonement of Christ mankind may be saved by obedi-
ence to the laws ami onlinanci's of the (iospid, those ordi-
nances being: I'irst. Faith in the Lonl Jesus Christ. Sec-
ond. Hepetilance. Third, liaptism for the riMuission of sins.
Fourth. Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy (Jhost.
They also belii'Ve that a man must be called of (tihI to pri'acli
tlie Gospel; in a Church organization comprising apostles,
jirophets, pastors, teaehei-s, evanaelists, etc.; in the gifts of
tongues, prophesy, revelation, visions, healing, etc.; in the
IJible as the word of UihI, "as far as it is translated correc.t-
ly," and in the liimk of Mormon as the further word of 0<jd ;
in the literal gathering of Israc-I and the restoration of the
Ten Triljes; in the building of Zion on the American con-
tinent; and in the coniirjg of Christ to reign in |KT»<m.
The Church orgaiu/jition i- a tln-'K-racy, pure and simple,
the ollieers forming a comphlr |irii-lhiH«l. The supreme
authority is vested in the l•ir^t I re-ideiicy, comprising the
iiresident, who is also designated prophet, wer, and reve-
lator, and two eouns<dors, ail U'ing chosen by the liudy of
the Church. Then follow the ajMistles, of wlium there aro
twelve; the patriarch, seventies, high priests, elilers, bish-
ops, priests, teachers, and deiurons. A distinguishing ihar-
aclerislic is belief in continuous divine revelation, and all
ari' entitled to such revelation, but only the communiiations
from the Lord which come through the prophet-president
are authoritative and necessarily binding on the Church.
The first president yvas Joseph Smith, Jr.; his counsidoni,
the three comprising the orignuil First I'n-sidency. were Sid-
ney Kigdon and Freilerick (i. Williams. The first patri-
arch was Joseph Smith, Sr., father of the founder of the
Cluinh, Joseph Smith's suciessors have lui'n Krigham
Yomig, cho-en in 1847, at Kanesville, la., now Council
ISIutIs; J<.lin Taylor, elected in 18W0 : and Wilford W.mkI-
rulT, who was chosen in 1887. The authority of the presi-
dent extends to temmiral as well as spiritual atTairs, al-
though the exercise of mandatory |>ower by the priesthood
in temporal matters has lieen falling into di.suse.
\Villi the Hook uf Mormon and pres«'nt ri'velution as a
biusis Joseph .Smith began to preach a new religion, and in a
little time succeeded in gathering a small congregation, but
he soon incurrcil the enmity and aroused the active hostility
of his neighlxji-s in New York, and at the beginning of 18;li,
less than a year from the date of the organization of the
Church, he led his followers westward, settling at Kirlland,
(I. There the sect incri'asi'd in numU-rs and wealth through
the efTorts of ndssionaries wjio were sent out by the prophet.
A temple was built and the city flourished, but the aidmosity
of the people of the neighlxirhoiKl hail been aroused, and
seven years later the Mormons fouml it ni'cessary to tiec.
IIead<iuartei-s were next set up at Far West. Mo., ami at thai
point the great nnijority of tlie saints rallied ; luit their so-
journ was brief, 'llie fiat red which if seemed to l»e their
fate to excite became so intense in Missouri that open war
between them and the people resulted. The Mormons were
forced by superior numliers to retire from the .Slate, which
they did in 18;I8. settling near Commerci', III., where they
built the city of Nauvtxi. and at once liecame an im|)orlant
factor in the commen-ial and jiolitieal alTairs of the State.
An extraordinary charter was granted to the city, which
made the corporation almost iiide|H'mlent of the State gov-
ernment, ami gave to Smith civil and military authority
within the city very nearly eipial to the ndigiiius power
which he exercised f)ver his pmple. Xauvoo flourished
womlerfully and the Clinn-h gained in ineiiil>ershiii. prose-
lytes gathering from New F.nglaml and the .Middle Stales
and from Kurope. many missionaries having In-en sent to
foreign lands. Here, however, the iiopiilar enmity wa* as
keen or even mon> bitter than it had been elsi'when'. Dis-
sensions also arose within the ranks of the splints theiiis«dves.
There wius a clashing of BUth<irily tielweeii the .Slate ami the
city. Finally, in 1844. an ambitious but ili.seontenled meiu-
lH>rof the Church. backi-d by a consiileralile followinj;. issued
a newspaper at Xauy<Ki, vigorously assailing I he projuiet and
threatening to cx|h>so some of his allegiil imnionililies and
misdeed.s. The printing-tinice was at once destroyed by
Smith, for whose arrest a warnint was issueil at the in-
stance of the eilitor. The warnint was issueil by a justice
of Carthaiie. a neighboring town, but .Smith refused to sub-
mit to arri'St. He went In'fore a friendly justice at NauviHi.
who discliarged him. The Carthage justice issin-d another
warrant, in whic-h the proplu^t was charu'ed with treason
against the State, but .Sniith again refus<Ml lo oln-y the writ,
claiming the right to give iMind to the Xauvoo iustiee to
stand trial. The militia was siimmone<l to make the arn-st,
and the Mormons arnuKl to resist tin- attack. Civil war was
imminenl ; indiwl, there had In^en eiii:a>.'>'ments U'tween the
saints ami the militia, when by |Mrsonal inlen-ession the
(Jovenior of I he ,Siale induced Smith to surrender and go to
Carlhagi", This was on June 20. 1844. On the followinc
day a mob gathered from the surrounding coniilri-. nitacki-d
the jail. ami. over|H)werini; the gminl. kilKsl - ! his
bnither llyrniu. ami woundeil others of the i .rty
who hail aciom|iaiiieil him lo prison. It wa.- that
the death of Smith would put an end to the sui-iety, but the
894
MORMONS
MORO
Church continued to "trow rapidly. Bri^ham Young, an
organizer and leader and a man actuated by ambition, had
joined the Cliurch in 18:53, and by reason of his earnestness
in the work and his devotion to the prophet had risen in the
organization uniil at the time of the sissassination of Smith
he was at the head of the quorum of apostles. He at onee
assumed the leadership, a position which his strong charac-
ter and his place in tlie affections of the people enabled him
to maintain, althougli the claim was disputed by some who
declined to accept his rulership. Young immediately
planned another removal, and the following year there was
a general emigration from Xauvoo, temporary lieadquarters
being set up at Council Hlulfs, la. In the spring of 1S4T
Brigham Young, with a company of 143. again turned his
back on the advancing civilization, and went in search of a
new abiding-place. After months of traveling, much of the
distance traversed being through an unexplored wilderness,
the party, on July 24, 1847, arrived in the Salt Lake valley,
which Young proclaimed the sought-for land. Salt Lake
City was founded, and Young returned to the Missouri river
to direct the movement of the people to the new home. Since
then the headi[narters and tlie gatliering-place of the .saints,
their Zion, lias been Utah. That is the "center stake," as
they term it, l)ut by direction of the leaders Jlormons have
goiie into tlie surrounding States, and they now form a con-
siderable percentage of the population of Idaho, Wyoming,
Colorado, Arizona, and Nevada, while they have large colo-
nies in Old Mexico. The Church seems to be increasing in
membership, though the growth is by no means so rapid as
it was in its earlier days. The missionary service is exten-
sive, hundreds of elders being kept constantly in the field,
and missions are maintained in various countries of Europe,
in Asia, in Australia, and the Pacific islands. The British
isles and Scandinavia furnish most of the converts.
The distinctive characteristic which has given the Mor-
mons notoriety and trouble is polygamy. A plurality of
wives is not merely allowed, but is held to be a means of
grace, the number of a man's wives and children increasing
his honor and glory in the world to come. The practice of
polygamy was denied by the Mormons in early days, and
the'alleged divine revelation permitting or commanding it
was not openly published, nor was the principle publicly
preached until the saints were settled in Utah; but it has
been proven that Smith had several wives, as did a number
of the leading Mormons of his time. Of late years it has
been maintained that the revelation sanctioning polygamy
was received by the prophet as early as 1831, and was with-
held from the body of the Church and from the world,
although trusted ones were advised of it and permitted to
practice the doctrine. Since 18-53 polygamy has been pub-
licly preached and practiced, and while a plurality of wives
was not essential to a man's good standing in the Church,
the leading men generally were polygamists and were fa-
■vored over the monogamists. As early as 1863 the Federal
Government undertook to stamp out the practice, a law
forbidding it being enacted in that year. The efforts to en-
force the statute, however, were weak and spasmodic, and
the Mormons paid little or no respect to the law. In 1883
Congress put a more severe statute into the books, and two
years later dt'termined efforts to enforce it were made, tlie
Mormons resisting through the courts until they could op-
pose no longer, the constitutionality of the law being estab-
lished by the opinion of the Supreme Court of the U. S.
Scores of polygamists fled or went into hiding while hun-
dreds, without effort at resistance, accepted the situation,
pleaded guilty to violation of the law, and went to prison.
More than l.IOO men were convicted and sent to the peniten-
tiary, the usual term of imprisonment being six months and
the fine $;!(J0. In 1887 another law was enacted by Con-
gress, which disincorporated the Mormon Church ami confis-
cated its immense propin'ty in excess of $50,000. The Emi-
gration Company, an extensive transportation association
which managed the immigration business of the Church, was
also disincorporated, and its resources were taken possession
of by the Government. The Mornums resisted this law also
without success. After hundreds had endured imprison-
ment and millions of dollars had been spent in payment of
, fines, feeing lawyers, and so on, and the vast property hold-
ings of the Church had been lost, finally, in Se|)t., 1890,
President Woodruff issued a pronnnciamento against po-
lygamous marriages. His action was approved by the body
of the Church in general conference in the following Octo-
ber, and since that time there has been no evidence of a
plural marriage sanctioned by the Church. There have been
a few convictions of parties for living with several wives
to whom they were married previous to the proclamation of
the president, but it may be .said with confidence that where-
as tne celestial marriage revelation is still in the books
and its divinity is believnl by the faithful, actual polygamy
is an institution of the past.
The Buuk uf Mormon, above referred to. which is esteemed
by the saints a diviiu; work, is merely what purports to be
the historical a(-count of the occupation of the American
continent. In brief, the story is that after the destruction
of Babel and the confusion of tongues America was settled
by one of the peoples. Afterward, in the sixth century B. r.,
Lehi and his sons went to South America, and from them
were descended the Indians. It is also related that after
the Kesurrection Christ went to America and preached to
the people. At the final destruction of the civilized people,
after a series of bloody wars, God commanded the prophet
Mormon to record the events which had transpired and se-
crete the record. Mormon obeyetl, and it was the claim of
Joseph Smith, firmly believed by the saints, that an angel
pointed out to Smith the spot on a hill near Palmyra, N. Y.,
wliere golden plates bearing Jlormon's record were hidden.
The characters on the plates were said to be "Reformed Egyji-
tian." With them was found the " L'rim and Thummim."
by which the prophet was enabled to translate. The book
was first published in 1830. and with it the certificates of
three men that the angel had exhibited the golden plates to
them, also the testimony of eight other men to whom Smith
had exhibited the plates. The Book of Mormon is not a
doctrinal work, as so many believe, but merely a narrative
or record. The Jlormon doctrines not contained in the
Bible are stated in purported divine revelations, and these
are contained in a volume entitled 7)oc/rine and Covenants,
many editions of which have been i)ubUshed. There has
been very little revelation of late years, though the right
and privilege to l-eceive communications and instructions
direct from the Almighty still exist. Byros Gboo.
Morning-glory Family : the ConvoloulactK, a group of
dicotyledonous plants, mostly twining or trailing herbs, with
alternate leaves, gamopetalous flowers, and a sujierior two
or three celled ovary. The 870 species are distributed widely
throughout the globe, about 100 being natives of the U. S.
Many species are favorite ornamental plants, as the morn-
ing-glories (species of Tpomuid), bindweeds (species of Con-
I'olrulus), JErolvnlus, etc. The sweet potato (Ipumcea iafa-
/ns), originally of India, has long been cultivated in warm
and temperate climates for its nutritious roots. The para-
sitic dodders number about eighty species of the genus Cim-
cutn. They are to be regarded as morning-glories which
have become degraded through parasitism.
Charles E. Besset.
Morny, niornee', Charles Auguste Louis Joseph,
Duke de : soldier and politician ; b. in Pari.s, Oct. 23, 1811 ;
son of Queen Ilortensc of Holland and Count de Flahault,
and consequently a half-brother of Napoleon III. His birth
was kept a secret, however, and he was adopted by a Count
de jMorny, a resident of .'Mauritius, and educated by his
paternal grandmother, Madame de Souza. He entered the
army, fought with distinction in Algeria, and was made a
chevalier of the Legion of Honor, t^ueen Hortense having
died in 1837 and left him an annuity of 40.000 francs, he
abandoned his military career, returned to Paris, and di-
vided liis time and energy equally between dissipation and
financial speculation. As Jlinisier of the Interior he was
the executor, and probably also the instigator, of the coup
d'etat : and though he soon retired from the cabinet and
contented himself with the chair of |)rcsident of the corps
leffistatif, he continued to exercise a considerable inttuence
on the emperor. He was, indeed, next to the Empress
Eugenie, t he most characteristic figure of the second em-
pire. I). Mar. 10, 1865.
Moro. or Moor. Axthoxv: painter; b. in Utrecht in
1510. lie was a pupil f)f John van Schorel ; also studied in
Italyand gained a reputation as a portrait-painter. Charles
V. appointed him court jiainter in 1553. The emperor sent
him to Portugal to paint portraits of King John and his
family, for which he was s|>lendidly remunerated. He was
then sent to England to jiainl the portrait of Queen Mary,
the bride of Philip II.. for which he received a gold chain
and a yearly pension of t'l(H) sterling, besides being knighted
on his return to Spain. Notwithstanding the grwit favor .
.«ho\TO him by Charles V. and Philip II. he had to fiy from
Spain for fear of imiirisonment on account of a breach of
MOROCCO
MOROT
895
court etiquette. Fie reoeiveil permission of tlio emperor to
go to Hrussels, ami remniiieil lliere. The Dulic- of Alva took
him under liis prolci-tion, lihoweil him ffreut favor, onlerixl
purl rails of liis mistresses in tlie style of Titian, ami eon-
ferreil on liim ami all his family pensions, appoinlmi ills,
ami eanons' plaei-s. lir-iili's portrait-. Morn painti'il his-
lorieal sulijeets. I), in Anlwirp in l.ViS. His ehief works
are a lie/iiirn-rHnn, now in London, and a .S7. I'lli-r anil SI.
/-*((«/, which lielon^eil to the I'rinee of Conli. Tlio Koiivre
possesses three of his finest portraits. W. ,1. Stillman.
Moroc'eo : sultanate of Xorthwestcrn Africa; situated
lietweeii lats. 27 and :i() X., Ions. 1° and 1 1 .">0 \V., boundeil
liy Alfferia, the Midilurraiiean, the Strait of (iilirallar, the
.\tlantie, and Sahara. The area is estimateil at ahout 21!t,-
OtH) s(|. miles. The coast alonj; the .\tlantic is t;enerally
low, flat, sandy, verv danf,'erous to navifjale, and alTords only
a few harbors — Kl-.\rai<h, Raliat, Casalilanca, Mazapin,
.Safi, and Mofjador : of these the hest and most important
are Mazaj;an and Casalilam-a. The coiust from the .Strait of
(iiliraltar eastward aioiii; tlie >Icditerrancan is hi;;h. Ik.IiI,
and rocky. The princiiial harlmrs here are Tangier, on the
.Strait of (iiliraltar. and I'l'tnan. Spain owns Ccutn and sev-
eral other ])oints on tliis coast. A beautiful and very fer-
tile plain, containing all the larjje cities, MonK'Co, Fez, etc.,
extends between the coast range and the .Atlas Mountains,
which in several ]iarallel lines traverse the count rv from
N'. E. to S. \V. Xone of the peaks of the ,\tlas reaclics the
line of perpetual snow ; Miltzin, the higticst p.iint, :it) miles
S. E. of the city of Jlorocco, rises to a height of 1I,.")(I0 fiet,
but is often entirely free from snow. .\ numlH-r of rivers
originate in the .\tlas — the Draa. .Siis, ami several smaller
rivers flowing to the .\tlantic and the Muluia to the Medi-
terranean— but none of them is mivigable. They are gener-
ally rapid and even turbulent in the spring, but oftiii dis-
appear altogether during the summer. The climate in the
plain is delightful, tempered by cool breezes from the .\llas,
which keep olf the scorching winds from .Sahara ; in the
wet season, from Xoveinber to March, showers are freipient.
In the mountains and on the .southern slope extreme heat
and cold alternate, and the changes are often very sudden.
Kxcellent marbles of dilTcrent kinds are found; gold, silver,
copper, tin, nickel, rock-salt, ami sulphur o(fcur; iron is
abundant and of good i|uality. and traces of ancient mines,
pmbiilily worked by the Carlhai^inians, are met with in sev-
eral places. The luxuriant forests whiili clothe the moun-
tains contain oak, cedar of Fiebanon, pine, atid manv kinds
of valuable timber-trees. In the valleys an<l the plain all
the cereals, fruits, ancl vegetables of the warm and temper-
ate zones can l>e cultivated — wheat, imiize, rice, sugar, cot-
ton, tobacco, gra|)es, oranges, figs, almonils, dat<-s, beans,
peas, salTron, etc., but agriculture is generally in a very
nackwaiil stale, and the country sometimes does not tiro
duce sullicient wheat for its own ileinand. Large her<ls of
cattle, hoi-ses of a small but spirited breed, goats whose skins
furnish the famous morocco leather, and camels, are reared,
but exportation is forbidden. The lion an<l panther are
freipient in the forests, the liya-na, jackal, and wild boar in
the plain, the gazelle and the ostrich in the regions Uirder-
ing on .Sahara; serpents, scorpions, lizanls, ami insects
abound. Manufactures of fine woolens and silks are carried
on at Fez, one of the capitals, ami of bricks and siiver-ware
in other places ; the fez, a well-known re<l cloth cap, lakes
its name from this city and is exiioiled in largi- i|uantities to
all Mohammedan countries. The only bninch of industry
extensively developed is that of leather. The comnuTce is in-
consideralile; the trallic with the southern and I'astern coun-
tries is carried on by caravans. The inhabitants, estimated
at ."i.DOO.lHRI. are Berbers (generally agricultvirists), .\rabs
(nomadic Bedouins), Moors, .lews, and Xegroes. The (Jov-
ernment has very indilTerent control over the mountain
tribes, particularly those among the Rr-Uif .Mountains in
the X., who iire cliicHy Berbers. Xothing but good govern-
ment is needed to iiuike Morocco one of tile most Mourishing
f)Brts of .\frica. The languages spoken are dialects more or
ess corrupted of tlu' Berber. .Arabic. Spanish, and Negro
tongues from the interior of .\frica. The reigning religion
is Islam. In ancient times the country formed part of
Mai-ritaxh ((/. c.); in the seventh cenlury it was compiered
by the .\rabs, whose religion and customs the Mo.irs adopteil.
Ill 787 the kingdom of Fez was foiinde<l ; in KIX that of
Morocco. Tn 104S the present dyna.sty asiended the thn>iie.
In 1H14 slavery of Christians was orohibiled, and in 1N17
piracy was suppressed. Reviseil l>y CvRi's C. Adams.
Morocro : one of the cn|iitals of the sullanali- of Morx-co;
sitiiateil in H plain at the f.wit rif the .Vtlas, 1..VKJ fi-el aljove
the level of the wa (s<-e map of Africa, n-f. 3-H). ll U sur-
rouniled by a wall *< feel high, 7^^ mili-s in eirr-uit, pii-reoj
by seven gates, ami Hanked with imimToiii* lowers. Init now
generally in a dilapicluted condition. The city wius fouiidi-d
in 1072, and was in the Ihirteinlh and fourtceiit I: •■ •
a famou> scat of learning, to which the .Moors of ~
their childnn to be eiliicated, and is said to hav.
I(K).(M)I) houses and 7(XI.(KK» inhabitants. It conlams still
many large mosipies ami a magiiithent palace, otlierwine il.s
splendor has deeayi'd. Of its inanufactiiri's, that of nil aii<I
yellow moicK-co is famous; its eominerce in ihi.fly carried
on by the .lews, who number about O.tKKI. but live in an
abject condition. The climate is fine, and the city is well
watererl, but its streets are verv dirty and enjoked. and the
sultan and court spend little time there. I'op. estimate<l at
SO.'KK). Revised by C. C. AUAMs.
Morocco Leather: the name originally given to leather
made from goatskins tanned with sumach, but now applied
also to the inferior sort (roan) made from shee|»kins. The
name appears to be de.-ived from the siiiierior excellence of
the leather formerly obtained from .^lorol•co. The goat-
skins are steepeil in water to remove the hair, and are then
scra]ied clean and smooth on the fleshy side, luul placed in
milk of lime. From the lime-iiils they are dniwn (ail from
time to time, laid to drain, anil then .steeiH-d afresh. When
the hair has become thoriaighly liKist-, it is serapwl off with
a double-handled steel knife, .\fler u few more days' sleep-
ing it is scraiied on the Hesh side until it is simKPih and
even. The skins are then jilaced in a licpiid made from the
dung of pigeons and hens. This done, they are st-wn up in
a bag-shape, the grain tieing (mtsiile. .\ small orifiie is
left, and in this a funnel is instTteil and a strong infusion
of sumach is fioiireil in. A number of the skins thus filled
are rolled about in a large tub containing a weaker solution
of sumach. The object of this. motion is to accelerate the
action of the lirpiid containi-d in the skins, as well as to sul)-
ject all portions of them to the ccpial a<'lion of the liath.
They are then heaped iijpon a woinlen rack, and jinvsMire
brought to bear iiniil the sumach |H"netrates the jKires and
brings the tannin into the clos<-st relationship with the
Jibers. The tanning is completed by a re|M't it imi of the proc-
ess descrilied, which can all be accomplished in one day.
The bags are unsewn. scrapeil, an<l hung up in the drying-
loft. When again wetted ami siiiiHithi'<l with a rubbing in-
.strunuMit they are ready for dyeing, being siwn together at
the edges, as only one siile has to Iw ci>lored. The montaiit
usimI is a solution of tin or aliim-waler. The dye usc-d is
chiefly cochineal ; iMiiled with alum, it forms a red lirpiid
which is filtereil through linen into a cask. The skins un-
dergo immersions in this dye. They are thi'n rinM-il and
tanned with sumaili, and afterwanl fulleil with UM'tles,
polishcil. and dried. Variations in color are obtaineil by
the use of other dyestulTs. The final o|>eration is that of
currying. The priK-ess varies according to (be puri>ose for
which tiie skins are intended.
Enamel oilcloth, made to look like morrwco leather, is
now extensively used. MonH'co leather is con-'idi-r'-"! to lie
the best material for btmkbimling, and lb' ti in
which it is held has led to extensive eouiili i ■ rior
sheejiskins being dress^il and dyi^l to n'M-iimj" ■■ ■''
OS possibli'. The pre|>aralion of iniitalii>ii mi'i
sheepskins does not vary gri'atly from that uv
genuine article. The color of the leather is not always given
bv dyeing, as almost any hue can be olilailie<l by tojiieal a|>-
plication. Aniline dyes have t)ci-n used, but are said not to
lie durable.
Moroue, mo-rCma, Oiovanxi Battista : juiinter; b. at
.Albino, near Bergamo, al" ml 1.">1(»: was a pupil of Morelto
of Brescia, whosi' manner he stri'i' " ■ • ■ •■- ,
pictures in si'Veral chunlu-s of B. i
coimtrv. Moroiii'wa- f.",..,i, f. .
in the liabil of advisin. ng to l(.'rgaino to be
painted by .Morom\ I work an- in all lh«
prineiiuil national Kumin'ttu eulltH.'ii»iis. I>. Feb. .'i, ISTS.
■XiMf. XicHoi.A"; histori<-«l
-, Knil .Iillle Irt. IH-Mt. lie
Morot. miirnt
painter; b. at Xai
iler t'abanel ; w.i-
nii'ilals at the .*-
Honor at llie Sal .""-'
ilecontlion of the I.egion of Honor 1»<3.
Mis pietutvii •n:
S96
MOKPHEUS
MORPHOLOGY, ANIMAL
marked liy adiniiable (lualitios in drawing and color. Among
liis principal works are The Good Samaritan (1880), which
is in the Liixeiuboiirg Gallery, Paris: Toro Colante (\^Ha)\
and Jieicli.i/iofen — ( 'liarye of the l^iyMh and Xiiith Cuiras-
sierx. Studio in Paris. W. A. Cokfin.
Mor'plieiis [= Ov. fiopcpeis, liter., fashioner] : the god of
slee]), son of Soninus. The name is first found in Ovid
(.1/(7. xi., e:S4, 647).
Morphia: See Oi'rm.
Mori)li()l'o!ry. .\iiiiiial [nwrphology is from Gr. iwfipii,
form + \6yos, reason, discourse] : that branch of zoology
which treats of the general form and organization of ani-
mals, and the principles involved in their structures. It
relates to the nature and origin of structures and organs,
but has no reference to the uses or functions of parts. It
thus contrasts with animal physiology, which treats of adap-
tation to surroundings in the organism as a whole, and of
the u.se and functions of the diverse paits. To trace the
unity of organization in the widely diverse forms of the
animal kingdom, ami the essential similarity in their mode
of evolution, are the principal problems within the province
of morphology.
Characteristics and Method. — The science thus distin-
guished is of comparatively late development, as the tend-
ency of the human mind is to determine organs and parts
from their uses, rather than from tlieir intimate structure.
In ordinary language, as well as in the earlier stages of
science, the organs of less-known animals are named from
their correspondence in function with those of man. Thus
the tore limb of a dog is called a leg, though its real cor-
respondence in structvire, or homology, is with the arm of
' man, not with the hinder limb or leg. The fore limli of a
bird, corresj.i'.inding part for part with the arm of man, is
called a wing, and the fore limb of a fish a fin. Yet the
same word wing is usud for the flying apparatus of the in-
sect, although the wing of tiie insect has structurally nothing.
in common with the wing of the bird. In the same way the
words gills, lungs, jaws, etc., are applied to organs with
analogous functions, regardless of the way in which they
are formed, and regardless of their method of evolution.
The discovery of the truth in such matters is the finic-
tion of morphology. It is the science that treats of ho-
mologies, and its progress has been in direct opposition to
our prepossessions. Its gi'owtli has been so gradual that
it is dilHcult to assign the proper meed of praise to those
who have contributed to the pi'ogress. Ouvier's recognition
of the four branches of the animal kingdom (Radiates, Mol-
lusks, Articulates, and Vertebrates) limited the search for
homologies in each group to members of the same branch
or sub-kingdom. Von Haer at nearly the same time recog-
nized still more distinctly the principles of morphology and
the limitations of homologies. The transcendental philoso-
phy of Geoffroy Saint-llilaire, Goethe, Oken, and others,
though barren in results in other fields, and even mislead-
ing to a great extent, was of some use in the diifusion of
morphological ideas. Morphology and physiology were, how-
ever, in spite of the growth of science, long confused to-
gether, anil the latter employed at the expense of the former
in morphological cpiestions.
A princ^ipal object of morphology is the discovery and
correct appreciation of the fundamental nature and corre-
sjKindence of the respective regions and organs in different
animals. Comparative anatomy (i. e. the structure of the
adult animal), com|)arative embryology in its utmost details
(i.e. the aiuitoriiy of the ftctus or young in its several stages
of youth), and histology, are all invoked for the solution of
the questions involved in this .search. Physiology is rarely
of value as a guiile in such investigations. Tlie student
must be ever on his guard against being influenced by ap-
jiarent similarity of functions, or superficial similarities of
parts which are subservient to a common purpose. The
natural ])repossessions with which all must to a greater or
less degree start in the considi'ration of natural history must
lie also kept in check. iMoililicatious and deviations are so
innumeraljle, and parts that are insignificant in some be-
come of such oversliadowing importance in others, and vice
tvrsa, that extreme caution is necessary in making compari-
sons and deciding on the correspondence or homologies of
parts.
Sulidivisions and Definitions. — Morphological problems
admit of being grouped according to the aim in view by
the investigator, and the various problems which fall wit hin
this domain have been classified primarily under (1) anatomy
(which again has been divided into tectology and promor-
phology), and (2) morphogeny (including ontogeny or em-
bryology and phylogeny, which is lia.sed chielly oil paheon-
tology). Sueli are the divisions advocated in an extensive
work on moriihology by Haeckel (Geiierelle 31orpliolugit der
Organismen). who defines them as follows: Anatomy is
morphology in the narrowest sense, and tivats of the entire
structure of the organism, 'Tectology (or the doctrine of
structure) is that science which treats of tlie composition of
the organism from organic elements or entities of different
degrees. Promorj/hology (or the doctrine of fundamental
form — Onnidfonnenhhre) is that science which treats of
the superlieial form of organic individuals, or their stereo-
metric fundamental form. Jlorphogmy. or developmental
hi-story, is the general science of the developing form of the
organism. Ontogeny (or embryology) is the developmental
history of the organic individuals (onta). Phytogeny (or
paheontology) is the developmental history of organic stems
or genealogical stocks (ptii/la).
The necessity for exact expression has also given rise to a
number of terms of which only those most generally used
need be referred to. Jlomological jiarts are those "which
agree in structural relations, however nnu-h they may differ
in functions, and presumably are modified from correspond-
ing primitive elements. Thus the arms of man, the fore
'limbs of quadrupeds, the wings of birds, and the pectoral
fins of fishes (and of whales) are homologues of each other; so
are also tlie lungs of the air-breathing vertebrates and the
swim-blailders of fishes. Analogous parts are those which
agree in fvmction, however much they may dilfer in struc-
ture, and may be (but not necessarily) modified from entirely
different primitive elements. Thus the wings of birds and
of insects are analogues (but not homologues) of each other.
Of course those organs which are homologous in detail, such
as the wings of different flying birds, are also aiuUogous.
JJelameric or serially homotogica/ jiarts are those which
agree in general characters ami relations, and are devel-
oi)ed in an analogous manner, but not from the identically
corresponding elements. Thus the fore and hind limbs are
the serial homologues of each other, as are also the different
vertebra? in the same individual.
E.camples. — The branch of vertebrates being that whose
representatives are best understood, as well as most familiar
to the educated, the application of morphological principles
will be best illustrated in their case. This may be <liine by
first taking two extremes of the class craniata, and then en-
deavoring to ascertain the meaning and relations of the
nunnbers by the intercalation of intermediate types.
On the one hand, as the highest expression of the animal
kingdom, we have man. Man is a vertebrate, erect in stature,
with two limbs developed as legs and two as arms; breath-
ing air thn High the medium of lungs: with a highly developed
brain divided into cerebrum and cerebellum, and with a
definite number of nerves connecting with certain organs
and parts; a bony skeleton divided into well-marked regions
— the skull, for example (in which are to be distinguished
the brain-case, the lower jaw directly articulated with the
former, several small car-bones, and the liyoid apparatus),
the limbs, etc. On an examination of the alidiiniino-tliorac-
ic cavity we find, besides an intestinal canal, a pair of lungs
connecting directly with the oral cavity; a quadrilocular
heart; a distinctly differentiated liver ; kidneys for the se-
cretion of urine ; and highly specialized organs of genera-
tion (in the female, in connection with the ovaries, a uterus,
in which the young are for some time borne, and in the male,
in connection with the testicles, certain other very compli-
cated ]iarts).
On the other hand, by far the lowest of the craniata stands
the Lancelel (Jirancliiontoma tanceolala). Although a ver-
tebrate, inasmuch as it has a nervous chord incaseil in a
sheath and separated by a vertebral axis from the abdominal
cavity.it is witliout a distinct head, and has rather the as-
pect of a worm than of a vertebrate ; the body is horizontal,
and ]iointed at both ends; entirely destitute of limb.';, as
well as scapular and [lelvic arches; breathes air through the
medium of water; has no distinctly dilfereiitiated brain (the
several regions in the higher forms not being represented
as distinct elements), and the skeleton is represented by a
simple notoehord or persistent cartilaginous axis, which
ends in a point forward, no skull being developed : the vis-
cera are also few in nuinber; the intestinal canal has a large
perforated pharynx, and thence runs straight and without
lateral curvature backward ; there are no lungs or air-blad-
der; the heart is tubular, and not divided into partitions;
MORPHOLOGY, ANIMAL
MORI'llOLOGY, VKGETAHLE
807
the liver is a iliverticuluin of the intestinal canal; the kiil-
neys are extremely riiUimentary, and the orpins o( fenera-
tion very simple, and scarcely iliffcriug su|>ertioially in the
two sexes.
Such are the extremes exhibited by the menilK-rs of a
universally accepted branch. If we conipare Ihi-se two
iXtrcnics together, it is at first iin[Hissible to perceive any
resenilihince in whole, or even to ri-<-o;,'iiize the similar or
honioliipius parts in each. The statement so often nnide in
popular works that all the representatives of a siiifjle branch
or sulvkinploin are built upon the same pull ern, and that
the <'orn-spiindin;j parts are reproiluced in all, is most evi-
dently falsified by a comparative examination of the animals
ill i|Uestioii. It would lie indeed absolutely im|>iissiljle to
oljlain an ad<'(|uale conception of the corresixindence of
these two forms wi're it not that numerous intermediate
types exist which enable us, by successive stips, to trace the
development of the various orpins and parts. The exami-
nation of these interiiie<liate forms in their adult as well as
in their embryonic condition shows us that not even the
rudiments of several parts exist as such in the inferior tyf)e.
It becomes evident in the course of our examination that
the limbs arc the development of buds which spring from
the side, and these are llrst developed in selachians (sharks.
rays, etc.). The brain becomes {;radually developed and
diilercntiateil into regions, which finally become sul>ordinate
to a central mass (the cerebrum) as we a.scend the animal
scale, and in the lowest form the nerves alone are present to
remind us of the relations of the simjile brain — if so it may
be called — to the si)eciali/.ed orpin of the lii;:her forms.
The notochoril in fimncliio.ifdiiiti does not represent even
potentially the skeleton of the hij^her vertebrates, inasmuch
as in them it is the result not only of development and ossi-
fication of that notochoril, but also of the union therewith
of elements which have oripnated independently of the
axial skeleton: e.g. the skull in the In'trher forms is com-
])oscd of cartilage bones (bones formed in the cartilage), as
well as membniiie bones, and, in jiart at least, the latter are
the homologui's of deriiial plates in the sturgeon I'.nil some
other fishes. The lungs in the higher forms can be readily
connected by regular gradations with the single air-bladder
of fishes; and the relations which that has in the generalized
or lower fishes, as well as its absence in the selachians, mar-
sipobranchiates, and liranchwutoiiia shows that it was primi-
tively a simple diverticulum of the alimentary canal, and
conse(|ueiilly only potentially represiMited by the unditleien-
tiati'd.surfacc of the intestinal canal in JininrhtiiKliiniit. In
that form, likewise, the liver, so distinct in the higher forms,
is represimted by merely a diverticulum of the intestinal
canal, but already sjiecialized, so as to be actually compar-
able with till' liver.
Caimen of Morphological Correspondence. — The "reason
why "of the coincidences thus indicated will naturally lie
called for. The older naturalists assumed that they were in
accordance with a " plan " instituted by the Creator in the
beginning, and that the representatives of the several great
branches or sub-kingdoms of the aninial kingdom were con-
structed after an iileal pattern common and peculiar to the
various memliers of each branch. This, however, was only
another way of exjiressing the fact that the aiiiinals of the
respective groups agree in struclniv. If a " plan " had liecn
predetermined upon, and " patte:-ns" selected for the con-
struction of animals, any deviation therefrom would inilicafe
subjection to a higher power ami failure in ability to carry
into execution the original plan. If, thcR-fore, the plan
would be evidence of prescience, the failure of execution
would prove im|)otence in ratio to the failure. Now, as al-
ready pointeil out, every iy\>c is ileviated from, and innu-
merable except ions interfere with every extensive geiieraliza-
tii>n respecting community of siniclure. The idea of plan,
therefore, not only fails to'give any explanation for morpho-
logical coires|Miiideiice-s, but in its lutual application and
failures is really in antagonism to the conception of divine
creative power. ' The consideratiim of morpludogical prob-
lems has resulted in a geinTal aiioption of the theory lliiit
the correspondences in (piestion an- the n-snlts of generic
ilevelopmeiit from the most geiieralizinl common stiK'ks. that
hoinologv is in all cases the expression of IiIoikI relationship.
This theory, at first a "working hypothesis." is now univer-
sally accepted by students of morphi^logy, U-cause all con-
trarv hvpothcse.s have long since censed to work. For fur-
ther discussi.iii of this subject, sec A.natomv, CoMHArativk;
KioLouY, Skf.i.kton. ZiH"ir,(«iv, etc.
Thkodoke Gill. Abridpv-d by I). S. Jorhas.
28S
Morplioloi;)', Vefretublo: the comparative anatomy of
plants, incluiling a disou'-sion of the Mructure, transforma-
tions, and homologies of their cells, tissues, and external
[mrts. It has often been restricted in Uitanical text-books
to the external parts of the higher plants, but iu modem
biological botany it has the scope here given.
Morphology may well bt-gin with the cell. ' ' iititr
is recognizcil whatever changes of form ami ' ■ un-
dergoes. Whether it> wall be tl"" '•■■ il n or
claliorately marked ; whether it ' j.itcnl
into a mere thread; whether it i i, it«
identity is not lost. Moilern Ixjlunv the fact
that every cell is an orpinism which -.and lie-
comes nuHlified not only by its growth, iMjt by external in-
fluences also. ,S.'e lIiSToLodV ( Vi-getablr).
Ill like manner the tissues and groups of ■■ — n-r-
ogni/.ed as si)ecial iiKxlificatioiis df niii-sses of imi-
lar cells. We may thus study the comparai iiy of
the boundary tissue (epidermis), or of the skeletal tissues
(fibro-vaseular bundles), or of the ma.ss of celU constituting
the bulk of any organ (fundamental lis-iies).
In the study of the external organs of p'aiits many homol-
ogies may Ije recognized. Ihus l»otani>ts now are afile to
reduce all the organs of plants to live categories, viz.,
thalloiues, jihyllonies, cniiloMu-, rlci/nines, and triclMiiies.
Fio. 1. — Transition from tbaltonie to slioot : n, Mrtzoeria ; 6. Cri*ha-
luziu ; c, Fossombrouia iall maguilleij;.
The Tliallome is primitively a row of cells, b.« in the con-
fervas, but it soon becomes several or many celled in cro-ss-
section (as in Eiiteroniorpha). or a flattened mass of one or
more lavers of cells (as in I'lva and some liverworts. Fig.
1, a). l'''rom this condition the passage is easy to the hiiied
form, with an axial portion somewhat difTercntialcd (Fig.
1, b), and finally to the leafy sIkmiI iFip 1. a.
Km. ij.- Some phjrlloroe fomw.
The Ph t/llome is always a lateral menilxr ui>on an axis
(oaulome)," and in iU* simplest fonn is derived rnmi a lolw
of the tliallome. It is therefore primitively a flat strw-
898
MORPHOLOGY, VEGETABLE
MORIUS
ture, which is its usual form in the green leaf, very properly
taken as the type of the phylloiue. Bracts are umlertlevel-
opinents of leaves, although still green : scales are not only
underdevelopments, but their cell-walls have become firmer
(Fig. 3, o) ; the outer floral envelopes (sepals) are usually
similar to bracts, while the inner (petals) usually have a
more delicate tissue, which is rarely green (Fig. 2. h) ; sta-
mens have a petal-like tissue, usually little expanded, bear-
ing pollen-sacs (Fig. 2, c); carpels bear ovules, around which
they fold, making the ovary, or ovule cavity (Fig. 2. d). In
leaf-tendrils and leaf-spines the framework grows much
more than the parenchyma (Fig. 2, e, /).
The Caulome is the axial portion of the plant upon which
the phyllomes are borne. The caulome with its i)hyllomes
is the "shoot." and this is morphologically equivalent to the
thallome. The typical caulome is llie stem, whicli bears or-
dinary leaves. Other forms are runners, which are bract-
bearing, slender, weak, and trailing (Fig. 3, a) : root-stocks,
more or less slender, bearing bracts or scales, and growing
underground (Fig. 3. i): ^/Ae)-«, short and thickened, bear-
ing scales, and growing underground (Fig. 3, c); corms,
short and thickened, leaf-bearing, and subterranean (Pig. 3,
rf); bulb-a.res, short and conical, leaf-liearing. and subterra-
nean (Fig. 3, c): flower-aj-es, short and conical, bearing
bract.s, perianth, stamen.s. and pistils, and aerial (Fig. 3,/);
tendrils, aerial, slender, ilexible, nearly destitute of phyl-
lomes (Fig. 3,^); thorns, aerial, conical, rigid, pointed, and
nearly destitute of pliyllomes (Fig. 3, h, /;).
e^i
Fkj. 3.— Caulome forms.
The Rhizome* is the naked a.\ial portion of the plant,
which is terminated by a " root-cap." The subterranean
roots of ordinary plants are typical, ('ommon modifications
of these are Iheftes/iy roots of many plant.s. Aerial roots
grow in t!ie air, and often have their epidermis peculiarly
thickened, as in the cpipliyti(- orchids. The roots of para-
sites are peculiarly modified to enable them to penetrate
their hosts.
The Trichome is a surface appendage, consisting of one
* The provailinp use of tliis word for n root -stock is itulcft'iisiblp.
Tile root-stock is not a root but a stem, and sliould not l)f nr a nainc
wliich is alisolutely false, thougli sanctioned by lonu usuKe. It is
time that this ancient error was abandoned and the term restored to
its proper application.
or more cells usually arranged in a row, sometimes in a
mass. The typical form is seen in the common hairs of
many plants, especially those on the leaves and stems. (See
ILviKs.) Bristles consisting of a single cell, or a row of
cells, hardened and pointed at the ai)ex ; prickles, still
stronger, and usually with a mass of cells below; scales
(scurf) in which the terminal cell gives rise by fission to a
Hat, dry plate of cells : glattds in which one or more of the
cell.s, usually terminal, secretes a gummy, waxy, or other sub-
stance, are common exaniiilcs of other tricliome forms. In
the root-hairs the single elongated cell (or in the moss-worts
the row of cells) is an organ of absorption. The spore-cases
of the Fern WORTS (g. v.) arc tricliome structures, therefore
the ovules of the fiowering plants must also be regarded as
having the same morphological significance.
See further Botany, Hairs, Histology {Vegetable), and
Leaf. Cuarles E. Bessey. .
Morrill. .Justin Smith: senator; b. at Strafford, Vt.,
Apr. 14, 1810; engaged in mercantile busines,s. and in 1848
became a farmer; was M. ('. from Vermont 185.5-(iT: chair-
man of committee of wavs and means and author of the
Morrill tariff of 1861 : was U. S. Senator 1867-73, and was
re-elected in 1872, 1878, 1884. 1890, and 18!I6. His term ..f
consecutive service in Congress exceeds th;it of any of his
colleagues now (1897) living. He is the author of Self-cou-
sciousness of Noted Persons (Boston, 1880).
Morrill. Lot Myrkk. LL. D. : legislator; b. at Belgrade,
5Ic., May 3. 1813; was educated at \Vaterville College (now
(^'olby University); V)ecame a lawyer in 1839. and removed
to Augusta, Me.; entered the Legislature in 18.")4 ; was
president of State Senate 1850 ; Governor of Maine 1808-60 ;
U. S. Senator 1801-76; and was Secretary of the Treasury
June 21, 1870-Mai'., 1877; declined a foreign mission in
1877; was collector of Portland, Me., from Mar., 1877, till
his death at Augusta, Jan. 10, 1883.
Jlorrillon: city (founded in 1880); capital of Conway
ri>.. Ark. (for location of county, see map of Arkansas, ref.
3-('); on tlic Arkansas river, and the St. L., Iron Mt. and S.
Railway : SO miles N. \V. of Llitle Uock. It has cotton and
grist mills, manufactories of lumber. gla.ss. and furniture,
and a monthly and two weekly newspapers. Pot). (1890)
1,044; (1894) estimated, 2,500. " Editor of " Pilot."
Morris: city; capital of Grundy co.. 111. (for location of
county, see map of Illinois, ref. 3-F) ; on the Illinois river.
tlio Illinois and Jlichigan Canal, and the Chi.. Rock Is. and
Pac. Railroad ; 21 miles W. S. W. of Jolict, 61 miles S. \V.
of Chicago. It is one of the largest grain-markets in the
West, and has extensive mines of bituminous coal in opera-
tion. Th.-re are manufactories of iron novelties, buililers'
luirdware. |)apcr car-wheels, tanned leather, lirick and tile,
oat-meal, and ]ilo\vs: and a Normal and .S'ieiilific School, 2
national banks with combined capital of $125,000, and 2
daily and 3 weekly newspapers. Po|i. (1880) 3.480; (1890)
3,«.'):i ; (1S!)2) 4,99L Editor of " Herald."
Morris: village; capital of Stevens co.. Jlinn. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of !\Iiunesota, ref. 8-B); near the
Pomiue de Terre river, which affords excellent power for
manufacturing, and on the Great N. and the N. Pac. railways ;
1.59 miles N. \V. of St. Paul. 1«0 miles S. W. of Duhith. It
is in a stock-raising and grain-growing region, and lias a
luimlier of picturcsqne lakes in its vicinity aft'ording good
fishing. There are 6 churches, a State high school. 2 pub-
lic-school buildings. 4 large grain elevators, and 2 weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 743 ; (1890) 1,266 ; (1895) 1,417.
Editor of " Sun."
Morris. Alexander, V>. 0. L. : statesman : b. at Perth, On-
tario, Canada. Mar. 17. 1826; was educated at the University
of Glasgow and Mcfiill College, and admitted to the bar in
1851. He sat for Soutli Lanark in the Parliament of Can-
ada 1861-72; for Ka.st Toronto in the Legislative Assembly
of ()ntario 1878-86; was Jlinistcr of Internal Kevenue 1869-
72; chief justice of the court of queen's bench of JIanitoba
1872. and Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba and Northwest
Territories 1872-77. As commissiom'r of Indian alTaii-s for
Manitoba and Northwest Territories, he negotiated treaties
with Saulteaux and Cree tribes of Indians 1873-74 ; acted
as a commissioner for treaties with tlie Indians of Lake
Winnipeg region in 1875. ami with the Plain frees at Forts
Carlton and Pitt in 1876. and was appointed (187(!) a coni-
missioner to investigate conllicting claims to lands in Mani-
toba. Both as a speaker and writer he contributed much
toward the adoption of the policy of confederation of the
MORKIS
81)9
prnvinces. He wrote Treaties of Canada \cilh Iiuliam
(1»W), uiid jS'uva liritannica (1S84). D. at Turuiito, \HW.
Nkil Mac'Iminald.
Morris, Clara: ai-trcss; b. at C'levolainl. ()., alwmt 1H46.
Shi' n'ccived tlic first elenieiits of drmiiutic cilucutioii as a
niciiiher of the ballot corps ut the Academy of Jliisiu in her
native city. In istl'j she phiyeil jnvcnile parts at \Vo(j<l's
theater in ('in<-innali, and wa.saflerward leadin;^ huly tliere.
Slie then went to Xew Y rk, and appeareii at the olil
Fifth Avenue theater, where she excited admiration by her
iin|icrsonation of Annie Sylvester in Man ami Wifi: ' Her
success was still <;reater in /)imrce. Article .',T. The (ienera
CroHK, Alijte. (Jami/le, anil Miin Muultim. In XHVA shi' nuide
a tour throujrh the western part of the U. .S., and in ly«0
fullilled an enf;ai,'ennMit in San Franeiisco. For about ten
years she was compelled freipientlv to retire teniporarilv
from the slaj,'e tliroufjh ill-healtli. She regained her
stren;;tli, and has traveled with her own c<inipany on the
Pacilic coast and in the Northwest with ;,'real su<-cess. In
the spring of lHiJ4 she plaved an enjja^^ement in New Vork.
Her [)resent repertorv is limileil to a few plays, incliidinjc
Vamille, lieni'e, and )li.in Mimlton. Her forte is the emo-
tional rather than the passionate, and amouf; the emotions
more especially those of sorrow, {jrief, and sufTiM-int;.
Uevised by 11. B. Valli;.ntixk.
Morris, Kowix Dafvdd, D.I)., LL. D. : minister; b. at
I'tica, N. v., (><l. ;il, ls-.>.5; sradualed at Vale C'idlege in
18411 and at Avd)urn Theoloj;ical Seminary in 18o2 ; was
pastor of the Second I'resbylerian church. Auburn, N. V.,
IH.V.J-.'i.^ ; of the Second I'resliyterian church. Columbus, (».,
IH.'J.J-GT; was Professor of Church History l«(iT-T4: and has
been Professor of Theology in Lane TheoloKieal Seminary
since 1.ST4, He was moderator of the General .\ssenibly at
Cleveland in IS?."); delcfjate to the cinincils of |{i-formed
Churchis (Pan-Presbyterian) in Kdinlmrnh 1877, I'liihulel-
phia 1S,S0, and HelfasI 1884; and is (1S!)4) a mend)er of the
commillee on the ri-vision of the Confession of Faith. He
has contributed articles to various reviews, and has pub-
lished Outlines of Clirinlia>i Doctrine (Cincinnati, 18.8(); fur
use in his clajvscs); Eeclesiology (New York, 1884) ; Salra-
tion after Death (1887) ; A Defense of Lane Seni inari/ ( I8i)3);
and has edited Scripture Headings (1886). C. K. HoVT.
Morris. (iKOROK Popk: journalist and sons-writer; b. in
Philadelphia, Oct. 10, 180'2: rcmove<l in early life to New
York, wlieri- ho soon bejj.'m to write for the press; published
the New York Mirror, in connection with .Sauuiel Wood-
worth, 18-.>:!-4'i; was the associate of N. P. Willis in pub-
lishing The .\,ir Mirror (184:1). The Eveninq Mirror, as-
sisteilbv N. P. Willis and Hiram Fuller (1844). The Sa-
tiunal Fre.-is (184.">-4t)). and, assisted by N. P. Willis, The
Home Journal (184()-64). .Morris wrote a luimber of popu-
lar songs, includini; Woodman, S/mre that Tree, My Mother's
liible. We were liotjs Together, aiul Xear the Lake irhere
Droops the Willow. A coni|)lete edition of his /'«»■«(<( ap-
peared in 1860. D. in Xew Y Ork, .Inly 0, 1804.
Revised by II. A. Bekrs.
Morris, Georoe Sylvester : philoso|)hical writer ; b. at
Norwich, Vt., Nov. 15, 1840; graduated with highest hon-
ors at Dartmouth College 1861; served in the I'uion army
during the civil war; was tutor at Dartmouth 186:{-64;
studied theology and spent several years in Oermany. chief-
ly in philosoplucal stuilies; translateii L'eberweg's //i«^ory
of Phitosuphi/. with additions (1871), and became I'rofessor
of Modern Languages and Literature in the I'niversity of
Michiiran 1x70 ; resiu'ned this position in Feb., 1880, ana in
the followiiu; year wius appoiuled Prnfessiirof Louie. Klhii's,
and the History of Philosophy in the same institution;
from 1878 to 188.'> was lectun-r on Kthics ami the History of
Philosojihy in the .Johns Hopkins I'niversily, Ualtinion\
Md. Ho wrote on philosophical topics in various n'views
and in the Transactions of the Victoria Institute, London,
and was the aulhorof the following works: lirilish Thought
and 7'/ii/i/.'7-.v (Chicau'o. 1880); eilili'd (trigi;'s /'/iiViMonAiro/
(7(i'i.<i>.i ((ienuan), for which he wrote two works; Kant's
Critique of I'lire lii-axon : a Critical Exposition (Chicago,
1883) ; Philosophi/ and < 'hristinniti/. being the Klv lje<'lures
for 188;} (New York, 18.8:!): and llegefs Philosophy of the
State anil of History (Chicago, 1RS7). D. at Ann .\rbor,
Mich., IM.ir.'W, 1,><.8<). Revised by W. T. Harris.
Morris. CiOfVERXEfR: lawyer ami statesman ; b. at Mor-
risania, N. Y. (now in New S'ork citv). .Ian. Ml, 17.V2; was
of a wealthy family which priMlueeil many distinguisheil
public men of New York; grsiluHtcd at King's (uon
bia) College, N. Y.. 1708 ; was admitted to the bar
Coluni-
in 17TI;
was in tile provincial congress of New York 177'); a.vii<t4.-<l
in drafting the Slate i-ousiilulioii 1776: was in tjie Conti-
nental Con^rress 1777-80; U-came in 1781 as.sislanl xuiH-riii-
tendent of liiuince and afterward w.ts Roliert Morris's part-
ner in mercantile business; wiis one of the committee which
ilrafted the Federal Constitution 1787; was engaged in
business in France 1788-1I1; L'. S. at'enl in I^milon 17!il ;
niinister to France 171KJ-1I4; was l'. S. Senator IWXMKi,
ilisplaying reinarkalde ability and e|o(|ni'ni'>' : ^' '^ ' f the
falliersof the .New York canal system, and | f the
camil conimis.sioii 1810-16; author of imm. r , etc.
U. at Morrisania. N. Y., Nov. 6. 1816. Se Sparks. Mnnoirs
of Oouverneur Morns, with .Selections from his Papers and
Correspondence Ci vols., Boston. 1K)2); Rih.mv.||, The Diary
and Letters of (iuiiverneur Morris (1888) ; A nun- Carv Mor-
ris, The Diary and Letters of (iourmieur Morris ci vols.
188'J).— His elder brother Lkwis (b. 172«, d. .(an. 22. 17a8)
was one of the signers of the Declaration of Ini|e|M-niienee.
Morris, .Ions (ioiTLiEii. I). D.. LL. I). ; dergvman and
author; b. at York. Pa.. Nov. 14. 180:i: graduated at Dick-
inson College, Carlisle, 182;!; studied iheology at Princeton,
N. .1., aiul tiettysburg. Pa., having been a meiiJlM-rof the first
class in the latter seminary ; fonuileii the first Knglish Lu-
theran church in Baltimore, Md.. and was its iiaslor 1826-
•VJ, and after intervals was |ia-.ti>r iif Luther cna|Kd in the
same city, anil at Lutherville. Mil. He was the first libra-
rian of the Peabody Institute in Baltimore, and upon him
chiclly ilev<dved the selection of the beginning of the large
and valuable library, as well as its thorough organization.
From his entrance into the ministry he was prominent in
all movements connected with the .\nu-ricani/A^l |iortion!i
of the Lutheran Church. He was a member of the first
board of trustee-s of Pennsylvania College in 18.'^2, and de-
livered ainuially a course of littures on the connection l<«-
tweeii s<-ience and revelation, and on elocution in the Theo-
logical .Seminary of that institution. He was the founder
and in 1831-32 the first editor of ne Lutheran Oltsenvr,
and a constant contributor to the weekly church pa|iers.
He also wrote fre(|ucnlly for The Erangelical and The
(Quarterly Prviews (tiettysburg). He was the author of u
nuudHT of volumes, especiallv Popular Ex/stsition of the
Oo.ipels {\SM)r. Life ot J(din Arndl {\y<i:i) : /Hind tii'rl of
Wittenberg (18.'i6); To Home and Hack Again (1858);
(JuainI Sayings and Doings concerning IjUlher (18,">!();
liihliothecu Lutherana (1876); Fifty Years in the Lutheran
Ministry (1878); translation of A'oestliu's Life of Luther
(188;!); Lives of C. A. O., T, and C. A. Stork (l'8><«). In
181(3 he organized the .\eiulemy of Luthenin Chun'h His-
tory, and presided at its first sessions in Philadelphia in
Mar., 181)4. Dr. Morris also gave esjiecial attention to en-
tomology, and wrote two volumes on the fjepidoplera of
North America, published by the Smithsonian Institution
(1860-61). He was a contributor to Silliman's Journal,
nnd a member from the iK'giiining of the .\uierican Assu-
eiation for the Ailvaucemeiit of .Sieuce, and wits the presi-
dent of the .Marvland Historical .Societv. D. in Luther-
ville, Md., Oct. W, 181t5. Hkxrv K. .Ia<ob.s.
.Morris. Lewis: poet; b. at Cannartheu, Wales, in lxi4.
He was educated at .lesus College, Oxfonl, and graduated in
18.'>5. He wasadmitttsl to the bar in 1.861, and prftctice«i law
till IK8I. In 1877 he was elected honorary fellow of .(■■sus
College and secretary of Cniversity Colle;,i>. Wales. He is
a n-sident of Carmarthenshiri' and a iusti<e of the |H'«ee for
that ciMinly. He has sIikkI twice for Parliauc " ' • 'uc-
eessfully. He has p\ili|ished Songs of '/'ir.
second s.ries 1874 ; third s<Ties IvT". 7V,,
■les
-0);
.0/
11. .\. i;i.i.K.s.
(1876); (iwen : a Drama (I871()
Soni/s I'nsuni/ ilXHil); tlyria: a 1
Britain (18s7); .1 Vision of .Saints ,1.->!IU
Morris. Riciiard, LL. D. : philol.igi-t : b, at Bermondsov.
r^mdon, Kni;land.Sept.8, 18;t;t; » i at St. John s
College, Balters<>a: was a|>|K>int(-<: 11 the KnclLsh
Ijinguage and Liieratur.' in Kint;- 1 \pr.,
186i(; wits opiained curate of Christ 1 >.41,
1871 ; was el. • ' ' ' '■ •■ ■■' " ■ -"■
tution for !'■
one of the 111
Knt'b'h Text, nnd the I'liiioio^'icnl .->.. oil. s. ni.d Wiis
clios<n president of the latter in 1874. He publi«hi><| The
Eli/nodiM/y of Local yames (1857); .S/»riiHriM of Early
A'iii//M/i (186*7); Historical Outlines of English Arcidmre
900
MORKIS
MORRISON
(1872) ; Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar
(1874); Primer of English Grammar (1875): Report on
Pali Literature (1880); Folk-tales of India (1884-85). an<l
other volumes. Jle lias eilitcd for the publishing societies
numerous earlv texts, among which are Earli/ English Al-
literative Poems (1865) ; Chaucer's Poetical iVorks (1866) ;
Selections from Cfiaucer's Canterbury Tales (1867) ; Old
English Homilies (1867-73); Spenser's Works (1861)); Leg-
ends of the Holy Pood (1871) ; Ciir.ior Mundi (1874-75). D.
Way 12, 1894. Revised by H. A. Beers.
Morris. Robert : financier : b. Jan. 31, 1734. A native
of England, he was taken by his father to North America in
1747. and after serving in the counting-house of Charles
Willing in Philadelphia until 1754. formed a partnership
with that gentleman's son, which continued with great suc-
cess until 1793. Jlorris strongly opposed the .Stamp Act.
and against his business interests signed the non-importation
agreement of 1705. In 1776 lie was a delegate to the Con-
tinental Congress, and voted against the Declaration of In-
dependence, but signed that paper o:i its adoption, and was
twice re-elected to Congress. Throughout the war the serv-
ices of Mr. Morris in aiding the Government in its linaiieial
difficulties were of incalculable value ; he freely pledged his
jiersnnal credit for supplies for the army, at one time to the
amount of $1,400,000, without which the campaign of 1781
would have been almost impossible; he also established the
Bank of North America, in 1781 was appointed superin-
tendent of finance, and held the post until 1784, continuing
to employ his personal- credit to facilitate the needs of his
department. Subsequently he was a member of the Penn-
sylvania Legislature, of the convention which framed the
Federal Constitution, and from 1789 to 1795 was U. S. Sen-
ator, declining in the meantime the proffered post of Secre-
tary of the Treasury, and suggesting the name of Alexander
Hamilton for that oflice. After engaging in the China
trade, he in his later years became involved in land specul.a-
tions which resulted ruinously, and three years and a half
were passed in confinement for debt. D. in Philadelphia,
May 8, 1806. See Prof. W. G. .Sumner, Financier and Fi-
nances of the American Reviilution (New York, 1891); also,
bv same author, Robert Morris in Makers of America Series
(Sew York, 1893).
Morris, William : poet and artist ; b. at Walthamstow,
near London, England, in 1834; was educated at the Forest
School, Walthamstow, at ^larlliorough, and at Exeter Col-
lege. Oxford; studied painting, but in 1863 devoted himself
to the designing and maimfaclure of artistic household fur-
niture, wall-paiier, stained glass, and other decorations. In
1858 he published a small volume entitled The Defense of
Guinevere, and Other Poems, and in 1867 The Life and
Death of Jason, a narrative poem. His principal work. The
Earthly Paradise, consisting of legendary and romantic
tales in verse, appeared in four parts in 1868-71 : Love is
Enough ; or, the Freeing of Pharamond, a morality, ap-
peared in 1873; The ^Eneid of Virgil, translated into Eng-
lish verso (1876); and The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and
the Fall of the JViblunt/s, a. \joeva (1877). In collaboration
with Erick Magnussonlie has translated from the Icelandic
The Story of Grettir the Strong (1869); The Story of the
Votsungs and lite Nihlungs (1870); Three Northern Love
Stories {IH7^>) ; in 1S87 appeared a prose translation of the
Odyssey; in 1HS9 '/'he lliiiixe of the Wotfings; and in 1S90
The Roofs of t/te Mountains. In 1890 he began to [>ublish
English versions of the Sagas. In 1882 he published Hopes
and Fears for Art, five lectures delivered during the ilve
preceding years in London, Birmingham, and Nottingham.
lie later became a leading s|)irit in the .Socialist League and
a contributor to Tlie Commonweal. A volume of socialist
lectures. Signs of Change, appeared in 1888. I), in London,
Oct. 3, 1896. Revised by H. A. Bkkrs.
Morris, WiLi.HM W.vltox: soldier; b. at Bfillston Springs,
N. Y., Aug. 31, 1801 ; graduated at West Point 1820; pro-
moted second lieutenant Sixth Infantry ; transferred to the
artillery 1824; served against the Ariekaree Indians 1823;
was major of mounted Creek volunteers in the .Seminole war
1836-37; was breveted for gallant conduct, and during nine
years' garrison duty (1837--40) gained a brilliant refjutation
as a military lawyer; was attached to the' judge-a(lvocato's
department of (ien. Taylor's army im the Hio Grande 1846 ;
wasactively engaged in the battlesof Palo Altoand Resacade
la Palma; was made prefect of police and alcalde of Tam-
|iico on the occupation of that port, and of Puebla 1847-48;
in garrison New York harbor 1850-56 ; in Florida 1856-57 ; on
frontier duty in Kansas 1857-58; and in Minnesota 1859-61.
He was in coninnind at Fort Mcllenry, BaUimore, 1860-61,
where he promptly brought his guns t(j bear im the rioters
in the memorable affray of Apr. 19, 1H61. He was promoted
to a lieutenant-colonelcy May 14, 1861, and shortly after-
ward refused to answer a writ of habeas corpus granted by
a Maryland judge, (m the ground that it had become invalid
by the outbreak of hostilities. He was made full colonel of
the Second Artillery Nov. 1 of the same year, brevet
brigadier-general in the regular army .lune 9, ltS62, and
brevet major-general Dec. 10, 1865. He remained in com-
mand of Fort McHenry throughout the war, and died there
Dec. 11, 1865. Revised by Ja.mi:s Merclr.
Morrisliiirs': port of entry of Dundas County, Ontario,
Canada; on tlie St. Lawrence, at the foot of the RapideduPlat
Canal, and on the Grand Trunk Railway ; 92 miles above
Montreal and opposite the village of Waildinglon, N. Y. (see
map of Ontario, ref. 2-1). It has fine water-power, well im-
proved, and does a large shijiping business. Pop. (1891)
1,859.
Morris Dniioe [probably Moorish dance] : a rude dance
common in England in the Middle .\ges, and even now oc-
casionally performed in the rural districts. The dragon or
hobby-horse, Robin Hood, Jlaid JIarian, and other fan-
tastic characters often bore a part in it. It was generally
performed by young men gaudily decorated with colored
ribbons and using bells, castanets, swiu'ds, etc.
Morris Island : a low, narrow sand-island on the south
side of the entrance into Charleston harbor. South Carolina,
a little more than 3J miles long, lying broadside to the
ocean. Soon after the outbreak of the civil war (1861) the
Confederates erected Fort Wagner and several batteries on
Morris island as part of the exterior line of defenses for
Charleston. The south end of the island was captured by
an assault made from small boats by Union forces, July 10,
1863, and two unsuccessful assaults upon Fort Wagner,
located near the north end of the island, followed July 11
and 18, the object being to get within effective breaching
distance of Fort Sumter, occupying an interior line aliont
2,700 yards distant from Fort Wagner. After the assault of
the 18th, it was determined to retluce Fort A\'agner by a
regiiliir siege and this was prosecuted vigorously, a fourth
parallel being established Aug. 21 at an average of 300 yards
from Port Wagner. On the 26th a sand-ridge about 100
yards in advance of the fourth parallel ami 200 yards from
Port Wagner was carried by assault, and the fifth parallel
established thereon. Between this parallel and the fort the
island narrowed to about 30 yards in width and 2 feet in
depth above high water. The navy occu]iied the main
channel abn'ast the island, and co-operated in keeiiingdown
the fire from the fort. The trenches were inished forward
by the evening of Sept. 6 to the outer edge of the ditch on
the side next the sea, completely masking the enemy's guns,
and orders were given to carry the place by assault on the
following morning. During the night the enemy evacuated
the fort, and Morris island came into possession of the Union
forces. See Bombardment.
Morrison: city (founded in 1855); capital of Whiteside
CO., 111. (tor location of county, see maji of Illinois, ref.
2-D): on the Chi. and N. W.' Railway ; 124 miles W. of
Chicago. It is in an agricultural, dairying, and stock-rais-
ing region ; contains 6 churches, a large graile<l school, pub-
lic library and museum, a natiimal bank with capitiil of
$100,000, a private bank, and 2 weekly newspapers; and
has water-works sujiplying natural-spring water, thorough
sewerage, electric-light plant, and several niaimfuctories.
Pop. (1880) 1,981 ; (1«90) 2,088; (1894) estimated, 2.500.
Editor of " Sentinel."
Morrison. Robert, D. D., P. R. S. : first Protestant mis-
sionary to China ; b. at Morpeth. Norlhuniberland, England,
of Scottish parentage, Jan. 5, 17S2; hail b\it an elementary
education, but in 1803 succeeded in gaining admittance to
the Independent Academy at Iloxlon; in 1804 entered the
mission college of Gosport; in 1807 was sent by the London
Jlissionary Society to Canton, and in 1808 was aiipointed
translator to the East India Company's factory there. While
in that position he jiublished a Chinese grammar ami trans-
lated th(^ Hible into Chinese, the New Testament apjiearing
in 1814 and the Old, exe<Mited with the collaboration of
.^lilne, in 1818. Ho next founded, at Malacca, an Anglo-
Chinese college, which in 1845 was removed to Hongkong.
In 1823-26 he visited England, where he created a great in-
J
MORRISON"
MOltSKLLI
901
terest for the Pnitostiiiit mission in C'liiiin. Iinmerlintclv
after liis ri'lurii to Ciuitoii, in 1H27. he entered upon new
liliTiiry urulertukinsjs in lielmlf of the mission. Ilistjreatest
literiiry work is liis I'hinese dietionary (."> vols.), printeil at
the expensi' of the Kust Inilian Company in Maiiio (l.sl.j-iJ),
a work of fjreat industry and scholarship, thou};h now su|M'r-
seded l>y hiter works of the same kind. He dietl in Canton,
Aus:. 1, 1834. His Miinoirs. eompih'd liy his widow with
critieal notices of his Chinese works by Samuel Kidil. a|>-
peared in London 118:}il, 2 vols.). See liis l^ifr. bv S. Wells
\Villiains in the A/'iv.s nf thr Leaders iif tlir ( 'hiirrh I'ltivrr-
sal ( I'hiladelpliia. ISTll, "pp. 81'J-«:J7) ; also W. T. Towiisend's
Jiohirl Miirrisim (Cliieajjo and New York, 1888).
Morrison, William Rails: leffislator; b. in Monroe co..
III.. .Sept. 14, ISi.'i ; was educated in the common schools
ami at .McKendree CoUefre, Illinois; was admitted to the
bar; was clerk of the circuit court; was four terms member
and one term Speaker of Illinois Ilouse of Repn-.sentalives;
member of Con;;ress lH(i;i-6.^ and 187:!-87. He was the
leailer of the tarilT-nfnrm Democrats in ('on;;res.s, an<l was
apjiointed an interstate commerce commissioner bv Presi-
dent Cleveland Mar. 22, 1887.
Morrisfowii : city ; capital of Morris Co., \. J. (for loca-
tion of courilv, see map of New Jersey, ref. 2-l>) ; on the I>el.,
Lack. aii<t \S est. Railroad ; :iO miles W. of New York city.
It is one of the oldest places in the State : was twice the
headquarters of the American army iluriiig the Revolution-
ary war, and h.is a memorial monument on the site of Fort
Nonsense, which WiushiuKton had built on top of one of the
surroundiu)^ hills. The buildinj; occupied by Washington
as his headciuarti'is in 1780 was built in 1772. was purchased
by Ihe Wasliin^lon .\ssociation of New .lereey in IS7:{, and
contains priceless relics of Revolutionary days. The cilv is
in the great .Morris County peach and rose belt, has an eleva-
tion of nearlv 7(K) feet alx>ve sea-level, and is the home of
many New Vork business men. At Morris Plains. 4 miles
from the city, is the New Jersey State Lunatic Asylum, the
larsjest instilntion of its kind in the U. S. wlii'n completed,
which cost |2,.")(>(MI00, and has accommodations for l.(KK)
patients. The city has U churches. Vouuf; Men's Chrislian
Association buildinj;, Youn}; Men"s Catholic Association
buildinj;, 2 graded pulilic schools, 3 parochial schools, .St.
Elizibeth's convent, 2 semimiries for young ladies, a classic-
al school for boys, public library with over IfMKtO vciluines
and lyceum luill, 2 hos|iitals (founded by Mrs. Hrooktield
and the Very Rev. Dean Klynn). 2 national banks witheom-
bineil capital of .'?:!IM),(MX). a savings-bank, a pul)lic park con-
taining a soldlei°s° uionument. and a monthly and 4 weeklv
periodicals. Pop. (1880) 0,418 ; (18!)0) t^.VtH : (\X'X>) 10,2!to;
Editor of " Lvk.mxo K.ni'rms."
Jlorristnnii : town; capital of Hamblen co., Tenn. (for
location of county, sec map of Tennessee, ref. (}-J); near the
Holston river, and on the Kast Tenn., Va. and Oa. and the
Mor. anil Cumlwr. (lap railways: 42 miles X. K. of Knox-
ville. It is in an agricultural and mineral region; has ex-
tensive quarries of variegated marble: and contains flour-
mills, stove-foundrv, sash and blind and wagon factories,
and 3 perioilicals. 'Pop. (1*80) l.:J50; (18!K>) l.llitO.
Morse, Kdward Svlvkster, Ph. D. : biologist : b. in Port-
land. .Me.. June 18. 1838; was educated in Lawrence Sci-
cnlilic School, Cambridge, Miuss. ; from 1800 (o 1871 he lived
in Salem, Mass., where he aided in founding the Pialiody
Academy of Sciences, of which he has U'cn curator since
1881, and in establishing The American Aatiiralint, of
which he became an editor; was Professor of Comparative
.\natomy and Zoology iir Howdoin Collej;e, Maine, 1871-74 :
Professor of Zoology in the Impc-rial L niviTsity of Tokio,
Japan, 1877-7!*: president of Amerii-an .VssiM-ialion for .\d-
vaiieement of Science lS.'<,>-87. He is the author of Terres-
Irial Piilmoiiifera of Maine (1804); Earli/ Slai/iH of Terr-
brahilina (1870); Enihri/olnf/i/ of Terebrnlnlina (1872);
Tarsus and Carpiin of liirds ( 1872) ; Systrmafir I'osiliun of
Ihe lirachiiipiiils (1873); First Honk in Zooloipj {\'f<'T\: trans,
into (ierman and Japanese) ; Shell-moumls of (hnori ( lN7!t) :
Karhj Hare of Man in rfa/tftn (187!)): Asrendituj }*roress of
Ihe Aslrai/aliis in liirds (1S,S0); AnrienI and Modern Meth-
ods of Amur lie/ease (1885); Japanese llomis and Ihiir
Surroundliiiis (1S.><()); On the Older Forms of Terra-colla
Hoofiny 'y'lVi-A- (18!t2). C. H. Tiurhkr.
Morse. Richarp Carkv : general secn'tary of the Ameri-
can international committee of Young .Men's Christian
Associations; b. in New York city.Sept. Ill, 1841 ; griuluatwl
at Yale College in 18(il ; studie.1 at Prini-elori and I'nioii
Thmlogieal .Seminaries: wits co[iniM'ti-<l etiitorinlly with TItf
S'ew York Oliserrer, of which his father. Rev. !{'. C. Mi>r«-,
had been a founder, until IHtl!). vlnn he was calli-<l to the
editorship ..r n- < ■■ " '" I f i|„. ,.„r|v
IM-riiKJicals iiubli Mimitle.-. T*'<t
vears later he wii- . i:,i\ -l.ir. ,,f i|,c
international conunittee. The t iinstiaii .\ were
few in number at that time, and must of ; verv
weak. The wonrh-rful growth of the work in .Noilli .Viiierick
since then has lieen luruely due to his efforts. He was for
years the C. S. representative uihiii the world's comniitl<f.
Monte, Samiel Fixi.kv Hkkk-e, LL. D. : inventor, ■•aitiler,
and author; b. in Charh-stown, Ma-s-^., .\i.r. 27. 17»1; was
the son of a clergyman ; was educated at Vali- College, tak-
ing his bachelor's degree in IhU). He d,-,.j,|,.,l to Ixcoine a
|)ainter, and went to Umthjn in 1811 with Washington .\ll-
ston to study in the Royal Academy iiiidir Henjamin West.
culj>-
ture, J he Di/inff Ilernihs. Returning to the f. S. in IMl.'i, ho
In 1813 he received tlieg'olil medal fo'r liis first ell
Mam in W ■
llorl ill wu
followed hisprofes>ion.at the same time pr
entilic stuilies. for which he hail great foiidi-
of the foumlers of the National Academy ol 1 '. ... ,.
York, and was its annually elected president for manv
years. He was one of the first pmfessors of tlie I'niversity
of the City of New York, filling the chair of Fine .Arts. In
183.'>, in his rooms in the university, he set uji his nnle tele-
graphic apparatus, but it was not till 1844 that he was en-
abled to bring his invention fully iM^fore the world. Hv the
aid of the (iovernment h.^ established a telegraphic line l>e-
tween Washington and Haltiiiiore, a distance of 40 miles.
Over this line, on May 24, IH44, from the riKims of the U.S.
Supreme Court, a message was sent to Ittdtiniore, instanta-
neously received, ami immeiliately returne<l. From this
moment the triunifih of Prof. Morse was complete. He be-
caiiii' a inemlier of many learned soc-ieties in Kuro|>e and
Ihe L'. S., and the recipient of the most flattering fori-igii
di.^tiiKtions. and at a congnss of representatives of ten of
the governments of Kuro|>e, s]>i'cially conveni-il f>ir the pur-
pose in Paris in 18.58. at the suggestion of the Fmi-eror
Napoleon, it was unanimously decided that the sum of 4<J0,-
(MIO francs should be pres<>nied to him. He wrote contro-
vei-sial pamphlets, poems, and magazine articles, and pub-
lished Foreii/n Conspiracies ai/ainsi the Liberties of Ihe
I'nited Slates (IXti) and a few other works. I». in New
York citv. .\\>r. 2. 1H72. .See his Life, by .Samuel Ireiia-us
Prime (N'ew York, 1875). Revised W RussKLL Sti'Sgis.
Morse. Siuxev Ekwarhs : journalist ; brother of Samuel
F. 15. Mors<' : b. at CharleiJown, Mas.s., Feb. 7, 17!M : gradu-
ated at Yale College in 1811; wrote for The I'oliimhian
Sentinel 1812-13; studiiil law in Judge Reeves's .s<ho<)l at
Litchfield, Conn.; established in 1815 The Uoslon Herorder.
the first religious newspa|KT in the V. S. ; was , '
with his brother in inventing and patenting i'
piston-puni[i IH17 ; piildishe<l a mIhhiI geography .--■ ;
a larger geographical treatise 1^22: founded in .May. 1S23,
with his younger lirother, Richani C. .Mors<>, The Seir York
Obsentr. the first religious newspa|>er, ami now the oldest
weekly newspajier in N'ew York ; invenltMl with Henry A.
Munson the cerographic method of printing ma|is in ikfit;
brought out the Aurth American Alias. \\n- I'niversnl At-
las, anil a new schiKil gengrapliy. of whirh KMI.OIIO copies
Were sold; remained senior editor of The Dhserrer until
IKIS ; s|K>nt his later years in inventing and iinjiroving a
■• liathometer " for det'|>-sett soundings. D. in New York,
Dec. 24, 1871.
.Morse : See WALRf.s.
MorseHi. E.vrico .Xnosnxo, M.D. : alienist; li. at Mode-
na, Italy, July 17, 1852; grndualiil .M. D. at the Fniversiiv
of Minleiia in 1^74: studii-d iH.yehin.ry iimliT l.ivi in Rei.'-
gio and ant' '.■'■■' i"
seqnently I"
Asylum, and ■ i-
in that city. lb
di frenialrin f di
i*o di itsiehiatria. antnifmtiinjta rri»«imi#r f 'i«i/i
in lss,i. He is the miihor t.f a n<imlx-r "f i>" hikI
neuroh
men'
ride ; or, i.^.-i' / ■ • -
York. 1>*><'.'1: Ma fait
(.Milan, I'>'v-m; //
S, T. AaHstKuxo.
yo2
MOKTALITV
MORTGAGE
Mortality [Ijiit. morla litas. from mor/alis] : liability or
teiuioncy to deatli : as foiiiiiioiily used, the ratio of deaths
to population during a year, stated as being a certain num-
ber— sueh as 16 or 20 — jier 1,000, by which is meant that
out of each thousand of the mean or average poi)ulation of
the place during the year, 16 or 20 died during the year.
This ratio is also called the death-rate. For methods of
ascertaining the mortality of particular localities or groups
of men, and the conclusions to be drawn from comparisons
of such mortalities, see IjIkk-instrance, Vital Statistics,
and Lo.Nuiivrrv. In medii'al and hospital statistics, nuir-
tality is used to signify the ratio between the number of
cases of a particular disease and the number of deatlis oc-
curring in those eases. For example, the mortality of Asi-
atic cliolera is said to be about 50 per cent, of the cases; of
yellow fever, from 15 to 50 per cent, in different epidemics ;
of typhoid fever, from 10 to 20 per cent. ; of smallpox in
un|)rotected persons, from 25 to 30 per cent. ; of scarlet fever,
from 5 to 20 per cent, in different epidemics : of diphtheria,
from 10 to 25 per cent. ; of pneumonia. 25 per cent. ; and of
women iu childl)irth, from 0'2 to 0'6 per cent., meaning al-
ways percentage of the number of cases observed.
J. S. Billings.
Mortars [so called from resemblance to a mortar in
which substances are pounded with a pestle] : short cannon
for throwing shells, usually fired at angles from 35° to 45°
elevation, called " vertical fire," iu contradistinction to the
fire of long cannon, usually made at low angles. Jlortars
are believed to have been the first guns used, and, though
changed from age to age frequently in form of chamtier,
size, and projectile, in all ages t liey have been found too use-
ful in their special way to be given up, or, until very recently,
to be essentially altered. The " Coeborn " mortar — so called
from the faiiujus Dutch engineer, Gen. C'oehorn, who first
proposed them in 1674 — is to-day in use, of the pattern
and for the service then suggested. Monster mortars have
been constructed from time to time, in the hope of jiro-
ducing immense destruction in bomljardments with single
shells each containing a large quantity of powiler. (See Bom-
bardment.) The monster mortar maile by Mallet for the
British Government, weighing 114,000 lb., with a bore of 36
inches and a shell of 2,912 lb., failed to be of any service ;
13-inch seacoast mortars and 8-ineh and 10-inch siege mor-
tars are calibers still in use in the U. S. and some other
countries. These are smooth-bores firing spherical projec-
tiles. Recently, however, gi'eat improvements have been
made in mortars by lengthening tliem and rifling the bore,
until they are really more properly rijled howitzers than mor-
tars. They are designed, however, for " vertical fire," are
accurate, and have long range, are made of all caliljcrs up
to 13 inches or larger, fire elongated projectiles with any
desired velocity up to 1,000 feet or more. The projectile's
are loaded with large charges of gunpowder or high explo-
sives, and are capable of producing very destructive effects.
The mortars of 12-inch caliber have been introduced largely
in the proposed armaments of the U. S. seacoast defenses.
Revised by James Mercur.
Morta r- vessels : ve.ssels strongly built for the purpose
of carrying mortars for bombardment. The boml)-ketch
was of this class, but is now disused. Sometimes steam-ves-
sels are employed. In the <-ivil war in the U. S. a class of
wide, light-draught schooners, carrying each a 15-iuch mor-
tar and a 32-11). rifle gun, were used ujion the lower Missis-
sippi river. Against Island No. 10 mortar-vessels of an-
other class were used. See Bo.mbardment.
Morte d'Artliiir: See Mai.orv, Sir Thomas.
Mortgage | (adapted to Fr. mortgaged) from 0. Fr. mnr-
grigf, liler.,ilead pledge ; morl, dead + gage, pledge] : a term
used in law. It will be considered under two principal di-
visions : 1. Mortgages of land ; II. Mortgages of chattels.
I. A mortgage of land is. when regular in its form, a con-
veyance of laud for the purjiose of securing the payment of
a debt or the perfonnaiice of an act at a specified time,
with a condition that if the payuu'nt is made or the act
I)erformed at the time ami in the nuide prescribed, the con-
veyance shall be void. On the other hand, if payment, etc.,
is not made, the conveyance, strictly speaking, becomes ab-
solute in the mortgagee. By the rules of the common law
the enforcement of the condition was rigorous if redemp-
tion was not made on the sti[)ulaled day, no nuitter how in-
significant tlie debt might lie, (jr how great might lie tlie
value of the mortgaged estate. Furthermore, notwith-
standing the fact that the mortgagee had acquired an abso-
lute title to the property by the failure of the mortgagor to
pay the debt on the day named, the debt still renuiiiied un-
paid, and an action could be bi-ought to recover the same
at law. This was a necessary result of treating the mort-
gage, not as a security for a debt, but as a conveyance of
properly, title to which the grantor might reacquire by
performing a stated condition. It was not until the courts
of equity gained a strong foothold that any nuidification of
the severity of this doctrine took place. The right of rc-
demjition has now become jiositively settled, and is regarded
to be inherent iu the very nature of a mortgage. The pres-
ent theory in a court of equity is that a mortgage is a mere
security for a debt, and that, acco xlingly, any attempt on
the part of t!ie creditor to obtain more than his debt and in-
terest from the land is in the nature of a jienalty, against
the effect of which the court will relieve on payment of the
amount actually due. On this theory the debt is the jirin-
cipal thing, and the land accessory. When the debt is
transferred the assignee thereof is equitably entitled to the
benefit of the mortgage, even without special mention; so
when the debt is paid the mortgage is really extinguished,
though it may in form continue. A mortgage as tlius ex-
plained, being regular in point of form, has all the requi-
sites of a deed or conveyance of land. It is signed, sealed,
and delivered. There is a clause of defeasance in the deed,
or if separate it is executed with due formality. The effect
of the ■■ defeasance clause " is to declare that if the debt is
punctually jiaid or the act performed the deed is void.
There usually accompanies a legal mortgage a bond or
promissory note, or other promise to pay the debt. This is
advantageous to the creditor, since, it the land does not
yield enough to pay the debt, he has a further remedy upon
the bond or note or promise for the deficiency. Where
there is no such promise the mortgagee is confined in his
remedies on the mortgage. It is not material which form
the contract assumes. Where no negotiable note is given,
the mortgage, both in the hands of the mortgagee and as-
signee, is subject to all the defenses which are apidieable to
the debt, so that if the debt can not be collected by reason
of fraud or duress or want of consideration, the mortgage
can not be enforced. On the other hand, if it accompanies
a negotiable note which is not yet due, it is held to be the
rule in a number of States that a transfer befoi-e maturity,
which would preclude a defense to the note, will have a like
effect upon the mortgage. It is a cardinal rule that no
agreement between the parties can take away or restrict the
right of redemption. Such an agreement is regarded as a
" ijcnalty," and is accordingly inoperative. This rule does
not preclude an agreement that on default of payment of
interest for a s]>ecificd time the entire mortgage, though
not yet mature, shall become due. Such a stipulation en-
ters into the contract, and does not curtail the right of re-
demption. So an agreement made after the execution of the
mortgage for a new and sufficient consideration that the
mortgagor shall convey his interest to the mortgagee is
valid, if not under the special circumstances of the case un-
fairand oppressive. It is necessary to distinguish carefully be-
tween a mortgage and a conditional sale. In the one, there
is an inherent right to redeem ; in the other, there is not.
By a conditional sale is meant a transfer of laud upon a
condition that on the happening of a specifie<l event the
vendor shall have the right of reinirchase. There is no re-
lation of debtor and creditor in this case, and the former
owner must comply with the contract.
It is quite common to insert in a mortgage a ])ower of
sale enaVjIing the mortgagee to sell in case of default of pay-
ment, and thus obtain the amount of his clium. This is
deemed to be a valid power. It does not resemble an ordi-
nary power of attorney, which is revocable in its nature.
The power is irrevocable, being in legal phraseology "cou-
pled with an interest " — that is, the mortgagee, having an
interest in the property, has the power conceded to him as
connected with his interest in order to make it more com-
pletely available. Sliould he transfer or assign his mort-
gage, the power would aiTompauy it. When the mortgage
is [laid the power is extinguished. A mortgagee, lliough
having such a power of sale, is not obliged to resort to it.
lie may " foreefose " in the manner hereafter explained, so
that the remedies become cumulative. If on the sale a sur-
plus is received, it belongs to the mortgagor, or if lie is then
dead, it jiasses to his heirs as the proceeds of n>al estate.
This power is of an im]iortant nature, and liable to abuse.
To guard against oppression it is regulated in a number of the
States by statute, prescribing the mode of giving notice of
MOKTOAGK
903
the foreclosure to the mortpaRor ami to im-iiinl;ruiiters.
as well us of coiiiliietiiig llif sale and K'viiik' title to ii imr-
chaser. It is not necessary tliat a niortiia-ie should be tfiveii
directly to a creditor. It may be executed to sonic person
in trust for him. This is a very common case in mortgages
of railway property. A single mortgage is given to a trus-
tee to secure a number of bonds. The mortgagee is thus a
trustee, ami the bnnJholilcrs are ctKlui i/iie truKlenl or In-ne-
fiiiaries. .\s between the trustee and the debtor all the or-
dinary relations of mortgagor and mortgagee would attach.
Reference will now be made to the rights aci|uired by a
mortgagee. In a common law court he is deemed to be an
owner of the land by a defea-sible title until the mortgage is
due. After it has matured his title is absf>lute, subject of
course to the interference of a court of equity. Confining
the attention for the moment to the courts of law, it may
beafTinneil that, as a strict rule, the mortgagee niav exer-
cise the ordinary rights of ownership. He may. in the ab-
sence of statutes to the contrary, eject the miirtgagor un<l
take possession of the estate. He may notify a lessee whose
estate has been accjuired before his own to pay rent to him.
So he may convey his interest to another tcrmeil an as-
signee, who will stand in his position and possess his rights.
A court of c(|uity, however, will impose an ei)uitable obli-
gation upon the mortgagee while thus exercising his legal
right. I- or example, if he should be in possi'ssion of the
land, then called a " mortgagee in possession," he could not,
as an absolute owner might do, wilfully allow the property
to lie idle. He would be required to act with onlinary dili-
gence and prudence. Should he collect any rent, it woiild be
applied on the mortgage. After his entire claim, including
interest, is paid, he is a mere trustee for the mortgagor and
others inleresleil in the land.
The theory on which the court of ecpiity in framing its
rules proceeds is I hat the relat ion of delator and creililor exists,
anil that the claim upon the land is a mere security. The
mortgage partakes of the nature of that which it is given to
secure. When the opposing views in the two courts come
in conflict, the ecpiily doctrine modifies that which prevails
in law.
Prom what has been said, it may readily be inferred that
the rules concerning mortgages are complex and difliciilt of
compreheiision in all their branches to any but professional
men. The decisions of the courts on a cursory examination
seem strangely conflicting when they may in fact be har-
monized by considering that the subject is being regarded
either from the law or equity |)oint of view. Thus it will
be found to be stated on the one hand that the mortgage
is a conveyance: that the title has passed to the niorlgagi'c,
ami on his death ilescends to his heirs; an<l that he can
only assign it by an inslrument in the nature of a convey-
ance." On the other hand.it is allirmed with ecpial positive-
ness in another set of decisions (equity) that the mortgage
is a mere attendant upon the debt : that the assignment of
it carries the mortgage with it, even without special men-
tion, as an incidi'iit: that the debt and mortgage both lie-
long, in case of the mortgagee's death, not to the heirs, but
to the personal representatives (executors or administrators).
To reconcile these views it has only to be supposed that the
equity theory fastens a trust upon him who would lie
deemed owner in a court of law. For example, a sale by a
mortgagee to an assignee, though in the form of a convey-
ance, is accepted by him as qualified by the rights of the
mortgagor. So if a mortgagee dies, his heir, if he takes the
title, holils it in trust for the executors, etc. In some of the
States this double view has almost disappeared, and the
equity rule has become so jiredominant as substantiullv to
displace that of the common law. .Such is the case in S'ew
York and California, and some other Slates. These Slates
would hold that, for nejirly all purposes, the mortgagor was
owner, and the mortgagee had only a lien for his dciil. The
only way that he could acquire any more than this would
be by foreclosure.
.Something further should be saiil in res|<ect to assign-
ment. In the ordinary case of an assignment of a non-ne-
gotiable debt sccurt'd by mortgage the rule of eipiity is that
the assignee must abide by the |>osilion of the one of whom
he buys. If he for any reason can not enforce the claim,
the assignee can not. It is therefore a usual and wise
course before purchasing to inquire of the niortgngi>rwheth-
er he has any defenses to the claim. If he stales that he
has not, and the assignee iiurchases on the faith of the >lale-
ment, tlie mortgagor will be estopped from denying its
trulli. It is judicious, though not necessary, to take the
statement in writing. After the a-ssignment n. ■
be given to the mortgagor, otherwiw he will l«> v..
payment which he may have made lo tl
Ignorance of the assigniiniil. There are
which a person can conijiel an owner of a iii . ... ...„„,
an assignment to him. An illustration is fouml in the ia>e
of a first mortgagee being about lo forecli»<-, ami a second
desiring lo take an assiguuient of the prior claim, in order
to protect his right.
Without further treatment of the rights of the \
reference may now !«• made to the estate of the :
In this resiiect legal opinions are re' - i.. -
now agreeil that fur most pur|KJses
owner. Thus when a mortgagor die.- i
his heirs, and his widow has dower. He can only part with
his residuary interest by a regular conveyance. .So the
State treats iiim as owner in laying taxes and in taking |m>s-
se.ssion of the land under the doctrines of eminent domain.
A mi>rtgagor may carve out of his estate other mortgages,
which will have jiriority (in the ab.-ieiice of statutes requir-
ing registration) in the" order of their execution.
The right of redemption in the law of mortgages is of
high consequence, and distinguishes the transaction from
an absolute sale. Not only the mortgagor, but every one
deriving an interest from him sub.-ii-quent to the mortgage,
inay " redeem " or, in other words, may \m\ the debt and the
interest, and thus be relieved from the niortgage. .Among
tlii>se who have a right to reileem maybe menlii>ne<l, by way
of illustration, subsequent mortgagees and judgment cre<{-
ilors, heii-s, tenants by the curtesy and in dower, less<'es.
and persons having incorporal interests, such as easements.
One who redeems must take u|i the entire mortgage. This
rule will be agiplied to an owner of a fractional interest in
the equity of redemption, who may then enforce against the
owner of other interests such portion of his claim as is
equitable and just. The right to redeem can be barR'cl by
the priK-eeding termed a "foreclosure," to be hereafter ex-
plained. So the right to re<leem may be lost where the
mortgagee is in possession by a neglect to call him to ac-
count for a consiilerable jierioi"! of time. This time is some-
times fixed by statute, as, for instance, in New York at twenty
years. Still, even then, should the mortgagee by some af>-
propriate act recognize the existence of the mortgage — as
if. for example, he .should liegin an action to foreclose the
mortgage — the right to redeem will remain.
Notice should be taken of the grounds on which a mort-
gage may be treated as void or voiilable, or, if originally
valid, of the manner in which it may lose its force anil
effect. A mortgage is void or voidable for any of the rea-
.sons which make contracts in general invaliil, such as for
want of consideration, duri'ss, fraud, illegality, or the like.
It is a fretpient practice in thesi> cities fur the mortgagor or
other person stamling in his place to In'gin an action to set
aside the mortgage. Mortgages having once Ijcen valid may
become inoix'rative by n-astm of a material or fraudulent
alteration made by tlie cretlilor, or by merger or extin-
guishment, by n'leas*' or other discharge, or bv payment or
by tender. Payment of the debt has the erfe<t of extin-
guishing the mortgage. No recimveyani-e to the mortgagor
is in general necessary. In onler to nMiiove from the rvgis-
try all apjH'arance of a claim upon the land. a written state-
ment in a form pre.-icriU'd by law. setting forth the fact of
payment, is taken from the inortgagi-e. This is also regis-
tered. Such statement may lie exacteil bva court of equity,
should a mortgagee decline to give it. Yhe tender of the
amount of the debt u|K)n the prescrilnil day, though unno-
ceptcd, destroys the lien of the mortpige. though it di«'S not
dis«-harge the debt. .Some of the States give the same effi>ot
to an unaccepted tender made after the mortgage ha.s lie-
come due. l.,apso of time, acconling to the onlinary niles
of law. may leiul to a presumption of payment. whi<-h may,
however, 1h- rebutted. .Siinetimes there i< a |i<i«ilive liar to
any claim by forxe of the Statute of Limitations. (.S.e Limi-
tation OK AiTUiNS.) The debt lii:iv in -.1:1. in^IanCl■S bo
barred by this statute when the .-tf where
dilTereiit |M'rio<ls of time limit ih' 'ip<>n the
debt an<I the niortgagi" n's|M-ctivi Iv. \\\i.. '-on-
tinues no change in its form is fatal !<■ the n I lius
if a new note is given in tlu' place of an ii^i 'U.-. .ir the
lime of [layment is exlemliil. the debt remaining un-
changi'd, the mortgage is still in fnnv.
On the death of a mortgagor an impmrtai ■ fre-
quently arises as to the fund fnini which sai ; ' the
niortgage is to be made, or, in other wonls, w hetJier pay-
904
MORTGAGE
meiit is to be made from the real or personal estate. The gen-
eral rule is tliat it must be maile from the pei-sonal [)roperty
rather than from the real estate. As the real estak», by the
rules of tiie common law, passes to the heirs, and the per-
sonal pro|)erty to the executors or administrators, the latter
are accordingly primarily lial)le to pay the debt. A result
of this rule is that the heirs become "sureties" for the ex-
ecutors, and if lliey are made to pay are allowed to proceed
against tlic personal property. This rule has been c-lumged
by statute in Kngland and in a number of the U. S., and
the burden of paying the mortgage cast primarily upon the
heirs. Under these statutes the executors become sureties
for the lieirs. The rule may be affected by evidence of the
intent of the mortgagor that the burden of the debt shall be
cast on eitlier the one or the other portion of his estate. It
has no application to the case of one who did not himself
borrow the money, but acquired the estate subject to the
mortgage, for in that instance his successor takes the prop-
erty with its burdens.
Questions frequently arise as to the apportionment of the
burden of the mortgage among different owners. It is a
general rule that where a number of owners of land affected
by a single mortgage stand in the same position as to riglils,
they must bear tlie burden equally. Accordingly, if one is
called upon to pay the whole, he" has a right to enforce a
proportionate part of the mortgage against the owners of
the remaining lots. This case may be illustrated in this
wise : Suppose that there is a mortgage upon a farm which
is subseepienlly divided into village lots and sold in such a
way to purchiisers that one is entitled to no preference over
another. In this case every purchaser should pay a propor-
tional part of the mortgage. This would be plain if the
lots were sold to diffen^nt pereons contemporaneously. If,
on the other hand, they iiad been sold successively to per-
chasers paying the full price, the earliest purchasers, accord-
ing to the present prevailing opinion', have a superior right
or " equity " to the later ones. The lots last sold would be
primarily liable to pay the mortgage. If a foreclosure
should take place and a sale be had to satisfy the mortgage,
the lots would be sold in the " inverse order of alienation,"
i. e. the lots sold last by the mortgagor would be sold first
on the foreclosure to pay the mortgage. The result would
be that as soon as enough had been realized to pay the
mortgage, further sales would not take place, and the lots
first sold by tlie owner would accordingly be altogether re-
lieved. These principles would not be recognized in case
the earlier purcduiser bought subject to a portion of the
mortgage or assumed its payment. In that case he would
be obliged to bear the burden that he had taken upon him-
self.
It is proper to state more comprehensively the general
effect of a purchase of land subject to a mortgage. There
are several forms of expression used in conveyances which
must be carefully distinguished. Thus one may buy "sub-
ject to the mortgage," or he may " assume its payment." In
the first case he is not personally chargeable. The land may
be taken, but lie is not required to pay from his own means.
On the other liand, if he "assumes the payment" he be-
comes personally liable. The importance of the distinction
may be seen from the following supposition : If one had
bought "subject to a mortgage," and the land h,id dimin-
ished in worth so that its value was greatly inadequate to
satisfy the debt, the land would be relinquished, but no
further charge upon the purchaser could be made ; if ho had
"assumed the mortgage," he would be personally responsible
for the deficiency. These rules will be applied if the clauses
referred to are in the purchaser's dee<i, even thougli he does
not alUich his signature to it. He can not take title under
the instrument without accepting all its provisions.
Whenever a per.son holding the position of a surety is
made to pay a mortgage, he is entitled to stand in the mort-
gagee's place ami enfoi'ce the mortgage for his own benefit.
This is known as the doctrine of subrogation. See Suuko-
GATION.
It remains to refer to the matter of foreclosure. The
effect of the court of equity taking jurisdiction to allow a
mortgagor in default to redeem the land, was to allow the
mortgiigee to file a bill in equity for the purpose of having
the time fixed within whiidi the mortgagor should exercise
his right to redeem. Originally the only oliject in filing the
bill of foreclosure was to fix a time within which the mort-
gagor must jiay the debt or lose the property. This was
called a bill of strict foreclosure. The object of the fore-
closure suit is usually to obtain a decree that the property
be sold, and the proceeds applied in payment of the debt.
The surplus, if any. goes to the mortgagnr. The mortgagee
begins his [u-oceedings by making parties to it all who
have a right to redeem. If they are omitted, the proceed-
ings are ineffectual as far as Uliey are concerned. The cred-
itor may at his option retrain from a foreclosure, and may
collect his debt by an ordinary action. In some of the States
he is allowed by statute; in a single ac-tion to foreclose his
mortgage and to have a judgment for any deficiency. The
subject is largely regulated by statute, and ia a matter of
detail which must be examined in the books of practice in
the respective States. After foreclosure the title vests ab-
solutely in the mortgagor or purchaser, as the case may be.
There may also be a foreclosure under a power of sale.
There are also special statutory modes adopted in some of
the States. For further information on the general subject,
see Jones On Mortfmyes, Fisher On Jlorl gages, Washburn
On Heal Proper!;/, Kent's Coiiimetitaries, title Mortgages.
A mortgage, as heretofore explained in this article, lias
all the requisites of a deed or conveyance of land. It is
signed, sealed, and delivered ; there is a clause of defeas-
ance in the deed, or. if separate, it is executed with due
formality. The effect of the defeasance clause is to declare
that if the debt is not punctually paid, or the act performed,
the deed is to be void. While every mortgage is in form a
conveyance of property, it is evident that where property is
conveyed by a deed absolute on its face, with an oral under-
standing between the parties that the grantee is to hold the
land only as security for the payment of the debt, the deed
can not be treated at law a-s a mortgage. A court of equity,
however, in such a case will confer upon the creditor the
same rights and impose upon the grantee the same obliga-
tions that would have been created had the mortgage in
fact been executed. Hence it is often said that a deed ab-
solute on its face, if in fact intended only as security of the
payment of a debt, is considered in a court of equity a mort-
gage. A court of equity will in certain cases where a mort-
gage has not been created by the parties recognize an equit-
able right in a creditor to treat land as security for the
payment of his debt. Thus in England it is held that an
equitable mortgage can be created by the mere deposit of
title deeds. The theory upon which tiiis doctrine is estab-
lished is that the deposit of the title deeds is evidence of an
agreement on the part of the person dei)ositing them that
the land shall stand as security for the payment of the debt,
and that he will execute a mortgage thereof. The etjuitable
mortgagee is therefore in such a case entitled either to ask
that the land be sold, and the proceeds tiicreof applied in
extinguishment of the debt, or that the equitable mortgagor
execute a legal mortgage thereof. This doctrine is incon-
sistent with the statutes of frauds, and has been adopted
only to a very limited extent in the U. S. (Jones Un Mort-
gages, 4th eil., S If^S-) The lien which a court of equity
gives an unpaid vendor of land to secure the payment of
the purchase money is another instance of a so-called equit-
able mortgage. This doctrine rests not u)ion the contract
or agreement of the parties, but upon the broad principle
that it would be unjust It the vendor were not allowed to
look to the land as security for the purchase money.
II. Chattki. Mortcaces. — This subject has assumed much
importance in modern times, though it received scarcely any
attention in the earlier law-book.s. A mortgage of personal
pro])crty is in law a conditional .sale. It differs from a
pawn or (iledge in the fact that the latter is a bailment (see
Bailment), the ownei-ship remaining still in the bailor. If
the debt is not paid on the appninted day, the title to the
mortgaged chattel becomes, in the view of a court of law,
absolute in the mortgagee. Still, even in that case a court
of equity may interfere and enforce in favor of the mort-
gagor an "e<iuity of redemption."
There is considerable danger that chattel mortgages may
be resorted to by unscrupulous debtors as a mere pretext,
and with a view to withdraw their property from the reach
of their creditors. Such an act of withdrawal would be re-
garded as a fraud upon the creditors, and might, at their
instance, be declared void. To insure publicity in this cla.ss
of cases, it is provided by legislation in a number of States
that the mortgage, when there is no change of possession,
shall be filed in some )mblic oftice. A failure to comply
with this regulation would usually make the tniiisailion
void as to creditors and as to purchasers in good faith from
the mortgagor, though the mortgage wcjuld .still be binding
as to the original parties and as to purchasers with notice of
all the facts. It is in some instances further providid that
MOKTGAOK
MUKTMAIN"
905
if the debt scoured by the mortj^go duly filed is not pnid
within 11 brief perlfxl (e. g. a year), lliere shall be a public
dcelaration, tiled by the mortgagee in the same olliee, of the
continuance of the indelitedness. A non-eom|iliuneu with
this regulation is visited with similar in'iialties.
If the mortgage be valid, and be not paid at the appointed
dav, the remecly of the mortgagee to cut oti the right of
rcdempi ion is to foreclose by an action in ecjuity. S> he may
sell under a power of sale, giving due notice to the debtor
of the time and place of sale, and holding hims<'lf account-
able to the mortgagor for any surplus realized above tlie
amount of his claim. The subject may bo further pursued
in the works on mortgages already referred to, an<I in the
statutes of the respective .States, and in the reports.
Revised liv Wii.i.UM .\. Kke.ner.
KuROPEAN L.wv. — Ifinliirinil/;/. l)ie law of pledge or mort-
gage has regularly developed in one of two wavs : 1. The ear-
liest form, especially applicable to chattels, is llie pledge with
ponKfKsion {iMt. pi<;nHM, OUl (icrman, mW/c, .Media-val Lat.
vadium, French, ffniji'). The pledgee hius the right to keep
the pledge until the debt is paiil ; by agreemi^nt he may also
have the right of selling the pleilgo if the di'bt is not paiil
at the propiT time. When this form of pledge is extended to
realty, the right of using the property, of enjoying its yiehl
or income (/n/r/i/.t), is regularly accorded to the pledgee: so
in the Oncco-Uoinan anlirliri'xis, and the Old German Siite
or Satzung. In the Greek law it came to be recognized that
the rights of a pledgee (right to pos.sess, right to sell) might
be created by contract without delivery of |M>sscssion, and
the R<imans borrowed from the Greeks both the institution
and the naww (liy pot heca). 2. A second ami very early form
of pledge or mortgage, which is especially applicable to
realty, appears as soon a.s methods are devisecl for conveying
title or ownership without ponKesnlon. Debts arc then se-
cured, as in the English law, by conveying to the creditor
full ownership of a piece of land or other property, with an
agreement for a reconveyance whenever the debt shall have
been paid. The older Homan law ha<l such a form of mort-
gage in {\\e fulurla; but this wa.s afterward discarded in
favor of the lii/pnthicn. and in the later Roman law jiiqnua
and lii//iiitli('rn were [practically identical. Among the Teu-
tonic peoples, in the .Nliildle .\ges, two methods of conveying
title without delivering possession were gradually worked
out — (n) by delivery of a deed, with a purely symbolical (i. e.
fictitious) investiture; and (/<) invesliluro in court, at the
close of a real or fictitious law-suit. Both methods were em-
ployed to furnish security for the payuu'Ut of debts. The
delivery of a deed or " b(H)k" of laud was a common melhiMl
of establishing mortgage in Sa.xon Kngland. In the Krank-
ish empire judicial conveyance was usually employed to
create the rights of ownership and of mortgage. A notice
of the transaction was regularly entered in the rec(irds of
the court. As early as the thirteenth century sjiecial regis-
ters of cimveyaiices and mortgages were kept in some of the
German cities. The reception of the Roman law, toward the
close of the Midille Ages, brought two antagonistic systems
face to face, Teutonic custom re<-ognized no morttrage of
realty without judicial registration, no pledge of personally
without possession (Fau»lpfanJ. nniit iiu<imeiil). 1 he Roman
law recognized secret contractual mortgages of realtv and
personalty alike. In Teutonic custom all mortgag<'S and liens
were special ; the Roman law recognized general mortgages
and liens. In the main, the Teutonic rules helil their own in
Germany and in Northern France, and in modern Kuro|a'un
legislation they have more than held their own.
Jfiidtrn let/i.tldlion tenils to require publicily of con-
veyances anil mortgages, and xpecinlly of mortgages ami
liens. As reganls really, secret (unregistennl) mortsages
cither affect the parties only or are wholly inefTe<-tive.
General mortgages and liens are abolished or are limited in
their operation bv requiring them to be imiHised bv regis-
tration on special pieces of property. The most advanced
legislation, in these respects, is ti) itv fouiul in the states of
the German empire, es|)ecially in Prussia. (»ut of the me-
dia'val city registers have grown the modem German laml-
books ((rnnu(l)urher). They are juilicial n'cords, kept by
the ordinary court of first instance in ea<-h judicial distriit.
ami thev are arrangeil on the "lot system." i. e. a special
page is devoted to each cilv lot or countrv field. (.Sec Ke-
coKDlNo. etc.) These land-lnioks enjoy piihlini tidm, i. e.. he
who obtains an entry of ci>nveyaiiee or of mortgage from
the pei-son registered' lus owner, or an assignment of mort-
gage from the registered mortgagee, is protected against all
claims and defenses which do not appear on the register.
f>thcr Europian cnntri. '
and niortt'ages, but tiey m
used in the L'. .S., wiili'n,.
alfecliiig special pieces of |
a niortgaye simply gives it |
mortgages. Wliero register- are kept in ihi.-. iwiii<ni U'> nl-
templ IS made to give them puUtca JiJtt in the ticnnun
sense.
As regards movable property, the tendency of Kuni|x>an
legislation is to require the 'r-'-'- ■- ■ f ' i • 'i •-• !
into the hands of the mor
to the chattel mortgage wil fi
tctu of the Cude Napoleon and of Kuru|>i.isu vuniiiiercuil
codes generally.
LlTKKATi RE. — Gide. Lf Ufijimf Hiipolhfenirr ■
(Paris, lM7:i|; .\<-hilles, Uruiidriyenthum uud Jl
rechi (Berlin, IWl). MiXRi.t. .-...m.
Mortier, morti-ii', Kdouard .\ik>lpue Casimir .Iosei-he:
soldier; b. at ('ateaM-('and>re~is. in Ihed ■-• • ' V - '.
France, Feb. IIS, 176N: received a mer.
entered the army in 17i)l; was made a
in 17UU, and marshal in IHO.'i; fought with liisimclion in
Germany, Spain, ami Russia ; was made Uuke of Treviso
after the battle of Friedland 1><(W, and n \tfiT of France
during the first Restoration; accompanie<l Ixmis XVIII.
acros.s the frontier, but relumed to XajMileon during the
Hundred Days; was commandir-iiwhief of the Fifteenth
Military Division after the second Restoration; went as am-
biuvsador to St. Petersburg in IK(2; took charge of the min-
istry of War for a short time in lH:f4. and was kille<I by
Fieschi's infernal machine on the Boulevard du Temple,
Paris, July 2M. 1835.
Morliflcatlon: See Gaxorenf,
Mortimer. Hooer: Karl of March, Baron of Wigmore;
b. on the Welsh frontier about 12><7; was kiiighh-d, and
served under FMward I. in the .Scottish war i:j(M}-tl7: was
employed in high offices under Kdwanl II. in .Sol land and
France; joined the Earl of Lancaster in his rebellicin against
the king's favorites 1320; was captured at the battle of
Boroughbridge 1322, and imprisoneil in the Tower; es<'a|ied
to France by the coimivance of l^iieeii Isabella; entered the
service of Iving Charles IV. of France, then at war with
England ; met Isaliella at her brother's court at Paris 132.'i;
plotted with her against her husband ; olitaineti i«.ss<'ssion
of the voung Prince Edward, heir to the throne; lande<l
with Isaliella at Orwell. .Sept. 2-1. 1320; was join. 1 l.^ tin-
great nobles; de|H)Sed Eilward II. Jan.. 1327; |
the young prince a.s kingd'^lwanl III.); ndi-d th-
in his name; was creatt.<l KiiH of Man-h; murdert<l tin de-
posed king at Berkeley t'astle Sept. 21. 1327; otTenilcil the
people, the nobles, and the king by his cruelty and arro-
gance; was sciziil by the king and Lonl Moulaiute at S^>l^
tinghain Castle; attainted by a new Parliament calleil at
Westminsler, anil was hangi-d at Tyburn, Nov. 2tt. VKM. His
ultainder was revers«>d as illegal in l^W. and the title and
estates restored to his grandson, who by alliance with the
royal family was ance:$Iur of the Tudor ami all later sover-
eigns of England.
Mort'niain [from O. Fr. nior/cmni'n ; morf, fern, morlt,
dead -f miiiii, hand. Cf. Fr. main timrle]: the |H'r|M<tuaI
tenure of land by corporations. >Iore commoidy. however,
the term is us«il to desigiuite tb-- ill" ' !"• i !■> il-
t'hiireh. by n-ligious corponitioi
The expn-ssion miiniin mnrliiit, »i
menis as early as the middle of the ninlli ei-iiiury, is prxl>-
ably derived from the fact that [>«'rs4>M« »h» l>«-«nie mem-
bers of ri-ligiouscor|"'rations and ■
were civilly dead — that is.wen- i-
so that property held by '' ■•■
hands. The amounl of tin
Ages and the centuries inin •
the hands of e<'<'lesiaslical proprietors, of • ilie-
drals, chapters, Bl'ln-y«. e<'nven'«. nnd ev.-r* « "f
religious coriioni'
thniughout all lb
intliienee of the t nm
additional gifts fn>m i
alienation of what h;i'. ,
t«'niled more and more to t n condition I'f af-
fairs which was wholly in. »iih th- w.-lfurn of
the state and of soiiety. 1
pyramidal organization of -■
on its |H'lilical as well o-h ils~.<ini aii.i m" ^..i.-. ;■■
906
MOKT.MAIX
MUKTOX
tlic feudal tomiro of lands. This was a (|ualified and procari-
ous land (iwiuTsliip, in wliicli every man was the tenant of
a superior owner or lord ; a tenure based on an inflexible
obligation to render military or other service to such lord,
so qualified that it could be continued in the tenant and his
heirs only at the cost of many burdensome exactions, and
so precarious that any one of several causes might bring it
to an end and throw the estate back into the hands of the
lord. It was out of the precarious and incidental features
of this tenure — the successions upon the death of leiumts,
the wardships and marriages of tenants' children, the es-
cheats upon the failure of heirs — that the feudal state drew
most of its nourishment. It was w'ith this condition of
tilings that the Church, by her policy above described, found
herself at war. In conseijuence of the peri)etuity of the
ecclesiastical organizations, the tenacity with which they
clung to all lauds that came into their grasp, and their
guarantee<l freedom from ordiiuiry feudal exactions, they
withdrew, so far as the state was concerned, so much land
from productive to non-productive uses — in other words,
from living to dead hands — that they constituted a serious
menace to the safety of the state. It was from sound con-
siderations of policy, therefore, that the governments of
Europe at an early day resorted to repressive measures
against mortmain. The first of these measures subsequent
to the overthrow of the Western Roman empire was an
edict of tlie Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, who in 1158
prohibited the transfer of fiefs to the Church without the
consent of the sui>erior lord, and the same was subsequently
enacted by Louis IX.
English legislation against mortmain begins with Magna
Charia {x. D. 1217). and continues down to the fifty-second
year of Victoria (1888). The provision in Mai/na Charta
(cxliii.) went no further than to forbid the giving of lands
to a religious house to be taken back again by the donor as
tenant of the corporation ; but it was construed by the
courts as an absolute prohibition against the granting of
laTids to religious houses. The law must have speedily
fallen into disuse, however, for the complaints against the
practice of mortmain are almost continuous from the era of
the ^'cnerablc Bede, in the eighth century, down to the
statute de viris rcligio.'iis," ihe statute of mortmain ''^j(»'
eminence., in 1279. (7 Edw. I., stat. ii., c. 13.) The preaud)le
to this act recites the fact that notwithstanding the prohi-
bition of JIagna Charta, religious men continue to acquire
the fee of lands, " whereby the services that are due of such
fees, and which at the beginning were provided for defense
of the realm, are wrongfully withdrawn, and the chief lords
do lose their escheats of the same." and it is thereupon or-
dained that no alienation of lands by or to ''any person, re-
ligious or other,"' '• whereby such lands or tenements may
anywise come into mortmain," should be valid. The act
provided for its own observance by ordaining further that
the lands so attemi>ted to be conveyed should be forfeited
to the next chief lord of the fee or to the crown.
Although this statute applied to all corporations, whether
religious or secular, it was the ecclesiastical establishments
that were most affected by it, and the next 100 years were
occupied with the strenuous but futile struggle of the
Church to evade or destroy the legislation against mort-
main. This conflict was in part a dijilomatic struggle be-
tween Home aiul Westminster, but tlu^ real contestants were
the lawyers ou the part of the Church and the Parliament on
behalf of the crown and the territorial lords, 'i'lie fictitious
suit known as a recovery, the practice of conveying lands to
certain persons to hold to the use of others, were among the
devices originated and carried into effect by the ingenuity
of the lawyers in oriler to evade the Mortmain Act. They
were so far successful that l'arlianu>nt was compelled to
/neet each legal device with new and more radical legisla-
tion. The practice of conveying lands to be held in mort-
main by " suffering a recovery," as it was technically known,
was swept away liy the second statute of Westmiiister (Hi
Edw. I., c. y2, A. D. 1285), and the similar abuse of the doc-
trine of uaes by an act passed in 1391 (15 Kic. II., c. 5).
Neither of these acts infringed upon the new modes of con-
veying lands by recovery or by use, except to render them
invalid for the purpose of conveying lands to be helil in
mortmain. As will be noticed, the mortmain acts applied
oidy to aliemitions inter vima, there being at conitncni law
no right to devise lauds by will, and tlie Statute of Wills (32
Hen. VIII., c. 1, a. d. 1540), which first made it possible to
dispose of lands by will, expressly excluded corporations
from its benefits. The subseijuent history of the law of
mortmain can be briefly stated. The principles of the
legislation which has been sketched above, as well as the
laws them.selves, have kept their place in English jurispru-
dence. A few I'hanges have nevertheless been made. By a
series of judicial interpretations the power of (hviainff lands
to corporations for f/io/'iVaWe M«fs was established and the
object of the mortmain acts to that extent frustrated, but
it was still held that the corporation must have the license
of the crown to hold the lands, and by recent legislation
the power to make any gift of lands to charity bi/ will,
whether to a corporation or not, has been wlnilly taken
away, though there are a few exceptions in favor of gifts to
the two uinversities and for certain educational and other
public purposes. Cf. 9 Geo. II., c. 36; 51 and 52 Vic, c. 42.
There are, strictly speaking, no general laws against
mortmain in the U. S., except in Pennsylvania. The ab-
sence of the feudal regime, f<ir whose protection such laws
were rendered necessary in Kurope, and still more, perhaps,
the lack of any causes of irritation — owing to the comjiara-
tive poverty of religious corjiorations and the cheaimess and
abundance of land in the vVcstcrn World — sulliciently ac-
count for the dearth of such legislation in the U. S. "There
are not wanting signs, however, that this indifference to
corporate and especially to ecclesiastical ownership of land
may not be the permanent attitude. The growing wealth
of the churches and the increasing value of landed property
may. .before many years, require some readjustment of the
relations of corporations to the state and society. The
sym|>toms of such a tendency are already observable in the
growing sentiment in favor of the taxation of Church prop-
erty for the support of the state, as well as in the general
disposition to limit the amount of property which even
charitable corporations, as the higher institutions of learn-
ing, may hold.
Corporations are legal persons, and at common law, unre-
strained by statutes of mortmain, have the same capacity
to take and hold lands that natural persons have. In the
U. S., as in England, they are usually prohibited from ac-
quiring or holding more land than is necessary for the pur-
poses of their incorporation. Ordinary or business corpora-
tions can not take laud by devise ; charitable corporations,
however, are usually allowed to take it both by deed and by
will. In a few of the States there are statutes restricting
the creation of charitable uses by will, somewhat resem-
bling the English statute of 9 Geo. II. Thus it is provided
in New York that no testator leaving a wife, child, or pa-
rent shall devise or bequeath to a charitable institution or
association more than one-half of his property, deducting
his debts; but this is not, properly speaking, a statute of
mortmain, not being aimed at the ownership of lands by
corporations as sucli, but being a ])aternal limitation on the
power of devise in favor of the natural objects of a testator's
bounty. See Shelford On Mortmain ; Digby's Ilistorij of the
Law of Real Property; Leake's Digest of the Law of Land.
George W. Kircbwey.
Morton. Henry, Ph. D. : ])hysicist ; b. in New York city,
Dec. 11, 1830; graduated at the University of Pennsylvania
1857, and then studied law in Philadelphia for nearly two
years, and during that time lectured on chemistry and
physics at tlie Episcopal Academy, originating the scien-
tific course in the curriculum of that institution, and fill-
ing a chair created for him, wlien his growing )>redilection
for physical and for chemical science induceii him to give
them his entire attention. In 1803 he was elected Profes-
sor of Chemistry at Philadelphia Dental College ; in 1864
became resident .secretary of the Franklin Institute of
Pennsylvania, and in April of that year began the delivery
in the Academy of JIusic of Philadelphia of a course of
sixteen lectures on light, which excited great attention
both in the U. S. and in Europe, on account of the orig-
inality and brilliancy of their experimental illustrations.
(See Les Mondes. vols, xviti.. seq.) Thesi' lectures were the
first of their kind. In 1867 Pmf. jMorlon became editor of
the Journal of the Franklin In.stitutc, and during the aca-
demic year 1867-68 filled tem])orarily the chair of Chemistry
and Natural Philosophy in the Uiuversity of Pennsylvania.
In 1869 he organized the photograjihic parties sent to
observe the solar eclipse of Aug. 7. under the auspices of
Tlie iS'aiitical Almanac office. In 1S6I( he was electeil Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, and
in 1870 was ai)pointed president of the Stevens Institute of
Technology at lloboken, N. J., then just founded. Presi-
dent Morton has published a number of papers in .scientific
M(JUT(.>N
.MOKrx(ii;N
907
journals. Arnonfr tlioin may f>o noted those On Ihi- (lijfurd
lujff'ttir, fin tfie liriijUt Linf fjfi/ontt thf Mtntn'ti A't/*/*- in
I'artial I'liast-eclipHi' J'/tohii/riiplii. On the Fluuri-ncenl Ite-
lations of Anthrncene and C/iryKiii/fn, On the Fhwrexeent
I{elatton» of Some Solid Hyilrorarhonx found in Petro-
leum DinlilUiten. On the Fliiurenrrnt Htlnlionx of I'l/rene
and Chri/Kene, On Thnltene, a Solid I/i/drocarhon produced
in the Dentriirliie I)ii<tilliilion of J/eiifi/ I'etroleum OHh, On
the JiiiKic Snltn of I'ninium, On the FliioreHceut imd Ab-
sorption Sperlrit of Cranium Sitlls, llii' hittiT eoni|irisin)^
seven [lapers prepared in eonjunetiun with Itr. II. t'. Holton
(Chemical ,%'(■«•«, vol. xxviii., 187;t; J/onileur Sclent iliijue,
vols. XV. and xvi.). I'olkmax Skllkrs.
Morton, Jamks Douolas, Fourth Karl of: rej;ent of S<-ot-
land ; b. at Dalkeith about loIJO; was a younger son of the
family of Angus, and succeeded to the earldom and estates
of Morton in rifjlit of his wife 15.").i. lie became a lord i>f
the Congrejiatiiin I.'mT. and Lord High Chuiuillor l.)8:t. He
took a leading part in the murder of Kizzio loO(! : escape<l
to Kngliind, but was soon pardoned and relurm-d. He jciiucd
the confederacy of the nobles against Mary and Hothwell,
discoveri'd the Casket Letters, and le<l the van in the bat-
tle of Langsidc, where the forces of the queen were routed.
lie was elected regent in Nov., 1.572, but his policy raised
up enemies on all sides. In Mi'"! he resigned ami retired
to Lochleven Ciustle, and though he recovered his authority
soon afterward, was overthrown by the influence of the new-
royal favorites, Ksme and .lames Stewart ; tried and con-
victed of participation in the murder of Darn ley, and exe-
cuted in Kdiidiurgh, .lunc 3, 1.>SL
Morton, .Iamks St, Clair : military engineer ; b. in Phila-
delphia in Wi'J; graduated at the C .S. Military .\cademy
in 1*51 ; rose to be major of engineers in .July, IH&i. After
various .services he became engineer in charge of the Poto-
mac aqueduct : led the Chiriqui expedition. Central America,
in IHCO; oil his return resumed charge (if the I'otomac water-
works, and sulisecpiently superintended the fortifications on
the Tortugas; in .May, IMfii, reported to (ien. Uuell lus chief
engineer of the .Vrniy of the Ohio; in Oct., ImK, was chief
engineer of the Armv of the Cumberland; commanded the
pioneer briilge-brigade of that armv. and became brigadier-
general of volunteers, dating from Nov. 29, 1862; constructed
the intrenchments about .Murfreesboro; tinik part in the
capture of Chattanooga, and suiierintemled the I'Ugineering
operations at Chattanooga under (ien. Uosecrans; in the
Kichmond campaign of lS(i4 served as chief engineer of the
Ninth Army-corps, and was killeil at the assault of Peters-
burg, Va., .June 17, 1804. He wrote A Memoir on American
Fortijicalionn. etc.
Morton, John : cardinal and .\rchbishop of Canterbury ; b.
at Here, Dorsetshire, Kngland, about 1420; educated at Cerne
Abbey and IJaliol College, Oxford ; l>ccame principal of Peck-
water Lin, now Christ Church; was present at the battle of
Towton, and escaped with t^ueen Margaret to Flaiiilers; at-
tainted of high t reason 1461 : pardoned and attainder reversed
1471; made master of the mils 1472; .\rchdeacon of Win-
chester 1474; appointed liy Kdward IV. aud)as.sador to the
Emperor of (Jermany and the King of Fran<e ; Bishop of
Kly and Lord Chancellor 1478; impri.soneil by Kichard III.
1483, but escaped to the Karl of Kichmond in Klamlers;
was made privy councilor by Henry VII. 14.'<'). Lord Chan-
cellor 1480, anil Archbishop of Canterbury in Julv of the
same vear; was nuide cardinal bv Po|h' Alexander VI. 1493.
1). at Knoll, Kent, .Sept. 1.5, 1.500!
Morton, Levi Parsons, LL. D. : Viec-Pre.sident of the
U. S. ; b. in Shoreham. Vt., .May 16. 1824; in 1840 engaged
in mercantile business al Hanover. N. II.. in 1848 in Hoston.
Mass., and in 1H.54 in New York, where he Ix'came a banker
in 1863; was Kepublican M. C. fnun New York 187IMS1 ;
U. S. minister to France 18S1-8.5; caiulidate for V. .*>. .Sen-
ator from New York in 18,8,5 and 1887, but was not ele<'ted.
He was elected Vice-President of the U. .S. bv the Kepul>-
licans Nov. 6, 1888, and Governor of New Yorki Nov. 6, 18a4.
Morton. Nathaniel; historian; sim of (ieorge Morton,
an early emigrant to Plymouth, Mass., and author of Mourl'f
Relation, an account of the foumliug of Plymouth i-olcmy ;
li. at Levileii, Holland, in Uii:i; was taken by his pan'nis to
IMymouih, Mass., on tlu' .\nn. in 1623; after his father's
death was taken into the family of (iov. Hnidford, whos<'
wife was his mother's sister; early In^came a.ssistant to his
uncle in the management of public attairs. and by annual
]iopular election was secretary of the colony from Dee. 7,
1647,1111111 III- ii.ath .It Plymouth, .luiii- S!*, HV<.5. In IflflO
he publj.-lieil at Cambridge the first n-gular hi«torv of the
colo'iy, under the title .\- ■' /■••'••■i-/'/i ,I/ri/i«r-" •' • "- •
Helation of the monl M ',d Jleuiai
of the Providence of (i"'i ■illolhrl-
knijiand. Other edition^ wen- printe<l in lyuidon ilW>l>),
Hoston (1721. with suiiplemcnt liv .losiuh Cotton), XeW|Kirt
(17721, Plymouth (182.5). Ikist.iii (IH-JO, fcith valuable notes
by .ludge .lohn Davis), ami Boston (IK.5.5, with note!.). The
work was compiled at the reque.-.t of the eomini^^ioneni of
the four unitiHl colonie.s. was chiefly ba-vd u|«in .M.S. .,f (lov.
Brwiford. wils attested as correct by the UH-st eminent sur-
vivors of the earlier generation, and until the rwoverr of
Bradford's own history (18.5,5) was the chief earlv nulho'rity
for the history of PIvniouth colony. .Morton also wpite a
synojisis of the Churcli history of Plymouth ( KM), published
by \ oung in his Chronicles of J'li/mouth, 1841). etc.
Morton, Thomas: adventurer; b. in Kngland alKiut 1575:
was a lawyer al Clifford's Inn. London; wils leiuler of the
colony st'Ut by Weston tos»'ttle in Ma.-.achus4'tts .lime. 1622;
went back to Kngland; returned with Capt. WoUiuston in
162.5; settled at Mt. Wolhuston, now Braintree, where on
Jlay Day, 1026, he presided over a scene of merriment very
obnoxious to Puritan ideas, sotting iiii a .May-pitle and nam-
ing the siKit .Ma-re Mount or Merry Mount. The jH-opIe of
Plymouth, hearing of these proceedings, lame in force two
years later, headed by Cajit. Miles .Sinndish. cut down the
iKile, carried Morton away, and s«>iit him back to Kngland.
lie returned to Mas.~achu.s<'tts in 1620. but wm-i again seiwd
and transported, and his house lorn down 10;tO. He pub-
lished a sjitirical work. The yew Knglish Canaan (.Vinster-
dani. 1637), which contains, however, a go<«l description of
the country and of the Indians; went again to Mas.sachu-
setts 1643; was impris<ined a year for his ■•s<'aiiilalou? Ixiok";
removed to what is now Maine. D. at .Agamenticiis, .Me.,
about 1646. See .John L. .Motlev's novels. Morton's Hope
{183!l) and Merry Mount (I84!t) : also Ilawthonie's story,
Mtrri/ Mount. Kevis«'d by H. A. Bekbs.'
Mortuary: a building for the temporary care of dead
human bodies; a dead-house. The chief puriKi.si's of a pub-
lic mortuary are to relieve [»x>r |H'oplc from tlie necessity of
eating and sleeping in the same room with a corpse during
the interval between death ami burial, to i.-,olale anil projierly
to treat the bodies of those who have died of contagious and
infectious diseases so as to iireveiit them from being the
means of the spread of such uis<^a.ses. and to provide for the
care and identiflcation of the unknown dead and of those
Ixidies which require judicial investigation. Such institu-
tions were first establishetl in Austria in 1771, and by Hufe-
land in Weimar in 17!ll ; they werealso projHised by I'hiery in
his La vie de I'homme resftectre et defendue dans Acs demiers
momens (Paris, 1787), were built in Berlin in 171(7, in Mu-
nich in 1818. and since then have U'en erwted in most of
the large cities of Euroi>e. Ow of the original arguments
for their construction was that they would nn'vent the dan-
ger of premature interment, a danger which was then su(>-
posed to be nmch greater than it is now li«'lieve<l to be.
In Kurope. as a nile. mortuaries an' placiNl either in or
near cemeteries, but such a lo<alion greatly interferes with
their utility as a means of helping the |MKir, sini-e they are
too far from their habitations. To induce those for whose
benefit tliev are especially designed to make use of them
they should be near at hand, ami in a large city they should
not be Willi the morgue, although in cities having less than
lOO.tKiO inhabitants the two may I" 1. .\s a si^-ci-
men of a larp- mortuary and nior, n'd one of the
l)est is that of Berlin, of which ii ..■■..|.. : ""'■ ''i^tra-
tions, is given by Dr. Liman in the Virrlel fur
gerichtl. Med. und offrntl. Sanitdtsiresrn, n. • rlin,
1886). p. 170. It is easy to manage such biiililingT- and the
Ixxlies received in them in .such a way that then' will tw no
possible risk of inft-ction or offense from them, even when
located amid crowiKnl dwellings. J.S. BiLLlNOii.
Morula; a stage in the .1 '
when the egg in its s<>gment.r
a S4ilid mass of eell.s, pn'S**iiio.,. d -v
that of a mulberry (Lat. morum), whence the name. i>««
KsinRVoHHiV.
Moriinirrn. mo-roong>n. Ur.iNRirn. von; miiinesinper;
prolmMy boni at the castle Moniiic-in. n. nr Snngerhauwn.
Germany. during the latter [Mirt 1' 'nvnlurr. He
is nientione<l as llenricii." de .Mori. ^whtiVim, dur-
ing the years 1213-21. in a documeiii I'} 'i^irgrave Dietrich
908
MOSAIC
MUSCllELES
IV. of Misnia, who at one time also ha J friondly relations
with Walthei- von der Vojrclwcide. Tlie fact that Heinrich
very probably parliciimted with Dietrich IV. in the crusade
of 1207 may have <;iven rise to the k'gendary story whicli
forms the basis of the later popular song, Voiit eileleti Mo-
ringer. As a minnesinger Ileinrich von Morungen ranks
among the very best poets living j)revious to Walther.
Tliough he imitated the troubadours, his poetry is character-
ized by a marked originality. See Ferdinand Michel, Hein-
rich von Morungen and die Troubadours (1880) ; E. Gott-
schau, Veber Beiurich von Moruni/en (1880); F. Vogt, Der
edete Moringer, Paul u. liraunes lieitrage, vol. xii., -tJl^toS.
Julius Goebel.
Mosaic [from Media-v. Lat. mosa'icum, for *musriicum
= Median-. (Jr. ix.ouaaiKiy. mosaie (liter., neiitr. of /iouirai'Kiis,
pertaining to the Muses, deriv. of juoOira, Muse), for ane. Gr.
Iiou(r(7oy. mosaic, deriv. of.^uoiJira, a Muse]: the art by which
ornamental patterns. an<l even elaliorate pictures, are made
up of small pieces of different coloi-s; or, in its simplest
form, the art of making pavements and the like of hard ma-
terial in small pieces, which surfaces, even if not varied in
color, have a decorative appearance caused by tlie play of
light on the different fesseree. The word is used in a
more general sense for any artistic composition made up of
ditfenMit pieces of material fitted together, as some orna-
mental windows are said to be niiisaics of stained glass, and
even mosaics of wood are sometimes spoken of. In a stricter
sense the term is confined to what is made up of hard sub-
stanc&s, generally stones or glass. Inlay differs from mo-
saic in that for inlaying smaller pieces are let into the sur-
face of a large piece ; but a patch of mosaic may be inlayed
in a larger solid surface, as was often the case in both
ancient and medi;pval work. The mosaics of ancient Greece
were rather of tliis character, so far as is known to us.
Pieces of blue glass were inserted in marble or in metal
frames. In like manner the work of the Cosmati (g. v.)
was commonly delicate mosaics of glass inserted in bands
and circles, and in surfaces of white marble; an inlaying of
mosaic. The cutting of sunken patterns in marble or stone
in intaglio, and the filling of these sunken parts with some
colored substance, as is often practiced, is rather inlaying
than mosaic.
Roman floors were commonly in mosafc of white or
light-gray marble made up of tesser* about an inch square
or smaller ; the borders and other ornaipental parts made
by the use of dark-colored tessene of the same size. Large
fragments of such work may be seen in the baths of Cara-
calla in Rome. The tesserae are fitted together very roughly,
with no attempt to make invisible joints; indeed, they are
ranged in curves, etc., so as to produce certain effects of
liglit and shade by means of the darker joints themselves, so
that these joints are much wider in one place than in
another. In this way large rough figures and scrolls, leaf-
age, and the like arc produced. IMany mosaic floors have
been found in Pompeii. On the otlier hand, elaborate pic-
tures exist, many of which are in the museum at Naples,
and also a very refined sort of mosaic decoration was used
for walls and piers, the whole surface being covered with
this material, and a very rich color-effect is thus produced.
A fountain in a large niche exists in the Xaples museum,
where the whole concave surface of the niche and the semi-
dome at its top are covered with mosaic of very small tesse-
ra;. On each side of this stands a column, and the convex
surfaces of these are as rich as the surface of the niche.
There are in llie same gallery bas-reliefs of figures the whole
surface of which — background and reliefs alike — are covered
with mosaic.
When the early Christian churches were in building, as in
the sixth and seventh centuries, the arts of antiquity were
in complete decay. Sculpture was not to be had : even the
barbarous art of the fifl h century had disapjx'ared. Of the
painting of the time we can judge by miniatures in manu-
scripts, and by the designs of the UKjsaics themselves. It is
evident that all the higher skill and ability had gone, and
that what was left was the natural instinct of decoration
common to lialf-civilized people, together with a disposition
to study the great works of the past which were then nu-
merous in spite of war and ravage, and a certain tradition
of great (hsign which would inlluence their decoration and
keep it from the triviality often seen in the work of barbar-
ous people, even when artistic in disposition. Mosaic lent
Itself easily to the refiuirements of the time. The artists
could not draw the figure, but they could compose groups
of draped personages, the head and arms only showing, and
the rest of each figure shrouded in ample robes, the patterns
of the stuifs most effective in their contrasting colors. The
Christian emblems, loo — lambs, crosses, bannei's bearing the
sacred monogram, and the like — were ]ierfcct nutterial for
mosaie. In this way the interiors of Santa Sophia at Con-
stantinople and of the other churches of t he empire, by hun-
dreds, including those of Havenna, which still remain to us
in almost perfect condition, were deeorateil in the richest
manner; but the nniterial. instead of stone or marble, was
generally glass. The art, once well established in the Eastern
provinces and in Sicily, spread to Italy with the earliest
building there of churches of any importance, and the great
basilicas were adorned within, and even to a certain extent
without, by means of this splendid and inexpensive material.
St. Mark's church at \'enice and the churches at Palermo
and Monreale in .Sicily are more cipmpletely decorated in
this way than others, but many churclies in Ravenna and in
Rome, as well as in other towns, retain large mosaics of great
beauty.
What is called Florentine mosaic is an inlay of very hard
stones in a background usually of white or of black marble.
It is so far a true mosaic that the different pieces of beatiti-
ful jasper, lapis-lazuli, and the like, are fitted close together,
no background showing between. Some specimens of this
art have some jiarts in relief: thus a cherry will be indicated
by a piece of translucent and brilliant red stone raised in a
half ball above the general surface. The term pietra dura
(hard stone) is conunoidy used in Italy for such work. It is
sometimes used on a very large scale; thus the whole sacris-
ty of the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence is lined with
pietra dura of the most brilliant sort, and although parts
of this ai'e in rather large slabs of the precious material,
other parts are covered with a mosaic of small pieces.
What is called Roman mosaic is nnide of very thin glass
rods of many colors, which are manufactured for the pur-
pose. By these very elaborate pictures may be made ; views
of St. Peter's, etc., are common even in the U. S., but these
are generally almost valueless as works of art.
Russell Sturois.
Mosaic Gold : See Ormolu.
Mosasau'ria [Jlod. Lat., named from Jfosasan'rus. one
of the genera; Lat. Jlo'sa. the river Meuse -I- Gr. aaipos.
lizard]: a group of extinct reptiles, remains of wdiieli were
first discovered in 1780 in the upper chalk of St. Pieters-
berg, near Maestricht, in Holland, on the Jleuse river. The
first known species was called J/osasatirns hofmanni. A
few other species have been found in the Cretaceous of Eng-
land and Europe, but their i-emains are nmch more abun-
dant in the deposits of that age in North America, and
among these several genera have been recognized. Tliey
agree in having an elongated and serpent-like body. The
jaws were powerful and well armed with sharp conical
teeth, which were ankylosed by their bases with the jaws,
and occurred also on the roof of the mouth. The two rami
of the lower jaw were united at the extremity only by car-
tilage, as in the serpents, and a further provision for the
wide distension of the mouth was afforded by a joint in the
side of the lower jaw at the base of the splenial element.
The other bones of the skull had much resemblance to those
of existing lizards. (In the geims J/osasaurus the cranium
is 5 feet in length.) The vertebra' were concave in front
and convex behind. Those of the neck were few. The
limbs were in the form of paddles with five digits, each
having from four to six phalanges. The families now known
are the Mosasauridce ami the i^destosaurida'. In the forimu-
the zygosphenal articulation of the vert eln^e was wanting;
in the hitter it was well developed, as in modern snakes and
iguanas. The best-known genera of the fir.st fandly are the
following: Mosa-saurus, Liodon, Baptnsaurus, Holosnurus^
Lestosaurus, and Ti/losnurus. More than fifty species of
Mosasauria have been found in the Cretaceous strata of
North America. About fifteen of these are from New .ler-
sey, half a dozen from the (iulf deposits, and the remainder
from Kansas and other parts of the West. JJosasaurus
princeps, from New Jersey, probably was 75 feet in length,
and T'ylosaurus dyspelor, from Kansas, scarcely less gigan-
tic. 0. C. Maiisii.
Mosasaii'rida" : a family of extii\et reptiles. See Mo-
SASAllUA.
Moscliclps', InxAz: pianist and composer; b. at Prague,
May -W. 17'.t4. His father was a Jewish banker. He studied
first with 1'. I). Weber, director of the conservatory, after-
Moscnus
MOSEN
9(»9
waril with Allircc-litsl>crf:er and Sulieri: went to Paris in
W2(), but ill I lie fiillDwinj; yt-iir rcpiiirLMl to Lonilon, wlierc
he reiuiiiiii'd twent\-tiv« years. In ls4ti. after a jieriod of
protcs.si(irial travel in France and (icriiiaiiy, lie e.stalili.shed
liiinself in Lei|«zi};; was inaiie director nf the consi-rvatiir}'
there, and exerted jjreiit intluence on the niusieal cdiieatioii
■ Jind taste of his time. Thall)er>j and Mendelssohn were his
(iiipils, the oiilv two who by Kemral adlui^sion surpassed
their master. Previous to them -Museheles ranked with the
most eminent, even with Hummel and Kalkbreuner. Mos-
cheles was a eomposi-r of .sonatas, concertos, fantiksiius. vari-
ations, and studies for the piano. Some of these have a
permanent value. Ills translation from the (ierman of
S<'hiniller"s Lifir of liftlhuvm is well known. I), in Leipzi);,
Mar. 10, 1«70.' See Auk Moncheles Leb^n (ISTU) uud Brief-
wtrhnfl mit .Venilrl.isolin-Hiirlhdltli/ (ISSS).
Mosdiiis (fir. yiiaxos) of Sjraou.se: Greek idyllic poet ;
flourished al)out l.V) it.c. His Lament for liinii i'Zirtritpiot
BiWot) has been utilized liy .Shelley in his Ad'innin. Note-
worthy also are his linpe of EurojMi aw\ ]\is /{uiininn/ Cti/tid
CEpus SpmriTTi!). Often edited with TiiKoiHiTrs and 1?ion
(yi/. r.). and translated with thesame by .\ndrew Lang (1880).
Moseo'so, or Mosco'sn dp .41varado. Luis: soldier; b.
at Badajoz. .'^pain. about \'>U'>. In I'l'i'J he went to (juatc-
mala with his kinsman, I'eilro de Alvarado, pa.ssed with
him to Peru in l."):t4. and remained there for two years, serv-
ing under PizaiTo. Keturning to Spain, he joined the ex-
pediliim of Hernando cle Soto to Florida in 1.5:iM; on de
.Soto's death. May 21. I.'i4"2, succeeded him in command and
descended the Nlississippi in July, l.'iW, finally reaching
Mexico with the remnants of the expedition. D. in Peru in
1560. n. H. S.
Mos'cow : government of Central Russia, watered by the
rivers Moskva ami Kliazma. Area. 12,8o9 .s<|. miles.' Its
surface is an almost level plain, consisting of a clayey or
sandy .soil, not very fertile. The government is the ino.st
flourishing manufacturing part of Russia. Whole villages
are often engaged each in the manufacture of one single
articles-cloth, silk brocade, paper, pins, gliuss, mirrors, etc.
— and the manufacture of many articles is carried to a high
degree of clalMiration. Limestone and marble are quarried
and extensivelv used for building purposes, and the govern-
ment is rich in' coal. Pop. (I.y!t0) 2,240,900.
Moscow: the former capital of the Russian empire, a
great manufiu'luring and commercial center, and now the
second imperial residence; in lat. .jo 4.^' X., Ion. 37 SJ K.,
400 miles by railway S. K. of .St. Petersburg (see map of
Russia, ref. 7-K). It is situated in a hilly, fertile, well-i-ul-
tivatcd. and beautiful district on the navigable river .Mosk-
va, and presents, vslien seen from the Sparrow Hills on -Is
southern outskirts, a most picture.siiue appearance, spires
and ilomes in old Byzantine style rising beside palaces and
I>ublic buildings in the modern French and Italian. Its
circumfennce is 2;5 miles, and it consists of five diden^nt
parts : 1. Kremlin, the central part of the city, occupying a
hill on the northern bank of the Moskva, is surrounded by
heavy stone walls. It contains the palaces of the czar, the
patriairh, and the holy synod, the arsenal, the treasury, and
other public buililings, the Cathedral of the .\ssumption. in
which the czars are cri>wned, built in the fourteenth cen-
tury, and gorgeously decorateil; the Cathedral of .St. Mi-
chael, in which the czars before Peter the Great are buried;
the tower of Ivan Veliki, 270 feet high, surmonnleil by a
gilded dome ;t7 feet high, and containing thirtv-fwo bells;
the Kolokol, the largest lx-11 in the world, weighing 44M.tKX)
lb., ])laced on a iie<lestal clo.sc by, etc. 2. Kitaigorfid, or
the "Chinese city," to the K. of the Kn>inlin, also sur-
rounded by a wall with towers ami gates, is the s<'at of the
trade of the city. Here is the Pelrovskoi calheilrnl. pn'p-
erly consisting of twenty-one eha|M'l.< joine<l togi'ther. :{.
Heloigorod. or the " white city." U'cause it is surrounded by
a wall of whitish stone, encircles the Kremlin anil Kitaigo-
nnl on thive sides. Here are the palaces of the governor
and the nobility, the university, several immeiis*- monas-
teries, the foundling hospital, the theaters, the iNi-it-ofnce,
and other governiiu'nt hour's, and the famous (Irill-hoiise,
otiO feet long and L'tS feet wide. 4. Zemlianoii;oroil. or
the ■' earthen city," iK'cause it was formerly surroundeil by
an earthen wall, which now has In-en tninsformed into
promena<les. !i. The Slobodi. or suburl)s. eight in numlx-r;
in these splendid mansions and magnificent motiasterii's,
schools, hospitals, etc.. surrounded with large and lieauliful
gardens, alteniate with clusters of shanties, and with manu-
facturing establishments. Among the 400 places of worship
whii'h the city contains then- are clrr ■ ' - •' '•
Catholics. Lutherans. aii<l other Clir:
also syimgiigues and even ne~jiiis. Tli.
by U.4IKI students, was found'il in 17.Vi. an<:
reputation. Conn^-iwj will! it iir- n librar
umes, a printing .
cal museum, a Ixi
cal th-:' '
ing. 1
also C'
seminaries, military schools, an H'
and industrial schools— and nui:.
tions. It has water cominunicalioii wiUi Ih. i
Black, the White, and the Ca'-pian .S«-a.s. and it i-
wilh .St. Petersburg. Nijiiii-V ' "' v.ir-
saw by rail. It carries on ■ rain,
cotton, timlicr, furs, tallow, :
The opening of the [lort of St. I'
on the Commerce of Moscow, bui
tnule with Asia and the inland trad>' of the ciiy hate m-
creiLscd iinmenselv. It also rivals St. Petersburg as f ho flr«t
manufa<-turing place in liussia. and 'ts factorie-
wiM)l. silk, tobuico, paper, chemicals, leather, i">ttei
silver, anil other metals are very extensive. Its l-..,v-,i.i...-
exceetls that of any other citv in Russia.
SIoscow was founded in tfie twelfth century, and in the
fourteenth it b<-came the capital of the rising empire and
the residence of the Grand Duke of Moscow. In 1712 Peter
the Great transferred the capital to St. Petersburg, but Mos-
cow, being a sacred city, continued to stand ii.s the first citv
in the estimation of the Russian nation. It wils the winter
residence of the Russian nobilitv, and by its commerce and
industry it grew rich. In 1IS12 it had O.'l.llS lious<-s and 2o2,-
609 inhabitants. Napoleon, however, when he entered it,
Sept. 15. 1H12, found hardly 12.000 iieojilc in the city; the
rest had fled. From Sept. 14 to 21 a eiMifiagration raired,
starti'd by the inhabitants themselves, and the impossibility
of wintering in a ruined city, together with lack • '
and the liability to U-iiig ciuitinually atlackeil b^
eoinpelled Na|K)leon to abandon the city. Only 2.1. .■
were left standing after the contlain"alion. Nev<rth<|.-,ss,
the city was so<^>n rebuilt. It had l(S<!..'il.'( inhabitants in
181fi. :t4H..5ti2 in li!i;». 6M.970 in lH71.and 822.397 in 1n90.
Moscow : town ; capital of I.atah Co.. Ma. (for location of
county, see map of Idaho, ref. H-A) ; on the N. Pac. and the
Union Pac. railways, near the Washington Iniundary-line,
04 miles S. by K. of S|><ikane, Wash. It is in a milling,
mining. .«t<x'k-raising, ami agricultural region; is the seat
of the State I'niversity. establishe<l by le ' •■' 'li- territorial
Legislature in 1889, contains a biisiie 2 public-
sch<M)l buildings. 2 national banks with . 'apilal of
|:17.'>.O00. 2 State banks with capital of ^r.;."i.lHXi. ami a daily
ami 3 weekly news|ia|iers ; and lias a large liimU'r-trade anil
several maniifactoriivs. Pop. precinct (1H90) 2.H61 ; town
(1802) estimated. 4.000. Kiutor of " .Mikkor."
Moscley. inoz ley, Hknrv. P. T>., F. R. S. : e<lneator and
scientist : b. in Kngland abimt 1N02; graduated at St.,Iohn's
College, Cambridge, with hik'h honors ISJO; took onlers in
the Church of F.ngland IS28: was Profi-ssor of Natural
Philosophy and Astronomy at Kind's Collegi-, I»nilon,
18:11— |."i; was a distinimishi-)! eliKinpion of |>opulnr e<luca-
tion, and one of the first iiisiNH-lor* ■•f s/-hiMiN Hpp*iinl(>d
by governineiil ; author of I' ' ' /,'»-
qinri-rinii nnil Architrcturr -. at
Wi'r.t Point, Lfrliirfj> on .4>.'< / .Ji ,..; -..nJ
other works; iM'came canon of Ilri^lol 1s."i;t; chaplain tothc
(^ii.rn lS.5.-(. It. at (Hv.Moii, .Ian. 20. 1S72.
Moscllp, m") zel : river of France; ri-es in t'le Vosge5»t
an elivation of 2,2»Mt feet, and flows with a tortiums eourw
of itMl miles UiMugh France, llelginiii, l.nxeiiiburg, and
Rhenish Pru.s.sia, where it Joins the Rhine at Cobleiiiz. II.^
bmail valley is covered with vines, eelebraleil for the light
wine they yield.
Moscn. Ill" ■ -...«. ,;,,^.
ey. .Saxony, l 'nil
Leipzig: pi ■ '!■-
iiointisl olli' • 'I-
liiirL'. 1'. 11 •>'"
poelicii of
gn-at pi -■"•I
of the Wand, ring .l.«. Hi- p! ■! hi*
IKH'trr can also be si-en fn>m I h«», Itit
910
MOSENTHAL
MOSQUE
Brdute von Florenz, Der Solin des Fiirxten, Kaiser Otto
III., Heinrich der Finkler. Cola Rienzi, Herzng Bern-
hard von Weimnr, in which tlio [haracteis are made tlie
represciilalives of tlie |KX't's alislniet thought in onier to
illustrate his ooneeirtions concerning the philosophy of his-
tory. Mosen"s Gedichte (1836) shows less of this philosopli-
icai turn. JrLifs Goehkl.
Moscntlial. mo'zen-ta1il, Joseph : organist, violinist, and
conductor; b. at Hesse-('a.«sel, Geruumy. in 1834: removed
to New York in 1853, and there remained until his death.
He had studied music under his father, and the violin un-
der Spohr. On arriving in Xew York he he^an playingand
teacliing. and in 1860 liecanu! organist of Calvary church,
remaining there until 1887. During that time he composed
much sacred music, mostly for the choir of that church. He
conducted the Meudelssohn Glee Club continuously from
1867, and before that he conducted the Teutonia Society
and the Xew York Vocal Socictv. I), in Xew York, Jan. 6,
18!)6.
Mosenthal, Salomon Hermann : dramatist ; b. Jan. 14.
1821, of Jewish parentage, at Cjissel. in the Prussian prov-
ince of Hesse; studied at the technical school of Carlsruhe
and later at the University of JIarburg, and received in
ISol a position inider the Austrian Government at Vienna.
Of his many highly successful dramas, two — Dehorah (1850)
and Soiinenwendhnf {1857) — have been translated into the
Englisli, Danish, Hungarian, and Italian languages. His
dramas Die dmtsclicii Komudianten (1863), Der Seliiilz von
Altenhuren (1868), Mdri/na (1871), and his tragedies Dii-wcke
(1860) and Pietra (1865) have also proved successful on the
stage. D. in Vienna, Feb. 18, 1877. Revised by J. Goebel.
Moser, mo'zer, Gustav, von : dramatist ; b. at Spandau,
Germany, May 11, 1835 ; received a military education in
Berlin; served as an officer in the Prussian army, but re-
tired in 1856. In the solitude of his country life he con-
ceived the idea of writing for the theater, and was at once
very successful with a number of smaller farces. He estab-
lished his fame as one of the brightest and wittiest writers
of G<^rmau comedies by the piece Das Stiftungsfest (1872),
which is still played on many German stages. This com-
edy was followed bv many others, the best known of which
are Der Elefant (1873) ; Ultimo (1873) ; Der BiUiofhekar
(The Private Secretary, 1878) ; Der Veilchenfresser (1876) ;
Krieg im Frieden (1880). The last two pieces were taken
from German military life, and Moser's example has since
been followed by other dramatists. A number of Moser's
comedies and farces have been translated into English and
successfully played. Julius Goebel.
Mospr, mo'zer, Justus: historian : 1). at Osnabriick, Ger-
many. Dec. 14, 1720; studicil jurisprudence at Jena and
Goltiiigen, and also paid great a,t.lention to the study of the
modern languages and their literatures; occupied several
very important positions in the government of his native
country. D. Jan. 8, 1794. Miiser, who was an ardent Ger-
man patriot, may be called the father of modern Gernum
histcu-iography. While history had thus far consisted oidv
of a dry nomenclature of dynasties and wars, Moser claimed
that the true historian should direct his attention chietlv to
the changing conditions of the people, their laws, custciins.
and haliils. He himself gave; an example of such historii'al
writing in his ceUOjraliul OsnahrUckii'che Oeschichte (17()8).
in which he also urged a more careful study of German an-
tiquity. His Patrioli.sclie Pluinlasien (1774), a collection of
essays on various practical tojiies, exerted a great inflnenci^
on his nation. See Snmmtliche Werke (Berlin, 1842-43);
Kreissig, Jmtus MiiHer (1857). ' Julius Goebel.
Most'S [:=Lat. = Gr. Ka>ar>s. from Heb. Mas/ieh, either
derived from or adapted in torm t,o mdshah, draw out (sc.
of the water. Cf. Exod. ii. 10)|: lawgiver of the ancient
Jewish people. The history of Moses is principallv foun<l
in the Bi!)le, but IIku-c are several other sources, there is
an Egyptian tradition (Manetho), a Jewish tradition (Mid-
rash), Pliilo. and Joseplius. and a Mussulman tradition in
the Koran. The tradit ion, however, contains comparatlvelv
very little which is not simple elaboration and exaggeration
of the account given in the Pentatinicli. and it has general-
ly a legendary character. The name of Moses is one of the
greatest in history. He organized the Hebrew people; he
formed the Hebrew character; and the influence which tlie
Hebrew nation has exercised on the civilization of mankind,
by being through many centuries the bearer of the mono-
theistic idea, can hardly be overestimated. According to
Ex. ii. 10, Moses was adopted by the king's tlaughter, and
according to Acts vii. 23 lie was initiated in all the secret
wisdom of the Egyjitian priesthood; but the Hible tells
nothing of his youth from his adoption by the jirincess to
the day when he slew an Kgyptian overseer for Ins barbar-
ous treatment of a Jewish man. He had then to flee from
Egypt, and lived for numy years in .Midian with Jethro the
priest, whose daughter he married and whose (locks he
tended. Having been called to free his brethren from the
oppression in which they lived, he returned to Egypt, but at
first he was received by his countrymen with suspicion and
by the Egyptians with contemjit. Xeverthelcss, he suc-
ceeded in his mission, leading the Jews across the Red
Sea into the desert. The first part of the task was thus
accomplished: the renudnder. however, proved still more
dilTicult. Following the statements made in the Bible,
rather than the traditional interpretations of the Bible, wo
find that the IsTaelites left Egypt a circumcised people, fair-
ly well organized, with a good degree of civilization and a
body of civil and religious institutions, but lacking in the
sterner virtues. In the wilderness Moses improved their or-
ganization, and by divine revelation gave them a new body
of institutions, into which, however, their previous usages
were largely incori>orated. For more than thii-ty-seven
years they were "shepherds in the wilderness" (Xuni. xiv.
33). They were miraculously cared for to the extent to
which God saw this to be necessary, bid not to the extent of
relieving them from effort, and not so as to free them from
the discipline of the hard life of the desert. They came to-
gether again the fortieth yearafter they left Egyj.t', an uncir-
cumcised people (Josh. v. 3-0), their civilization largely lost,
paying less regard than they should to the legislation which
Moses had provided for them (Dent. xii. 8: Amosv.35, etc.).
yet trained in the virtues in which they had been lacking,
and thus, on the whole, fitted for the career that lay before
them. According to the biblical narrative (in the Penta-
teuch and the boc>k of Acts), Moses was forty years old when
he fled into Arabia, eighty when he led the march to Siiuii,
and 130 when he died on jMt. Xebo. See Warburton's Di-
vine Legation of J/ose.i (1737, 1741, 1786); Spencer, De
Legibus Ilebrworiim liitualibus (1685); Witsins, Egijpti-
ac'a (1683); Michaelis, Jlosaisches Recht (1770-75); and
Saalschiitz, 3Iosaisches Recht (1846, 1848). For the more
recent literature concerning the times, the legislation, and
the writings of Moses, see Hexateuch.
Revised by W. J. Beeciier.
Mos'Iieim, Johann Lorenz, yon : theologian : b. at Lu-
beck, Germany, Oct. i), 1694 ; was theological jirofessor at
Helmstadt 1723^7: becjune in 1747 professor at (iottingcn
and chancellor of the university. D. in Gottingen. Seirt. 9.
1755. An able preacher and historian, his works are of
great piernianeid value. The chief are Inntitutiottes Ilis-
toriie Ecclesianticw (1726-39) and De rebus Christ ianorum
ante Constantinum {\75'ii). the former translated into Eng-
lish by JIaclaine (London. 1765-68), later by James Mur-
dock (Xew York, 1832 : best ed. by W. ,Stubbs. London,
1863. 2 vols.). The latter was also translated by James
M\U'dock, Commentaries (3 vols., X'ew York, 1S:!3). His
theological standpoint occupies the middle between the
two extremes, pietism and deism.
Revised by S. M. Jackson.
Mdskwil. Balllc of the: See Bohouixo.
Moslem: See .MuUAMMEU and Mouammedaxism.
Mostjlie [from Fr. niosijuee, from Sfian. mezguita. from
Anib. ni/isjid, deriv. of A'a;'«f/«, bow, adore] : a jiussulman
sanctusiry ; giinerally a square or rectangular building, sur-
mounted by a dome. The most essential feature is the
mihrab, an indentation in the wall or a marble slab or other
object, which indicates the direction of the Kaaba (q. v.),
towani which |irayer must bi' addressed. 'I'he mosque gen-
erally contains a high, narrow pulpit with a sharp-pointed
cone above. Lamps, arabesijues. and passages from the
Koran form tlie customary ornaments, no pictures whatso-
ever of human beings or animals being allowed. Xone may
enter save with unshod feet. The two sexes do not worship
together, and a few mosques are reserveil to women. Out-
side at the southeast corner is generally the lance-like min-
aret or tower, surroiindeil by an open gallery whence the
muezzin calls to ]>rayer. The school of the village or ipiar-
ter is usually attached to the mosipie. Endless variety of
architecture and decoration characterizes the larger edifices.
These have from two to seven minarets, are preceded by
open courts with galleries and colonnades, and have hospi-
JIOSQURRA
MOSSWORTS
911
tuls, nlmsliouses, soup-kitchens, libraries, eollepes, ami tlico-
li))j;icul seininiirics in connuctioii. The first iuosi|uo was
erected lit Meilina hv Mohammed in 023. E. A. (J.
Mosqiicra, mus-kanm, Ui:y Gakcia : explorer ami col-
onist; b. in Spain in loOl ; accompanied Scbaslian CaliDt in
his voyuifc in the Spanish service to the \iin de la I'lata
1526; discovered I'aniKiiay, from which he bronj^ht s|)eci-
mens of silver; was left by (-'abut in charfje of the culimy of
Kspiritn Santo; narrowly escaped massacre by the Indians;
established himself at Cape Santa Maria on the coast of
Mrazil, ami sni>se(|Mently nn the island nf Santa Catalina,
after ilcfcalini; Ihe l'(irtii;;iiese, ami in l."i;!.') joined I'edro de
Mendoza in fcmndin'; liucnos Ayres, where he died about
1555. The intlnenlial family of Mosipiera in Colombia,
which duririfr the nineteenth century has furnished several
presidents, generals, ministers, and bishops, is sjiid to truce
Its descent from the navifjator.
MoS(|llprn. ToMAS Cii'KlANo: soldier and politician; b. at
I'opayan. New (iranada (Ihe present Culomlpia), Sept.20. 17!IH.
lie joine(l the patriot army when a lad, fou;,'ht in Colombia
and I'ern, ami was private secretary and chief of stalT with
Holivar. .Subse(piently he held diplomatic ami cabinet posi-
tions, was semitor, and attained the rank of ;;encral. He was
president of Xew (iranada 184.5-4!(, and duriiif^j this term a
targe part of the internal debt was paid, restrictions on com-
merce were removed, and immigration was encouraged. In
1.S.59 he headed the federalist-demiK:ratic revolt, assumed the
executive in .Inly, 1S61, and called a constituent assembly,
which adopted a feileral constitution, Changeil the mime of
the countrv to I'nited Stales of Colombia, and made him
dictator, ileanwhile Ihe opposition j)arty wils victorious in
thi' west, and formi'd an alliance with Ecuador; civil war
continui'd until lH(i2, when the opposition president. Canal,
came to terms with .Mosquera. The latter resigned his dic-
tatorship to a new convention, which limited the presidential
term to two years. Under this constitution Mosipiera was
presiilent lH(i:Mi4. and was elected for the term beginning
IstSO; but having forcibly adjourni'd congress and arrested
many of its members, he was deposed and lianishiMl for two
years (May, 1867). Subsecpiently he was governor of Caiu'a
and a member of congress. Mosquera was an author of
considerable repute, his works including a \'id(t de liolinir
and a treatise on the geography of New (iranada. I), at
Coconueo, Oct. 7, 1878. " 11erui;rt II. Smith.
Mosqiiitia. mos-kee-tec aa, or the Mosquito Consf : nn
ill-defined region on the eiustern or Carii)liean coast of Cen-
tral .\merica. between Capcf (iracias a l>ios and the river
San .luan. The so-called Mosquito Indians, from which it
takes its name, are a race of mixed African and Indian
blood, probably derived from the union of Cimarroiies, or
fugitive slaves, with native women. (See Inkiaxs ok Ckx-
TKAL Amkkica.) They first appear in history in the latter
part c)f the seventeenth century as complete savages, sub-
ject to hereditarv chiefs or " kings," and al>le, according to
reports, to bring' 40.01)1) warriors into the ficM. ,\liout 16(i0
the English hail a permanent settlement, and subseipienlly
they eslal>lishiMl a protectorate over the coast. Spain re-
peatedly interfered and tried to occupy it, ancl later Nica-
ragua and Honduras both claimed the territory. I5y the
Clayton-Hulwer tn-aty. signed at Wiushington .Vpr. lit, 18.">(),
Great Britain resigned all claims to the Mosquito Coast,
and in 1860 by treaties with Nicaragua, Honduras, and
(tuatemala, she recognized the soven-ignty of Nicaragua
over it. The latter country agreed to maintain a jK-rnui-
nent reserve for the Indians, who should have the right of
self-government, while a<knowledging allegiance to the re-
public. The same treaty forbids Nicaragua to inlerfore
with the commerce of the Imlians, and this clause has h'd
to fresh dis|putes, owing to the atleiniits of Nicaragua to
maintain customs oflicers at Hlmnelils. The (|Uestion of
her riglit to do so was submitted to tin' adjudicalion of the
Emperor of Austria, who, in 1880, decided that no such
right existed.
The name Mosqultia is now generally restricted to tho re-
serve which, in a limited sense, forms a part of Nicaragua.
It is a strip on the I'oast between hits. 11 MO and 14 10
N., extending inland to Ion. 84 15' \V.. with an area of
about 7.000 sq. miles. The surfa(V is generally low, largely
covered willi forest, and very fertih'. The interior is little
known, but it is crosseil by many rivers, the largi>st of which
is the liUielields river, at whose inoiith is the only town of
importance, Hluetields, or Blewfiehls. on a bay or lagoon of
the same name. The Mos<|uitos proper prolaibly do not
number more than 10.000, and they are hanlly a<|vaiiced
from their former savage eonilition. They oln-y their own
"king." whose "capital" is on I'earl Cav I.,agiH>n N. of
Illuelields. There is a coiisidenible trade in cal>inet wdoiIk
and liananas, ami this is largely in the hands of citiz<-iiii of
the U. .S. See "Samuel A. Hard" (E. (i. Siiuier), Waikna :
Adventures mi the Mijgquilo Shore (1856 and I81ti).
II. H. Smith.
NoHqiiito I = Span., diinin. of nioxm : Ital. tnonrti : Fr.
iiiiiiiclii, i\y ■' hut. mim ni]: a name given to many biting
and blo<«l-suiking ilipleroiis insects, mostly of the family
Culiridir, an<l of thi' gi'mra t'liltj. Anu/ihrlrji, ( 'urethra.
The female ins«'cls aloiu' bite, or rather thrust into the flesh
their awl-like bristles, massed together into a tube, through
which they draw the blood. The distn'ss these iiLiy-i-Ls oc-
casion is very great, not only in hot countries, but in some
cold ones, like Laplaml and Labrador. The uv of moMjuit't-
netling, the kindling of densi' smoky fire.s, and the applica-
tion of tar, |K-nnyrr.yal oil, or deciK-tion of feverfew ti> tie-
skin — all have some cITiH't in protecting the person from
their attacks. The female dejMisits her eggs on the surface
of Ihe water, and the larv.r conslitule an iinporlant jiart of
the fo,«l of fishes. S<'e (i\AT. It.-vi~e,l by V. A. LliAS.
Mosquito (.'oast ami Mosquito Kcscrvutioii : Sv« Mos-
VIITIA.
Moss-a?ato: See ('hai,cedoxy.
Miisshiiiiker: S«'e Mkxiiaukx.
.Mosses [plur. of moMH < M. Eng. mon : <». II. fierm. m<M >
Mod. (ierin. movs; cf. Lat. mimcuji, moss]: S-e MosswoBTs.
Mosxo, .\xi!F.l.o : physiologist ; b. in Turin, Italy. May .11.
184(5; sludieil medicine in Turin, devoting himself e.s|i<-.
cially to physiology umler the ilirc<tion of Molevhott, ami
colli inued his studies in Florence and Leipzig. In 1876 he
became Professor of I'liannacologv in Turin, and three
years later succeeiled -Moleschott as I'nifes,sor of Physiology,
lie liii-s won distinclion by his original methoils of investi-
gation of the physiology of man. and bv his ingenious iiie-
chaiiical ilevices for reconling physical change resulting
from physical and mental activity. In 1882 he foiinileil the
Arehirex ilnlieiiiieK de biolm/ie. in which many i^f his works
have appeared. He hits publisheil also Dir Hidi/iioAlik dm
I'liliteH (W,^); Ueher den Kreinlmif dex liliitrs im mrnxrh-
lirhen Gehirne (1881); Die FurchI (188!t); Die Krmadung
{18!I2); Die phyxigrhe Erziehuntj der Juijend (181)4).
Mossworts: the plants constituting the /rreat branch of
the vegetable kingdom otherwise calh'd the Hryophytes
{Hri/(jj>li!/liil including the plants familiarly known as the
liverworts and mossi-s. They are relati'd to the Kkrxworts
(</. f.) on the one hand, and' the higher Car|M)plivt<-<, csim--
cially the .Stonkworts (q. v.). on the other. They agn-e
with the feniworts in the structure of their sexual organs
and a marked alternation of generations. The first giMiera-
tjon — i. e. the one develoiM'd fniin the s|>or»' — bears the
sexual orpins; after fertilization a structure is prixlucerl,
the si-cond gi'nenition or siiorophyte. which U'ars S|porps.
From these spores llii- sexual generation is again pnKluced.
The mossworts, like the feniworts, are all chlorophvll-
bearing plants, muie lieing parasitic or .sjiproiihytic. Tliey
are plants of rather small size, rarely exceoiling 10 or 20
cm. (4 to 8 inches) in height, and often measuring no more
than a millimeter {^g inch). They usually inhabit m-isi
places, and a few an- ncpiatie. While the plant-l><»ly .-ften
exhibits a complete ditTen-ntiation of leaf and stem, no true
riMils are ever develo|)ed, Iheir place In-ing fillwl by root-
hairs consisting of long i-ells or rows of cells.
Their s«'xual organs nn- antherids and arclicgones. The
former an- club-shaped lK>tlies. consisting of m ' '~
iaver of ci-lls inclosing a considerable iinintKr .1 i
cells. At maturity the latter are extnid.- ! •■
llierid, when the protoplasm of each i-e|l af
a more or h-ss eoiU-ii, motile filanieiii,
which es<-aiH's by the rupture of the c. 1
an-hegones are ilask-shaiH-d stnictun -
of one or two layers of boundary i .
turity, a single cell — Ihe genn-cell. •
The neck of the mature archi-goiii- i« r
o|H-n at Ihe top. Kertilizalion lako
zoids swimming to the summit of lie
ing their way down the narrow chan
egg-<-ell with which one fuses, of •
place in water, which may be Hbuiidalitly ;uppl;i'l "v a ram
or heavy dew.
912
MOSSWORTS
*>5
a
Fig. 1.— a, a small plant of ^larchnntia polyynor-
pha with four broml-cups (natural size) : b,
brood masses in several stages of growth
magnified.
As a result of fertilization the egg-cell soon undergoes
successive divisions, giving rise to a splierical or more com-
monly an elongated body (the sporophyte), tlie upper por-
tion ot which is usually souiewlial enlarged into a spore-
case (Figs. 5, 7, 10, 11). The spores are developed from
certain internal cells, occupying definite positions, each
mother-cell dividing into four daughter-cells, which become
the spores by the formation of thick cell walls. In gernuna-
tion the spore grows out into an elongated green tube, which
soon becomes divided into cyliinlrical cells (constituting the
" protonema '"), and from this the sexual plant develops sooner
or later (Fig. 6).
Mossworts are often reproduced non-sexually by means of
brood-cells or masses of cells, which are spontaiiemisly sepa-
rated from the plant-body. These are analogous to the
conidia of many lower plants, but unfortunately in most
books they have been called buds (or gemmis), which they
certainly are not.
In one of the common liverworts (Marchantia polijmorpha)
small cups form on the upper surface of the thallus (Fig. 1,
a), and \n these hairs appear which gradually enlarge by
subdivision, finally forming a many-celled brood ma.ss (Fig.
1, 6), each of
which breaks
away below and
falls to the
earth, where it
soon grows into
a new thallus.
Similar brood-
cells occur sin-
gly in the axils
of the leaves of
some mosses. In some higher liverworts single brood-cells
are detached from the margins of the leaves.
The tissues of mossworts are mostly parenchymatous ;
still they show the beginnings of a differentiation into sev-
eral kinds (Fig. 8, 6. c, d), and there is often a rudimentary
fibro-vascidar bundle in the center of the stem and the raid-
rib of the leaf.
The mossworts are usually divided into two classes, the
Liverworts (Hepaticm) and the Mosses (Musci).
The Liverworts.
The plant-body is a thallus, or a filiform stem with two
(or three) rows of leaves, and is always prostrate, with two
distinct and well-marked surfaces, an upper or dorsal and
a lower or ventral, the latter bearing the root-hairs (rhizoids)
by which it is attached to the ground.
There are three orders of liverworts, including about 3,000
species, as follows :
MarchanfiaretR, the liverworts proper ; thallose, dichoto-
mously branched, terrestrial (rarely aquatic) plants : spore-
case globose, witnout a columella, in-
dehiscent, or dehiscent (into four or
more lobes, or rarely by a separable
lid). The common crystalwort of the
U. S. (Ric.cia natcins, Fig. 2) is one of
the simplest representatives of the or-
<li'r. Its spore-case is indehiscent, has
no elaters, and is immersed in the
upper surface of the thallus. Mar-
climitia piilymorpha (Figs. 1, 3, ode,
and 4), which is very common in nearly
all regions of the earth, is one of the
highest types of the order. Its spore-
case splits into several revolute lobes,
has elaters, and is borne on a specialized branch of the
thallus.
a J, C d
Fio. 2. — Rircin ndtans
(natural size).
3
Flo. 3.— a b, nntherldial branches ; c, section of same ; d, antberid ;
c, antherozoid (d and e highly magnified).
The many genera are separable into several families — e. g.
(1) RiccieiP, rei)resunted in the U. S. by three genera, Riccia,
FlQ.4.—Fuuhtiaria t'-nrllu :
1, 2. 3. plant.s. with anthe-
ridial branches: 4, spore-
case ; 5, spores ; G, ela-
ters.
ThalJoearpus, and Sph(frocarpus, and about twenty-five
species; \^i) Targonie(c, a small family represented iii the
L. S. by a single C'alifornian spe-
cies ; (3) 3Iarclta/itie<e, of which
Marcluintia, Conocep/ialtis (Fig.
3, «), Fimbriaria (Fig. 4), ami
Lunuhiria are common genera
in the U. S., the last named oc-
cuiring on floweri)ots in green-
houses to wliich it has been in-
troduced from Europe.
Ant/iocerotacea, llie horned
liverworts ; thallose, irregularly
branched terrestrial plants, spore-
case cylindrical, with a columella
and elaters, and splitting al ma-
turity into two longitudinal
valves. The single family. An-
t/iocerotew, is represented in the
U. S. by a dozen or more species
of Anfhoceros (Fig. 5, a) and
Nutoihylas.
Junyerinnnn iace(e, the scale-mosses : leafy-stemmed |ilants,
with two-ranked leaves, spore-case stalked', globose, without
columella, dehis-
cing into four
lobes, and contain-
ing elaters. Scale-
mosses grow on
tlie biirk of trees,
on rocks, or on the
ground. The spe-
cies (2,000 or more)
are usually dis-
tributed among
about a dozen
families. In the
U. S. 171 species
have been enu-
merated belonging
to the genera Aiie- ^"^ 5.-
vra, Metzgeria,
FruUania, Lejeunia, Madotheca, Radida (Fig. 5, i), Jun-
germannia, etc.
The Mosses.
The [ilant-body is always a leafy stem, which is usually
erect, producing root-hairs below ; the leaves, which are
mostly sessile and several ranked, are usually composed of
a single layer of cells, often traversed by a midrib.
In the mosses the protonema is usualiy much larger than
in the liverworts. Here it is a mass of green branching
threads (Fig. 6, a), from wliich eventually the leafy plant
(sexual generation) is produced (Fig. 6, h).'
a
, Anthoceros Itrvis ; ?j, Radutn com-
ptamita.
Fio. 6.— a, Protonema of a moss, growing from the spore s, and pro-
ducing a leafy stem, />, and root-hairs, r.
About 4,5(X) species are known, arranged in four orders, as
follows :
Andrea>a€e<v, the black mos.ses ; small plants, tisually of a
dark color, with thickish, several-ranked lejives, composed
of similar cells ; sexual organs terminal ; ant herids several,
oblong, stalked ; archegones several, each developing into a
thin, persistent calyplra. and producing a spore-case which
is destitute of stomales, and dehisces longiludinally into
four valves. Before maluritv the spore-case is raised upon
a short stalk developed at the summit of the leafy stem.
The family, Amlrm'ce. contains the only genus, Andrerea
(Fig. 7, a), and sixteen species, three of which occur on wet
rocks in North America.
MOSSWORTS
913
S/thdynaceiP, tin- poiit-mossos ; liirge, soft, ami u.suully piile-
loliiruil mosses, iiihiibitiiit; 1m>j;s unci swiiiii|>s. l^euvi-s fivi-
riiiiki-il, unit romiMiseil nf ili>siiiiilur cells, (1) iiurruw cliluro-
|>liyll-l)eiiriiif: c-ells. itml (',') liirKe, |MTf(.riited cells lyinp l»e-
tweeii tile fi.rriier, ami i>fti>ii eoiilulniiiij wiiti-r, .Viitlieriils
(;l<>lH)se, slalki'il. Military at the siiles of tlu' leaves of s|)eeiul
branches; arelie;;oiu's terminal on special brumlies, soon
ruptnrol above by llie ^rowint; s|M)re-ease, wliieh has sto-
mates on its surface, and ilehisces horizonlally by a lid, louv-
injf a naked month il'"ig. ~, i|. Before mulurily the spore-
Flo. 7.— a, Andrrira augtutata (niSK-); b. Sphtttjnxtm cymbifotinm ;
e, si>ore-etts« of Arcnitliuni plutscHilfS oiiu;; i; d^ ^tinointtrtuin
tenerum (iniitc); <^, FtsjidvHa minutuiua t.luilnf.),
case is raisi'd upon a short stalk developed at the sninmit of
the leafy stem.
There is bnt one family, Sithognacea; and this contains
but one {renns, SiiliiUjiitiiii, of about sLxty spciies, nearly
half of which occur in North Ameriui. S. njmbifnlium
(Fig. 7, 4) anil several other si>ecies an- used by llonsts for
pockinf^ in the trans|iortation of living plant.s intisnuich ns
they retain moisture for a loni; time.
ArehidliiciiT. minute plants, with linincliimr and prostrate
stems, anil leaves coinposeil i<f a -iii^'li' layer of similar
cells, and a miilrib of elonjfaled thieker-walleil cells ; s<>xnal
orpins terminal, antherids i-lub-shaped, anhepmes several,
each rupturing as the .spore-ease ilevelups; s|i<)re-en.se glo-
bose, sessile, eoiitainin;; a few larije s|iores an<l no columella,
imlehiseent, Tlie single ijpnus, Arrliiiliiim (V'xa. T, r), re|>-
resents the family Arrhiilinr. The sjiecies are few, tlvo only
wcurrin;; in the l', S,
BryiiVfiF, the true inoss<'s : usually of larcer size with
simple or luanchini; stems, and leaves eom|Mised of a sinf.'le
layer of similar cells, and ci'Miinindy with a midrib .f
elongaliHl cells; sesual orj^ans tenniiuil or lateral, lUither
elutvshaped, archei^nes usually s«>venil, eaidi develo|.!
into a persistent lulyptra, ami produi'iui,' a stalked s|Kir. ■
ense, wliich contains a columella, has slonuites on its sur-
f.ieo, and usually dehis<'es horizontallv by a lid, the mouth
being nakt^l or i)rovidetl with teeth (t*ig. 7, d t).
284
In this order an' found fully
(aliuut -i-OOO siK-eies), 'I'hey vary
structure and development of Ilii>
Ephenirruin Ui the larp' and si
nine-tenths
greativ in
plant-i'
•ckv /•
iie liny
. or the
Flo. R.— a. ln>ieiil mutai plant : 6c, paHlnl err.'w «<v-t|nn« r.f «ti-mii •
<(, loncituillnal «-etion of steal. -' .J
va>eilliir liiiiiiltes : r. leaf :/.]>-■ r, ;
y, leaf Hc'Ctiun ; A to/, furmsul III ' i,]
fealliery-branched J/ypniim. In some cases there are strings
of elonf,'ated cells, which traverx' not only the leave> (Fig,
8, f/u), but also extend downward into'the .stem (Fii£. 8,
(/). Ihese are riiditnentary libro-vaicular bundles. The
stems of ,sonu> species, when cut in cross-siition, show a p^xi
deal of dilTereutiation of their tissues d'i^', H. b e). The
cells of the leaves vary much in the dillereiii . i,.I
these diffen'nees are commonly us*-)! in tin- . i
specific descriptions, .\ few of the character. .. , is
(areolalions) are given in Fi;:. S, A to /,
In nuiuy cases the s«'Xiial organs are collected at the suiu-
niit of the stem, and sur-
rounded by a whorl of
leaves, s<iniewhat rt-sem-
bling a flower (Fig. 0), In
some ca.<es the antherids
(fi) and the archegones (/>)
«n^ in the same "Mower"
(hermuphr.Mliti'), while in
others they ari' siparateil,
but on the same plant (nio-
iiow-iousi, or on itifTervnl
plan''- ■•' ii.ii'ii.
Tl • '■ is usual-
ly loi .. ami iLs it
grows I arnes up the calvp-
ira (FIl'. 1i», "». When
V . I . ' I -.• is
pa-
!. ;,■ , '■"'
an ii
r.-t . i
Inrker III lllr iifjurel, eneli
> t.v «ulMlivi«i..n. The rei,.
■ the month of the o|)eno<l uporr-oase
1.1. i.M .-.. ...■ -plittinK of certain Ihiek-wallnl rrlK
Kavh ttKitb is thus ouiuposed of the frafcmenU of many
Fio 9 — .A m^*^ plneMn " !!■ ■
^1'
„|.ii
i.,.li
9U
MOSSWORTS
MOTH
cells, wliose horizDiital walls constitute its transverse bars
(Fig. 11, b d). In some mosses there is a single row of
a
Fig. 10. — a, ripe spore-case with its calyptra ; 6, the same with lid
removed ; c, lid ; rf d, spores ; e, young spore-case in longitudinal
section (all magnified).
teeth (Fig. 11, a h), while in others there are two (c d).
The usual number in each row is sixteen, but it may be
four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two, or sixty-four.
There are many families of the true mosses, arranged
under two suli-orders, as follows :
1. Spore-caxe indeliiscent, Clkistocarp^. — Here are
grouped several families of small mosses, including the
genera Ephemerum, Nanomitrium (Pig. 7, d), Phascum, etc.,
often associated with tli(^ plants of the preceding order on
account of their simple structure.
Fig. 12. — a. hair - cap moss
Fig. II. — a, spore-case of Fissidetis : IPolytyichum) ; h, spore-
h, tfeth (jf same ; r, spore-ease of case covered with calyp-
Ht/fnium ; tl, teetli of same (all tra ; c, spore-ease : d.
magnified). same with lid off ; c
teeth of spore - case (all
except a magnified).
2. Spore-case dfhisr-.ent hy a lid, Stkgocarp.e. — This sub-
order is again divided into two groups, according as the
spore-case is terminal or lateral. The prominent genera
in the first (Acrociirp(i') are (rrimmia, Bartramia, Fissidens
(Figs. 7, '", and 11, a b), Ceratodon, Dicranum. Polyfrichnin
(Fig. 12), Orthotriclium, Ftniaria, Bryuni, Mnimn, and 1'im-
mia. In the second {Pleurocarpw) the principal genera are
Leskea, C'ljthidrolhecium, Climacium, and Ilypnum (Fig. 11,
c d).
Bim.iooRApnv. — K. Oiibel, Die Mimcineen (in Schenk's
Ilandlmr.h di-r Bt)lanik. Hreslau, 1882) : C. M. Gottsche.
J. I{. G. Lindenbcrg and f. G. Nces ab Esenbcck, Synopsis
Jlepnficanim (1844); 15. C. Du ^lorticr, Hf pat iap, Fnniprp
(1875) ; Ij. M. Underwood, Descriplire. Ca/aloyiie of the.
Nnrtli American Ihpaticiv Nnrtli of Mexico (in PvU. 111.
State. Lab. Nat. Jh.tt.. 1884) ; L. M. Underwood, ITepaticm
(in Gray'* Manual of Botany, New York, 1890) ; Ph. Bruch,
W. P. Schiinpcr, and Th. Giimbel, Brynlogia Europma (6
vols., 18;i6-.5.")) : \V. P. Sehimper, .S'l/xoyw/.f Muscorum Eu-
ropieorum (1876); K. G. Limpricht, Die Laubmoose (in
Kabenhorst's Kryptoe/anien-Jlora von Deiit.ii-hland, Oester-
reich und der Schweiz, 188.5) ; W. 8. SuUivant, Jcones Mus-
corum (2 vols., 1864-74) ; U. Lesquereux and T. P. James,
Manual of t/ie Mosses of North America (1884).
Charles E. Bessey.
Musta^aneni' : town : in the province of Oran. Algeria;
carries on an important trade with the interior. Its harbor
is shallow. It has manufactures of woolen fabrics, leather,
pottery, and jewelry. Pop. (18!)1) 14,374.
Moslar' : capital of Herzegovina, Austro-Hungarian em-
pire : on the Narenta, which is here crossed by a celebrated
Koinan bridge consisling of one arch of 0.5 feet (hence its
name. Most Star. Old Bridge). It is situateil ;i.5 miles from
the mouth of the riviT and 40 miles S. \V. of Serajevo
(see map of Austria-Hungary, rcf. 10-F). It contains 40
mosques, 2 Greek churches, and a line palace. It manu-
factures knife and sword blades and fine silks, and the vi-
cinily produces an excellent wine. Pop. about 12,600.
Mosul : chief town of the vilayet of JIosul, Asiatic Tur-
key: on the right bank of the Tigris, opposite Nineveh (see
map of Turkey, ref. 6-.J). Formerly a iirosperous manu-
facturing city, its fine cotton fabrics, called muslins, were
exported to Europe. Now its mainifactui'es have almost
ceased, its bazaars are filled with Euro[iean goods and even
its transit trade has largely diminished, as the Kurdish
tribes to the north render the neighborhood insecure.
Though the soil in the region is fertile, hardly anything is
produced save wheat, barley, and some cotton and rice.
Near the city are oil and ndiieral springs. Po]). 57.000,
four-fifths of whom are JIussulmans. E. A. Grosvexor.
MotasaHs. MotazaHtes. or Kadarija [mola.salis or mo-
tazalites mean literally sectaries, being from an Araliic word
meaning to sejiarate ; kadarija means literally free-will
men]: a Mussulman heretical sect : founded shortly after the
proplict's death by the Doctors Mohablied-al-Djohani, I)ji-
lan, and Yunis. Abu-IIadifah-Wasil was their chief leader.
They taught that God's essence and attributes were in-
separable ; that the Koran was created and not eternal,
faith inalienable, and that God's providence was only most
general and left man alisolutcly free. Kationalistic and
philosophical, they controlled for a time the seminaries of
Bassorah and Bagdad, and were favored by many Abasside
princes. Innumerable sects and divisions of sects have
si)rung from them. E. >\. Grosvenor.
Moth [M. Eng. mothe < 0. Eng. wofi&e : Germ, motte^ :
a nocturnal insect of the order Lepidoptera. Jloths are dis-
tinguished from butterflies and sphinges (or hawk-mot h.s)
by the antennic. which are mo.-<tly filiform or pectinate in
moths, knobbed in butterflies, and enlarged in the middle in
the si)hinges. Moths are mostly, but not alway.s nocturnal;
sphinges mostly crepuscular (flying by twilight) : and but-
terflies diurnal. Among the best -known moths are the silk-
worm miAh^ (Bombyx mori) and the clothes-moths (Tinea
flarifrontella, T. tapeizella, or carpet-moth, etc.). Their
larva' attack woolens, furs, feathers, etc., and more rarely
cotton goods. Goods which are exposed to their ravages
should be carcfidly shaken and insjiected about the first of
.June. Powdered black pepper should bestrewed under the
edges of carpets. Spirits (jf turpeutiue. SMiifT, tobacco,
camphor, cedar chips, corrosive sulilimate. benzine, and car-
bolic acid are among the agents whic-h ai'e useful in cheek-
ing tlieir ravages. See Entojiolooy and JjEriiioi'TERA ; also
Gall Insects.
Moth, mot, Matthias : statesman and lexicographer; b.
in Odense, Denmark, about 1042; was ennobled 167il; made
chancellor in 1684: was removed 1 Oil!) on the death of his
patron. Christian V. In 1680 he began the ccuupiiation of
a Danish dictionary, in which, by reason of his position, he
was able to ohtiiin the co-operation of scholars from all
parts of the kingdom : onlv two sjiecimeii sheets were printed
togelher with the iilaii in' 16!I7. After his ileath the collec-
tion, consisting of sixty folio volumes, was sold to tlie king,
and later was transferred to the Koyal Eibrary. In his or-
thography Moth anticipated manv of the reforms instituted
by Ka.sk. ' He died in 1710. .See C.'Molbech, Ilistori.'^l; Ud.'sigt
o'rerde danske Ordbmjx-Arbeidir i det 17 ay IR Aiirliinidrede
((""openhagen, 1827), and A Bibliography of Danish and
Sifi'dis/i Dictionaries, etc. (Baltimore, 1800),' by the author
of this article. D. K. Dodge.
MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN
MOTION
915
Mother Carey's Chicken, or Stormy Petrel : a name
applieil to vHrious little [letreU IwloripiiiK li> tlif p'litTii I'ro-
cellaria, i'ljinodroma, Ortnnoilruiiia, etc.. which tn the lui-
truiiied eye UmV. much alike. Imt more |)rc)|ierly re.strieteil to
I'riicelliiiiii peUujicii. a bird ahoiit tj inches loiijj and 14 in
spread of WMiff. The color is brownish black above, a little
browner below, ami there is a C'ons])icuous white |mlch on
the rump. This petrel is cumnion in |)arts of the North
Atlantic, but is the rarest of the little petrels found alon^;
the eastern i^oast of the L'. S. It can be readily distinjtuished
ainonj; Iheni by its sipiare tail, short lej.'s.and entirely black
feet. It nesis in crannies anions; rocks, ami lays a sinj^'le
white v\i-j, with a few faint nnirkinf^s around the larger end.
The binl has a rank, musty odor, and when captureil, be-
sides biliuf; and scratchiiifr, defends itself by ejecting from
its moulh an ill-sniellinR, oily fluiil, the |)art1v diftested con-
tents of its stonnuh. The suporsliti<ius dreail in which this
bird is said to be held has been {jreatly exa;rf,'eraled. It is
doubtful if it ever was re;;ardeil as the liarbini,'er of a storm,
because in some localities it is, at proper seasons, always
common, and it is most noticeable (hiring a fjale because, be-
inf; then prevented from readily obtaining its customary
food, it hovers about ships in search of scraps of ftxHl. See
also Petrel. V. A. Lucas.
Mother-of-penrl : a substance chiefly afforded by the
.shells <if tlie pearl-oyster (Jletrnyriiin miirr/iinlifprn), which
also vieMs the greater part of the pearls of commerce. The
shells are obtained in the Gulf of California, at Panama,
Cubagiia, Ceylon, Madagascar, Swan river, .Manilla, the So-
ciety islands, etc. Those from Manilla are the best ; they
are of the black-lipiH'd variety. The Society islands furnish
the silver-lipped sort, and I'ananni the "bullock shells."
The genera /luliotiK, Turbo, etc., also furnish some mother-
of-pearl. It is principally used in knife-handles, sbirt-but-
tuns, for inlaying, etc.
•Moths : See Moth.
Motion [via 0. Kr. from Lat. mo'lio, a moving, deriv. of
move re, to move] : chanpe of position or place of a ixiint or
of a body, the successive positions of the point or boily form-
ing its path or trajectory.
There can be no definite conception of the motion of a
point or body without reference of its p>sitions to some
other point or body in relation to which the motion is esti-
mated. On the earth's surface we arc accustomed to refer
nearly all ordinary phenomena of motion to some point
which is fixed on the earth. The motion of a person walk-
ing is unconsciously referred to the i)oints on the ground
over which he passes; the motion of a projectile is referred
to the point at which it receives the impulse which produces
its motion; and the conception of the motion of the solar
system is jwissible otdy by referring it to some point or di-
rection in space toward which the system a.s a whole is sui>-
posed to move. The fumlaniental idea, therefore, of a simple
movement is that it is relative — i. e. it must have reference
to some point and .some direction which may be supposed
flxecl. "The study of the principles of motion unconnected
wilh the forces which pnxluce it constitules a branch of the
science of dynamics to which the name kiiiemaliex (from
Or. xfi^/xa. movement, from Hwttti. move) has been given.
Veloci/y is a term which has reference to the rate of mo-
tion of a point or body. It is employed to denote a definite
measure of the rate of motion according to some (larticular
unit of measure. The three simple units of measure by
which natural phenomena are investigated are the unit of
force, the unit of time, and the unit of distance or space.
The two hitler are employeil in the determination of veloc-
ity ; and from these two the measure of veliH'ity may lie
obtained — vi/.., the space measureil in units of space, iia-sseil
over by a boily in a unit of lime. If a secomi lie taKen as
the unit of time, the veUx-ity will be the space passed over
by a point or body in one second. In this manner all veliK'i-
fies may be compared by their measures in the same units;
!i.ssuuiing the sjime interval of time for the unit of time, the
velocities of Ixidies in motion may be compared definitely
by the spaces passed over in this unit of lime.
Ifthe pa' b or trajectory of a point is known, and its veloc-
ity given, the elements of its motion are thus completely
determined. The motion is sjiid to Im> uniform when equal
portions of the path are passed over in equal limes. It is
varieti when nneqtnil portions of ihe path are cles<-ribed in
equal times. It is uniformly vnrieil when the sueees-sive
changes of velocity, increa-sing or diminishing, take place l>y
equal increments or decrements in the same time, 'fhe laws
of motion require, therefort-, not only that the path xhall be
known, but that the velcxrity at each |>oiiit of its |>aih, or
the law l)y which Ihe veliK.ity changes, shall lie known. In
uniform movement Ihix law is expre>Mil algebraiially bv the
expression i = t- 1, in which n i> ihe -pace moved through, ii
the constant veloc'ity, and / the lime, in ^-conds, during
which motion has taken place from the initial point. In
varied motion the velocity is continually changing, either
uniformly or otherwise; aiid to determine the vel.K-ily of a
jMiint at any position of its |iath it is necessurv to know the
law of change. If the velocity increasi' <ir diminish at a
uniform rale, the vehn'ity at aiiv insiani /. nieasunil from
the inslant at which the vchK-ity'wa-s i-,, will Im- r= r, + a I,
in which a is a constant denoting the rale of variuiion of
the velo<ily calletl the acceleration, and the space clcst-riljed
will be represented by ,
«=".' + -2-.
If the velocity is neither constant nor unifomdy varyine,
its rate of variation and the relation lietween Ihe space and
time may still be found by the methods of the integral cal-
culus.
A point is «iid to have a motion of Imunlnlion wilh ref-
erence to another point when the line joining the two points
is altered in length. It is .said to have a motion of rutiilion
in reference to another point when the line joining the two
points changes its ilireclion. A jioint moving in a circular
path ba-s a inotiiin of rotation with reference to Ihe center
of motion, but no inotirm of translali<in in reference to this
eeiiler; and a [)oinl the trajectory of whiih is a straight
line has a simple motion of translaiion wilh reference to all
points in that straight line. The measuri' of angular move-
ment involves Ihe unit of time and the angle through which
the body turns in a unit of time. This angle is usually esti-
mateil by Ihe length of the circular arc passed over by a
point at the distance unity from the axis, and this length' is
called the anyular velocity. It results from Ibis mode of
measuring angular movement that if a represent the angular
velocity, then Ihe actual velocity of a point in Ihe IxMly at
the distance r from the axis, in the direction of the tangent
to its path, will Ik? e(iiial to the angular vehK-ily multiplied
by Ihe distance fnun the cenliT of motion, or e = o r. For
practical pur|Mises, especially in the study of machines, it is
often convenient to express the angular veliKitv in terms
of Ihe number of turns per second of the body alxiiit its axis.
If S be the number of turns [>er second — by which it is im-
plieil that >.V may lie a fraction or a whole niimlH>r — then
a = 2»iV, and v ■=■ 2ir.Y r will Ih- Ihe actual velocity of a |Miint
at the distance r from the axis in the direction of the tan-
gent, T being the ratio of the circumference to the diameter.
.Starting thus with tlu' general proposition that all motion
is relative, the motion of one ixiint with reference to anolher
is usually composed of two elements — one a change of liis-
tanceand anolnera change of angular position. If a change
of ilislance along a given direclion only takes place, the
motion of either point rcferre<l to the other is a movement
of translaiion; it a change of angle only takes place, the
movement is one of simple rotation; ami if boih these
changes occur simultaneously the movemenl is a motion of
translation and rotation combined. .\ rigid UhIv is said to
have a motion of translnlion when all poinl.sof ihe Ixxly de-
scrilH> iMirallel lines, and a motion of rotation when any lino
of the iMxIy changes il,sdire<'lion.
Relative anil t'omparative Molion»of Puiul*. — Two |>oinls
moving in the sjiine slrait'lil line have a relative inolinn
equal to Ihe sum or difTereiice of their motions in ■■■ '■ '■ ' ■ ■
to a lliinl point in the same line. If the |>oinls n
si»me direclion Iheir relative inoli.in will be Ihe >
and if in op|Hisite iliriHiions ihe sum of their molmns iti
reference to the tliinl |>oint. Ifthe points movo with the
same velcM-ily the ilislance Ulwwn II i in-
variable when I hey move in Ihe sjime il '>n-
linually increa.se if Ihey move in ■■[ ■ ■ '•-
Iwo |Miinls rotate almul a Ihinl. tl
sjime plane, if Ihe Iwo revolving pc i
their ani:ular moliims and velocilie!< will Im' ■ iieir
comparative motions will differ only in •' lial
veloeilii's. which de(H"nil on Iheir "ler
of rnlalion. Their rr/n/iiv moli.^ iiid
|o consist of a rotati' ■ ' ' —
angiihir veh^'ily wilh v>
central ixiint. If two i _
variable line n-volve alxiul dillen-nl ivnlers. their r>-l«iivo
and comparative motions may be found by the applicatioa
916
MOTION
MOTION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS
of a theorem which forms the basis of nearly the whole
theory of combination in mechanism— viz. : If two points
are so connected thai their distance apart remains invarialjle,
the components of their velocities along the straight line
joining them must be equal.
Composilion of Translations. — It a point move over one
side of a parallelogram, and then over the next adjacent
side, the effect will be tlie same as if it had moved along the
diagonal — i. e. its relative motion with reference to the
starting-point will be the Siinie. The two motions along the
sides are called the components, and the diagonal motion
the resultant motion. It follows from this that any motion
of translation in a plane may be resolved into two compo-
nents in any two given direct ions in that plane by construct-
ing a parallelogram of which the diagonal is the original
motion, the sides having the given direction. More gener-
ally any motion of translation can be resolved into three com-
ponents in three given non-coplanar ilirections by construct-
ing a parallelopipcd of which the diagonal is the original
motion, the edges having the given directions. In the same
manner the velocity of a point in a given ilirection may be
resolved into three component velocities having given direc-
tions. If the components are at right angles to each other,
the parallelopipcd will be rectangular.
Resoliitiiin and Composition of notations.— The rotation
of a rigid body about a given axis is equivalent to the re-
sultant of two component rotations about two axes parallel
to the given axis and in the same plane, the angular veloci-
ties of each of the three rotations being proportional to tlie
distance between the other two axes. It follows from this
that if two wheels revolving about their centers remain in
contact with each other, the point of contact being in the
line joining the centers, the angular velocities of the wheels
will be inversely proportional to their radii. Tliis proposi-
tion forms the basis of the construction of spur-gearing.
This kind of gearing illustrates the composition and resolu-
tion of parallel rotations. If one wheel be fixed and the
other roil around it, the motion of any point in the rolling
wheel about the instantaneous axis or pitch-point may be
regarded as compouiuleil of the rotation about the axis of
the rolling wheel and the rotation of the axis of the rolling
wheel about tlie axis of the fixed wheel.
Rotations may be resolved and compounded in another
manner. A rotation about a given axis may be regarded as
equivalent to two rotations about two axes which intersect
the given axis at the same point, the angular velocities about
each of the three axes being proportional to the sine of the
angle between the other two. This proposition is the basis
of construction of bevel wheels. If one cone roll upon an-
other having the same vertex, the surfaces of the two cones
being constantly in contact along a line, any point in the
rolling cone may be regarded as having a rotation about its
own axis combined with a rotation of this axis about the
axis of the fixed cone; or as having a simple rotation about
the line of contact as an instantaneous axis. To find the
diam(!ters of two beveled wheels which shall revolve with
given angular velocities about two iptcrseeting axes, it is
only necessary to draw two lines intersecting each other and
making the required angle lietween the axes. If, then, from
the point of intersection distances be laid off proportional
to the angular velocities of the wheels respectively, the diag-
onal of a parallelogram constrvicted on these lines will rc])-
resent the line of contact of two rolling cones. Such a con-
struction may be called the parallelogram of rotations. This
parallelogram determines the relative diameters of the bevel
wheels.
Helical or screw-like motion may be regarded as either
compounded of a rotation about an axis and a translation
in the direction of that axis, or it may be considered as com-
pounded of two rotations about two "axes lying in dilTercnt
jilanes. The latter proposition is illustrated by the rolling
of one hyperboloid upon another, their surfaces l)eing in
contact along the right-lined element which constitutes the
instantaneous axis of the rolling hy|ierboloid. Such hyper-
boloids form the basis for the construction of skew-bevel
wheels.
It follows from the principles of the composition of mo-
tions that the most.eomi)lex motion of a rigid body may be
regarded as equivalent at each instant to a rotation abnut
an instantaneous axis, and a tratislat ion along that axis
combined, each point of the body descriliinga lielical path.
The combination of two motions of translation transverse
to each other gives rise usually to curved trajectories. If
one be a reciprocating motion of small amplitude, and the
other a continuous motion, the curve takes an undulating
or wave-like form. Harmonic motion is a reciprocating
motion in a straight line, in which the velocity at every in-
stant is equal to the couqjoncnt parallel to the straight
line of another point which moves uniformly in a circle, 1 he
amplitude of the reciprocating motion being equal to the
diameter of the circle. The motion of the jiiston of the
steam-engine would be exactly harmonic if the connecting-
rod were infinite in length. The motion is approximately
harmonic in ordinary cases of pisloii-and-crank motion.
The moticms of one curve rolling on another curve, or
one body rolling on another body, present particular cases
of the general proposition of the movement of rigid bodies,
which are not only often observed, but which form the bases
of useful applications. The case of a wheel rolling on an-
other wheel has been referred to. In this case any point of
tlie circumference of the rolling wheel rotates about the
point of contact and describes a continuous curve called an
epicycloid. A cylinder rolling on a plane furnishes an ex-
anqile in which a rotation is combined with a translation
of the rotating body, the resultant motion of any point in
the cylinder being a rotation about an instantaneous axis,
which is the line of contact of the cylinder and plane. Any
point of the cylinder describes a curve calle<l a trochoid, and
a ]ioint in the surface of the cylinder a curve called a cycloid.
1\w. crank-pin of a locomotive wheel describes a trociioid,
and a point in the circumference of the wheel a cycloid, as
the engine moves along the t rack. A point in a plane rolling
on a cylinder, or a point in a string unwound from a wheel,
describes an involute of the circle from which it is un-
wrapped.
The motion of the pistcm of a locomotive engine fur-
nishes an interesting example of comparative and relative
motions of translation. In the forward motion it acts as
the moving surf ace which gives rotation through the crank
to the wheel and in the backward motion as a point of re-
sistanc". the cylinder being |>ushed away from the piston;
considered relatively to each other, the piston and cylinder
have precisely the same motions as they would have if the
locomotive were suspended from the earth. Considered
with reference to tlie earth, the cylinder has a continuous
uniform motion in a straiglit line, wliile the piston, at one
point of each revolution, comes jiartially to a state of rest
with reference to the earth. It would come to rest if the
crank-pin were in the circumference of the driving-wheel.
When a-body is spoken of as being at rest, it is understood
only as being at rest relatively to other points, there being
no point of absolute rest in the universe.
It will have become apparent fnuii lliis discu.ssion of the
principles of motion that the actual path of a materia] point
in space may be the result of a comi>lieated series of mo-
tions. Leaving out of consideration the infinitesimal mo-
tions of vibration which the molecules of bodies have, and
which constitute the cause or i>henomena of heat, a particle
may have a resultant motion which is compounded of an
almost unlimited number of separate motions. Take, for
instance, a point in a projectile : it usually has a motion of
rotation about an axis within the body of the projectile; it
has a piarabolic motion with reference to the earth, while it
partakes of the motion of the earth around the sun. It is
thus made evident that in discussing motion it must usually
be restricted to certain relative coiulitions which constitute
the particular points of any investigation.
Kevised by R. A. Roberts.
Motion in Animals and riniits : the movements ob-
served in living matter. They may be diviiled into two
categories — invisible and visible. The former are siicli as
occur in the vibrations of atoms, being manifested in heat,
light, electricity, and chemical changes. Msible movements
are of great variety, many being obvious to the naked eye,
while others demand the aid of the microscope. Some, such
as growth, are so slow as to be inajiiireciable except by jiro-
longed observation, but most of them are readily discernible.
In low organisms motion is not only seen in the iiulividual
as a whole, but in separate parts. Thus the anueba while
in the active "state continues to undergo alterjitions in its
outlines by throwing out foot-like prolongations here and
there, and from time to time retracting them. The interior
semi-liquid [irotoplasm can be seen to possess a circulatory
movement, and if vai'Uolcs are present they may be not iced
to contract and dilate. The vorticella has a contractile
stem, by means of which Die organism is raised or lowered,
also a contractile vacuole, besides movable cilia at its mouth.
MOTION IX ANIMALS AND PLANTS
Tlie paraini-ciiirii, siiiroslniiniin. ami the ciiiliryi) of [xirif<-ra
have ciliii whieli tlicv iiiovi- with u rajiiil liu'^liiii;; iiinlidii.
The volvox and ci.-rUtiii rulifora possess cilia or i-iliali-il U-ii-
taculn which thcv L-iu|iloy as |iro|iiilsivi> organs, while thu
llasirlhita |.ni|H'l ihi'iiisc'lvi's by thi-ir lla;,'illa. Thu volvox,
whi(;h is ill thi' form of a spht-riinl foiiiliiiialioii of i-ells. and
is one of the lowest or;;aiiisriis of plant life, isalile to exeeutu
rOMiarkablr' iiioveiiients liy means of its cilia — it soinetiinuij
rolls over and over like a liall, or aroiiml in a cirele, or in
various indelinite directions, or revolves a.s thouf;h it were
on a pivot. Tlio enmiiion starlisli moves from place to
place by means of ambiilacral feet. The ophiiira. one of the
starfish, propels itself in a eucious manm-r by raising itself
upon ilsle;;san(l thn^win;; its body forwanl, pro^jrcssin;; by
a si'ries of h'aps. The astr.ppcitin, another of the slarlish,
has llexilile, hollow le^js whieli the aiiimul draws forward and
then nils with lluid, making thetu ri^iil. lliiis raisin;; the
boily as thoii(;h on stilts. This straiKliteiiin;,' of the legs
draws the body forward, ainl as soon a.s the lc;;s are perpen-
dicular I he lluid is suddenly withdrawn, the le;,'s collapse, aud
the body falls. IJy a succession of such operations the or^'aii-
isin moves from place to place. In centipedes and milli-
pedes thu motions of the le^'s are well ilclineil. The move-
ments of spiders and insects arealso sufliciently well known
as to need no special comment. In certain nuillusks loco-
motion is accomplished by protoplasmic prolonpkti<uis which
serve as feet a.s well as for burrowing;. Cciihahipods swim
by means of lentaeula. Crustacea use their antenna.' as a
means of locomotion, and they are able to burrow by means
of the conjoined actions of their nntenme and the move-
ments of lle\ion and extension of their bodies.
Invertebrates motion is developed to a much greater de-
cree. Illustrations are found in tlio various mellKMis of lo-
comotion, as in swiinmini;, Myiiif;, trotting, ninning, walk-
ing, etc., and in the many movements exhibited by various
parts r>f the organism. For instance, in man U'sides the
i)eculiiir combinations of movements which are observed in
his methods of locoinoliuii. are those involveil in facial ex-
pression, gesture, speech. masticalii>n, and dep^lutition, also
movements of the eyeballs, heart, intestines, vesstd-walls,
blood and lymph, cilia linin;; the air-passages and Fallopian
tubes, white oorpuscles, etc. See GAtTs and Meouanii-s,
A.S'IMAL.
In platils motion is oltserved in eells and in various or-
gans. Thus in cells the soft protoplasm is sometimes seen
to rotate within the cell-wall, as in the leaves of thu Viillin-
nerinxpinilin, while the nucleus is continually underpoiiiga
change of form as it moves from place to place. In tlie
cells of other plants the protoplasm sends prcdongations to
various parts of tlip interior, which an- after a time with-
drawn only to be sent out in other directions. Vacuoles in
plant-cells contract and dilate, thus causing a circulation of
the cell c'ontenls. In the sap-tubes or vessels, ascending and
deseeiiiling currents of sap are observed.
The movements of ciTlain organs are well observeil in
many sf>ecies, and in some instances are truly remarkable.
The leaves of several species of sorrel move up antl down
with allerations of light and temperature. The latend leaf-
lets of the sensitive-plant chise in pairs when touched, and
if the irritation is strong enough the petiole bends ilown-
ward and all of its leaflets close. The leavivs of the Venus
fly-trap {Dimuii niiiscipiiln) and i<l the s..-eailed aipiatii-
Dinneip {.\lilrovanila rrnirulnsd) are constitiileil of lateral
halves whiih are so connected at the midrib as to permit of
their opening and closing like a hinge. In the jiassive slate
the leaves are partially opi'n. but shoulil an inst'cl alight
within the lilades, the sides come together and the victim is
imprisoueil. The teh-graph-plant ( A. imni/i i/;» //yni/M) ro-
tates the lateral lealh'ts and jerks them up and down under
favorable c'liiditions as often as two or three times a se<>ond.
The U'litaclis or lllainentsof the leaf of the CMminon sundew
(f}roiii'iii riitunilifiilin) double upon an insect that falls upon
the disk i>r touehesthem: one after another of the tentacles
bends over the prey, rendering e.-cnpe im|iossible. Should
the victim i)e caught by the ti-iitacles at the margin of the
leaf it will enidually U- workeil towanl the cent. • ' • -i
successive movements of the tenlacli'S. .So exipiisit-
live are these lilaments that a slighter slimiiliis «
them tolnmd than can 1h> appn'ciateil by the most sensitive
nerves of man. The petals of some (lowers, asthi' |Mirtulaen.
clost" in the evening and oikmi in the morning ; other Ho",
open in the evening ami close in the morning. The le.i
of certain plants are similarly alTeeled by light. Thus ni n
strong light causes thu leallets of the sensitive-plant to clos*-.
MOTIVE
and it arrests the movemcnt.sof thi' leaflets of the tel.
plant; the prolonged absence of light .1. -rr,.>s il,. it
ily of the sensitive-plant. The stain
917
('yniiri-if, etc., are mobile, and when
stigma.
Kuwaiuj i. IClki'ilmi.
Motive : that whi. ' • ,,
voluntary niovemeiii
end, etc. The word :
to denote any inllurnce ir/talrn i i
volunlari/ acliuii on lln /mrl ol
fall into two great c la.sses, accuniiiig us ii
tured obiect.s of liursiiit on one hand, or '
organic, habitual, or pun-lv alTeclive sprii.g- il a^ '
the other, whose main inllueiii'u is the col. .ring tin
to consciousness as a whole. The former - ' ■
are friiln, the latter itlTn-l.i. No sharp liie
tween them, for they pa.ss CI. ii«iaiillv into ' . •
in consciousness the line is both phiiii and im|K.rtnnt ; for it
is only " ends " which an' available h« distinct lines of di-
rection for volition, in ihliiiilc , ice.
Affielx. — All states of feeling i.nd to diM'harge
themselves in actiim through lo.- iim- us. \'. ' ' •',.
force, the motive worth, of a suggestion, a pain
An ideasimply asaii idea — if siiili conlil lie reaii. ...i
not react in movement ; but the simple pn-st-ncc of an idea
ill consciousness itself gives feeling, and only in so far as it
alTects us does it move us to action.
We may accordingly apply the term n^i>fy« to all invol-
untary stimuli to movement. When I w "■ • I I am
moveil through my own inner slati' of .\im1
such affects figure rlire<-tly in the voluntai . ., ii>nes.s,
standing in contrast with another great class of stimula-
tions, which tiigether with them constitute mnliren.
All the influences, therefore, wiiich do their work upon
US unconsciously are to \>v taken into account as nal mo-
tives. The general law that seiist-modifl.alioiis temi to
pass oil ill motor nactioiis bears right up into the vnlimtiirv
sphen'. Siij/(/ei</i(>ii which produces invobr ' ■ •■'x
lends to priMlucc voluntary ; so of /ilriimii
linn, im/mlxe. The psy<-liology which ^' , n
fruiii reaction so sharply as to ileny any inlUii-nce iiiion the
win to other sliimili than pictured ideas is false. The con-
ditions back of an act of clioice are never limited to the al-
ternatives between which the choice is made. There is be-
neath it all a dumb, unexpressed moss of : ■' •
partially felt tendencies outward, w liich gi>
whole process. A dei-ision made at night i-
morning, when n<i new inforniation lia.s Inh-ii received. A
trifling physical accident will ilislort vision, arouse rmr>-
tiiMi. and reverse dec'ision. This fact, that our lie
acts of voliti<m are strongly inllueiieed by sul"
fi'clive iiilliiences, is only beginning to have due re.-..emii.iii
in psyeholoijy.
r.'ntli. — '1 he other class of motives niav 1h' ciill.d emK ■
which are ai'tiial considerations in <-oiis<'iousn> -
Weigh and measure, as in n'aehiiig a decision.
•I*, since they are m< '
In to its<df as worth
iniriii towanl such eU'!
two kinds of motives •;
may consiiler how these motives liehave in i ; ..;
voluntary action.
/jiiw iif Miitiivs. — Volilion always invdvps some men^irr
of division in consoiiuisness — some r
due to iinadjiisteil claims. The vat
whiili an' to lie ailjustisl in an
They are the springs of aelii<ii nr
,.,.,.;_ •■ leitever that ■■■••■•.-•■
.My wh..
I" ■ .\*e side is M-
-ide. ( oiisei|Uently. at i'»ery lie
himself somehow, and what he i
of all the elements in him ^^ '
Furllier. the whole of lie f the man
to call It out, I
"f n fiiimtxT f>f
leni. [iiiiiiM^ iiiiri \" <ii -eii [u^ iM.-im . I'lji le .ju
culatrs the chances of eoilision, or an o|M'n bridgi'
they are called /
wliiih eons<-ioii-
The attitude of n
VVii.u) With the;
918
MOTIVE
MOTOOIil
tual motive urging )iim to remain faithfully at his post ;
and with this last there comes the iiieluring of wouniii'ii
passengers, the cries of those in danger — a new emotional
motive, which brings with it a warm Hood of sympathy,
leading to u quick and easy decision on the side of duty.
The decision is the man's decision ; it expresses the nature
of this man and no other ; and it is the outgoing of his na-
ture in ii line whicii the particular circumstances open to
him. Accordingly, we may say, first, that all volition re-
Kulln from a more, or lens miiiplex aagregalion of motives ;
and, scconil, that this aggreyution of motives exhausts the
possible alternatives of present action. It is impossible that
any one of these motives should act alone, for a man is
never free from his body, on one side, or his higher ideals,
on another side, or his I'lnotional life, on a third. They are
allprcscnt always in normal life.
The sec<jnil position shows us that any doctrine according
to which a man can transcend his motives, hold aloof from
them, despise and reject them, simply asks us to chase a
firefly. If you remove a man's motives you remove the
man ; for what is the man l)ut body and mind ? The
whole content of volition disappears. To will at all a
something must be willed, but this something is a jdctured
something, bearing some relation to myself. The reason I
will it is because it moves me — is my motive. Let me pic-
ture never so strongly the fabulous — the utterly uninterest-
ing and indiflerent — and will in reference toil is impossible.
I can never make new motives, nor will a thing that does
not for some reason find a responsive echo in my l)reast.
Nature of Motives. — It is also plain that a motive is noth-
ing in itself. It is only a name for a partial expression of
the nature of an agent. Conscipienlly, motives can in no
sense be (considered as forces wiiich expend their energies
upon the will, or which fight each other. These conceptions
of the old psychology are nothing short of myths — myths
which have "darkened counsel without wisdom" long
enough. Apart from the motives, there is no will to fight
against, and as to struggling with each other — that would
mean either that each of the motives had a will of its own, or
that there was no common life whose full realization is the best
satisfaction of them all. Here is a developing princijile —
call it what we may — whose different life-furthering ailap-
tations represent a hierarchy of worths. One worth is
chosen. If it be the best the others are also furthered with
it by their very denial ; if it be lower than the best it suf-
fers with the others through its gratification ; both because,
as elements of a cnmmon life, all are involved in the grati-
fication of each. How. then, can they be conceived as sepa-
rate entities contending in a theater which is cold stone to
all of them? Ilather they are all vital elements in the
functional synthesis of a living consciousness.
Affects as Miitivcs. — Among iriotives two great classes
have been distinguished, alfcfds and ends. The foriiHcr are
immediate inllucnces u]>on the will, unpictured, unreckoneil,
unavoidable. The latter are rollective motives, jiictured,
estimated, subjcc^t to conscious selection or rejection. Now
it is plain that these two classes of motives stand on very
dilferent planes in the mental life asn^gards their volitional
worth. If all volition is in view of an cnil, then it is only
by strengthening the influence of particular ends that af-
fects enter. II' I grow greatly excited, for example, over a
Iiarticular choice, my excitement mlors my choice only in
so far as it presses home upon me one alternative of my
choice. My physical hcallli alters my opinions anil reac-
tions, not by supplying mo a new end, but by brightening a
ccmsideralion here, dulling HTiother there, rendering the at-
tention sluggish, and so limiting the range of my considera-
tion, (jr stimulating it gi-eatly, and so pitching the entire
intellectual play at a higher key. What actual volition is
concerned with, therefore, is ends and ends only.
I'ld'j of Molwes. — How, then, does an end pass into a
volition — how does it get the fiat which makes it an ad t
Careful questioningof consciousness leads us to see that the
picturing of ends is in no respec^t dilferent from the pictur-
ing of anything else. It is an ordinary act of Appkrckp-
TioN ((/. (I.), by which new elenwnts of conscious content are
taken uf) in an intcgralion with the old established complex
of ideas. The new end g<>ts in only as far as it is adjusted
and harmonizi'd with old ends; the old ends themselves, a
single! integrated grou)i, lake on a new complexion from the
new element of experience thus absorbed. The attention
moves throughout the series of elements, grasping, relating,
retaining, selecting, and with the integration which it ef-
fects, swells and fills consciousness — that is voliti<m. Just
as soon as the elements of the end-complex cease to act as
partial influences, causing the movements of attention by
their own vividnf?ss, and the attention gets its hold ui>on its
integrated content as a grand related situation, the fiat of
choice goes forth.
For example, I have V)cen aecustomed, after careful
thought, to pursue a given line of business policy. It is the
outcome of all my thinking, feeling, and past action — an
integration, a motor situation, which exhausts my motives
and represents my present volitional attitude. A friend
gives me new information ; it gets an entrance hy its own
intrinsic hold upon my attention; it becomes an element
in the situation; everv other element gels a new adjust-
ment ; and when I malie up my mind again, get control of
the situation through relative stability in the apperceptive
outcome — then I am at once in action — my fiat is given.
No one motive has brought about this result. I do not
adopt one and utterly deny others. 1 adopt the situation
in which all have entered and to which tfiey have given
each its own significance. It is true that the exigencies of
conduct narrow me down to a very small number of expres-
sions. I must either go to the opera or stay away. But
neither alternative represents my true mind. I decide to
go, provided; to stay away, if; and whichever I do it is
with the clear consciousness that I am not realizing my
ideal volitional situation in the iiremises. Instead of in-
dulging one of my motives I am acting on a compromise,
which really satisfies none.
The a])perccpti(m of motives therefore differs from gen-
eral Bpperceiition oidy in its explicit reference to action.
This reference is present in all apjiercept ion ; no state of
consciousness lacks it ; but when 1 have action in view the
moving quality of the elements of my synthesis is more felt.
Generally, my decision is simply consent — the [lassage of
"the adopting act." I consent to a thing when I give it
my sanction. This is volition ; but not as full a volition as
the volition of conduct. When I know that my own fate is
involved, that it is I who must act, there is a tidiness of
emotional warmth and reality that gives new coloring to
the motives involved, and perhaps radically alters the out-
come.
Controlling Motive. — The controlling motive, conse-
quently, is the motive whiich wins the choice; but it is
very difficult to fiiul anything that it controls. It does not
exist at all after choice, for the outcome of choice is a new
end in which all the motives have entered. So it does not
control conduct, which is merely expression. For the same
reason it docs not control the \olition itself. Every one of
the motives is controlling in the same sense, i. e. of enter-
ing essentially in the result. The only advantage it has
over other nu)tives is that it becomes the finul channel of
expression in conduct, an advantage denied to them. In
this sense it controls the other motives, but only in this
sense. See PsvcuoLoay, Volition, and Will.
J. Mark Baldwin.
Motley, John Lothrop, LL. D., D. C. L. : historian; b.
at Dorchester, Mass., A[)r. 15. 1814: graduated at Harvard
in 1HI51 ; studied at Goltirigcn iinil I'n'rlin : was a fellow
student with Bismarck; was adinillcd to the bar in 1836;
became in 1841 .secretary of Ww. legation at St. Petersburg;
U. S. minister to Austria 1861-66; to England 1869-70.
After long and exhaustive researches and manifold prepara-
tions he published in London in 1856 Tlie Jii.w of /tie Dutch
Repiihlir (;{ vols.), which immcdialely attracted great atten-
tion, and has been tniiislateil into German, French, Dutch,
and Danish. The Ilixtorji of the I'liiteil yetlierldnds fol-
lowed (4 vols., 1K61-68), a.n<l the I^ife of John ran liarne-
vcld in 1874, with e(]ual success. His pictures of characters,
events, and social states are complete and vivid, and breathe
in general a spirit of justice and truth. D. near Dorchester,
England, May 31), 1877. See a Memoir, by Oliver Wendell
llohncs (1878), Mild Correspondence, edited' by George Will-
iam Curtis (3 vols., 1889).
Jlotoori, mo-tore"e, Morin'aoa: Japanese scholar and
author; b. at Matsuzaka in Ise, Japan, in 17;!0; the father
of modern Japanese literature, whose constant aim was to
rescue it from a loo slavish adherence to Chinese traditions,
lie wrote on i)olili<:s in the 'l'aiiialni.thize, on history in the
Manijostui., Judnnshu, and Ceiiji Mimogatari, on archieol-
ogy and the history of religious Irailitions in the A'ojila-
den; and is pre-eminent among Japanese writers for the
elegance and perspicuity of his style. He prepared the way
more than any other man for the restoration in 1868 of the
MOTT
Ml»L'LDIXG
919
*m|HTor li> his nnrostnil ri:;hts, ami was lutiT elcvntrd to a
lilac'o in till' iintioiial |>untlR'<in. 1). in ISOI. J. M. DiXiiN.
Mott. Valkxtinj:, M.I).. LI,. I).: sur^n-on ; li. at Glen
Cove. I.. I., Aui;. •-'<•. 1TS>: 5;ra<luatea M. I>.. (.'olumhia LVjI-
li'tri'. Now York. 1S06; stiidieil tliree years in Lomlou and
K<linl>ur!;li : wa.s I'rofi-ssor of SiirgiTV In Colunihia CoUep.'
IXOl>--J«. in Uutf:ers Mitlical I'l.ll.'j;.' ■ls\.>(^_«). in ('..llo'ie of
Physicians ami Snrsi-ons. Xi-w York, ISiKMO. ami in I'ni-
vorsitv Medical t\>lle;;e. New York. ls-|(>-tJO. lir. Mott was
one of the boldest and most snecessfnl snr;,'i<'al oiM-ralors of
any as^' oriountry. Ho was the inventor of valuable Mir;;ic-Hl
implemenls ; had wide fame as an uecouehrur ; was a brill-
iant and able loetunT: piiblishetl a translation of Velpeau's
Opernlirt Suryrry. with larjjo additions ; a volume of trav-
els in the Kast (1842). a volume of |iublished elinieal liftures
(IS6(b. and many professional papers and addresses. He
was the reeipienf of many foreij;n distinetions and a mem-
lior of numerous learned societies. I), in New York. Apr.
36. ISti.!. Kevisetl by S. T. Armstko.n-u.
Xotto [Ital. motlit, ."saying, adaj^o. from Fr. mul, word :
Pn>veni,'. mtit: : fatal, inof < Lat. *miitlitm. a sound, dcriv.
<if miiltirr. to utter a sound]: a word, phrase, or siMiteneo,
ustnl as a ileilaration of faith or alle^ianeo, as a war-ory in
the Miildle .\i;es. as a jmrt of the aohievement of arms (see
Her.\li>rvi. or merely as a kind of bad)^'. sometimes in-
herited. Tluvse mottivs which were ori^iiuilly war-<'rios are
necessarily very brief: most war-ories indeed are not strict-
Iv nioitiK's. but Wen- naini'S. as of saints {.Saiiil (imrye .' or
}solre Ihiiim .') or of the estates or ea-stle of the loader
{Siiiiry .' or Bur// /), or of some ancestor, or iK?rhaps sonu-
la«ly. Mottoes of slj;nifieanee including si'veral wonls or a
sentence were naturally developed with the progress of her-
aldic iK'arings and heraldic ilisplay. While some niott<K>s
originati-d as a remark or liwist appropriate to sjH'cial ivca-
sion le. g. thosi' emblazoned on the arms of lirent Hritain :
IIi>ni suit i/iii mill ij prime — May he be shamed who thinks
evil of it: and Ih'rii rt mun Dnn'l — (Jod and my right — the
uttenince of Richard I. at the battle of (Jisorsi. most mot-
toes have boon cliosiMi deliberately for their moaning ami
euphony; such obvious phrases as .SV»i/)cr idem (Always the
-same) and A'-m*- (/iki/ii riileri (To be rather than to s<'em)
have l>eon taken by many persons.
The Italian and Kn>nch nobles of the fifteenth and si.\-
teentli centuries hail the habit of adopting elaborate em-
blematic deviivs with sometimes more inottiK'S than one.
Perhaps the briefest of them all was that of I'oiw I,eo X.,
Smile — that is, sweet, or agreeable, or ea.sy : or iierhaps as
an adverb, gi-ntly. The mottoes of nations in Kiimpe are
generally thosu of their reigning families, or of their chief
honorary orders, but cities and towns all through the Jlid-
Jle Ages hati mottoes of their own: and from this custom
have come the mottoes of the .Statesof the .\morican I'nion.
Virginia has .S'lV Semprr Tyrminii (So [let it Ih') aUvays to
tyrants), in allusion to the dagger in the escutcheon : New
York has Exrehinr; and the Union itsi'lf the admirably
cho.sen words K Pliiribus L'num. Kissell Stikuis.
Moilflon : an animal of the genus Ovi», found in Southern
Kuropc. and closelv related to the common sheep, with which
it breeds, and to I do big-horn. Its fleece is not woolly.
Miiiikileii : S<'e MiKt>KN.
.Mould : See Mitorace.k and W'AriiK Mori.ns.-
Muulding [ileriv. of muiilj. maid, from O. Fr. iiioler >
Fr. moiiltr : Span, moldnr : Ital. modiilare < I,at. mitdn-
la ri, measure, doriv. of mn'diilii.i, modus, measun*] : the art
of forming a cavity conformably to a plan, pattern, or
model, in mould, sami, or other suitable material, in whieh
to pour molten metal or other liquiil capable of solidifying
therein.
The art of moulding has come ilown to us from a very
remote [K-ritHl : we find evidences of its praclico by the most
ancient nations, in articles found among the ruins of tem-
ples, (wlaces, fortresses, and cities. Whatever the .source of
the technology of the art. we in our day can show nothing
superior. I'it her in desiitn or oxwution. to the work of men
whose names and mi'llnxls are lost. The malorials us4'd
and the methixls employed in the art at present can alone
claim our attention.
I'rfliiHiiKiry PrefHiratinnji. — The,so involve a most cari'ful
stmly. by the artist or engineer rosi«iiisili|e for the work, of
the character, gi-neral plan, and the subonlinate details of
its design; the selection of projior materials for I he |uittern or
model, ami its construction with especial n-fori'iice to a»'cu-
racy and the numlicr of copies to Ih> made from it. If but
few tvipies an' ropn"-. .1 1 1.. i.,.m. n, ,- i,.,, .iii i. ..t •^„^^^
pla.ster-of-1'aris. or iJ;
if the pattern is \-: i of
metal. In moulding directly {ruiu nnlui rse,
no other [Mitterti is n'<|nin'd, and bv iIk- i , m-
ploved t!
file .'■ mn<i<'.— This
shoulihi |„ . ■■,.., - -ited
when the mould is tilleil with ,|mi
be sulliciently comiiact to n-: , juid
metal and the high teni|>eralure at winch it enten> the
moulil, and it must se|iarato from the casting with ease,
leaving a clean, smooth surface.
Suitable frames, called " fla-sks," must Iw pnivide<l for
holding the material of the mould, ami ovens for "Irying
certain kinds of moulds erectiil. l'ro|Mr haml-tools musi
also bo furnished thi' workmen or moulders, and craiiej* or
other machinery for lifting and moving heavy moulds and
eastings.
Making the Pntternx. — The patterns u.«'d in the art of
moulding are in form exact n'pres<'iitations of the nnieles to
Ih' cast in the moulds made from them. but ill
ally exceed the finished article by an amount i
the "shrinkage" of the metal in pa.ssiiig fron , ,■■ a
cold, solid omilition. The amount of this allo«ame for
$hrinkai;o is determined fn>iu the well-known U'havior of
the various metals A common allowance for the metals
more generally used is as follows :
fast inm { inch jter foot.
Gun metal (copjK-r and tin) i "
Copper { " **
Lead A "
Zinc \ •• •'
Tin A ••
Uismuth /( ■•
Patterns are usually made of wo<nl. which must be thor-
oughly dry and free from imporfivtions. Pine is the kind
more geiienilly usiii. but cherrv ami mahogany an> often
employed for small objects. WockI patterns when finished
are coated with shell-liic varni<h. to prevent the absorption of
moisture from the damp materials of the mould ; but when
a pattern is to be usihI often, it is pn'ferable to make it of
metal. Brass and cast iron an- us«'d for this piir|H>se.
Patterns an' fn'i|ueiitly maile in two or iiion' parts to
faoilitato nxuilding. ami for the ca.sling of cear-wheels it
is a gn>wiiig pnictii'o to make a small ^<•gment of the rim
for a pattern of that part ; this is atlach>-<i to a very exact
apparatus for placing it. which enables the moulder to make
it subserve the pMr|Hise of a ounplete pattern of the rim.
MimKIs fi>r statuary an- coininonly built no by the arti.st
in clav. from which a plaster cast is maile. anil from this the
moiiltt.
h'liidx nf Mmildiiii). — These an> thn-e in number, vit.
gn-en-sand, dry-sjind. and loaiii-inoiilding. In the first
there is employeil a "' nioiilding-sjiml " i'omi">sisl chiefly of
silica with a small admixture of alumina, which is always
used in a moist or "gn'on " condition, in w.-'.bii l>«xi-s or
flasks. In the second metluxl the niouM - usisl in
iron flasks, and befon' the mould is con^ letl it is
ihi'ronghly drieil. hence the term ■■dry--ioii up n mig."
In loam-moulding the sand einploveil has nion' alumina
a.ssociated with it. and usually ha* mixed with it a (Quantity
of liorso-<lung to iiK'n-a-si' its adhi'siveiiessand |Hinisity :thi»
moulding comiK^sition is called "loam." wliemi' the term
loam-monliling. The loam is always inanlpulateil in a moist
or even wet stale, but is thon>uglily driiid Infon- the metal
is run into the mould made in it. In !• ' ; li-
tems are nin'ly employed sjive for certaiii ts
and for pmjecting ■•• ■"•- ■ '!• " I" '^ '■ '' rk
beini; ilone with sw. K
/V(Mil-«.— The fla-. sand of
the mouM are usually r<-« iniii^ulnr fiaiiie^ of hi.ih1 or metal,
without toll or luittoni. haviiii.' in their interior a number
of , ■ ■ •■ ■\.
Fla h
the drag.
Wood is generally used for fla«k» that an- empIove<l for
green-sand niinilding.and inm flasks are a!- ' for dry-
sand work. Sometimes inm fla-sks are a r »maU
920
MOULDINGS
work that is mouhled in f^reen sand. " Snap-flasks " are a
special variety only used lor very small work ; in these there
are no traverses, and both the cope and drag are hinjred at
one corner, and have a lateh at tlio opposite angle; this ar-
rangement permits the delaehnicnt and removal of the flask
from tlie mould after it is linished, and thus it can be used
for any number of moulds.
Cores. — These are maile of a somewhat coarse sand, whose
cohesion is augmented by mixing it with stale beer, yeast,
molasses and water, or similar adhesive matter. Cores are
made in a great variety of shapes, and are used in moulding to
make holes and hollows in the casting wherever required ;
for this purpose the cores are put into the moidd in their
proper places, and the met.il flows around them.
Making a Mould. — Tlie simplest way of making a mould is
to hammer a pattern into the sand floor of the foundry until
its top is level with the surface of the floor; the pattern is
then removed and metal is run into the cavity left. This is
called open sand-moulding, and is only used for the coarsest
variety of work, such as pig iron and the various rough
plates, "glands," etc., used in foundries.
In ordinary green-sand moulding a board, called the foUow-
board, is first placed upon the floor ; upon it with its top
side down is placed the drag. Half of the pattern of llie
article to be cast is placed within the drag upon the follow-
board; green sand is then sifted upoii the pattern until it
is thoroughly covered ; tlie drag is then shoveletl hea)3ing
full of unsifted sand, which is then thoroughly compressed
by the use of a tool called a rammer; the surplus sand is
then removed by a straight-edge or "strickle," so that none
projects above the sides of the drag, which is then turned
over; the surface of the sand that is then uppermost is
smoothed wit h a trowel or " slicker," and dry " parting-sand "
is dusted over it evenly, any of the sand which falls upon
the upper surface of the pattern being blown off with hand-
bellows. The other half of the pattern is now placed upon
that in the sand, and the cope of the flask is (ilaced upon
the drag. A " gate-pin '' (a tapering pin of wood, large end
up) is placed in position on the sand in the drag, and sand
is sifted into the cope until the pattern is entirely covered,
when sand is shoveled in, rammed, and strickled off, as in
the case of the drag. The gate-pin is now withdrawn and
the upper end of the gate (also called "git") is enlarged and
given a trumpet-mouth shape; then the cope is lifted and
turned over to one side of the drag, carrying the upper half
of the pattern with it. A " rapping-pin " is now inserted in
that portion of the pattern wliich remains in the drag, and
gently rapped with a hatniucr in every direction to loosen
the pattern, which is gently lifted out by the rapping-pin.
A runner is then cut from the moidd to the gate, and if the
casting is required to be very smooth a facing material is
applied to the surface of the mould and carefully smoothed
down. All imperfeotions are corrected in the lower half of
the mould, and when the upper half has had its pattern re-
moved, and been " faced " and " mended U])," the cope is
again lifted, turned, and placed carefully upon the drag,
which is now locked to the cope by hooks, glands, or any
other way that will prevent its "rising" when the raetal is
poured in the mould. Care must be taken before the pat-
terns are removed to make a number of vent-holes with a
vent-wire in order to liberate the air and g.Hses that tend to
accumulate in the upper part of the mould when the liquid
metal is run in. The mould having been finished, it is in
due time " poured," and as soon as the metal is sufficiently
solidified to hear handling without injury the flask is opened
and the sand and casting removed, the gates and runners
are broken off, and the article cast is cleaned.
VV. F. DURKEE.
Mouldings: ornaments in architecture and decoration,
consisting of narrow raisings or lowerings of the surface.
The new surface, that is, the surface of the moulding, may be
plane, or of a simple or elaborate curvature. A moulding
has generally the same [irofile or section from one end to
the other ; it is supposed to be produced by moving the pro-
file at righl angles to its plane, either in a right line or alnng
a curved path ; mouldings in plaster and other plastic mate-
rial are made in this way.
In tnany architectural styles mouldings constitute one of
the most important elements in design, serving by their
multiplied alternations of light, shade, and shadow in pni--
allel lines to frame and accentuate the main divisions of a
composition, and to impart animation and variety to its
whole aspect. They occur most frequently grouped in
string-courses separating the successive stages of the de-
sign ; in the bases and cajiitals of columns, and in entabla-
tures and cornices, to support and to crown its various fea-
tures ; in arch-mouldings, to break up the depth of heavy
arches into pleasing .successions of convex and hollow sur-
faces, whose concentric lights and shades repeat the form of
the arch, and mediate like a penumbra between the bright
wall and the deep shadow of the arch ; in archivolts, to frame
arch-openings with delicate concentric lines of shadow ; and
in frames, to decorate the outlines of decorative or construct-
ive panels.
The essential consideration in designing mouldings is the
profile; for although this is not seen, and although a pretty
profile may not give an effective moulding, yet upon this de-
pends the whole character of the monkling and of its effect
in the composition. The profile is usually a curve, simple
or compound; the nature of its curvature and the way in
which various curves are combined in groups and alternated
with angular and plane surfaces determining widely diverse
effects l)y graduated transitions or abrupt contrasts of light
and shade, and by the ranging succession of wide and nar-
A. iillet ; B, Ijead ; C, ovolo ; D, torus ; E, cavetio : F, scutia. oi- irorge ;
G, thumb-moulding ; H. evma recta ; I, beak-moiilfliiiK ; K. rynia
reversa. or o^ee ; L. boliitel, plain and filleted ; M N O P. deco-
rated mouldings ; Q, Greek pi'oflles ; R. Roman proliles ; S, me-
diceval (Gothic) profiles.
row bands or lines of shadow. The type jirofiles of the com-
moner mouldings are shown and named in the annexed dia-
gram.
In the art of profiling mouldings the ancient Greeks were
absolute masters, and the combination of delicacy and
strength in the subtle and elusive curvesof Greek mouldings
has never been equaled. This delicacy was not lost in the
decorations with which they were often enriched; whether
these were painted, as in the earlier ami Doric buildings, or
deeply carved, as in the later and Ionic moiddings. The dec-
orative forms used seem to have originated in Egyi)tian
lotus-borders, but were treated so as to reproduce in sym-
metrical repeated patterns the profile of the moulding itself,
and thus developed into the egg-aiid-darl . wat er-leaf, or heart-
leaf, and antheiiiion ornaments which the Koiuaiis still fur-
ther elaborated and enriched, not without sacrificing the
purity and deli<'acy of the original tireek profiles. (See Ar-
ctiiTiicTUKK.) TheGothic mouldings were far more eomjilex
than the Classic, with multiplied deep hollows, sharp, angu-
lar fellets, and salient rounds or boidlels. They were almost
invariably cut into the masonry, reducing its mass, instead
of projecting from it like the Classic. The earlier or Uo-
manesiiiie niouldings were large and simiile in profile, but
often richly carved with zigzags, billets, or surface-patterns.
These disappeared with the advent of the pointed arch; in
the true Gothic or pointed styles only the hollows were
decorated, and these with pyrauiid-Howeis or dogteeth at
first, later with ball-flowers,' naturalistic or conventiomil
foli.age, and finally running vines realistically carved. The
Kcnaissance revived the Roman profiles and ormiments, and
modern architecture has mainly continued in its use. The
importance of carefully st udyiug the protilesof all mouldings
is best understood perhaps by the French, whose care in this
resfiect accounts largely for the air of relinemeiit which
seems to characterize in a greater degree the average modern
French building as compared with the average modern
English, German, or American binldiug. See Architec-
MOULDS
MOL'XU-UL-lLDEItS
H-Ji
TURK. Okdkrs of ARciiiTKrTi.'RK, ami Rkxaissaxce ARrniTEr-
TUKK ; hIm) I'erriil iiiiil C'lii|iifZ, //inlory itf Art in A iiliuiiily ;
Violli't-li'-Diic, Dirliiinnitire liiiiioniie, uwiU-r I'roHl ; ralfV,
Oolhic Mould iiKjx; I'mki-r, (iloHiiiiri/ ; Id i>ciij,'iirt<-ii. //««</-
bunk iif Sti/ltn in Airhilrctnre. A. 1). K. Hamlin.
MoiiIiIh: Sec MrcoRACK.*: and Water Moim.us.
3loiiliu8, iiiiiii liti'i : caintul of the ili'ijurliiiuiit of Allior.
Fruii'i-; i>i\ tlie AUii-r, Ihtc ctdssicI liy one uf tliu liiiest
briil^'is ill Kiiiiiee; l:,'4 miles X. W. of Lyons (see iiiu|> of
Fruiice, iif. o-l''|. It is a heaiitifully siluuU-d aii<l liaml-
soriiely liuilt town, with a fine eJilheJraJ, large cavalry l<ar-
racks. and iin|>i>rtaiit nianiifacturus uf cottous and cullery.
Pop. (isiil) -iVil'.).
Monliiis : wide-rnontlied, fuunel-shaiK'd crevasses formeU
in inrllih:; (Jlaiikks (ly. c).
NiHiltiiiK'. <'!' Kxiniatinii [mniill is from 51. Eng. mouhn,
fmm I. ill. iiiiitit n, cluiiii^'e, wlienee Kng. ;«eif, moult : ex<t-
fiatiun is from Lat. exn viie, anything taken or stripjied
off, the .shed skin of animals, deriv. of eiii ere, take out or
off]: the ].eriodieal (•astinj; off of shell, skin, horns, feath-
ers, or other parts of the inle;,'uinent. sneli as takes plaei'
once a year or ofteiier (in some animals onee every few
days) amim;.; serpents, Imtraehians. spiilers, inseet-larva', etc.
Birds in nniny cases shed their feathers annually, and many
quadrupeds also sIrmI their coat of hair nearly all at once.
Deer mostly renew their horns completely every year. In
man exuviation is a continual process; and this is the case
with many of the lower animals. See Feathers and F.nto-
Moi.onv.
Monlton, molti/n, Eixes Lol'ise Chandler: ptK-t and
story-wriler : 1>. in I'omfret, Conn., .\pr. H, 11*!,';; married
in IM.M William A. Moullon, a pulilisher of Boston; has
published many contributions in prose and verse to peri-
odical literature; author of Tliin. Tlial.dnd the ()llnir(\>CA);
Juno ClifTord (lS.w); My Third Hook (IH.iO); Bedtime
Stories (is7:J, 187.5, 1S.S(I): Swallow Flights (IHT8); In the
Garden of Dreams (IS'JO); Some Wom'en's Uenrtx (18S8);
and other works. Hevised by II. A. Beers.
Mnultrie. William: soldier and patriot; b. in South
Carolina in 1 oil : conimamled a company npainst the Chero-
kees ITIil ; was in 1775 appointed colonel of the SeciPiid Sciulh
Carolina IJcfjimenl, and in that year reprcsenled St. Helena
parish in the provincial con);ress. In June, 1770. while en-
Kajjeil in construct inj; a rude defensive work of palmetto
kigs on .Sullivan's island, Charleston harbor, he was attacked
by a British licet (.lune 2H) under .Sir Peter Parker; an cn-
gafremeiit of nearly ten hours ensued, resultiiifj in victory
for the little fort, which has since borne the name of its •,'af-
lant defender. In ScptcmlKT he was made a briijadicr-ucn-
eral. and in Feb.. 17711. defeatcil the British near Beaufoi-t.
In May he suicessfully rcsisleil Prevost's advance uj">n
Charleston, which place he was able to hold until thearriviU
of Lincoln; but in 1780, upon the surrender of the place,
he was made prisoner and held for ni'arly two years, refus-
ing repeated olTcrs of bribiry to desert the cause of his
country. After liis exchanire (Feb.. 1782) he was made (< li't.
1.")) a niajoi-i.'encnil ; was (iovernorof South Carolina 17n-">.
and au'ain 17;i4-'.Mi. Author of Memoirx of the lieiidution
(•J vols., ISO-.'i. D. at Charleston, .S. C., Sept. 27, 1805.
Moiinil-builder: a sjiec-ies of bird. Sec Mkgapodid.t.
and Ni.-Ts ot' 111 mis.
Moiiiid-liuildi-rs: in American arch.iMilogr, the name
applied to the constructors of an extensive series of ancient
remains, of uncertain date, scattered over the np|XT Mis-
sissippi anil Ohio river valleys. Tliesi' remains vary greatly
in sue anil character, and evidi'iitly were erected by differ-
ent jieiiplcs widely apart in time, but approximalinir eac-h
other in the 1,'iiiiMal level of their culture. The mounds or [
tumuli are of earth or earth mingled with slonis.and an- of
two general classes, the one with a circular Ihisc and conic:d '
in shape, the other with a rectangular biust- anil a super-
structure in the form of a truncated ami terrai'ed pyramid.
The former are gi'ucrally found to contain human remains,
and are therefore hiOd t-i ha» ' ' rrows ><r si'pnh ! ■ '
monumenls raised over the > I 1 dead. I'r, in -
instances, serving as the Ci>tii: ,.;■•■'? ini. tin. n
a gens or clan. The truncated pyniti;
surfaces, were evidently the sites for bui
pies or conncil-hous<'s, which iH'ing coiistriuicd ..( p' i
able material have disappeareil. Many of the inoun<l>
small iT> size, si>arcely visible above the general level of t:i'
soil, while others reach extraordinary proportions. One at j
III oiiiy lo
•ig fr"»rn w
Grave Creek, W. Va.. is 7o
fereni'c ; a rectangular. '
is 18H fe,.t long, VAi f
Cahokia, 111., is !)7 U->
of a parullelogram, Willi i
jesiicctiiily. Tlicy are i .,
and - ■• 1. — ■ I' . .
ther. V
of II.
mcntH and earthworks, nc
senling ac<'unilely geone
and the circh'. One of tlic^;, ui li .--- m., I).. in
acres; while that known us Fort Ancient, ii
Miami river, extiiids in ■' - ' • ■ • .
nients about -I mill"-. N<
been enumerated in tin . ' u. iij
Uoss County, which seems in luive l>cen one of the ccnten
of i>opulalion of this ancient [Hople.
Another class of iiiounds ocin^innally found in Olno but
much more abundant in Wiscun-iii are llii»i' kimwu n* ani-
mal or etligy iniiunds. 'I" ... ^
most -i or A feet, and rcpi.
animal in gigantic si/- ■■ ., _,,•,.
Usually the subject i bird or familiar mammal.
Figures of men ari- i. -s of extinct or unknown
animal forms, such as tlios.' uf monkeys, elephants, the inos-
tixion, etc., have l)oen alleged in various quarter-, bm c1"«<t
examination hits proved the n-scinblance lo i
.Several remarkable examples of such mounds . -i
Ohio, as the (ireat Serpent mnimd i' ' ' I
the so-called Alligator (probalily «•
County. From these examiiles it is -■
ers of the Wisconsin inounils mav have In ■ li
the constructors of the < Miio worlcs. It is - 1
that the object of tli - was l.i ii | lis. nl the
" tolcmic animal " or ^r "f the gens or Iril*.
Many hundredsof In. ill HUM- 11 m 1ki I - ' ' 1
and their contents studied. They indi f
civilization higher, indeeil, than thai .f •
who (X'cnpied the hxality when it .■
whites, but not in advance of what w i-
tions of the area of the U. S..aiid gemncuUj sUii tly uuhin
the limits familiar to the red race. .Mtliough the ninuiid-
builders Were familiar with the ' s
and tiMils, they hammered it fi i
nothing of smelting or casliiiL ii
the '•|>o|ished stone agi'." and thi'ir wca|>on-
ments were nminlv of chert, quart/., slati'. and o y
wen* somewhat skillful in carving pi|>es from ihe s.p(ier
stones, and evidently wi're agrieullund. cullivniing t.iliwco.
maize, and some other fiKul-plants. 'I"
rior to that of the nalimis N. or K.
low that iif .Mexico; then- ' — • ' i
small figurines repri-sentiii_ :i
have been found broken . . ■ *
miller Ihe sepulchral mounds, II is evident thai lliej hwl
extensive commercial intenM.iipie in vnrioils .)in-"ii.iM«. Be-
sides cfipjter, which i - r,
the mounds have yi. i
the ii> ■ - ' V . .|| ii^j iiiiiit-^-tf
river. lian from tlic pe-
gi'iii '.. , - 1 -
The penml when the mounii-builders t! i
differently estimated; but then» is n gr.
rejii'l the *s.sumption of a ver\ s
nn i^iwmI ri*a^m for assiijning ni; •
■ ■ - -' .1
bu-.
trill.
Imb .
their
of the mound-builders.
922
MOUND CITY
MOUNTAIN
Authorities. — Reports of the Peatjody Museum (Cam-
briJge) ; Cyrus Tlioiiuis. Mound Explorat ion for the Bureau
of Ethnoloipj : W. K. 'Sloovehea.A, Primitive Man in Ohio
(Sew York, 1892); J. P. Maclean, The Mound-builders
(Cincinnati). D. G. Bbinto.n.
Monud City: precinct; capital of Pulaski eo.. III. (for
location of county, see map of Illinois, ref. 12-E): on the
Ohio river, and the Cleve., Cin., C'lii. ami St. L. Railway; 7
miles N. of Cairo. The princijial industries are lumbering,
manufacturing, and ship-building. It contains one of the
U. S. nationaloenieteries. Pop. (1880) 2,322 ; (1890) 1,965.
Mound City : city ; Holt co.. Mo. (for location of county,
see map of Missouri, ref. 3-C) ; on the Chi., Burl, and
Quincy Railroad ; 45 miles N. by W. of St. Joseph. It is in
an agricultural and stock-raising region ; has considerable
canning interests; and contains 5 churches, 2 public-school
buildings, 3 hotels, and 2 weeklv newspapers. Pop. (1880)
678; (1890) 1,193; (189.4) estimated, 1,500.
Editor of " News."
Moundsyille: city (formerly Gr.we Creek, renamed
from large mound in vicinity) ; capital of Marsliall co.,
W. Va. (for location of covmty, see map of West Virginia,
ref. 4-G); on the Ohio river, and the Bait, and 0. and the
Ohio River railways; 12milesS. of Wheeling. It is in a coal-
mining and farming region ; has water-works, electric lights,
electric railway, cotton and woolen mills, glass, mineral
wool, and shoe factoi-ics, briyk-works, and several sawmills
and coal-l>anks; and ccmtains the State penitentiary, a State
bank with capital of $35,000, and two weekly newspapers.
Tlie work of the mound-builders here consists of a conical
structure, about 70 feet high and 900 feet in circumference
at the base. A shaft sunk from the apes to the base in
1838 disclosed two sepulchral chambers, formed of logs and
covered with stones, containing human skeletons. Pop.
(1880) 1,774; (1890) 2,688 ; (1894) estimated, 4,000.
Editor of " Herald."
Moniitnin : a prominence of the earth's surface, having
consiilerable magnitude and steep slopes. Plateaus are dis-
tinguished from mountains by their broader tops or gentler
slopes. Hills are distinguished by their less magnitude;
but there is no fixed limit, and classification is influenced
by the general scale of the surrounding features. An enn-
nence which in a district of great mountains would be
called a hill might rank as a mountain if surrounded by
broad lowlands.
A long mountain is called a range, ridge, or sierra, and is
said to trend in tlie direction of its length. A group of
ranges usually exhibit parallelism of trend, and if it is itself
long is called a chain or Cordillera.
Parts of Mountains. — A ridge diverging from the main
ridge or mass of a mountain is called a spur. Acute lines of
water-parting are called crests. Peaks are exceptionally
higli points of crests; saddles or cols, exceptionally low-
points. Cols traversed by routes of travel, or available for
such routes are called passes. The title mount is often pre-
fixed to the specific name of a pe.ak or isolated mountain ;
and knob, following the specific name, is sometimes used in
the same sense. Acute peaks are called pinnacles or needles.
Hollows or depressions on the slopes of mountains are
called valleys if (heir bottoms are broad, gorges if they have
narrow bottoms between .steep walls. In the Western U. S.
gorge is replaced by caiion ; in the Calskill district of
New York by clove. In the Rocky Mountains large moun-
tain valleys are called parks ; in the Southern Appalachians
small mountain valleys are known as coves. Steeply walled
amphitheaters, often found near the crests of ranges, ai'e
called ('irques.
Uriijin of Mountains. — The procc.s.ses of mountain-mak-
ing may be suniinarizud under tln-ee heads: u|ilift. erup-
tion, anil .sculpture. From time to time, now in one place
and now in another, pm-tions of the earth's crust are lifted
high above the general level. If the rising tract is broad it
becomes a [)lateau ; if narrow it becomes a mountain. So, too,
in various places and from time t o lime lavas issue from cracks
in the earth, and spreading over the surface are congeal<'d.
Many such lava-llows issuing at one place build u|i a moun-
tain. The whole surface of the land is suliject to erosive
action by rain, streams, frost, and other agencies, and the!
final tendency of this action is to wear away the continents
and deposit the material in the ocean; but its immediate
tendency is to carve hollows in the higher parts aiul on the
steeper slopes of the land. The mountains made by uplift
and eruption are thus sculptured into new shapes, often very
different from the original : and plateaus are sometimes so
profoundly furrowed that the parts remaiinng between the
hollows are properly called mountains. It will be noted that
uplift and eruption are initiative, while sculpture is a modi-
fying process. Though they co-operate in the jiroduction of
mountains, their co-operation is antagonistic, and the form
of each mountain represents a transitory phase of the con-
flict between constructive and destructive forces. Uplift
and eruption do their work slowly, and their jiroduct is sub-
ject to degradation from I he very start.
Ti/pea of Uplift. — In some cases the rocks composing an
uplifted mass are massive or are of complicated structure,
and it may then be dillicult to determine the character of
the uplift; but when the original structure is siinjile, and
especially when the original rocks are undisturbed sedi-
ments, the new strui'ture given to the rocks exhibits the
nature of the disturbance. In a number of well-studied
mountain chains the rocks are arranged in a series of paral-
lel folds or wrinkles. The folds, though long, are shorter
W E
FiQ. 1.— Section ot Appalachian folds in Virginia (after Kogers).
than the chain, and lap past each other like wind- waves on a
lake. Associated with them are faults of the type called
thrust faults (Fig. 2). Both folds and faults show that in
Fio. 2. — Section of folded and faulted beds ot the Appalachian sys-
tems in Eastern Tennessee (after Campl)ell). Arrows show the
directions of motion along tlie fault plane. Formation 2, origi-
nally underlying 3, and overlying 1, is Ijy the dislocation made to
rest on the broken ends ot 1, 2, 3, and 4.
the process of wrinkling the rocks have been made to occupy
much less space laterally, and it is hence inferred that the
wrinkles were produced by forces acting horizontally, or in
directions tangential to the earth's surface. To account for
such forces various theories have been ]iropounded, the one
that has found most favor appealing to the shrinkage of the
earth by cooling. The interior of the earth is intensely hot
(see Karth and Refrigeration of the Earth), and there is
a continual flow of heat by conduction to the surface, whence
it is radiated to space; but the outer part, having acquired
a low temperatui-e long ago, docs not become cooler. Conse-
quently, there is a progressive shrinkage of the nucleus, but
not of the crust, an<i the adjustment of the crust to the
shrinking nucleus produces tangetitial stresses. The folded
structure is characteristic of the Ajipalachiim Mountains
and the Coast Ranges of the I'. S., and of the Jura Moun-
tains of Europe ; it is appropriately called the ^l/;/x</((c/(i'a«
structure.
In an important variety of fold-structure the folds are
pressed closely together, are symmetrically arranged on op-
posite sides of an axis, and arc overturned in such way that
the strata dip toward the axis fi-om both sides (Fig. 3).
Fio. 3. — Section illnstrnting the fan-structure of the Alps (after
Geiliie). The nuiuliets imlieate different furmaliuns in tlie order
of their original superjiositlon, No. 1 being the linvest.
This type, which is not well illustrated in the IT. S., has been
best studied in the Alps, and is called the Alpine or fati-
structure.
In an independent type, known as the Basin Range
structure, there seems to liave been no horizontal compres-
sion, but only vertical movement. Sometimes the rocks are
arched, but more frequently they are divided by vertical
fractures into blocks of mountain size, and these are un-
MOUNTAIN
923
equally lifted, or some go up ami others down (Fit;. 4). Fre-
quently a uumlier of f;reut lilocks arc seiuirately tilteil, their
lifted idges making iiiountains ami their fiilleii eilges valleys
(Fig. 5). This structure, for which no satisfactory explana-
Fio. 4.— Ideal section, illustratine (Jreat Basin structure (after
KuHneil).
tion has been oflFered, characterizes many mountain ranges
in Nevaila, Utah, Arizona, and New .Mexico.
Intermediate between the Basin Uaiifje structure and what
ha-s been called plateau structure is the L'iula ulruclure, io
which a crustal block somewhat broader than an urdinary
mountain range is hfted bodily above adjacent tracts and is
Flo. 5. — Sectiuu across luuiiiitaiiis uiiil vulU-> a lu StiUtliL-aj»u-ru Oregon
lafter i(us^>eU|.
itself gently arched. Of this tvpe arc the Uinta Mountains
of Utah anil the Black Hills of' Dakota.
Ti/pe/i of Kniplian. — Those eruptions which produce
mountains maybe classified as superiicial and subterranean.
Superficial eruptions build up mountains of conical form
with craters at top. lavas of (Uie ty|«; iiro4lucing cones of
gentle slope, as in the Sandwich islands, lavas of another
type making steep cones like Vesuvius. Some volcanic
cones are solitary, others are grouped together, ami some-
limes the grouping is linear. In the Western I'. S. there
are many volcanic mountains, among which Kainier. llo<>d,
St. Helena. Adams. Shasta, and Taylor are distinguisheil by
their great size. The Cascade Kange is a br.uiil upland con-
stituted chiefly of confluent viilcannes. See Volcano.
Eruptions that may be calleil subterranean never reach
the surface, but stop at lower levels, forming bubble-like
cysts called laccolites. in making space for theinsidves they
lift the superjacent riH'ks. ami thus priMluce mountains at
the surface. Structurally such mountains are domes wilh
hard nuclei; and they are often i;riiuped together after the
manner of volcanoes. In the Western I'. S. the Henry,
Navajo, Abajo, La Sal, KIk, Spanish, and Huerfano .Moun-
tains are of this type.
Moinitain-mnking by Sculpture. — When a continental
area is exempt for a long time from uplift and eruption it
becomes a plain. Its mountains are worn down to low
hills, its valleys are made flat, and its extent is enlarged by
the building of low deltas on its coasts. The whiile surface
is brought so nearly to the level of the sea that the stri'ams
are sluggish and nearly cease their work of ilegradation.
The form of the surface is practically inde|ien<lenl of the
geologic structure, which raay be simple or complex. If
such a plain, or part of it, be uplifted, the resulting plateau
is at once subjected to active but uneijiial erosion. .\11
about its margin, ami eventually through its whole extent,
streams have steep des<ent and deepen their <haniiels rapid-
Iv; the general surface betwei'U streams sutlers relatively
little wear: and the plateau is thus converted into a rugged
tract of stee|»-siiled mountains and viilleys. If the roi'k is
homogeneous, the positions and trends of the mountains are
determined by the streams, and eac'li mountain is usually a
congeries of spurs. If the n>ck is varied in texture, the
courst's of streams are moilified through the ineipialily of
the resistances offered by the different PK'ks to erosion, and
a topography results in which valh'Vs follow the oiilcro|)s of
rocks easily eroded, and the gri'at masses of n'sistanl PK'k
survive as mountains. This is finely illustrated in the .\[>-
palachian chain. After the rock-sheets of that range had
been crowdeil into folds there was a long |x-rii«l of stability
during which the parts of foMs lyinj; above s.'adevel were
almost completely removed, hills survivini; only where r<'-
sistant riK'ks Wi're massi'd together. Tlu'ii the folded Inlt
was gradually lifted into a broad, flattish an-h several tlioii-
sanil feet high, and the streams were stimulated to a great
work of sculptiin-. From the arch-like plateau they have
carved the existing mountains, the plan of the mountain-
ridges being delermineil almost wholly l)y the nrningemint
of the more durable formations. This arramremeiil was it-
self iletermined primarily by the foMs an>l faults of the
earlier uplift, and s«H'ondarily by the level at which the
folds were truncated. Many of the structural features of
the chain are thus forcibly expreased in its toj».gn«pby,
although the axes of niountaiu-ridges do not ordinarily co-
iuuidu with the aKes of fuldn.
Fio. fl.— Map of .-VppaiacttlHn ntlp-^ in l-JLNt*T» iVntral IVnnsylvanla
(aft«fr l^^lcy*. The riili;pi*ciiiin-i.l** niU\ tliroutrrupsuf luu-d bc^ls
which were' involved with soft tM-ds m threat fuldo.
A number of the eniptive rocks are able to withstand ero-
sive attack with i>e«uliar success, and this ipiality enablex
sculpture to <levelop mountains when eruption is combined
with regional uplift. .\ small volcano. iis<-lf only a hill, may
by the hardm-ssof its riM-k pmtwt ami preserve softer n»-k»
beneath it while the surrounding plateau is profoumlly de-
gradeil, and thus determine the existence of a mountain.
(^)f this character are the I'inkaret and San Frttn<'is<-<p Moun-
tains of Arizona. In similar fashion thick, level layers of
lava sometimes cause nat-top|>ed mountains, such as the
Haton of t'olorailo, the Thousand iMkiy of Utah, and Table
Mountain of California.
Lavas that were originally congealed lieneath the surface,
or that were afterward buried deeplv by sediments, often oc-
casion mountains as a result of sui>s«'<|uent regional uplift-
and degradation. To this cla.ss U'long the Henry and other
laccolitic mountains already mentiotitil. the Watehuiig of
New Jersey, and the various inouiilains of the Connecticut
valley.
Oriyin of Jfounlain Dftnilx. — Kxivpting volcanoes in
prix-ess of construction, mountains owe to sculpture their
details of form. The storm-water that flows down the sides
of a mountain follows everywluTi' the lines of .•>te<-|ies| slnjie.
The.st- lines couvergi- so that the water is crailually ealhervd
into a small niimlier of largi' stnam^ w! ' the
bas«-. The streams are the carriers of i .nd
are themselves agents of ero^ioll. exea\... — ... _ ._■- in
which they flow. The spurs lietween thein are not minor
units of uplift or eruption, but are residual |iart5 of the
general mass which survive lH'<>aus«' not on stream line*.
The placing of sln^ani lines js ihen-fiin- a niHlier of imfnr-
•ain
:in-
are
red
lis-
tance. .Sometimes a lar
m;uss hoUls its course d'
nel as rapiillv as the 1 .. ■-.
deviatiii by tfie uplift ami turiuHl il..\>
slo|H'S. Similarly, when the stn-aiiis
cover a resistant nn-k ma.ss. the lorgi-st |pei>iM ami liJr the
mass in two. but the smaller hp- event mtllv dntwn ■■(! in
other ilirections by sln^ams
places are taken by stri'ams r
Soft. 1-laih -•- ■■ • ■ ' •
and sides, all
tory. In th;-
small. strvams at low \<
stniini< on «"fl nx'k o\
Sll'
dr
hi.
th
tlu
Hi i
>l r.
heir
.nl
ad
rrj-
WT
lni:h leiei. and
.•W. Tlien- np-
•.tin
of
. to
>lth
.dcs
of mountain torrents cnaldc thera to lower their clianucU
924
510UXTAIX
MOrXTAIX RAILWAYS
rapitUy ; the intervcninj; spurs, being compiiratively exempt
from such aotioii. hig behind unlil their slopes become so
steep that blocks loosened by frost can be rolled down by
gravity. It is for this reason that the valleys of mountain
streams are jrorges and the crests of mountain spurs are sharp.
Where glaciers gather about mountain summits and flow
down their sides tlie laws of sculpture are different. There
are still ere.sts, troughs, and spurs, but they have other forms.
The troughs, instead of rcsemliliiig the letter V in cross pro-
file, simulate U, and they head in cirques with nearly verti-
cal sides. The cirques are gradually eaten backward, and
where two meet on opposite sides of a crest the crest is first
reduced to a narrow row of jiinnacles (the arrfte of the
French), and finally eoiiverltd into a low col. These forms
are specially illustrated in the Sierra Nevada, which former-
ly nourished a great system of glaciers. Where a conti-
nental glacier flows over a mountain it wears away the
sharper angles, substituting a system of curved contours,
as illustrated in the mountains of Xew England. See
Glaciers.
The results of prolonged ice-sculpture are not known.
The only glaciated regions now bare of ice, so that their
topographic details can be studied, were occupied but
briefly by ice, and had been previously sculptured by water,
and the ice-formed features eonsetiuently appear as mixlifi-
calions of water-formed features. See Pleistocexe Period.
Zones of Climnte and Life. — The development of glaciers
about the summits of some mounlains is but one of a large
group of characters linked to the dependence of climate on
altitude. The upper layers of air are cooler than the lowi;r,
the general rate of diange being 1° F. for each 800 feet.
The precipitation of moisture on mountain-slopes increases
upw^ard, except at great altitudes, and the ratio of snow to
rain increases upward. With changes in temperature and
precipitation go changes in vegetation, so that mountains
are begirt with appro.\imately horizontal floral zones, each
differing from the next in most of its species. Above all the
plant zones the highest peaks are barren. Animals of all
kinds are directly or indirectly dependent on plants for
food, and fauiial zones in general coincide with floral. In
regions of great general moistun^ the barren zone is chiefly
occupied with perennial snow, whence ice-streams, following
valleys, invade the higher life zones; in arid regions the
barren ground may have no perennial snow. The height of
the various zones above sea-level is affectctd by many local
Conditions, but chiefly by latitude, all zones descending
from the tropics toward the poles, and the barren zone
finally reaching the sea.
Thus the scenery of mountains, though indebted primarily
to the vital throes of the inner eartii and the destructive
energies of water and ice, owes much of its beauty to the
gentler offices of sun and sliowr-r, which clothe it' with a
varied raantli; of verdure. Certain elements of topographic
form also must be credited to life, for where the air is both
warm and moist the resulting rank vegetation generates re-
agents that decompo.se rocks, and at tlie same time impedes
the work of running water, and these influences conspire to
give smoother and rounder contours to spurs and crests.
Oceanic J/ounlainfi.— The natne mountain is ordinarily
api)lieil only to prominences of the land, but a broader
meaning is sometimes given. .Many islands Sre but the
peaks or crests of mountains that stanil on the ocean floor,
and other oceanic mountains arc known only from sound-
ings. Knowledge of the configuration of the ocean-bed is
only fragmentary, and if complete would doubtless confirm
our present impression of a general smoothness as compared
with the land; but it can scarely be doubted that elaV)orate
survey would discover a great number of mounlains re-
.sembling those of I he land except as to details of sculpture.
Half-submerged mountain chains are well illustrated by the
Alaskan and West Indian archipelagoes.
Refbre.nces. — For accounts of individual mountains the
reader should consult articles under theif several names;
the great mountain systems of the earth are outlined in the
articles on the several (;ontin(mts, those of the Western U.S.
in the article Rocky Mountains. The proces.ses of mouu;
tain sculpture are treated under Geology and Glaciers!
those of eruption under Volcanoes.
On the origin and classification of mountains, see Dutton,
Greater Problems of Physical Geology (Phil. Soc. Wa^sh.
Bull., vol. xi., 1889)1 Fisher, Pliynics of the Earth' x Oruxt
(188!)); CiTmn'a Ptii/xical f/eolof/i/ (18H2); lleUn, Jl/echania-
mus der Gebirf/nl/itdunci (1880)'; Le Conte, Theory of the
Origin of Mountain Ranges (Journal of Geology, vol. i..
1893); Powell. Geology of the Vinta Mountains (1876);
Keade. Origin of Mountain Ranges (1S«0) ; Suess, has
Antlitz der Krde (18«8).
tJu the sculpture of mountains, see Davis, Rivers ami
Volleys of Pennsylvania (Xat. Geographic Mag., vol. i..
1881t); Geikie, Scenery of Scotland (2d ed., 1887); Gilbert,
(ieuloyy of the Henry Mountains (1877) ; Ilaves and Camp-
bell, Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians (A'd/.
Geographic Mag., vol. vi., 1894). G. K. Gilbert.
.Mouiilaiii. The: See Montaonard.s.
Moiiiitain-aiih. or Rowan-tree : popular names of small
trees, often seen in cultivation, belonging to the order Ho-
sarea;, sub-order Ponmcew. They are Pyrus aucuparia of
Europe, and P. americana and P. sambucifolia of North
.America, both closely allied to the first named and to each
other. They have pinnate leaves, and in autumn clusters
of small acid bright-red fruit. 'I'he European tree is most
common in cultivation. The wood of all is hard and suit-
able for turnery. The peasantry of nearly all nations of
Europe ascribe supernatural qualities to the wood of the
rowan-tree, which is used for divining-rods and the like.
Revised by L. H. Bailey.
Moinitaiu-finoh : See Brambling.
}I(Miiitaiii Liinestoiie : a geologic formation of Carbon-
iferous age. occurring in Great Britain. It is metalliferous,
lead being the most important ore. Fluor-spar, a little ])e-
trolemn, a fev,- small coal-seams, quarries of Imilding-stone,
and some iron and copjier ore are among its economic re-
sources. The name has also been applied to Carboniferous
limestones in the U. S., but is no longer so used. G. K. G.
Moiiiitniii-lioii : a common name in the western parts
of the U. S. for the PrsiA (tj. v.).
Mountain Meadoir Massacre: See Utah.
Mountain Railways: railways with steep gradients
where cables or rack-rails are used to facilitate the ascent,
or lines passing over mountains with unusual grades and
curves, or narrow-gauge railways in mountainous countries.
The first class, using cable and rack systems, will be found
described in detail in Inclined Plane."
jMountain railways not using the special devices of the
first class rarely have grades greater than 4 per cent. (211-3
feet rise per mile), and in order to make the ascent the
horizontal distance is increased by forming spirals or zig-
zags, and often the line crosses itself at different elevations,
while tunnels and viaducts are of frequent occurrence. The
method of spirals and zigzags is illustrated (see figure) by
a portion of the track of the Union Pacific Railway near
Georgetown, Col. At A the track is on a grade of '3 per
cent., but to pass directly to D would require a very heavy
gradient of 10 per cent, or more, which a locomotive could
not ascend, and accordingly the line was turned backward
at B across the creek, and "a s]iiral A B C D formetl. At C
tlie line crosses the creek again by a viaduct S)0 feet above
the water, and 75 feet above its own track. Prom D to G
is seen an example of the zigzag method of gaining dis-
tance, requiring very sharp CMirves at E and F. and the
grade being nearly :! per cent, throughout. The total
length of the line shown in the figure is about 2 miles.
The spiral shown above is of the class called a bridge
spiral, in which the line swings around a valley and the
ujiper end of the spiral is carried over the lower-by a briilge
or viaduct. Another class is the tuimel spiral, in which the
line swings around a central hill and the lower end of the
spiral crosses under the upper by a tunnel. The St. Gothard
Railway has tunnel spirals on both the Swiss and Italian
sides of the .\lps.
.Switchbacks have been used in a few eases instead of zig-
zags; in this case the line, after making an ascent, is turned
bat;k tangcntially to itself wilhout a curve, so that the train
stops, and is run backward until the next switchback is
reached. These are generally arr.anged in pairs, with the
distance between the switchbacks as short as possible.
MOLXT AlltV
MOUNT IIOLVOKK CuLLKOK
925
An ailditionnl locoinotivc or a [iiislicr is frequently uscil
on (jniilrs greater than 2 per cent. (IU5({ feet per mile) fur
heavy trains, althmigli a liffht train of luu- ur two ears ean
easily Ije drawn by a siiifjle locomotive mi miieh heavier
prades. In some cases tcinponiry grailes of 10 percent,
have lioen operated, as on the Hallimure and Ohio liailrond
in IH'fi.
Heavy grades for long distances are, as a rule, avoided,
bnt an instance of such is tin- railway fnirn Vera (.'ruz to
the city of Mexico, which has an unliroken 2 per cent,
trade for a distance of 72'<5 miles. The .Southern I'acijic
Railway has an average 2 per cmi. grade (maximum. 2'2)
for a distance of 25'4 miles. The Diiiver atid Uio lirande
Railroad has an average grade of '.i |x-r cent, (maximum, 4-0)
for a di-^tance of 2."> miles.
Mountain railways are cliariu-terized also by u large
amount of curvature and many shar|i curves. The nun)ber
of degrees of curvature per mile generally increases with
the number and height of the mountain ranges. The aver-
age curvature for a prairie State like Illinois is alxnit i)' per
mile, and for Pennsylvania about HO per mile, while fo»-
somi' roads in C'i>lorado it is more than ;J00 per mill'.
Tlu' shar|iness of a curve is invei-sely as its railius or
directly as the degree of the curve, the latter bi'ing the
angle subtended at the center by a chord of the circle 100
feet in length. Ordinary railway lines avoid curves greater
than Ti (1.14(> feet radius), but in nuiking mountain luscents
much sharper ones arc necessary. The curve on the Lehigh
N'alley RaUroad, Mauch I'hunk, I'a., is nearly 14' (410 feet
radius). The curves at K and F in the aliove sketch are 2H
and 30' degrees res[)ectively (207 and lit;} feet radii). .Such
sharp curves make riding very uncomfortable to pussengers
nidess the vel(K:ity is slow, while the increased resistance
causes a greater fuel consumption and rapid wear of the
rails.
Mountain railways are subject to accidents from both land
and snow slides, and the prevention of these is an im|Mir-
tant part of the work of construcliou and maintenance. Re-
taining walls are built to secure the stability of slopes, and
snow-sheds arc erected to prevent snow from drifting or
sliding into cuts. The avalanche-sheds of the mountain
division of the N'orlhern I'acilic Railway lU'e formed of
solid roek-lilled crib-work upon the upper slope and
strongly braced frame-work on the lower, and their eiwt
varies i'roiu !i-40 to .t;70 pir linear foot. To protect these
shells from tire a water-supply is provided, and pi|K'-lines
are laid to tanks erected at suitable intervals. Over $;{.000,-
000 have been spent on this railway for the single item of
protection from snow.
Narrow-gauge railways are fremiciitlv built in mountain
regions, particularly for local traflic. These have the a<l-
vantage that sharper curves and heavier grades may be
used than with the standard gauge, thus lessening the cost
of coiistruition, while the cost of rolling stock is also
smaller. The gauges most freijuently used for this cliuss of
railways arc -i feet and ;$^ feet, although short lines with a
gauge as low as 2 feet liavi- lieen built. The advantages of
a narrow-gauge railway disajipear when connection is made
with tho.sc of the .standard gauge, as fri'ight has then to be
transferred from one car to another, and thus delay and ad-
ditional expense are incurred. For this reason narrow-
gauge railways are often, after a few years, changed to the
standard gauge of 4 ft. 8A in. Many are found in Colomdo,
and among those may be mentioned the I'alumet -Mine
branch of the Denver and I{io (irandc Railroad, which sur-
mounts a vertical height of 2.7<XI feet in 7 miles, having H
per cent, grades for a largi' part of the distance. See \\ el-
lington's Economic Tfiiur;/ nt /{nihnii/ Liniiliiin (New York,
1887); also on allied subjects. I he articles (i.noK oK Rail-
ways, Inclined Pla.ne, Railways, and Tixskls.
Maxskii;li) Merrivax.
Mount .\iry: town; Siirn-y co., N. f". (for location of
county, see map of North Carolina, ref. 2-K); on the Ararat
river.'and the Caiie Fear and Yadkin Val. Railway ; lol
miles N. \V. of Raleigh. It contains granite quarries, min-
eral springs. Hour and planing mills, cotton and tobac.-o
factories, shoe-factorv, and a weeklv news[>a|H:r. I'op. (ISMO)
51'.l; (ISIIO) 1,7(J8.
Mount .Vyr : town ; capital of Ringgold co.. la. (for Kxa-
tion of count v. see map of Iowa, n-f. 7-F); on the C"lii., Hurl,
and IJuincv liailroad : !•() miles S. of Des Moines. It is in
an agricultural and stock-raising R-gion. the biue-CTa-ss Iwdt
of Southern Iowa ; contains 5 churches, public school with
8 departments, 2 banks, and ■'! wwklv new«papep<. and hiw
fencing, pum|>, and cigar factoni-s. I'op. ilNHO) l.2i'»: (IHUO)
1,20."); (IH'.i.'o l.:i».'). KnrroK or "Joir.xal."
Mount CulTarjr: SccCalvabv, Moi-xt.
Moniil Carinel. Palestine: .Sia- ('akmi:!., Moixt.
Mount Curuiel : city; capital of Wabash co.. III. (for
location of counlv, see map of Illinois, nrf. IMi); on the
Wabash river, and the Clcve., ("in., (hi. and St. L., and the
Louis., Evans, and St. L. railways; 24 miles S. W. of Vin-
cemus. Ind., i:52 miles N. K. of I'airo. It derives go<i«l
water-|H>wer from the river, and liius a nnmber of saw and
flour mills and other maiiufactorii >. and two weekly news-
papers. Pop. ( IKSO) 2.047 ; ( iH'.Hii :i,:i7(t.
Mount ruruu'l : iKmtugh ; NorthumU'rland co.. Pa. (fur
location of county, see map of Pennsylvania, rt-f. 4-<f); on
the I^ehiph VaL.'the N. Cent., ami the Phila. and Read.
railways; 28 inili-s K. by S. of Sunbiiry, the couiity-s<-at.
It has a niimlHT of aiitlinieite coal mines, a natinnar bank
with capital of 1*.>0.(HK), and a dailv and three weeklv news-
imiK-rs. Pop. (I8H0)2,:t7S: (181)0) 8,254.
Mount Carroll: city (founded in 184:)); capital of Car-
roll CO., HI. (for location of coiintv. see map of Illinois, n'f.
2-1)); on the Chi., Mil. and St. i: Railway; P.N miles W.
of Chicago. It has 5 churches, '.i puolic s<'ho(ds, female
seminary, 2 libraries (Seminary and Public ScIhhiI), and a
weekly and 2 si-nii-weekly iiewsiia|K-rs. The principal in-
dustries are farming, mining.and stiK-k-raising. Pop. (18110)
L8;J6; (18'.i4) estimated. l.'JOO. Koitok of •■ Mikbob."
Mount Clenipns: city; capital of Macomb co., .Mich,
(for location of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 7-K); on
the Clinton river at the head of navigation, and on the (ir.
Trunk Railway; 22 miles N. K. of lliiroit. It is noted for
its mineral and magnetic waters, said to have ri'inarkable
curative jiroperties. which make the city a re.s<irt for hun-
drc'ds of invalids annually. It contains an iron-funiatv,
union school, public library, lufnlx'r-manufaclorie*. s»-veral
hotels and boarding-himses, and two wi-eklv liewspain-rs.
Pop. (l8SOi;i.O.J7; (IS'JU) 4.748; (18U4) .'),«47. '
Mount Ot'fert Island: a mountainous island of the At-
lantic in llaniiM'k co.. Me.; 14 mih-s long and 7 wide.
Siame's Sound divides it nearly in two. Bar llarlior. Xorth-
ea.st and Southwest Tiarbors. .\sticou, Swuin-sville. S-id llor-
lior. Seal Cove, and Kast VAei\ are among the villages. It
aliounils in lieaiitifiil lakes. The highest imint is (iret-n
Mountain. l.Ti'-iH feet high. The island is a favorite phii-o
of summer resort. The French .settled Mt. Ites.rt in 1B08,
but in ItllO were driven out by the British, who settli'd It in
1701. Pop. (18!MI) ,j,3:{7.
Mount Krehus: See Krebi-s, Morx-T.
Mount Kort'St : a village of Wellington Co., (Ontario;
junction of the tirand Trunk and Canadian Pacific rail-
ways; 84 and 87 miles res|M'etively W. N. W. of Top'iito:
on the .south branch of the Saugeen river, m ' mii' .'v .f I jike
Huron (s<H^ map of Ontario, n-f. 4-C). r-
iMiwer, an iron-foundrv, and other indii- -.'1)
2.214. ■ M. W. 11.
Mount (iilend : village (establishol as a slope station in
1H4,5); capital of Morrow co., O. (for location of eouulv, sec
map of Ohio, ref. 4-F); on the Olenlangy river. »n>1 the
Ohio Cent, and the Cleve.. Cin., Chi. and - ''■
miles N. of Columbus. It is in a ri. '
manufactures machinery, carr-
has ."i churches, lart-e puMn
newspapers. Piip. (ls.'<0( l.'.'i'
mated, l.lilM). KolToR OK •' ■>
.Mount Holjroke Colh'iri': ■■••■
Women; siluale<l at .S.iulh lladley. i ■ ■•., .\lii.»->. ; 4
miles from llolvoke. near the C'tr r. I' i- the
outgrowth of .Nit. Holyoke ^ 'T
Lvon in 18:10. and o|M'ne<l N' 'f-
ter ■. ' ■ ' ■ !>»
s.'i. -■>■
euri "^
was clia: '"
was ):iv. ■ ■'•
lepi- in the .-siiil.. U
a lake, |«irk. tein ■•••
cours<'Si f
B. L. 1
college!.. ., ■■ - ■-.
ratory, physical ami ehemical laboraUirjr buiiainn.aii«4 L«-
45
u ;
nl
ly
■i-
926
MOUXT JOY
MOUNT VKRXOX
man Williston Hall comprise the collefje buildings. There
are (18U4) thirty-five professors and instriutui-s.und JiOO stu-
dents. The total numVier of students onroUod under the
seminary charters was 7,376 ; total number irradiuileil. 2. iOl.
IIexriktta E. llouKKK.
Jloiiiit Joy : borough; Lancaster co.. Pa.; on the Penn.
Railroad; 12 miles W. of Lancaster, the county-seat, 24
miles E. of llarrisburg (see map of Pennsylvania, ref. (i-II).
It has a roller flour-mill, iron-foundry, woolen-mill, fur-
niture and carriage factories, and agricultural-iuiplenicnt
works; a seminary, soldiers' orphans' liome, and two weekly
newspapers. Pop. (1880) 2,058; (1890)1,848.
Mount Merii : See Meri-.
Mount Morris: village; Livingston co.. \. Y. ; on the
Dansville and .Mt. Jlorris, the Del., Lack, and \V.. the X. V.,
Lake E. and W., and the W. X. Y. and Pa. railways ; 30
miles S. of Rochester, 60 miles E. of HulTalo (see map of
New York, ref. 5-D). It has 5 churches, union school and
academy, iron-furuace, sawmill, niacluiic-sliops, salt-works,
3 flour-mills, 2 cigar-factories, 2 broom-factories, and a
monthly and 2 weekly periodicals. The Shaker property,
purchased by the State for the establishment of the Craig
colony for epileptics, is 4 miles S. of the village, and the
site of the projiosed Genesee river water-storage dam is a
mile \V. Pop. (1880) 1,899 ; (1890) 2,286.
Editor of " L'^xion."
Mount Olivet: See Olives, Mouxt of.
Mount Pleasant : city; capital of Henry co., Ta. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Iowa, ref. 7-J) : on the Chi.,
Burl, and Quincy Railroad : 28 miles W. X. W. of Burling-
ton, 47 miles E. of Ottumwa. It contains 17 cliurches, 5
public-school buildings, 2 national banks with combined
capital of §200,000, a savings-bank with cajiital of $24,000,
and a daily, monthly, and 4 weekly newspapers. It is the
seat of the Iowa W'esleyan University (chartered in 180.")),
German College (.Methodist Episcoj)a'l, chartered in 1878),
and the Iowa Hospital for the Insane. There are water-
works, gas and electric light plants, flour-mills, carriage and
wagon factories, and farming-impleinent works. Pop. (1880)
4,410 : (1890) 3,997; (1895) 3,920. Editor of " Xew.s."
Mount Pleasant : city ; capital of Isabella co., Mich,
(for location of county, see map of Michigan, ref. 6-1): on
the Chippewa river, and the Flint and Pei'e Marq. and the
Toleilo, Ann Arb. and X^. Mich, railways; 46 miles W. of
Bay City. It is in an agricultural region, and has a high
school, the Central Michigan X'ormal School, an Indian In-
dustrial School, 7 cliurches, 2 State banks with combined
capital of §100,000, a national bank with capital of |.50,000,
a private bank, and three weekly new.-papers. There are
electric lighl.s, flour, grist, and saw mills, sash, door, and
basket factories, foundries, and a considerable lumber-trade.
Pop. (1880) 1,115 ; (1890) 2,701 ; (1894) 3,178.
' Editor of " Democrat."
Mount Pleasant : borough; Westmoreland co., Pa. (for
location of county, see ma]) of Pennsylvania, ref. o-B) ; on
the Bait, and 0. and the Penn. railways ; 12 miles X''. of
Connellsville, 32 miles S. E. of Pittsburg. It is in a coal-
mining, coke-making, and liniestoiie-quarrying region ; is
the seat of the Western Pennsylvania Classical and Scien-
tific Institute (Baptist, chartered in 1871); and has three
national lianks willi combined capital of f 200,000, a private
bank, and a weekly newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,197; (1890)
3,652.
Mount Pleasant : town ; capital of Berkeley co., S. C.
(for location of county, see map of South Carolina, ref.
6-P) ; on Charleston harbor, opposite Charleston. It is in
an agricultural region, and has' a weeklv newspaper. Pop.
(1880) 783; (1890) 1,138.
Mount Pulaski : village; Ijogan co.. 111. (for locaticm of
county, see map of Illinois, ref. 6-K) ; on the 111. Cent, and
the Peoria, Decatur and Evans, railways; 21 miles X. W. of
Decatur, 24 miles X. E. of Springfield. If is in a coal-
mining and stock-raising region, ships large quantities of
grain, and has several flour-mills and elevators and a weekly
newspaper. Pop. (1880) 1,125; (1890) 1,357.
Mount-Stephen, Geor(;k Stephen-, Baron: capitalist;
b. in Dufftown, I'.anffshire, Scotland, Feb. 5, 1829; removed
to Canada in 1850, and, engaging in business as a merchant
in Mont real, amassed great wealth. He liecanie president of
the Bank of Montreal in 1876, president of the Manitoba
and Minneapolis Railway in 1878, and president of the
Canadian Pacific Railway in 1881, an office which he held
for seven years until his resignation. In 1887 he and his
cousin. Sir Donald Smith, gave ^1,250,000 to found the Vic-
toria Hospital at .Mi>ntreal, which was completed in 1893.
In 1886 he was created a liaronet for his services in connec-
tion with the Canadian Pacific Railway, and in 1891 was
raised to the peerage under the title of Baron Mount-Ste-
phen. Some time afterwanl he took his seat in the House
of Lords. Xeil Macdoxald.
Mount Sterling: town; capital of Brown co.. 111. (for
locaticm of county, see map of Illinois, ref. 6-B): on the
Wabash Railroad ; midway between (juincy and Jackson-
ville. It is in a rich farming country; has extensive de-
posits of coal and brick-clay; contains G churches, large
public school, 2 Roman Catholic schools, electric lights,
water-works, and 3 weekly newspapers; and manufactures
wagons, brick and tile, and earthenware. Pop. (1880) 1,445;
(1890) 1,665; (1893) estimated, 2.300.
Editor of '• Democrat-Message."
Mount Sterling: city (founded in 1793); capital of
Montgomery co., Ky. (for location of county, see map of
Kentucky, ref. 3-1) ; on the Ches. and 0. and the Ky. and
S. Atlantic railways; 120 miles E. of Louisville. It con-
tains 7 churches for white people and 2 for colored, a pub-
lic, a military, an<l 7 private scluxils for white children and
2 for colored, a public library, and 2 semi-weekly and 3
weekly newspapers. The city is known through the State
as " the Gate City to the M(mntains," and has large trade in-
terests. Pop. (1880) 2,087; (1890) 3.629: (1894) estimated,
5,000-6,000. Editor of •• Journal."
Mount Terror : See Erebus, Mount.
Mount Vernon : city ; capital of Jefferson co.. III. (for
location of county, see map of Illinois, ref. 9-E) : on the
Louis, and Xash.. the Jack. S. E., the Louis., Evans, and
St. L., and llie Wabash, Chest, and West, railways; 76 miles
E. of St. Louis, Mo. It contains 8 churches and 2 daily and
3 weeklv newspapers, and is principally engaged in farming
and manufacturing. Pop. (1880) 2,324 ; (1890) 3,233 ; (1894)
estimated, 6.500. Editor of "News."
Mount Vernon : city; capital of Posey co., Ind. (for lo-
cation of county, see map of Indiana, ref. 11-B); on the
Ohio river, and the Louis, and Xash. and the Evans, and
Terre Haute railways ; 18 miles W. of Evansville. It has
flour, saw, and planiug mills, large commerce l)y rail and
river, a national bank with capital of $100,000, a private
bank. County and Mechanics' Libi-ary (founded in 1850),
and a daily, a monthly, and three weekly newsi)apers. Pop.
(1880) 3,730; (1890) 4,705.
Mount Vernon : town ; Linn co., la. (for location of
county, see map of Iowa, ref. 4-J); on the Chi. and X. W.
Railway ; 16 miles E. of Cedar Rapids. It is in an agricul-
tural region ; is the seat of Cornell College (Methodist E^iis-
copal ; and has 2 libraries (Cornell College and Adelphian
Society) containing over 12.000 volumes, and 3 weekly news-
papers. Pop. (1880) 977; (1890) 1,259 ; (1895) 1.178.'
Mount Vernon : city (incorporated as a village in 1853
and as a city in 1892; Westchester co., X. Y. (for location
of county, see map of New York, ref. 8-J); on the Bron.\
river, and the N. Y., N. IT. and H. and the X^. Y. C. and
H. R. railways ; 13 miles X. of X'^ew York. It includes the
former village of Jlt. Vernon, the suburb of Chester Hill,
and a part of the town of Eastchester, and has an area of
about 1 sq. mile. Some parts of it are about 200 feet above
tide water, and command an extensive view of Long Island
Sound. There are 12 churches, 5 public and 4 private
schools, Y. M. C. A. building, an opera-house, 4 libraries
(Union School and School Districts 2, 4, 5) containing nearly
10,000 volumes, 2 State banks with combined capital of $75,-
000, a savings-bank, and a dailv, 6 weeklv, and 2 monthly
periodicals. Pop. (1880) 1,857; '(1890) 10,830; (1894) 16,736.
Editor of " Argus."
Mount Vernon : city: cajutal of Knox co., O. (for loca-
tion of county, see map of Oliio, ref. 4-F) : on the Koko-
sing river, ami the Halt, and O. and the Cleve., Akron and
Col. railways; 45 miles X. E. of Columbus. It contains 9
churches, 8 school buildings, and a semi-weekly and 2 week-
ly newspapers; and has locomotive and machine works,
flour-mills, and bent-wood, carriage and wagon, and furni-
ture factories. Mt. Vernon Academy (Seventh-day .Vdven-
tist) is a mile X. E. of the citv, and Kenvon College (Protes-
tant Episcopal) is 5 miles E. "Pop. (1880) 5.249 ; (1890) 6,027 ;
(1894) with suburbs, 8,225. Editor of " Republican."
MOUNT VKUNOX
MOfTH, DISEASES OF THE
'J-2-:
Mount Yernon : magisteriul district ; Fairfax co., Va.
(for loLiitiDii of county, see iimp of VirKiniii, rcf. 4-11) ; on
the Potomac rivi-r, ami tlie Wash., AlfX. and Mt. Y. Elec-
tric Kailway; 15 miles lielow Wushiiifjioii, 1). ('. It con-
tains tho home and tonili of Ueorno Wasliinntoii, purchased
with 20() acres of land in 18.58 by tho Ladies' >lt. Vernon
Association for $300,000, and since preserved with j^reat
care l>y tho association, which is a national or^'uni/.ation
with State representatives. The mansion contains many
relics of the Washington family, and the s|)ot is visited an-
nually by thousands. Pop. of dUtrict (1880) 2,555; (18U0)
2,673.
Mourning': the ofTicial or conventional expression of
grief. It has varieil much at different times and in differ-
ent countries. The Hebrews tore the garments, cut the hair
and beard, strewed ii-shes on the head, went bareheaded and
barefooted, and lay down on the ground weeping and smit-
ing the breast ; the period of mourning was seven days, but
for Moses and Aaron they mourned thirty days. The lireeks
cut off the hair, put on a coarse, black garment, retired into
seclusion, and wailed. When a great general died the whole
army cut oil their hair and the manes of their horses. The
period of nuxirning was in Athens thirty days, but in *>parta
only ten. With the Romans the mourning was mostly done
by the women; the men wore black clothes, but only for a
few days. Public mournings often occurred in the ilays of
the republic on the occasion of some public calamity or on
the death of some great man ; during the em|)ire. on the
death of an emperor. Then all business stopped; the tem-
ples, the forum, the schools, ami the baths were closed.
The mourning color was black under the republic, but dur-
ing the empire while became the mourning color for women.
The mourning rites among barbarians and half savages are
often horrible, fre(|Uently involving serious mutilatiims.
Among civilized nations the mourning customs have be-
come very similar in m<i(lern times, and consist mostlv in
retirement within the house and avoidance of what is bright
and noisy. In Europe and America the mourning color is
black; in Turkey, violet ; in China, white ; in Egypt, yellow.
Mousa-bcii-Noscir : Aral) general. He was appointed
by the Ciiliph Wiilid I. his lieutenant in Xorthern Africa,
where by his juslii-e he won the devoted alloction of the re-
cently converted Berbers or Moors. The pro|)osals of Count
Julian, who offered to betray .Spain to the >fussulmans, do-
termined him to undertake the connuest of that country.
First he disjiatched Tarik the Moor with a small army.
Tarik wius joined by Count .luliaii. and overthrew the (ioths
at the decisive battle of \eres (Oil), their king, Hoderic, be-
ing drowned in the (iua<lalc|uivir. Mousa crossed the strait
and rapidly completed the subjugation of Spain. Then he
rcorganizeil the country, and by wise and kimlly laws gave
it peace and prosperity. He was preparing for the contjuest
of Gaid, but iiis virtues and successes aroused the suspicion
of the jealous caliph, and he was summoned in disgrace to
Damascus for trial. Making a triumphal entrance into that
city with iinmenso spoils and thousands of captives, he was
still more suspected, and was condemned by the new caliph,
Suleiman 1., to payment of an enormous hne and was pub-
licly flogged (71.">). His two sons were miussjicred. Then in
contempt he wius allowed to withilraw to Mecca, where he
s<Kiii after died of grief and old age (716). E. A. 0.
Mouso. nlur. Mico [M. Eng. inoux < O. Eng. miin (pliir.
mf/g): t). 11. tierm. iiifisy Germ. maun. Cf. Sanskr. mi'i^- :
(JT.fivs: Lut. muit, mouse]: the common name of the house
mouse {Mux »if(..iri(/rix), popularly aoplit'il to manv spi'iies
of small ro<lents, chiefly of the family Miiriiltr. all)iough a
few belong to related families. .Such are the jumping mice
{Zapus) of the family Ztipndiilip (see Dkkr-mocsk), the
piX'Ket mice il'irnynathus), belonging to the JUpniliilw, and
the dormice (Mi/hxiik)', forming the family Mynxiihr. The
Held mice, or voles, belong to the genus Arvicnlii, which in-
cludes many species and liius representatives in both the
Old and New \\ orlds. The wliite-f«n)Ieil or ileer mice belong
to the genus Ilm/tfriinit/ii, which is exdusivelv American.
The house mouse is a native of the Old \Vorlil. but, like
the rat, has been nniiilenlionally inlri«luce<l by man
throughout nearly the wlude world, and thrives in his habi-
tations from the antic to the torrid zone, its amazing fecun-
dity enabling it to holil out against numerous enemies, in-
cluding its larger relative, the rat. Under favorable con-
ditions the house mouse becomes semi-wild, ond does much
damage to stored grain.
Tho various small mice, jMirticularly tlu>se of the genus
Arrirolii, inflict great damage by destroying growing or
standing crops, and there have l>een such plagues of vole*
ill rhe»aly and S^'otland that inoculation with the virus
of a contagious disea.v wiis n-s.irted to in onler to destroy
them, but with only partial success. , F. A. I.^
Moussy, Jeax Antoi.ne Victor M.4kti.h, de: Sec Mahtin
I)K .MolssV.
Mouth. DUeasos of the: The mouth Is subjected to so
many irritations that it seems renmrkable to And any mouths
in a healthy condition. Onacc-ount of tliearraiigeineiit of ilie
coating, however, it n-ipiires either a great irritation, or. on
the other hand, diminished resislanci-, or both. Itefore dis-
ease develops in the mouth. From the as|M-ct of causation,
it is convenient to make the division of the disea^-s ucconl-
ing to the kind of change found in the month. We there-
fore have the inflammations, which induce by far the great-
est number of diseases found in the iiioiitli. and smh other
changes as will have to be destrilied. Irrilatii.ns may lie of
various kinds, either mechanical, chemical, tliernial. or in
the form of lower forms of life. Again, the |H>int of view
must not be lost sight of that the mouth has the pro|H'rty
of secretion ; i. e. certain substances are eliminatiNl from the
system by its glands, and these substances may give rise to
sufficient irritation to caus<' inflammation. An inflainma-
tioii of the mouth is called sliwiiililin, anil of this there are
the following varieties: ('(iliirr/inlin. iilci-riMi, /it/plmmi/rf-
lica, uphthosa, crouposa, diphtlierilica, nypliilitica, and yan-
grenosa.
aiomalilis catarrhalis is found as the results of iinclean-
liness ; of irritation, too hot food, too acrid ; acids, alkalies ;
in the presence of some of the exanthemata, i. e. niea.s|es,
scarlet fever; with fevers in general. It is cluimei], and it
seems justly, that nearly all the forms of glnmulilin arc
either [>receded or accomiianied by this form. Its symptoms
are those of nearly all other forms — more or less pain, gen-
eral constitutional reaction ; but it is marked by reilnes.*.
more or less swelling of the mouth, and, in some bail cases,
ha'inorrhage.
Hlomalilin tiJceroM is fouiiil in scorbutic children, in lead
ami mercury poisoning, and freipiently in iIk.m' in which it
seems impossible to determine the cause. It is charai-ler-
ized by the formation of an ulcerative band at the gums
where they come in contact with the teeth. It never de-
velops in toothless children. The ulcerative priKT.ss, ralle<l
a necrobiosis, a molecular death, is characteristic for the dis-
ease. With this we have a great amount of salivation and
always very fetid saliva. The diseased iiroc'ess is no resin-ct-
er of tissues, in that it loosens the teeth, ami fn-ipiently at-
tacks the bones of the jaws. .Sometimes it runs into the
form called slumali/is gaitgreiiOHn, and then becomes fatal ;
even without this termination stomatitis ulcerosa is always
to be IcMikeil uikui as a serious diM'a-se,
Stoinalilis iii/plioiiii/celicn, l)etter known as thrush, is
produced by one of the hyphomycetes which, for conven-
ience, has been called the xiircfitinitni/reM iilbicnti*. It is a
disea.se which ociiirs most fn'cpiently in infants, and in
adults who have Kx'n reiluceil by previous illness — con-
sumption, typhoid fever, etc. It is characterized by the a[>-
pearance of membninous s|>ots, white <ir grayish white, ile-
posited within the membrane of the mouth, but always in
Us outer layer. These membranes are miule up of the fun-
gus and |«irts of the mucous membrane. es|N'eially epithe-
lial cells; they are detacheil with soine dillieiilty. and some-
times there is left a bleeding s|>ot wIicr' they are detached.
The disease has frei|uently lieeii mistaken for diphtheria of
the mouth, but careful examination makes this erriT im-
possible. As a rule, the disease is amenable to tp'alment,
and is only to lie liNiked u|«in as a grave omen when im-
planted iiiMin a p'neral pnu'css already grave.
Slomntiti.* aphlhnsn is clmnicterizi'il bv the ap|H-arance
of small blisters in the mouth (aphtluc). 'l' -'
preceded liy more or less constitutional .i
practically they n'pre.s«>nt that form of ski:
as her|»'s, except that they ap|M>ar up'H th. mu. . ii~ iiiem-
brane. There is but one positively J. • :-:v •! ■ •.!-•. that
of the manifestation of the frxit -11'
tie in man. .Vs this is of very r.i
and as aphtha' an- (f)nimon, it :
there are mony other poisons wl
ease. .\s a matter of fart, we d
monic ami other fevers, and v. r\
of the gaslro-inlestinal tract. ~o
case might be produced by a auuibir uf (youuiis ui.liUjj cither
928
MOVABLE FEASTS
M0ZAM15IQUE CHANNEL
directly upon the mucous membrane or indirectly through
the nervous system, as is the ease in herpes. In and of it-
self stomatitiD aphthusa is not a danjrenuis all'ectiun, liut
may l)econie so as the result of secundary infeciion of the
abrasions which are left when the blister breaks. Of stu-
matilis cruuposa, diphtheritica, and si/philitica, little need
be said in this place. They are all local manifestations of a
disease graver than is expressed by the term stomatitis ; see
Croup, Dii-htheria, and Syphilis.
Sf()matiti.-i gangrenosa is by far the most serious form of
inflammation of the mouth, in that it usually i-iuls fatally.
It is found only in subjects very much debilitated by pre-
vious illness, and manifests itself by a gangrenous spot upon
the cheek, which grows so as to perforate tlie cheek, and
finally may include the whole of the face, the neck, attack-
ing the bones and leaving a cavity, black and fetid, giving
to the patient a most liorrible appearance. The odor from
this process is so penetrating that it may pervade the whole
house. Fortunately, this disease is not frequently met w-ith
in private practice, but is most eomuiouly seen in hospitals.
It .seems the great chance of saving these patients lies in
early interference — the gangrenous tissue must be removed,
best by the actual cautery (wliite heat), then Ijy chemicals.
In latter years more cures have been reported by means of
this active interference than ever before.
In regard to the general treatment of stomatitis it may
be said that surgical cleanliness is the princdple that under-
lies successful treatment. W'e have many remedies which
are es))ecially valuable as applications to the mouth — chlo-
rate of potassium, permanganate of potassium, nitrate of
silver, salicylic acid, etc. ; but their application alone will
be of little "avail unless done intelligently. On the whole,
these forms of disease are very amenable to treatment, but
they ought not to be overlooked on account of their appar-
ent harndessncss. as, as in the case of stomatitis ulcerosa,
they may be foUowecl by grave and dangerotis consequences
if not properly treated.
For other diseases connected witli the mouth, see Toxgue,
Mi'Mi'S, etc. F. PoacHHEiMER.
Movable Feasts: See Easter.
Mowat, Sir Oliver, IjL. D. : statesman ; b. in Kingston,
Ontario, Canada, July 23, 1820 ; was called to the bar in
1841, and appointed a queen's counsel in 1856. He was a
commissioner for consolidating the public general statutes
for Canada and Upper Canada, respectively, in 1856 ; a
member of the Quel)cc union conference 1864 ; president
of the Evangelical Alliance of Ontario 1867-8!), and has
been president of the Canadian Institute, 'I'oronlo. Me
represented South Ontai'io in Canada Assembly 1857-64;
North Oxford in Ontario Parliament since 1872 ; was Pro-
vinc:ial Secretaiy in Brown-Dorion government in Aug.,
1858 ; Postmaster-General in Sandfleld Macdonald-Dorion
fovernment 1863-64, and the latter year was appointed
ice-Chancellor of Upper Canada, an olTice he resigned Oct.
25, 1872, on being called upon to form a new administration
for Ontario. He was a|)pointeil a mcndier of the executive
council and Attorney-General of Ontario, Oct. ;il, 1872, and
since then has been leader of the Ontario government. He
is a reformer in politics ; was knighted in 1892.
Nkil JIacdoxald.
Mowbray, Henry Siddox.s: figure-painter; b. in Alex-
andria, Egypt, of' English ]iarents, in 1858; was taken to
the U. S. when a child and lived in North Adams, Mass.
Received an appoinlment to the U. S. Military Ac-ademy,
but spent only one year there and went to Paris in 1878,
where he l)ecame a pupil of Bonnat ; studied and painted
in Paris until 1885, when he settled in New York ; became
a member of the Society of American Artists 1886 : Nation-
al Academician 1892; was awarded the Clark prize at the
National Academy, New York, 1888. He is a strong and
graceful draughtsman and a brilliant colorist ; well known
as an illustrator. Studio in New York. W. A. C.
MoHiiig-niut'hincs: See KEAPiNO-MAcntxEs.
Moxa [from .la|ianese inokusa] : name applied to a form of
the actual cautery whose use was derived from the Japanese
and Chinese through the I'ortuguese. The down from the
leaves of Artemisia mojca, the iiith of the sunflower, cotton
or lint soaked in solution of saltjieter and then dried, a
pledget of spider's welj, or a lump of nuuiou is rolled into a
little cone and placed upon the part which it is desired to
cauterize. It is then set on fire and held in iilace by a hair-
pin or an instrument called a ])orte-moxa. The neighboring
parts are surrounded by wet lint. Tliere is no